Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite 

Area of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

22C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Kunduz celestite area of interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 22C–1a,b). The AOI is located in northeast 

Afghanistan in the Chahar Dara, Aliabad, and Qala-i-Zal Districts in Kunduz Province and the Baghlan 

Jadid District in Baghlan Provinces (fig. 22C–1a,b). The AOI encompasses an area of 2,266 km2 (square 

kilometers).

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan.

22C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Kunduz celestite AOI is based on data generated for the Afghanistan 

agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1551

a 
1552 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 22C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Kunduz celestite area of interest in Afghanistan.

The observed total precipitation for the AOI for the 2009–2010 water year, recorded at the 

Kunduz Agromet station and published in the Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock, 2010, map 2), is 336.3 mm (millimeters) (table 22C–1), and the AOI can be classified as 

semi-arid. The AOI received 61 to 80 mm of precipitation in February 2010, the month with the greatest 
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1553

precipitation (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 3). The long-term average 

(LTA) precipitation for August and September is 0 mm (table 22C–1). Precipitation in October 

increased from northwest to southeast across the AOI. 

 The Kunduz Agromet station is located in Kunduz Province approximately 30 km (kilometers)

northeast of the center of the AOI. This station is the Agromet station that is closest to the AOI for 

which 2009–2010 water year and LTA precipitation data are available. Precipitation data for the Kunduz 

Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) are shown in table 22C–1. 

Snowfall data were reported for the Kunduz Agromet station for the 2009–2010 water year. Snowfall 

was recorded on 4 days during February 2010, for a total of 41 cm (centimeters) during the 2009–2010 

water year.

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation in the AOI is varied. In the north, the vegetation as classified by Breckle (2007, 

p. 161) is ephemeral desert. The central AOI is Pistacia vera-Woodlands. Along parts of the Kunduz 

River is a thin strip of azonal riverine vegetation bordered in places by ephemeral desert (Breckle, 2007, 

p. 161). Most of the surface of the AOI is sparsely vegetated. The bedrock outcrop is covered by a thin 

alluvium and sparse vegetation. Most of the azonal riverine vegetation that was in the Kunduz River 

valley has been harvested for fuel and building materials. All land suitable for farming has been plowed 

and planted, especially along the Kunduz River. Irrigated fields are present in many of the valleys of the 

AOI where perennial streams are located (fig. 22C–2).

Table 22C–1.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius; nr, not reported]

Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation 

and temperature at the Kunduz Agrometeorological (Agromet) station approximately 30 km northeast from the 

center of the Kunduz celestite area of interest, Afghanistan.

Precipitation Temperature

Long-term average1 Long-term average

Agromet

Station

1

Distance 

from AOI 

center 

(km)

Elevation 

(m)

2009–

2010

Annual 

(mm)

Annual 

(mm)

Monthly 

minimum 

and month 

(mm)

Monthly 

maximum 

and month 

(mm)

Minimum 

and 

month 

(°C)

Monthly 

mean 

(°C)

Maximum 

and month 

(°C)

Kunduz 30 390 336.3 339.4 0

September 

August

75.3 

March

nr nr nr

1 Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

22C.1.2 Demographics

The Kunduz celestite AOI is sparsely populated, with most areas having from 1 to 25 inhabitants 

per square kilometer as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) (fig. 22C–3). 

Only the area in the southwest corner of the AOI, around the confluence of the Kunduz and Nahrin 

Rivers, has a concentrated population, which ranges from 51 to 2,500/km2

. A considerable part of this 

area is irrigated (fig. 22C–2). Some areas of the AOI are estimated to be uninhabited, as indicated by 

the gray shading in figure 22C–3. The northern part of the AOI has no indicated population in the 

low-lying areas. The city of Kunduz immediately outside the eastern border of the AOI (fig. 22C–1b) is 
1554 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

densely populated, with more than 5,000 inhabitants per square kilometer in central areas surrounded by 

populations that range from 101 to 5,000/km2. The population density shown in figure 22C–3 has a pixel 

resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010). 

22C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the Kunduz 

celestite area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1555

Figure 22C–3. Population density of the Kunduz celestite area of interest in Afghanistan.

22C.1.3 Topography

The topography of the Kunduz celestite AOI is fairly flat with only a few northwest-trending 

mountain ridges (fig. 22C–4) (Davis, 2006). The highest point in the AOI is 1,676 m (meters) above sea 
1556 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

leval (asl) (Bohannon, 2005). The low areas range in elevation from about 350 to 600 m asl and are 

semi-arid desert, with the exception of irrigated land along the Nahrin and Kunduz Rivers. The valleys 

formed by these rivers are more than 10 km wide adjacent to the AOI. There are active dune fields in the 

northern part of the AOI that reflect the prevailing northwest-to-southeast wind direction. 

Figure 22C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the Kunduz celestite area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1557

22C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Kunduz celestite AOI is in the North Afghanistan Artesian Region. The outcrops and near-surface rocks 

in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized 

geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 22C–4 with the underlying topography to allow 

examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figures 22C–5a and b show the generalized 

geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Wells present in the 

map area (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown in figures 22C–5a and b. Generalized 

geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) 

by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic 

characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic 

conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments 

and rocks; loess and fine sediments; limestones and dolostones; and sedimentary rocks” (figs. 22C–4, 

22C–5a

The sands, undifferentiated group is the largest geohydrologic group in the AOI. These 

sediments form the surface of the low-lying desert areas. No information on the thickness of this unit is 

available, but the depth to water in groundwater-monitoring well (GWM) 117 is as much as 9.3 m 

(Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011) (app. 3). Well 117, the only mapped well 

constructed in this unit, is near the Kunduz River near the southern border of the AOI (fig. 22C–5

). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from 

Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic 

coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic map that cover this AOI is provided by Fridrich and others 

(2005).

a).

There are a number of wells in this unit adjacent to the rivers just outside the northeast border of the 

AOI. The sands appear to compose an aquifer that is able to supply water for local use. Locally, the 

sediments near perennial rivers may be river-channel sediments, but the scale of the geologic maps 

available (1:250,000) does not provide further detail. The loess and fine sediments geohydrologic group 

probably consists of wind-blown sediments that are deposited on the flanks of the ridges in the AOI. It is 

doubtful that this geohydrologic group is a source of groundwater in the AOI. The conglomerate 

sediments and rocks geohydrologic group overlies the sedimentary rocks in the AOI. Depending on the 

thickness of this unit, it could be a potential source of limited amounts of groundwater. The 

conglomerate sediments and rocks area within the AOI covers about 100 km2

, but there are extensive 

outcrops outside the AOI. The sedimentary rocks and limestones and dolostones geohydrologic groups 

crop out on the ridge in the center of the AOI (fig. 22C–4). The outcrop area of these units is limited, but 

this group may underlie the unconsolidated sediments in the AOI and could be a groundwater resource. 

Further studies would be needed to determine whether these units contain appreciable groundwater 

resources.

22C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information 

Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in 

figure 22C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, generated with a digital elevation 

model (DEM), also is shown in figure 22C–2. Names of major streams and identification numbers for 

any streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the Kunduz celestite AOI are shown in 

figure 22C–1b. 
1558 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1559

b 

Figure 22C–5. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b) 

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community-supply wells in the Kunduz celestite area of 

interest in Afghanistan.

The streamgage within the AOI is the Kunduz River at Gerdab station (Afghan identification 

number 14-0.000-3M) (figs. 22C–1b, 22C–2). This station is at an elevation of 464 m asl and has a 

drainage area of 22,930 km2

 and a period of record that extends from 21 April, 1964, to 
1560 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

30 September, 1978 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The mean annual streamflow per unit area for 

this station is 0.0028 m3/s/km2 (cubic meters per second per square kilometer). The seasonal timing of 

maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the late spring and early summer and low 

flows from late summer through early spring. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean 

streamflows for this station is presented in table 22C–2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all 

available historical gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at 

The other streamgage station is the Kunduz River at Kulukh Tepa station (Afghan identification 

number 14-0.000-1M) (figs. 22C–1

http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php. 

b, 22C–2). This station is at an elevation of 320 m asl and has a 

drainage area of 37,100 km2

 and a period of record that extends from 1 October, 1965, to 

30 September, 1978 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The mean annual streamflow per unit area for 

this station is 0.0029 m3/s/km2

Two streamgage stations are located outside and downstream from the AOI. One is the Kunduz 

River at Char Dara (Afghan identification number 14-0.000-2M) (figs. 22C–1b, 22C–2). This station is 

at an elevation of 401 m asl and has a drainage area of 24,820 km

. The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is 

high flows in the late spring and early summer and low flows from late summer through early spring. A 

statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in table 22C–4. 

2

 and a period of record that extends 

from 5 August, 1964, to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The mean annual 

streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0022 m3/s/km2. The seasonal timing of maximum and 

minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the late spring and early summer and low flows from late 

summer through early spring. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this 

station is presented in table 22C–3. 

Table 22C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kunduz River at Gerdab 

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

14-0.000-3M KUNDUZ RIVER AT GERDAB

Maximum Minimum Mean

Water year Water year Standard Coefficient Percentage Month Streamflow Streamflow Streamflow of of deviation of of annual (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) 3 occurrence occurrence (m /s) variation streamflow

October 51.5 1969 23.3 1972 38.8 8.17 0.21 4.95

November 56.8 1970 29.4 1972 41.7 7.49 0.18 5.33

December 51.4 1969 28.4 1972 42.3 5.53 0.13 5.4

January 44.8 1969 28.3 1972 39.1 4.58 0.12 4.99

February 44.7 1974 29 1972 37.4 3.97 0.11 4.77

March 47.3 1970 31.1 1972 39 4.95 0.13 4.97

April 93.6 1973 27.1 1972 51.2 18.2 0.36 6.53

May 184 1973 63.5 1974 112 34.3 0.31 14.3

June 400 1968 77.5 1971 204 82.5 0.4 26

July 239 1968 18.9 1971 112 60 0.54 14.3

August 92.4 1968 10.6 1971 37.5 22.8 0.61 4.79

September 48.6 1968 13.5 1971 28.9 10.6 0.37 3.69

Annual 105 1968 43.1 1971 65.5 17.2 0.26 100

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that are prominent in the AOI 

to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, presented in 

appendix 2, were calculated for point S26 (figs. 22C–1b and 22C–2) on a selected stream in the AOI 

using a drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on historical flows at the Bangi River 

at Pul-i-Bangi streamgage station (Afghan identification number 14-1L0-1A) (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010) The Bangi River at Pul-i-Bangi streamgage station was selected as the most 

representative historical gage for use with this method, as the drainage areas of the gages on the Kunduz 

River were much larger than that of the Bangi River at Pul-i-Bangi. The estimated mean annual 

streamflow for point S26 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 460.4 km2

, is about 2.31 m3/s (cubic meters 

per second). The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow, with high flows in 
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1561

the late spring and early summer and low flows in late summer through early spring (app. 2), probably is 

similar to that of the Kunduz River at Gerdab station. 

Table 22C–3. (on following page) Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kunduz 

River at Char Dara streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010).

[m3/s, cubic meters per second]

14-0.000-2M KUNDUZ RIVER AT CHAR DARA

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation (m3/s) streamflow

October 41.7 1969 10.0 1972 27.2 8.89 0.33 4.25

November 49.2 1970 19.7 1972 32.6 7.94 0.24 5.10

December 44.9 1969 21.0 1972 35.0 6.00 0.17 5.46

January 40.8 1969 21.0 1972 32.4 4.81 0.15 5.06

February 40.4 1969 21.0 1972 31.4 4.48 0.14 4.90

March 42.7 1966 24.6 1972 33.8 4.63 0.14 5.28

April 77.8 1973 16.8 1974 37.9 16.9 0.45 5.92

May 159 1973 45.1 1974 91.6 33.5 0.37 14.3

June 406 1968 72.2 1971 186 88.4 0.48 29.0

July 203 1968 13.1 1971 93.1 57.0 0.61 14.6

August 66.3 1968 2.16 1974 23.6 20.1 0.85 3.69

September 32.7 1968 2.59 1974 16.1 8.76 0.54 2.51

Annual 91.9 1968 31.2 1974 53.4 16.6 0.31 100

Table 22C–4. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kunduz River at Kulukh Tepa 

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether

14-0.000-1M KUNDUZ RIVER AT KULUKH TEPA

Maximum Minimum Mean

Water year Water year Standard Coefficient Month Streamflow Streamflow Streamflow of of deviation of (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) 3 occurrence occurrence (m /s) variationPercentage

of annual

streamflow

October 101 1970 40.9 1975 71.0 16.6 0.23 5.57

November 103 1970 61.4 1973 84.1 11.4 0.14 6.60

December 95.1 1969 66.3 1973 81.8 9.05 0.11 6.42

January 80.7 1969 58.3 1975 69.9 8.36 0.12 5.49

February 74.1 1970 53.8 1975 65.8 5.88 0.09 5.17

March 96.3 1969 55.2 1975 74.0 10.8 0.15 5.81

April 179 1969 30.8 1977 76.9 39.5 0.51 6.04

May 236 1973 28.1 1974 141 58.5 0.41 11.1

June 618 1968 148 1971 320 132 0.41 25.1

July 408 1968 12.0 1971 204 112 0.55 16.0

August 154 1969 5.47 1974 54.7 46.4 0.85 4.29

September 60.4 1969 4.44 1974 30.8 14.6 0.47 2.41

Annual 168 1969 66.7 1974 106 29.9 0.28 100

22C.2.2 Groundwater

Approximately 80 shallow community groundwater-supply wells have been installed by NGOs 

east of the Kunduz celestite AOI, in the town of Kunduz near the Kunduz River. Information about these 

wells can be found in a database maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan 

Refugees, 2011). Well-depth and static-water-level information is available for most of the wells in this 

database (fig. 22C–5a,b). About 80 percent of the supply wells in Kunduz are less than 15 m deep; one 

well is more than 30 m deep (37 m). The median well depth is 10 m. The depth to water in 85 percent of 

the supply wells in Kunduz is less than 15 m (fig. 22C–5a

Available well-construction information is limited; however, most wells are “tube” wells (driven 

wells with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing) or dug wells with concrete-ring casing. Wells are generally 

installed in unconsolidated sediments, completed a few meters below the depth at which water is first 

encountered, and equipped with a hand pump. Figure 22C–5

). The median depth to water is 6 m. 

b shows the height of static water in the 
1562 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static depth to water). The median height of static 

water in the well casings is 1 m. Less than 3 m of static water is present in 68 percent of the wells in 

Kunduz (fig. 22C–5b

Two GWMs in the AOI (GWMs 117 and 120) and five wells east of the AOI (GWMs 130, 131, 

132, 133, and 134) in Kunduz (fig. 22C–5

). Of the wells installed in Kunduz, 58 percent are described as having been 

constructed using concrete-ring casing, and 2 percent are described as tube wells. Given the small 

amount of static water in the wells, the other wells also are likely to be dug wells with concrete-ring 

casing. Such shallow wells were found to be vulnerable to seasonal water-level fluctuations and 

becoming dry for extended periods of time, or even permanently, in areas of the Kabul Basin where 

groundwater withdrawals are increasing (Mack and others, 2010). 

a) are monitored by DACAAR for groundwater levels and 

specific conductance. Hydrographs of water levels in GWMs in the AOI, provided by DACAAR, are 

shown in appendix 3. The hydrographs show the date in week number and year, groundwater specific 

conductance in microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius (μS/cm), and depth to water in meters below 

ground surface (bgs). The GWMs likely are generally constructed in alluvial material. The hydrographs 

generally show a 1- to less than 2-m annual range in water levels; water levels generally were at a 

maximum in spring and a minimum in late fall or winter. This water-level range is smaller than that in 

many other areas of Afghanistan. It is possible that the water levels are relatively stable because of 

recharge from the Kunduz River; however, water-supply wells in the Kunduz area may still be 

susceptible to becoming dry because the amount of static water generally is small. Close monitoring and 

careful management of potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect 

the quantity and quality of the current supply in existing wells. Specific conductance in most wells was 

1,000 to 2,000 μS/cm, indicating a relatively low dissolved-solids content, whereas the specific 

conductance in GWM 120 was higher (about 8,000 μS/cm).

22C.2.2 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Kunduz celestite AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011) were 

conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 22C–6) and Advanced Spaceborne 

Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 22C–7a,b). Lineament 

identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in 

carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and 

Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of 

high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore 

and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 22C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in 

figure 22C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the multispectral 

characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). 

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of 

highly fractured bedrock. Many lineaments, particularly those determined by DEM and natural-color 

Landsat (fig. 22C–6), show a northwest trend that may reflect the regional bedrock structure and 

mapped fault trends in the AOI (fig. 22C–5a). Some lineaments reflect the east-west-trending mapped 

faults in the AOI (fig. 22C–5a). Areas where lineament density is high (figs. 22C–6, 22C–7a, 22C–7b) 

potentially are areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. 

Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock waterwell placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and 

areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, 

including those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and 

additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture 

zones.
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1563

Figure 22C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and 

natural-color Landsat imagery in the Kunduz celestite area of interest in Afghanistan.
1564 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1565

b 

Figure 22C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery and 

(b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the Kunduz celestite area 

of interest in Afghanistan.
1566 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

22C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources are more likely to be available for mining and other uses in the Kunduz celestite 

area of interest (AOI) than in other areas of Afghanistan. Water resources in the AOI and surrounding 

area consist mainly of surface water, particularly in the Kunduz and Nahrin Rivers. Shallow alluvial, or 

river-channel sediment, aquifers are present in the valley bottoms of the AOI and are likely to be a 

highly utilized groundwater resource. Most streams are also likely to be highly utilized by the local 

population and represent the primary source of water for irrigation. Any new diversion of water from the 

rivers to support mining activities would need to be closely monitored, particularly during low-flow 

periods. The quantity and quality of surface-water resources need to be assessed so that surface-water 

flow remains sufficient to supply water for irrigation and to provide recharge to the aquifers that supply 

groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic consumption.

No information about deep groundwater in the AOI or adjacent areas is available; however, deep 

groundwater resources are likely to be present. Some areas of the AOI, as indicated by generalized 

geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are potential areas for further exploration for groundwater 

resources; these areas include the sands, undifferentiated geohydrologic group; the conglomerate 

sediments and rocks geohydrologic group; and the underlying clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks.

The quality and sustainability of water resources in the AOI remain to be determined, however. Close 

monitoring and careful management of potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would 

help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing supply for current local water uses. Field 

investigations including geologic mapping, geophysical surveys, hydraulic well testing, and chemical 

and isotopic analysis of surface water and groundwater are needed to adequately characterize the extent 

and availability of water resources in the AOI.

22C.4 References Cited 

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., eds. in chief, 1977, Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan, 

book 2: Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries, Afghanistan Geological Survey, British 

Geological Survey Occasional Publications No. 15, 292 p. (Reprinted 2008.)

Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997, Irrigated areas, 1:250,000 scale: Afghanistan 

Information Management Service Afghanistan Shape Files, accessed October 15, 2010, at 

http://www.aims.org.af/.

Bohannon, R.G., 2005, Topographic map of quadrangle 3768 and 3668, Imam-Saheb (215), Rustaq 

(216), Baghlan (221), and Taloqan (222) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2005–1094-B.

Breckle, S.W., 2007, Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan: Basic and Applied Dryland Research, v. 1, 

no. 2, p 155–194.

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011, Update on “National groundwater monitoring 

wells network activities in Afghanistan” from July 2007 to December 2010: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), 23 p.

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2006-1345, 18 p., also at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/. 

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 

604 p.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038/.

Fridrich, C.J., Lindsay, C.R., and Snee, L.W., 2005, Geologic map of quadrangle 3768 and 3668, 

Imam-Saheb (215), Rustaq (216), Baghlan (221), and Taloqan (222) quadrangles, Afghanistan:

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1094-A.
Chapter 22C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kunduz Celestite Area of Interest 1567

Lattman, L.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1964, Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of 

ground water in carbonate rocks: Journal of Hydrology, v. 2, p. 73–91.

Mabee, S.B., 1999, Factors influencing well productivity in glaciated metamorphic rocks: Groundwater, 

v. 37, no. 1, p. 88–97. 

Mack, T.J., Akbari, M.A., Ashoor, M.H., Chornack, M.P., and others, 2010, Conceptual model of water 

resources in the Kabul Basin, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2009–5262, 240 p.

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock and the Afghan Meteorological Authority of the 

Ministry of Transport, 2010,The Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin, issue no. 7, 

2009–2010, 26 p., available at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/documents.php

Moore, R.B., Schwarz, G.E., Clark, S.F., Jr., Walsh, G.J., and Degnan, J.R., 2002, Factors related to 

well yield in the fractured-bedrock aquifer of New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1660, 51 p., 2 pl.

.

National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995, Vector map (VMAP1): National Imagery and Mapping 

Agency database, available at http://geoengine.nga.mil/geospatial/SW_TOOLS/NIMAMUSE/

webinter/rast_roam.html

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010, LandScan global population database 2009: Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory database, accessed February 1, 2011, at 

.

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/

Olson, S.A., and Mack, T.J., 2011, Technique for estimation of streamflow statistics in mineral areas of 

interest in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1176, available at 

.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1176/

Olson, S.A., and Williams-Sether, T., 2010, Streamflow characteristics of streamgages in northern 

Afghanistan and selected locations: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 529, 512 p.

.

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the 

U.S. Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 

2007, Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD–ROM. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/.

Ruleman, C.A., Crone, A.J., Machette, M.N., Haller, K.M., and Rukstales, K.S., 2007, Map and 

database of probable and possible Quaternary faults in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1103, 39 p., 1 pl.

)

Siddiqui, S.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1971, Hydrogeologic factors influencing well yields in folded and 

faulted carbonate rocks in central Pennsylvania: Water Resources Research, v. 7, no. 5, p. 1295–1312.