MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN

Papahānaumokuākea

Marine National Monument

October 2011
Cover photograph: NOAA / Greg McFall

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

6600 Kalaniana‘ole Highway, Suite 300

Honolulu, HI 96825

www.papahanaumokuakea.gov

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. 2011. Maritime Heritage Research, Education, and Management 

Plan: Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 97 pages.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN III

Contents

ABBREVIATIONS V

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VII

Chapter One—Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Maritime Heritage in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument ............................................. 2

1.2 Development of the Heritage Plan ......................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Heritage Plan Vision, Goals, and Structure ............................................................................................ 6

Chapter Two—Background .................................................................................................................................. 11

2.1 Heritage Framework ............................................................................................................................. 11

2.2 Archaeological Significance .................................................................................................................. 16

2.3 Historical Ecology ................................................................................................................................ 25

2.4 Native Hawaiian Heritage and Living Culture ..................................................................................... 26

Chapter Three—Research ..................................................................................................................................... 31

3.1 Goals ..................................................................................................................................................... 32

3.2 Context...................................................................................................................................................34

3.3 Prioritized Actions ................................................................................................................................ 48

Chapter Four—Education and Outreach ............................................................................................................. 57

4.1 Goals ..................................................................................................................................................... 57

4.2 Context ................................................................................................................................................. 58

4.3 Prioritized Actions ................................................................................................................................ 63

Chapter Five—Management ................................................................................................................................ 71

5.1 Goals ..................................................................................................................................................... 71

5.2 Context.................................................................................................................................................. 72

5.3 Prioritized Actions ................................................................................................................................ 76
I V PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Chapter Six—Implementation ............................................................................................................................. 81

Chapter Seven—References ................................................................................................................................. 85

APPENDICES

Appendix A—Maritime Heritage Resources ....................................................................................................... 93

Appendix B—State and Federal Preservation Mandates ...................................................................................... 97
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN V

Abbreviations

ARCH Maritime Archaeological Resources 

AUV autonomous underwater vehicle 

CFR Code of Federal Regulations 

CRED Coral Reef Ecosystem Division 

CRER Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve 

FAP Federal Archaeological Program 

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

GIS geographic information system 

Heritage Plan Maritime Heritage Research Plan 

HIMB Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology 

MHP Maritime Heritage Program 

MMB Monument Management Board 

MOA Memorandum of Agreement 

Monument Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument

NARA National Archives and Records Administration 

NHPA National Historic Preservation Act 

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service 

NMSP National Marine Sanctuary Program 

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service 

NPS National Park Service

NRHP National Register of Historic Places

NWHI Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

OHA Office of Hawaiian Affairs 

ONMS Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

PMNM Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument 

ROP 2004 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reserve Operations Plan 

SHPD State’s Historic Preservation Division

State State of Hawai‘i

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN VII

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM, Monument) 

possesses a rich maritime heritage stretching back long before written records. 

Native Hawaiian chants and oral histories tell of exploration and settlement in 

the area, while more recent shipwreck sites scattered throughout the Monument 

help tell the story of a post-contact maritime past. PMNM’s Maritime Heritage 

Program aims to build toward a future of research and management that will encompass these two broad components of human experience in the Monument. 

Archival research indicates that there may be as many as 60 shipwreck sites, the 

earliest of which dates back to 1818, and at least 61 aircraft sites in Monument 

waters. These sites represent the material legacy of our nation’s maritime heritage 

in this region, providing a window through which we can better understand 

our seafaring past. Considering these sites in the context of living culture and 

traditional knowledge helps us to more holistically perceive their significance to 

the Hawaiian Islands. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Office of National 

Marine Sanctuaries headquarters performance measures and the Federal 

Archaeology Program mandate the inventory and documentation of heritage 

sites. PMNM’s management of maritime heritage resources began in 2002 with 

its recognition as a component of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reserve 

Operations Plan. This Heritage Resource Management Plan describes past and 

present maritime heritage research conducted to support the management of 

PMNM and to develop a framework for the future. 

This document is one of several “step-down” plans called for in the Monument 

Management Plan. To date, maritime heritage management in PMNM has foExecutive Summary

Opposite Shipwreck Kaiyo 

Maru beached at Laysan Island 

(Wayne Levin).

“You only know where you are on the ocean by memorizing 

where you came from.” 

NAINOA THOMPSON, MASTER HAWAIIAN NAVIGATOR
VIII PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN I X

cused primarily on the inventory, documentation, and interpretation of maritime 

heritage sites as they are defined in the Monument’s Maritime Heritage Action 

Plan: “resources including submerged and beached shipwrecks, aircraft, and 

other sites of historical, cultural and archaeological significance.” This document 

addresses these attempts to inventory and protect the maritime heritage sites in 

PMNM. By identifying research gaps and opportunities, and exploring ways to 

expand the program’s scope, maritime heritage in PMNM will not only become 

a more effective tool for developing public stewardship of all of the Monument’s 

resources, but will also become more relevant for this unique site with its vital, 

living culture.

The purpose of this document is to broaden the scope of maritime heritage in 

the Monument so that this multicultural and multidisciplinary field of study 

can become a tool for inclusion among Monument stakeholders, constituency, 

and the general public. Its ultimate goal is to develop the foundation for more 

integration with other Monument programs, specifically those concerned with 

Native Hawaiian culture and history and the protection and understanding of 

marine natural resources.

Lef t A diver explores a triple 

expansion steam engine at the 

Quartette shipwreck site at Pearl 

and Hermes Atoll

(NOAA / Tane Casserley).

Above Filmmaker John Brooks 

films the bow of the USS

Macaw at Midway Atoll 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer). 

Opposite Map of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands 

showing the PMNM boundary 

(PNMN / NOAA). 

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1

“It continues to amaze and delight us, that evidence resting on the ocean floor for 

nearly two centuries, helps reveal our collective history. ” 

JAMES DELGADO, DIRECTOR , NOAA’S ONMS MARITIME 

HERITAGE PROGRAM

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

Created by Presidential Proclamation 8031 on June 15, 2006, 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM, Monument) 

established the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) as one of the world’s 

largest protected marine areas. Ecosystem protections for the natural resources 

in this area date back to 1909, when President Theodore Roosevelt established 

what is now known as the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. On 

June 30, 2010, the World Heritage Committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) unanimously inscribed 

Papahānaumokuākea as a mixed (i.e., cultural and natural) site—the first such 

site in the United States and one of only 27 mixed sites in the world. The 

Monument was the first nomination of a World Heritage Site in the United 

States in 15 years.

The NWHI are a chain of islands, atolls, and shoals extending approximately 

1,240 miles (2,000 kilometers [km]) northwest from the main Hawaiian 

Islands. The NWHI and the main Hawaiian Islands together form the Hawaiian Archipelago in the central North Pacific Ocean. A vast, remote, and largely 

uninhabited marine region, the Monument encompasses an area of approximately 142,948 square miles (370,234 km2

) of ocean dotted with small islands, 

islets, and atolls. The complex array of shallow coral reefs, deepwater slopes, 

banks, seamounts, and abyssal and pelagic oceanic ecosystems that populate 

this area support a stunning diversity of marine life. The small islands, reefs, 

and shoals of Papahānaumokuākea are the longest, oldest, and most illuminating example of island formation and atoll evolution in the world, spanning 28 

million years (Grigg et al. 2008). The near-pristine reefs, islands, and water of 

Papahānaumokuākea provide refuge and habitat for a wide array of threatened 

Opposite Kelly Gleason 

investigates a ginger jar at the 

Two Brothers shipwreck site 

(NOAA / Greg McFall).
2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

and endangered species, and the Monument is one of the last predator-dominated coral reef ecosystems on the planet. The region provides critical nesting 

and foraging grounds for 14 million seabirds, making it the largest tropical 

seabird rookery in the world. The region’s natural resources, Native Hawaiian 

cultural resources, and maritime heritage resources make PMNM one of the 

most significant protected marine areas in the world. 

This Maritime Heritage Research Plan (Heritage Plan) has been developed 

to support and guide implementation of the Maritime Heritage Action Plan 

(discussed below). The purpose of the Heritage Plan is to establish a 15-year 

research, education, and management framework to guide and broaden the 

Monument’s Maritime Heritage Program (MHP). 

1.1 Maritime Heritage in Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s) Office of 

National Marine Sanctuaries (ONMS) defines maritime heritage resources as 

the cultural, historical, and archaeological traces of past seafaring activities and 

of humanity’s interaction with the seas that can be found on the shore or underwater. In the Monument Management Plan, the definition of maritime heritage 

resources includes submerged and beached shipwrecks, aircraft, and other sites 

of historical, cultural, and archaeological significance (U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service et al. 2008). 

Above Sailing vessel 

Dunnottar Castle, wrecked 

at Kure Atoll in 1886 (San 

Francisco Public Library).

Right Brenda Altmeier 

dives above the wreckage of 

Dunnottar Castle at Kure Atoll 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3

Papahānaumokuākea boasts a rich maritime heritage encompassing hundreds 

of years of continuous seafaring, reaching back long before the advent of written 

records. Consequently, maritime heritage can be viewed as a continuum, beginning with Polynesian explorers, moving through the age of sail, passing through 

the turmoil of World War II, and continuing with present-day researchers who 

make discoveries with each new expedition to the NWHI (see figure above). 

Native Hawaiian chants and oral histories tell of exploration and settlement in this area over millennia, while shipwreck sites scattered throughout 

Papahānaumokuākea help tell the story of a more recent maritime past. 

Maritime heritage in PMNM reaches far beyond the material remains of 

shipwreck sites on the seafloor. As developed in this Heritage Plan, the vision 

for the MHP is to facilitate a broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the 

historical use of this remarkable site, establishing a foundation upon which to 

develop a meaningful management direction through integrating, supporting, 

and complementing the Monument’s rich cultural and natural science programs. 

Archaeology, always a multidisciplinary science, incorporates history, biology, 

ethnography, anthropology, materials conservation, photography, survey, drafting, and geology (Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology 2011)—and 

this is not an exhaustive list. Until recently, efforts to manage archaeological 

sites have not fully exploited these sites’ relevance to fields of study beyond the 

scope of their traditional audience. Maritime heritage sites are not only part of 

an underwater environment but are intimately connected with broader maritime 

landscapes—heritage sites on land, in ports, and in cities that developed be1778 2011

James Cook

arrives

1530

Pā’ao arrives

with new

religious 

order

1819

Kapu system 

abolished 

1848

Māhele 

land tenure 

conversion 

initiated

1893

Kingdom overthrown

1898

Territory of 

Hawai‘i established

1959

State of

Hawai‘i established

~1790–1850+

WESTERN EXPLORATION & RE-DISCOVERY 

~1820–1860+

WHALING & SEALING

1880–1915

GUANO MINING & FEATHER POACHING

~750–1600+ 

POLYNESIAN COLONIZATION

~750

// //

CONSERVATION

1941–1945

U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN 

WORLD WAR II

1941

Attack on Pearl Harbor

A timeline of human 

interactions with the NWHI. 

Different “eras” of interaction 

are shown above a timeline with 

significant events in Hawaiian 

history (Beckwith 2007; 

Kittenger 2010).
4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

cause of maritime trade, as well as communities that were shaped by a history of 

colonization. Consequently, management of heritage sites should be considered 

not only a technical issue but also a social one, necessitating engagement with 

the public and the cultural sensitivity that such engagement warrants. Because 

of these myriad connections with both the cultural landscape and the natural 

environment, successful management of maritime heritage sites in the Monument requires an interdisciplinary approach.

1.2 Development of the Heritage Plan

The Monument Management Plan identifies six priority management needs, 

one of which—Understanding and Interpreting the Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands—comprises four action plans germane to this document.

•	 Marine Conservation Science Action Plan.

•	 Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan.

•	 Historic Resources Action Plan.

•	 Maritime Heritage Action Plan.

Maritime heritage pertaining to Polynesian and Native Hawaiian exploration and settlement across the Hawaiian archipelago and the Pacific is covered 

Filmmaker John Brooks 

documents maritime 

archaeologists mapping the 

whaling shipwreck Pearl 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5

under the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan and the associated 

Native Hawaiian Research Plan. The Historical Resources Action Plan covers 

terrestrial historical resources and sites, including terrestrial sites associated with 

Midway Atoll. 

In early February 2010, researchers, resource managers, and partners met at the 

PMNM office in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, for a two-day Maritime Heritage Research 

Plan Workshop. The aim was to establish guidelines for developing a Research 

Plan document that would provide a framework for the research, monitoring, 

and management specified in the MHP. The workshop brought together a group 

of people with shared backgrounds and interests in the maritime heritage of the 

NWHI to help them build future partnerships and collaborations. 

Workshop participants included personnel from ONMS, the National Marine 

Fisheries Service (NMFS), the National Park Service (NPS), the State of 

Hawai‘i (State), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the University of 

Hawai‘i, University of Rhode Island, the Polynesian Voyaging Society, Flinders 

University, and other independent researchers and historians. The workshop 

included both plenary and breakout sessions that focused on developing the 

following research priorities.

•	 Management needs and strategies.

•	 Outreach and education.

•	 Database and information management.

•	 Research questions and opportunities.

•	 Integration of historic resources, culture, and maritime heritage.

•	 Partners, collaborations, and interdisciplinary opportunities.

Participants in the Maritime Heritage Research Plan Workshop explored not 

just maritime archaeological questions, but multidisciplinary topics as well. It 

was widely agreed that researchers have only begun to address the plethora of 

questions and opportunities awaiting more in-depth study. In addition to the 

familiar themes addressed in the MHP—whaling, fishing, navigation, military 

history, communication, environmental impacts, and exploration—other research directions were identified.

•	 What is the cultural landscape of PMNM?

•	 How does historical ecology inform maritime heritage and what are the connections? (Exploration and navigation in the Monument as a continuum.)

•	 Develop a better understanding of how these islands and atolls were used in

traditional, non-instrument navigational training for Native Hawaiians.

Management of 

heritage sites should be 

considered not only a 

technical issue but also a 

social one, necessitating 

engagement with the 

public and the cultural 

sensitivity that such 

engagement warrants. 
6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

•	 Compare navigational structures and make connections beyond the NWHI

to places like the Marquesas.

•	 Apply Traditional Ecological Knowledge to the geographic assessment of

the site.

•	 Develop a better understanding of the unique site formation processes at

NWHI atolls.

•	 Compare ocean space conceptions in the NWHI.

Strategies to develop these research directions were also developed. These include the following.

•	 Expand recognition of the site and its resources.

•	 Create maritime archaeology field schools in the NWHI to enable students

to develop projects and develop more research questions of their own.

•	 Conduct more interviews and retrieve oral histories to capture knowledge

that may otherwise be lost. 

•	 Continue to foster relationships and work with graduate students.

•	 Develop grant programs for students (undergraduate and graduate) and

provide funding for research.

•	 Develop collaborative awareness training programs.

•	 Foster more interdisciplinary work.

Above Double-hulled sailing 

canoe Hōkūle‘a sailing in 

Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument 

(Na‘alehu Anthony).

Right Keoni Kuoha blows on a 

pū (trumpet shell) as the 

sailing canoe Hōkūle‘a

approaches Mokumanamana 

(NOAA / Randall Kosaki).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7

•	 Develop connections with the academic community (high school, undergraduate, and graduate), including in-school visits.

•	 Expand data-sharing, including the Monument’s spatial bibliography.

With representatives from the Monument’s Native Hawaiian team participating 

in the workshop, the forum offered a rare opportunity for in-reach as well as outreach. The workshop contributed to the development of a network of individuals 

and experts with a deeper understanding of and appreciation for PMNM. 

1.3 Heritage Plan Vision, Goals, and Structure

As previously stated, the vision for this Heritage Plan is to facilitate a broad, 

interdisciplinary understanding of the historical use of this remarkable site, 

establishing a foundation upon which to develop a meaningful management 

direction through integrating, supporting, and complementing the Monument’s 

rich cultural and natural science programs.

The Heritage Plan serves as a guide for a broad range of stakeholders—maritime archaeologists and other scientists, cultural practitioners, resource managers, the Monument Management Board (MMB), the public, and the Monument’s co-trustee representatives. The Heritage Plan provides managers and 

maritime archaeologists with the means to direct their research in the Monument toward answering important resource management questions. Researchers 

from academic and research institutions can use the plan to focus their research 

Above Derek Smith collects 

oceanographic data from 

the Dunnottar Castle

shipwreck site at Kure Atoll 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).

Lef t Tane Casserley and Kelly 

Gleason document a gudgeon at 

the Pearl shipwreck site 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer).
8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 9

proposals on topics that are relevant to the Monument’s management needs. 

Additionally, the Heritage Plan will help managers gain a better understanding 

of the ways that maritime heritage can be used as an effective tool for broadening research and outreach.

The Heritage Plan will also serve as a guide for the review and evaluation of 

permit applications for maritime heritage research in the Monument. As new research proposals arise, the plan will be used by permit coordinators and others as 

a tool to evaluate research needs, merit, and applicability to management efforts. 

In addition to building on the past history of maritime heritage research among 

the co-trustee agencies, the Heritage Plan aims to develop a broader understanding of the ways that the MHP can expand beyond the boundaries of the 

Monument Management Plan’s definition through effective partnerships, innovative research, engaging outreach, and multidisciplinary management. These 

endeavors include expanding research efforts to embrace such diverse topics as 

seafaring traditions, oral histories, archival research, interactions between past 

human societies and the marine environment, and the implications of traditional 

knowledge for contemporary society. 

The Heritage Plan presents an opportunity to envision a future direction for the 

MHP, taking into account the singular opportunities, challenges, and partnerships that exist in this region. With greater collaboration and multidisciplinary 

research, maritime heritage management in the Monument offers an unprecedented platform for inclusion of a myriad of interests and participants.

The remainder of this document is organized as follows. Chapter 2, Background, 

provides the historical context of maritime heritage in the Monument and summarizes the work conducted to date. Chapter 3, Research, discusses the research 

needs and prioritized actions that the Heritage Plan envisions for future endeavors. Chapter 4, Education, examines the education and outreach program as 

it currently exists and identifies goals for future efforts. Chapter 5, Management, 

summarizes the current management issues pertaining to maritime heritage 

in the Monument and lays out some management concerns and directions for 

future consideration. Chapter 6, Implementation, identifies innovative and multidisciplinary approaches to realizing the research, education, and management 

strategies discussed in the preceding chapters. Chapter 7, References, lists the 

references cited in the text. 

Appendix A, Maritime Heritage Resources, is a working list of all the resource 

sites of vessels and aircraft that have been reported lost in PMNM. Appendix B, 

State and Federal Preservation Mandates, lists the regulatory authorities relevant 

to the survey and protection of maritime heritage resources in the NWHI.

Opposite Jason Raupp 

documents ballast at the 

Gledstanes shipwreck site 

(NOAA / Tane Casserley).

With greater 

collaboration and 

multidisciplinary 

research, maritime 

heritage management in 

the Monument offers an 

unprecedented platform 

for inclusion of a 

myriad of interests and 

participants.

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1 1

CHAPTER TWO

Background

Opposite Whalers on a 

whaleboat (New Bedford 

Whaling Museum).

2.1 Heritage Framework

The NWHI have a long history of scientific exploration and discovery. 

Beginning with the earliest explorers and voyagers who documented scientific 

observations in their oral histories and ships’ logs, scientific observation continues through today. Title to the islands and waters of the NWHI was vested in 

the Kingdom of Hawai‘i throughout the 1800s; and throughout the nineteenth 

century, Hawaiian royalty initiated a number of expeditions to the NWHI. The 

Albatross Expedition of 1902 and the Tanager Expedition of 1923–24 were the 

first research expeditions driven entirely by scientific enquiry. These began a 

legacy of dedicated research on the natural resources of the NWHI. 

Research and monitoring conducted by federal and state agencies, academic 

institutions, and other organizations over the last 50 years have contributed 

substantially to our understanding of the NWHI ecosystem. Between 1963 

and 1969, Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program biologists from the 

Smithsonian Institution made trips to French Frigate Shoals to gather data. 

Following these expeditions, NMFS, FWS, and the Hawai‘i Department of 

Land and Natural Resources began collaborative research and surveys to document relationships between species and to assess the impacts of commercial 

fishing in the late 1970s (Grigg and Pfund 1980; Grigg and Tanoue 1984; 

DiNardo and Parrish 2006).

The history of maritime heritage research in the Monument is much more 

recent. A reconnaissance survey in 1998, supported by the University of Hawai‘i 

Marine Option Program, examined sites at Midway Atoll. Systematic surveys of 

the NWHI began in 2002 (Van Tilburg 2002). 

“Back in the early nineteenth century, America had more frontiers than the West: 

there was also the sea, and the Nantucket whaleman was the sea-going mountain 

man of his day, chasing the sperm whale into the distant corners of the Pacific 

Ocean. Americans today have lost track of the importance the sea had in creating 

the nation’s emerging identity.” 

NATHANIEL PHILBRICK, AUTHOR, IN THE HEART OF THE SEA
1 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

With the creation of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve in 2000, maritime heritage was included as a recognized category of information needed to advance 

the comprehensive management of resources in the NWHI. A “history and 

archaeology” category was included in the 2003 Information Needs workshop 

(Alexander et al. 2004). The 2004 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reserve 

Operations Plan (ROP) includes a Maritime Heritage Action Plan identifying its desired outcome: “To best protect Maritime Cultural resources in the 

NWHI.” To this end, the plan defines four strategies, three performance measures, a summary of resource needs, and potential participants. The ROP was 

the basis for the first 5 years of reserve operation, and its components have been 

incorporated into the Monument Management Plan. 

ONMS drew a distinction between “cultural resources” (pertaining to Native 

Hawaiian topics as the living culture in Hawai‘i) and “historical and archaeological resources” (pertaining to post–European contact topics). For the purposes 

of the Monument Management Plan, Native Hawaiian cultural resources fall 

under the rubric of the Native Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan and 

are addressed in the associated Native Hawaiian Research Plan. A key objective 

of this Heritage Plan is to create an environment wherein these two intrinsically 

linked programs can be more effectively and dynamically interconnected.

2.1.1 CO-TRUSTEE AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES FOR 

MARITIME HERITAGE RESOURCES

The Presidential proclamation and associated regulations established an institutional “co-trusteeship” of the monument, requiring two federal agencies (NOAA 

and FWS) and the State to manage the monument collaboratively as “co-trustees.” NOAA and FWS promulgated final regulations that provided the federal 

authority for the Monument under Title 50 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 

Part 404 on August 19, 2006. These regulations codified the scope and purpose, 

boundary, definitions, prohibitions, and regulated activities for managing the 

Monument; they also codified the framework under which the State would 

join with NOAA and FWS as Monument co-trustees. The co-trustees signed 

a memorandum of agreement (MOA) on December 8, 2006, establishing roles 

and responsibilities as well as coordination bodies and mechanisms for managing the Monument. Though ostensibly the proclamation and MOA named 

three agencies as co-trustees, in actuality the co-trusteeship comprises seven different partner agencies that include different divisions of the primary co-trustee 

agencies as well as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs.

All three Co-Trustee agencies (the State, FWS, and NOAA) have programs and 

statutory responsibilities for managing and preserving heritage resources (culA key objective of this 

Heritage Plan is to 

create an environment 

wherein two intrinsically 

linked programs—

Native Hawaiian culture 

and maritime heritage—

can be more effectively 

and dynamically 

interconnected.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1 3

tural, historical, and archaeological) under their respective jurisdictions. All three 

seek to protect these resources for the benefit of the public. Management of 

these resources varies greatly between agencies based on their priorities and expertise. Each co-trustee’s specific responsibilities for maritime heritage resources 

are briefly reviewed below. 

STATE OF HAWAI‘I

Oversight of archaeological research in Hawai‘i is the responsibility of the 

Department of Land and Natural Resources—specifically the State’s Historic 

Preservation Division (SHPD). SHPD issues annual permits for archaeologists, conducts National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) Section 106 

review as called for by federal statutes, and provides rules governing standards 

for archaeological inventory surveys on state lands (Chapter 13-276, Hawaii 

Administrative Rules). Notably, these rules have been designed to facilitate terrestrial site surveys and are not always applicable to maritime work. 

OFFICE OF HAWAIIAN AFFAIRS

The Co-trustees signed a MOA on December 8, 2006, establishing the MMB, 

which coordinates management of Papahānaumokuākea at the field level. 

This seven-member board includes two members from each of the Co-trustee 

agencies as well as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA), which serves as the 

principal agency working for Native Hawaiians. 

Mokumanamana from Mo‘o 

Head (Wayne Levin).
1 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Currently, OHA is the only state agency with constitutional and statutory 

mandates to advocate for Native Hawaiians and to assess the policies and 

practices of other agencies’ impacts on Native Hawaiians. OHA, on behalf of 

the MMB, continues to convene the Papahānaumokuākea Native Hawaiian 

Cultural Working Group to obtain advice and guidance from Native Hawaiian 

cultural experts, including kūpuna (respected elders) and practitioners, on 

all Monument actions affecting Native Hawaiians and cultural resources at 

Papahānaumokuākea. The Native Hawaiian Cultural Working Group provides 

guidance to the MMB through OHA. Support and guidance from the host 

culture of the Hawaiian Archipelago assists in the incorporation of Native 

Hawaiian culture into Monument management (State of Hawai‘i et al. 2009).

U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE

FWS manages millions of acres of lands in all U.S. states and several U.S. territories. While FWS is recognized as a leader in conserving, protecting, and enhancing natural resources—specifically fish, wildlife, plants, and their habitats—

the agency also plays an important role in protecting our nation’s cultural legacy. 

The Pacific Region alone manages more than 150 refuges and fish hatcheries in 

Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Nevada, California, and the Pacific Islands. More 

than 2,800 archaeological sites have been recorded on these lands. 

Heiau at Mokumanamana 

(Kekuewa Kikiloi).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1 5

FWS, under the Department of the Interior, and NOAA, under the 

Department of Commerce, operate under the common mandates of the 

Federal Archaeological Program (FAP). The FAP is the aggregate of the 

laws, regulations, and guidelines that address federal management of cultural, 

historical, and archaeological (heritage) resources. 

The Monument Management Plan states that the purpose of the Historic 

Resources Action Plan is to “Identify, preserve, protect, stabilize, and wherever appropriate, reuse, recover, and interpret historic resources associated with 

Midway Atoll and other historic resources within the Monument.” It defines 

historic resources as the “non-marine sites, structures, artifacts, in the Monument 

associated with the historic period (after first Western contact with Native 

Hawaiians in 1778).” It further states that “Historic resources in the Monument 

fall into two broad categories: Midway Atoll historic period resources, and 

those elsewhere in the Monument” (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service et al. 2008). 

Interpretation of the land and sea interaction between sites at Midway Atoll is 

an important collaborative effort between FWS and NOAA archaeologists. 

NOAA’S OFFICE OF NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARIES

ONMS has a clear mandate to protect and manage the heritage resources 

within the boundaries of its sanctuaries and monuments. ONMS’s Maritime 

Heritage Program (as distinguished from the Monument’s MHP) was created 

in 2001 by the National Marine Sanctuary Program (NMSP) to provide a more 

effective management structure for meeting its obligation to protect and manage 

the historic, cultural, and archaeological resources within the National Marine 

Sanctuary System. The Maritime Heritage Program has identified five drivers to 

support the vision of ONMS.

•	 Enhancing cultural, historic and archaeological resource management and

protection at existing sites, and supporting expanded and new sites in the 

National Marine Sanctuary System through the identification of nationally 

significant maritime heritage resources worthy of addition to the System.

•	 Activating the public to support ocean conservation and the National

Marine Sanctuary System with key messages about relevance and value of 

maritime heritage in the oceans and lakes and especially at existing and 

potential new sites.

•	 Supporting the passage of strong new legislation for the National Marine

Sanctuary System by demonstrating the importance of maritime heritage 

resource protection, management and interpretation.

•	 Linking local communities and economies to sanctuaries through maritime

heritage examples.

The Monument 

Management Plan 

states that the purpose 

of the Historic 

Resources Action Plan 

is to “Identify, preserve, 

protect, stabilize, and 

wherever appropriate, 

reuse, recover, and 

interpret historic 

resources associated with 

Midway Atoll and other 

historic resources within 

the Monument.”
1 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

•	 Demonstrating the relevance of the Maritime Heritage Program to the

sites, to the National Marine Sanctuary System and to NOAA.

•	 Maritime heritage research in the Monument is driven by three strategies

specified in the Maritime Heritage Action Plan. 

•	 Document and inventory maritime heritage resources throughout the life of

the plan.

•	 Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and outreach throughout the life of the plan.

•	 Coordinate interagency efforts to protect maritime heritage resources for

the life of the plan.

The Heritage Plan is designed to ensure that research meets the comprehensive needs of the Monument and is conducted in a manner compatible with 

state and federal legislation and guidelines, as well as with the Monument’s 

mission, goals, and objectives. This document is intended to advise management on the priorities, needs, and gaps of maritime heritage research in the 

NWHI. Additionally, this plan facilitates the exploration of larger themes 

and opportunities for maritime heritage in the Monument to help develop a 

broad, multidisciplinary, and comprehensive Maritime Heritage Program for 

Papahānaumokuākea that reflects the unique character of maritime heritage at 

this World Heritage Site.

2.2 Archaeological Significance

The history of human interaction with Papahānaumokuākea has left a material 

legacy on the seafloor and in terrestrial locations, providing a wealth of sites to 

interpret. These include sacred archaeological sites on Nihoa and Mokumanamana 

that also highlight the connection between these terrestrial sights and navigation 

training. Evidence of ancient resource modification and collection—such as artificial reefs and fishing materials, as well as mooring and anchoring sites—tells 

stories of continued human interaction with this dynamic environment. 

Beginning thousands of years ago, long-distance voyages across the Pacific 

established the remarkable navigational skill and maritime ability of Polynesian 

sailors. Human settlement of the Pacific Islands and subsequent voyages 

throughout Oceania are unprecedented feats of exploration and seafaring 

achievement. Despite this impressive legacy and ongoing tradition in the Pacific, 

few physical remains of these vessels and practices exist in an archaeological 

context. These types of vessels rarely sink due to their design, and most archaeological evidence of voyaging canoes has been discovered in a terrestrial environment (Van Tilburg 2002). Oral traditions tell the stories that bring this part of 

This plan will help 

develop a broad, 

multidisciplinary, and 

comprehensive Maritime 

Heritage Program for 

Papahānaumokuākea 

that reflects the unique 

character of maritime 

heritage at this World 

Heritage Site.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1 7

Hawai‘i’s seafaring past back to life and highlight the long, ongoing tradition of 

voyaging that began and continues to this day in the Pacific. 

The material remains of a more recent seafaring history in the NWHI—such 

as American and British whaling ships, Japanese junks, U.S. Navy steamers, 

Hawaiian fishing sampans, Pacific colliers, salvage vessels, and U.S. Navy aircraft—dot the waters of the archipelago. These sites provide the physical record 

of past activities in the NWHI, but they also represent the broader cultural 

heritage and human history of this World Heritage Site.

Top Ancient Hawaiian home 

site at Nihoa (Wayne Levin).

Bot tom Native Hawaiian 

sinker stone at Mokumanamana 

(Wayne Levin).
1 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

2.2.1 HISTORY OF THE NORTHWESTERN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

NATIVE HAWAIIAN PRESENCE

Native Hawaiian presence in the NWHI has been documented through archaeological sites on Nihoa and Mokumanamana (Necker), the only two high 

islands in the chain (Emory 1928; Cleghorn 1988). These islands provide a rare 

and exceptional record of past human occupation through material remains 

such as intact ritual sites (heiau, or shrines), agricultural terraces, archaeological 

deposits, and other cultural artifacts (Kikiloi and Graves 2005). 

Many of the low-lying atolls north and west of Nihoa and Mokumanamana 

are subject to the dynamic conditions that characterize the NWHI. Small 

sand islands and sand spits shift over time and are washed over in the winter 

by strong storm waves. To date, no Native Hawaiian archaeological remains 

have been discovered on these islands (Apple 1973; Ziegler 1990); however, 

a systematic archaeological survey for such sites has not yet been undertaken. 

Hawaiian archaeologist Kekuewa Kikiloi has rediscovered historical Hawaiian 

place names for the NWHI and genealogical connections to the main Hawaiian 

Islands that reveal a deeper history of the archipelago (Kikiloi 2003). Though 

Native Hawaiian artifacts have not yet been found underwater in PMNM, the 

potential exists for discoveries to reveal additional Native Hawaiian archaeological resources in both terrestrial and marine environments beyond Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana.

EUROPEAN CONTACT

With the arrival of outsiders, major changes were initiated in the archipelago, 

and the number and diversity of maritime travelers visiting Hawai‘i changed 

Though Native Hawaiian 

artifacts have not yet 

been found underwater 

in PMNM, the potential 

exists for discoveries 

to reveal additional 

Native Hawaiian 

archaeological resources 

in both terrestrial and 

marine environments 

beyond Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana.

Falls of Afton at anchor 

(Bishop Museum).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 1 9

dramatically. Based on existing evidence, it is believed that at the time of 

western contact, the NWHI were not universally known to Native Hawaiian 

communities. Some communities on Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, however, did access 

the NWHI. For example, Hawaiians from the island of Kaua‘i, accompanying 

an exploring expedition in 1788, were themselves unaware of the existence of 

Nihoa Island. Upon returning to Kaua‘i and consulting within their communities, they discovered a traditional knowledge of the island (Vancouver 1798). 

There is also historical evidence that Nihoa was used and accessed by Hawaiians 

from Ni‘ihau in the nineteenth century. According to the Robinson family, residents of Ni‘ihau Island had the capability to travel to Ka‘ula and Nihoa Islands 

by canoe, and some people from Ni‘ihau would spend 3 months in the summer 

on Nihoa Island until the late 1800s (Iversen et al. 1990:23).

Visits by voyaging Hawaiians to the NWHI during this period may also be 

evidenced by a fresh calabash, or gourd, found in 1805 by the Russian explorer 

Urey Lisiansky on a beach of Lisianski Island near French Frigate Shoals. In an 

account of his voyage Lisiansky states, “[I] found on the beach a small calabash, 

which had a round hole cut on one side of it. This could not have been drifted 

from a great distance, as it was fresh and in good preservation” (Lisiansky 1814). 

Much has been attributed to the discovery of this calabash, but it may have simply drifted to Lisianski Island from another island in the archipelago. 

Regular voyaging by Hawaiians to the NWHI may have diminished shortly 

after contact due to extensive disease epidemics. Analyses of 113 whalers’ logs 

visiting the NWHI from 1791 to 1878 contain no reference to Native Hawaiian 

fishermen (Iversen et al. 1990:22). The fact that Native Hawaiians were not 

known to access this area in the early historic period may be the result of disease 

epidemics (which took a heavy toll on Native Hawaiian knowledge holders and 

their cultural information passed down through oral tradition), may reflect the 

high cost of trips to this zone, or may evidence the persistence of cultural protections that put the area off limits. 

HAWAIIAN MONARCHY

As western explorers began to rediscover the NWHI, the Hawaiian monarchy became increasingly interested and active in establishing cultural ties to 

these islands. In some cases, Hawaiian monarchs contracted western sailors 

to make trips of exploration to the NWHI and to claim these islands under 

western law for the Kingdom of Hawai‘i (Williams 2009). In other cases, 

monarchs themselves visited the islands, including some of the highest ranking 

Native Hawaiian chiefs of the nineteenth century. Queen Ka‘ahumanu, King 

Kamehameha IV, King David Kalākaua, and Queen Lydia Lili‘uokalani, for example, visited Nihoa to reconnect with the island (State of Hawaii et al. 2009).

In 1885, Queen Lili‘uokalani 

of Hawai‘i, the last monarch of 

the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, visited 

Nihoa with an entourage of 200 

(Bishop Museum).
2 0 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

WHALING

The whaling industry transformed the Hawaiian Islands beginning in the early 

nineteenth century (Kuykendall 1938; Miller 1989; Beechert 1991). Vessels 

stopped in Honolulu and other Hawaiian ports for provisions and to recruit new 

crew members. At one time, Native Hawaiians comprised nearly one-fifth of 

the sailors in the Pacific-based American whaling fleet. As whales became scarce 

from decades of overfishing, whaling vessels ventured farther afield, traveling 

thousands of miles on years-long voyages in search of new whaling grounds. 

When the Japan Grounds were discovered just beyond Kure Atoll around 1820, 

ships began sailing through the NWHI in search of “liquid gold” (whale oil). 

Though many sailors successfully navigated their way through the remote, lowlying atolls in the region, many others found danger and tragedy. Between 1822 

and 1867, at least 10 whaling vessels were reported lost in the NWHI; of these 

10, five sites have been identified and investigated: the British whaleships Pearl

and Hermes, (the earliest shipwrecks discovered to date in the NWHI) lost on 

the same night in 1822 at the atoll that now bears their name; the American 

brig Two Brothers, wrecked at French Frigate Shoals in 1823; the British whaler 

Gledstanes, wrecked on the reef at Kure Atoll in 1837; and the American whaleship Parker, wrecked and scattered across the lagoon at Kure Atoll in 1842. 

TRANSPACIFIC COMMERCE

Russian and French ships of discovery also transited the region and sometimes 

found themselves on the sharp coral reefs. In the late nineteenth and early 

twentieth centuries, the atolls of the NWHI were positioned directly along the 

A crew of whalers on deck (New 

Bedford Whaling Museum).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 2 1

route of many sailing vessels carrying cargoes of coal, copra (dried coconut), 

sandalwood, timber, and food across the Pacific. Dunnottar Castle, a 258-foot 

iron-hulled sailing ship, was lost at Kure Atoll in 1886. The wreck is a remarkable, intact example of an iron-hulled tall ship bound for California carrying a 

cargo of coal from Sydney, Australia. 

MIDWAY ATOLL

The NWHI, and in particular Midway Atoll, became a potential commodity in 

the mid-nineteenth century. Captain William Reynolds of USS Lackawanna

took formal possession of Midway Atoll for the United States in August 1867. 

Shortly afterward, USS Saginaw, a Civil War–era side-wheel gunboat, was assigned to support improvement efforts at Midway, where a coal depot was to 

be built in support of transpacific commerce. For 6 months, Saginaw served as 

a support vessel for divers as they labored to clear a channel into the lagoon. In 

October 1870, the unsuccessful operation was terminated. Saginaw set a course 

for nearby Kure Atoll to check for castaways before returning to San Francisco, 

but she wrecked on the reef at Kure Atoll in the middle of the night.

Midway’s importance grew for commercial and military planners. The first 

transpacific cable and station were in operation by 1903. In the 1930s, Midway 

became a stopover for Pan American Airways’ “flying clippers”—seaplanes 

crossing the ocean on their 5-day transpacific passage. 

With the rise of Imperial Japan in the mid-1930s, the United States was 

inspired to invest in the improvement of Midway. In 1938 the Army Corps 

of Engineers dredged the lagoon, and Midway was declared second to Pearl 

Harbor in terms of naval base development in the Pacific. The construction of 

the naval air facility at Midway began in 1940; French Frigate Shoals also supported a U.S. naval air facility. Midway became an important advance submarine 

base, and the reef was dredged to form a channel and harbor to accommodate 

submarine refit and repair. Patrol vessels of the Hawaiian Sea Frontier forces 

stationed patrol vessels at most of the islands and atolls (Braisted 1985; Cohen 

et al. 1990; Linville 2010). 

Midway was of vital importance to both Japanese and American war strategies in World War II, and the raid of June 4, 1942, is one of the most significant events in the history of the naval base. The Battle of Midway took place 

100–200 miles north of Midway Atoll. Four Japanese aircraft carriers and one 

American carrier were sunk, and the Japanese military was forced to withdraw 

from a planned invasion. Although most of the battle took place far to the 

north, an intense air battle was waged directly over and around the atoll. Thirtyone plane crashes have been conclusively identified by archival research. Of 

Midway was of vital 

importance to both 

Japanese and American 

war strategies in World 

War II, and the raid 

of June 4, 1942, is one 

of the most significant 

events in the history of 

the naval base. 
2 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

these, 22 were American and 9 were Japanese; these crash sites are all considered 

war graves. The Battle of Midway is considered the most decisive U.S. victory 

of that period and is referred to as the turning point of the war in the Pacific. 

Midway Atoll has since been designated as a National Memorial to the Battle 

of Midway. 

Efforts to interpret the Battle of Midway are ongoing. Beginning with archival research and oral histories, there is a wealth of relevant information for the 

Monument to explore and develop. Shipwreck sites associated with the Battle 

of Midway are in deep water outside Monument boundaries, but the remains of 

Top Lef t Submarine piers 

at Midway Atoll (NARA). 

Top Right Aerial view of 

Midway Atoll (NARA).

Center Aerial view of 

French Frigate Shoals, 1935 

(Bishop Museum). 

Bot tom Lef t A consolidated 

B-24, landing flaps down, skims 

over the nesting goonies at 

Midway Island (NARA). 

Bot tom Right Damage 

on Midway Island before the 

Japanese raiders were repelled, 

June 4, 5, and 6, 1942; burning 

oil tanks hit (NARA). 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 2 3

the air battle have the potential to rest in the shallower waters around the atoll. 

No aircraft associated with the battle have been investigated by NOAA maritime archaeologists. Efforts to discover and explore these sites include the 2003 

and 2010 remote sensing survey efforts at Midway Atoll. Neither survey revealed targets; however, much work remains to be done. Interpreting the sunken 

aircraft associated with this famous battle added an important maritime component to surveys conducted in collaboration with FWS archaeologists in 2009. 

2.2.2 MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

Maritime archaeologists conduct archaeological surveys to characterize the 

maritime heritage resources on the seafloor as a pivotal part of the effort 

to develop an inventory and a better understanding of the resource base in 

Papahānaumokuākea. Characterization begins with a historical inventory of 

the potential resources and proceeds to the field research component: physically 

locating and documenting these sites. Field research to date has resulted in the 

documentation of 20 maritime heritage sites. These have been documented at 

both Phase 1 (general site description) and Phase 2 (thorough site documentation and evaluation of a site for eligibility for inclusion in the National Register 

of Historic Places [NRHP]) levels. 

2.2.3 ARTIFACT RECOVERY, CONSERVATION, AND ANALYSIS

Activity MH-1.4 of the Monument Management Plan establishes that recovery 

and analysis of artifacts, carried out in a manner that respects the integrity of 

the ecosystem and the environmental goals of the Monument, may be an appropriate approach for interpretation. The advantage of this approach is that it 

brings information to the public, rather than taking more visitors to sensitive 

sites. Such recovery is carried out through the established permitting processes 

of the Monument. 

2.2.4 ARCHIVAL RESEARCH

Archival research is the foundation of the maritime heritage field work that is 

conducted in the Monument. Similarly, it is the basis for the work of investigators from a wide range of disciplines, including historical ecology and Native 

Hawaiian research. 

Initial efforts to develop an inventory of potential maritime heritage sites in 

the NWHI began with archival research. Archival research was conducted by 

NOAA MHP staff as well as by multiple partners (e.g. students, agencies, individuals) for the purposes of personal research, academic projects, and manageKelly Gleason documents a 

whaling harpoon tip recovered 

from the Two Brothers shipwreck 

site (NOAA / Derek Smith).

Deirdre O’Regan conducts 

archival research at the 

Nantucket Historical 

Association Research Library 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
2 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

ment efforts. Local, national, and international archives were investigated: State 

and Bishop Museum archives in Hawai‘i; the Library of Congress, National 

Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Naval Historical Center, 

the New Bedford Whaling Museum, Mystic Seaport, and the Nantucket 

Historical Association outside the state; and the Public Records Office in 

London. Archival research is ongoing, and individual collections and papers 

have been the subject of research over the years.

2.2.5 REMOTE SENSING

To meet federal and program mandates to inventory and explore maritime 

heritage sites in PMNM, technologies more far-reaching than diver surveys—

specifically, remote sensing technology—are necessary to increase the potential 

for site discovery and survey. Remote sensing entails survey of the seafloor using 

optical, sonar, and magnetometer technologies. 

To date, remote sensing projects have been conducted in 2003, 2005, and 2010. 

The most comprehensive survey occurred in 2010, with magnetometer and 

sidescan sonar surveys at French Frigate Shoals, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, 

Lisianski Island, and Midway and Kure Atolls. This survey yielded two new 

maritime heritage sites and the creation of several photomosaics of sonar imagery of the seafloor surrounding known shipwreck sites. These data help with 

the delineation of site boundaries and a better characterization of the seafloor 

at maritime heritage sites. The contracting company, SEARCH, Inc., provided 

a thorough report of activities and an assessment of previous remote sensing efforts in the Monument (SEARCH 2011). 

In addition to the remote sensing contracted or conducted by maritime archaeologists, the Pacific Islands Benthic Habitat Mapping Center in the School 

of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology at the University of Hawai‘i at 

Mānoa utilizes multibeam sonar data collected by the NOAA research vessel 

Hi‘ialakai and the NMFS research vessel AHI (Acoustic Habitat Investigator), 

a 25-foot survey launch commissioned in 2003. Data from multibeam surveys 

is collected for the purposes of benthic habitat mapping and classification, and 

has not yielded information about maritime heritage resources to date. However, 

reprocessing the data collected during these missions could enhance their value 

for heritage purposes. Upcoming phases for remote sensing also include the use 

of autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) surveys to increase survey area and 

efficiency in target locations. 

Jason Burns and Michael 

Krivor of SEARCH, Inc., 

collect magnetometer and side 

scan sonar data in the NWHI 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 2 5

2.3 Historical Ecology

A central focus of the Heritage Plan is to further the understanding of how 

human societies have interacted with ecosystems in the NWHI through time. 

Historical ecology was identified as a research priority at the Maritime Heritage 

Research Plan Workshop and at a separate workshop on historical ecology held 

at the Monument offices in July 2009. 

Historical ecology has been defined as seeking to gain a “practical understanding of past and current relationships among environmental and human systems, 

requiring a culturally specific temporal and spatial perspective applied at the 

regional scale” (Crumley 1994:8). Research in historical ecology is primarily 

characterized as empirical studies of changes in human–environment interactions through time that consider the complexity of factors (both social and 

environmental) involved. A key research focus is understanding reciprocity in 

human-environmental relationships through time. For example, anthropogenic 

actions can be implicated as the causal mechanisms for ecosystem change. Such 

actions can be described empirically as the alteration of natural disturbance regimes and placed within the context of social and historical factors that initiated 

these changes. Conversely, ecosystems and their embedded resources can influence the evolution of human societies, their changing patterns of production, 

and attendant demands on local ecosystems. 

Historical studies have been pivotal in describing how human societies have 

mediated ecological conditions in marine ecosystems. Such conditions can result 

from deleterious interactions that have affected current ecosystem structure and 

function (e.g. Jackson et al. 2001; Pandolfi et al. 2003, 2005; Lotze et al. 2006). 

A central focus of 

the Heritage Plan 

is to further the 

understanding of 

how human societies 

have interacted with 

ecosystems in the 

NWHI through time. 

Above Derek Smith collects 

coral samples for genetic analysis 

at the Quartette shipwreck site at 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).

Lef t A green seaturtle beneath 

the pier at Midway Atoll (Greg 

McFall).
2 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Not all human actions, however, are deleterious or lead to ecosystem decline. In 

the Pacific Islands, for example, societies have interacted with coral reef ecosystems for millennia, and various human disturbance regimes associated with 

continually evolving societies have been subjected to reef ecosystems (Kirch and 

Hunt 1997; Allen 2002). The development of Pacific Island societies has also 

been moderated by ecological constraints (Kirch and Hunt 1997; Kirch 2007), 

such as resources in the nearshore marine environment (Kirch 1982; Allen 

2003). From the perspective of historical ecology, the current state of Pacific 

coral reef ecosystems is therefore a historical legacy of reciprocal and dynamic 

interactions between ecological conditions and human societies. Coral reefs are, 

in fact, peopled seascapes, a linked social-ecological system shaped as much by 

human agency as by physical factors (Shackeroff et al. 2009). 

As in historical ecology, the cultural landscape approach—or the cultural seascape 

approach, in the case of the Monument— views environments as inseparable 

from human societies. Mather and Jensen (2010:341–342) refer to the cultural 

seascape approach as encouraging “the asking of broader theoretical questions. 

For example, how did the early Indian or European explorers ‘see’ and experience these waters and surrounding landforms?”This humanistic approach provides a lens through which to spatially integrate human activities with environmental features, correlating fishing, whaling, place names, sites, and vegetation. 

In 2009, PMNM hosted a workshop addressing historical ecology attended by 

experts from Scripps Institute of Oceanography, Hawai‘i Institute of Marine 

Biology, NOAA, University of Miami, Hawaiian language scholars, and the 

University of Hawaii Hawaiian Studies Program and East-West Institute. The 

intent of the workshop was to develop a specialized area of historical ecology 

focusing on the Hawaiian Archipelago. It explored both the status of current 

research and the opportunities for further research in the archipelago. This 

workshop served as a foundation for relationships necessary to promote future 

research in the NWHI. Some preliminary work has been done in the area of 

historical ecology (Kittinger 2010), and the understanding of long-term trends 

in both social and ecological conditions that has arisen from this research may 

help to inform future research efforts in this field. 

2.4 Native Hawaiian Heritage and Living Culture

Papahānaumokuākea is a sacred place in the history and cosmology of Native 

Hawaiian people, and Native Hawaiians recognize the islands as a sacred ancestral homeland from which life arises and to which spirits return after death 

(Kikiloi 2010). It is impossible, therefore, to explore the social and environmental history of this World Heritage site without understanding the significance 

Opposite Visitors to Laysan 

(Wayne Levin).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 2 7
2 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

of Papahānaumokuākea in Native Hawaiian heritage and living culture. Native 

Hawaiian heritage in Papahānaumokuākea is being rediscovered through archival and field research, site visits and cultural activities, and the perpetuation of 

cultural practices and traditions. For example, archaeological research at sites at 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana is helping to further define ancient traditions and 

lifeways on these islands. Hawaiian archaeologist Kekuewa Kikiloi has recently 

dated occupation of these sites to around AD 1450, and is helping to deepen 

understanding of the role and significance of numerous intact heiau. Kikiloi has 

also rediscovered Hawaiian place names for the NWHI, evidencing a rich history and connection to living cultural traditions (Kikiloi 2010).

The NWHI remain an essential training ground for contemporary Hawaiian 

wayfinders (non-instrument navigators). Led by Nainoa Thompson, the first 

Hawaiian master wayfinder to navigate across the Pacific in several centuries, 

Hawaiian wayfinding has undergone a revival starting with the launching of the 

traditional voyaging canoe Hōkūle‘a. Native Hawaiians developed the world’s 

first blue-water sailing technology, engineered sophisticated ocean-going vessels, 

and created a reliable navigational system based on observations of the natural 

world (State of Hawaii et al. 2009). Not only do the NWHI serve as a training ground for novice navigators, but traditional sailing canoes have traveled 

throughout Papahānaumokuākea in recent years. Other cultural activities have 

also been conducted in the Monument, such as observation of celestial phenomena, cultural learning activities, and repatriation of remains. Aspects of Native 

Hawaiian heritage, including fishing, religion, and politics, are links to the kind 

of broad, interdisciplinary understanding of the heritage of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands that can help management pursue a sustainable direction for 

this World Heritage Site.

These activities and related investigations into the past evidence a living tradition that enriches the meaning of maritime heritage in Papahānaumokuākea. 

Efforts to interpret maritime heritage will continue to be intertwined with a 

comprehension of the living history and tradition of Native Hawaiian seafaring, 

navigation, and other cultural traditions and practices. Key areas for future work 

and collaboration include supporting additional archaeological field research, 

historical archival research, and the perpetuation and relearning of cultural practices and traditions. 

As stated earlier, the Maritime Heritage Plan complements a forthcoming 

Papahānaumokuākea Native Hawaiian Cultural Research Plan, which will address priorities and methodologies for Native Hawaiian cultural research within 

and about the NWHI. Monument management operates under the policy 

that natural, cultural, and historical resources have equal value, and Native 

Aspects of Native 

Hawaiian heritage, 

including fishing, 

religion, and politics, 

are links to the kind of 

broad, interdisciplinary 

understanding of 

the heritage of the 

Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands that can help 

management pursue a 

sustainable direction for 

this World Heritage Site.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 2 9

Hawaiians traditionally manage all natural resources as cultural resources. Both 

of these research plans seek to address management needs and concerns within 

Papahānaumokuākea, and while they are drafted and reviewed separately, the 

Management Plan expresses a goal of ultimate integration. Maritime heritage 

in the monument has the distinct honor and opportunity to be integrated with 

living Native Hawaiian cultural practices and traditions.

Kalepa Babayan navigating 

to Nihoa on the Hawaiian 

sailing canoe Hōkūle‘a

(Kaimana Barcase).

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3 1

CHAPTER THREE

Research

Opposite Hi‘ialakai recovers 

small boats at the end of a work 

day (NOAA / Kelly Gleason).

Research is a critical maritime heritage activity that is called out in the 

Monument Management Plan. In addition to fulfilling mandates for inventory 

of maritime heritage resources, research provides the body of knowledge that 

supports education and outreach efforts.

Oral history, myths and legends, landscapes, and material culture work in 

concert to tell the story of the human relationship with the sea in the NWHI. 

Research encompasses an array of activities, from examination of archival records, to documentation of oral histories, to search and survey for new maritime 

heritage sites using remote sensing techniques, to the manual documentation of 

maritime heritage sites.

Field research is an integral component of unveiling this complex story. 

Moreover, a headquarters-level MHP performance measure requires that 100% 

of known historical, cultural, and archaeological resources within each national 

marine sanctuary and monument boundary be inventoried in NOAA’s Maritime 

Archaeological Resources (ARCH) database by 2015. This performance measure does not presume any level of archaeological documentation—only that the 

physical site is known and has been entered into the database.

Most field research in PMNM is conducted through diver surveys (snorkel and 

scuba), during which underwater maritime heritage sites are mapped. The first 

systematic survey of heritage resources in the NWHI was conducted in 2002 by 

a small volunteer team during a multidisciplinary research cruise. In 2004, the 

NOAA research vessel Hi‘ialakai became a dedicated NOAA National Ocean 

Service (NOS) asset in Honolulu. Equipped with a shipboard recompression 

chamber, a chamber operator on staff, and an air compressor and dive lockers for 

“I was delighted and astounded to hear of the discovery of the Two Brother’s remains. 

This is what underwater archaeology is all about: finding the physical evidence that 

makes the long ago past real.” 

NATHANIEL PHILBRICK, AUTHOR, IN THE HEART OF THE SEA
3 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

scientific personnel, this ship is uniquely suited for diving expeditions in remote 

atolls. In 2005, Hi‘ialakai became the primary platform for maritime heritage 

research in the Monument, supporting annual PMNM-led multidisciplinary 

surveys. In even-numbered years beginning in 2008, one research expedition is 

led by the maritime heritage team (with “piggyback” missions on board). This 

allows the maritime heritage team to have a greater influence on the itinerary 

and berthing plan. Maritime heritage surveys are also possible using air travel to 

Midway Atoll and French Frigate Shoals, or by charter vessel to the NWHI.

3.1 Goals

Though a great deal of research has been conducted in the NWHI, a tremendous amount remains to be done. This section highlights some potential research 

gaps and needs to inform priorities for future endeavors. Many of these focus areas were identified in the 2-day Maritime Heritage Research Plan Workshop in 

February 2010. Strategy MH-1 of the Maritime Heritage Action Plan (below) 

establishes the broad goals and the activities by which to achieve them.

Strategy MH-1: Document and inventory maritime heritage resources throughout the life of the plan.

Studying and protecting maritime heritage resources begin with basic documentary 

research and field site surveys. These activities are similar to those involved with 

ecosystem research. Both involve consolidation of past research and archival data, 

scientific SCUBA diving operations, and bathymetric mapping and remote sensing 

surveys. Maritime heritage surveys are compatible with planned multitasking missions, interagency cooperation, and operational efficiency.

Activity MH-1.1: Identify, collect, and review publications, data sets, and documents 

annually. Archival research and review of existing documents are the first steps in 

creating and confirming the maritime heritage resource inventory in the NWHI, as 

well as in formulating an effective field survey plan. Documents from at least two 

maritime heritage sites will be added to the site database per year.

Activity MH-1.2: Plan and carry out coordinated field mapping surveys of selected sites 

annually. Conducting field mapping surveys is the next step in understanding and 

interpreting heritage sites. Techniques can include shoreline terrestrial survey and 

inventory; marine remote sensing using magnetometer and sidescan sonar to locate 

potential heritage targets; and noninvasive diving surveys to assess and inventory sites (Dean 1992). These phases generally take place during multidisciplinary 

research cruises and are the result of coordinated interagency planning. Results are 

incorporated into a comprehensive Monument maritime heritage resource inventory maintained by ONMS. As an ongoing annual activity, maritime heritage field 

surveys will be conducted and progress reports will be completed annually.

Top NOAA Ship Hi‘ialakai at 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll 

(NOAA / Greg McFall).

Bot tom Cathy Green, Tane 

Casserley, and Jason Raupp work 

on the site plan for the Churchill

at French Frigate Shoals 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3 3

Activity MH-1.3: Complete a status report on potential environmental hazards within 

1 year, and update it annually. Wreck sites and other debris can represent potential 

environmental hazards that may be identified through field survey work. The MMB 

will be informed of any discovered potential hazards in order to assess the need 

for response or remediation (see Section 3.3.4, Emergency Response and Natural 

Resource Damage Assessment Action Plan). A status report on potential environmental hazards from wreck sites, disposal, etc. will be compiled by year 1 and 

updated annually.

Activity MH-1.4: Develop status report on maritime heritage artifact recovery operations 

within two years, and recover and conserve maritime heritage artifacts as appropriate. 

When excavation and analysis of material remains are appropriate for site interpretation, and when these tasks can be done in a manner that respects the integrity of 

the ecosystem and the environmental goals of the Monument, recovery of selected 

artifacts is a way of bringing the data to the public, rather than taking more visitors to the NWHI site. Such recovery will be carried out through the established 

permitting processes of the Monument (see Section 3.4.1, Permitting Action Plan, 

and Appendix A). A status report on potential and completed maritime heritage 

recovery operations will be completed by year 2 and updated annually.

Activity MH-1.5: Develop and implement an internal maritime heritage resource database within 5 years. An internal database of known maritime heritage resources will 

be established and maintained by the Monument maritime archaeologist for the 

prioritization of targets, to be completed by year 5.

A view of scientists and their 

gear en route to a dive site at 

Pearl and Hermes Atoll

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
3 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

3.2 Context

The archaeological survey projects carried out to date are summarized below. 

Individual site reports and more in-depth project reports are available from the 

Monument upon request.

3.2.1 MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEYS

2002 SURVEY

The 2002 maritime archaeological survey was the first systematic survey for 

maritime heritage resources in the NWHI. A small team led by NOAA maritime archaeologist and Principal Investigator Hans Van Tilburg included 

Suzanne Finney and Marc Hughes of the University of Hawai‘i. The 2002 

survey was conducted quickly and with basic hand tools, as time was limited 

at each atoll visited during the 2002 Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral 

Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program expedition. Maritime heritage sites 

were often documented in a single dive before the team had to move on to the 

next site. Prior to the expedition, Van Tilburg developed a thorough inventory 

of potential sites based on interviews with scientists and review of newspaper 

collections, maritime texts, damage assessment records, and numerous archival 

sources. At that time, 51 potential sites had been identified. This report is an 

excellent reference guide for the potential and existing sites in the NWHI (Van 

Tilburg 2002). 

2003 SURVEY

In August and September 2003, a small maritime archaeology team conducted 

several days of survey at Kure and Midway Atolls. The team included Principal 

Investigator and NOAA maritime archaeologist Hans Van Tilburg, Bradley 

Rodgers and Kelly Gleason of East Carolina University, and Andy Lydecker of 

Panamerican Consultants Inc. All operations were conducted from the NOAA 

Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve (CRER) vessel Mana Cat. The project included 

maritime archaeological survey dives on known and newly discovered maritime 

heritage sites, diver surveys to search for new sites, and remote sensing operations. The team conducted several days of magnetometer surveys, and the results 

included discovery of the Navy side-wheel steam vessel USS Saginaw at Kure 

Atoll and documentation of the American sailing ship Carrollton and USS 

Macaw at Midway Atoll (Van Tilburg 2003). 

2005 SURVEY

Between May 14 and June 7, 2005, a team of five MHP archaeologists participated in a 25-day expedition to the NWHI aboard Hi‘ialakai. The team, led by 

Principal Investigator and ONMS Pacific Islands Region maritime heritage 

Field research is an 

integral component of 

unveiling the complex 

story told through oral 

history, myths and 

legends, landscapes, and 

material culture work.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3 5

coordinator Dr. Van Tilburg, included NOAA maritime archaeologists John 

Broadwater, Robert Schwemmer, Tane Casserley, and Kelly Gleason. Work in 

2005 included remote sensing survey at French Frigate Shoals, dive surveys 

of Maro Reef, maritime archaeological surveys at Pearl and Hermes and Kure 

Atolls, and the collection of extensive photo and high-definition video documentation of maritime heritage sites by NOAA Ocean Media Center filmmaker John Brooks. 

The 2005 survey work focused on the archaeological survey of the wrecks of 

whaling ships discovered by NMFS Coral Reef Ecosystem Division (CRED) 

divers in 2004. All evidence suggests that these are the British whalers Pearl 

and Hermes (after which the atoll was named), which ran aground on April 24, 

1822. The ships were on their way from Honolulu to hunt for whales on the 

newly discovered Japan Grounds when they crashed into the reef; the castaways 

endured 4 months on Southeast Island.

Fixed baselines were established at two fore reef sites in the rough surf and 

surge zone, and the maritime archaeologists collected photo documentation 

and measurement data for a site plan. Anchors, trypots (cauldrons for rendering 

whale oil), and portions of the tryworks (structures built to house the trypots) 

Filmmaker Ziggy Livnat 

documents the wing section of 

a World War II–era Corsair at 

Midway Atoll (NOAA / Tane 

Casserley).
3 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3 7

were documented. Divers have now counted six cannon, seven trypots, five 

anchors, and numerous other artifacts at these sites. The team recovered several 

small diagnostic artifacts to be conserved for research and outreach. 

The team also conducted survey work at Kure Atoll, where the entire bow section of a nineteenth-century wooden whaling ship was lifted over the reef and 

deposited in the calm lagoon waters. Among other artifacts resting inside the 

lagoon are anchors, chain, windlass, and deck machinery. This ship may be the 

American whaler Parker lost at Kure in 1842 during a storm, after which the 

castaways made their way to Green Island. John Brooks collected video footage of maritime heritage sites for documentation, as well as for development of 

outreach products such as a short documentary film. The 2005 expedition was 

the first of what have become annual Monument-led multidisciplinary research 

expeditions to the NWHI (Van Tilburg 2005). 

2006 SURVEY

In July 2006, a six person maritime archaeology team, including ONMS Pacific 

Islands Region maritime heritage coordinator Dr. Hans Van Tilburg; ONMS 

Pacific Islands Region maritime archaeologist Dr. Kelly Gleason; ONMS 

maritime archaeologists Tane Casserley, Brenda Altmeier, Robert Schwemmer; 

and intern Lindsey Thomas, conducted 17 days of survey at Pearl and Hermes, 

Midway, and Kure Atolls. While at Kure Atoll, the team completed Phase 2 

(completed site documentation including site plan) surveys of the Parker site 

and the USS Saginaw site. The team was able to identify and conduct an initial Phase 1 survey (preliminary site assessment) of the British sailing vessel 

Dunnottar Castle. At Pearl and Hermes Atoll the team completed a Phase 2 site 

plan survey of the British whaler Pearl, and documented an unidentified wreck 

site called the “Oshima” site (Van Tilburg 2006). 

2007 SURVEY

The 2007 Hi‘ialakai expedition was hindered by mechanical issues that shortened the duration of the trip before the ship even left port; nevertheless, the 

project was a tremendous success. The 2007 maritime heritage team included 

ONMS maritime archaeologists Dr. Hans Van Tilburg, Dr. Kelly Gleason, Tane 

Casserley, and PMNM Deputy Superintendent Sean Corson. 

At French Frigate Shoals the team investigated metal debris initially discovered 

in October 2005 by CRED divers. Preliminary dives revealed a major portion of 

a very large wooden sailing vessel. Site artifacts included parts of the windlass, 

small capstan, spar/mast reinforcing bands, two hawse pipes, three large iron anchors, numerous blocks and pulleys, large-diameter wire rope, chain plates and 

deadeyes, large fasteners or bolts, copper drift pins, chain (anchor cable), copper 

Opposite Hoku Johnson dives 

down to peer into a trypot at the 

Pearl shipwreck site (NOAA / 

Tane Casserley).
3 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

sheathing, ship’s pump, port hole, wire rope strops, lead scupper pipes, and other 

metal debris. These are all consistent with a late-nineteenth or early-twentieth 

century wooden sailing vessel. The site is likely the wreck of the wooden fourmasted 665-ton sailing schooner Churchill. Churchill was sailing with a cargo of 

copra bound for the west coast when, due to strong currents, she struck a reef 

and sank in 1917. 

The team also investigated the remains of the 440-foot Liberty ship Quartette 

(former U.S. Navy vessel USS James Swan), which ran aground at Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll in 1952. At this time the team was only able to investigate the 

bow section forward of the superstructure, which was carried over the reef into 

the shallow back reef. The team located major features of the wreck (e.g., masts, 

fairleads, superstructure, deck features, bridge features) in an area of more than 

45,000 square meters. 

While transiting at Pearl and Hermes Atoll, the wreckage of a fairly modern 

sailing vessel was spotted by coxswain Gaetano Mauritzio. The fiberglass cabin, 

stainless steel transom rail, attached outboard engine and associated rigging and 

fiberglass material indicated a modern sailing vessel possibly 10–12 feet in beam 

and 40–60 feet long (Van Tilburg 2007). 

2008 SURVEY

The 2008 survey was the first maritime heritage–led expedition on Hi‘ialakai; 

previous voyages had carried maritime heritage efforts as piggyback missions. 

The opportunity to lead a research cruise allowed the maritime heritage team to 

Scientists meet nightly on board 

a research expedition on the 

NOAA vessel Hi‘ialakai 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 3 9

have greater influence on the cruise schedule and allowed more berthing space 

for maritime archaeologists. The 2008 maritime archaeology team included 

Principal Investigator and PMNM maritime heritage coordinator Dr. Kelly 

Gleason, ONMS Pacific Islands Region maritime heritage coordinator Dr. 

Hans Van Tilburg, ONMS MHP national coordinator Tane Casserley, ONMS 

Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary education coordinator Cathy Green, 

Flinders University Research Fellow Jason Raupp, Sea History Magazine editor 

Deirdre O’Regan, and Open Boat Films filmmaker Stephani Gordon. 

The team conducted activities to fulfill four main tasks in keeping with 

Monument objectives to identify new maritime heritage sites and develop education and outreach strategies: 

•	 Non-invasive assessment surveys of selected wreck sites.

•	 The schooner Churchill at French Frigate Shoals.

•	 The whaling ship Hermes at Pearl and Hermes Atoll.

•	 The sailing ship Dunnottar Castle at Kure Atoll.

•	 The newly discovered whaling ship Gledstanes at Kure Atoll.

•	 The unidentified whaling shipwreck at French Frigate Shoals (later

identified to be the Nantucket whaling ship Two Brothers). 

•	 Snorkeler towboard survey of areas with high potential for wreck sites—

specifically Kure Atoll, French Frigate Shoals, and Pearl and Hermes Atoll.

•	 Recovery of three selected artifacts from shipwreck sites at Kure Atoll

(Section 106 compliance complete, Navy permit approved) for the purposes 

of education, outreach, and research.

•	 Collection of high-definition film footage for an education and outreach

video product. 

Snorkel towboard surveys proved successful for the discovery of an unidentified 

whaling shipwreck site at French Frigate Shoals. Towboard surveys involve two 

snorkelers being towed behind a small boat at a slow (approximately 2 knots/

hour) speed to survey a wide area of the seafloor. In 2008, towboard surveys 

were also conducted at Pearl and Hermes and Midway Atolls.

Documentation of Churchill and Hermes concluded the Phase 2 archaeological 

survey (completed site documentation including site plan) of these two sites. 

The survey was conducted using baseline trilateration methods. The Phase 1 

survey (preliminary site assessment) of Dunnottar Castle, conducted using baseline offsets and visual assessments of artifacts and feature orientation to be used 

as an interpretation and outreach tool. Documentation of Gledstanes and the 
4 0 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

previously unidentified whaling shipwreck site at French Frigate Shoals began 

the Phase 2 surveys using baseline trilateration; site plans were to be used for 

interpretation and outreach. Further surveys of these newly discovered sites may 

be necessary to determine the full extent of the sites’ boundaries.

The 2008 survey accomplished all the articulated mission goals. Interpretation 

of these sites is ongoing, and education and outreach products are developed on 

completion of fieldwork and data processing (Gleason 2008). 

2009 SURVEY

A three-person maritime archaeology team conducted 16 days of survey in the 

Monument in June 2009. The team was part of a larger, 20-person scientific 

expedition on Hi‘ialakai that included work at Kure, Midway, and Pearl and 

Hermes Atolls; French Frigate Shoals; and Laysan Island. Maritime archaeology was a piggyback mission in 2009, limiting the team’s access to daily boat 

space and time at individual sites. 

A primary objective of the 2009 maritime heritage mission was to support 

Derek Smith, a graduate student at Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology, as he 

began his thesis research to compare the structure of biological communities at 

maritime heritage sites to that of surrounding habitats. To carry out this work, 

Smith, Ann Mooney of PMNM, and Monument maritime heritage coordinator 

and Principal Investigator Dr. Kelly Gleason conducted diving surveys at five 

shipwreck sites over the course of 16 days. The team collected data on benthic 

community structure and substrate type, fish population, and coral population 

genetics, as well as oceanographic information including temperature, salinity, pH, wave height, tidal range, and dissolved oxygen at both shipwreck and 

control sites. The goal of the project was to create a snapshot of the shipwreck 

ecosystem to determine if there are differences between it and that of the control sites. 

The management implications of this kind of study are important to help 

maritime heritage managers understand the interactions, impacts, and potential 

benefits of shipwreck sites. Smith’s work will contribute to the development of 

long-term monitoring strategies by helping to identify quantitative environmental parameters and to build an understanding of shipwreck sites as part of the 

larger ecosystem. This pilot study was a tremendous success.

In addition to the environmental assessments at maritime heritage sites, the 

2009 survey included further surveys at several known shipwreck sites in the 

Monument. While surveying at the unidentified whaling ship at French Frigate 

Shoals first discovered the previous year (referred to as the Shark Island Whaler), 

the team came across an exciting new portion of the site. In addition to the disThe management 

implications of 2009 

study are important to 

help maritime heritage 

managers understand 

the interactions, impacts, 

and potential benefits of 

shipwreck sites. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 4 1

covery of a fourth trypot, three blubber hooks, a grinding wheel, and a kedge anchor, the team found four small (40 cm high by 40 cm wide) cast iron pots that 

resemble small trypots. Further research revealed that these small cast iron pots 

were imported to Nantucket in the early nineteenth century for use on whaling ships. Thus, field research conducted in June 2009 initiated an exciting new 

multidisciplinary project in the Monument, as well as building documentation 

and interpretation of the Shark Island Whaler site (this is the site determined in 

2011 to be the Nantucket whale ship Two Brothers) (Gleason 2009). 

Above Kelly Gleason measures 

the diameter of a grinding stone 

used to sharpen tools on board 

the whaleship Two Brothers 

(NOAA / Derek Smith).

Lef t One of four trypots 

discovered at the Two Brothers

shipwreck site (NOAA / Tane 

Casserley).
4 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

2010 SURVEY

In May and June 2010, maritime heritage led the 25-day research expedition 

in the Monument. The eight-person maritime heritage team consisted of three 

smaller teams: a two-person remote sensing team running sidescan sonar and 

magnetometer operations at each atoll from the NOAA small boat HI-2; a 

three-person ecological assessment team conducting a biogeographical study on 

maritime heritage sites; and a three-person maritime archaeology team conducting site surveys, documentation, and interpretation of new and known maritime 

heritage sites. 

Over the course of 25 days, the team visited French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski 

Island, Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, and Nihoa Island. 

Personnel consisted of PMNM maritime heritage coordinator Dr. Kelly 

Gleason; Jason Raupp of Flinders University; Alysia Curdts, Derek Smith, 

Nyssa Silbiger, and Anne Rosinski of the Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology; 

and Michael Krivor and Jason Burns of SEARCH, Inc. While at French Frigate 

Shoals, the maritime archaeology team (Gleason, Raupp, and Curdts) continued 

documentation of the site of an early nineteenth-century whaling ship discovered during the 2008 survey. The discovery of dozens of new artifacts—including five whaling harpoon tips, lances, datable ceramics, kitchenware, bottle glass, 

an early nineteenth-century sounding lead, rigging, blubber hooks, and ballast—

gave the team a wealth of new information, which was used to narrow down the 

identity of the site as the Nantucket whale ship Two Brothers wrecked at French 

Frigate Shoals in February of 1823. 

Work at the site included the recovery of one of the whaling harpoon tips for 

analysis, treatment, and interpretation. Harpoons were usually etched with the 

name of the ship and maker, so there is hope that careful treatment and the 

creation of a mold of the artifact will yield significant information about the 

site. The team created a site plan that documents the location and distribution 

of artifacts in an area of the site that was discovered during the 2009 survey. 

The team also documented a total of four new vessels during 2 days of work at 

Lisianski Island, including a large section of a late-nineteenth-century woodenhulled sailing vessel and the remains of three modern vessels.

The remote sensing team Krivor and Burns from SEARCH covered approximately 300 line miles of survey over the course of 15 survey days. In addition 

to searching for new wrecks, the remote sensing team successfully surveyed the 

extent of areas of new sites. Sidescan sonar mosaics that will be created will offer 

valuable multidisciplinary utility and will contribute to broader mapping efforts 

in the Monument by providing refined areas of survey.

In May and June 2010, 

maritime heritage led 

the 25-day research 

expedition in the 

Monument. The success 

of the cruise—like the 

continued broadening 

of the maritime heritage 

research efforts in the 

Monument—is the 

result of the tremendous 

effort and dedication of 

the maritime heritage 

team who participated in 

this survey. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 4 3

The ecological assessment team (Smith, Silbiger, and Rosinski) compiled a picture of the environment surrounding six maritime heritage sites that collectively 

span more than 180 years. The team conducted 35 transect surveys to document 

fish species richness and abundance, rugosity, and benthic community structure. 

The team also collected 5 days of continuous oceanographic data, retrieved and 

deployed data loggers, and collected coral samples for genetic analysis and connectivity research.

The success of the cruise—like the continued broadening of the maritime heritage research efforts in the Monument—is the result of the tremendous 

effort and dedication of the maritime heritage team who participated in the 

2010 survey. 

Following a successful maritime heritage cruise in May 2010, PMNM maritime heritage coordinator Kelly Gleason returned to the Two Brothers whaling 

shipwreck site at French Frigate Shoals during a subsequent research cruise to 

the NWHI in August 2010. After acquiring the appropriate permits, Gleason 

and a small team of scientists recovered two more whaling harpoon tips, two 

whaling lance tips, two ceramic sherds, and a cast iron cooking pot. All these artifacts were immediately transported to a conservation laboratory in California. 

Research following the work at the French Frigate Shoals whaling shipwreck 

site in 2010 led maritime archaeologists to determine that the identity of the 

ship was Two Brothers, a Nantucket whaling ship whose captain, George Pollard 

Jr., was also the unfortunate captain of the whaleship Essex. The identity was 

released to the public in February 2011 (Gleason 2010).

BATTLE OF MIDWAY

In January 2009, the Monument maritime archaeologist, Monument geographic 

information system (GIS) specialist, and FWS archaeologist conducted one 

week of terrestrial survey of World War II–related sites at Midway Atoll. This 

project began as a grant-funded collaborative effort and has become an ongoing collaboration to integrate the land and sea sites associated with the Battle of 

Midway. Planned outcomes for this project include an interactive GIS database 

of Battle of Midway sites—one version would be designed for managers and 

another for public outreach. 

Next steps include further remote sensing survey at Midway Atoll for maritime heritage sites associated with the battle and continued development of the 

Battle of Midway GIS database project. This ongoing project highlights the 

abundant potential for integrating research and stewardship of maritime heritage resources in the Monument through institutional collaboration (SpeuldaDrews 2010).
4 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

3.2.2 ARTIFACT RECOVERY, CONSERVATION, AND ANALYSIS

In 2005, permits were obtained to recover several small, diagnostic artifacts 

associated with three whaling shipwreck sites. These artifacts held the potential to yield information about the origins and dates of the shipwreck sites. The 

artifacts were all documented on the seafloor, recovered from hard substrate, and 

photographed and kept in a salt/freshwater mixture until they were brought to 

Honolulu, at which point they were packaged and shipped to the conservation 

facility in California.

In 2007, funding was secured to begin to develop a small maritime heritage 

exhibit at the Monument’s Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in Hilo, Hawai‘i. In 

2008, permits were obtained to recover three artifacts that would serve as the 

centerpieces of this exhibit: two ship’s bells and a sounding lead from two shipwreck sites at Kure Atoll. The justification for their recovery was the potential to 

positively identify the sites, as well as their education and outreach potential in 

the exhibit in Hilo. 

Interpretive display of these artifacts allows maritime archaeologists to share the 

Parker, Pearl, Hermes, and USS Saginaw stories with the public, most of whom 

will never have the opportunity to visit the remote atolls of the Monument. 

Moreover, study of the artifacts will aid in the confirmation of the sites’ identities, and the artifacts will provide the opportunity for further maritime heritage research. Finally, the recovery of artifacts serves the invaluable purpose of 

preservation and protection of nonrenewable resources, in the event of unlawful 

looting or disturbance by divers. For all these reasons, managers have determined that there are compelling reasons for the recovery of specific artifacts: 

conservation, protection, research, and outreach. 

In August 2008, a maritime archaeology team discovered an unidentified 

nineteenth-century whaling shipwreck site at French Frigate Shoals. On further 

investigation of the site in June 2009, a small team discovered the tip of a whaling harpoon resting in coral rubble. Such an artifact is significant for its potential to identify the site. Several types of markings with diagnostic potential may 

be found on whalecraft such as whaling harpoons. A blacksmith mark, stamped 

with a name, could help date an iron and identify its origin. The identity of the 

ship, as well as of the individual whaleboat, was often placed on harpoons, but 

not on other whalecraft. If a whale was struck and then lost and another ship 

subsequently took that whale, the sailors would find the harpoon from the first 

ship and maintain ownership and proceeds of that whale to the first ship (Lytle 

1984). For these reasons, the harpoon tip was an exciting and valuable find. 

Managers have 

determined that there 

are compelling reasons 

for the recovery of 

specific artifacts: 

conservation, protection, 

research, and outreach. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 4 5

Top Stephani Gordon 

documents the recovery of 

the ship’s bell at the Parker

shipwreck site at Kure Atoll 

(NOAA / Tane Casserley).

Center Lef t Cathy Green 

documents the bell of the USS 

Saginaw in the Hi‘ialakai’s 

wetlab (NOAA / Tane 

Casserley).

Center Right CSU Chico 

students clean and conserve a 

cast iron cooking pot recovered 

from the Two Brothers shipwreck 

(Georgia Fox).

Bot tom A bottle neck 

recovered from the Pearl

shipwreck site (Georgia Fox).
4 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

In May 2010, permits were obtained to recover and conserve the whaling 

harpoon tip at the French Frigate Shoals site. Once thoroughly recorded on the 

seafloor, the harpoon was recovered and transferred according to proper protocol. During the May 2010 survey of the site, several significant new artifacts 

were discovered and documented: four more whaling harpoon tips, whaling 

lance tips, ceramics, and glass, among dozens of other artifacts dating to the 

early nineteenth century. Because no permits had been obtained for any artifacts other than the original harpoon tip, all artifacts were documented in place. 

Monument staff determined that these new artifacts warranted a permit amendment on the basis of their potential to yield valuable information and to serve 

as outreach tools as part of the Lost on a Reef exhibit at Mokupāpapa Discovery 

Center (and other similar exhibits). In August 2010, the Monument maritime 

archaeologist recovered two whaling harpoon tips, two lances, and two pieces of 

ceramic. These were again documented and transferred to the conservation facility in California for conservation and analysis in accordance with appropriate 

transport protocol. 

All artifact recovery and conservation to date has occurred under the direction 

of Dr. Georgia L. Fox of the Heritage Resources Conservation Laboratory at 

California State University, Chico. Reports of work conducted in 2005, 2008, 

and 2010 detail specific methods and techniques (Fox 2006, 2010); these are 

available on request. Research conducted during the conservation and analysis of 

these artifacts informed several scholarly articles and presentations.

3.2.3 COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH

Descriptions of some outstanding student projects are provided below.

A Maritime History of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands from Laysan to Kure, 

Tane Renata Casserley (1998)

Tane Casserley, a graduate certificate candidate in Maritime Archaeology and 

History in the Marine Option Program at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, 

compiled one of the earliest descriptions of maritime history in the NWHI, 

focusing on the islands from Laysan to Kure Atoll. His effort to compile the 

previous available data into a single body of work has proven an invaluable resource for both researchers and managers. Casserley’s work drew heavily on the 

Atoll Research Bulletin published by the Smithsonian Institution, as well as on 

manuscripts from the Bishop Museum in Honolulu, Hawai‘i, and the Hawaiian 

and Pacific Collections of the Hamilton Library at the University of Hawai‘i, 

through which he developed a historical record of the NWHI (focusing mainly 

on shipwrecks) until the early 1940s.

Maritime archaeologists search 

for shipwreck sites at French 

Frigate Shoals on towboards 

(NOAA / Tane Casserley).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 4 7

Wales to Pacific Whales: The British South Sea Whaling Trade in the Early 19th 

Century, Kehaulani Suzanne Kerr (2008)

This study focuses on the archaeological evidence of British whaling ships in 

the South Seas during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. It 

attempts to bring together disparate sources regarding the British South Sea 

whaling trade: the few published works that describe the British occupation in 

the Pacific Ocean in the early nineteenth century, archaeological material, and 

iconographic sources. This paper examines the period from the beginning of the 

South Sea trade in 1775 to the 1840s, when the whaling trade was in decline. 

Kerr’s primary research questions are developed using the wrecks of Pearl and 

Hermes in the historical context of the British South Sea trade.

Historical Ecology of Coral Reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago, John N. ( Jack) 

Kittinger (2010)

This dissertation examines the historical relationship between human societies 

and coral reef ecosystem conditions over the past millennium in the Hawaiian 

Archipelago by integrating archaeological data, anecdotal historical accounts, 

ethnographic information, and modern ecological and social data. Research 

results revealed historical periods of reef recovery, including a recovery in the 

NWHI from ~AD 1950 to the present day. These recovery periods—which are 

attributed to a complex set of social factors including depopulation and demographic change, economic transformations, and ecosystem protections—served 

to release reefs from human stressors. This novel finding of recovery periods 

suggests that coral reef ecosystems can exhibit resilience to impacts if stressors 

are reduced over large spatial and temporal scales; it challenges conventional 

assumptions and reported findings that human impacts are cumulative and lead 

only to long-term trajectories of ecosystem decline. 

Cuttin’ in and Tryin’ out: Industrial Perspectives on 19th Century American and 

British Whaling Ships, Jason Raupp (2010)

This research seeks to explore the industrial nature of pelagic whaling ships that 

operated in the Pacific region in the early to mid-nineteenth century. It attempts 

to contextualize the industrial experience and working environment through 

the historical and archaeological investigation of the whaling ships wrecked in 

PMNM. These sites represent well-preserved and untouched examples of the 

physical remains of whaling vessels that operated in the Pacific. The tropical reef 

environment of the region, as well as other natural and cultural factors that have 

affected site formation, have resulted in archaeological deposits characterized 

by the non-wooden artifacts of the industry. The comparable time periods and 
4 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

contrasting nationalities represented suggest that in-depth study of the artifact 

assemblages and site distributions could shed light on technological differences 

between the contemporary fleets as well as changes over time. Examination of 

the technological developments, industrial processes, and social and cultural 

conditions on board these ships will facilitate a better understanding of this 

important aspect of world maritime heritage.

The Ecology of Shipwrecks: an Assessment of Biodiversity, Derek Smith (2010)

The purpose of this research was to determine if each shipwreck site studied 

supports a distinct ecosystem and if there are residual effects from shipwreck 

disturbances that manifest as differences between wreck sites and surrounding 

coral reef communities. The ecological survey data collected allowed for a comparative analysis among sites to identify patterns in reef recovery. These data also 

established a baseline for continued monitoring and conservation efforts. The 

results of this study will help inform future management decisions regarding the 

preservation and protection of maritime heritage resources. 

3.2.4 ARCHIVAL RESEARCH

Because the maritime history of so many nations has involved the Hawaiian 

archipelago, archival resources pertaining to the NWHI have the potential to 

exist in depositories worldwide. Accordingly, archival projects have involved 

partnerships with agencies and organizations locally, nationally, and internationally. One example is the contract awarded in 2010 to SEARCH, Inc., to 

conduct archival research specific to the Battle of Midway. The resulting report, Maritime Heritage Remote Sensing Survey of Papahānaumokuākea Marine 

National Monument, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Archival Research Report, 

reflects hours of effort at the Naval Historical Center (Aviation History Section 

and Navy Department Library), NARA, and NARA Pacific Region (SEARCH 

2010). 

3.3 Prioritized Actions 

Research through continued exploration and interpretation of maritime heritage 

sites remains a priority. Inventory and characterization of maritime heritage 

resources is still in its initial phases—fewer than one-sixth of potential maritime 

heritage sites have been located to date. Over the next 5 years, research should 

be broadened to include research beyond physical sites, more diverse partnership 

efforts, and interpretation of the Monument’s maritime history in a context of 

millennia rather than centuries. 

Over the next 5 years, 

research should be 

broadened to include 

research beyond physical 

sites, more diverse 

partnership efforts, and 

interpretation of the 

Monument’s maritime 

history in a context of 

millennia rather than 

centuries. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 4 9

3.3.1 EXPLORATION AND INVENTORY

AIRCRAFT AT MIDWAY ATOLL

The 70th anniversary of the Battle of Midway is in June 2012. To enhance public interest in the remembrance of this crucial battle, the MHP should pursue 

exploration to identify the sites of more than 70 aircraft lost in the vicinity of 

Midway Atoll.

In 2010, an extensive archival research project was undertaken to determine the 

extent of aircraft loss in association with the battle (SEARCH 2010). The next 

step is exploration to identify individual sites. The initial phase of exploration 

will entail a partnership effort with NMFS CRED or another organization with 

similar remote sensing capacity.

ONGOING EXPLORATION

Only 15% of the potential maritime heritage resources in PMNM have been 

located to date. Forthcoming inventory efforts should be focused on French 

Frigate Shoals (whaling shipwreck sites); Lisianski Island (whaling wrecks 

Holder Borden and Konohasset, and cannon jettisoned by Russian explorer Urey 

Lisiansky); and submerged cultural and maritime heritage resources around 

Nihoa and Mokumanamana. Successful magnetometer and sidescan sonar surveys were conducted in some of these areas in 2010; the next phase of exploration should entail AUV and multibeam sonar surveys. 

REEXAMINATION OF REMOTE SENSING DATA

Multibeam data previously collected by Hi‘ialakai and the NMFS CRED small 

boat AHI should be reexamined for their potential to yield maritime heritage 

targets. Initial processing of data for benthic habitat classification efforts often 

USS Enterprise SBD-2 scoutbombers over the Pacific, circa 

late 1941 (NARA).

Maritime archaeologists used 

NMFS CRED’s AHI multibeam 

small vessel to conduct remotely 

operated vehicle operations 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer).
5 0 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

resulted in overlooking data that could be relevant for maritime heritage managers. Anomalies indicating shipwreck and aircraft sites may exist in the multibeam data, but further processing efforts are required.

PREPARATION OF A PMNM MARITIME CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDY

As stated in the 2011 ONMS MHP Tactical Plan, the MHP will emphasize 

all aspects of heritage, including maritime culture in its broadest definition of 

human interaction with the lakes and seas, as well as overviews of maritime use 

and activity as characterized in the “maritime cultural landscape” approach. The 

MHP is adopting this approach to assessing sites within the National Marine 

Sanctuary System, as well as sites worthy of designation as sanctuaries. By 

examining a breadth of resources—such as names on charts, traditional fishing 

grounds, anchorages, navigational aids, historic shipping lanes, submerged prehistoric landscapes, and habitation sites—the MHP redefines and expands the 

scope of maritime heritage within the ONMS to include sites that do not possess resources such as shipwrecks, which have hitherto been the primary focus 

of MHP’s activities (Delgado 2011). Papahānaumokuākea will also become the 

subject of a Program-wide effort to develop a Maritime Cultural Landscape of 

the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.

3.3.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND MARITIME HERITAGE RESOURCES

As the body of knowledge regarding climate change increases, the possible effects of climate change on maritime heritage resources continue to gain importance. The connection between climate change and maritime heritage resources 

should be qualitatively and quantitatively examined, and documentation addressing these concerns should be developed by 2012.

3.3.3 PUBLICATION

Scholarly publications are addressed here because of their close relationship to 

research. Publication in the context of popular media is addressed in Chapter 4, 

Education and Outreach.

SCHOLARLY LITERATURE ON PMNM MARITIME HERITAGE PROJECTS

Publication in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals is an important component of 

any research project. All major PMNM maritime heritage projects should be 

assessed for publication either as internal ONMS/MHP reports or through a 

scholarly press. Although outreach materials have been developed, a paucity of 

peer-reviewed literature concerning PMNM maritime heritage sites has been 

published to date. Recent publications relative to the discovery of the Two 

Brothers whaling ship include papers in the Bulletin of Australasian Institute for 

Opposite Nihoa 

(Wayne Levin).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5 1
5 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Maritime Archaeology (Raupp and Gleason 2010), Historical Nantucket (Gleason 

and Raupp 2010), and The Explorers Journal (Delgado and Gleason 2011). 

Beginning with this work, at least one scholarly article (addressing sites such 

as Dunnottar Castle or Churchill) should be submitted to an appropriate journal 

each year. Examples of important journals for archaeologists include Historical 

Archaeology, the International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, and the Journal of 

Field Archaeology. Effort should be made to broaden the publication audience 

to include journals focusing on traditional culture, history, and a wide range of 

scientific disciplines. 

Books are another important venue for publication. ONMS Pacific Islands 

Region Maritime Heritage Coordinator Hans Van Tilburg detailed the history 

and rediscovery of the USS Saginaw, a pioneer U.S. Navy ship in the Pacific, 

whose wreck resulted in an epic open boat voyage to bring rescue for the survivors, in A Civil War Gunboat in Pacific Waters. Like Saginaw, the saga of the Two 

Brothers has potential for an engaging and informative book. 

SHIPWRECK SURVIVOR CAMPS

PMNM maritime heritage staff has begun a collaborative, multidisciplinary 

project to investigate the ecological impacts of shipwreck survivor camps in the 

NWHI. While the progress of research was presented informally at a research 

conference in 2011, a scholarly article should be developed and submitted by the 

end of 2012.

3.3.4 NATIVE HAWAIIAN CULTURE

To date, no underwater surveys to investigate submerged cultural resources 

have been undertaken around Nihoa and Mokumanamana. Because Nihoa 

and Mokumanamana feature the archaeological landscapes of residential sites, 

agricultural terraces, and ceremonial complexes from settlements where Native 

Hawaiians resided between 1000 and 1700 AD (Cleghorn 1988), the seafloor 

certainly has the potential to yield examples of material culture lost or thrown 

overboard during attempts to transfer gear and supplies between sailing vessels 

and the islands. Survey for material culture directly related to the transport of 

canoes, including anchors and possible evidence of attaching canoe ladders to 

the islands, are important subjects of future survey efforts in the NWHI.

To address this gap in maritime archaeological survey efforts, maritime heritage 

staff should, in collaboration with Native Hawaiian archaeologists, begin to 

build the capacity and develop strategies for underwater survey in specific areas 

around Nihoa and Mokumanamana beginning in 2012.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5 3

3.3.5 MONITORING

Prior to the initiation of Derek Smith’s work in 2009, no strategy for extracting 

measurable biological or environmental data from maritime heritage sites in the 

field had been established, and biological analyses of the effects of shipwrecks on 

the environment remained largely subjective. Because evaluations of shipwrecks 

as environmental threats have been limited in the Pacific to ships in intertidal 

locations (Helton 2003a) or that have grounded on a coral reef (Maragos and 

Burgett 2004), they are of limited utility in understanding how shipwreck sites 

interact with the environment at different depths and substrates in the NWHI.

Similarly, the physical classification schemes for shipwreck sites are largely 

descriptive, failing to consider environmental factors (Muckelroy 1978; Delgado 

and Murphy 1984). No strategy for monitoring takes into account the various 

levels of impact that shipwrecks may have on the environment, nor does any 

classification scheme take into account the immense value a shipwreck may have 

either as a historical resource or, in some cases, as an artificial reef (Lechanteur 

and Griffiths 2001). 

Currently, no study of shipwreck sites in PMNM includes an annual monitoring scheme for biological data, though Smith’s research brings such a strategy 

closer to realization. PMNM plans to develop an interdisciplinary classification 

scheme for shipwreck sites to serve the needs of both maritime heritage and 

natural resource managers. This effort would include development of a repeatable protocol for acquiring ecological information about shipwreck sites in 

A view of a diver and Nihoa in 

the background (Greg McFall).
5 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

PMNM. The establishment of measurable standards for evaluating both anthropogenic and environmental effects, as well as the capacity to classify sites on the 

basis of these threats, will provide a valuable tool for resource managers who 

seek to understand the comprehensive role shipwrecks play in the environment. 

3.3.6 HISTORICAL ECOLOGY

Historical ecology efforts began at PMNM with a workshop hosted by PMNM 

in 2009 and attended by experts from Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 

Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB), NOAA, University of Miami, 

Hawaiian language scholars, University of Hawaii Hawaiian Studies Program, 

and the East-West Institute at UH. The workshop explored both the status of 

current research and opportunities for further research into historical ecology 

in the Hawaiian Islands, and served as a foundation for relationships necessary 

for future research in Papahānaumokuākea. Despite a wealth of excellent research conducted to date in the NWHI, including Jack Kittinger’s dissertation 

(Kittinger 2010), the topic of historical ecology provides an opportunity for more 

in-depth research regarding a variety of topics, including those listed below.

•	 Oral history research with fishers and fishing families that accessed the NWHI.

Many of the fishers who accessed the NWHI as early as the 1940s are still 

alive, and their memory of the condition of reefs and the operations of fisheries in the area are a valuable source of historical ecological information. 

An oral history research program could help define the scope of fisheries 

operations, perceptions of coral reef conditions, and interactions between 

fisheries operations and coral reef ecosystems.

•	 Seabird exploitation and recovery in the NWHI. Seabird populations were exploited by the millions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries 

in the NWHI (Rauzon 2001), and no comprehensive assessment has been 

made to date of the extent of these activities and their impact on seabird 

populations. Significant resources have been made to quantify the current 

status of seabird populations, and there is significant potential to explore 

how historical exploitation has affected modern populations.

•	 History of scientific exploration and discovery. The NWHI have a rich history 

of scientific exploration, and some of the data collected by these early investigations have yet to be duplicated or systematically reviewed. 

•	 Understanding fisheries legacies. With the exception of lobster and bottomfish 

stocks, the extent and scope of fisheries in the NWHI have not been well 

documented. There is a need to understand how fisheries operations have 

affected the structure and function of ecosystems in the NWHI, and the 

historical ecological legacies of these activities. 

The establishment of 

measurable standards 

for evaluating both 

anthropogenic and 

environmental effects, as 

well as the capacity to 

classify sites on the basis 

of these threats, will 

provide a valuable tool 

for resource managers 

who seek to understand 

the comprehensive role 

shipwrecks play in the 

environment. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5 5

•	 Applying historical ecological data to management and policy. Though significant efforts have been made to understand and quantify historical ecological 

conditions, these data have not yet been systematically applied to conservation strategies or policy in the NWHI. There is a great opportunity to 

explore the application of historical ecological information to management 

of Papahānaumokuākea.

3.3.7 STUDENT PROJECTS

The identified objective of developing far-reaching collaborative relationships, 

together with the need to leverage scarce resources, underscores the value of empowering both undergraduate and graduate students to participate in maritime 

heritage research projects. To facilitate student projects and to help align them 

to Monument priorities, maritime heritage staff should develop a list of relevant 

projects suitable for student involvement by 2012. Beyond undergraduate and 

graduate student projects, efforts should be made to introduce high school 

students to maritime heritage research. Through collaborations with specific 

teachers and classes, high school students can use maritime heritage projects as a 

way to explore career possibilities and creatively help PMNM maritime heritage 

staff fill gaps in research and outreach efforts.

Above Jason Raupp and Alysia 

Curdts transfer underwater 

sketches and measurements to a 

site plan in the Hi‘ialakai’s drylab 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).

Lef t Randall Kosaki and 

Catherine Marzin of NOAA/ 

ONMS investigate the 

Smithsonian Archives in 

Washington, DC (NOAA / 

Kelly Gleason).

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5 7

“The [Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument] creates a new opportunity 

for ocean education and research for decades to come. Successful ocean stewardship 

depends on informed policy makers and an informed public.”

PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH

CHAPTER FOUR

Education and Outreach

4.1 Goals

The wealth of knowledge both developed and untapped that the Monument 

represents is only as valuable as it is accessible to the people who can be enriched by it. Strategy MH-2 (below) of the Maritime Heritage Action Plan 

establishes guidelines for building and enhancing the education and outreach 

program already integral to the Monument Management Plan.

Strategy MH-2: Incorporate maritime heritage into public education and outreach throughout the life of the plan.

Raising public awareness of the maritime heritage field is essential to better valuing 

and protecting the resource. Protection comes through understanding the nature 

of heritage resources and what we can learn from them, as well as familiarity with 

established preservation laws. Education and outreach efforts for maritime sites 

emphasize “bringing the place to the people, not the people to the place” in a responsible manner.

Activity MH-2.1: Incorporate maritime heritage materials into Monument education 

and outreach projects annually. Resources and opportunities for collaboration for 

education and outreach are available through the MMB agencies and other entities. Monument maritime archaeologists will coordinate and participate in public 

outreach regarding Monument heritage resources and maritime history. Outreach 

efforts may include presentations, displays, still and video projects, and website 

materials. This activity includes potential support for the promotion of Native 

Hawaiian cultural outreach and education via Section 3.1.2, the Native Hawaiian 

Culture and History Action Plan.

Opposite A view from below 

the surface at Mokumanamana 

( James Watt).
5 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Activity MH-2.2: Develop and deliver public maritime heritage educational materials at selected presentations, conferences, and events. Shipwreck topics often appeal to 

large audiences at local, national, and international levels, and offer a chance to not 

only highlight the relatively new field of maritime heritage, but also to emphasize 

the unique nature of the NWHI, the need for conservation and ecosystem management, and the overall stewardship of all ocean resources. A minimum of two 

maritime heritage presentations will be given at professional conferences or public 

events each year.

Developing an education and outreach strategy for the MHP is predicated on 

imbuing the public with a sensitivity for the value of maritime heritage resources. Because the general public will never have the opportunity to visit most of 

the Monument’s sites, education and outreach efforts assume a different significance than they do where visitation is encouraged and facilitated. The priority 

becomes bringing the place to the people in a creative and engaging way. 

Although it is important to develop an outreach program emphasizing compatible activities and the ethics of responsible diving at shipwreck sites for those 

few individuals who might have the opportunity to visit the NWHI, such 

individuals constitute a tiny percentage of the overall public. Accordingly, the 

preponderance of the education and outreach program is devoted to the broader 

general public.

The development of cross-cutting themes to bridge Euroamerican and Native 

Hawaiian ideas of culture and history—for example, exploration, navigation, 

historical ecology, and contrasting viewpoints of the ocean—could lead to innovative partnerships and creative approaches to outreach and education. Collaborative 

outreach efforts—exploiting venues such as the Waikīkī Aquarium, the Bishop 

Museum, the Pacific Aviation Museum, Lahaina Courthouse, the USS Arizona

Memorial, cruise ships, airlines, hotels, and airports—could promote not just 

maritime heritage but also an array of broader Monument messages and themes.

4.2 Context

4.2.1 EXHIBITS

To date, outreach efforts have focused on bringing the public an experience 

through outreach materials (websites, posters, brochures, exhibits, and films). 

The Mokupāpapa Discovery Center for Hawaii’s Remote Coral Reefs, which 

opened on the bay front in Hilo, Hawai‘i, in May 2003, is a valuable Monument 

asset for public outreach. This 4,000-square-foot facility, free to the public, was 

built to interpret the natural science, culture, and history of the Northwestern 

Hawaiian Islands. Interactive displays, three-dimensional models, a wet lab, and 

The wealth of 

knowledge both 

developed and untapped 

that the Monument 

represents is only 

as valuable as it is 

accessible to the 

people who can be 

enriched by it. 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 5 9

an immersive theater allow the visitor to experience this special and remote area. 

A 2,500-gallon saltwater aquarium displays fishes from the NWHI reefs. Beside 

it is a mock-up of Hawai‘i Undersea Research Laboratory’s Pisces V submersible.

The Discovery Center has demonstrated its value to the community and visitors alike, with annual visitorship of approximately 60,000. Although its exhibits 

cover many aspects of the Monument, until recently none of them addressed 

maritime heritage. In February 2010, a new maritime heritage–themed exhibit, 

Lost on a Reef, opened for the public to view. 

The recovery, conservation, and display of artifacts from three shipwreck sites 

in 2005 (Pearl, Hermes, and Parker) and two sites in 2008 (USS Saginaw and 

Parker) added a new maritime heritage component to the Center’s current displays. The artifacts are displayed in locked, climate-controlled glass display cases. 

Interpretive panels present information about the rich maritime heritage of the 

NWHI and describe important aspects of shipwreck management, including 

the ownership and recovery of artifacts—an area of knowledge unfamiliar to the 

general public. 

Lost on a Reef also displays three items from partnering institutions. The Mystic 

Seaport Museum of America and the Sea generously donated two artifacts—a 

whaling harpoon and a sextant. The sextant was invented independently in both 

England and America in 1731. This sextant was made in London, England, 

around 1830 by Heath & Co. Most sailing vessels traveling through the NWHI 

in the nineteenth century would have carried a sextant on board. 

The History of Diving Museum in Islamorada, Florida, generously donated a 

Morse diving helmet and wing nut wrench from its extensive collection. The 

diving helmet helps tell the story of the USS Saginaw shipwreck. This helmet 

approximates the type that the ship’s divers would have used while blasting 

the channel at Midway. The diving helmet is circa 1870s, made by A. J. Morse 

& Sons in Boston. Established in Boston in 1837, Morse was the first maker 

of diving equipment in the United States. This early helmet (serial no. 1635) 

exhibits the modifications made over decades by early divers for increased safety, 

comfort, and personal preference. The wing nut wrench would have been used 

by the tenders who dressed the diver to tighten the helmet’s wing nuts. The collar of the rubberized canvas diving suit was squeezed between the brales (straps) 

and the breastplate of the helmet to make a watertight seal.

The material culture from these shipwreck sites, along with other objects 

PMNM is working to acquire—such as another dive helmet, a ship model, and 

additional artifacts—will help tell the stories of the early seafarers who passed 

through the Monument hundreds of years ago. 

A screen capture from the Lost 

on a Reef short film of a freediver 

at Pearl and Hermes Atoll 

(Open Boat Films).
6 0 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 6 1

The rear wall space in the program room was dedicated to the Lost on a Reef exhibit. As in the rest of the Discovery Center, all main exhibit labels are printed 

in both Hawaiian and English. This exhibit exemplifies the principle of “bringing the place to the people, not the people to the place.” 

4.2.2 FILM PROJECTS

Films can be an effective way to reach out to the public and to convey a message of stewardship and conservation. In March 2006, John Brooks of NOAA’s 

Ocean Media Center produced a maritime heritage film—Exploring a Sunken 

Past—for the ONMS Pacific Islands Region Maritime Heritage Program using 

footage collected during the 2005 survey described in Chapter 3. The Pacific 

Islands Region of ONMS funded the project, and the film focused on the 

history and management of maritime heritage resources in the Pacific Islands 

Region.

Following production of the film, the Monument was established and several 

new shipwreck sites were discovered and documented by NOAA maritime 

archaeologists, creating a need for more current video documentation and 

interpretation. In 2008, Open Boat Films (formerly Flyingfish Science and 

Film) was contracted to develop and assist in producing a maritime heritage 

film for public outreach. This film was also intended to complement the Lost 

on a Reef exhibit at the Mokupāpapa Discovery Center. Over the course of a 

30-day research expedition on Hi‘ialakai in August 2008, filmmaker Stephani 

Gordon collected video footage throughout the NWHI, including Kure Atoll. 

She shot high-definition video footage of terrestrial and underwater maritime 

heritage sites, and she interviewed the maritime archaeology team members 

about various aspects of their work—preservation, artifact recovery, site history, 

and interpretation efforts.

The Lost on a Reef film, completed in January 2010, is shown on a large screen 

throughout the day in the exhibit room to convey a sense of place and to 

introduce the people who conduct the research and develop the interpretation 

that made the exhibit possible. The film highlights the recovery of some of the 

artifacts on display in the exhibit—the ship’s bell and sounding lead from USS 

Saginaw and another ship’s bell from the whaling ship Parker site. In addition 

to its regular showing at the Mokupāpapa Discovery Center, the Lost on a Reef

film was entered by the filmmaker in more than 15 film festivals internationally. 

It has proven an effective way to reach a broad audience with messages about 

the history and protection of maritime heritage resources in PMNM. The film 

is available to the public on request, and can be viewed on PMNM’s website at 

http://www.papahanaumokuakea.gov/maritime/film_clips.html.

Opposite Filmmaker Stephani 

Gordon documents maritime 

heritage resources in the NWHI 

for the film Lost on a Reef 

(NOAA / Tane Casserley).

Films can be an effective 

way to reach out to the 

public and to convey a 

message of stewardship 

and conservation. 
6 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

4.2.3 PUBLICATIONS AND OUTREACH MATERIALS

Research in the NWHI is often conducted over the course of several years. 

During any given research expedition, time to conduct fieldwork may be severely limited by cruise schedule, weather, and conditions. Consequently, work 

beginning in one field season may take several years to complete. 

Over the course of such drawn-out research, staff members have developed publications in the form of a book, short articles, and web-based pieces to describe 

the story and research carried out to date. Such outreach projects and publications will continue to be developed on an ongoing basis to convey the broader 

maritime heritage story of Papahānaumokuākea. PMNM maritime heritage 

publications and references, as well as links to expedition blogs can be found at 

the Monument’s Maritime Heritage website (http://www.papahanaumokuakea.

gov/maritime/welcome.html).

4.2.4 PUBLIC LECTURES AND SYMPOSIA

Public lectures and presentations provide an opportunity for outreach and interaction with the community locally and at a distance. Depending on the venue, 

presentations can reach a diverse audience and personally connect with the public. For the past several years, PMNM Maritime Heritage Program staff have 

regularly participated in public speaking opportunities locally (Hanauma Bay, 

University of Hawai‘i, local public and private schools) as well as at a distance 

(museums, conferences, universities). 

In January 2011, PMNM maritime heritage coordinator Kelly Gleason organized and led an entire session, Voyages to Papahānaumokuākea: Maritime 

Archaeology in the Most Remote Archipelago on Earth, focused entirely on maritime heritage research in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, at the annual 

Society for Historical Archaeology Conference. The conference includes an 

Underwater Archaeology component, and the well-attended PMNM session 

provided an excellent opportunity to report on the multidisciplinary maritime 

heritage activities recently conducted in the Monument to a broad, international 

community of terrestrial and maritime archaeologists.

4.2.5 TELEPRESENCE

Telepresence is a technological approach with rich potential for maritime 

heritage outreach, and one that has not yet been well developed by maritime 

heritage staff, although ONMS has used this approach to broadcast from remote 

shipwreck sites into classrooms and public venues. This cutting-edge technology, 

with its realtime, interactive character, could be tremendously beneficial for a site 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 6 3

like PMNM, which few will ever visit in person, by embodying the injunction 

to bring the place to the people. In February 2010, a pilot telepresence project 

was initiated to connect Mokupāpapa Discovery Center, Thunder Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary, and Mystic Aquarium during an opening event for the Lost 

on a Reef exhibit. 

4.3 Prioritized Actions 

The Monument has developed a solid foundation for education and outreach, 

and the opportunities to build upon this foundation abound. Some key actions 

are briefly discussed below.

4.3.1 EXHIBITS

TRAVELING LOST ON A REEF EXHIBIT

A modular maritime heritage exhibit, based on the Lost on a Reef exhibit at the 

Mokupāpapa Discovery Center, will be designed for easy transport and update. 

The exhibit will tell the story of maritime heritage in the Monument along with 

the broader story of natural and cultural resource protection and preservation 

in the remote atolls of the NWHI. The exhibit will be displayed at host sites in 

the Sanctuary System (such as Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary) and 

partner sites (such as Mariner’s Museum in Newport News, Virginia; the North 

Carolina Aquariums; and the Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center). In 

addition to information about broader PMNM and ONMS efforts, interpretive panels and an interactive display will allow visitors to experience a variety 

Cathy Green in Alpena, 

Michigan connects with an 

audience in Hilo, Hawaii for 

a telepresence event at the 

Mokupāpapa Discovery Center 

(NOAA / Andy Collins).
6 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

of topics such as shipwreck and survival camp stories in the remote atolls of the 

NWHI, maps and images of shipwreck sites, seafaring stories, and activities of 

maritime archaeologists in the field, in addition to information about broader 

PMNM and ONMS efforts. The exhibit will also highlight the connections 

between National Marine Sanctuary sites and maritime heritage stories. This 

project will contribute to broader ONMS education and outreach goals, bringing a very remote resource (PMNM) to a geographically diverse audience. 

TRAVELING TWO BROTHERS EXHIBIT

The recent discovery of the shipwrecked Nantucket whaler Two Brothers—notable for its connection to the whaleship Essex, which was the inspiration for 

Herman Melville’s classic Moby-Dick—has drawn widespread attention. George 

Pollard, Jr., captained both vessels, and it was the wreck of the Two Brothers that 

sealed his fate as a failed whaling captain. It is also remarkable that Two Brothers

is the first Nantucket whaler discovered in an archaeological context, further 

highlighting the unparalleled potential for exploration and discovery in the 

NWHI. The Nantucket Historical Association, the Mystic Seaport Museum, 

and the Maritime Museum of San Diego have all expressed interest in supporting and hosting an exhibit to be developed upon completion of artifact conservation (September 2011). Contributing to such exhibits communities that are 

linked through maritime heritage stories forge active connections. 

TRAVELING USS SAGINAW EXHIBIT

The discovery of the U.S. Navy side-wheel steam vessel USS Saginaw by 

ONMS MHP staff in 2003 brought an important PMNM seafaring story to 

light. After a failed attempt at blasting a channel at Midway Atoll, Saginaw

sailed north to Kure in October 1870 to check for shipwrecked sailors before heading home to San Francisco. Unfortunately, Saginaw wrecked on the 

low-lying outer reef at Kure Atoll. The survivors salvaged what they could and 

built a camp at Green Island in the southern part of the atoll. Saginaw’s crew 

constructed a small schooner named Deliverance, and five volunteers set out for 

help in the main Hawaiian Islands. The gig capsized in the surf in Kauai 31 

days after departing Green Island, and only one of the volunteers survived the 

tragic ending to the harrowing open boat journey. The ship’s bell and sounding 

lead were discovered and conserved in 2008, and they are currently on display 

as part of the Lost on a Reef exhibit at Mokupāpapa Discovery Center. Other 

artifacts from the shipwreck are on display at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum 

in Annapolis, Maryland, and the gig is currently on display at Saginaw County’s 

Castle Museum in Saginaw, Michigan. The compelling story of the Saginaw

together with the ship’s remaining material culture would make an engaging 

mobile exhibit highlighting the connection between communities through common ties to this dramatic seafaring tale.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 6 5

4.3.2 FILM PROJECTS

The excitement engendered by the Two Brothers discovery suggests the tremendous potential for a compelling documentary. Whether funded by the 

Monument or by external partners, such a documentary would be an invaluable 

outreach vehicle and should be pursued at the earliest opportunity. The Lost on 

a Reef film confirmed the value and reach of short film projects. PMNM should 

continue to use film as a means to reach a wide audience, both nationally and 

internationally.

Similarly, the opportunities for powerful documentary production should be considered as further exploration, documentation, and recovery projects move forward as discussed in Chapter 3, Research. Additionally, developing a film project 

focused on the broad continuum of exploration and seafaring in the Monument 

would help to weave together all elements of maritime heritage in the NWHI 

and interpret this broad story for a diverse audience.

4.3.3 PUBLICATIONS AND OUTREACH MATERIALS

POPULAR MEDIA ARTICLES

In addition to the scholarly articles discussed in Chapter 3, Research, articles for 

the popular media can be an effective tool to reach audiences much farther afield 

than visitors and residents in the Hawaiian archipelago. To date, more than five 

articles (both scholarly and popular media) have been published about the Two 

Brothers discovery. Several more have been published on a wide range of topics 

related to maritime heritage in Papahānaumokuākea. A top priority should be to 

develop and publish an in-depth popular article on the Two Brothers discovery, 

to dovetail with the scholarly undertaking. Additional articles should be developed and published as appropriate.

DISCOVERY CENTER OUTREACH MATERIALS

The installation of the Lost on a Reef exhibit at the Mokupāpapa Discovery 

Center and the recent media attention surrounding the identification of the 

Two Brothers shipwreck site have elevated the profile of maritime heritage at the 

Discovery Center. Consequently, staff and volunteers must be better equipped to 

respond to this heightened interest. To this end, PMNM maritime heritage staff 

will work with Discovery Center staff to develop training and outreach materials. This is a high priority to fulfill an immediate need.

4.3.4 TELEPRESENCE

Installation of infrastructure for telepresence programs has begun at Midway 

Atoll. To take advantage of the potential presented by the forthcoming 70th anArticles for the 

popular media can be 

an effective tool to 

reach audiences much 

farther afield than 

visitors and residents 

in the Hawaiian 

archipelago. 
6 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

niversary of the Battle of Midway, the infrastructure must be completed, satellite 

time purchased, and a project designed and developed. An initial pilot project 

would entail a land-based Midway broadcast. Projects in subsequent years could 

include underwater broadcasts.

4.3.5 INFORMATION SHARING

The sharing of information with other institutions and scholars, as well as the 

general public, is a valuable outreach tool in itself. Moreover, such data sharing 

can facilitate the multidisciplinary emphasis inherent in the directives of the 

Monument Management Plan.

PMNM SPATIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Monument’s spatial bibliography (available at http://www.pmnmims.org) 

is an invaluable tool for students, scholars, and research managers alike. Using 

state-of-the-art GIS technology, the bibliography allows the user to search for 

bibliographic information tied to specific locations in the NWHI.

Currently, the spatial bibliography is populated primarily with natural resource 

data and literature. The database will be expanded to include maritime heritage 

and historical literature, greatly increasing the availability of such information to 

a wide range of users. This process should begin before 2012.

Students in a Nautical 

Archaeology Society course learn 

maritime archaeology mapping 

and documentation techniques 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 6 7

OFFICE OF HAWAIIAN AFFAIRS GIS DATABASE

Greater collaboration between PMNM Maritime Heritage GIS database 

projects and OHA’s GIS database will assist both programs in their efforts to 

inventory and understand the archaeological resource base. OHA’s GIS database falls under the Research: Land, Culture, and History division, and holds 

the potential for collaborative efforts and information sharing. Student projects 

may also be developed to contribute data to both of these ongoing GIS database 

projects. OHA’s GIS database may also be an important tool for collaborating 

on the development of the Monument’s Maritime Cultural Landscape study.

BATTLE OF MIDWAY DATABASE

In 2009, NOAA and FWS initiated a collaborative project to build a database 

integrating terrestrial and marine sites associated with the Battle of Midway. 

The completion of an interactive Battle of Midway map based in a GIS environment will have utility not only for resource managers but also as a tool for public 

interpretation. This map will be modeled on extant interactive shipwreck maps, 

and it is intended to be completed and available by June 2012.

4.3.6 MARITIME HERITAGE EDUCATION

NAVIGATING CHANGE

Navigating Change is an educational and environmental stewardship program 

that integrates traditional knowledge with western science to inspire the next 

generation of conservation leaders. The curriculum as it is currently developed 

focuses on grades 4–5. However, the program holds tremendous potential for 

expansion to a broader age range and a wider scope. 

More collaboration between the Navigating Change and maritime heritage 

programs would broaden the scope of both, adding to the connection between 

natural and cultural history. Beginning in 2012, maritime heritage staff will collaborate with Navigating Change to develop a career development program targeting grades 6–12 and a professional development program aimed at teachers.

CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND PATHWAYS TO THE FUTURE

As PMNM’s Navigating Change Program works to broaden its target audience 

to include middle school, high school, and professional development programs, 

collaborations have begun between the Monument’s Navigating Change 

Coordinator and the Monument’s Maritime Heritage Coordinator. Beginning 

with a pilot project in early 2012, PMNM’s Maritime Heritage Coordinator 

will lead a 2-day career development workshop for 30 8th and 9th graders. 

Beginning with a target demographic of young women, the workshop will seek 

to connect dynamic women working in the Hawaiian Islands community in the 
6 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

field of conservation with these 30 young women. Through hands-on, experiential learning led by local experts in their respective fields, the young women 

will have the opportunity to develop personal and professional relationships 

with women working in the conservation field, and become linked to a network of women working in both marine and terrestrial conservation in Hawai‘i. 

Utilizing place-based learning, the workshop will facilitate the opportunity for 

career inspiration; network development; and assistance with future volunteer, 

internship, and job opportunities in the local community. The workshop will include hands-on activities relative to maritime heritage, Polynesian voyaging and 

wayfinding, native plant restoration, and albatross and monk seal observation. 

The 2012 experience will serve as a pilot project for similar future workshops 

aimed at career development for middle school and high school students. 

Hawai‘i possesses a wealth of local resources to facilitate place-based learning 

activities, as well as the opportunity to connect young people to dynamic professionals in the field of marine and terrestrial conservation. PMNM’s Maritime 

Heritage Program aspires to take the lead in developing connections between 

these two groups beginning with the 2012 workshop. Career development 

activities will include maritime heritage; however, through multidisciplinary 

activities, the programs will have relevance to a wide spectrum of interests and 

will appeal to a broad range of young people.

UNIVERSITY COLLABORATION, PROGRAMMING, AND PARTNERSHIPS

As referenced in earlier sections of the Heritage Plan, cooperative projects with 

students are a critical part of PMNM’s Maritime Heritage Program. Ongoing 

efforts to conduct research in collaboration with graduate students are an important part of the MHP’s growth, and undergraduate and graduate assistance 

in the field has been an invaluable source of support. Such partnerships currently exist on a case-by-case basis, and have piggybacked on the Monument’s 

science partnership with the Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology (HIMB). 

Future efforts to collaborate and develop partnerships with universities should 

begin with establishing ongoing programs to link both undergraduate and 

graduate students with MHP staff to conduct and assist with field and archival 

research. Classroom and special event lectures should be offered on a regular 

basis, and communication between maritime heritage staff and staff at Hawai‘i 

Community Colleges, universities, and local museums can facilitate greater presence of maritime heritage in universities and colleges. 

NATIVE HAWAIIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE

Native Hawaiian history and culture are the foundation for maritime heritage 

research in PMNM. More modern maritime heritage in the NWHI opens the 

door to the broader discussion about human activities in this region over the 

Students in a Nautical 

Archaeology Society course learn 

maritime archaeology mapping 

and documentation techniques 

(NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 6 9

millennia. The earliest seafarers set the stage for a continued exploration that 

continues to the present day. Archaeological and natural resource findings continue to make PMNM a remarkable place for discovery and exploration.

Challenges to the development of the continuum between early Polynesian 

voyaging and more recent maritime heritage activities in the Monument include 

the lack of material culture relative to Polynesian seafaring in PMNM. Despite 

few submerged maritime cultural resources discovered in the Monument relative to Native Hawaiian activities, oral histories and chants telling the stories 

of a seafaring legacy still exist. Western seafaring activities such as whaling had 

major implications for the Hawaiian people, with up to 1,000 Native Hawaiian 

sailors shipping out annually by the mid-nineteenth century. Weaving together 

multiple elements of seafaring heritage in the Monument helps us to recognize 

that more modern maritime heritage is part of a much longer story of navigation and seafaring. Through a constant effort to integrate a maritime heritage 

approach that views the NWHI through a cultural lens, the MHP can help 

focus attention to key strategies in the Monument Management Plan’s Native 

Hawaiian Culture and History Action Plan, including capacity building, education, and outreach. 

Additional efforts to expand collaboration between Native Hawaiian and 

maritime heritage researchers should be developed through cooperative multidisciplinary field projects during maritime heritage research expeditions to 

Papahānaumokuākea. These expeditions offer an invaluable opportunity for 

knowledge sharing and may provide further insight into opportunities to initiate 

projects that focus on the continuity of seafaring and exploration in the NWHI.

Kaylene Keller, LouAnn 

Spuelda-Drews, and Kelly 

Gleason conduct terrestrial 

surveys of Battle of Midway 

sites at Midway Atoll in 2009 

(NOAA).

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7 1

“Our duty is to use the land and seas wisely, or sometimes not use them at all. 

Good stewardship of the environment is not just a personal responsibility, it is a 

public value.”

PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH

CHAPTER FIVE

Management

5.1 Goals

The Heritage Plan is linked to the Monument Management Plan through the 

critical roles that maritime heritage plays in effective management of the Monument. It is also an important component of management-driven research conducted in the Monument. Implementation of this plan is the responsibility of 

the Monument’s Maritime Heritage Coordinator. It is intended to function as a 

flexible guide for the MHP. Strategy MH-3 (below) of the Maritime Heritage 

Action Plan establishes guidelines for maritime heritage management.

Strategy MH-3: Coordinate interagency efforts to protect maritime heritage 

resources for the life of the plan.

Because of NOAA’s previous maritime heritage work in the region, efforts to inventory, evaluate, interpret, and preserve maritime heritage resources in the NWHI will 

be coordinated by a staff maritime archaeologist through ONMS, and conducted 

in close collaboration and coordination with the MMB. Each program or agency 

provides expertise in related fields: maritime archaeology field survey (NOAA); 

museum program, terrestrial archaeology, and National Historic Preservation Act 

(NHPA) implementation (FWS); and state survey, inventory, and preservation 

(Department of Land and Natural Resources).

Activity MH-3.1: Coordinate interagency maritime heritage resources management annually. Communication by the MMB with heritage preservation efforts on a larger 

scale is essential. Communication involves sharing research and preservation efforts 

in the Monument with the related professional fields of archaeology and cultural 

resource management, among others. Coordination of field activities is also necessary for the more effective use of facilities and equipment. Efforts to collaborate and 

coordinate will occur annually for the duration of the plan.

Opposite Kelly Gleason 

takes a closer look at whaling 

harpoon tips at the Two Brothers 

shipwreck site at French Frigate 

Shoals (NOAA / Greg McFall). 
7 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Activity MH-3.2: Enhance protective measures for selected sites within the NWHI 

through the National Register nomination process within 2 years. Protection of specific 

heritage sites will be enhanced by federal recognition under the National Historic 

Preservation Act and the National Register of Historic Places (Delgado 1985). Additionally, preservation measures of the Department of Land and Natural Resources 

will be implemented for resources on state submerged lands (up to 3 nautical miles 

from emergent lands) via the State Historic Preservation Division. Protective status 

for specific sites will be sought as needed using measures described above. This 

activity includes potential support for the protection and preservation of Native 

Hawaiian cultural resources discussed in the Native Hawaiian Culture and History 

Action Plan (Section 3.1.2). The National Register nomination process for maritime heritage sites will begin by year 2.

Activity MH-3.3: Develop and implement a Monument Maritime Heritage Research 

Plan within 2 years. The Monument Maritime Heritage Resource Research Plan 

will be completed within 2 years. Working collaboratively with partner and local 

agencies, universities, and experts in the field, the MMB will develop a research 

plan that outlines maritime heritage priorities for the NWHI. This effort will be 

coordinated by the Monument maritime archaeologist.

5.2 Context

Over the last 30 years, the management of maritime heritage resources has 

evolved through the advent of several exemplary projects, the passage of legislation pertaining to shipwreck management, and the growing support of the 

American public to the values of conservation. The ethical treatment of artifacts 

and the public accessibility to sites have been subjects of considerable debate. 

However, even while this debate continues, several programs have attempted 

to manage public access in a sustainable way. Active programs in Maryland, 

the Great Lakes, Scotland, Florida, and Lake Champlain, among others, demonstrate the success and feasibility of shipwreck preserves (Spirek and ScottIreton 2003). Both Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary in Michigan and 

the Monitor National Marine Sanctuary in Virginia highlight the potential for 

special areas protected for their heritage significance. 

As an agency charged with management of the Monument, ONMS is responsible for managing maritime heritage resources, such as shipwreck sites, in 

accordance with the body of laws pertaining to maritime heritage resources (a 

detailed overview of these laws is provided in Appendix B). 

Legislation pertaining to submerged cultural resources has evolved over the last 

four decades. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) 

in 1966 marked a significant effort by the federal government to protect the naJason Raupp takes a 

measurement and bearing at 

a trypot at the Two Brothers 

shipwreck site (NOAA / 

Tane Casserley).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7 3

tion’s cultural and archaeological heritage. The NHPA established the responsibility of federal agencies to protect cultural resources on public lands under their 

jurisdiction. 

The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 was passed to 

curb uncontrolled dumping in the marine environment; more importantly for 

the purposes of maritime cultural resources, it established a mechanism to create a system of National Marine Sanctuaries under the jurisdiction of NOAA 

(National Marine Sanctuaries 2005). The Civil War ironclad USS Monitor was 

designated as the first National Marine Sanctuary in 1975 when the federal 

government became aware of its vulnerability to environmental and anthropogenic factors (Terrell 1995).

These actions were followed by passage of the Archaeological and Historical Preservation Act of 1974, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act 

of 1979, and the Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987, all under the guidance 

of the National Park Service (Lipe and Redman 2003). Passage of the Abandoned Shipwreck Act in 1987 was an important step in establishing guidance 

for state and federal agencies regarding the effective management of shipwreck 

sites. However, its effectiveness is only as good as local interest in managing the 

resources in the area. 

As the newest piece of legislation pertaining to shipwreck sites, the Sunken 

Military Craft Act, which became effective in 2004, does not change law but 

ensures its uniform application and encourages reciprocal enforcement and 

protection by foreign sovereigns (Naval Historical Center 2006). The Property 

Clause of the United States Constitution states the government’s continuous 

and indefinite ownership of United States military craft, sunken or otherwise. 

This legislation has had limited enforcement, and the Sunken Military Craft 

Act extends the case law to address all cases concerning sunken military craft. 

By clearly stating United States policy relative to sunken craft in foreign waters, the United States indicates that it will likewise reciprocate expressions of 

sovereign intent. It specifically applies to warships such as USS Saginaw and 

other military craft in the NWHI and provides guidelines for dealing with the 

sovereign immunity of sunken military sites.

At the international level, in November 2001, UNESCO’s Convention on the 

Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage argued for the importance of underwater cultural heritage as “an integral part of the cultural heritage of humanity and a particularly important element in the history of peoples, nations, and 

their relations with each other concerning their common heritage.” UNESCO 

acknowledged underwater heritage management as an international issue 
7 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

and outlined definitions, goals, and objectives of the proper principles of such 

management. The Convention emphasized the importance of the public’s right 

to non-intrusive access to in situ sites (i.e., resources that remain in place on 

the seafloor) and the necessity for stronger measures to protect threatened sites. 

Additionally, the Convention addressed the issue of commercial exploitation of 

submerged sites, as well as the illegal trafficking of their artifacts. Most importantly, the Convention aimed to promote cooperation and establish the necessity 

of proper site management and protection (O’Keefe et al. 1999). Guidelines set 

forth in the November 2001 Convention constituted an internationally approved “best practice” approach to submerged cultural resource management—

an excellent example of current best practices in the field of maritime archaeology, with much consideration given to many different stakeholder groups.

NOAA, the State, and FWS collectively have the statutory responsibility to 

inventory, evaluate, and interpret maritime heritage resources; to increase maritime heritage preservation in the Monument; and to foster awareness of these 

precious resources throughout the state and nation. It is the shared responsibility 

Filmmaker John Brooks 

documents the bow section 

of the USS Macaw shipwreck 

site at Midway Atoll (NOAA / 

Robert Schwemmer).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7 5

of these entities to mitigate potential impacts on maritime heritage resources. 

Unlike many natural resources, maritime heritage resources are nonrenewable: 

once lost, they are gone forever.

The main Hawaiian Islands have experienced the illegal removal of historic 

artifacts, as well as the potential destruction of historic materials from nearshore 

construction and dredging projects. However, because of the extensive protections afforded PMNM through its designations as a Coral Reef Ecosystem 

Reserve, National Wildlife Refuge, Marine National Monument, and World 

Heritage Site, human impacts on archaeological sites are minimal to nonexistent 

in the NWHI. 

To the contrary, the environment poses the greatest threat of degradation of 

maritime heritage sites in the NWHI. Strong winter storms and swells often 

wash over the low-lying atolls and islands north of Nihoa and Mokumanamana, 

and conditions are variable even during the workable summer months (roughly 

April through October). Sites on the fore-reef can be heavily pounded by waves 

and surges year-round, and sands shift seasonally, covering and exposing artifacts and portions of sites. Maritime archaeologists have observed artifacts 

as large as a trypot (a large iron cauldron about 1 meter wide by 1 meter tall) 

exposed on the reef one year and broken apart by the next field season. Coralline 

algae begin to grow around artifacts and features, at times enveloping some sites. 

The dynamic conditions in the NWHI challenge documentation and interpretation of these sites. The resources’ vulnerability to the elements and the intensity 

of the conditions in the NWHI make inventory, documentation, and protection 

of these sites particularly urgent.

While maritime heritage sites in the NWHI may at one time have been protected by their remoteness, improved tourist infrastructure at Midway Atoll and 

the presence of scientific divers throughout the Monument is changing this circumstance. Although access is limited by permit, tourists can visit sites at Midway Atoll, where “recreational permits” are granted. Recreational activities have 

included diving trips facilitated by the Oceanic Institute. Though such excursions are guided by skilled divemasters, they do not include maritime archaeologists or historical experts. Recreational activities offer a tremendous opportunity 

for public outreach and engagement, but they also increase the risk of human 

impact. Moreover, because maritime heritage sites are frequently integrated into 

the fragile ecosystems around coastal environments, they are environmentally as 

well as historically significant (Oxley 2001). If not properly educated and aware, 

visitors have the potential to damage both the historical and ecological integrity 

of maritime heritage sites and their surrounding environment. These threats 

emphasize the critical need for education and outreach. 

Unlike many natural 

resources, maritime 

heritage resources are 

nonrenewable: once lost, 

they are gone forever.
7 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Access to the Monument is restricted and regulated through the issuance of 

permits. Entities proposing research and monitoring activities must be able 

to demonstrate that they meet specific criteria codified in 50 CFR 404.11 to 

obtain a permit, as well as meeting applicable criteria provided by relevant state 

statutes and regulations. 

Nevertheless, despite the protection afforded to NWHI sites by their isolation, 

that same isolation impedes thorough enforcement, and access is challenging 

even for managers and maritime archaeologists. The threats that do exist—environmental damage and the risks associated with increased visitation—can be 

mitigated through proper management and monitoring following thorough 

documentation. 

5.3 Prioritized Actions 

5.3.1 LISTING IN THE NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC 

PLACES

The NRHP is “the official list of the Nation’s historic places worthy of preservation” (National Park Service 2011). The Monument’s Maritime Heritage Action 

Plan calls for nominating eligible maritime heritage sites for inclusion in the 

NRHP to enhance their protection through this federal recognition of their 

significance. Although Nihoa and Mokumanamana Islands are listed in the 

NRHP as archaeological districts on the basis of the 141 terrestrial archaeological sites identified there, to date no maritime heritage sites have been nominated 

for inclusion, although several (Two Brothers, USS Saginaw, Pearl, Hermes, USS 

Macaw, and Dunnottar Castle) are likely candidates under various criteria. Midway’s terrestrial sites have all been determined eligible but have not been listed 

in the NRHP. There are currently six structures that were designated National 

Historic Landmarks in 1986. 

High priority should be placed on nominating at least one site annually, beginning with the Two Brothers shipwreck site in 2011.

5.3.2 MONITORING MARITIME HERITAGE SITES AND 

RESOURCES 

Shipwrecks present the singular challenge of being nonrenewable resources that 

have become integrated into the environment, often as important habitat for 

fish and other marine organisms. Consequently, anthropogenic influences—removal or disturbance—as well as natural degradation may have biologically 

meaningful implications for the surrounding environment. Moreover, in cases 
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7 7

where tourist visitation is allowed or encouraged, such visitation can have 

profound effects on fragile reef ecosystems (Rogers et al. 1988; Hawkins and 

Roberts 1993).

Managers rarely have the resources or time to properly monitor all maritime 

heritage sites in their jurisdiction. In many cases, maritime heritage sites are 

threatened from the moment of discovery; without careful management, they 

may vanish entirely. Monitoring provides the information necessary to adjust 

the protection of a given site to a level commensurate with its vulnerability. 

Consequently, it is irresponsible to omit a monitoring strategy from any longterm management program.

A widespread acceptance among the archaeological community of in situ management as the preferred approach for shipwreck sites emphasizes the importance of regular monitoring strategies (O’Keefe 2002). In situ management 

implies long-term responsibility for individual sites’ sustainability and stewardship; this responsibility must be enforced by proper attention to any changes in 

site integrity. Because in situ management acknowledges a relationship between 

a shipwreck and its environment, monitoring habitat variation at a heritage site 

can be a useful approach to assessing potential impacts on the heritage resource. 

Monitoring can also highlight the intrinsic link between heritage sites and the 

natural environment.

The collection of measurable environmental data at a shipwreck site provides 

more precise and quantitative information than subjective visual assessments. 

Such data are invaluable in understanding the mechanisms by which historical 

shipwreck sites become habitat. Environmental data are also useful to managers and scientists concerned with other resources in the shipwreck site vicinity. 

However, most studies of shipwreck sites in an environmental context have focused on ships’ cargoes and their potentially hazardous effects on the ecosystem 

(Helton 2003b) or on the impacts of ships grounding on coral reefs (Maragos 

and Burgett 1994). While such studies are important to minimize the threats 

shipwreck sites can pose for coral reefs and associated marine species, more 

work is needed to develop a meaningful approach for analyzing the interaction 

between maritime heritage sites and their surroundings. Accordingly, monitoring efforts should gather biological data in addition to observations on the 

condition of artifacts and structural integrity of the ship.

Monitoring plans for shipwreck sites are often descriptive, omitting annual 

monitoring for biological factors. Parks Canada’s current monitoring strategies 

for historic shipwrecks in Louisbourg, Nova Scotia, reflect efforts at integrating 

a wide variety of data and a plan for regular monitoring, but no analogous proDerek Smith collects data with a 

YSI meter at Pearl and Hermes 

Atoll (NOAA / Kelly Gleason).
7 8 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

gram has been developed for shipwreck sites in the United States. The monitoring program for one of Louisbourg’s shipwrecks, Célèbre, addresses environmental influence, degree of degradation, corrosion of metals at the site, shipworm 

damage, and human influence; it is an excellent example of interdisciplinary 

monitoring (Stevens 2003).

The 2009 survey described in Chapter 3—which focused on supporting Derek 

Smith’s graduate work to assess the biological implications of wreck sites—

helped to establish an important baseline dataset to advance such interdisciplinary monitoring efforts in the future (Smith 2010). Such a baseline anchors 

the heritage site within the context of the ecosystem, and will facilitate a more 

comprehensive appreciation of how the site interacts with the natural environment. This growing body of knowledge will help inform the investigation of 

such issues as the effects of climate change on heritage sites.

In addition to yielding the important benefits discussed above, the sharing of 

data that are relevant to multiple disciplines supports collaborative efforts and 

can increase the potential for funding and stewardship. 

Maritime archaeologists 

consult with Kure Atoll Refuge 

Manager Cynthia Vanderlip 

(NOAA / Robert Schwemmer).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 7 9

5.3.3 DATA MANAGEMENT AND GIS 

GIS has been a critical data management tool for the MHP. Because so many 

sites encompass hundreds of square meters, it is the best tool for developing 

site maps and analyzing spatial information. GIS is also a valuable tool for 

visualizing the interplay of data layers that reflect heritage, history, culture, and 

nature—and precisely how this interplay creates the broad cultural landscape of 

Papahānaumokuākea.

GIS helps maritime archaeologists manage resources throughout the vast extent 

of the Monument. In collaboration with the Monument’s GIS and Information 

Management team, the maritime heritage staff identified a need to develop a 

system that could be used to target areas to search for sites, catalog and visualize 

information about sites, and provide outreach material to the public. A combination of field methods, GIS, and web-based tools has been developed to meet 

this need. 

In addition to the value of GIS for boat drivers and coxswains who take the 

maritime archaeology team to specific sites in the field, GIS maps are critical for 

nightly planning while at sea. Utilizing GIS and historic documents, the archaeology team can focus the search area for historic wreck sites. A combination of 

diver surveys and remote sensing is used to locate the sites and document artifacts. Once site documentation is complete, the team uses desktop-based tools 

for data entry. The GIS software also allows pictures of specific artifacts and 

features to be linked to their records in the database, providing researchers and 

managers with a useful picture of how individual artifacts are distributed. Users 

can search by type, time period, and various other attributes to better refine 

database queries. 

In addition to its utility as a management tool, the GIS database has tremendous promise for public interpretation of maritime heritage sites. Outreach 

material and reports can be generated from the database and the web tools. The 

spatial bibliography can be shared with other agencies and institutions to facilitate research, and a searchable database of sites can be made available for public 

use. One advantage of a broad GIS library is that certain kinds of information can be made available for general use while other categories are accessible 

only to approved entities or individuals. The ongoing development of a robust 

information management system will strengthen every aspect of Monument 

management.

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 8 1

“No longer do we seek only the knowledge of how to voyage between islands. We seek 

lessons to carry home to our children—ways to inspire the present generation to love 

and preserve our Earth as a sanctuary for those who will inherit it.”

NAINOA THOMPSON, MASTER HAWAIIAN NAVIGATOR

CHAPTER SIX

Implementation

Opposite Sooty terns at Kure 

Atoll (Wayne Levin).

Maritime heritage is an inclusive topic—one that is both multicultural and 

multidisciplinary. The overarching goal of the Heritage Plan is to develop a 

framework for the future direction of the MHP that will expand the current 

definition of maritime heritage and work toward better integration with the 

Monument’s Native Hawaiian and natural science programs.

The deeply held regional interest in the management of protected marine areas 

creates a fertile environment for interdisciplinary activities. While the preponderance of attention is on natural resources, interdisciplinary projects can 

serve to highlight the ethic of stewardship that preserves natural, cultural, and 

maritime heritage resources alike. Collaboration among these fields is the most 

far-reaching and effective approach to management and protection. 

With limited staff available for research, it is important that the Monument develop partnerships with universities, agencies, and other organizations to address 

the vast potential for maritime heritage research in the NWHI. PMNM has 

already established a history of pursuing and fostering productive collaborative 

efforts. Graduate students from the University of Hawai‘i, Flinders University in 

Australia, East Carolina University, and Southampton University in the United 

Kingdom have all conducted research involving maritime heritage resources in 

the Monument. 

Numerous individuals have dedicated their time and effort to researching 

maritime heritage stories in PMNM. These include Clark Conger, who generously devoted time and energy to further investigating the history and wrecking event of the Oregon-built four-masted schooner Churchill, lost at French 

Frigate Shoals in 1917. Pete Hendricks continues to communicate research on 
8 2 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

the whaling ships Pearl and Hermes to maritime heritage staff, and Ken Sexton 

continues to conduct extensive archival research on the whaler Gledstanes. These 

individuals are all invaluable sources of support and assistance in the broad effort to interpret the maritime history of PMNM. 

The Monument has also collaborated with partners such as NPS, FWS, and the 

State in maritime heritage efforts. NMFS has long been a partner in efforts to 

locate maritime heritage resources; CRED divers and scientists involved in ecological monitoring projects and removal of marine debris have abundant opportunity to spot maritime heritage sites in areas that archaeologists might not have 

the chance to visit. Indeed, following outreach efforts to educate the marine 

debris team about potential sites and how to spot them, divers have reported 

several such sites to maritime heritage staff. Similarly, Hi‘ialakai crew members 

log many hours at sea, not always in the company of maritime archaeologists. In 

2006, PMNM maritime heritage staff conducted a 2-day Nautical Archaeology 

Society course to educate the ship’s crew about maritime archaeology and what 

to do if they encounter a site with no maritime archaeologist present. 

Collaborations with local partners are essential in building close ties with the local community. The Monument has established and will continue to strengthen 

relationships with the Polynesian Voyaging Society, the Waikīkī Aquarium, The 

Nature Conservancy, and others. At the same time, more far-reaching partnerships bear valuable fruit—for example, communities around the country, such 

as New Bedford and Nantucket, Massachusetts, and Saginaw, Michigan, have 

Above Jason Kehn and Michael 

Krivor of SEARCH, Inc., collect 

sonar and magnetometer data 

in the NWHI in 2010 (NOAA / 

Kelly Gleason).

Right A zodiac maneuvers 

through the lagoon at Pearl and 

Hermes Atoll (NOAA / 

Kelly Gleason).
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 8 3

strong historical ties to the maritime heritage of the Monument. And because of 

PMNM’s importance as a World Heritage Site, broad connections will remain 

invaluable in promoting the global significance of the Monument’s maritime 

heritage resources. Nurturing these existing relationships and developing new 

ones will remain critical to building the Maritime Heritage Program on a sustainable basis. 

The Monument’s ongoing efforts to inventory, document, and protect its 

maritime heritage sites have been instrumental in opening a window into the 

NWHI’s seafaring past, and they have contributed materially to a growing 

body of knowledge about humans’ historical interaction with the sea. Using 

the cultural landscape (or seascape) approach to examine the broad themes 

of human presence in the NWHI—exploration, whaling, the age of sail, and 

military history—as well as investigating the young science of historical ecology, 

maritime heritage staff will continue adding to this precious store of knowledge. 

Moreover, through the many and varied collaborations that have already been 

created and the many more that await fruition, Monument staff will find new 

and captivating techniques for bringing the stories of the past to the attention 

of present—and future—enthusiasts. By embracing a holistic, multidisciplinary 

approach to research, management, and outreach, Monument staff will create 

bridges between fields of endeavor—maritime heritage, terrestrial archaeology, 

natural resources, and Native Hawaiian culture—that have traditionally been 

treated separately. 

The Monument’s 

ongoing efforts to 

inventory, document, 

and protect its maritime 

heritage sites have 

been instrumental in 

opening a window into 

the NWHI’s seafaring 

past, and they have 

contributed materially 

to a growing body 

of knowledge about 

humans’ historical 

interaction with the sea. 

Aerial view of Kure Atoll 

(Robert Shallenberger).

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 8 5

Alexander, C., R. Kosaki, S. Gitting, and M.S. Tartt. 2004. Information Needs for 

Conservation Science and Management of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: 

A Product of the I Ke Āmio O Nā Wa‘a Workshop. Silver Spring, MD: Marine 

Sanctuaries Division, National Ocean Service, NOAA.

Allen, M. S. 2002. Resolving Long-Term Change in Polynesian Marine 

Fisheries. Asian Perspectives 41:195–213.

———. 2003. Human Impact on Pacific Nearshore Marine Ecosystems. Pages 

317–325 in C. Sand, editor, Pacific Archaeology: Assessments and Prospects. Le 

Cahiers de l’Archéol-ogie en Nouvelle-Calédonie 15. Services des Musées et 

du Patrimoine, Nouméa.

Apple, R. A. 1973. Prehistoric and Historic Sites and Structures in the Hawaiian 

Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Honolulu, HI: National Park Service.

Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology. 2011. Maritime Archaeology. 

Available: <http://aima.iinet.net.au/frames/aimavtframe.html>. Accessed 

April 12, 2011. 

Beckwith, Martha Warren (ed.). 2007. Kepelino’s Traditions of Hawai‘i. Bernice P. 

Bishop Museum, Bulletin 95.

Beechert, E. D. 1991. Honolulu: Crossroads of the Pacific. Columbia, SC: 

University of South Carolina Press.

Braisted, William R. 1985. Midway Islands, U.S. Naval Air Station and 

Submarine Base, 1941. In P. E. Coletta and J. K. Bauer, eds., United States 

Navy and Marine Corps Bases, Overseas. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.

Cleghorn, P. L. 1988. The Settlement and Abandonment of Two Hawaiian 

Outposts: Nihoa and Necker Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Occasional 

Papers 28:35–49.

Crumley, C. L. (ed.). 1994. Historical Ecology: Cultural Knowledge and Changing 

Landscapes. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.

Dean, M. 1992. Archaeology Underwater: the NAS Guide to Principles and Practice. 

Nautical Archaeology Society. 

CHAPTER 7

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8 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

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Island, Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Summer 1990. Report prepared for 

State of Hawai‘i, Office of Hawaiian Affairs, Honolulu, HI.

MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 9 3

This appendix aims to list all the resource sites—marine vessels and aircraft—

that have been reported lost in the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National 

Monument. Of 126 potential losses, 20 historic maritime heritage sites have 

been confirmed. Archival research and inventory is ongoing, and continues to 

develop and change as corrections are made and discoveries are added.

Vessel Name Type Date Lost Information Source Site Confirmed?

Kure Atoll

Gledstanes whaler 1837 site work 2008 yes

Parker whaler 1842 site work 2003–06 yes

USS Saginaw navy gunboat 1870 site work 2003–06 yes

Dunnottar Castle ship 1886 site work 2006–08 yes

Hachinohe Maru trawler 1938 documents

Houei Maru #5 trawler 1976 site work 2002–06 yes*

Paradise Queen II fishing vessel 1998 site work 2003 yes*

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1945 site work 2002 yes

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1945 documents

— Japanese junk — documents

— fishing vessel — site work 2002 yes*

Isaac Holder ship — documents

Midway Atoll

General Seigel schooner 1886 documents

Wandering Minstrel bark 1888 documents

Julia E. Whalen schooner 1903 documents

Carrollton bark 1906 site work 2003 yes

Helene sloop 1915 documents

Fishing vessel sampan 1925 documents

USS Macaw sub rescue vessel 1944 site work 2003 yes

— water barge 1957 site work 2003 yes

LCVP navy landing craft — site work 2002 yes

Nightingale fishing vessel 1983 documents

— navy barge — site work 2002 yes

F4U Corsair naval aircraft — site work 2002–08 yes

PM-1 naval aircraft 1935 documents

PBY-5 Catalina naval aircraft 1941 documents

APPENDIX A

Maritime Heritage Resources
9 4 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Vessel Name Type Date Lost Information Source Site Confirmed?

Midway Atoll (continued)

F2A-3 Buffalo naval aircraft 1942 documents

H8/K1 Kawanishi naval aircraft 1942 documents

SOC-2 Seagull naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

B5/N2 Nakajima naval aircraft 1942 documents

B5/N2 Nakajima naval aircraft 1942 documents

B5/N2 Nakajima naval aircraft 1942 documents

B5/N2 Nakajima naval aircraft 1942 documents

B5/N2 Nakajima naval aircraft 1942 documents

B3/A1 Aichi naval aircraft 1942 documents

A6/M2 Mitsubishi naval aircraft 1942 documents

A6/M2 Mitsubishi naval aircraft 1942 documents

A6/M2 Mitsubishi naval aircraft 1942 documents

F2A-3 Buffalo naval aircraft 1942 documents

F2A-3 Buffalo naval aircraft 1942 documents

F2A-3 Buffalo naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

Sb2U-3 Vindicator naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

PBY-5 Catalina naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-2 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-2 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

B-17E Flying Fortress army aircraft 1942 documents

P-40B Warhawk army aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1942 documents

SBD-4 Dauntless naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

SBD-3 Dauntless naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 9 5

Vessel Name Type Date Lost Information Source Site Confirmed?

Midway Atoll (continued)

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

SBD-5 Dauntless naval aircraft 1943 documents

SBD-5 Dauntless naval aircraft 1943 documents

PV-1 Ventura naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1943 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1944 documents

SBD-4 Dauntless naval aircraft 1944 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1944 documents

PBY-5 Catalina naval aircraft 1944 documents

SBD-5 Dauntless naval aircraft 1944 documents

F4U-1 Corsair naval aircraft 1944 documents

SNJ-4 Texan naval aircraft 1944 documents

PBY-5A Catalina naval aircraft 1944 documents

J2F-4 Duck naval aircraft 1944 documents

SB2C-3 Helldiver naval aircraft 1944 documents

PV-1 Ventura naval aircraft 1945 documents

FG-1A Corsair naval aircraft 1945 documents

Pearl and Hermes Atoll

Pearl whaler 1822 site work 2004–06 yes

Hermes whaler 1822 site work 2004–08 yes

Waji Maru schooner 1904 documents

— sampan 1908 documents

Quartette liberty ship 1952 site work 2002–10 yes

Good Friends sloop 1976 documents

— fishing vessel — site work 2006 yes*

Mimi fishing vessel 1989 site work 2005 yes*

Lisianski Island

Holder Borden whaler 1844 documents

Konohasset whaler 1846 documents

Wanderer brig 1872 documents

Afton bark 1887 documents

Aju (Yeiji) Maru schooner 1904 documents

— sampan pre-1923 documents

— — pre-1923 documents

— — pre-1923 documents

Irene’s Challenge fishing vessel 1977 documents
9 6 PAPAHĀNAUMOKUĀKEA MARINE NATIONAL MONUMENT

Vessel Name Type Date Lost Information Source Site Confirmed?

Lisianski Island (continued)

Unknown sailing vessel pre-1920 site work 2010 yes

Unknown anchor pre-1900 site work 2010 yes**

Unknown fishing vessel — site work 2010 yes*

Laysan Island

Ceylon bark 1902 documents

C Kennedy schooner 1905 documents

Kaiyo Maru #25 fishing vessel 1959 site work 2002 yes

— bamboo raft — site work 2002 yes**

— anchors and debris — site work 2002 yes**

— whaler pre-1859 documents

Maro Reef

McNear bark 1900 documents

O.M. Kellogg schooner 1915 documents

Mission San Miguel tanker 1957 documents

French Frigate Shoals

South Seaman whaler 1859

Daniel Wood whaler 1867 documents

Mattie Dyer schooner 1896 NMFS/CRED 2005 yes

Conetable de Richmont ship 1903 documents

Churchill schooner 1917 NMFS/CRED 2005, 

site work 2007–2008

yes

YP-277 converted trawler 1942 documents

Keola fishing vessel 1981 documents

Carolyn K fishing vessel 1985 documents

Landing craft LCM unknown site work 2003–05 yes

Two Brothers whaler 1822 site work 2008–10 yes

Mokumanamana Island

PBM-5 Privateer naval aircraft 1945 documents

* Not considered a historic site (over 50 years old for the purposes of this inventory).

** Considered an artifact, rather than a site, for the purposes of this inventory.
MARITIME HERITAGE RESEARCH, EDUCATION, AND MANAGEMENT PLAN 9 7

APPENDIX B

State and Federal Preservation Mandates

The following statutes and legislation may pertain to the survey and protection of maritime heritage resources in 

the NWHI.

Statute/Legislation Description

Hawaii Revised Statutes Chapter 6E (Historic Preservation)

http://www.hawaii.gov/dlnr/hpd/hrs_6_e.htm

Establishes protection and management of submerged cultural, 

archaeological and historic properties older than 50 years on state 

lands (including aviation properties) under the Department of 

Land and Natural Resources.

National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 (16 USC 470)

http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/nhpa1966.htm

Provides the mandate for federal agencies to survey, inventory, assess, and nominate to the National Register cultural, archaeological, and historical resources in federally managed waters. Section 

106 requires federal agencies to take into account the affect of any 

federal undertaking on historic structures and properties. Section 

110 makes federal agencies responsible for the preservation of 

historic properties which are owned or controlled by that agency.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 

(16 USC 470aa) (ARPA)

http://exchanges.state.gov/culprop/96-95.html

Established “to secure, for the present and future benefit of the 

American people, the protection of archaeological resources and 

sites which are on public lands and Indian lands, and to foster 

increased cooperation and exchange of information between governmental authorities, the professional archaeological community, 

and private individuals.” 

National Register of Historic Places (36 CFR 60)

http://www.nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com

Part of a national program to coordinate and support public and 

private efforts to identify, evaluate, and protect our historic and 

archeological resources. Properties listed in the Register include 

districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that are significant 

in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering, and 

culture. The National Register is administered by the National 

Park Service.

Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 (43 USC 2101)

http://www.nps.gov/phso/archeology/ABSA.htm

Asserts federal title to three categories of abandoned shipwrecks 

in or on state submerged land, and transfers that title to the state 

or territory for preservation and management efforts.

Sunken Military Craft Act of 2004

http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/org12-12a.htm

Provides for the protection of sunken U.S. military ship and 

aircraft sites wherever they are located, as well as the protection of 

sensitive archaeological artifacts.

Antiquities Act of 1906 (16 USC 433)

http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/hisnps/npshistory/antiq.htm

Passed to protect cultural properties and sites from damage and 

intentional destruction and to bring them within the preservation 

management of the federal government.