A Design Manual: 

Engineering With Nature Using 

Native Plant Communities

Authored by:

Dr. Pamela Bailey

U.S. Army Engineer Research

and Development Center

Vicksburg, MS
Semi-arid Riparian Corridor Community, Washington
Managed lands provide many native plant 

communities, and incorporating these plants 

into design features will reduce construction 

and maintenance costs, while increasing 

benefits to the environment. Plants are 

often “keystone” species that hold together 

entire ecosystems, which are important for 

many ecological processes to occur. Plant 

communities in the built environment can 

provide structure, function, and natural 

processes to create a sustainable landscape. 

They are a critical component of energy 

flow in ecosystems and provide food and 

habitat for many organisms in an ecological 

community. Other functions and services 

include: reduction of wind and water erosion, 

water storage, regulation of temperature, 

contribution of atmospheric oxygen, and 

carbon storage. Using plant communities is 

a shift in emphasis, away from a fixed design 

held at a static moment, to a dynamic design 

allowing for these communities to grow and 

mature over time. Plant communities not 

only survive, but are adaptable to changing 

environmental conditions. Native plant 

communities have natural resiliency built 

into them by genetic and species biodiversity, 

which allows for greater survivability. 

This design manual identifies and documents 

the use of native plants to provide engineered 

design elements that consider the diverse 

range of Corps’ water resource projects. 

The goal of this manual is to describe how 

to utilize plant communities within the built 

environment to create sustainable landscapes. 

The first topic addressed by this design manual 

is why we need to pay attention to our native 

plant communities and why native plants are 

important to the Corps’ mission. The second 

topic addressed is understanding how to use 

the plant resources available on Corps’ lands 

nationwide. This includes how to incorporate 

native plant communities into projects by 

describing specific tools and techniques to 

survey, plan, design, construct, maintain, 

and monitor projects. Design and scientific 

components are blended together into a holistic 

approach, so this manual is accessible to many 

people with varied professional backgrounds. 

The third topic addressed is a listing of specific 

case studies that illustrated well-designed, wellbuilt examples of elements using native plant 

communities. The advantage of this approach 

is to reduce construction and operating costs, 

while increasing benefits to the environment. 

This manual explores the idea of transforming 

the way in which native plant communities are 

thought about and valued by the Corps. Enjoy 

the journey!

ABSTRACT

A Design Manual for Engineering With Nature Using Native Plant Communities

iii
Semi-arid Grassland Community, Washington
ABSTRACT .........................................................iii 

List of Figures ....................................................vi

List of Tables.....................................................vii

INTRODUCTION ................................................ 1

Overview ........................................................1

Engineering With Nature................................1

Goals of this Design Manual...........................2

Design Manual Provides Guidance.................2

Why Protect Native Plants?............................3

Conserving Biodiversity..................................4

Ecological value .........................................4

Economic value .........................................5

Aesthetic value..........................................5

DESIGN.............................................................. 7

Design Principles............................................7

Unity..........................................................8

Sequence...................................................8

Proportion.................................................8

Rhythm......................................................8

Accent .......................................................8

Repetition..................................................8

Variety .......................................................8

Elements of Design.......................................10

Color........................................................10

Line..........................................................10

Form........................................................10

Mass........................................................10

Texture ....................................................10

Perspective..............................................10

Scale ........................................................11

Light and Shade.......................................11

Time ........................................................11

The Design Process.......................................11

Assessment of needs and constraints.....12

Safety ...............................................12

Health...............................................12

Welfare.............................................12

Site analysis.............................................12

Existing plants communities.............13

Hydrology.........................................13

Man-made environmental aspects ..14

Climatic considerations....................14

Develop a Site Plan.......................................14

Develop a Planting Plan................................14

Develop a Grading Plan ................................16

Site specific details..................................17

Construction specifications.....................17

Monitoring plan ......................................17

Maintenance ................................................19

THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL VEGETATION 

CLASSIFICATION AND PLANTING TECHNIQUES ..21

Natural Heritage Program .......................21

The United States National Vegetation 

Classification .........................................21

The USNVC Survey Methodology ............21

NatureServe Explorer..............................23

Sources to Obtain Native Plant Materials ....23

Conservation Methods.................................23

Ex situ preservation strategies ................24

In situ preservation strategies.................24

Inter situ preservation strategy...............24

Planting Techniques .....................................24

Site preparation.......................................24

Timing......................................................25

Soils.........................................................25

Seed Mixes and Seeds..................................26

Seed mixes ..............................................26

Seeds.......................................................26

Seed Treatments ..........................................28

Interseeding ............................................29

Mosaic seeding........................................30

Planting ........................................................30

Invasive Species Control...............................30

CASE STUDIES OF IMPLEMENTED DESIGNS .......33

Climate Control – Sun, Shade, Windbreaks, 

 and Energy Conservation............................33

Reduce Stormwater Runoff..........................33

Planting to Stabilize Steep Slopes.................34

Bioengineering and biotechnical 

planting .................................................34

Geocells and geogrids .............................37

Riparian Corridors, Greenways, and Buffers.40

Riparian Corridors Versus Buffer Strips........40

Riparian buffers.......................................40

Buffer strip...............................................41

Green Infrastructure and Self-sustaining

 Plantings for Water Conservation in the 

 Environment...............................................43

Permeable pavements.............................43

Bioretention features or rain gardens.....45

Constructed wetlands .............................46

Wetland Treatment Using Native Wetland 

 Plants fo Filter Discharge............................48

Native Plantings for Recreational 

 Features and Aesthetic Enhancement........49

Creating Habitat for Pollinators....................50

Planting with Dredged Materials..................52

CONTENTS

v
Phytoremediation and Reclamation.............53

Onondaga Lake........................................53

Geddes Brook wetland and Ninemile 

Creek .....................................................54

Carbon Sequestration...................................56

Living Shorelines and Nature-Based

 Protection for Storm Surge.........................57

Establishing Native Aquatic Plants to

 Improve Aquatic Habitat ............................59

EXISTING DATABASES, SOURCES OF PLANT

MATERIALS AND EXPERTISE .............................63

VegBank........................................................63

USDA PLANTS Database ...............................63

Natural Resources Conservation Service 

 Plant Materials Center................................63

Native Plant Commercial Nursery

 Production..................................................64

Botanical Gardens........................................64

Plant Conservation Alliance..........................65

Native Plant Societies...................................66

Native Plant Rescues....................................66

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.....................................69

POINTS OF CONTACT ........................................69

REFERENCES .....................................................71

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................77

APPENDIX A. USNVC STANDARD DATA FORM ..81

List of Figures

Figure 1. Combined site plan and planting plan..15

Figure 2. Site plan area after first year planting..16

Figure 3. Planted area after 3 years with 

natural vegetation zonation..............................16

Figure 4. Important measures indicating 

plant survivability are species composition 

and percent cover as part of the 

monitoring plan................................................18

Figure 5. Seed from many grasses and flowers

can be easily gathered......................................26

Figure 6. A no-till drill is used for planting 

and interseeding an area, and causes

minimal disturbance to existing plants.............31

Figure 7. Branch layering technique....................35

Figure 8. Livestaking for a slope or shoreline ......35

Figure 9. Turf reinforcement mat with

vegetation growing in it....................................35

Figure 10. Conceptual and installation details 

for an anchored reinforced vegetated 

system, showing a rolled high-performance 

turf reinforcement mat fixed in place with 

percussion-driven anchors, and vegetated 

with hydroseed.................................................35

Figure 11. Roadbed constructed with geocell 

at Cunard, a National Park Service boat

launch on the New River, West Virginia............37

Figure 12. Planted geocell stabilizing the same 

road on the steep down-hill road shoulder......37

Figure 13. Existing conditions at Site #1 

of the proposed biotechnical planting 

at El Dorado Lake..............................................38

Figure 14. On-site harvesting of all native plants 

to be used in the bioengineering project and 

workshop at El Dorado Lake, Kansas................38

Figure 15. Willow bundles being placed in four

trenches running parallel to the shore. ............39

Figure 16. Brush layering, which utilizes willows 

placed perpendicularly into the bank, being 

implemented at El Dorado Lake, Kansas...........39

Figure 17. New plants sprouting from 

shoreline treatments 6 months after 

planting at El Dorado Lake................................39

Figure 18. Riparian corridor with native plant 

communities.....................................................41

Figure 19. Eroded areas were repaired before 

planting the drainage channel with native 

trees, shrub, and the seed mix .........................42

Figure 20. Tree establishment after two 

growing seasons within the buffer strip 

at Dyess Air Force Base.....................................42

Figure 21. Gravel-filled geogrid parking area 

at the National Park Service Headquarters 

in Glen Jean, West Virginia ...............................44

Figure 22. Detail of geogrid .................................44

Figure 23. Bioretention drainage detail...............45

Figure 24. Constructed wetland at Winfield,

West Virginia. ...................................................46

Figure 25. The wetland mitigation planting

plan at Marmet, West Virginia..........................47

Figure 26. Constructed wetland conveying 

the Burning Springs Branch originating 

from the hills pictured in the background 

to the Kanawha River at Marmet .....................47

vi
vii

List of Tables

Table 1. Ecosystem Services Provided by Plants...4

Table 2. Summary of International Vegetation 

Classification Hierarchy Levels and Criteria 

for Natural Vegetation......................................22

Table 3. Classification of Slope Protection 

and Erosion Control Measures. ........................34

Table 4. Suitability of Different Soil

Bioengineering Methods Based on Soil 

and Site Conditions...........................................36

Table 5. Summary of Estimated Costs per 

Impervious Acre Treated for Selected 

Stormwater Treatments....................................43

Figure 27. Treatment wetland septic 

system at the Plant Material Center

in Alderson, West Virginia. ...............................48

Figure 28. Glade Creek Campground, a 

popular campground that offers lowimpact sites that use existing plant 

communities to provide privacy and 

beauty...............................................................49

Figure 29. Site detail – a kiosk and handmade 

stone bench at Glade Creek Campground........49

Figure 30. Volunteers harvesting seed 

from the adjacent sand prairie, to be 

planted on the Corps site .................................52

Figure 31. The sand prairie is a fire-dependant 

ecosystem and prescribed fire is a 

management tool used to maintain and 

restore plant diversity.......................................52

Fiigure 32. The site was a showplace of color 

after the first prescribed burn in 2013 .............52

Figure 33. Carbon storage abilities of 

different habitat types......................................56 

Figure 34. Section of coastal shoreline 

continuum and living shoreline treatments. ....57

Figure 35. Conceptual cross-shore profile 

of the barrier coast type...................................58

Figure 36. American water lily flowering and 

spreading beyound protective closures at a 

founder colony site...........................................61

Figure 37. Natural Resources Conservation 

Service. Plant Material Center Locations..........64
Fresh Water Spring Cypress 

Hammock Community, Florida
INTRODUCTION

Overview

Our lands provide many natural plant 

community palettes. Incorporating native 

plant communities reduces construction and 

maintenance costs, while increasing benefits 

to the environment and to projects. Natural 

communities are assemblages of species 

that occur together in space and time. These 

groups of plants and animals are found in 

recurring patterns that can be classified and 

described by their dominant physical and 

biological features: Red Maple swamp and 

Pitch Pine/Scrub Oak communities are two 

examples. This approach will help transform 

the way in which native plant communities 

are thought about and valued by the Corps. 

This design manual identifies and documents 

the use of native plant communities to 

provide engineered design elements that 

consider the diverse range of water resource 

projects. 

Engineering With Nature

Engineering With Nature seeks to apply 

design in its fullest sense. Engineering With 

Nature is defined as the intentional alignment 

of natural and engineering processes to 

efficiently and sustainably deliver economic, 

environmental ,and social benefits through 

collaborative processes. The essential four 

principles of Engineering With Nature are as 

follows (Bridges 2012):

•Use natural processes to maximize benefits, 

thereby reducing demands on limited 

resources, minimizing the environmental 

footprint of projects, and enhancing the 

quality of project benefits.

•Use science and engineering to produce 

operational efficiencies supporting 

sustainable delivery of project benefits.

• Broaden and extend the base of 

benefits provided by projects to include 

substantiated economic, social, and 

environmental benefits.

•Use science-based collaborative processes 

to organize and focus interests, stakeholders, 

and partners to reduce social friction, 

resistance, and project delays, while 

producing more broadly acceptable projects. 

Engineering With Nature is: holistic, a systems 

approach, sustainable, science-based, 

collaborative, efficient and cost-effective, 

socially responsive, innovative, and adaptive. 

Careful consideration of alternatives will find 

the best solution that acts in unison with 

the sciences of the earth and engineering. 

Good design ensures the best possible 

alternative to satisfy the intended objective(s) 

supporting natural and engineering processes 

and functions on a particular site. Design 

should also consider the socio-economic 

environment; the aim is to align the natural 

and engineering processes with the socioeconomic benefits to lessen the impacts 

and maximize the benefits of the project. 

Using native plant communities has many 

benefits, including their influence on climate, 

air, and water purification; erosion control; 

water cycle stabilization; habitat and food 

for wildlife and pollinators; noise reduction; 

screening; and increasing property value. 

For example, businesses have noted that 

attractively landscaped buildings result in 

above-average labor productivity, lower 

absenteeism, and easier worker recruitment. 

Studies have indicated that people have a 

basic desire for contact with plants (Bisco 

Werner et al. 1996, Brethour et al. 2007, 

Frank 2003, Younis and Qasim 2008). 

Satisfying this need can have a strong positive 

influence on human behavior. 

1 

Engineering With Nature is defined as the intentional alignment of natural and 

engineering processes to efficiently and sustainably deliver economic, 

environmental, and social benefits through collaborative processes.
A fit environment is defined as one in which 

the maximum needs of a user are provided 

by the environment while requiring the 

least work of adaptation (McHarg 1992). 

This process is very specific to the site being 

considered. When done well, the effect can 

be very subtle, while enhancing the visual 

aesthetics, and adding multiple functions 

to the site. Earth, manmade structures, 

and plants are materials used by designers 

to define space and to create a designed 

environment. Choosing a plant palette from a 

natural plant community that is either present 

or appropriate for the site (as determined by 

site conditions) will provide ecological benefits 

and be adaptable to fluctuating conditions. 

The Engineering With Nature concept 

uses four dimensions including time, and 

develops its full potential over time. Design 

changes begin inevitably from the time of 

planting. This approach allows for the plant 

communities to maintain their function and 

natural processes within the environment, 

while allowing them to evolve over time. 

This approach is a shift in emphasis, away 

from a fixed design held at a static moment, 

to a dynamic design allowing for plant 

communities to grow and mature over time. 

Plant communities not only survive, but 

are adaptable to changing environmental 

conditions. Native plant communities have 

natural resiliency built into them by genetic and 

species biodiversity. Within plant communities, 

species compatibility has adapted over time. 

When incorporating native plant communities 

by designers (landscape architects, engineers, 

and project planners) in their plans, designs, and 

specifications, and natural resource managers 

and maintenance personnel provide selfsustaining features in the landscape that require 

less maintenance after project implementation, 

greater survivability, cost savings, and greater 

ecological benefits to the environment will 

result. 

Goals of this Design Manual

This design manual describes how to 

utilize plant communities within the built 

environment to create sustainable projects. 

The first topic addressed by this design 

manual is why we need to pay attention to 

native plant communities and to explain 

why native plants are important. The second 

topic addressed is understanding how to 

use these plant resources available on lands 

nationwide and how to incorporate native 

plant communities into projects by describing 

specific tools and techniques. The third 

topic addressed is a listing of specific case 

studies of well-designed, well-built examples 

of landscape elements using native plant 

communities. 

Design Manual Provides Guidance

This design manual offers instructions on how 

to use plant communities within the designed 

environment that will allow for sustainable, 

resilient features that change over time. 

There are many opportunities to incorporate 

2 
native plants and use them in Corps projects, 

including: • Reduction of erosion and sedimentation • Shoreline stabilization • Ecosystem restoration • Mitigation projects • Riparian buffer projects • Phytoremediation • Abandoned mine land remediation • Wetlands as filters and storage • Prairie lands as filters to adjacent waterways • Reduction of storm surge impacts by plant 

communities

• Watersheds that enhance water quality and 

maintain quantity 

• Climate stabilization • Carbon sequestration • Storm surge protection • Wildlife habitat • Pollinator food and habitat • Dredge islands and landscape features with 

native plant community establishment

Why Protect Native Plants? 

Vegetation is often chosen as the basis for a 

single-factor system for classifying terrestrial 

ecological systems because it generally 

integrates the ecological processes operating 

on a site or landscape more measurably than 

any other factor or set of factors. Because 

patterns of vegetation and co-occurring 

plant species are easily measured, they have 

received far more attention than those of 

other components, such as fauna. Vegetation 

is a critical component of energy flow in 

ecosystems and provides habitat for many 

organisms in an ecological community. In 

addition, vegetation is often used to infer soil 

and climatic patterns. For these reasons, a 

classification ... based on vegetation can serve 

to describe many (though not all) facets of 

biological and ecological patterns across the 

landscape (Grossman et al. 1998). 

The U.S. National Vegetation Classification 

(USNVC) and Nature Serve database (2013) 

has defined more than 800 ecosystem units 

in the United States and adjacent Canada. Of 

the 16,100 native flowering plant species in 

the United States, 5,474 are at risk, making 

them by far the largest group of organisms 

at risk. Impacts to native plant communities 

such as the loss of habitat, fragmentation, 

invasive plant species, the loss of pollinators, 

pollution, disease, and changes to the climate 

will continue to occur, further stressing 

healthy plant populations and increasing the 

risks of loss of species. 

Plant communities respond to moisture, 

light, and temperature conditions; therefore 

elevation and aspect are critical landscape 

considerations and define where a plant 

community will likely occur. Although soil is 

another important requirement, it is watercontent within the soil and its structure that 

determine its chemical nature and water 

3 
holding capacity. The plant community 

responds to site conditions, and is adaptable 

and resilient to environmental fluctuations. 

A varying number of plant species within a 

community are in sync with local conditions 

responding to the water cycle (precipitation 

or high-water events). Often different plant 

species flower at different times throughout 

the flowering season, which allows for more 

interactions with the faunal communities 

including pollinators. Plants provide structure 

in the environment. Their roots improve 

soil health, and stabilize soils by limiting 

erosional forces. Plant growth provides 

oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis and 

they store carbon in their structures. Plants 

are important to the microclimate because 

they absorb heat from the air during the 

transpiration process and release of water 

in the form of vapor as a major input to the 

water cycle. They provide shade that reduces 

solar radiation and reflection, and they also 

lower wind speed, disperse fog, and influence 

snow deposition. 

Conserving Biodiversity

Conserving biodiversity and the health of 

native plants and ecosystems is essential to 

sustain the natural resource base upon which 

we depend for survival. There is an urgent 

need to develop effective plant conservation 

programs before more species and 

communities become critically endangered. 

Native plant conservation strategies are not 

4 

only needed to protect the most imperiled 

species, but to ensure the long-term 

survival of all native plant species and plant 

communities. There is an inherent efficiency 

with this approach. These communities will 

provide a range of ecosystem services listed 

in Table 1, without which we could not 

exist. No matter how small, all plants play a 

valuable role in our lives. They provide the 

following benefits:

Ecological value: Native plants convert the 

sun’s energy into food; thus, they are the 

source of all food to the animal kingdom. 

Plants cycle and cleanse fresh water upon 

which terrestrial animals depend and ensure 

soil stability for ecosystems. We depend on 

Table 1. Ecosystem Services Provided by Plants.

Provisioning services Regulating services Habitat services Cultural services

Food Air quality regulation Maintenance of life cycles of migratory 

species

Aesthetic information

Raw materials Regulation of water flows Maintenance of genetic diversity Spiritual experience

Genetic resources Moderation of extreme events Inspiration for culture, art, and design

Medicinal resources Moderation of climate Resources for the built environment

Ornamental resources Maintenance of soil fertility Opportunities for recreation and tourism

Waste treatment

Erosion prevention

Biological control

Pollination

From The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB): The Ecological and Economic Foundations. (United Nations, European Commission, Germany, and 

United Kingdom 2009).
5 

plants to provide the oxygen that all living 

organisms require.

Economic value: Plants are sources of genetic 

and raw materials that are used to expand or 

diversify agricultural and industrial products, 

including foods and medicine. Native plants 

provide a storehouse of genetic diversity for 

future exploration, discovery, and use to meet 

human needs. 

Aesthetic value: The beauty of wildflowers 

is just one of the many aesthetic values 

of native plants. The presence of plants 

in their native habitats and in cultivation 

enhances our world in many ways. Native 

plant communities and natural areas provide 

opportunities for people to experience 

nature.

The variety of plant communities is truly 

amazing and how these communities adapt 

to their environment is fascinating. The plant 

communities pictured at the beginning of 

each section of this manual are only a small 

sampling of the diversity of plant communities 

in the United States. This manual is designed 

to help readers gain insight into how to use 

these valuable plant resources, appreciate 

their diversity, and understand the diverse 

range of functions and services they can 

provide.
Sonoran Desert Community, Arizona

6 
DESIGN

There are many functional aspects to utilizing 

native plant communities to address serious 

environmental problems in a cost-effective 

manner within designed and engineered 

features. For example, a significant problem 

is the total amount of soil eroded from land 

and delivered to waterways: estimates of 

sediment yields in the United States range 

up to 2 billion tons per year (McDonough 

and Braungart 2013). One quarter of this 

sediment load is transported through the 

system to the ocean, while the remainder is 

deposited in floodplains, rivers, lakes, and 

reservoirs (Hardaway et al. 2010). Sediment 

is considered the number one pollutant 

for water quality; increased sediment load 

increases turbidity and decreases oxygen. 

Additionally, earth and landforms become 

unstable due to piping, head-cutting, and 

collapse. Topsoil is also stripped and lost due 

to water or wind forces, and soil fertility and 

productivity decrease.

Management of sedimentation and 

prevention of erosion with native plantings 

can contribute to protection and restoration 

of watersheds and large riparian systems. 

Vegetated buffer zones consisting of native 

plant communities, including native grasses, 

herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees, 

provide an attractive, cost-effective, and 

environmentally compatible way to protect 

riparian, lacustrine, and estuarine waterways 

from sedimentation, to protect slopes and 

shorelines against erosion, to control runoff 

from impervious surfaces, and to provide 

better storm management practices within 

the watershed. Native plants are costeffective, adapt to the environment, and 

have higher survivability. In severely eroded 

areas, one could include biotechnical and 

soil bioengineering stabilization techniques 

using native plants, such as livestaking, live 

fascines, brush-layering, and branch-packing 

(as was used at El Dorado Lake in Kansas, 

page 38). The use of sustainable design 

features such as planted concrete pavers, 

wetland storm culvert and vegetated swale 

systems, and rolled erosion control products 

or geotextile fabrics with voids for earth 

materials and plants can improve soil stability 

and stormwater management. In some cases, 

additional armoring is required to stabilize 

selected critical shoreline areas, though 

most types of hardening solutions can be 

interplanted, retrofitted, or combined with 

bioengineering, vegetation, or other living 

shoreline techniques to maximize benefits. 

Such efforts will substantially contribute to 

improving water quality, protecting upland 

and shoreline systems, and improving fish 

and wildlife habitat. While addressing these 

considerations associated with sustainable 

design projects, this section provides 

ideas for enhancing the qualities of the 

built environment. Attention to details for 

sustainable design can: 

• Improve environmental awareness 

•Offer recreational opportunities 

• Provide privacy and noise control 

• Enhance visual appeal 

• Accentuate or diminish adjacent land uses 

• Minimize maintenance 

• Increase value of real estate

Design Principles 

Creating the composition of a design must 

include the principles of unity, balance, 

sequence, proportion, rhythm, accent, 

repetition, and variety. Color, line, form, 

mass, texture, scale, light, and time are visual 

elements used in combination to create 

interest. This interplay of design principles 

7 
8 

and visual elements yields a design for a 

specific site that fulfills its intended purpose. 

Unity means that all parts of the composition 

or landscape go together; they fit. Everything 

selected for a landscape must complement 

the central scheme and serve some functional 

purpose. Unity is obtained by the effective 

use of components in a design to express a 

main idea through consistent style and to 

harmonize the whole. Symmetrical balance 

is achieved when one side of the design is a 

mirror image of the other side. Asymmetrical 

balance uses different elements of interest 

on either side of the central axis to obtain 

balance and visual attraction. 

Sequence is a successive change of visual 

perspectives or spatial transition as one moves 

through a series of spaces. For example, this 

transition can be obtained by the arrangement 

of objects with varying textures, forms, or 

other elements in a sequential order assisting 

the gradual movement of the viewer’s eye 

through the designed area. Or, it can be a 

progression of spaces created by combinations 

of plants, earth, and structures, creating 

interest and leading one through the area. 

Proportion refers to the size of the parts of 

the design in relation to each other and to 

the design as a whole. A three-foot vernal 

pool, for example, would be lost in a large 

open greenway, but would fit beautifully into 

a small opening along a path in a riparian 

corridor. Proportion in landscape architecture 

usually refers to the human scale, relating a 

person to the built environment. 

Rhythm is achieved when the elements of 

a design create a feeling of motion leading 

the viewer’s eye through or even beyond the 

designed area. Elements like color schemes, 

line, and form can be repeated to attain 

rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces 

confusion in the design and creates a pattern 

through the designed area. 

Accent involves bringing attention to a 

feature by simplifying the elements around 

it in space. For example: line can be used to 

direct visual observation toward a feature 

as the focal point. In painting or the built 

environment, the color red is often used as a 

focal point, to aid the eye in its travel through 

a canvas or along a route. 

Repetition refers to the repeated use of 

features like plants with identical shape, 

line, form, texture, and/or color. Too much 

repetition creates monotony, but when used 

effectively can lead to rhythm or can bring the 

attention to an accent. Unity can be achieved 

by repetition of the same element, while 

simplifying is achieved by elimination of other 

elements and unnecessary detail. 

Variety can provide interest and diversity in 

the landscape. A flower garden is a simple 

example of a designed space reflecting 

variety. A riparian forest is a diverse natural 

environment. Biodiversity is associated with 

the health of a system or natural landscape. 
Semi-arid Grassland, 

Sky Island Region, Arizona

9 
In the design of a naturalized landscape or 

restoration project, replication of the variety 

of plants growing in an association in that 

environment would aid in restoring function 

to the area. 

Elements of Design

Color can be used to change perspective. 

Warm colors and light tints like red, orange, 

yellow, and white advance an object or area 

toward the observer. Cool colors and deep 

shades like blue, green, and black recede and 

can be used to make objects appear further 

away. Designers use color to direct attention 

in the landscape and create a path for the 

eye to follow. Light colors and tints tend to 

attract attention, as do bright, vivid colors. 

Color as an element can strongly influence 

the emotions and mood. Cool colors are 

restful, while warm colors express action and 

excitement.

Line moves the eye visually or the person 

physically through space. It can be used to 

create patterns. In the urban landscape, 

line is inferred by linear features such as 

streams, riparian corridors, paths and trails, 

roads, and other infrastructure, and aids in 

navigating through a space. Horizontal lines 

generally elicit a restful feeling while vertical 

lines create a feeling of energy. Straight lines 

tend to be forceful, structural, and stable, 

and direct the observer’s eye to a point faster 

than curved lines. Curved or free-flowing lines 

are smooth and graceful and can be used to 

create a natural feeling. 

Form can be described as a shape or structure 

of an object or space. For example, the shape 

of plants can be expressed in terms of their 

individual growth habits. Plant forms include 

oval, ball, egg, columnar, cylindrical, pear, vase, 

spire, mound, and cushion. The branching 

character of a plant creates the structure, 

which can be described as ascending, arching, 

spreading, weeping, or irregular. 

Mass is the combination of a group of objects 

to create perceptions, such as a solid plane 

or a specific pattern. Mass can be described 

in terms such asheavy, dense, soft, light, 

or thin. Plants can be grouped to create 

three-dimensional space. For example, plants 

amassed in a woodland or buffer create 

horizontal and vertical planes or spaces. The 

canopy or overstory is experienced as a ceiling, 

elements of the understory such as the shrub 

layer are experienced as a wall, and ground 

covers consisting of grasses and herbaceous 

plants can be interpreted as a floor. 

Texture describes the surface quality of an 

object that can be seen or felt. Texture can 

be described in such terms as smooth, rough, 

glossy, or dull. A rough or glossy texture will 

appear to be in the forefront, whereas a fine 

or dull texture will fall into the background of 

a landscape. 

Perspective can be created by using materials 

with different textures to create the sensation 

of greater depth. A coarse texture can be 

used in the background, medium texture 

can be used in the middle, and fine texture 

10 

Mass

Line

Color

Form
can be used in the foreground. A glossy 

texture reflecting light will jump out in the 

foreground, whereas a dull texture recedes. 

Scale refers to the size of an object or objects 

in relation to the surroundings. Size refers to 

definite measurements, while scale describes 

the size relationship between adjacent 

objects. A small scale defines larger areas and 

conversely a larger scale defines a smaller 

space. In an urban environment where 

there are tall buildings adjacent to a stream 

restoration project, people are attracted 

to the restoration area in part because the 

area is at a human scale compared to the 

surrounding buildings. 

Light and shade create a visual pattern in 

the environment. Light comes forward and 

shade recedes in perspective. This interplay 

of light and shade adds visual interest in the 

landscape. The interplay of light and shade 

can be an environmental consideration in 

design. For example, efficient heating can 

be maximized by utilizing solar radiation and 

cooling can be maximized by using vegetation 

to shade an area. Organisms have various 

tolerances to the amount of light they receive, 

and this must be considered in the stream 

restoration project design to allow organisms 

to live in the area. Plants must be selected 

to survive in the light condition present at 

a particular location. Day and night light 

variations can be used in design to extend 

interest. For example, in the sun, white 

flowers and silver plants will brighten any 

color around them and are visible at night, 

particularly in moonlight.

Time can be expressed in terms of the 

seasonal changes or diurnal rhythms. Interest 

in the landscape can be achieved by adding 

elements that have different characteristics 

at different times of the year. For example, 

deciduous and evergreen plants can be used 

for different purposes in a planting design. 

Plant response to seasonal variation can 

include flowering, fruiting, and foliage color 

changes that can be utilized to add interest to 

the landscape. 

The Design Process

The design process is one of continual 

change based on information, refining the 

design until all the pieces work efficiently 

together and function as a whole. Several 

steps and products define the design 

process for any design to move forward into 

construction. First is an assessment of needs 

and constraints and a site analysis of existing 

conditions. Secondly, the development 

of a site plan, planting plan, and grading 

plan is important to define what the site 

will become. Site details and specifications 

further define the design and how it will be 

built. With the design information bound 

into a contract, a design can be implemented 

by a contractor. Once construction is 

complete and the built environment exists, 

monitoring and maintenance requirements 

can aid in determining if the design has been 

Texture

Time

Light and shade

Scale

Perspective

11 
successful, and what will be needed for future 

maintenance.

Assessment of needs and constraints. The 

client and community using a particular place 

will determine the needs and constraints of the 

design. Budget and time schedules are also 

realistic constraints that define the project’s 

scope. To be successful, a design must respond 

to needs and constraints. In addition to the 

ecological objectives that normally accompany 

projects, the designer is responsible for 

addressing safety, health, and welfare for all 

participants using the designed area.

Safety can include consideration of flood 

control measures, erosion control, bank 

stabilization, and pedestrian safety in the 

built environment. Appropriate sizing of the 

channel is an important aspect for flood 

reduction. Erosion problems need to be 

identified, thus enabling design solutions 

to be developed. Stabilization of stream 

banks may be necessary to provide a safe 

environment. All public recreational areas and 

facilities need to be accessible and comply 

with the Americans with Disabilities Act 

(ADA) for the safety of the public using the 

area. This includes walkways, picnic areas or 

other site amenities, parking lots, and signage 

used within the project. Signage, lighting, 

appropriate fencing, and railings may be 

necessary site amenities to provide for a safe 

pedestrian experience. Another important 

consideration is the proper placement of 

plants that allow for line of sight throughout 

parking lots, on roadways and pathways to 

minimize conflicts between vehicular and 

other types of traffic.

Health considerations include water quality 

and environmental enhancements. Plants 

can be selected to aid in the remediation 

of an area and improve the water quality. 

Vegetative buffer strips, corridors, and 

greenways are all ecosystem enhancements 

that perform a number of functions on a site. 

A system is healthier with more biodiversity, 

creating more structure and function in the 

environment.

Welfare of the public is also considered in 

looking for opportunities to provide various 

recreational activities, visual interest, and 

value to the adjacent land uses. Respite 

can be found by active and passive forms of 

recreational activities. Plant communities can 

enhance the visual aesthetics and natural 

processes occurring on a site. 

Site analysis. A complete survey of the 

project site is essential and can save time 

and money. It should include existing 

vegetation, landform, soils, hydrology, surface 

water features, views, migration routes 

for wildlife, transportation corridors, and 

location of all structures (both onsite and 

on adjacent property). All of these items 

should be documented and mapped. Climatic 

considerations to note are aspect, rainfall 

distribution, seasonal wind and light patterns, 

and micro-climatic conditions. 

12 
13 

Existing plant communities should be 

examined by a botanist during the analysis. 

Tree, shrub, and groundcover names, 

locations, and conditions should be recorded. 

Any invasive species should be noted 

for future treatment. Trees on adjoining 

property that would affect shade patterns 

on the site should also be surveyed. This 

information is essential to designers, as it is 

their responsibility to blend the project into 

the natural or existing setting and create 

a functional setting that complements the 

proposed activities for the site. Saving existing 

plants for the project will require protecting 

them during the construction process. Care 

must be taken not to change the existing 

grade by either adding soil or compacting soil 

in the area under the drip line of a tree. 

Land form refers to slope or land elevation 

changes. It determines surface water drainage 

patterns and is essential knowledge for the 

development of a functional grading plan that 

blends well into the landscape. Any landform 

that is unique, such as a waterfall, can add to 

a project. Changes in elevation can provide 

opportunities to provide views into and out of 

the site. The knowledge of depth to bedrock 

is also an important consideration. Slope 

aspect should be considered because solar 

gain and precipitation drainage patterns affect 

plant establishment. 

Soil pH, nutrient characteristics, and water 

holding capacity should be determined 

by a soil analysis, and used to amend the 

soil. Existing plants can be clues about the 

soil condition. For example Chickweed (Stellaria media), Daisy (Chrysanthemum 

leucanthemum), Dock (Rumex crispus.), 

and Plantain (Plantago major) are likely to 

grow in acidic soils, whereas Lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) and the mustard family, 

often grow in alkaline soils. Plants may also 

indicate poorly drained soils, e.g., plants that 

can tolerate wetter soils will grow in poorly 

drained areas. Plants can also indicate the lack 

of specific nutrients and fertility; for example, 

Lupines (Lupinus spp.) and Clover (Trifolium 

spp.) grow in nitrogen-deficient soils. A simple 

examination of the soil by digging a hole can 

determine its texture, depth of topsoil, and 

other soil horizons. Soil maps prepared by 

the Natural Resources Conservation Service 

(former Soil Conservation Service) will give 

specific information on soil classification and 

potentials of the soil. To provide more insight 

about the soil, testing from various locations 

on the site and sending to a laboratory will 

indicate pH and chemical composition and 

give recommendations. 

Hydrology and the condition of the existing 

surface water features or stream corridors 

should be assessed. The timing, frequency, 

magnitude, and duration of flows in a 

stream influence the makeup of the riparian 

community, affect aquatic organisms, and 

influence the stability of constructed features. 

Water elevations, slopes, and velocities 

at various discharges and the frequency, 

duration, timing, and rate of change of those 

discharges, are elements in determining 
14 

stream flows and riparian communities. For 

all water bodies, water quality, turbidity, 

temperature, and underlying substrate can 

affect the dissolved oxygen levels within the 

water features. 

Turbidity, temperature, and available nutrients 

will determine the aquatic plants within a lake. 

Lakes form layers called themoclines, which 

vary in temperature relative to depth. When 

the temperature of the water at the surface of 

a lake reaches the same temperature as deeper 

water, as it does during the cooler months in 

temperate climates, the water in the lake can 

mix, bringing oxygen-starved water up from 

the depths and oxygen down to decomposing 

sediments. On the lake or pond shore, a 

natural zonation will occur and be visible within 

the plant communities. The community is 

responding to the change in elevation and to 

the moisture in the soil. In estuarine systems, 

the depth of water, tidal influence, and salinity 

will greatly influence the plant communities.

Man-made environmental aspects to be 

considered in planning and design include 

noise levels, transportation and utility 

corridors, property ownership, property lines 

and easements, surrounding land use, existing 

buildings and their architectural style, and 

proposed ingress and egress to accomplish 

construction and maintenance. Laws and 

zoning ordinances can determine when 

permits need to be obtained. Zoning and 

design ordinances determine the guidance 

on setbacks, which usually do not apply to 

plants. However, easements for electric lines 

and gas lines will restrict plant growth and can 

introduce concerns regarding herbicide usage. 

Climatic considerations such as rainfall 

distribution can be determined on a regional 

basis. This is a major factor affecting plant 

communities. Periods of heavy rainfall can 

magnify the problems of shallow soils or 

a hardpan resulting in unwanted standing 

water. Predominate wind directions differ 

with the region, the season, and the time 

of day. Where the wind direction differs 

in summer and winter, plantings can be 

arranged to block the cold winter winds 

from a public use area and direct summer 

breezes into this same area. All of these 

factors interact to create micro-climates, 

and conditions in an isolated spot may differ 

considerably from the conditions in another 

area of the landscape. The designer must 

consider those variations in order to “finetune” the plan and plant selection.

Develop a Site Plan

This will combine the information gathered 

in the site analysis with the programmatic 

elements of the needs and constraints. 

Property boundaries, easements, rights of 

way, and utilities are indicated in plan view. 

Existing vegetation, buildings, and other 

features are shown in the drawing. The 

proposed features are drawn and labeled as 

proposed, for clarity. Access roads, walkways, 

trails, water bodies, streams, and any other 

existing hydrologic features are to be shown 

and noted. Proposed recreational features, 

seating, and signage are elements that may 

be added to the site plan. Adjacent land uses 

should be noted and the site design should be 

compatible with the surrounding properties. 

Notes can be added to clarify the proposed 

elements or anything of importance that is 

not graphically represented on the plan. 

All plans include standard conventions such 

as a north arrow for orientation, a bar scale, 

and a title block indicating the name of the 

project, client, the designer, and the date. An 

appropriate scale will be chosen to depict the 

dimension of elements in a one-to-one unit 

relationship, visually represented in a way 

that is easily interpreted by anyone using the 

plan (Figure 1). If there is a need for a more 

detailed area, another plan at a different scale 

can be produced for that specific area. 

Develop a Planting Plan 

Major features of climate, topography, 

moisture, and soils shape the region’s predominant plant communities. These features 

are critical in selecting the appropriate plant 

communities for a site. Site analysis, which 

is critical to the success of the planting plan, 

should compare the existing natural conditions (i.e., topography and soil) and plant 

community to the proposed planting site. Topsoil may need to be stored for use, or brought 

in to replace the native soil on site. Identifying 

the dominant plants within the community 
15 

Figure 1. Combined site plan and planting plan.

(based on number or size within the des-

ignated surveyed area) and planting these 

species will minimize routine care after the 

establishment of the planting. Given nearby 

seed sources, other appropriate species may 

even begin to establish themselves within the 

planting by natural recruitment. Using the 

plant community approach will ensure that 

landscapes will be in relative harmony with 

their surroundings, and provide structure and 

function within the ecosystem and the engi-

neered design (Figure 2).

The planting plan incorporates the existing 

plants to be preserved with the new plants 

to be planted (Figure 3). Plant selection 

is based on the specific site conditions 

identified in the site analysis. Environmental 

conditions, such as climate, plant zone, 

soil moisture (mesic, zeric, or hydric 

soils), and aspect determine what type of 

communities will be best incorporated. In 

developing a planting plan, it is important 

to meet the site criteria and needs such 

as utilizing plants to provide windbreaks, 

shade, privacy, and noise screening, or to 

satisfy other objectives. The plan should 

address the total site. The planting plan 

will be within the property boundary of the 

project. The plant selection process should 

consider factors such as mature size of the 

proposed plants, adaptability to local soil 

and precipitation conditions, exposure to 

light conditions, wind, U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) hardiness zones (based on 

annual low temperatures), and maintenance 
Figure 2. Site plan area after first year planting.

Figure 3. Planted area after 3 years with natural vegetation zonation.

requirements. Plant texture, foliage color, 

flowers, and fruit during various times of the 

year may also be important considerations. 

Existing invasive species are problematic and 

may require management or eradication 

for the success of a planting project. Using 

native plant communities in their appropriate 

environment will increase the native wildlife 

and pollinators adapted to live in the area.

The planting plan will have the standard 

plan conventions; it will depict areas of 

existing vegetation labeled as such and 

plants proposed to be planted labeled with 

a number or code that is further defined in a 

key. The key is a table on the plan with plants 

indicated by the number or code, followed by 

the botanical name (Latin genus and species), 

the common name, the size, and how the 

plant is to be purchased. There may also be 

a block for notes on the plan. Other specific 

information will be found in the specifications 

on how to perform the planting. 

Develop a Grading Plan

A grading plan is a separate plan noting the 

existing contours and indicating proposed 

contours that are to blend into the existing 

contours on the site. Natural site drainage 

features and any manmade drainage 

structures are indicated as existing. The 

proposed drainage features are indicated 

and labeled. The correction of any erosion 

problem is addressed in this plan. Various 

existing or proposed bank protection 

treatments will be noted. Handicapped 
17 

accessibility requires grading of designed 

features and spaces (according to the ADA 

and design guidance) within the design. 

Another critical consideration is to match the 

finish grade to the existing grade around all 

existing trees and existing vegetation that 

is to be retained (defined by the drip edge 

of most species of trees). This is true during 

construction and afterward, because a change 

in grade over existing tree and shrub roots will 

often kill them. This includes application of a 

heavy mulch on top of established tree roots.

Site-specific details. The specific site 

details can have a major impact upon the 

overall functionality of the project and can 

incorporate environmental features into the 

design. Locate public activity areas, including 

areas for both passive and active activities. 

For example, passive usage can be on-site 

and off-site views into the area, or seating 

for relaxation. The activity areas can be trails, 

boardwalks, stream access points for boat 

launching and fishing, and open areas for 

play. Kiosks can provide a formal entrance 

into a natural area informing the visitors of 

any information that may make their visit 

to the area more meaningful, fun, and safe 

(National Park Service (NPS) case study, page 

49). Wildlife viewing can be accommodated 

on site by a path system located away 

from vehicular traffic and other high-use 

areas. Nature trails can be developed using 

interpretive signage. A path system can be 

developed following the stream corridor in a 

vegetated buffer along the stream’s shoreline. 

Overlooks can provide visual enjoyment for 

all using the area. The style of signage can 

help unite the area within the project bounds 

and may reflect the style of other signage used 

by the property owner; for example, signage 

within a park or nature reserve. 

Construction specifications. Instructions for 

type and quality of materials chosen and 

methods for installation are written in the 

specification section. The specifications are 

complementary to the plans, which show the 

physical relationship between materials on 

the site. The construction specifications for 

a project will vary greatly from one project 

to the next, and it is therefore impossible 

to standardize them in the same way as the 

general conditions of a contract. Specifications 

are written in a uniform system for organizing 

and presenting them in a construction 

contract. The Construction Specifications 

Institute (CSI) and the American Institute 

of Architects (AIA) share the credit for the 

development of a standard specification 

format, which uses 16 divisions. However, 

within landscape and planting features; all 

16 divisions focus instead is usually on the 

Site Work Division (Division #2). This can 

be developed into more detailed sections. 

For example: 020220 Excavation, filling, and 

grading; 02550 Site drainage; and 02800 

Planting, (including soil requirements, soil 

amendments, mulches, etc.). One should keep 

wording in specifications simple and direct, 

and should avoid easily misunderstood words 

and phrases. 

Monitoring plan. Monitoring of planted 

sites is necessary to evaluate the planting 

effort and determine the success of project 

goals (Figure 4). Vegetative monitoring is best 

accomplished by establishing permanent 

plots to record species present and percent 

cover in order to understand succession, 

survival of species, and results obtained. As 

the site develops, maintaining records will 

aid in understanding how plant communities 

adapt to site conditions over time. This will 

be beneficial to a manager in assessing what 

has been successful and what is cost-effective. 

This infomation will be valuable in making 

informed management decisions in the 

future. A manager should ask the following 

questions regarding the site:

• Which of the planted species germinated 

and grew?

• What is the overall percentage of planting 

survivability?

• Which plants came in from wild sources or 

specified plantings? 

• What is the percentage of native species 

versus non-native exotic species? 

• How are treatment techniques working on 

any invasive species present?

If the landscape element has been planted 

to meet a specific goal, such as increasing 

habitat for a particular animal species, 

parameters can be added to analyze wildlife 

and the desired outcome. When threatened 

or endangered species are present, they 
18 

Figure 4. Important measures indicating plant survivability are species composition and percent cover as part of 

the monitoring plan. 

need to be monitored to determine that 

the population is stable or increasing. If the 

population declines, a change in management 

strategy must be undertaken. The timing of 

the monitoring program will be dictated by 

the goals and factors, as stated above, and 

is ideally accomplished at the same time 

annually or biannually for a series of years. 

By examining overall successes and failures, 

one will have a better understanding of the 

natural processes on the site. Understanding 

how the plant communities function within 

the landscape, as a part of the ecosystem in 

that particular region, is also important. One 

can make improvements or adjustments to 

the methodology and maintenance practices.

Seed mixes composed of a variety of grasses, 

sedges, and herbaceous plants, shrubs, 

and trees will offer plants with different life 

histories. Primary succession occurs when 

early pioneer species colonize mineral 

substrates or undisturbed soils. Secondary 

succession occurs as the dominant vegetation 

reclaims an area after disturbance. A project 

using native plant communities seeks to 

restore successional change at some stage 

and allow the community to grow and 

adapt. The planting plan can jump-start 

the succession process to allow for the 

development of a more diverse and healthier 

environment that restores function to the 

natural landscape.

Botanical survey information can indicate 

successional changes of the site over time. 
19 

Replanting may be required if there is a 

lack of cover (<75% total cover is a general 

guideline in most ecosystems). However, in 

arid and semi-arid lands, this will be less (25- 

30% is more appropriate). Succession will 

occur and wild plant seed will come into an 

area by natural means such as animals, wind, 

and water, to supplement the planting plan, 

particularly if tracts of existing vegetation 

were to be preserved on the site. 

Project success is determined after 

construction. A monitoring period can 

record the development of the planting 

effort over time. Vegetative components 

may be more expensive up front, but costeffectiveness must be evaluated in order to 

make comparisons to other alternatives. Are 

the design features functioning as intended? 

Does the site use the existing resources in 

an effective way? Does the project meet the 

needs of the client and community within 

budget? Stability of the physical structures 

can be monitored for signs of erosion 

occurring around buildings and pathways, 

or within the landscape. Repairing and reseeding areas in failure is preferred before 

problem areas become more pronounced. 

Maintenance 

Long-term functionality and stability must be 

a consideration in preparing the operations 

and maintenance (O&M) manual for the local 

interest. The Corps needs to define its longtem goals in the maintenance manual for the 

local cost-share partners. 

Maintenance should be as low-cost and 

efficient, with as little energy use, as possible. 

Mowing and herbicide usage should not 

be a realistic management approach if the 

goal is to restore the natural function of the 

designed landscape. Succession would be the 

goal for planted areas, although there may 

be exceptions to this. One exception is the 

management and the eradication of invasive 

species within the project site. Careful 

application of a systemic herbicide by hand by 

a specialist who can identify the invasive plant 

may be acceptable. No widespread spraying 

of herbicides or pesticides is acceptable 

because the risks and ramifications to 

the environment are too great. However, 

using biocontrols or an integrated pestmanagement plan and prescribed fire may 

provide alternative solutions to manage 

invasive species.

Mowing a path or open spaces intended 

for recreation is acceptable. However, the 

use of low-maintenance groundcovers and 

seed mixes will offer cost savings and be 

more in keeping with shrinking maintenance 

budgets. There is beauty in a naturalized 

grass and wildflower planting, which provides 

for wildlife and pollinators, and offers a 

great opportunity to educate the public to 

appreciate the difference. 
Sandhill Prairie Community, Minnesota

20 
THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION 

(USNVC) AND PLANTING TECHNIQUES

This section provides an overview of the 

scientific component of EWN. The purpose 

of this section is to understand the scientific 

information that currently is available on-line, 

as well as the methodology of the USNVC.

Natural Heritage Program administers the 

state databases for each state, from data 

collected by the USNVC survey process 

through the Department of Natural 

Resources or an equivalent state agency. 

Each state may organize their database in 

a different format; the USNVC process was 

used consistently to survey the botanical 

resources, so the state data collected are 

consistent. NatureServe holds these data 

records at: www.natureserve.org/visitlocal/

index.jsp. Readers are referred to the 

individual state heritage plant databases 

for detailed information on specific plant 

communities.

The USNVC. Grossman et al. (1998) is 

currently under development by NatureServe 

(formerly the Association for Biodiversity 

Information, ABI), The Nature Conservancy 

(TNC), and state Natural Heritage programs, 

in conjunction with the Vegetation Panel of 

the Ecological Society of America and the 

Federal Geographic Data Committee. USNVC 

delivers a comprehensive “single-factor” 

approach to ecological communities based 

on a hierarchical classification of vegetation. 

The USNVC system referred to in this manual 

is chosen because it provides a nationally 

and internationally recognized system that 

has been peer-reviewed and is scientifically 

defensible. 

Divisions within the upper levels of the 

USNVC hierarchy rely on physiognomic 

criteria such as vegetation structure and 

predominant leaf phenology. The two lowest 

divisions, the alliance and the association, 

are based on floristic criteria. The association, 

constituting the basic unit of inventory and 

biodiversity assessment, serves as a surrogate 

for ecological communities. The association 

level shares definite environmental, 

structural, and floristic similarities. The 

system level is based on a gross hydrologic 

regime and presently includes five divisions: 

the terrestrial system includes all upland 

(non-wetland) habitats, while the palustrine 

system encompasses all non-tidal wetlands 

dominated by woody plants and herbaceous 

emergents. The estuarine system includes 

emergent and floating /submergent tidal 

wetlands, extending to the upstream limits 

of tidal influence. The riverine system and 

the marine system are each represented by 

a single ecological group. USNVC vegetation 

mapping is most often done at the subclass 

level (Corps’ Level 1 inventory) or at the 

more detailed formation level. Table 2 

shows the how the USNVC is structured. 

This system is an appropriate method for 

managing plant resources and is also used 

internationally (Anderson et al. 1998). It 

can be used in the initial botanical survey 

providing a scientifically defensible baseline. 

During the design phase, the botanical survey 

information can be used as planting lists for 

design plans and specifications. Using the 

same method for monitoring the project site 

after construction will provide consistency, 

which is important in making comparisons 

and defining success. This is important to 

determine how the planted landscape project 

is performing after construction.

The USNVC Survey Methodology. The USNVC 

utilizes a form, which has been adapted by 

each state, to capture site, soil, and plant 

data in a consistent method, so as to build a 

cohesive database across the country. Data 

are obtained by using vegetative plots that 

record all species at all structural levels; 

canopy, subcanopy, shrub levels, herbaceous 

plants, and moss or lichen are recorded. 

Dominant plants within each layer of the plot 

21 
22 

Table 2. Summary of International Vegetation Classification Hierarchy Levels and Criteria for Natural Vegetation (Anderson 

1998).

Hierarchy Level Criteria

Upper: Physiognomy plays a predominant role

L1 — Formation Class Broad combinations of general dominant growth forms that are adapted to basic temperature (energy 

budget), moisture, and substrate/aquatic conditions. 

L2 — Formation Subclass Combinations of general dominant and diagnostic growth forms that reflect global macroclimatic 

factors driven primarily by latitude and continental position or that reflect overriding substrate/aquatic 

conditions.

L3 — Formation Combinations of dominant and diagnostic growth forms that reflect global macroclimatic factors as 

modified by altitude, seasonality of precipitation, substrates, and hydrologic conditions. 

Middle: Floristics and physiognomy play predominant roles

L4 — Division Combinations of dominant and diagnostic growth forms and a broad set of diagnostic plant species that 

reflect biogeographic differences in composition and continental differences in mesoclimate, geology, 

substrates, hydrology, and disturbance regimes.

L5 — Macrogroup Combinations of moderate sets of diagnostic plant species and diagnostic growth forms that reflect 

biogeographic differences in composition and sub-continental to regional differences in mesoclimate, 

geology, substrates, hydrology, and disturbance regimes. 

L6 — Group Combinations of relatively narrow sets of diagnostic plant species (including dominants and codominants), broadly similar composition, and diagnostic growth forms that reflect regional mesoclimate, 

geology, substrates, hydrology, and disturbance regimes.

Lower: Floristics plays a predominant role

L7 — Alliance Diagnostic species, including some from the dominant growth form or layer, and moderately similar 

composition that reflect regional to subregional climate, substrates, hydrology, moisture/nutrient factors, 

and disturbance regimes.

L8 — Association 

Or Community

Diagnostic species, usually from multiple growth forms or layers, and more narrowly similar composition 

that reflect topo-edaphic climate, substrates, hydrology, and disturbance regimes. 
are noted, along with the percent coverage 

for all species. A generic copy of this form is 

included at the end in Appendix A. Transects 

are also quite useful in recording how the 

vegetation and communities change over an 

elevation gradient. By combining these plot 

and transect methods and surveying various 

aspects, elevations, and plant communities, a 

complete examination of the plant resources 

in the area can be accomplished. These data 

can be shared with the Natural Heritage 

database system and can be entered into the 

Corps Operations and Maintenance Business 

Information Link (OMBIL) system. These 

surveys become the initial baseline, which is 

scientifically defensible for other design and 

planning decisions.

NatureServe Explorer is an authoritative 

source for information on more than 70,000 

plants, animals, and ecosystems of the 

United States and Canada. It is a product of 

NatureServe and its natural heritage member 

programs. For species, Explorer includes 

particularly in-depth coverage for those 

species that are rare and endangered, and the 

database can be used to easily find: scientific 

and common names; conservation status; 

distribution maps; images for thousands of 

species; life histories; conservation needs; 

and more. The International Vegetation 

Classification (IVC) partners with the USNVC, 

currently providing detailed content for over 

7000 associations and alliances found in the 

United States. Explorer provides access to 

the Ecological Systems Classification, which 

has been used as the map legend for both the 

US Geological Survey’s (USGS’s) National Gap 

Analysis Program and the LANDFIRE Project.

Sources to Obtain Native Plant 

Materials 

A reliable, stable, and economical supply 

of native plants and seed is essential for 

planting projects. Regional availability of plant 

resources is of concern to anyone actively 

involved in planting efforts. The more obscure 

plants within the ecosystem are often not 

commercially available and quantities of 

available seed can vary from year to year. 

As the native plant industry expands, more 

selections become commercially available for 

different ecosystems; however, there are some 

other alternative sources and techniques that 

may be useful for planting purposes.

Finding sources of native and locally adapted 

seed and plant materials for use on federal 

lands can be difficult due to unavailability of 

many species and lack of knowledge about 

the cultural requirements for many native 

plants. This manual describes in situ and ex 

situ conservation strategies with examples of 

seed and plant applications. 

Conservation Methods 

Plant conservation methods and techniques, 

range from ex situ (off site) to in situ (on site) 

strategies. In addition, the combination of 

ex situ and in situ methods is referred to as 

23 
an inter situ strategy. These strategies are 

described below. 

Ex situ preservation strategies include storage 

of propagules, seeds, and cryogenically stored 

tissue off site. Cryopreservation includes 

seeds, pollen, or tissue frozen in liquid 

nitrogen at -196 

◦C. This technique allows for 

storage of plant species that cannot be stored 

by conventional means. This method is used 

for the long-term storage of agricultural and 

horticultural taxa and is increasingly used for 

wild species (Guerrant et al. 2004). Specific ex 

situ methods are as follows: • Seed banking is the storage of seed in lowmoisture and low-temperature conditions, 

and is used for crop seeds and wild species. 

• Tissue culture storage refers to reproductive 

tissue and seed propagated in vitro under 

light and temperature conditions controlled 

for slow growth (Guerrant et al. 2004). 

Tissue culture propagation is used for the 

proliferation of clonal plants and controlled 

seed production. 

• Cultivation under a controlled environment 

(e.g., plants grown in an artificial 

environment such as a greenhouse) is yet 

another approach. Commercial cultivation is 

the production of selected taxa with a focus 

on profit.

• “Field gene bank” refers to an extensive 

planting field grown in open air, to maintain 

genetic diversity within a species. This 

method is often used for woody species. 

• Community gardens refers to the production 

of plants by a community, family, or tribe as 

part of the traditional agriculture producing 

plants used by the group for some purpose 

(medicinal, food, fiber, etc.). 

In situ preservation strategies maintain viable 

populations of wild plants in a field setting, 

where they are affected by the natural climat-

ic and ecological processes. However, in situ 

can also include strategies such as managing 

wild populations; for example, hand pollinat-

ing a wild orchid population. There are also 

in situ managed wild populations, where wild 

plants growing in a managed zone are subject 

to community-level management, such as 

periodic burning, as in the case of a prairie 

ecosystem. 

An inter situ strategy is the combination of 

ex situ and in situ techniques. An example 

would be utilizing plants cultivated horti-

culturally (ex situ) but managed in near-natural 

conditions (in situ), such as a managed 

population within restored semi-natural 

condition. Care should be taken to harvest 

both seeds and plants sustainably from wild 

populations. Protocols for harvesting seeds 

are available at the Plant Conservation 

Alliance Website (listed in the Bibliography).

Planting Techniques

Site preparation. When preparing an area for 

planting, it is critical to reduce competition 

from weeds before planting. Regional 

differences defined by temperature zones, 

24 
aspect, topographic location, and local 

geomorphology affect timeframes for planting 

windows and maintenance events. Areas 

can be tilled in the early spring by shallow 

disking every three weeks to eliminate 

weed competition until the area is planted. 

Follow up with a final disking using a field 

harrow to level the field and break up clods, 

and finish by rolling the soil to obtain a firm 

surface. Rolling the surface parallel to the 

contour provides the best protection against 

water erosion when the soil is unprotected 

by vegetation. Plant or crop residue can be 

left on the surface to further protect the 

soil from erosion. Soil tests taken from the 

area will provide information on fertilizer 

requirements. If a stand of native plants and 

grasses exists on the site, consider using a 

seed drill instead and interseeding rather than 

cutting the roots of existing plants, which 

leads to gradual thinning of the grassland 

(Manske 2003, 2006). Mowing the area 

before weedy species produce seed will also 

help control unwanted weed problems. Once 

established, the native plant community will 

inhibit weed growth.

Timing. The timing of planting is important 

and differs from region to region depending 

on location and type of ecosystem. Successful 

stands of native plant communities have 

been planted in the spring, summer, and fall. 

Most spring-blooming species germinate best 

when planted shortly after collection while 

other species do better when planted in early 

spring, late spring, or early summer. Most 

warm-season grasses, legumes, and many 

composites do well in late spring plantings. 

Planting times will vary by specific regions 

and the USDA temperature zones across the 

country. For example, in Kentucky, research 

has indicated that spring planting is preferred 

when soil temperatures reach 55 ◦F, and best 

germination occurs when soil temperatures 

reach 65 ◦F (Barnes 1998). However, in the 

Midwest, research indicates that fall planting 

may be more successful and it is increasingly 

being used in restoration projects in that 

region (Kurtz 2001). There are a number of 

reasons to plant in the fall, including less 

chance of erosion from early spring rains and 

less competition from weedy species. Another 

advantage of planting in the fall is that many 

seeds require cold stratification to germinate, 

which will occur over the winter as seeds sit 

dormant until the following spring. Seeding 

in late October and early November allows 

a variety of species to become established 

(Kurtz 2001). 

Soils. Understanding site conditions will 

aid in determining the best plants to be 

incorporated in a seed mix. Managers should 

identify the soil type and determine if the 

area to be planted is wet or dry, and whether 

it has steep or rolling topography. There will 

be specific management concerns for rocky 

and sandy soils. To find out about the soils 

in a particular area, consult with the Natural 

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) soil 

mapping database (http://www.nrce.usda.

gov/wps/portal/NRCS/).

If the soil has been disturbed, many 

microbiotic organisms may be lost and, 

in many cases, the soil structure itself 

is permanently altered. In the event of 

historical land uses that have resulted in 

extensive disturbance, managers can only 

attempt to replicate a facsimile of the original 

flora that previously occurred on the site. 

One hundred and fifty years ago, there was 

much more topsoil in our country’s forests 

and grassland ecosystems. For example, the 

prairie ecosystem had 12-16 in. of topsoil. 

Prairie plants stored carbon within their 

long root systems, which could be as deep 

as 15 ft. Now, the topsoil is only 6-8 in. deep 

and much of the North American prairie 

lands have been converted to agricultural 

fields. Tilling has caused loss of soil to wind 

and water. Forest trees were much larger in 

diameter and height than they are now. In 

the United States, topsoil is being lost 10% 

faster than it can be replenished (McDonough 

and Braungart 2013). Nutrient loss is also 

a problem, with nitrogen and other soil 

nutrients being lost due to erosion processes. 

Topsoil is not only a valuable commodity, 

it may contain a viable seed bank. This 

valuable material should be stockpiled on a 

construction site until it ican be re-used. It 

can be properly stored by covering the pile 

of topsoil with a waterproof tarp to keep 

the seed and micro-organisms viable. After 

the construction process, the soil can be 

spread back onto the site to meet the finish 

grade. The seed bank can develop and be 

25 
26 

augmented by additional planting of seed 

mixes and plants to provide a biodiversity 

of plants. However, this material may 

also contain invasive species propagules, 

so monitoring the recommended plant 

community is recommended.

Seed Mixes and Seeds 

Seed mixes can be purchased for varying light 

conditions and moisture and temperature 

regimes. The manager should consider 

selecting plants that grow in the local area to 

ensure a seed mix adapted to that particular 

environment. Diversity of the seed mix is 

also an important consideration since many 

plant communities are highly diverse. When 

planting is proposed for a local area with an 

existing plant community, visiting the site 

and taking notes on the species present and 

their phenology (e.g., time of flowering and 

seed production) is highly recommended to 

help with the design of specific seed mixes. 

In an area with distinct rain patterns, such 

as a monsoon season within arid lands, the 

plant community is adapted to the rainfall 

pattern of that area and the precipitation will 

trigger the flowering species. In areas with a 

more even precipitation distribution pattern, 

providing species that bloom throughout 

the growing season will support a greater 

diversity of wildlife and pollinators.

Seeds are a convenient means of longterm storage; they require little space, 

are low maintenance, and remain viable 

for long periods of time depending on 

species and storage conditions (Figure 5). 

In general, seeds require low temperatures 

and desiccation to remain viable (facilities 

for long-term storage can be expensive to 

maintain due to the necessity for germination 

tests, growth trails, and regeneration). 

The Seed of Success protocol established 

by the Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA) 

(2004) recommends care in harvesting and 

collecting 20% of any particular species from 

one place. Recommended rates for handcollected seed depend on the species and site 

characteristics. For commercial seed mixes 

that have been tested for germination and 

purity, the suggested rate generally varies 

from 10 to 15 lb/acre. The cost for a highdiversity commercial seed mix will be higher. 

To increase the genetic diversity in handcollected wild seed, collecting over a period of 

two seasons is recommended (Kurtz 2001).

Seed mixes are more affordable than 

transplanting plants when restoring a large 

area. For example, prairie remnants are 

suitable seed sources. Remnants can be found 

in neglected places, including old railroad 

rights-of-way, old cemeteries, steep areas, 

and wetland areas not suitable for farming 

or grazing. Islands in riparian corridors, and 

old growth forests may be good places to 

collect seed, due to their isolation. Another 

obvious place to look for plant species is on 

project lands slated to undergo construction, 

when existing native plants will be removed 

Figure 5. Seed from many grasses and flowers can be easily gathered.

26 
27 

in the process. Harvesting and returning 

seed or plants to the site for replanting after 

construction will reduce project costs and 

offer genetically diverse ecotypes adapted 

to the local conditions, thus increasing 

survivability. 

Recent studies have shown the importance 

of genetics to restoration projects. McKay 

et al. (2005) identified two main concerns 

with respect to the genetics of the plants: 

(1) whether the plants will succeed or fail, 

and (2) whether the restored populations will 

be the “same” as the original populations. 

This involves maintaining the natural genetic 

structure of the species, as well as ensuring 

community survival and reproduction. 

Considerations of ecotopic variation, genetic 

diversity, and introgression of non-local 

genes into remnant populations are no 

longer just academic concerns, but have 

practical implications for field restoration 

practitioners (Gustafson et al. 2005). 

A growing concern recognizes that the 

preservation of adaptive genetic variation 

within and among populations ensures that 

evolutionary potential is maintained (McKay 

et al. 2005). One concern is whether locally 

adapted, novel genotypes will succeed 

in new environments and how existing 

populations, adapted to local conditions, will 

be affected by the introduction of these new 

genes and genotypes. McKay et al. (2005) 

make the following recommendations for 

genetic restoration: (1) collect locally, if at all 

possible, near or on the landscape feature, 

and (2) match climatic and environmental 

conditions and plant communities between 

the collection site and the design sites. Finally, 

the idea of using more widely available 

“coarsely adapted” genetic mixtures that 

contain genetic variation necessary for 

further adaptive fine-tuning is a practical 

approach that may increase the feasibility and 

economic viability of the landscape features 

being planted in the greater landscape.

Once the species of grasses, forbs, shrubs, 

and trees have been chosen for the mix, 

seeds can be collected or purchased. Handgathered seed sources can include collecting 

local ecotypes that naturally evolved at the 

site or as close to the project site as possible. 

Seed that is gathered farther away may be 

acceptable if there is nothing available closer. 

However, seed collected from different soil 

types or climatic regions may have lower 

survival rates than local seed. Harvested 

seed can be also be added to commercially 

purchased seed. Native grass seed is often 

sold pre-mixed, but it is recommended that 

individual species lots be purchased and 

mixed together prior to planting; this will 

result in the desired mix using the best quality 

seed. Mixing small quantities of seed is most 

easily done in a 5-gal bucket or, for larger 

amounts, on a clean smooth concrete floor, 

using grain scoops to turn the seed pile. It 

is easier to keep smooth seeds together in 

one mix separated from fluffy seed; they can 

be planted in the same area using different 

seeding rates.

For purchased seed, using certified seed 

is recommended because the seed has a 

known identity and meets certified quality 

standards for purity and germination (NRCS 

2006). This has the best chance of success 

and the least chance of introducing unwanted 

seed problems. Varieties of seed have been 

developed and proven by the NRCS for 

specific geographic regions of the country. 

Native grass seed (and often wildflower seed) 

is sold on a pure live seed (PLS) basis and is 

recommended because it ensures that the 

desired product is what is being paid for, and 

protects against procurement of dead seed 

or unwanted plant pieces. A pound of pure 

live seed contains 16 ounces of living seed 

of the desired species plus additional weight 

of the other material that has not been 

removed by the cleaning processes. Using the 

seed analysis tag, the PLS can be calculated 

to compare quality of “lots” of seed (NRCS 

2006). For example, a seed lot that has a 

tested germination of 80% and a purity of 

90% also has a PLS percentage of 72 (0.80 x 

0.90 = 0.72). In 1.0 PLS pound of this seed lot, 

the gross weight to buy and plant would be 

1.39 lb (1.00 divided by 0.72) (NRCS 2006). 

Ratios of forbs to grasses will vary in commercial seed mixes; typical mixes include ratios 

of 50/50 or 60/40 and 66/33 forb/grass seed. 

The more diverse the seed mix (number of 

species within the mix), the more stable the 

planting will become over the long term. For 

purchased seed, it is better to buy a grass mix 

and a forb mix separately and create your 
own mix to ensure that you acquire the most 

desired species. If legumes (in nitrogen-fixing 

plants) are used in the herbaceous plant mix, 

make certain that the appropriate inoculant is 

included with the seed. 

Seed harvested from native stands may vary 

considerably from one season to the next 

in quantity, quality and species diversity. 

To increase diversity in the planting, it is 

recommended that the manager use seed 

that is harvested in two different years (Kurtz 

2001). Once gathered, the seed needs to be 

dried, threshed, separated from the heads, 

and properly cleaned and stored. Seed should 

be dried shortly after harvesting to prevent 

loss during storage. Properly dried seeds have 

a 5-14% moisture content during storage 

(Harrington 1972). When seeds are dried out 

below 5% their cell walls break down and 

enzymes become inactive, and seeds with 

a moisture content from 14-30% are often 

lost to microorganisms and fungi. Moisture 

levels above 30% will induce germination 

(Apfelbaum et al. 1997). Seeds often need 

treatments replicating natural processes to 

germinate well. Interseeding an area already 

planted or partially established during the 

following year will increase the diversity 

of the planting, because some species do 

not grow well in an open seedbed. Seeding 

rates are variable and depend on the species 

composition of the mix. If the seed is 

purchased, recommendations are generally 

provided for the mix. For hand-collected seed, 

a general guideline for the seeding rate is 10 

28 

pounds of clean, pure seed per acre and may 

be as high as 30 lb per acre for rough, clean, 

hand-collected seed (Diboll 1997). The rate 

will vary depending on the species chosen.

Depending on the composition, it can take a 

number of years for the mix to develop into 

a mature native plant community, and it will 

constantly change throughout its development process. Plants do well in soil with a 

topsoil layer and are able to grow tall and lush 

once established. However, competition from 

weeds is greater in more fertile soils and will 

make the initial establishment more difficult.

Seed Treatments

Various seed treatments may be necessary for 

proper germination. Treatments include sowing 

fresh seed, cold-moist stratification, warm-moist 

stratification, cold-dry stratification, inoculation, 

scarification, light treatment, and vegetative 

propagation. Treatment methods are briefly 

described below:

a. Sowing fresh seed works well for most 

spring flowering species. Seeds can be 

sown in flats to be set out when they 

have developed.

b. Cold-moist stratification can be 

accomplished by mixing seed with 

damp sand or vermiculite. The mixture 

is placed in a plastic bag and put into 

a refrigerator where the temperature 

is 34-40◦F. Species differ on how much 

time they need to be stratified; some 

will require 10 days, while others will 

require 120 days, but for most species 

60-90 days is typical (Kurtz 2001). Once 

the treatment is achieved, planting 

should take place in mid-spring when 

the outdoor temperature is warming up. 

Species that require stratification can 

also be sown directly outside in the fall.

c. Cold-dry stratification requires that dry 

seed be placed in a plastic bag and put 

into cold storage for a period of time.

d. Warm-moist stratification can be done 

by mixing seed with damp sand or 

vermiculite, then placing the seed in a 

plastic bag and warming it to 68-75◦F.

e. Scarification is the process of physically 

breaking down seed coats, so the plant 

embryo can take up water and begin 

to grow. Seeds can be scarified with a 

piece of sandpaper or by soaking in acid 

baths, which mimics the natural process 

of being eaten by an animal and broken 

down within the digestive system.

f. Inoculation of legumes with nitrogenfixing bacteria enhances growth (bacteria 

is applied to wet seed just before it is 

planted (Steffen 1997)). Full sunlight is 

needed for some seeds that require light 

to break dormancy and these species 

can be sown on the surface of a firm 

smooth seedbed. Some plant species 

have complex propagation requirements; 

for them, the above techniques must be 

combined in a particular pattern.
29 

g. Vegetative reproduction is the process of 

dividing roots and planting pieces of the 

parent plant to create other individuals.

Interseeding. Interseeding refers to the 

process of planting seed directly into existing 

vegetation without plowing or herbiciding. 

This method is preferred where there are 

many conservation species in an area to be 

preserved and can serve to increase diversity 

in the planting. Compared to plowing, 

plant establishment by overseeding takes 

considerably longer because of competition 

from existing plants. A seed mix will 

develop slowly over 4-5 years when a site 

is interseeded. A recommended approach 

for restoring a degraded fire-dependant 

ecosystem (such as a prairie or long-leaf pine 

forest) consists of conducting prescribed 

burns followed by interseeding with an 

appropriate seed mix (Kurtz 2001). For the 

Corps’ controlled fire management practices, 

refer to the fire regulations ER, ER 1130-2-540 

(http://www.publications.usace.army.mil/

Portals/76/Publications/EngineerRegulations/

ER_1130-2-540.pdf) (Corps Lakes Gateway 

2005). The primary benefits of interseeding 

include the relative ease with which 

many conservation species are restored, 

improvement in site quality, and the potential 

contribution to biodiversity conservation 

(Packard and Mutel 1997).

Mosaic seeding. This technique involves 

various seeding rates and species mixes 

for different sites within the restoration 

Long Leaf Pine Community, North Carolina
restored is covered by an invasive species, 

control of existing stands using applications 

of an appropriate herbicide should be the 

first step. Establishing a native planting may 

require ongoing surveillance and control of 

the invasive species. The ability to respond 

quickly, thus eradicating annual weeds before 

they go to seed, can make a significant 

contribution to invasive plant control.

During the first year of establishment, plants 

primarily develop roots and above ground 

growth is short. By contrast, weeds grow fast 

and tall in the first year; thus, mowing during 

this period will help the plants compete for 

light. However, it is important to set the 

mower at the correct height, above the top of 

the seedlings. Setting mower decks to low and 

scalping the ground with the blade will cause 

bare spots which open up the soil to erosion. 

Systemic herbicide treatments can be applied 

directly to unwanted herbaceous plant leaves 

or cut stems of brush and invading trees. 

Most common agricultural weeds that occur 

in a new planting will become reduced as the 

grasses and forbs develop. 

30 

area. It allows for adjusting the planting to 

correspond to topography and the plant 

community continuum found along moisture 

and slope gradients. Additionally, mosaic 

seeding can be used to increase botanical 

diversity. For example, planting more forbs 

in an area may allow species to survive that 

will not compete well with grasses. Planting 

in this manner allows for edge unevenness or 

patches to develop, which mimics a natural 

site and increases different types of habitat, 

resulting in greater faunal diversity.

Planting

A no-till drill specifically designed for seeding 

the fluffy seeds characteristic of native grasses 

is recommended for areas already established 

with plant communities (Figure 6). Native 

grass drills have double disk openers with 

depth bands and large-diameter drop tubes 

that don’t allow seed to hang up in the tubes 

(NRCS 2006). Planting the seed at the proper 

depth is critical for success. Proper seeding 

depth is 1⁄4 in. to 1⁄2 in. maximum (NRCS 2006); 

it is better to place the seed on the surface 

of the ground than for seed to be buried too 

deep. Conventional drills do not have depth 

bands or feed mechanisms that can handle 

fluffy seed. Cultipacker type seeders will not 

meter the fluffy seeds and are not as effective 

in proper seed placement (NRCS 2006). Soil 

and Water Conservation Districts rent these 

drills. A three-point broadcast seeder or a 

fertilizer spreader can be used and will cover a 

6-ft-wide strip. Care should be taken to ensure 

that the seed is spread uniformly. Once the 

seed is broadcast or drilled, the site should 

be harrowed lightly and rolled until the soil is 

firm; this will prevent the soil from washing 

away. A less favorable practice is disking the 

soil because it cuts the root biomass, causing 

a flush of growth. Then, eventual thinning of 

the above ground growth opens up the soil to 

weedy annuals (Manske 2006).

Invasive Species Control

Invasive species are also a concern in 

planting, maintenance, and management 

efforts. Executive Order 13112, signed 

by President Clinton on 3 February 1999, 

contains policy to prevent the introduction 

of invasive species, provide for their control, 

and minimize the economic, ecological, and 

human health impacts that invasive species 

cause. The executive order established the 

National Invasive Species Council (Federal 

Register 1999). Currently, there are 12 federal 

agencies on the council. The ramification of 

this executive order is support in the use of 

native plant species on federal land. Invasive 

species are tracked through the Corps’ OMBIL 

process. For the Corps’ regulations refer to 

http://corpslakes.usace.army.mil/employees/

policydfm?Id=invasives&Code=All.

Control of invasive species is critical for any 

type of planting work. Control methods 

include herbicide application, mowing, 

brush hogging, use of tree shears, burning, 

biocontrol, and grazing. If the area to be 
31 

Figure 6. A no-till drill is used for planting and interseeding an area, and causes minimal disturbance to existing 

plants (photo courtesy of Kurt Brownell).
32 

Tropical Forest Community, Hawaii
33 

CASE STUDIES 

OF IMPLEMENTED DESIGNS

Each of the chosen design elements will be 

exemplified by case studies and designs that 

relate biological, engineering, and socioeconomic attributes to each other. The 

examples chosen provide cost-effective and 

ecologically sustainable solutions. Examples 

were taken from projects across the country 

in multiple ecosystems. Design elements 

included:

• Climate Control – Sun, Shade, Windbreaks 

and Energy Conservation

• Reduction in Stormwater Runoff

• Planting that Stabilizes Soil and Slopes

• Bioengineering or biotechnical planting

•Geocells and geogrids with plants

• Riparian Corridors, Greenways, and Buffers

• Riparian Corridors versus Buffer Strips

• Riparian corridors

• Buffer strips

•Green Infrastructure and Self-sustaining 

Plantings for Water Conservation in the 

Environment

• Permeable Pavements

• Bioretention Features or Rain Gardens

• Constructed Wetlands

• Wetland Treatment Using Native Wetland 

Plants to Filter Discharge

•Native Plantings for Recreation and 

Aesthetic Enhancement

• Habitat Creation for Pollinators

• Dredged Material Plantings

• Phytoremediation and Reclamation

•Onondaga Lake

•Geddes Brook Wetland and Ninemile 

Creek

• Carbon Sequestration

• Living Shorelines and Nature-Based 

Protection from Storm Surge

• Plantings for Establishing Aquatic Habitat

Climate Control – Sun, Shade, Windbreaks and Energy Conservation

iTree is a program produced by David Nowak, 

a research forester with the U.S. Forest 

Service. Anyone from urban planners and 

designers to citizens can enter data into iTree 

to see what a particular tree contributes to 

reducing heating and cooling costs, pollution 

removal, and carbon storage. This program 

can be scaled up to do this for an urban forest 

or woodland. For example, the ecosystem 

services provided by street trees in Minneapolis 

eauate to a value of $15.7 million per year. At 

some point, iTree will be able to project future 

conditions; for example, incorporating future 

climate conditions and how they will shift the 

distribution of particular species (DeWeerdt 

2013) (http://www.iTreeTools.org). 

Reduce Stormwater Runoff

CITYgreen uses the TR-55 model developed 

by the US Natural Resource Conservation 

Service (NRCS), which is very effective in 

evaluating the effects of land cover/land 

use changes and conservation practices 

on stormwater runoff. Trees decrease total 

stormwater volume, helping cities to manage 

their stormwater and decrease detention 

costs. CITYgreen assesses how land cover, 

soil type, and precipitation affect stormwater 

runoff volume. It calculates the volume of 

runoff in a 2-year, 24-hr storm event that 

would need to be contained by stormwater 

facilities if the trees were removed. This 

volume multiplied by local construction 

costs calculates the dollars saved by the tree 

canopy. For more information go to http://

www.Americanforests.org and http://www.

davidsuzuki.org.
Planting to Stabilize Soil and Slopes

The Corps, the Agricultural Research Service 

(ARS), and others including Gray and Leiser 

(1989), Gray and Sotir (1996), Allen (1992-

2002), Shields (1981-2008), and Pollen and 

Simon (2005) have accumulated a large body 

of work and research in this area.

Bioengineering, also known as biotechnical 

planting, utilizes plants in specifically designed 

features to retain earth and prevent soil loss. 

This method can be used with plants as the 

main component or in combination with other 

earth-retaining structures to create attractive, 

cost-effective, and environmentally compatible 

solutions to slope stability. Both biological and 

structural elements must function together 

in an integrated and complementary manner. 

34 

Table 3. Classification of Slope Protection and Erosion Control Measures.

Category Examples

Conventional planting Grass seeding

Sodding

Transplants 

Woody plants used as reinforcements and barriers 

to water and soil movement

Live staking

Live fascines

Brushlayering

Branchpacking

Revetments with slope face plantings

Tiered structure with bench plantings

Woody plants grown in openings or interstices of 

retaining structure

Live crib walls

Vegetated rock gabions

Vegetated geogrid walls

Vegetated breast walls

Conventional structures not using plants

This can be an effective tool for projects on 

waterways and slopes. Biotechnical slope 

protection systems are generally more laborskill intensive than energy-capital intensive, 

allowing them to be useful in projects that 

have limited funding. These treatments can 

be composed of a mix of plants that are 

components of riparian plant communities and 

appropriate to the site. Biotechnical structures 

are used in landscape projects to stabilize the 

channel or shorelines, and to improve habitat. 

Structures that prevent degradation are often 

needed. Many techniques and structure types 

can be employed to achieve these objectives. 

It is important to select the techniques 

that best meet the project’s structural 

requirement (Table 3), site conditions (Table 4), 

in combination with plants that are locally 

available in the environment.

Bioengineering and biotechnical planting.

Plants are chosen for their ability to produce 

adventitious roots that can become established 

relatively quickly to provide a root mat that 

holds the earth together and prevents erosion. 

Appropriate riparian vegetation can often be 

obtained from local stands of species such as 

willow, alder, dogwood, and others. This stock 

is already well adapted to the climate, soil 

conditions, and available moisture in the area, 

and will therefore have greater survivability. 

Details illustrating bioengineering techniques 

using plants are shown in Figures 7, 8, and 9 

(Gray and Sotir 1996), and in Figure 10 adapted 

from Baker (2008).
Figure 10. Conceptual and installation details for an anchored reinforced vegetated system, showing a rolled highperformance turf reinforcement mat fixed in place with percussion-driven anchors, and vegetated with hydroseed. 

Holes were cut in HPTRM for existing tree seedlings (Baker 2008).

35 

Figure 7. Branch layering technique (Gray and Sotir 

1996). Figure 9. Turf reinforcement mat (TRM) with 

vegetation growing in it (Gray and Sotir 1996).

Figure 8. Livestaking for a slope or shoreline (Gray and 

Sotir 1996).
36 

Table 4. Suitability of Different Soil Bioengineering Methods Based on Soil and Site Conditions (from Gray and Sotir 1996).

Factor or 

Failure 

Process

Intensity 

or Type of 

Condition

Soil Bioengineering Methods

Live Staking Live Fascine

BushLayeringBranchPackingLive Crib 

Wall

Live Slope

Grating

Vegetated 

Geogrid or

Geocell

Slope gradient Steep X X N/A X X X

Moderate X X N/A X X X

Gentle X X N/A X

Slope height High X X X N/A X X

Low X X X N/A X X X

Soil depth Deep X X X X N/A N/A X

Shallow X X N/A N/A

Soil erodibility High X N/A X X

Moderate X X X N/A X X

Low N/A X X X N/A X X

Soil strength Moderate X X X N/A N/A N/A N/A

Low X X X N/A N/A N/A N/A

Slope type Cut X X X X X

Fill X X X X X X

Superficial 

erosion

X X X X X

Mass 

movement

Shallow X X X X X

Moderate X X

N/A = Not applicable.
37 

Figure 11. Roadbed constructed with geocell at Cunard, 

a National Park Service boat launch on the New River, 

West Virginia.

Figure 12. Planted geocell stabilizing the same road on 

the steep down-hill road shoulder.

Geocells and geogrids. An example of using 

geocell material with plants is shown in 

Figures 11 and 12. The roadway in these 

figures uses geogrid cells filled with gravel 

for the roadbed. However, the roadbed is 

also constructed on top of geogrid, which 

is a structural component holding a steep 

side slope in place on the down-hill side 

of the road shoulder (Figure 11). The black 

geogrid cells can be seen in the closeup view 

(Figure 12) with an assortment of plants 

growing from local seed recruitment within 

the wells. 
38 

Figure 14. On-site harvesting of all native plants to be used in the bioengineering project and 

workshop at El Dorado Lake, Kansas.

Figure 13. Existing conditions at Site #1 of the proposed biotechnical planting at El Dorado Lake. Note 

bank retreat landward of existing willows.

An example of a biotechnical planting project 

occurred at a workshop held at El Dorado 

Lake in Kansas. The sponsor of the workshop 

was the Tulsa District and several local 

groups volunteered to assist in the project. 

The first goal of this project was to arrest 

the erosion of the lakeshore. The shoreline 

retreat in some years was up to 20 linear 

feet of shore from the water’s edge, caused 

by erosion from wind fetch and wave action 

across the lake (Figure 13). The second goal 

was to demonstrate and install a number of 

different treatments using a large number 

of volunteers who learned the treatment 

methods. Four native tree species and several 

shrub species were harvested from different 

locations on the lakeshore, prepared and 

planted in several days in early March, while 

the plants were still dormant (Figure 14).

Treatment recommendations consisted of 

a breakwater constructed 15 ft from shore, 

which continued parallel to the shoreline in 

a smooth line to reduce the wave energy. A 

continuous breakwater could be broken so as 

to allow limited access to the shore and would 

serve to control shoreline boating impacts. 

Sprigging behind the breakwater with Water 

Willow, Justicia americana and Soft Rush, 

Juncus effuses landward also increased 

emergent plant biodiversity. Several different 

treatments were used for different reaches 

within the project. One reach consisted of a 

series of willow live fascine bundles starting 

at the land/water contact point for the winter 

pool, and cut back the slope to a 2H:1V slope, 
39 

and continuing with the fascine bundles 

planted parallel every 4 ft up the shoreline 

(Figure 15). Another treatment discussed and 

implemented was a brush mattress, which 

was livestaked into place with segments of 

the woody species as described by Allen and 

Fischenich (2000). The third treatment was 

brush layering, which utilizes willows placed 

perpendicularly into the bank, instead of 

parallel (Figure 16). Combinations of plants 

within the shoreline treatments consisted 

of Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis; 

Black Willow, Salix nigra; Sycamore, Platanus 

occidentalis; and Cottonwood, Populus 

deltoides. Other species available on the lake 

that were used were Alder species, Alnus 

spp.; Rough Dogwood, Cornus drummondii;

and Boxelder, Acer negundo. These were good 

species to plant at a slightly higher elevation 

because they mimic the plant zonation that 

occurs naturally.

Figure 17 is a photo taken in the fall of the 

same year, after plant establishment. The 

water level in the lake dropped to expose 

the cedar breakwater. The breakwater was 

removed, having served its purpose to 

dissipate the wave energy and protect the 

new plantings. Water level fluctuations at 

flood control reservoirs can vary greatly, so 

attention to this is critical for a successful 

project.

Figure 17. New plants sprouting 

from shoreline treatments 

6 months after planting at 

El Dorado Lake.

Figure 16. Brush layering, which utilizes 

willows placed perpendicularly into 

the bank (instead of parallel), being 

implemented at El Dorado Lake, Kansas.

Figure 15. Willow bundles being 

placed in four trenches running 

parallel to the shore. Cedar 

trees were staked offshore as a 

breakwater to dissipate wave 

energy before reaching the newly 

planted shoreline.
Riparian Corridors, Greenways, and 

Buffers

Riparian corridors and greenways are linear 

strips of vegetation adjacent to streams and 

rivers. A greenway can be a vegetated strip 

along any corridor or protected open space 

linking one area to another spatially. This 

linkage can be an important design feature 

for human use, and is even more critical for 

wildlife. In an urban stream restoration, the 

greenway serves different functions, such as 

protecting water quality by acting as a filter 

strip, protecting streambanks from erosion, 

enhancing wildlife habitats, and creating a 

movement and dispersal corridor. Greenways 

can play critical long-term roles as floodways. 

Linking the stream restoration project to a 

park or other natural area, connecting it to 

a network of greenways, or reconnecting 

areas of fragmented habitat, all maximize 

the potential of the greenway for wildlife 

usage. It can also provide opportunities for 

various recreational activities by creating 

walking or biking trails. Greenways enhance 

the human communities of which they are a 

part, enriching the quality of life by providing 

recreational opportunities, improving 

aesthetics, and increasing property values.

In a sustainable design, a limited amount of 

land may be available for the width of the 

greenway on both sides of the stream and 

existing incursions of conflicting land uses 

along the linear run of the project. However, 

the designer can utilize the principles and 

elements of design and plant communities 

to create plans that compensate for 

disturbances and look for opportunities 

to make linkages. Generally, the greenway 

should be a combination of native herbaceous 

plants, shrubs, and trees. Using a diversity 

of plants that would naturally occur in a 

specific native plant community is desirable. 

A healthy environment is usually the one with 

the greatest diversity of plant and animal 

life. One or more diverse plant communities 

that accommodate differing site conditions, 

aspects, and elevations can allow for the 

creation of various habitats and provide 

diversity. Market research indicates that the 

value of real estate lots where buffers were 

present is often 5% or more higher than the 

value of lots with no buffers present (Palone 

and Todd 1997).

Riparian Corridors Versus Buffer Strips

Riparian zones occur as transitional areas 

between aquatic and upland terrestrial 

habitats. Although not all riparian zones are 

well-defined, they generally can be described 

as long linear strips of vegetation adjacent to 

streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other 

inland aquatic systems that affect or are 

affected by the presence of water. Riparian 

zones typically comprise a small percentage 

of landscape, often less than 1%, yet they 

frequently harbor a disproportionately high 

number of wildlife species and perform a 

disparate number of ecological functions 

when compared to most upland habitats 

(Fischer and Fischenich 2000). Unfortunately, 

many riparian zones in North America do not 

function properly (e.g., they are degraded to 

the point where they do not protect water 

quality or provide the resources needed to 

make them suitable as wildlife habitat or 

as migration corridors). This degradation 

also negatively affects many of the other 

important functions and values these 

landscape features provide.

What is the difference between buffer strips 

and corridors? Riparian zones are most 

commonly referred to as vegetated buffer 

strips (e.g., riparian buffer strips) or as wildlife 

movement corridors (e.g., riparian corridors). 

These titles relate to the recognized purpose 

of the riparian zones are defined below.

Riparian buffers. A riparian buffer is a 

strip of vegetation that connects two or 

more larger patches of vegetation (i.e., 

habitat), and through which an organism 

will likely move over time (Figure 18). These 

landscape features are often referred to as 

“conservation corridors,” “wildlife corridors,” 

and “dispersal corridors.” Some scientists 

have suggested that corridors are a critical 

tool for reconnecting fragmented habitat 

“islands.” Multiple benefits from planting 

riparian corridors include:

• Stabilize shoreline by increasing soil holding 

capacity of plant roots

40 
• Filtration of nutrients and chemicals from 

runoff from adjacent agriculture and other 

land uses

• Slows runoff times into stream or river 

channel

• Can provide for high water storage throughout the system • Timing of native plant growth closely related 

to water events in an ecosystem

• Provide cover, habitat, and food for wildlife • Provide a migratory route for animals, birds, 

plants, and pollinators

• Provide air drainage along the change of 

gradient allowing for cooler temperatures

Buffer strip. A buffer strip islinear band 

of permanent vegetation adjacent to an 

aquatic ecosystem intended to maintain 

or improve water quality by trapping and 

removing various nonpoint source pollutants 

(NPSP) e.g., contaminants from herbicides 

and pesticides; nutrients from fertilizers; 

and sediment from upland soils) from both 

overland and shallow subsurface flow. Buffer 

strips occur in a variety of forms, including 

herbaceous or grassy buffers, grassed 

waterways, or forested riparian buffer strips. 

A buffer strip may provide habitat for a variety 

of plants and animals if sufficient land area 

is retained to meet the life-history needs of 

those species. Buffer strips may also function 

as movement corridors if they provide 

suitable connections between larger blocks of 

habitat. 

Figure 18. Riparian corridor with 

native plant communities. 41 
An example of a buffer strip project using 

a native shrub and tree plantings was 

completed at Dyess Air Force Base in Abilene 

Texas. Abilene receives approximately 10-

14 in. of rainfall per year. This project had 

several goals. Dyess staff wanted to improve 

the water quality of drainage water within 

ditches intercepted from buildings, roads, and 

runways. Another goal was to create a native 

habitat to pull birds of prey away from the 

flight line, in an effort to eliminate bird/jet 

collisions. A third goal was to reduce mowing 

and maintenance within the project bounds. 

This project included a research component 

examining the use of hydrophilic compounds 

in the establishment of native plantings with 

and without irrigation. Eight species of native 

tree and shrub species were determined 

to be appropriate for the area. The trees 

were planted in rows from the bottom to 

the top of the drainage channel and are 

ordered as such in the following list: Eastern 

Cottonwood, Populus deltoids; Black Willow, 

Salix nigra; Texas Walnut, Juglans microcarpa; 

Pecan, Carya illinoinensis; Netleaf Hackberry, 

Celtis riticulata; Chickasaw Plum, Prunus 

angustifoia; Western Soapberry, Sapindus 

drummondii; and Plateau Live Oak, Quercus 

fusiformus. Plants, acquired from an NRCS 

Plant Material Center, were planted on site 

over two growing seasons in 2005 and 2006. 

Existing plants were left on the slope due 

to the high number of native grasses and 

herbaceous plants along the drainage ditch. 

The following seed mix was inter-planted 

with a tractor and seed drill. This approach 

controlled soil erosion, and intercepted and 

absorb sediments and particulate pollutants 

from surface runoff. The strip width extended 

to the top of bank. In some areas, erosion 

gullies were repaired and planted with the 

seed mix and tree planting (Figure 19). Some 

of the grass species took several years to 

become established, and to grow up through 

the existing vegetation. Green sprangletop 

(Leptochloa dubia), for example, affords 

temporary cover until other perennial grasses 

become established. The seeding rate of 

18.78 lb/acre was recommended for “normaluse” areas such as those not receiving much 

traffic. Figure 20 shows plant establishment of 

cottonwoods and willows on the stream.

Figure 19. Eroded areas were repaired before planting the 

drainage channel with native trees, shrub, and the seed mix.

Figure 20. Tree establishment after two growing seasons within 

the buffer strip at Dyess Air Force Base.

42 
extended detention ponds, and wetlands. 

Their estimated costs are summarized in 

Table 5.

Permeable pavements are alternatives 

to impervious pavement systems. These 

systems allow stormwater to pass through 

voids within the pavement surface into an 

underlying stone reservoir where the water 

is temporarily stored or filtered and slowly 

released into the surrounding soil. The design 

Green Infrastructure and Self-sustaining 

Plantings for Water Conservation in the 

Environment 

Green infrastructure uses vegetation, soils, 

and natural processes to manage water 

and create healthier environments. Green 

infrastructure refers to the patchwork of 

natural areas that provides habitat, flood 

protection, and clean air and water at various 

scales. At the national or regional level, 

interconnected networks of park systems 

and wildlife corridors preserve ecological 

function, manage water, provide wildlife 

habitat, and create a balance between built 

and natural environments. At the urban 

level, parks and urban forestry are central 

to reducing energy usage costs and creating 

clean, temperate air. Lastly, green roofs, walls, 

and other techniques within or on buildings 

bring a range of benefits, including reduced 

energy consumption and dramatically 

decreased stormwater runoff. At all scales, 

green infrastructure provides real ecological, 

economic, and social benefits.

For more information, go to http://water.

epa.gov/infrastructure/greeninfrastructure, 

or http://www.asla.org/greeninfrastructure.

aspx.

There are a number of features that offer 

stormwater retention, water conservation, 

sediment reduction, and filtering. Small to 

large stormwater features include permeable 

pavement, wet swales, bioretention areas, 

Table 5. Summary of Estimated Costs per Impervious Acre Treated for Selected Stormwater 

Treatments.1 

Selected Treatment 

PreConstruction 

Costs2

Construction 

Costs3

PostConstruction 

Costs4

Average Annual 

Costs over 

20 Years5

Wet Swale $12,000 $30,000 $931 $3,031

Bioretention 

(suburban)

$9,375 $37,500 $1,531 $3,875

Bioretention (urban) $52,500 $131,250 $1,530 $10,718

Extended Detention 

Ponds (new)

$9,000 $30,000 $1,231 $3,181

Infiltration Practices 

w/o sand, vegetation 

(new)

$16,700 $41,750 $866 $3,788

Wet Ponds and 

Wetlands (3 acres 

treated)

$5,565 $18,550 $763 $1,969

1

 Adapted from: Draft Final Report (October 10, 2011), “ Costs of Stormwater Management Practices in 

Maryland Counties;” Dennis King and Patrick Hagan; University of Maryland Center for Environmental 

Sciences.

2

 Includes cost of site discovery, surveying, design, planning, permitting, etc.

3

 Includes capital, labor, material, and overhead costs, but not land costs.

4

 Combined annual operating, implementation, and maintenance costs.

5

 Does not account for developable land use opportunity costs.

is determined by a structural design analysis, 

which supports traffic loads. Permeable 

pavement is typically designed to treat 

stormwater that falls on the actual pavement 

surface area, but it may also be used to 

accept run-off from small adjacent impervious 

areas, such as impermeable driving lanes or 

rooftops. However, careful sediment control is 

needed for any run-on areas to avoid clogging 

of the down-gradient permeable pavement. 

43 
Permeable pavement has been used at 

commercial, institutional, and residential sites 

in spaces that are traditionally impervious. 

Permeable pavement promotes a high degree 

of runoff volume reduction and nutrient 

removal, and it can also reduce the effective 

impervious cover of a development site. 

Designers should evaluate existing soil properties during initial site layout, according to 

Figure 21. Gravel filled geogrid parking area at the 

National Park Service Headquarters in Glen Jean, West 

Virginia.

Figure 22. Detail of geogrid.

NRCS soil surveys and soil mapping. The structural design of permeable pavements involves 

consideration of four main site elements:

• Total traffic

• In situ soil strength

• Environmental elements

• Bedding and reservoir layer design

These pavements can be planted with a grass 

seed mix and maintained by mowing. They 

can be used in naturalized areas and native 

plants could be planted around the perimeter 

of the parking area. 

Figure 21 is a small overflow parking lot 

at the National Park Service, New River 

Gorge National River Headquarters in Glen 

Jean, West Virginia. The lot is designated 

by wood bollards around the perimeter. 

The surrounding native trees were left in 

place to provide shade for parked vehicles. 

The geotextile grid is filled with gravel and 

compacted (Figure 22) so the bearing capacity 

is much stonger than compacted gravel alone. 

This parking lot is approximately 20 years old 

and is relatively inexpensive compared to 

pavement.

Wet swales are a linear feature that provide 

runoff filtering and treatment by planting 

wetland plant communities that intercept 

runoff and shallow groundwater (typically 

less than 6 in. deep). The saturated soil 

and wetland vegetation provide an ideal 

environment for biological uptake, microbial 

activity, and gravitational settling of suspended 

sediments within water inputs to the system. 

These features link to other features within the 

natural or built environment, such as natural 

or manmade ponds, bioretention feature, and 

wetlands, etc. 

44 
Bioretention features or rain gardens are 

small water quality treatment channels or 

ponds used to capture and treat stormwater 

runoff from discrete impervious areas (e.g., 

less than 1-acre). These practices typically 

include natural systems, vegetation, and soils 

and may be interconnected to create a more 

natural drainage system (Figure 23). However, 

the design variants can be distributed 

throughout a project to provide stormwater 

management at the source unlike their 

structural relatives that are typically used as 

“end-of-pipe” treatment for larger drainage 

areas. The primary component is the 3-ft to 

4-ft filter bed, composed of a mixture of sand, 

soil, and organic material, which is the planting 

medium for the wetland plant community. 

During storms, the runoff temporarily ponds 

at 6-12 in. above the bioretention soil medium. 

The plants will take up some of the water, but 

most will be stored in the gravel underdrain, 

which serves as a sump. A geotextile filter 

fabric placed between the layer of the 

bioretention soil medium and the gravel is 

necessary to filter fines from the gravel sump, 

below which a perforated pipe can aid in the 

transport of water into a larger water feature. 

The gravel sump will store water until it is 

slowly released into the undisturbed soil, 

promoting greater groundwater recharge.

Figure 23. Bioretention drainage detail.

45 
Constructed wetlands are water 

impoundment structures that intercept 

stormwater run-off and then release it to an 

open-water system at a specified flow rate. 

These structures retain a permanent pool 

and usually have retention times sufficient 

to allow settlement of some portion of 

the intercepted sediments and attached 

nutrients/toxics. Wetlands are typically less 

than several feet deep and possess variable 

microtopography to promote dense and 

diverse wetland plant cover. Runoff from each 

new storm displaces runoff from previous 

storms, and the long residence time allows 

multiple pollutant removal processes to 

operate. The wetland environment provides 

an ideal environment for gravitational 

settling, biological uptake, and microbial 

Figure 24. Constructed wetland at Winfield, West Virginia.

activity. Designs can be composed of a series 

of wetland cells, which provide extended 

filtering and settling time for wetlands 

constructed for water quality issues. They 

can also be considered for use if there is a 

significant water volume to manage. The 

Corps has a long history of wetland creation 

and construction with many fine examples 

of wetland creation using dredged materials; 

(Landin et al. 1992), for restoration (Landon 

1995), and wetlands as mitigation features 

(Landin et al. 1992), and wetlands designed 

by Bailey at Winfield, R.C. Byrd, and Marmet.

A constructed mitigation wetland at Winfield, 

West Virginia (Figure 24) uses a native riparian 

plant community, to support a large number of 

avian species. This wetland was designed and 

constructed in 2004 as a part of the mitigation 

package for the Winfield Lock Enlargement 

Project on the Kanawha River. Tree species that 

were planted on the wetland shoreline are 

also found in the wooded riparian area in the 

background. The native grasses, herbaceous 

plants, and wetland shrubs were planted from 

a combination of seed mixes and plants. The 

wetland shrubs were planted from livestake 

cuttings from other wetlands in near proximity 

to this area. This area is monitored by a local 

birding club, which has maintained records of 

avian species since the wetland was planted.

Another example of a constructed wetland 

on a stream occurs at Marmet, West Virginia. 

This wetland was also part of the mitigation 

for a larger lock and dam replacement project 

46 
Figure 25. The wetland mitigation planting plan at Marmet, West Virginia. Plan by Pamela Bailey.

Figure 26. Constructed wetland conveying the Burning Springs 

Branch originating from the hills pictured in the background to 

the Kanawha River at Marmet (2013).

(Figure 25). All plantings were to be native 

trees, shrubs, and seed mixes composed of 

grasses and herbaceous plants. Initial botanical 

surveys indicated which species were present 

and dominant plant species. A plant rescue 

was undertaken before construction started at 

Marmet (described on page 66). 

An important aspect of this project was 

that some of the dominant tree and shrub 

species were also harvested on site as 

young seedlings and grown at the Alderson 

Plant Material Center. At the end of the 

construction phase at Marmet, these plants 

were returned and planted on the newly 

constructed landforms on site. The plants 

that the Plant Material Center grew were 

not commercially available on the market at 

the time this project was implemented. Reintroduction of the original genetic diversity 

of plant stock back onto the project site 

occurred instead of buying monoculture plant 

stock from a nursery. These plantings were a 

cost-effective alternative to planting the site 

with nursery-available species. A wetland 

was constructed on the Burning Springs 

Branch, a small stream that intersects the site 

(Figure 26).

47 
Wetland Treatment Using Native 

Wetland Plants to Filter Discharge

Wetlands can absorb nutrients such as 

nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) that run 

off farmlands in excessive amounts because 

of fertilizer and manure from livestock. The 

amount that a wetland can absorb varies 

depending on the type, size, plants, and 

soils. These are planting areas installed 

in shallow basins in which the material is 

treated by filtering through the constructed 

bed components, and through biological and 

biochemical reactions within the soil matrix 

and around the root zones of the plants. 

These features are excavated pits backfilled 

with engineered media, topsoil, mulch, and 

wetland vegetation designed to reduce the 

wastewater load due to biological interactions 

between the soil and plant components 

(Steiner and Watson 1993).

An example is the wetland treatment system 

currently in use at Alderson Plant Material 

Center, designed and constructed in 1998. The 

engineered design was based on the amount 

of employees (five people)/hours of use per 

day for a maximum loading of 160 gal per day, 

with an overall dimension of approximately 7 

by 20 ft. The treatment wetland was originally 

planted with wetland native plants such as 

iris, Iris spp. and lizard’s tail, Saururus cernus. 

Birds have deposited seed and presently 

other wetland species include Swamp Rose 

Mallow, Hibiscus moscheutos; native Silky 

Dogwood, Cornus amomum; and Water 

Figure 27. Treatment wetland septic system at the Plant Material Center in Alderson, West Virginia. In the 

background, the office building is visible to the left and a greenhouse and equipment barn are visible to the right 

(2013).

48 
Figure 28. Glade Creek Campground, a popular 

campground that offers low-impact sites that use 

existing plant communities to provide privacy and 

beauty.

Figure 29. Site detail – a kiosk and handmade stone 

bench at Glade Creek Campground. The native plant 

communities were left intact with as little disturbance 

as possible during construction.

Smartweed, Polygonum punctatum. The 

system is still functioning as intended and 

looks like a small patch of wetland shrubs 

(Figure 27) surrounded by a fence to prevent 

anything from walking through it.

Native Plantings for Recreational 

Features and Aesthetic Enhancement 

The National Park Service (NPS) showcases 

outstanding sustainable design that is 

enhanced by the natural environment 

and developed for recreational purposes. 

While many of the landscapes are famous, 

many others are obscure, little-known, 

and beautiful places. They offer active and 

passive opportunities for recreation and 

interpretation of the environment, and they 

showcase and preserve the natural beauty 

of their lands, which is the signature of 

this agency. Many new buildings feature 

vernacular architecture that blends into its 

surroundings, by building from local materials, 

or feature a historic style appropriate to a 

significant time period. Historic structures 

are preserved and interpreted to the most 

significant time period, as accurately as 

historic records depict. Sustainable and 

recycled materials are used to a high degree 

in all park features. Native plants and their 

communities are valued by the agency and 

interpretive programs and brochures feature 

plant information and ecological restoration 

efforts. NPS plant guidance stresses the use 

of only native plants and plant communities 

in design elements, with one exception. 

That exception is the use of historic plants 

in an accurate historical context, with the 

requirement that these plants are not easily 

spread by natural means so as to prevent any 

threat of potentially spreading them on lands. 

NSP also actively manages for invasive species 

that may be introduced by natural means. 

Glade Creek Campground was designed and 

built by NPS maintenance personnel in 1993 

(Figures 28 and 29).

49 
Creating Habitat for Pollinators

Pollination is defined as the transfer of pollen from one 

flower to another, which is critical for fruit and seed 

production in many plants. Plant-pollinator relationships 

are one of the keystones of healthy ecosystems. The 

angiosperms, or flowering plants, comprise about one-sixth 

of all described species and the insects about two-thirds 

(Wilson 1992). These groups therefore dominate the flora 

and fauna of the Earth’s land surface, and their interactions 

provide primary ecological services within terrestrial 

systems. Eighty-eight percent of angiosperms (flowering 

plants) require pollination, and plant phenology (structural 

characteristics) has co-evolved with the different types of 

pollinators (FAO 2008). There are many different pollinator 

groups, such as bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, birds, 

and bats. Pollinators transport pollen from the male anthers 

to female stigma, either of the same flower (autogamy) or 

different flowers (heterogamy). 

About 305 of the world’s food production comes from 

crops that depend on pollinators (Klein et al. 2007). Insect 

pollination is necessary for most fruits and vegetables 

including annual crops such as tomatoes, peppers, and 

strawberries, as well as tree fruits such as apples and 

peaches. In the United States, the economic value of all 

pollinator services for agriculture is an estimated $5.7 to 

$13.4 billion per year (Tang et al. 2005). Honeybees provide 

about 905 of managed pollination services; however, wild 

bees also add significant value to crops. For example, the 

annual contribution of wild pollination services in the United 

States is estimated at more than $3 billion annually (Losey 

and Vaughan 2006).

There is growing concern that pollination relationships are 

imperiled, as exemplified by Colony Collapse Disorder, which 

has caused recent large, unexplained death in domesticated 

PLANT KEY

Latin Name Common Name Flowering Period

A. Tillia americana Basswood April - June

B. Sassafras albidum Sassafras May - June

C. Cornus florida Flowering Dogwood May

D. Viburnum prunifolium Black Haw April - June

E. Leucothoe catesbaei Drooping Leucothoe April, May

F. Cercis canadensis Redbud April, May

G. Lindera benzoin Spicebush March - May

H. Iris spp. & Lilium spp. Iris and Lilies May - Aug.

I. Vaccinium vascillans Lowbush Blueberries May, June

J. Lonicera sempervirens Trumpet Honeysuckle June - Aug. 

Residential Landscape for Eastern Broadleaf Forest 

(Continental) Province

Plan by Pamela Bailey.

50 

Notes: Trumpet Honeysuckle will need to be planted on a trellis (this is 

shown as growing around the back entry of the house. Herbs, vegetables, 

and annual flowers planted in a garden, will extend the flowering season 

and attract many pollinators. 
51 

honey bees (Apis mellifera) – the most 

important pollinator of domestic crops and 

many wild plants. Additionally, numerous 

pollinating insects are listed as threatened 

or endangered species (TES), including 23 

species of butterflies, 2 species of moths, 

and 1 species of beetle. Loss of species from 

within networks of co-dependent plants 

and pollinators can exacerbate decreases in 

pollination services by triggering vortexes of 

linked extinctions. Due to the rapid decline 

in pollinators and the loss of biodiversity of 

native habitats, it is critical to provide linkages 

of native species habitats to isolated landform 

areas (islands). Native plant communities will 

provide native pollinators with appropriate 

habitat and food sources on public and 

private lands. 

One can make a difference and increase pollinator habitat by providing plants that create 

habitat for pollinators. The requirements 

for pollinators include flowering plants that 

produce nectar, pollen, and shelter. While 

pollen is a critical component of pollinators’ 

diets, supplying protein, the market has 

produced plants that have been genetically 

altered to minimize pollen because the pollen 

is “messy” according to some seed suppliers. 

Companies that sell open pollinated seeds 

and non-hybridized plants should be sought 

out when purchasing seeds and plants. 

Nectar is the carbohydrate source and also a 

necessary component within pollinator diets. 

Clean water is another necessary component 

of pollinator habitat and it should be placed 

PLANT KEY

Latin Name Common Name Flowering 

 Period

A. Tillia americana Basswood April - June

B. Cornus florida Flowering Dogwood May

C. Sambucus canadensis Black Elderberry June, July

D. Amelanchier arborea Downy Serviceberry March, April

E. Physocarpus opulifolius Eastern Ninebark May - July

F. Cercis canadensis Redbud April, May

G. Rhus aromatica Aromatic Sumac April, May

H. Vaccinium macrocarpon Cranberry April, May

I. Lindera benzoin Spicebush March - May 

J. Rosa rogosa Rogosa Rose June - Aug.

K. Perennial flowers: May - Sept

  Erigeron spp., Iris spp., 

  Lilium spp., Monada 

  spp., Phlox spp., and

  Tradescantia virginiana 

Notes: The perennial flowers can extend the flowering season 

and attract later season pollinators.

in an area pollinators can access without 

drowning. Butterflies need mud to obtain 

minerals from the soil. Shelter is critical in 

providing pollinators with protection from 

predators, wind, weather, and roosting and 

nesting sites. Dead trees and hollow stems of 

vegetation can provide important shelter.

Anderson et al. (2010) produced a booklet 

that is a compendium of landscape designs 

and seed mixes for each of 10 ecoregions 

across the country. The featured plant lists 

of native plant species were developed by 

the Pollinator Partnership and NAPPC (www.

pollinator.org) and other regional native 

plant information in press. Native plants 

chosen are incorporated into design sketches 

for plantings around housing, and planted 

islands for green areas along roadways and 

on unused land. The design sketches are 

generic in nature (using generic footprints 

for the buildings), so a contractor can use 

the sketches as an appropriate planting 

and adapt it to existing buildings of varying 

floor plan footprints. For each area of the 

country, there is a typical sketch of a housing 

landscape plan, a typical island planting, and 

a seed mix suitable for use on larger area 

plantings or restoration sites. The plans/

plantlist and seed mixes also feature native 

plants that bloom during different months. 

As an example, the Eastern Broadleaf Forest 

(Continental) Province Ecoregion was chosen 

as an illustration. 

Island Landscape Plan 

 for Eastern Broadleaf Forest 

(Continental) Province

Plan by Pamela Bailey.
52 

Planting with Dredged Materials

Another compelling restoration project is 

located in Kellogg, Minnesota, where the 

Operations Manager of the St. Paul District 

developed the concept for constructing a 

native prairie by using dredged material 

deposited on a placement site to mimic the 

natural landforms of adjacent Sand Prairies. 

The first project, Wabasha Prairie (29 acres), 

was created in 1999. The second Corps site to 

use this concept was the West Newton Chute 

(WNC), a 150-acre site owned by the Corps, 

adjacent to the Weaver Dunes Scientific and 

Natural Area. The Weaver Dunes complex 

includes thousands of acres of sand dunes 

adjacent to the Mississippi River that are 

a mix of agricultural lands and native sand 

prairie communities. Publicly owned areas 

of the dunes are managed by the Minnesota 

Department of Natural Resources and The 

Nature Conservancy. 

This WNC project resulted from the need to 

transfer 1.3 million yd3

 of dredged materials 

from a temporary placement site within the 

Mississippi River floodplain to a permanent 

location. The St. Paul District acquired the 

150-acre former agricultural field in the early 

1990s and allowed the land to go fallow. The 

District worked on the dredging, transport, 

and placement of dredged material to 

the site. The District Landscape Architect 

prepared the grading plan for the site and 

the District Natural Resource Specialist was 

responsible for the planting of the prairie. 

Plant inventories conducted on the project 

site in the fall of 2002 and spring of 2003 

identified more than 50 native sand prairie 

species that had become established naturally 

when the site was allowed to go fallow. It was 

decided to strip the topsoil containing this 

seed bank and use the soil as containment 

berms during the hydraulic placement of 

dredged material. Following construction of 

the sand dunes, 18 in. of stockpiled topsoil 

was spread back onto the site. Concurrent 

with this, the District partnered with The 

Nature Conservancy to mechanically harvest 

seeds from their lands as well as hand collect 

seed using volunteers (Figure 30). First, a 

total of 32 species of local ecotype seed was 

acquired for the project. A contractor planted 

47 species and an additional 13 species were 

hand-planted by volunteers, for a total of 60 

species. The site was completed in 2005. The 

West Newton Chute sand prairie is monitored 

and managed by the St. Paul District. Since 

being planted, the site has had intrusion 

by two undesirable species: cow vetch and 

cottonwood trees. The cow vetch was studied 

and controlled by a District employee in 

partnership with DOW Agro Sciences. The 

cottonwoods seeded in naturally, but were 

limited to about 30 to 50 trees for the total 

acreage. The first prescribed burn was 

conducted last May, after the seventh growing 

season for the newly established sand prairie 

(Figure 31). This event restored the natural 

fire cycle to the prairie, which is a firedependant ecosystem. The fire cycle helps to 

Figure 30. Volunteers harvesting seed from the adjacent 

sand prairie, to be planted on the Corps site. (Photo by 

Kurt A. Brownell, natural resource specialist.)

Figure 31. The sand prairie is a fire-dependant 

ecosystem and prescribed fire is a management tool 

used to maintain and restore plant diversity

Figure 32. The site was a showplace of color after the 

first prescribed burn in 2013.
53 

further control the undesirable species while 

increasing the diversity within the native plant 

community. The sand prairie was a showplace 

of color during the summer of 2013 (Figure 32) 

and prescribed fire will continue to be used as 

a maintenance tool in the future.

Phytoremediation and Reclamation

Often the surface soil chemistry must be 

changed to allow the site to be reclaimed and 

planted; this series of techniques is referred 

to as phytoremediation. Phytoremediation 

is the use of living green plants for in situ 

reduction and/or removal of contaminants 

from contaminated soil, water, sediments, and 

air. Specially selected plants are used in the 

process. Reduction can be through a process 

of removal, degradation or containment of 

a contaminant, or a combination of any of 

these factors. Phytoremediation is an energyefficient method of remediating sites with 

low to moderate levels of contamination and 

it can be used in conjuction with other more 

traditional remedial methods. Rhizofiltration 

is a plant mechanism to allow a plant’s 

root system to clean up contaminated 

groundwater. The roots are then harvested 

and disposed of safely. Another method is 

phytostabilization, which uses certain plants 

to immobilize poisons in the soil and water. 

They are accumulated in the roots, absorbed 

on the roots, or held in the rhizosphere. This 

prevents migration into the groundwater 

or air, and also reduces the bioavailability 

of the contaminant, thus preventing spread 

through the food chain. Phytodegradation 

is the breakdown of organic contaminants 

by metabolic processes driven by the 

plant. As the plant metabolizes, the organic 

compounds break down into smaller units 

that can be absorbed by the plant. Once the 

soil is cleaned up with phytoremediation 

techniques, soil amendments can be added 

(according to soil tests) to adjust the soil 

before the site can be planted with a native 

plant community.

Onondaga Lake was chosen as an important 

case study because it was a superfund 

site, featuring an extensive cleanup and a 

number of restoration projects. The lake is 

roughly 4.5 miles long and 1 mile wide and is 

located in Central New York, next to the city 

of Syracuse. Currently, it is going through an 

extensive process of restoration. Centuries 

ago, the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, 

and Mohawk Nations were brought together 

on the shores of Onondaga Lake, where 

these warring nations accepted a peace 

treaty between them, and they formed the 

Haudenosaunee Confederacy – the first 

representative democracy in the West. The 

lake became a sacred place, one that must be 

cared for and respected, and the Onondagas 

were good stewards of the Lake until New 

York State took control of the lake and its 

surrounding areas. 

This lake has been polluted since the mid19th century from industrial sites, including 

sediments, nutrients, the most prevalent 

being ammonia and phosphorus, and 

other toxins including mercury, chlorinated 

benzenes, BTEX compounds, PCBs, and PAHs. 

The Solvay wastebeds ring the southwest 

end of Onondaga Lake. In 1884 Honeywell’s 

predecessors began producing soda ash on 

the lakeshore. Roughly 6 million lb of salty 

wastes, made up of chloride, sodium, and 

calcium were discharged daily to Onondaga 

Lake from the soda ash facility before it 

closed in 1986. Additional dumping created 

the Solvay wastebeds, which continued to 

leach toxins into the lake. Onondaga Lake was 

deemed a Super-fund site as a result a lawsuit 

brought by Atlantic States Legal Foundation, 

which forced Onondaga County and other 

parties to clean up the pollution in the lake 

and surrounding shorelines. 

Water quality improvement and many 

restoration projects have been implemented 

in this effort to clean up Onondaga lake 

water quality and shorelines. The Onondaga 

Lake Habitat Restoration Plan includes 

new wetlands, shoreline improvements, 

and a robust habitat layer for the bottom 

of the lake where remediation is required. 

Onondaga Lake Park has become the most 

popular park in Central New York, hosting 

over 1 million visitors annually. The park 

features paved, vehicle-free trails; a legacy 

of history reflecting community growth; 

special events, sporting competitions, and 

festivals. A 7-mile stretch of shoreline nooks 

and crannies provides tremendous options 

for family picnics, including developed areas 
54 

in Willow Bay and Cold Springs. A current 

green Infrastructure project includes installing 

rain barrels to redirect stormwater from 

the sewage system. The work also includes 

installing rain gardens meant to soak up extra 

water and planting trees. In Solvay, a 3.2-acre 

site at the Solvay Youth Center, the actively 

eroded hillside will be stabilized and terraced, 

designed stormwater controls will be installed 

to manage runoff, and native shrubs and grass 

will be planted to stabilize soil.

Geddes Brook wetland and Ninemile 

Creek. Another component is the ongoing 

restoration at Geddes Brook wetland and 

Ninemile Creek. This area is being remediated 

and restored under the Comprehensive 

Environmental Response, Compensation, and 

Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). The combined 

area of the restored creek and wetland 

complex is currently about 22 acres, but will 

be closer to 40 acres upon completion in 

2014. Prior to remediation, the Geddes Brook 

wetland was a phragmites-dominated elevated 

wetland with ground surface elevations 2 to 3 

ft above the adjacent creek water surface. A 

utility berm split the wetland in half, isolating 

the eastern and western portions. Geddes 

Brook, located on the eastern portion, had 

been historically dredged and channelized, 

isolating the stream from the surrounding 

wetlands.

Remedial efforts completed in 2012 consisted 

of removing mercury-impacted sediments and 

restoring the site by creating a diverse wetland 

complex. The western half of the site was 

54 

Before being remediated and restored under CERCLA

After being remediated and restored under CERCLA

54 
555 

re-graded to form several shallow and deep 

emergent pools separated by low-lying ground 

areas that form numerous edge communities. 

The water levels in wetland pools are 

maintained at a relatively constant elevation by 

retaining precipitation and groundwater using 

a continuous riparian corridor berm along the 

bank of Ninemile Creek. The eastern portion 

was re-graded to create a sinuous Geddes 

Brook channel that feeds channel grade pools 

with adjacent shallower perched wetlands. 

Geddes Brook floods these areas during 

significant rainfalls and spring snow-melt. The 

eastern floodplain also has a riparian corridor 

berm along Ninemile Creek. The entire wetland 

riparian corridor is designed to be periodically 

flooded by Ninemile Creek at approximately a 

once-per-year interval.

Ninemile Creek was restored by creating 

backwater emergent wetlands and higher 

ground forested wetlands, surrounded by 

uplands. The forested wetland was created 

by channeling stormwater into an elevated 

depression adjacent to an emergent backwater 

wetland. Ninemile Creek was rerouted and 

reconstructed using crib walls and root wads 

along high erosion banks.

The grading and planting designs for both 

sites were developed to reduce the potential 

for phragmites to return as the dominant 

wetland species. Native persistent and nonpersistent plants were installed in the pools. 

The areas above the water line along the 

edges were planted with shrubs and trees as 

Geddes Brook Wetland

Before construction, Photo by Ray D. Hollander

During construction, Photo by Ray D. Hollander

After construction, Photo by Mark A. Arrigo

well as a native herbaceous plant seed mix. 

Fast-growing native trees (e.g., black willow) 

were planted to effectively act as a short-term 

woody cover to help suppress re-invasion 

by phragmites while allowing longer-lived 

hardwoods (e.g., swamp white oak) grow 

to maturity. A wide variety of native trees 

and shrubs were planted at a high density 

to ultimately achieve a closed canopy while 

still providing the species necessary for early 

forest succession stages. Species were also 

selected to lessen the effects of known disease 

and insect problems, as well as the possibility 

of future climate change (e.g., bald cypress 

instead of green ash).

Substantial large woody debris was also 

installed in the Geddes Brook and Ninemile 

Creek restoration areas to further enhance 

habitat value. The woody debris was 

anchored with boulders and was partially 

buried to prevent floating. Floating debris 

piles were constructed by installing closelyspaced vertical logs and dropping crossed 

logs between them. The lateral resistance and 

friction between the vertical and horizontal 

logs successfully retain these woody debris 

piles during flooding without the use of cables 

or anchors. This project is a collaborative 

effort by a number of researchers and 

scientists from the State University of New 

York College of Environmental Science and 

Forestry (SUNY-ESF); Exponent; Terrestrial 

Environmental Specialists, Inc.; and Anchor 

QEA, and Parsons. 

55 
Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is the capture and 

long-term storage of carbon dioxide (CO2). 

CO2

 naturally captured from the atmosphere 

by biological, chemical or physical process, 

and measured as a rate of carbon uptake per 

year. The long-term storage of carbon in plantmaterials or sediment, is measured in terms 

of the total weight of carbon stored. Carbon 

sequestration through biological processes 

affects the world’s carbon cycle and includes 

peat formation, agricultural plants and soils, 

re-forestation, wetlands, coastal blue carbon, 

and other ocean processes. Plants incorporate 

atmospheric CO2

 into biomass through 

photosynthesis and plant growth. 

A carbon sequestration model such as 

CITYgreen’s carbon module quantifies the 

56 

role of urban forests in removing atmospheric 

carbon dioxide and storing the carbon. Based 

on tree attribute data on trunk diameter, 

CITYgreen estimates the age distribution of 

trees within a given site and assigns one of 

three age distribution types. Type I represents 

a distribution of comparatively young trees. 

Type 2 represents a distribution of older 

trees. Type 3 describes a site with a balanced 

distribution of ages. Sites with older trees 

(with more biomass) are assumed to remove 

more carbon than those with younger trees 

(less biomass) and other species. For forest 

patches, CITYgreen relies on attribute data 

on the dominant diameter class to calculate 

carbon benefits. Each distribution type 

is associated with a multiplier, which is 

combined with the overall size of the site and 

the site’s canopy coverage to estimate how 

Figure 33. Carbon storage abilities of different habitat types (Source: Murray et al. 2011).

much carbon is removed from a given site. 

The program estimates annual sequestration, 

or the rate at which carbon is removed, and the 

current storage in existing trees (reported in 

tons). Economic benefits can also be associated 

with carbon sequestration rates using whatever 

valuation method the user feels appropriate 

http://www.Americanforest.org.

Another example is coastal blue carbon 

which is carbon captured by living coastal 

and marine organisms and stored in coastal 

ecosystems, such as salt marshes, mangroves, 

and seagrass beds (http://www.habitat.

noaa.gov/coastalbluecarbon). These types of 

habitat are known as carbon sinks because 

they absorb large quantities of CO2

 and 

contain large stores of carbon accumulated 

over hundreds to thousands of years. Current 

studies suggest that mangroves and coastal 

wetlands annually sequester carbon at a 

rate two to four times greater than mature 

tropical forests and store three to five times 

more carbon per equivalent area than tropical 

forests (Figure 33). Most coastal blue carbon 

is stored in the soil, not in above-ground 

plant materials (biomass), as is the case with 

tropical forests. Although coastal habitats 

provide a great service in capturing carbon, 

their destruction poses a great risk. When 

these habitats are damaged or destroyed, 

not only is their carbon sequestration 

capacity lost, but stored carbon is released 

and contributes to increasing levels of 

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. As 

a result, damaged or destroyed coastal 
habitats change from being net carbon sinks 

to net carbon emitters (Murray et al. 2011). 

Unfortunately, coastal habitats around the 

world are being lost at a rapid rate, largely 

due to coastal development.

Living Shorelines and Nature-Based 

Protection from Storm Surge

Biological structures such as salt marshes, sea 

grass beds, and coral reefs attenuate waves 

and as a result, provide coastal protection from 

the damages caused by flooding and storm 

events (Koch et al. 2009). This is becoming a 

critical service in many regions because of the 

increased risk of flooding and storm events – 

both in terms of frequency and severity. Salt 

marshes play a leading role in intertidal areas, 

dissipating wave and tidal energy, thereby 

reducing the cost of flood defense measures. 

They also absorb huge amounts of water 

when inundated and then slowly release it 

afterwards, which can also prevent flooding. 

The Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory at 

ERDC has published many papers and models, 

which address storm surge issues as a result 

of recent hurricanes and coastal catastrophes. 

One paper describes how wetlands can 

significantly reduce storm surge (Wamsley 

et al. 2010). Another paper examines 

storm surge and wave reduction benefits 

of different environmental restoration 

features (marsh restoration and barrier island 

changes), as well as the impact of future 

wetland degradation on local surge and wave 

57 

conditions (Wamsley et al. 2009). A recent 

study (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 2013) 

provided nature-based shoreline solutions as 

a response to Hurricane Sandy. 

Shorelines are often stabilized with 

hardened structures, such as revetments 

and concrete seawalls. However, these 

structures often increase the rate of coastal 

erosion, remove the ability of the shoreline 

to carry out natural processes, and provide 

little habitat for estuarine species. NOAA 

is working to implement a more natural 

bank stabilization technique called “living 

shorelines.” Living shoreline projects utilize 

a variety of structural and organic materials, 

such as wetland plants, submerged aquatic 

vegetation, oyster reefs, coir fiber logs, sand 

fill, and stone (Luscher and Hollingsworth 

2005, Moon 2007, Hardaway et al. 2010). This 

approach provides shoreline protection and 

reduces erosion, maintains valuable habitat, 

improves water quality and clarity, provides 

an attractive natural appearance, and can 

provide recreational use areas (Figure 34). For 

more information, go to http://www.habitat.

noaa.gov.

Figure 34. Section of coastal shoreline continuum and living shoreline treatments. Adapted from Burke 

Environmental Associates.
Interest in this topic has recently increased 

as a result of climate change. Parameters to 

measure storm impacts include: 1) shoreline 

change rate, 2) dune height, 3) beach width, 

and 4) combined geomorphology index. Under the Shepard classification system (1948), 

coastlines are classified according to the 

physical and geological processes responsible 

for the formation and present configuration of 

the coast. These processes also continue to 

act on and shape both natural and manmade 

features in the coastal environment. Understanding these processes and combining 

them with detailed descriptions of the plant 

community associations located in the appropriate landform and at the correct elevation, 

will be important to engineers and scientists 

involved in the design and construction of 

nature-based solutions for coastal storm 

Figure 35. Conceptual cross‐shore profile of the barrier coast type. Note the barrier feature can be a barrier island 

or a spit.

protection (Figure 35). Protective coastal 

landscape features include barrier islands, 

shorelines, dune complexes, wetlands, and 

maritime forest communities.

Dune complexes are formed in the supratidal 

zone along wide sandy beaches with 

significant wind action to blow sand landward, 

where it accumulates generally above 

the spring high tide level. Well-developed 

dune complexes may include foredunes 

immediately adjacent to the beach, secondary 

and even tertiary dunes, and interdunal areas 

that may trap water, creating small wetland 

and/or open-water areas. Typically the dune 

complex is characterized only by natural or 

artificial foredunes possibly bordered to the 

landward side by a small marshy area. Above 

the spring high tide level, vegetation can 

colonize the sand accumulations, reducing 

the wind shear and leading to further 

accumulation of wind‐blown sand. Vegetation 

stabilizes the sand deposits, creating higher 

and steeper dunes than if no vegetation 

were present (Bird 2008). Dune heights vary 

parallel to shore depending on variations in 

wind or sediment supply, frictional elements 

such as vegetation, or structures such as 

fencing. Dunes tend to migrate landward 

under the constant influence of coastal winds 

and occasional storms that can produce surge 

and wave runup that exceed the high tide 

level. If runup is significant, the foredunes 

and/or dune complex may be overwashed or 

breached, leading to a washover fan. 

Islands offer protection to the coast and 

coastal inland development. Islands can 

occur in all coast types excluding the beach 

plain. However, the origins of islands differ 

for each coast type and the different settings 

lead to differing drivers of form and function. 

The islands are natural features; however, 

properly placed and constructed artificial 

islands can perform the same functions 

and behave as natural islands. The barrier 

island is one of the defining features of 

barrier coast types. Natural barrier islands 

are characterized by seaward to landward 

progression of beaches, dune complexes 

consisting of foredunes and perhaps 

secondary and tertiary dunes with interdunal 

areas that may contain small wetland and/

or open-water areas, finally transitioning to 

a barrier flat area that is typically vegetated 

58 
59 

with grass and shrub communities. Estuarine 

fringe wetlands dissected by tidal creek 

networks occur at lower elevations. Dunes are 

stabilized by native beach grasses and shrub 

communities. Since barrier islands/spits are 

dynamic systems, planting native dune plants, 

such as grasses and shrubs will allow for the 

adaptive capacity of these systems and make 

them far more resilient to coastal storms and 

sea level rise. 

Establishing Native Aquatic Plants to 

Improve Aquatic Habitat

The following case study was provided by 

Gary Owen Dick and Lynde L. Dodd,USACE 

ERDC EL,Lewisville Aquatic Ecosystem 

Research Facility, Lewisville, Texas. Aquatic 

plants are often overlooked as critical 

components of healthy aquatic ecosystems. 

Aquatic and riparian plants provide valuable 

habitat (food and cover for invertebrates, 

fish, and other wildlife), improve water clarity 

and quality, reduce shoreline erosion and 

sediment resuspension, and help prevent 

spread of nuisance exotic plants (Engel 1988, 

James and Barko 1990, Killgore et al. 1991, 

Doyle and Smart 1993, Thorp et al. 1997, 

Barko and James 1998, Dick et al. 2004). 

These qualities contribute significantly to 

ecosystem health and function, which in turn 

improve the value of the waterbody as a 

natural resource. 

Inland waterbodies in the United States 

include reservoirs, large and small lakes, 

permanently inundated wetlands, ponds, 

and riverine systems. Waterbodies exhibiting 

poor ecosystem health often exist in one 

of three conditions interrelated to aquatic 

plants: (1) they completely lack native 

aquatic plants, (2) they support native 

plant communities that are insufficient to 

provide system-wide benefits, or (3) they are 

infested with nuisance species that cause 

both environmental and water use problems. 

Corrective measures can be undertaken 

through a combination of management 

techniques (as needed to address specific 

issues) that may require introductory 

establishment of plants, enhancement of 

existing plant communities, and management 

of nuisance species. 

An example of the third condition occurred 

in Lake Lamar, Texas, located on a Texas 

Army National Guard (TXARNG) training 

site in Lamar County, Texas. The lake was 

constructed in 1942, has a surface area 

of 43 acres, and is filled by runoff from a 

small, forested watershed with potentially 

long retention time. Much of the lake is 

littoral, with aquatic vegetation occurring 

in about 30 acres, historically dominated by 

several beneficial native species. However, 

infestations of two nuisance species, Eurasian 

watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) 

and American lotus (Nelumbo lutea), 

occurred in the mid-2000’s and required 

management. Watermilfoil, an introduced 

species, has plagued U.S. water bodies since 

its introduction in the 1940’s. Lotus, while 

native, can become aggressive in shallow 

waterbodies, and sometimes requires 

management. As surface canopy-forming 

species, these two have the potential to 

deleteriously alter ecosystems, resulting in 

degraded aquatic habitat (Smart et al. 2009). 

A combination of two survey methods was 

employed in early 2007 to accurately assess 

the lake’s vegetation community: surface 

observation GPS (SOG) (Dodd-Williams et 

al. 2008) and point intercept rake sampling 

(Madsen 1999). The survey revealed that 

nuisance plants dominated over 95% of the 

vegetated acres. A management plan was 

then designed to shift vegetation community 

dominance from nuisance to beneficial 

native species, thereby increasing diversity, 

improving aquatic habitat, and increasing 

resilience against ecological disturbances. 

Herbicides, biological control agents, 

mechanical controls, and other management 

tools were considered for controlling 

watermilfoil and lotus. Emphasis on 

management tool selection was placed on 

minimizing damage to existing beneficial 

aquatic vegetation and species to be 

established in the lake. Herbicides (for 

both species) and mechanical management 

(for lotus) were selected because of the 

challenges of managing multiple nuisance 

species, especially when considering the 

need to minimize impacts on beneficial native 

species, and a lack of availability of reliable 
biological control agents for either nuisance 

species. 

Ultimately, an aquatic formulation of triclopyr, 

a systemic, broad-leaf herbicide was selected 

due to its ability to target undesirable species 

in the lake with minimal effect on desirable 

plants. It was also determined that postherbicide biomass (dead plant material) and 

any regrowth of lotus would be mowed using 

a boat-mounted sickle mower to improve 

light penetration and promote recovery of 

volunteer beneficial plants. 

Volunteer beneficial plants present in the lake 

included coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) 

and American pondweed (Potamogeton 

nodosus), but these dominated less than 

5% of the vegetation community. It was 

anticipated that triclopyr application would 

not impact these plants, and that removal 

of watermilfoil and lotus would reduce 

competitive interactions and enable growth 

and spread of the beneficial species. 

However, considering the low diversity of the 

existing assemblage and its susceptibility to 

invasion by undesirable plants, addition of 

beneficial species to the plant community was 

included in the project. Submersed, floatingleaved, and emergent aquatic plants native 

to the general area but not found in the lake 

were selected, collected locally, and produced 

guidelines developed by ERDC (Dick et al. 

2013). 

The lake was too large to apply full-scale 

plantings, so the project utilized the founder 

colony approach for establishing additional 

beneficial species (Smart et al. 1998). The 

approach is designed to accelerate natural 

processes of aquatic plant establishment 

and spread by planting colonies at strategic 

locations within a waterbody. The 

function of the colony is to overcome a 

major impediment to aquatic vegetation 

establishment: availability of propagules 

for natural spread. Continual provision of 

propagules (seeds, fragments, etc.) from 

founder colonies ensures that they are 

present when conditions are suitable for 

natural spread to occur. Founder colonies 

also provide immediate, localized habitat 

improvement (Figure 36). Exclosures are 

commonly used to protect founder colony 

plantings from herbivores such as waterfowl 

and turtles, and multiple plantings triggered 

by changes in water elevation are sometimes 

made to counter the effects of water level 

fluctuation (Dick et al. 2013).

Test plantings were made at three locations 

in the lake in early 2007, with 16 species of 

plants installed with and without protection 

to ascertain which of the additional plantings, 

if any, would require protection from 

herbivores. These test plantings formed 

the basis for founder colonies during later 

plantings. Triclopyr applications were made 

in September 2007, resulting in substantial 

removal of watermilfoil and lotus with little 

impact on volunteer and planted beneficial 

species. 

Watermilfoil was not detected in surveys 

conducted in spring 2008, although some 

lotus recovery from tubers and seed was 

observed. A boat-mounted sickle mower 

was used to cut surface growth. Additional 

plantings were made in founder colonies 

using information from test plantings, 

with most emergent species not requiring 

protection and most submersed species 

requiring protection, an occurrence common 

in aquatic restoration projects (Dick et al. 

2013). By the end of the 2008 growing 

season, watermilfoil had still not been 

observed and lotus was found in less than 10 

acres (with coverage in those acres less than 

10%). Remaining lotus was spot-treated with 

triclopyr. Most importantly, the ecosystem 

responded to management as anticipated, 

with beneficial native volunteers and founder 

colony plantings spreading to fill the niches 

left open by nuisance plant removal. 

Low levels of recovery of watermilfoil 

and lotus occurred in 2009 and 2010, but 

never exceeded 1 acre coverage and never 

dominated in any areas during that period. 

This was partly due to early detection/early 

response management: when infestations 

were noted, plants were removed by hand (in 

very shallow water) or spot-treatment with 

triclopyr. During the same period, beneficial 

native vegetation through maintained its 

dominance, and by the end of 2010 had 

grown to cover the previously vegetated 

acreage (30 acres) occurring in the lake. 

60 
The project showed the value of incorporating 

ecological principles into aquatic ecosystem 

management (an ecological approach): 

removal of nuisance plants coupled with 

filling the niche left open by planting 

beneficial plant species. While longer-term 

monitoring will provide more information 

regarding methods used in the project and 

the sustainability of results, it nonetheless 

demonstrated the feasibility of replacing 

nuisance species with beneficial species.

Figure 36. American water lily flowering and spreading beyond protective exclosures at a founder colony site. 

Stands of beneficial American pondweed (volunteer) and Illinois pondweed (planted) combine with lilies to 

dominate the vegetation community.

61 
Sagebrush Steppe Community, Washington

62
This section provides other resources of 

native plant data and other sources of plants 

for projects. The many other federal agencies 

and the Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA), 

which have different roles in the conservation 

of native plant communities, are briefly 

explained herein.

VegBank is the vegetation plot database of 

the Ecological Society of America’s Panel on 

Vegetation Classification. VegBank consists 

of three linked databases that contain (1) the 

actual plot records, (2) vegetation types 

recognized in the U.S. National Vegetation 

Classification and other vegetation types 

submitted by users, and (3) all plant taxa 

recognized by Intergrated Taxonomic 

Information System (ITIS)/U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) as well as all other plant 

taxa recorded in plot records. 

USDA PLANTS Database provides standardized information about the vascular plants, 

mosses, liverworts, hornworts, and lichens 

of the United States and its territories. It 

includes names, plant symbols, checklists, 

distributional data, species abstracts, characteristics, images, crop information, automated 

tools, other Web links, and references. This 

EXISTING DATABASES, SOURCES OF PLANT MATERIALS, 

AND EXPERTISE

information primarily promotes land conservation in the United States and its territories, 

but academic, educational, and general use 

is encouraged. PLANTS reduces government 

spending by minimizing duplication and 

making information exchange possible across 

agencies and disciplines. PLANTS is a collaborative effort of the USDA NRCS National Plant 

Data Center (NPDC), the USDA NRCS Information Technology Center (ITC), The USDA National Information Technology Center (NITC), 

and many other partners.

The Natural Resources Conservation 

Service (NRCS) Plant Material Centers

provide native plants that can be used to 

restore sites and help solve natural resource 

problems. Scientists at these centers seek 

out plants that show promise for meeting 

an identified conservation need and test 

their performance. A conservation need 

may include erosion reduction, water quality 

improvement, streambank protection, 

or pollinator habitat (Natural Resources 

Conservation Service 2005). Twenty-six Plant 

Material Centers located across the country 

(Figure 37) develop seed mixes and grow 

plants adapted to a particular region. After 

seed mixes and plants are certified through 

testing, they are released for commercial 

production. The work is carried out 

cooperatively with federal and state agencies, 

commercial businesses, and seed and nursery 

associations. 

The NRCS Plant Material Centers are willing 

to assist in development and storage of 

locally adapted seed mixes at a reasonable 

cost. For example, a successful partnership 

occurred during the Marmet Locks and 

Dam Replacement Project in West Virginia. 

The partners were the U.S. Army Corps’ 

Huntington District and the NRCS Plant 

Material Center in Alderson, West Virginia. 

A Memorandum of Under-standing (MOU) 

through the Economy Act, was signed by both 

agencies to harvest plants and propagules from 

six native plants on the proposed construction 

site at Marmet. These plants were grown at the 

plant material center for two growing seasons, 

and the 2-year-old young trees and shrubs 

were provided to the contractor for replanting 

at the Marmet site. The six chosen species 

were dominant native plant species within 

a riparian plant community on the Kanawha 

River, as indicated by initial botanical survey 

work, and all were unavailable commercially 

at the time. By growing the six species and 

63 
64 

Ask the grower about the location of the 

sources of the seeds or plants and maintain 

this information in records on the restoration 

project. Sometimes seeds and plants may not 

be available locally and it may be necessary 

to buy plants and seeds at a greater distance, 

but within the same ecosystem and having 

similar climatic conditions. If purchased 

plant stock is derived from tissue culture 

propagation, the genetic variability may be 

limited. It is necessary to ensure that the seed 

collection and propagation techniques allow 

for genetic variation for the seed to survive 

and reproduce.

A Public Works Technical Bulletin entitled, 

“Sources of Plant Materials for Land 

Rehabilitation” (USACE 2005) has been 

compiled. The US Forest Service has compiled 

the “Eastern Resource Directory for Native 

Plants,” which lists commercial nurseries for 

native plants (Dagnan 2004). The intent of 

these documents is to provide a listing of 

vendors; neither agency promotes a particular 

vendor.

Botanical Gardens and other ex situ facilities, 

such as seed banks, are artificial centers 

of species diversity and are among the 

most concentrated sites of species richness 

available (Guerrant et al. 2004). Botanic 

Garden Conservation International (BGCI) is 

a non-profit organization founded in 1986 to 

curb the threat to plant diversity worldwide. 

It is composed of 2,200 botanical gardens 

worldwide (Shepard 2005), representing 148 

countries. These botanic gardens hold 80,000 

species (Wyse 2001). 

Botanic gardens in many countries have 

developed seed banks for the storage of 

seeds, mainly wild species. As of 1998 there 

were 200 botanic gardens with seed banks 

(Botanic Garden Conservation International 

2005) maintained in long-term storage. Several 

botanic gardens have developed the capacity 

to store tissues under cryopreservation. 

Figure 37. Natural Resources Conservation Service. Plant Material Center Locations (from http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.

gov/centers).

returning these local ecotypes to their original 

site, genetic integrity was maintained after 

construction. 

Native Plant Commercial Nursery Production 

is increasing in areas around the country 

in an expanding market. For seed or plant 

sources, consider collecting or buying as 

close as possible to the restoration site, 

because these sources would be adapted 

to the soil, water, and climate of the region. 
65 

Within the United States, there are 76 botanic 

gardens. The Missouri Botanical Garden hosts 

the nonprofit Center for Plant Conservation 

(CPC), a national network of community-based 

institutions providing professional hands-on 

assistance to prevent extinction and achieve 

recovery of imperiled plants. The activities and 

scientific approach of the CPC have generated 

productive debate on the conservation role 

of botanic gardens (McMahan 1995) and the 

adoption of plant genetics as the guiding tool 

for botanic garden conservation activities 

(Center for Plant Conservation 1991, McMahan 

and Guerrant 1991). More information 

can be found at the CPC website: www.

centerforplantconservation.org (CPC 2006).

A large network of 3,240 herbaria located in 

165 countries are listed in Index Herbariorium, 

a compilation of herbaria available through 

the New York Botanical Garden (New York 

Botanical Garden 2006). In the United States, 

herbaria are associated with botanical 

gardens and universities. These collections are 

invaluable to botanists because they provide 

species information that can be used to verify 

specimens, location data of the specimen 

collected to compile range data for the 

species, and historic records of the species. 

Several herbaria offer on-line collections.

The Plant Conservation Alliance (PCA) is a 

consortium of 10 federal agencies (including 

Department of Defense) and over 290 

cooperating private organizations involved 

with native plant restoration and conservation 

in North America. The PCA provides a 

collaborative framework for linking resources 

and expertise in the development of sound, 

scientific projects. The organization responds 

to the World Conservation Union (ICUN) on 

the status of native plants in North America 

(World Conservation Union 2006). Its vision 

is “For the enduring benefit of the Nation, 

its ecosystems, and its people; to conserve 

and protect our native plant heritage by 

ensuring that, to the greatest extent feasible, 

native plant species and communities 

are maintained, enhanced, restored, or 

established on public lands, and that such 

activities are promoted on private lands.” 

More information about the PCA is available 

on their website at www.nps.gov/plants.

The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) 

for Federal Native Plant Conservation was 

originally signed on 25 May 1994, then 

extended until 30 September 2003 and 

now is being renewed at the turn of its 20th

year. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, 

Federal Highway Administration, Bureau 

of Land Management, USDA Agricultural 

Research Service, USDA Natural Resources 

Conservation Service, U.S. Geological Survey, 

and Department of Defense have signed 

the MOU in the past. The MOU represents 

the federal branch of the PCA, which is the 

Federal Native Plant Conservation Committee. 

PCA is a public/private partnership that 

accomplishes conservation by: (1) clearly 

communicating a broad-based, inclusive 
66 

message that encourages partnerships 

at all levels; (2) effectively leveraging the 

contributions of cooperators to accomplish 

on-the-ground projects for native plant 

restoration and conservation; and (3) actively 

consulting with partners in the development 

of sound, scientific projects conducted by 

communities for communities.

One such project is the “Seeds of Success,” an 

interagency program coordinated by the PCA 

that supports and coordinates seed collection 

of native plant populations in the United 

States to increase the number of species 

available for use in stabilizing, rehabilitating, 

and restoring federal lands. This is the first 

program in the United States to support longterm conservation storage of all common 

native plant species. PCA supports three types 

of seed collection: (1) collection of seed for 

the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew Millennium 

Seed bank; (2) collection of seed for the 

Agriculture Research Service Native Plant 

Germplasm Collection; and (3) collection of 

seed locally for specific rehabilitation and 

restoration projects. In each case, seeds are 

collected at the population level following 

the Seeds of Success protocol (U.S. Bureau of 

Land Management (BLM) 2004). Additionally, 

the BLM is quite active in the western states 

and operates a warehouse in Boise, Idaho 

with storage capacity for 1 million pounds of 

seed (PCA 2006). A number of native species 

of prairie grasses and sagebrush seed are 

available for restoration on their land and 

used for restoring areas within the Great 

Basin, including the endangered Great Basin 

Sagebrush ecosystem. 

Native Plant Societies are located in each 

state and memberships are often composed 

of professional and amateur botanists with 

knowledge of the state’s flora. The Eastern 

Resource Directory for Native Plants (US 

Forest Service 2004) also lists Native Plant 

Societies in each state and provides contact 

information. Most of these societies offer 

memberships at a minimal fee and have 

a number of scheduled events including 

field trips to various natural areas to view 

native plants. These various societies 

may be interested in entering partnering 

opportunities on restoration projects.

Native Plant Rescues. The purpose of 

participating in the native plant rescue is 

to save native plants from destruction. The 

event can be 1-day event or longer and be 

covered by a Memorandium of Agreement 

(MOA) if conducted with another agency or 

entity. If the site to be developed contains 

a number of plants that will be bulldozed, a 

plant rescue allows the Corps to have others 

come onto Corps lands to dig up plants that 

will be transplanted to another site with 

similar environmental conditions. An example 

of a successful native plant rescue was held 

at Marmet, West Virginia. The West Virginia 

Department of Natural Resources (WVDNR) 

was the entity that signed the MOA with 

the Corps. WVDNR came and harvested the 

plants from the site, and was responsible for 

transferring the plants to two school systems. 

The first school was Doddridge Middle School, 

at which a wetland mitigation project was 

planted on 5 acres of school grounds. The 

second school was Buffalo Elementary, which 

developed and planted a nature trail. Both 

of these school projects were educationbased projects that students were involved 

in; they planted the harvested plants at their 

respective schools. These projects were 

incorporated as components within the 

science curriculum. These plant resources are 

valuable resources, and they should not be 

carelessly destroyed. Plant rescues are a very 

cost-effective way of acquiring native plant 

communities for planting purposes. 
67 
68 

Dune Community, Hawaii
69 

Janean Shirley, Editor, ERDC

Case study information provided by:

• John Vandevender, NRCS Alderson Plant Material Center, West 

Virginia

•U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Huntington District, West Virginia 

• Sandra Stiles and Mark Masner, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

El Dorado Lake, Tulsa District, Oklahoma

• Steven Tapp and Kurt Brownell, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

St. Paul District, Minnesota

• Dyess Air Force Base, Abilene, Texas 

•National Park Service, New River Gorge National River, West Virginia

•Geddes Brook and Ninemile Creek: Ray D. Hollander and Mark A. 

Arrigo; Scientists from the State University of New York College 

of Environmental Science and Forestry (SUNY-ESF); Exponent; 

Terrestrial Environmental Specialists, Inc.; and Anchor QEA and 

Parsons

•Gary Owen Dick and Lynde L. Dodd, USACE ERDC EL, Lewisville 

Aquatic Ecosystem Research Facility, Lewisville, Texas

• Review provided by Julie Marcy, ERDC; Brian Ball and Rebecca 

Rutherford, Huntington District; and Steven Tapp, St. Paul District.

All photographs and landscape plans were produced by Pamela Bailey, 

unless otherwise noted in the text.

For additional information, contact Dr. Pamela Bailey (601-634-2380, 

Pamela.bailey@usace.army.mil) 

U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center

3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180

Graphic design provided by Pat Caldwell (601-634-2351) and Betty 

Watson (601-634-7171), Army Corps of Engineers – Information 

Technology (ACE-IT)

U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center

3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180

The Engineering With Nature Initiative lead is Dr. Todd Bridges 

(601-634-3626, Todd.S.Bridges@usace.army.mil). The assistant lead is 

Cynthia Banks (601-634-3820 Cynthia.J.Banks@usace.army.mil)

This technical design manual should be cited as follows:

Bailey, P. 2014. A Design Manual: Engineering with Nature Using 

Native Plant Communities. Engineering With Nature. Vicksburg, 

MS: U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

POINTS OF CONTACT
70 

Semi-arid Riparian Community, 

Snake River, Washington
71 

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Alpine Community, Washington
80 

Chihuahuan Desert, Arizona

Looking into Mexico
81 

APPENDIX A

Standard Field Form

National Vegetation Classification System, Nature Conservancy 1988
82 
83 
84 
85 

About EWN

www.EngineeringWithNature.org

WHAT IS THIS? On your mobile device, 

download a Quick Reference (QR) code reader 

of your choice and visit the EWN website.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) 

initiative known as Engineering With Nature 

(EWN) is the intentional alignment of natural 

and engineering processes to efficiently and 

sustainably deliver economic, environmental, 

and social benefits through collaborative 

processes. EWN seeks to align science with 

engineering to improve the decision-making 

process and expand the range of benefits 

that can be achieved through USACE projects. 

EWN projects and tool development directly 

support a number of USACE plans and directives, including the USACE Civil Works Strategic Plan, the USACE Campaign Plan, and the 

USACE Environmental Operating Principles. 

As a leading practice, EWN is being pursued 

through innovative research, field demonstrations, communicating lessons learned, and EWN promotes triple-win outcomes

active engagement with field practitioners 

and USACE partners and stakeholders. For 

more information on EWN, please contact 

Dr. Todd Bridges at Todd.S.Bridges@usace.

army.mil and Cynthia Banks at Cynthia.J.Banks

@usace.army.mil or visit www.EngineeringWithNature.org. 

From the Author: Dr. Pamela Bailey

I have 28 years of professional expertise, as 

a landscape architect and botanist. Besides 

conducting botanical surveys, I combined 

both professions into sustainable design 

and restoration projects. In the past, I have 

worked in the private and public sectors; 

for The Nature Conservancy, the National 

Park Service, and the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers. Currently, I conduct research 

and reimbursable projects for the Military 

and Civil Works Programs, as a research 

botanist with the Environmental Laboratory 

at the U.S. Army Engineer Research and 

Development Center. I use plants in technical 

Photo By Mike Butler

applications including bioengineering, 

shoreline stabilization, and pollination 

biology to examine insect/plant interactions 

using network science. I hope that this 

book will inspire people to see the value 

of incorporating native plant communities 

into sustainable designs, and to create 

opportunities to Engineer With Nature.

Dr. Pamela Bailey

3909 Halls Ferry Road

Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180

601-634-2380

Pamela.bailey@usace.army.mil