NATURAL RESOURCES

SCIENCE PLAN

2011-2015
P A P A H Ä N A U M O K U Ä K E A M A R I N E 

NATIONAL MONUMENT

NATURAL RESOURCES SCIENCE PLAN

April 2011

Prepared by:

Papahänaumokuäkea Marine National Monument

National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration

6600 Kalanianaole Highway, Suite 300

Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96825

United States Fish and

Wildlife Service

300 Ala Moana Blvd., Room 5-231

Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96850

Hawai‘i Department of Land and

Natural Resources

1151 Punchbowl Street, Room 130

Honolulu, Hawai‘i 96813
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Contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Overview of the Monument.....................................................................................3

1.2 Purpose and Scope of the Plan.................................................................................4

1.3 Stakeholders ............................................................................................................5

2.0 SUMMARY OF PLANNING PROCESS .................................................................... 6

2.1 Development of a Research and Monitoring Framework for the Monument .............6

2.2 Public Review and Comment...................................................................................7

2.3 Profiling Ongoing and Potential New Research and Monitoring Projects .................9

2.4 Identification of Research and Monitoring Gaps and Needs...................................10

2.5 Prioritization of Research and Monitoring Activities...............................................10

3.0 RESEARCH THEMES AND FOCUS AREAS ......................................................... 14

3.1 Habitats and Biodiversity .......................................................................................15

3.1.1 Habitats .......................................................................................................16

3.1.2 Native biodiversity.......................................................................................21

3.1.3 Specially protected species ..........................................................................24

3.1.4 Health and disease.......................................................................................30

3.2 Ecological Processes and Connectivity...................................................................32

3.2.1 Oceanographic and atmospheric processes .................................................32

3.2.2 Passive transport of nutrients and living resources ........................................34

3.2.3 Active transport and movement of living resources ......................................36

3.2.4 Population dynamics and genetic structure ..................................................39

3.2.5 Resilience ....................................................................................................41

3.3 Human Impacts .....................................................................................................42

3.3.1 Human activities..........................................................................................43

3.3.2 Alien and Invasive species ...........................................................................48

3.3.3 Climate change............................................................................................51

3.4 Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change....................................................53

3.4.1 Ecological process metrics and monitoring ..................................................54

3.4.2 Biodiversity and habitat metrics and monitoring ..........................................56

3.4.3 Human impact metrics and monitoring ........................................................60
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3.5 Modeling and Forecasting of Ecosystem Change....................................................62

3.5.1 Modeling the ecosystem and ecological processes .......................................63

3.5.2 Modeling biodiversity and habitats ..............................................................65

3.5.3 Modeling human impacts and management .................................................66

4.0 REFERENCES........................................................................................................ 68

Figures

Figure 1. Map of the Papahänaumokuäkea Marine 

 National Monument ...............................................................................................3

Figure 2. Proposed research flowchart ............................................................................11

Figure 3. Prioritization process used for the Science Plan ...............................................13

Figure 4. Research and monitoring process and related 

 themes for the Science Plan ..................................................................................14

Tables

Table 1. Comparison of HAMER Plan and Science Plan ............................................... 7

Table 2. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding

 of habitats in the NWHI........................................................................................19

Table 3. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of native

 biodiversity in the NWHI.................................................................................. 24

Table 4. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of protected 

 species in the NWHI. ....................................................................................... 28

Table 5. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of native 

 resource health and disease in the NWHI. ........................................................ 31

Table 6. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of

 oceanographic processes in the NWHI. ............................................................ 34

Table 7. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of passive

 transport in the NWHI...................................................................................... 36

Table 8. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of active 

 transport/movement of resources in the NWHI. ................................................ 38

Table 9. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of population

 dynamics and genetic structure in the NWHI. ................................................... 40

Table 10. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of resilience

 in the NWHI. ................................................................................................... 42
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Table 11. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of human 

 activities and associated impacts in the NWHI. ................................................. 46

Table 12. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of alien/

 invasive species in the NWHI. .......................................................................... 50

Table 13. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of climate

 change in the NWHI. ....................................................................................... 53

Table 14. Prioritized list of research needed to further understanding of ecosystem and 

 ecological processes in the NWHI. ................................................................... 56

Table 15. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of 

 biodiversity and habitat metrics in the NWHI. .................................................. 59

Table 16. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of human 

 impact metrics in the NWHI. ............................................................................ 62

Table 17. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of ecosystem

 and ecological function in the NWHI. .............................................................. 64

Table 18. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of biodiversity 

 and habitats in the NWHI: ................................................................................ 66

Table 19. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of human

 impacts in the NWHI........................................................................................ 69
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Acronyms

AS Alien Species Action Plan

CFO Coordinated Field Operations Action Plan

DLNR State Department of Land and Natural Resources

EAR Ecological Acoustic Recorders

ESA Endangered Species Act of 1973

FFS French Frigate Shoals

FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

HAMER Hawai‘i Archipelago Marine Ecosystem Research 

HIMB Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology

HMC Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan

HURL Hawai‘i Undersea Research Laboratory

km kilometers

LORAN U.S. Coast Guard Long-Range Aid to Navigation

Management Plan Monument Management Plan

MB Migratory Birds Action Plan

MCS Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

MD Marine Debris Action Plan

MHI main Hawaiian Islands

mi miles

MMB Monument Management Board

MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972

MOA Memorandum of Agreement

Monument Papahänaumokuäkea Marine 

 National Monument

MPAs Marine Protected Areas

MTA Maritime Transportation and Aviation 

 Action Plan

nm nautical miles
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NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service

NOAA National Oceanic and 

 Atmospheric Administration

NOWRAMP Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reef 

 Assessment and Monitoring Program

NWHI Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

OHA Office of Hawaiian Affairs

ONMS Office of National Marine Sanctuaries

P Permitting Action Plan

PCBs polychlorinated biphenyls

PMNM Papahänaumokuäkea Marine 

 National Monument

Science Plan Papahänaumokuäkea Natural Resources 

 Science Plan

TES Threatened and Endangered Species 

 Action Plan

USCG U.S. Coast Guard

VS Midway Atoll Visitor Services Action Plan
Photo: James Watt

Maro Reef.
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1.0 Introduction

The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument (PMNM, Monument) was established 

on June 15, 2006 by Presidential Proclamation 8031, creating one of the world’s largest marine 

protected areas around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). This Proclamation 

was the most recent in a series of executive orders issued over the last 100 years by six U.S. 

Presidents and one State of Hawai‘i Governor to protect the outstanding ecological and 

cultural resources of the NWHI. The importance of protecting these unique values was further 

recognized through the inscription of the Monument as an UNESCO World Heritage site, for 

both nature and culture, on July 30, 2010. 

The Monument’s management is underpinned by its vision “to forever protect and 

perpetuate ecosystem health and diversity and Native Hawaiian cultural significance of 

Papahānaumokuākea.” Formal responsibility for achieving this vision is shared by the State 

of Hawai‘i, Department of Land and Natural Resources, (DLNR), the U.S. Department of the 

Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and the U.S. Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), collectively named the Co-trustees. To 

coordinate management for Papahānaumokuākea at the field level, the Co-trustees signed a 

Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) on December 8, 2006, which established the Monument 

Management Board (MMB). This seven-member board includes two members from each of 

the Co-trustee agencies as well as the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. Additionally, the current 

management arrangements continue a long-standing tradition of active civic engagement 

in the protection and management of the NWHI by stakeholders from non-governmental 

organizations, academia, other government agencies, and the public. A coordinated framework 

for working together to achieve the Monument’s vision is articulated by the Monument 

Management Plan (Management Plan) through six Action Plans for:

• Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI;

• Conserving Wildlife and Habitats;

• Reducing Threats to Monument Resources;

• Managing Human Uses;

• Coordinating Conservation and Management Activities; and

• Achieving Effective Monument Operations.

The Papahānaumokuākea Natural Resources Science Plan (Science Plan) is the first of a 

number of “step-down” plans called for in the Management Plan. The Science Plan aims to 

facilitate the Management Plan’s goal for understanding and interpreting the NWHI, and to 

provide the information required to support management actions, such as managing threats, 

permitting activities, and evaluating the effectiveness of management efforts. 

The Science Plan complements two related step-down plans which are under development: A 

Cultural Research Plan and a Maritime Heritage Plan. The forthcoming Papahānaumokuākea 

Cultural Research Plan will address priorities and methodologies for Native Hawaiian cultural 

research within and about the NWHI. Monument management operates under the policy that 

natural, cultural, and historic resources have equal value, and Native Hawaiians traditionally 
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manage all natural resources as cultural resources. Both the Natural Science and the Cultural 

research plans seek to address management needs and concerns within Papahānaumokuākea, 

and while they are drafted and reviewed separately, the Management Plan expresses a goal of 

ultimate integration. The forthcoming Papahānaumokuākea Maritime Heritage Plan aims to 

facilitate an interdisciplinary understanding of historical resource use within the Monument. 

Through a focus on maritime archeology, historical ecology, and Native Hawaiian heritage, the 

Heritage Plan links to the Natural Resources Science Plan by facilitating research that informs 

our understanding of how past resource use has influenced the ecosystems being managed today.

Among the threats to Monument resources, the direct and indirect effects of climate change, 

including sea level rise, changing weather patterns, and ocean acidification, are significant, 

cross-cutting concerns. Current science suggests that climate change is likely to have 

profound effects on the NWHI’s ecosystems and protected species; thus, understanding climate 

change impacts and adaptation options is reflected throughout the Science Plan. Additionally, 

the Monument offers a unique opportunity to understand climate variability and its impacts in 

the absence of confounding factors, such as human uses and pressures. The Science Plan aims 

to use this advantage to inform broader management efforts to support ecosystem resilience.

Overall, this Science Plan establishes a research and monitoring framework, and a prioritized 

list of research activities, to inform management of the Monument’s natural resources. The 

Science Plan is organized into three sections: 

• Section 1 provides an overview of the Monument, describes the purpose and scope of the 

Science Plan, and defines the Science Plan’s primary stakeholders; 

• Section 2 describes the process used to develop the Science Plan, including the

information and data sources that informed its development;

• Section 3 presents the Research and Monitoring Framework developed for the Science 

Plan. It then describes the Monument’s prioritized research needs under five themes, 

including their relationship to the Management Plan.

Photo: USFWS

Aerial image of Maro Reef.
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1.1 Overview of the Monument

The Monument is situated in the northwestern portion of the Hawaiian Archipelago, located 

northwest of the Island of Kaua‘i and the other main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) (Figure 

1). A vast, remote and largely unexplored and uninhabited marine region, the Monument 

encompasses an area of approximately 139,793 square miles (mi2

) (362,061 square kilometers 

[km2]) of Pacific Ocean. Spanning a distance of approximately 1,200 miles (1,043 nautical 

miles [nm] or 1,931 km), the 100-mile (87 nm or 161 km) wide Monument is dotted with 

small islands, submerged banks and reefs, and atolls that extend from subtropical latitudes to 

near the northern limit of coral reef development. 

Formal scientific research has been ongoing in the NWHI for over 300 years and has 

undergone four historical phases (Grigg 2004). The discovery/naturalist phase was marked 

by massive sample collection followed by a second phase of synthesis. A third discovery and 

data collection phase was characterized by the use of new instrumentation and technology. 

Finally, the fourth and current phase is marked by another period of synthesis.

Management of the Monument is the responsibility of three Co Trustees: the State of Hawai‘i, 

FWS, and NOAA. NOAA and FWS promulgated final regulations that provided the federal 

authority for the Monument under Title 50 Code of Federal Regulations Part 404 on August 

19, 2006. These regulations codify the scope and purpose, boundary, definitions, prohibitions, 

and regulated activities for managing the Monument, and also codified the framework under 

which the State of Hawai‘i would join with NOAA and FWS as a Monument Co-Trustee. 

Figure 1. Map of the Papahänaumokuäkea Marine National Monument
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Access to the Monument is restricted and regulated through the issuance of permits. Proposed 

research and monitoring activities must be able to demonstrate that they meet specific 

criteria codified in 50 Code of Federal Regulations 404.11 to obtain a permit, as well as meet 

applicable criteria provided by relevant state statutes and regulations.

In addition, when the Co-Trustees signed a MOA on December 8, 2006, they established 

roles and responsibilities as well as coordination bodies and mechanisms for managing the 

Monument, including the MMB. The need for coordinated research and monitoring efforts to 

better understand and address major threats to Monument resources is highlighted in the MOA. 

The MOA also calls for joint resource assessment, monitoring, and research, including, but 

not limited to: population studies, species inventories and assessments, and studies of impacts 

from derelict fishing gear. 

1.2 Purpose and Scope of the Plan

The Science Plan aims to provide the information required to effectively implement the 

Monument Management Plan. The NWHI consist of a complex assemblage of natural 

resources in relatively undisturbed condition compared with the MHI and many other marinebased ecosystems in the world (Friedlander et al. 2005). Protecting the health and integrity 

of these resources is a key priority for resource managers. Effective management decisions 

related to both resource use and protection must be based on reliable information on the 

biological characteristics of the organisms and habitats, their ecological relationships and 

an understanding of the natural temporal variations that characterize their ecosystems. In 

addition, the Monument represents a unique opportunity to improve management decisionmaking, to advance management-driven ecosystem science through research on ecosystem 

components and processes, and to develop models and other tools to predict ecosystem 

responses to natural and anthropogenic perturbations, such as climate variability and change, 

in the absence of confounding factors of human uses and pressures. The Science Plan 

characterizes research needs and activities to achieve these goals over the next 15 years, and 

outlines priorities for the next 5 years (2011 to 2015). 

The Science Plan is not considered a static document. The proposed list of research topics 

in the Science Plan is not intended to be comprehensive or to preclude possible research 

activities not explicitly listed, but rather to illustrate the importance of relating proposed 

research activities to current information needs and management activities identified in the 

Monument Management Plan. Conserving and managing natural resources, especially in a 

globally changing climate, requires flexibility to adapt to unanticipated or evolving events. 

As conditions, resource status and knowledge bases change, Monument managers will use 

professional judgment and discretion to likewise adapt scientific needs. As new science needs 

arise, future research will be assessed with the same scrutiny and prioritization as proposed 

in this plan to ensure consistency in management efforts of this unique and special place. 

Managers will assemble on an annual basis to evaluate the current needs and prioritize any 

unexpected needs for the following year.
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1.3 Stakeholders

The Science Plan serves as a guide for a broad range of stakeholders, including scientists, 

resource managers, the MMB, Monument’s Co-Trustees, and the public. The Science Plan 

provides managers and scientists the means to direct scientific research toward finding answers 

to important resource management questions. Researchers from academic and research 

institutions can use the Science Plan to focus their research proposals on topics that are 

relevant to the management needs of the Monument. 

The Science Plan will serve as a guide for the MMB to review and evaluate permit 

applications for research in the Monument. As new research proposals arise, this plan will 

be used by permit coordinators and others as a tool to evaluate research needs, merit, and 

applicability to management efforts. Managers will take into consideration the documented 

need for research in the applicant’s request and use the Science Plan’s focus areas and priority 

rating as tools to make determinations on research requests. Additionally, the Science Plan 

will serve as a driver for potential requests for additional research proposals as funding and 

access space arise. 
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2.0 Summary of Planning Process

The Science Plan prioritizes the research needed to inform management decision-making in 

the Monument, and it builds on extensive discussions, planning, and prioritization efforts 

conducted over the last 5 years. The Plan is based on the best available information and 

data, drawn from the published literature, reports, the Monument permit database, expert 

consultations, and the Monument Management Plan. The Science Plan was developed by a 

science planning team (Science Plan Team) composed of Monument managers, scientists, and 

other designated Co-trustee representatives, through the following steps: 

• A 15-year research and monitoring framework was developed for the Science Plan, 

including themes and focus areas, building on the Hawai‘i Archipelago Marine 

Ecosystem Research (HAMER) Plan and a comprehensive review of existing information;

• A public review of the Science Plan’s proposed research and monitoring framework 

was conducted;

• Research profiles for ongoing and potential new research and monitoring activities were 

developed, based on review of permitted research and monitoring activities and input

from scientists and managers;

• Research and monitoring gaps and needs were identified through comparison of existing 

research and the information needs identified in the Management Plan;

• Research and monitoring activities were prioritized by management needs; and,

• A public review of the draft Natural Resources Science Plan was conducted.

2.1 Development of a Research and Monitoring Framework 

for the Monument

The research and monitoring framework for the Science Plan is structured on the HAMER 

Plan (NOAA 2008), a long-term (10-year), cooperative, multi-agency plan focusing on living 

marine resources across the entire Hawaiian archipelago. The HAMER Plan was drafted, 

reviewed, and approved by the Co-trustees and other key agencies, and it was reviewed by 

an external, expert panel. Although this Science Plan was modeled after the HAMER Plan, it 

differs in a number of critical aspects (Table 1).
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Table 1. Comparison of HAMER Plan and Science Plan

Plan Components HAMER Plan Science Plan

Geographic scope Hawaiian archipelago-wide Northwestern Hawaiian 

Islands only

Driving force Understanding ecological function Support of management issues

Activity completeness Little to no overlap with existing 

research Includes current research initiatives

Time Frame 10 years 15 years

In addition to the HAMER plan, key information sources used in the development of the 

science plan include:

• Papahānaumokuākea Monument Management Plan (2008)

• Quarterly Progress Reports of the Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology – ONMS Pacific 

Region Partnership (2006 – current)

• Research permit database for the NWHI (2002 - 2008)

• State of Coral Reefs Ecosystems in the NWHI (2005)

• Information Needs for Conservation Science and Management of the NWHI (2004)

• NWHI 3rd Scientific Symposium (2004)

2.2 Public Review and Comment

Public scoping related specifically to the Science Plan was conducted in November of 2007. 

This process, along with the extensive public comment and scoping process associated with 

the development of the final Management Plan (TEC 2008) aided in finalization of Science 

Plan themes. These public review and public comment processes are done in part to satisfy 

related requirements contained in the National Environmental Policy Act and the State of 

Hawai‘i’s statutory environmental impact review process. In addition to these requirements, 

the scoping process’s objectives also included: 

• Helping constituencies gain a clear understanding of the purpose of the Science Plan.

• Developing preliminary focus themes for this Science Plan.

• Identifying opportunities for research that would contribute to better management of

the Monument.

• Developing two-way communication with the public and science community to facilitate

information sharing.

• Complying with the federal Council on Environmental Quality’s, and the State of 

Hawai‘i’s Office of Environmental Quality Control’s, rules and regulations to ensure 

stakeholder involvement throughout the planning process.
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The Science Plan scoping period began with the publication of a Notice of Intent to prepare 

the Science Plan on November 6, 2007. The Co-Trustee agencies encouraged the public to 

submit comments through the conclusion of the scoping period on November 30, 2007. In 

addition, a public scoping meeting was scheduled in Honolulu on November 15, 2007. Prior 

to this meeting, advertisements were placed in local newspapers announcing the Co-Trustees’ 

intent to prepare the Science Plan, providing the time, date, and location of the public scoping 

meeting, as well as the duration of the scoping comment period. 

Forty-three members of the public attended the meeting and were encouraged to visit the 

poster stations, discuss the theme with experts, and provide written comments specific to each 

particular theme. Comment cards, color-coded by theme, were available at each station for 

the public to provide their comments. These comments were consolidated and summarized 

in the Science Plan scoping report (TEC 2008). The Science Plan theme “Human Impacts” 

generated the greatest number of comments (14), with many of these concerns being related 

to the impacts of research and the desire to place limits on the amount of scientific collections. 

Many statements advocated that extraction be limited or not allowed. Other comments 

focused on control and monitoring of research activities and assessment of long-term 

cumulative impacts. Marine debris and alien species introduction were issues identified for 

further research and management action. A few comments suggested the types of research that 

should be conducted within the Monument.

The TEC report (2008) concluded: 

There were few substantive comments on the research themes and this may have been 

related to an unfamiliar scoping meeting format. Outside of the research themes, the 

relevant comments were largely supportive of research if it was prioritized, managed, 

monitored (short and long-term), met research goals, and was in support of better 

Monument management.

A second request for public comment was sought for review of the Draft Natural Resources 

Science Plan in July 2009. This review period sought public input on the content and 

structure of the draft plan. Similar to the scoping process, the Draft Science Plan comment 

period began with a notice in the Federal Register on July 9, 2009. The Co-Trustee agencies 

encouraged the public to submit comments through the end of the comment period on August 

10, 2009. Comments were sought via a variety of web and print media as well as two public 

meetings. The first public meeting was held on July 21, 2009 in Honolulu at PMNM’s offices, 

and the second meeting two days later at Mokupāpapa Discovery Center in Hilo.

At each meeting, PMNM staff presented a short overview of the draft Science Plan and its 

content. Following the presentation, members of the public were encouraged to submit formal 

comment via testimony, oral tapings or written comments. A total of 21 people attended the 

public meetings, and three people gave testimony. 

A total of 57 comments were received by 12 individuals/organizations on the draft 

Natural Resources Science Plan. The majority of these comments were in reference to the 

prioritization process used in the plan. Additional comments reflected proposed revisions 

and additional activities to be addressed in various sections of the plan. The final plan 
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reflects appropriate changes requested via public comments as well as revisions requested by 

the MMB.

2.3 Profiling Ongoing and Potential New Research and 

Monitoring Projects

Profiles of ongoing and potential new research and monitoring projects were developed to 

characterize the range of projects conducted in the Monument. Projects described in the 

profiles were categorized by Science Plan theme and focus area and by Management Plan 

priority management need, strategy, and activity. This categorization was then used to develop 

a generalized list of research and monitoring activities from which to identify gaps and 

information needs (Section 2.4) and assign priority ratings (Section 2.5). 

A template was developed to prepare the profile and summarize information on ongoing and 

potential new research and monitoring activities. The template contained five sections: 

• Research/monitoring project title and description;

• Relationship of research/monitoring activity to Science Plan themes and focus areas;

• Location, methods, and timing of research/monitoring project;

• Potential impacts of research/monitoring project on natural/cultural resources; and

• Education and outreach associated with the research/monitoring project.

The first two sections of the template provided important information on what activities were 

occurring or proposed to allow for a comparison of the specific research needs of Monument 

managers. All sections of the template provided information useful in the preparation of the 

environmental assessment of the Science Plan, including location of research and monitoring 

activities, methodologies, and sample collection.

Templates were distributed to scientists and managers with experience or knowledge of 

the NWHI science and management issues to complete. A total of 116 templates were 

disseminated to individuals from FWS, the DLNR, U.S. Geological Survey, various NOAA 

agencies (National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, 

NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries, NMFS Pacific Islands Regional Office, Center 

for Coastal Fisheries and Habitat Research, NMFS Southwest Fisheries Science Center, and 

Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment), the University of Hawai‘i (Hawai‘i Institute 

of Marine Biology, Hawai‘i Undersea Research Laboratory, and departments of Botany, 

Zoology, and Oceanography), Bishop Museum, and other academic institutions (University of 

California Santa Cruz, Stanford University, Duke University, University of Miami, University 

of Maine, Saint Mary’s University, Texas A&M, and Wake Forest University). 

Research and monitoring profiles were completed for 55 ongoing and potential new projects 

using the template. Information from the profiles was used to develop a generalized list of 

research and monitoring activities. This list was used to identify gaps and information needs 

for management decision-making and as the basis for prioritization of research and monitoring 

activities in the Science Plan. 
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2.4 Identification of Research and Monitoring Gaps and Needs

Profiles were used to develop a generalized list of ongoing and potential research and 

monitoring activities occurring in the Monument. This list of research and monitoring 

activities was categorized by Science Plan theme and focus area and then by Management Plan 

priority management need, strategy, and activity. 

Monument staff reviewed the categorized research and monitoring activities to identify 

specific gaps and information needs to improve management decision-making in the 

Monument. The Management Plan served as a basis for identifying research and monitoring 

gaps and needs. In some cases, specific research and monitoring activities identified in the 

Management Plan were not included in the list, and therefore were added and categorized. 

A total of 157 research and monitoring activities were compiled, sorted by research theme, 

and linked to strategies and activities from the Management Plan. This list of research and 

monitoring activities was reviewed and prioritized by a panel of MMB agency representatives 

(Science Plan Panel). This panel was composed of individuals selected to represent their 

agencies in the review and prioritization process. Through evaluations by the MMB and 

Science Plan Panel, the list of 157 research and monitoring activities was reduced to 97 

activities. These activities reflect science needs the managers would like to ascertain 

information about to increase their understanding and enable them to better manage the 

Monument. The list of activities is by no means a compilation of all possible research; it is 

intended to specify actual information needs of the managers.

2.5 Prioritization of Research and Monitoring Activities

Prioritization of research and monitoring activities in the development of the Science Plan 

serves several important functions, including: 

• Guiding the development of research and monitoring proposals by the scientific 

community that address priority management needs;

• Facilitating review and evaluation of specific research proposals for the NWHI for 

permitting by the MMB; and

• Providing the public with information on priority information and data needed to manage

the natural resources of the Monument.

The primary focus of the Science Plan and resulting prioritization of research activities is 

to elucidate the value of research activities and their ability to better inform and enhance 

management efforts. The broad nature of proposed research activities is aimed to fill current 

knowledge gaps at a basic level, in which to provide managers with baseline information to 

make informed decisions in the face of future threats, including a changing climate. This plan 

is designed to act as a first step toward guiding research activities in PMNM and by no means 

is intended to broadly approve specific research agendas. Subsequent to this plan, proposed 

research activities will be subject to more detailed examinations of project merit and potential 

impacts via the Permitting Process (Figure 2). For information on the permitting process please 

visit Papahānaumokuākea’s website at: http://papahanaumokuakea.gov/resource/permits.html
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The list of 97 research and monitoring activities was reviewed and prioritized by the 

Science Plan Panel in February 2010. The Science Plan Panel was tasked to evaluate each 

activity based on its importance to the future protection and conservation of resources of 

the Monument. Research activities were initially evaluated to determine the criticality of 

conducting the research activity to the future protection and conservation of natural resources. 

Points were added to the initial rating if the activity supported legal mandates of one (or more) 

of the Co-trustees or strategies in the Management Plan. As climate change is one of the most 

significant threats to resources in the NWHI, an additional point was awarded if the activity 

directly enhanced knowledge regarding climate change. An overview of this prioritization 

process is provided in Figure 3. Science Plan Panel members were encouraged to conduct 

their own information needs assessment, which involved articulating priority needs in the form 

of a scientific question and identifying which Management Plan activities would be supported 

by the proposed research. This exercise led to a few additional proposed research activities, 

which were rated by the Panel.

Each Science Plan Panel member was asked to rate each of the research activities individually 

according to the provided prioritization scheme. The ratings of each member were aggregated 

and averaged to determine a consolidated numerical value. This value was then given a rating 

of “high,” “medium,” or “low” as previously determined by the prioritization scheme (refer to 

Average Rating column in Section 3 tables). If any agency deemed a research activity to be 

critical, this rating superseded any numerical value and retained its “critical” rating in the final 

document. Although the Monument operates as a single entity, panel members felt it important 

to still respect individual agency requirements or mandates. As such, if an activity was critical 

to any individual agency, the panel as a whole agreed that this activity should be given highest 

priority in the Science Plan. 

General

Research

Topic / Need

Science

Plan

Specific 

Research

Activity

Determine

Management

Priority

Permit

Application Review Permit

Meet

Proclamation

Findings

Undergo

NEPA/HRS

343 Review

Undergo

Panel

Review

Undergo

MMB and DLNR

Review

Public

Comment

Permit Decision

on Research

Activity

Figure 2. Proposed research flowchart
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In addition to rating each research activity, panel members were asked to assign timeframes 

in which the activity should be initiated. This temporal consideration helped to further 

prioritize research activities because knowledge from a particular activity could be deemed 

a high priority, while recognizing that the information may not be needed immediately. The 

“Timeframe” column in Section 3’s tables reflects the time periods in which the activity should 

be initiated.

The Science Plan identifies activities that are needed to fulfill the mandates of the Monument’s 

managing agencies. Due to the diverse mandates of the collective managing agencies, there 

are many stated research and monitoring needs that have been deemed critical in the Science 

Plan, and many of these activities are already on-going. For additional information on specific 

ongoing and past research and monitoring projects, please see the Monument’s annual Permit 

Report documents (www.papahanaumokuakea.gov). 

Research and monitoring priorities are listed in Section 3 by Science Plan theme and focus 

area. The tables include descriptions of the research activity, the averaged activity rating, the 

time frame when the activity should be implemented, and the Management Plan elements that 

the activity will support. 

New research and monitoring needs are expected to emerge subsequent to adoption of the 

Science Plan. These activities will be reviewed and prioritized on a case-by-case basis. In 

addition, the Science Plan will be reviewed annually, and new research and monitoring will be 

identified, prioritized, and added, as needed, to effectively implement the Management Plan. 

Photo: NOAA

ÿOpihi monitoring transect.
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How important is the Research activity to the future

protection and conservation of resources in the Monument

P

Risk Analysis: What are the risks to the future protection and conservation

of natural resources of NOT obtaining this information in the next 5 years:

Rate the risk from 1-10 or critical

If rating is critical: If rating is 1-10:

Does the research activity support achievement of the Monument 

Management Strategies/Activities or does it meet specific Agency 

legal mandates?

Add 0-2 points if the research activity:

0=doesn’t support management or agency mandates

1=supports either management or agency mandates

2=supports both management and agency mandates

Will the research activity increase our understanding of impacts 

due to Climate Change?

Add 0-1 point if the research activity:

0=doesn’t enhance understanding

1=enhances understanding

Rating:

Critical

10-13 = High

6-9 = Medium

1-5 = Low

Figure 3. Prioritization process used for the Science Plan 
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 3.0 Research Themes and Focus Areas

The 15-year framework for the Science Plan is presented as five research themes and 

associated focus areas. These themes are presented in a logical sequence beginning with the 

habitats and biodiversity of the NWHI and ecological processes and connectivity of these 

ecosystems. This discussion is followed by a sub-section covering the human impacts on 

those ecosystems. The next theme covers indicators and monitoring of ecosystem change, 

followed by modeling and forecasting ecosystem change. Within each of the five research 

themes, several focus areas split out the topics to more functional areas of effort. Overall, 

the Science Plan and the five themes can be considered as part of an ongoing process to 

“map,” “monitor,” and “model” the NWHI (Figure 4). All of these factors assist in the central 

objective to conserve and manage Papahānaumokuākea.

Each of the five themes – Habitats and Biodiversity, Ecological Processes and Connectivity, 

Human Impacts, Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change, and Modeling and 

Forecasting Ecosystem Change – are outlined in Section 3. A brief paragraph explaining the 

theme’s importance is provided at the beginning of each sub-section and is followed by several 

focus areas. Each focus area contains four components:

1. Importance of focus area;

2. Index of management needs as defined by the MMP;

3. Current topical knowledge in the NWHI; and

4. Research needs and opportunities.

Indicators and Monitoring of

Ecosystem Change (Theme 3.4)

Habitats and Biodiversity (Theme 3.1)

Ecological Processes and Connectivity (Theme 3.2)

Human Impacts (Theme 3.3)

Map Natural Resources 

Characterize through: 

• Exploration 

• Inventory 

• Basic research

Monitor Natural Resources 

Monitoring of: 

• Human vs. natural changes

• Resource status and trends 

Model Ecosystems 

Modeling of: 

• Linkages

• Impacts

• Management

• Forecast change

• Ecosystem function

• Climate Change

Modeling and Forecasting 

Ecosystem Change (Theme 3.5)

Figure 4. Research and monitoring process and related themes for the Science Plan
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Together, these components provide an overview of management needs as well as previous, 

ongoing, and proposed research in the NWHI. 

3.1 Habitats and Biodiversity

Proper conservation and 

management of the Monument 

requires an understanding 

of the biodiversity within 

the NWHI, as well as the 

physical habitats where this 

life resides. The intimate 

interconnections between 

habitats and biodiversity mean 

that science in the Monument 

needs to consider the linkages 

between these two ecosystem 

components. Biodiversity 

studies should include a 

consideration of key taxa that are fundamental to the functioning of ecosystems in the NWHI 

or that are part of the mandated responsibilities of Co-Trustees. Special focus will be given to 

research on native and protected species. This work requires a dynamic consideration of the 

health of studied species and populations, and the diseases and contaminants that affect them. 

It is also essential to characterize the diversity of habitats in the NWHI, to study processes of 

habitat change, and to consider the mechanisms by which biodiversity affects these habitats 

and these habitats affect biodiversity. This theme is especially challenging given the broad 

size of the NWHI archipelago relative to the current status of exploration and research. This 

theme is comprised of four focus areas: habitats, native biodiversity, specially protected 

species, and health and disease. 

Climate change is expected to heavily impact the Monument’s habitats and biodiversity (Mimura 

et al. 2007). For example, coral reef habitats have been damaged by bleaching events, which are 

linked to increases in sea temperatures (Carilli et al. 2010). Beach areas are reduced by rising 

sea level, which impacts all organisms that rely on beach habitat, including protected species 

such as the Hawaiian monk seal and green turtle (Baker et al. 2006, Fuentes et al. 2010a,b). 

Global temperature increases are thought to influence the occurrence and intensity of El NiñoSouthern Oscillation (ENSO) events, which alter patterns of movement and reproduction in fish 

(Wang and Fiedler 2006) and seabirds (Friedlander et al. 2005). Secondary effects of climate 

change on biodiversity and habitats include increased turbidity, nutrient loading, and damage 

from extreme storms. Ocean acidification slows the growth rates of corals (Hoegh-Guldberg 

et al. 2007, Jokiel et al. 2008, De'ath et al. 2009). The coincident effects of rising sea level 

and slower growth diminish the value of the coral as structural habitat for the reef community 

(Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007). Evidence for the role of climate change in exacerbating coral 

disease is mounting (Baskett et al. 2010).

Photo: Jim Maragos

Unidentified coral species at French Frigate Shoals.
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3.1.1 Habitats

This focus area is concerned with exploration, description and mapping of the terrestrial,

shallow-water and deep-water habitats of the NWHI, in order to form the basis for a georeferenced catalog of the habitats. A description and understanding of the habitats and their 

spatial distribution will establish a habitat baseline for the NWHI. This baseline is essential 

as an anchor for monitoring change within the ecosystem, understanding natural fluctuations, 

and providing a gauge to measure management efforts to protect, maintain, and restore native 

habitats and the biodiversity that depends on these habitats. Despite the level of scientific 

study conducted to date, most of the NWHI remains relatively unexplored, not only for deep 

water habitats, but also for many shallow water habitats. 

Functional relationships among the habitats, organisms, and abiotic processes of the NWHI 

ecosystems are not well understood. Supporting and facilitating research into such topics is 

one of the essential management tasks in the NWHI. In addition, the activities in this focus 

area support numerous national and international research activities. For example, coral reef 

habitats will be mapped in partnership with NOAA, the FWS, the U.S. Geological Survey, 

the Smithsonian Institution, the American Museum of Natural History, Bishop Museum, 

various local, regional and international institutions, and the State of Hawai‘i to support the 

U.S. Coral Reef Task Force’s mandate to develop shallow-water coral reef ecosystem maps 

for all U.S. waters. 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO HABITAT RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan

• HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for restoring the health and biological

diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals where anthropogenic disturbances are known to have 

changed the ecosystem, using best available information about pre-disturbance conditions. 

• HMC-2: Within 10 years, investigate and inventory sources of known contamination from historical

human uses of the NWHI and, where appropriate, coordinate with responsible parties to develop 

plans and complete cleanup actions. 

• HMC-3: Protect and restore beach strand and crest habitats over the life of the plan. 

• HMC-4: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrubs on all the coralline

islands and atolls of the Monument using best available historical information about the original

indigenous ecosystem.

• HMC-5: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrublands on basalt

islands in the Monument. 

• HMC-6: Maintain and better understand the Monument’s wetland and mudflat habitats to benefit

migratory shorebirds and waterfowl for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-7: Maintain, enhance, and, where appropriate, develop freshwater seeps, intermittent

streams, and freshwater ponds as necessary for the benefit of native species for the life of the 

plan. 

• HMC-8: Maintain no more than 150 acres of ironwood woodlands on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, to

provide seabird nesting and roosting habitat for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face habitat at Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-10: Fulfill wilderness stewardship responsibilities in the Monument within 5 years.

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.
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Current knowledge

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program (NOWRAMP/

NWHI RAMP) was initiated by NOAA and FWS in 2000 to characterize and monitor the 

coral reefs of the NWHI using a consistent set of sampling protocols to establish a baseline 

for future data gathering and monitoring change over time. NWHI RAMP surveys conducted 

on an annual basis since 2000 have provided managers with a baseline of floral and faunal 

abundance and distribution, oceanographic data collection, and sediment contaminant studies.

NOAA has also led a significant mapping effort using satellite imagery, multi-beam sonar, 

and other remote sensing methods to provide detailed maps of the shallow and deep-water 

features of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Draft Atlas of the Shallow-Water 

Benthic Habitats of the NWHI (NOAA 2003) was developed through a partnership with 

NOAA, the State of Hawai‘i, the University of Hawai‘i, FWS, and Analytical Laboratories 

of Hawai‘i. NOAA published the Bathymetric Atlas of the NWHI (Miller et al. 2004) 

in 2004. These documents begin to describe the marine habitats and bathymetry of the 

NWHI and establish important baseline information for resource managers. Efforts are 

under way to collect more data for groundtruthing to further refine and complete these 

characterizations.

The mosaic of benthic habitats in the Monument consists mostly of coral-dominated areas, 

stretches of hard-bottom, algal-dominated meadows, and vast expanses of unconsolidated 

sediments such as sand and mud inhabited by few benthic infauna where water is less than 

20 meters deep. Deeper benthic habitats have not been well-studied (Maragos et al. 2009). 

On most islands in the Monument, coral cover on the fore reef is highest along the northwest, 

north, or northeast sectors; the pattern is different at Lisianski/Neva Shoal, where the coral 

cover is highest in the southwest (Maragos et al. 2009).

Less extensive, but no less important, were exploratory research efforts during the 2006 NWHI 

RAMP surveys and Census of Marine Life surveys that revealed many new and undescribed 

species, not only at FFS where most of the search effort was concentrated, but also at virtually 

all of the other islands within the Monument. A new discovery of the table coral Acropora was 

made in the southwest spurand-groove habitat at Pearl 

and Hermes Atoll and off the 

shallow southeast fore reef at 

Neva Shoal (Maragos et al. 

2009). These studies revealed 

that dozens of corals and 

other invertebrates and likely 

comparable numbers of algal 

species remain unknown, 

undescribed, likely endemic, 

and possibly very rare and 

vulnerable. Given the paucity 

of exploratory research to 

date relative to the large area Photo: James Watt

Table coral at French Frigate Shoals.
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of the NWHI, little information 

is available on the extent of 

these unknown species and their 

habitats. From a management 

perspective, any species that is 

unknown, in essence, does not 

exist, and programs designed to 

protect them cannot be executed. 

NOAA, in partnership with the 

University of Hawai‘i’s Hawai‘i 

Undersea Research Laboratory 

(HURL), has begun cursory 

investigations into the deep sea 

to document and describe the habitats and associated flora and fauna. Similar to the Census of 

Marine Life project, these investigations have revealed dozens of new records of fish, and new 

species and records of corals and other invertebrates. 

Scientists from HIMB have participated in multiple research cruises in the Monument 

since 2005. Research activities addressed a variety of topics including (1) biogeographic 

characterization of habitats; (2) acoustic monitoring of sharks to evaluate habitat use, 

particularly with respect to interactions with monk seals; (3) exploration of mesophotic reefs 

(30 – 150 meters depth); and other habitat-based studies (HIMB 2009).

A “Condition Report” produced for the Monument (ONMS 2009) provides an evaluation 

of habitat status and trends. Both deep-sea and shallow-reef habitats are in generally good 

condition; however, shallow areas have been impacted by threats that originate beyond 

the boundaries of the Monument, including derelict fishing gear, marine debris, and coral 

bleaching. Derelict fishing gear is particularly damaging to table coral, which has a limited 

distribution and is in decline. Declines in table coral are exacerbated by outbreaks of coral 

diseases, Acropora white syndrome and Acropora growth anomalies (Work et al. 2008). 

Although existing levels of habitat loss or alteration may preclude full development of 

living resource assemblages, these impacts are “unlikely to cause substantial or persistent 

degradation in living resources or water quality” (ONMS 2009, page 23). However, global 

perturbations such as increasing rising sea temperatures and sea level pose significant threats 

to marine habitats, especially in shallow waters (ONMS 2009). Another threat to habitat that 

limits predictions about future habitat quality is increased ocean acidification, which has the 

potential to degrade the coral reefs that provide structural habit for entire communities. 

Sea surface temperature fronts have an important but poorly understood role in the 

Monument’s ecosystems. A frontal system forms where water masses converge, causing a 

complex pattern of downwelling and upwelling flow. The unique environment created by the 

fronts tends to support high biological diversity, ranging from phytoplankton to zooplankton 

to marine birds and mammals. Apex predators rely on frontal areas to provide forage as they 

migrate through the North Pacific. NOAA has proposed using remotely sensed data to track 

sea surface temperature fronts across remote areas over time in an effort to understand their 

role in supporting the Monument’s ecosystems (Desch et al. 2009).

Photo: NOAA/HURL

A potential new species of Precious red coral 

found at 1,315m depth south of Twin Banks.
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In 2009, NOAA produced imagery of the geologic and benthic habitat information available as 

of January 2009, for each emergent island in the NWHI. Images were based on IKONOS satellite 

imagery and multibeam data analyses. At present, imagery is suitable for mapping about 50 

percent of the shallow-water area (from 0-30 m) (Weiss et al. 2009). Research, monitoring, and 

management would all benefit from additional mapping of shallow-water benthic habitat.

Terrestrial habitats at the NWHI have been described in terms of their importance to native 

and protected species. For example, the Laysan Island Restoration Plan details the biological 

history of the island’s habitats and lays out a plan for ecological restoration of habitat structure 

and function. This plan includes restoration of plants, terrestrial arthropods, and avian 

components of the biological community that occurred at Laysan Island before human contact 

and the loss of many of the island’s species. Similar planning and restoration activities are 

under way at Pearl and Hermes, Midway, and Kure Atolls. Other important terrestrial habitats 

include the rocky cliff-face habitat at Nihoa and Mokumanamana Islands for bird nesting, 

the beach strand and crest habitat, the coastal mixed grasses and shrubs on all of the coralline 

islands, the mixed grasses and shrubs on the basaltic islands, and the mudflat and wetland 

habitats in the Monument that are important for migratory shorebirds and waterfowl as well 

as endemic endangered land and water birds. While some of these habitats have been well 

mapped, data gaps exist in several key areas for these important terrestrial habitats.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 2. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of habitats in 

the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Habitats

Describe intertidal zone community 

structure and habitat types to establish 

baselines. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1

Determine habitats utilized by 

protected species to further enhance 

their conservation and protection by 

maintaining or improving important 

habitats.

Critical 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.3 TES-3.2 

TES-3.3 TES-6.1 

HMC-3.1 HMC4.7 HMC-5.2

Evaluate translocation potential for nonmarine avifauna and terrestrial plants 

and invertebrates.

Critical 10 plus years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-7.1

Use a combination of remote sensing, 

acoustic, optical, and diver data 

collection techniques to characterize and 

map shallow water (<30 meters) benthic 

habitats to establish baselines. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2
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Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Habitats

Use a combination of acoustic, optical, 

and diver data collection techniques to 

characterize and map deep water 

(>30 meters) benthic habitats to 

establish baselines. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Use a combination of acoustic, optical, 

and diver data collection techniques 

to describe fish and invertebrate 

communities in deep waters (>30 

meters) to establish baselines. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Describe the community structure 

of deeper reefs (60-150 meters) to 

establish baselines. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Determine distribution of species within 

habitats to gain insight into how the 

marine ecosystem functions and what 

habitats are necessary for key species 

to prosper.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Characterize, map, and monitor for 

changes in the terrestrial habitats for 

plant, vertebrate, invertebrate and 

microbial species.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-3.1 

HMC-3.2

Characterize and monitor for changes 

in the terrestrial plant, vertebrate, 

invertebrate and microbial species 

by habitats.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-6.1 TES-7.5 

MB-1.2 HMC-4.2 

HMC-4.5

Characterize, map and monitor 

pelagic ecosystems to determine 

hotspot potentials.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Photo: James Watt Photo: Kittipong Janthasang

Hawaiian green turtle. Sooty terns.
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3.1.2 Native biodiversity

This focus area is concerned with systematic exploration of the NWHI flora and fauna to 

characterize the richness, diversity, and life history of native species. Maintaining the native 

species and populations of the NWHI is essential to ensure ecosystem stability and integrity, 

and for the sustainable management of the ecosystem for future generations. However, many 

marine species have yet to be described in the NWHI, especially corals, other invertebrates, 

algae, and deep-water communities. Primary goals are to inventory, map, and assess native 

species as the basis for improving management. Part of this focus area will be to identify 

sites of high diversity (“hot spots”) and highlight rare species that may be vulnerable and 

require protection. Understanding the ecological role of key native species in the NWHI and 

safeguarding this biodiversity will help maintain ecosystem stability. To gain a full ecosystem 

understanding of biodiversity, exploration would also need to extend to deep-water habitats.

Information in this focus area will help to document native biodiversity, and to understand the 

role that native species play in maintaining a stable ecosystem. Information on life history 

and habitat requirements will help assess population vulnerability and provide the basis for 

restoration efforts. Some species that require protection may also need to be evaluated for 

threatened or endangered status and protection of critical habitat in accordance with the 

Endangered Species Act (ESA). Additionally, biodiversity “hot spots” will be characterized to 

help develop effective management strategies.

Photo: James Watt

Photo: James Watt Photo: Wayne Levin

Japanese anglefish. Endemic Nihoa Finch.

Spinner dolphins.
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Current Knowledge

With the establishment of the Hawaiian Islands Reserve in 1909, native birds were the first 

wildlife species in the NWHI to be managed for conservation by the U.S. Government. Early 

protection was important to ensure that stable populations of native seabirds, shorebirds, 

passerines, and ducks were maintained at a time of intense exploitation. Selected seabird 

colonies in the NWHI have been monitored by the FWS and the State of Hawai‘i for decades. 

These monitoring activities will continue to be a high priority for managers. 

In 2009, the Monument was recommended for consideration as a World Heritage Mixed 

Site, partly in recognition of the high degree of endemism in both marine and terrestrial flora 

and fauna (Keller et al. 2009). The Monument boasts one of the world’s last apex predator 

dominated ecosystems, where sharks and jacks control their prey as they did elsewhere before 

humans depleted their numbers (Friedlander et al. 2009a). The Monument also supports the 

largest tropical seabird rookery in the world. 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO NATIVE BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine 

ecosystems for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-5: Conduct activities to increase Laysan duck populations in the Monument over the life

of the plan.

• TES-6: Maintain stable or increasing populations of the Laysan finch, Nihoa finch, and Nihoa 

millerbird in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to three additional

Monument islands and ensure genetic material is also protected in approved repositories for 

the life of the plan.

• TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating Endangered

Species Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the plan. 

Migratory Birds Action Plan

• MB-1: Protect and enhance habitats for terrestrial and marine migratory birds throughout

the life of the plan.

• MB-4: As threats are removed, restore seabird species at sites where they have been 

extirpated. 

Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan

• HMC-4: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrubs on all the 

coralline islands and atolls of the Monument using best available historical information 

about the original indigenous ecosystem.

• HMC-5: Within 10 years, restore and maintain coastal mixed grasses and shrublands on

basalt islands in the Monument. 

• HMC-6: Maintain and better understand the Monument’s wetland and mudflat habitats to

benefit migratory shorebirds and waterfowl for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-7: Maintain, enhance, and, where appropriate, develop freshwater seeps,

intermittent streams, and freshwater ponds as necessary for the benefit of native species 

for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face habitat at Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life of the plan. 

• HMC-10: Fulfill wilderness stewardship responsibilities in the Monument within 5 years.
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From 1992 to 2000, NOAA Fisheries conducted quantitative monitoring of reef fishes in the 

NWHI as part of its Monk Seal Forage Base Study. In 2000, the NOWRAMP was established 

to assess the entire resource base (including biodiversity) at all 10 emergent reefs and shallow 

(less than 20 meters) shoals within the NWHI. This ecosystem-level assessment is a multiagency partnership through NOAA, the Hawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative, and FWS. Results from 

past and ongoing expeditions can be obtained from a variety of sources (Maragos and Gulko 

2002; DeFelice et al. 2002; DeMartini and Friedlander 2004; DeMartini et al. 1996, 2002, 

2005; Friedlander and DeMartini 2002; Maragos et al. 2004; Friedlander et al. 2005; Brainard 

et al. [CoML report]; Friedlander et al. 2008).

In addition to shallow water reef monitoring, NOAA is initiating a Mesophotic reef monitoring 

program. The Mesophotic reefs (30-100 meters in depth) are home to numerous fishes, 

corals and other invertebrates and constitute an integral portion of the marine ecosystem. 

Mesophotic reefs are not well-studied anywhere, but are thought to serve as sources of 

organisms to recolonize shallow reefs following disturbance. In August, 2009, the first 

technical diving survey of the Monument’s deep reefs recorded four species of black corals 

that were previously unknown in the area (HIMB 2009).

NOAA, in partnership with the University of Hawai‘i’s HURL, has begun cursory 

investigations to document and describe the biodiversity of the deep sea. Similar to the 

Census of Marine Life project, these investigations have revealed dozens of new species of 

fish, corals and other invertebrates. Most of the marine mammals in the Monument, including 

the Hawaiian monk seal, forage in very deep water, increasing the importance of monitoring 

and managing these essential resources (ONMS 2009).

Photo: James Watt

A school of Pacific chub in the waters of Midway Atoll.
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 3. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of native 

biodiversity in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Native species

Identify new terrestrial species and 

records for the NWHI to enhance 

knowledge and further conservation 

efforts.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-5.1

Use a combination of optical and diver 

data collection techniques to collect 

ecosystem monitoring data, including 

new marine species and records for the 

NWHI.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 MCS-1.3 

MCS-2.1

Use a combination of optical and diver 

data collection techniques to collect 

ecosystem monitoring data, including 

fish reproduction, growth and size 

distribution data to provide the scientific 

basis for improved management of fish 

stocks and fisheries.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.5

Use a combination of data collection 

techniques to collect ecosystem 

monitoring data, including invertebrates 

such as corals and lobsters.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2

Monitor physical and biological 

parameters associated with freshwater 

seeps and ponds.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-7.1

 3.1.3 Specially protected species

This focus area is concerned with the study of special status species in the NWHI to promote 

their population growth and recovery. Although this subject also covers non-endangered animals 

protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) and Migratory Bird Treaty Act — 

for example, spinner dolphins and Laysan albatross — the majority of the science is driven 

by the federal mandate of the ESA to fulfill individual endangered species recovery plans and 

protect their critical habitat. These include recovery plans for monk seals, sea turtles, shorttailed albatross, Laysan duck, passerine birds, baleen whales, sperm whales, and a number of 

plant species. The role of some species is more conspicuous than others, and because of the 

uncertainty in how the ecosystem as a whole works, protecting vulnerable species and their 

habitat is a key strategy to maintaining overall ecosystem function.

Basic research on population structure and dynamics and understanding the threats to the 

status of the species are expected to help managers in making decisions that promote the 

population growth and recovery of protected species. 
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Current knowledge

The NWHI is home to at least 40 endangered or threatened species from five different groups. 

The status and research in each group is summarized below. 

Hawaiian Monk Seal: The Hawaiian monk 

seal population is in decline, with only about 

1,200 monk seals remaining. (ONMS 2009) 

Modeling predicts that the species’ population 

will fall below 1,000 animals by the year 

2012. In spite of more than two decades 

of efforts to manage, study, and recover 

the species, actions to date have not been 

sufficient to produce a recovering population 

(Antonelis et al. 2006; Parrish and Abernathy 

2006). The monk seal metapopulation can 

be divided into six major and two smaller 

subpopulations in the NWHI and one in the 

MHI (Littnan et al. 2009). Variability in 

population dynamics among the subpopulations is attributed to both natural environmental 

conditions and human disturbance (NMFS, 2007). French Frigate Shoals currently supports 

the largest monk seal colony in the NWHI, but this subpopulation is expected to decline in the 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO SPECIALLY PROTECTED SPECIES RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for the life of the plan. 

• TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage potential threats over 

the life of the plan. 

• TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source beaches are stable or increasing

for the life of the plan. 

• TES-4: Work with the international recovery team for short-tailed albatrosses to facilitate an

increase in the total breeding population of this species to at least 25 breeding pairs occurring on

sites other than Torishima and Senkaku islands for the life of the plan.

• TES-5: Conduct activities to increase Laysan duck populations in the Monument over the life of

the plan.

• TES-6: Maintain stable or increasing populations of the Laysan finch, Nihoa finch, and Nihoa 

millerbird in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to three additional Monument

islands and ensure genetic material is also protected in approved repositories for the life of the 

plan. 

• TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating Endangered Species 

Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the plan. 

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources:

Marine Debris Action Plan

• MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the plan. 

• MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris within 5 years. 

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Photo: James Watt

A curious Hawaiian monk seal at Kure Atoll.
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next few years because of imbalances in the age structure (Littnan et al. 2009). Recent work by 

Schultz and her colleagues at HIMB demonstrated weak population structure in the monk seal, 

suggesting that individuals may be relocated from one area to another without compromising 

genetic structure (HIMB 2009). Meyer and Holland of HIMB are investigating predation by 

the Galapagos shark (Carcharhinus galapagensis) on Hawaiian monk seal pups at FFS. The 

study focuses on understanding seal pup predation dynamics, with attention to the potential for 

shark culling as a means to reduce pup mortality (HIMB 2009). Monk seals may be further 

threatened by increasing sea level, which may reduce available resting habitat as beaches 

become inundated (ONMS 2009). 

Cetaceans: In the NWHI, sightings and 

acoustic recordings of baleen whales as well 

as smaller dolphins have been documented. 

Five species of baleen whales are listed 

as “Endangered” under the ESA, and as 

“Depleted” under the MMPA. In addition to 

these five endangered or depleted species, at 

least 19 other species of whales and dolphins 

are legally protected under the MMPA and are 

found in the NWHI for all or part of the year. 

Hawaiian spinner and bottlenose dolphins 

are year-round residents of the Monument. 

Other species, such as the spotted dolphin and 

humpback whale, make use of the NWHI as part of their migratory life cycles (ONMS 2009). 

Johnston et al. (2007, cited in ONMS 2009) identified important wintering ground of the 

humpback whale in the NWHI. 

Ongoing passive acoustic monitoring of ambient sounds using Ecological Acoustic Recorders 

(EARS) documented that Maro Reef and Lisianski Island are apparent ‘hot spots’ of humpback 

whale activity (Lammers et al. 2009, cited in HIMB 2009). Singing patterns from December 

through April indicate that north Pacific humpback whales overwinter at the Monument. 

Separate studies have suggested that humpback whales from the Bering Sea may be breeding in 

an unidentified area in the central north Pacific (Calambokidis et al, 2008). The HIMB team is 

evaluating the acoustic records from the Monument to determine the likelihood that the MHI and 

the NWHI populations are continuous (HIMB 2009).

Overall, management actions and efforts to 

reduce the impacts to cetaceans in the NWHI 

have been limited, based on the sparse species 

information available (Andrews et al. 2006).

Marine Turtles: Marine turtles documented 

in the NWHI include the green and loggerhead 

(listed as threatened), and the hawksbill 

and leatherback (listed as endangered). Sea 

turtle populations have declined across 

the Pacific because of nesting habitat loss, 

Photo: HIHWNMS/NOAA Fisheries MMHSRP Permit #932-1489

Photo: James McFall

Two humpback whales.

Hawaiian green turtle under the 

pier at Midway.
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harvesting eggs and turtles for commercial and subsistence purposes, and fishery interactions. 

Research has been conducted on the green turtle nesting population in the NWHI since 1973 

and represents one of the longest time series of nesting abundance data for any sea turtle 

population. The Hawaiian green sea turtle stock is showing signs of recovering after more 

than 25 years of protecting their nesting and foraging habitats in the Hawaiian Archipelago 

(Chaloupka et al. 2008). About 90 percent of the green sea turtles in the Hawaiian Islands nest 

in the NWHI, the majority on a few islets at FFS (Balazs and Chaloupka 2006) that are now 

threatened by rising sea levels linked to climate change.

Migratory Birds: The majority 

of all tropical seabirds in 

Hawai‘i nest in the Monument, 

and these breeders plus an equal 

number of species of nonbreeding seabirds transit through 

or forage in the waters of the 

Monument. Seabird colonies in 

the NWHI constitute one of the 

largest assemblages (14 million 

birds and 22 species) in the 

world. More than 95 percent of 

the world’s Laysan and black-footed albatross nest here. Statute and policy at several levels 

mandate the protection and management of migratory bird populations in the Monument. 

International treaties, domestic legislation, executive orders, state law, and FWS policy require 

the conservation of these species. Breeding populations across the NWHI were last surveyed 

in 1984. Recent surveys focused on three islands (Midway Atoll, Laysan Island and Nihoa) 

show most species are stable or increasing, with the exception of red-tailed tropicbirds, which 

appear to be in decline at Midway Atoll due to low adult survivorship at sea (Arata et al. 2009, 

Klavitter et al 2009, Laniawe 2008). High-quality breeding habitat, low predation risk, and 

low disturbance conditions support these populations, despite the less than perfect conditions 

they may encounter when foraging outside the Monument (Keller et al. 2009). However, some 

seabirds, like the albatrosses, may be adversely affected by climate change, longline fishing, 

food shortages, contaminants, ingestion of plastics, and other processes beyond the boundaries 

of the Monument. Potential threats to seabirds within the Monument include negative 

interactions with introduced species, overgrowth of nesting habitat by alien plant species, loss 

of nesting habitat to sea level rise, and ingestion of lead-based paint chips (Keller et al. 2009). 

In addition, foraging seabirds are harmed by marine debris and surface pollutants (ONMS 

2009).

Endangered Birds: Five bird species occurring in the NWHI are protected under the ESA. 

Three of these are songbirds: the Laysan finch (Laysan Island and Pearl and Hermes Atoll) 

and the Nihoa finch and the Nihoa millerbird, (both endemic to Nihoa Island). The range of 

the Laysan duck is the most restricted of any duck species in the world and so is especially 

vulnerable to extinction because of its small population size (less than 1,000 ducks). In 2004 

and 2005, 42 Laysan ducks were translocated to Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. 

The translocation was successful in establishing Laysan ducks at Midway Atoll and, as of 

Photo: Kaleomanuiwa Wong

Sooty tern chick on Mokumanamana.
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April 2010, the population numbers approximately 473 ducks (USGS unpub. data). In 2008, 

endangered short-tailed albatross were observed on Kure Atoll (one), Midway Atoll (four), and 

Laysan Island (one).

Plants: Six plant species known 

historically from the NWHI are listed 

as endangered. The ohai, Sesbania 

tomentosa, is present on Nihoa and 

Necker Islands. Mariscus pennatiformes

spp. bryanni is known only from Laysan 

Island. Cenchrus agrimonioides var. 

laysanensis was historically known from 

Laysan Island and Midway and Kure 

Atolls, but has not been seen there since 

about 1980. The Amaranthus brownii

and Schiedea verticillata species are 

endemic to the NWHI and are currently 

restricted to Nihoa Island. The loulu 

fan palm is also endemic to the NWHI 

and historically occurred on Nihoa and 

Laysan. The Nihoa species, Pritchardia remota, is thought to be different from the nowextinct Laysan species, Pritchardia spp. (Athens et al. 2007). The Nihoa species has been 

replanted on Laysan Island to replace the now-extinct Laysan species.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 4. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of protected 

species in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Specially protected species

Monitor and characterize Galapagos 

shark predation on Hawaiian monk 

seal pups at French Frigate Shoals 

and evaluate different techniques (i.e. 

deterrents, removals, translocations) to 

decrease pup mortality.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2 TES-1.6

Develop strategies that can enhance 

the survival of female monk seals to 

increase recruitment into breeding class.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2

Model potential effects of climate change 

on terrestrial species that are either 

protected, dominant or keystone.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.3 TES-3.2 

TES-3.3

Photo: Wayne Levin

Loulu palm on Nihoa.
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Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Specially protected species

Determine diet and foraging behavior 

of monk seals using a variety of 

techniques and correlate that with 

ongoing prey abundance studies and 

environmental monitoring.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2

Determine important habitats 

(terrestrial and marine) for monk 

seals using a variety of observing and 

telemetry techniques.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI and 

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MCS-1.5 TES-1.2 

TES-1.3

Examine monk seal diet to determine 

prey species and variation in diet 

and compare to other apex predators 

or fisheries. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 1.2

Examine monk seal condition, survival, 

foraging behavior and diet and compare 

between populations of seals. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 1.2

Examine biocontaminants in blood and 

other tissues to determine presence and 

load of these chemicals and assess their 

impacts to monk seals.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 1.2

Design and implement translocation 

plans (moving seals from areas of lower 

to areas of higher survival) to increase 

survival in juvenile monk seals.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2 TES-5.2 

TES-6.2 TES-7.1 

TES-7.2 TES-7.3 

TES-7.5

 Research and Monitoring Activity Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management Plan 

Activity

Characterize and monitor populations 

of green turtles nesting and foraging in 

the NWHI through surveys, tagging, and 

modeling of existing data.

High 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-3.1

Conduct studies of seabird trophic 

interactions and foraging and how 

they relate to demographic and 

population traits. 

Medium 10 plus years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-3.1 MB-3.2

Determine habitats utilized by cetaceans 

to further enhance their conservation 

and protection by maintaining or 

enhancing important habitats.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-2.1

Conduct studies of population 

demography on cetaceans. Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-2.1
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3.1.4 Health and disease

This focus area is concerned with understanding the effect of disease on NWHI biodiversity. It 

will be important to identify the diseases present in the area, with a priority focus on diseases 

that affect protected and endemic species. Understanding the effects on the health of species 

and populations of the NWHI ecosystem is an integral part of safeguarding biodiversity at the 

NWHI and maintaining a sustainable ecosystem. As the NWHI is considered one of the last 

relatively pristine large coral reef ecosystems remaining in the world, it provides the unique 

opportunity to document the normal levels of disease in a coral reef system exposed to limited 

human influence.

Research on health and disease at the NWHI is expected to help maintain biodiversity by 

establishing a baseline for the presence of disease and allowing managers to identify and 

minimize the impacts of a disease outbreak. Additionally, research in this area will provide 

managers with the tools to establish a disease monitoring program to detect and stop the spread 

of new diseases in the NWHI.

Current knowledge

Past research on marine health and disease at the NWHI has included work on coral and reef 

fish disease and avian botulism (Work et al. 2002; Aeby 2006). Aeby (2006) reported tumors 

on Acropora as well as lesions associated with parasites, bacteria, and fungi on a number of 

different coral species. The most common disease was Porites trematodiasis caused by a 

digenetic trematode. Additionally, past research on reef fish disease identified the introduced 

blue striped snapper (ta‘ape), Lutjanus kasmira, as a vector for protozoal and epitheliocystislike infections (Work et al. 2003). 

In the marine environment, health and disease research has been conducted on corals, coral 

symbionts, and fish. Although levels of coral disease in the NWHI are much lower than 

elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific (Aeby 2006a), table coral has been infected by both Acropora

white syndrome and Acropora growth anomalies (Work et al. 2008), diseases which may be 

spreading from Johnston Atoll (ONMS 2009). Studies have been conducted to examine the 

effects of white syndrome and growth anomalies on Acropora reproductive output (Aeby 

and Work 2007), as well as the role of biodiversity in influencing coral disease outbreaks 

and outcomes in Acropora white syndrome (Aeby, in HIMB 2009). Additional research has 

evaluated disease resistance among individual Porites lobata at the FFS and genetically diverse 

colonies of Pocillopora damicornis at FFS and PHA (Karl, in HIMB 2009). Further studies have 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO HEALTH AND DISEASE RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Migratory Birds Action Plan

• MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as habitat destruction by invasive

species, disease, contaminants (including oil), and fisheries interactions for the life of the 

plan. 
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comparatively assessed the diversity of bacteria associated with healthy and health-compromised 

corals at the NWHI (Salerno et al. 2007), and the diversity of the coral endosymbiont 

Symbiodinium and its role in coral disease susceptibility (Stat and Gates 2007). For example, 

Stat and Gates (2007) have identified an association between Symbiodinium clade A and a higher 

incidence of disease. 

It has been suggested that the introduced ta’ape brought a parasitic nematode into the NWHI. To 

examine this, nineteen goatfish (Mulloides flavolineatus) from Johnston Atoll, which has not yet 

been invaded by ta‘ape, were examined for disease. Although goatfish did harbor other types of 

gut parasites, no nematode infections were documented. These findings support the hypothesis 

that the nematode was introduced into Hawai‘i by ta’ape (HIMB 2007). 

Work et al. (2010) identified avian botulism type c as the primary cause of mortality of 159 

Laysan ducks on Midway Atoll in 2008. Avian pox virus (Poxvirus avium) is a mosquito-borne 

disease that forms lesions on about 50 Laysan albatross chicks at Midway Atoll each year (J. 

Klavitter pers. comm.). Although pox does not negatively affect fledging success, it can cause 

bill and skull deformities in severe cases (Young and VanderWerf 2008). Studies have yet to be 

conducted on the long term effects of avian pox on albatross.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 5. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of native 

resource health and disease in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Habitats and Biodiversity

Health and disease 

Determine the presence of high risk 

diseases and potential catastrophic 

emerging diseases and develop 

vaccinations as appropriate.

Critical 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 1.2

Determine the various impacts of 

marine diseases on host species 

and the surrounding community to 

evaluate effects at an ecosystem-wide 

scale to further understand impacts to 

biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

Critical 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2

Determine how marine diseases spread 

to find possible mitigation/eradication 

methods, allowing managers to maintain 

ecosystem health.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2 MCS1.4 MCS-2.1

Investigate occurrence, severity, and 

impacts of diseases in populations of 

green turtles nesting and foraging in 

the NWHI.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 3.1

Study disease and disease control and 

monitor for occurrences and outbreaks in 

avifauna and terrestrial plants.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1
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3.2 Ecological Processes and Connectivity

The islets, reefs, and atolls that make up the NWHI cannot be considered as isolated units; 

nor can the NWHI be considered in isolation from the MHI. These systems are intimately 

linked and affect one another. Major sources of connectivity include oceanic and atmospheric 

processes, passive transport of biota and nutrients via currents and upwelling, active transport 

of animals through movement and migration, and the dynamics of population groups. The 

study of energy flow through the system by understanding trophic relationships and food webs 

is also a primary component of this theme. These factors are major drivers of the health, 

productivity and resilience (the ability of ecosystems to absorb and recover from change) of 

these ecosystems. Understanding the major processes that affect and connect the components 

of the NWHI and how these managed ecosystems affect the surrounding areas is fundamental 

to effective management of the Monument.

The principles that define ecological processes and connectivity operate in all parts of the 

world, regardless of local climate or condition. For example, nutrient transfer occurs in all 

communities. However, the specific types of processes that dominate in a given location are 

influenced by local and global climatic conditions. Current research on the ways in which 

climate change affects ecological processes includes the effect of sea temperatures on ENSO, 

and the unexpected balancing effect of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (Hilbish et al. 2010); 

the effects of climate change on trophic transfer (Eriksson-Wiklund et al. 2009); and changes 

in distribution and abundance of key species, with subsequent community effects (Cheung 

et al. 2009, 2010). The physical, chemical, and biological perturbations that are initiated 

by climate change are expected to have an increasingly negative effect on marine resources 

around the world, as well as on the human populations that are linked to those resources 

economically and culturally (Halpern et al. 2008). A similar analysis of anticipated impacts at 

the Monument concluded that processes related to climate change posed the greatest threat to 

coastal and nearshore resources (Selkoe et al. 2008).

3.2.1 Oceanographic and atmospheric processes

The health, functioning, biogeography and biodiversity of the NWHI are significantly 

influenced by the area’s oceanographic and atmospheric conditions and processes (for 

example, vertical and horizontal water movements, waves, storms, temperature, salinity, 

turbidity, and nutrients). Physical oceanography and associated biological processes connect 

the various components of the NWHI with each other and link the NWHI with the MHI 

and other parts of the Pacific region. The importance of these oceanographic processes is 

not limited to the marine environment, for it greatly affects the terrestrial environment by 

influencing the ecology of organisms that routinely move between land and sea (seabirds). 

The most fundamental aspects of oceanography and connectivity to be understood include 

the temporal and spatial patterns of water exchange, both horizontal and vertical movements. 

This understanding can lead to information on the effects of these currents on regional 

primary productivity, sea temperature, ocean chemistry, and other parameters critical to 

ecosystem health and functions in an archipelagic setting such as the NWHI. Understanding 

oceanographic processes and atmospheric conditions can lead to developing a unified 

hydrographic model that will serve as a basis for modeling and forecasting important 
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processes and impacts, such as the transport of nutrients, larvae, and marine debris to, from, 

and within the NWHI and identifying the sources and sinks of larval populations. 

The effect of this research will be, among other things, to create a basis for understanding, 

modeling, and forecasting important inputs to the NWHI, such as the transport of nutrients, 

larvae, and marine debris to, from, and within the NWHI and identify the sources and sinks 

for larval populations. It will also help to understand changes in weather patterns and storm 

events and their impacts on island ecosystems. Understanding these processes is an essential 

basis for improved management of the ecosystem overall and protected species and critical 

areas in particular. Through this knowledge managers will be better able to understand and 

predict the effects of climate change and their relation to potential management actions to 

conserve species and habitats.

Current knowledge

Previous and ongoing research and monitoring programs have addressed basic weather 

parameters of precipitation, temperature, and winds, as well as a wide range of water quality 

and chemistry parameters, circulation patterns, and oceanographic characteristics through 

a variety of means. In particular, a number of studies have been undertaken to understand 

oceanographic processes and transport in the NWHI as the basis for developing oceanographic 

circulation models and transport models. Oceanic productivity modeling has demonstrated 

clear spatial patterns in ocean productivity but has been unable to trace the path of the energy 

flow into the community. Transport models have identified large-scale patterns in ocean 

circulation but need to establish the sources and sinks for larval populations. 

Biological ecosystems in the Monument are shaped by oceanographic processes, including 

ocean currents, waves, nutrients, temperature, and other measures of water quality. Boreal 

winter storms and significant wave events affect the distributions of corals, algae, and 

their associated animal assemblages (Desch et al 2009). Much of what is known about the 

oceanographic conditions in the NWHI comes from NOAA’s shipboard Acoustic Doppler 

Current Profilers and satellite remote sensing data (Desch et al. 2009). Wave power varies on 

both annual and decadal temporal scales, allowing the range of sensitive species to expand and 

contract over time. Long-term data on sea surface temperature, which varies with latitude, 

indicates that the Monument’s ten management regions fall naturally into three latitudinal 

subgroups (Desch et al. 2009). Remotely-sensed ocean color data demonstrates that low 

chlorophyll (low productivity) ocean water has expanded worldwide, and now occurs at the 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO OCEANOGRAPHIC AND ATMOSPHERIC

RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources:

Marine Debris Action Plan

• MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris within 5 years. 
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NWHI. Further expansions of oligotrophic waters threaten the photosynthetic underpinnings 

of marine food webs (Desch et al. 2009).

Research needs and opportunities

Table 6. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of 

oceanographic processes in the NWHI. 

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Ecological Processes and Connectivity

Oceanographic processes 

Determine sources of marine primary 

productivity that drive food chains 

to better understand and protect 

mechanisms of ecosystem functioning.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 MCS1.2 MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Track tidal movements for long-term 

monitoring to assess large-scale 

changes to the environment.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1

Track weather information for longterm monitoring to assess large-scale 

changes to the environment.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1

3.2.2 Passive transport of nutrients and living resources

The movement of water masses into, out of, and within the NWHI plays a major role in

ecosystem health, functioning, biogeography, and biodiversity. The diversity and abundance 

of living resources and the productivity and health of NWHI marine ecosystems depend 

on ocean currents and upwelling that transport larvae and nutrients. The passive transport 

of nutrients and living resources that results from horizontal currents and vertical water 

movements (upwelling) is fundamental to marine ecosystems. This passive transport is 

important at many scales — from that of an individual atoll up to the scale of physical 

oceanographic processes that link the NWHI with the MHI and other parts of the Pacific 

region. Horizontal and vertical 

water movements are key drivers 

of primary productivity, sea 

temperature, acidity and other 

fundamental parameters of 

ecosystem health and productivity. 

The temporal and spatial patterns 

of these water movements in 

relation to biological processes 

(such as spawning and recruitment 

events) are critical to the 

distribution, abundance, and health 

of species and populations. Photo: James Watt

Shoreline at Laysan.
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Addressing these kinds of research issues will enable managers to understand temporal 

and special patterns of productivity as well as larval dispersal and recruitment and create 

management areas based on sources, sinks, and 

transport pathways. 

Current knowledge

Water movements and oceanographic characteristics have been documented and monitored in 

a number of previous and ongoing studies and programs. Some of these programs have been 

undertaken to understand oceanographic processes and transport in the NWHI as the basis for 

developing oceanographic circulation models and transport models. Modeling has identified 

large-scale patterns in ocean circulation and clear spatial patterns in ocean productivity. 

Additional work is required to trace nutrient and energy flows, as well as establishing the 

sources and sinks for larval populations.

Patterns of connectivity within and among the Hawaiian Islands are being studied using a 

biophysical model to simulate coral dispersal between reefs under a variety of conditions: 

strong El Niño, strong La Niña, and neutral. The northwestern islands were shown to be 

constantly and strongly connected by dispersal. In some seasons, larvae may disperse from 

Johnston Atoll to the mid-Hawaii archipelago. High-resolution ocean current data and 

computer simulation suggested that pelagic larval transport occurs between adjacent islands, 

regardless of larval duration; longer 

larval periods increase the connectivity 

between non-adjacent islands. Based 

on larval transport modeling, the 

Monument seems to be largely selfsustaining, with differences among 

islands explained by their location with 

respect to larval sources. Species with 

short larval periods settle on Nihoa, 

Middle Bank, Ni‘ihau and Kaua‘i from 

both within the Monument and the MHI, 

but do not cross from the northernmost 

NWHI to areas farther south, or vice 

versa. However, species with longer 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO PASSIVE TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS AND LIVING 

RESOURCES RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems for the 

life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats:

Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan

• HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for restoring the health and biological

diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals where anthropogenic disturbances are known to have changed 

the ecosystem, using best available information about pre-disturbance conditions. 

Photo: NOAA

ÿOpihi, Hawaiian limpets.
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larval periods (90 days) are transported across essentially the entire Hawaiian Archipelago 

(Friedlander et al 2009b).

Researchers at HIMB have recently completed a study of rice corals across the Hawaiian 

Archipelago that demonstrates limited larval exchange between the far Northwest and central 

portions of the Monument, and between the Monument and the MHI. However, substantial 

larval exchange between Johnston Atoll and Lisianski Island indicates the need for a single 

management unit that extends beyond the formal boundary of the Monument (HIMB 2009). 

Research needs and opportunities

Table 7. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of passive 

transport in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Ecological Processes and Connectivity

Passive transport of nutrients and living resources 

Use remote sensing as well as insitu observations and instrumentation 

to monitor, alert, model, and report 

environmental and biological phenomena 

influencing and associated with marine 

ecosystems.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1

3.2.3 Active transport and movement of living resources

Marine or terrestrial organisms travel or migrate into, out of, and within the NWHI on 

a regular or periodic basis. This active transport has important effects on population 

abundance and dispersal. Some species movements and migration patterns may occur in 

relation to various biological and environmental variables (for example, prey abundance, 

temperature, lunar or tidal cycles, thermoclines, and bottom topography). Other movements 

may be more episodic, for example as a result of extreme weather events. There may be 

critical habitats or resources that are important in determining the movement of organisms, 

such as bird nesting habitat. The migration and episodic movement of key species within 

the NWHI are important to understanding the connectivity between islands and atolls. 

The movement of biota into and out of the NWHI drives the linkages of these species and 
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populations with the MHI and other parts of the Pacific region. This information is critical 

to delineating the range, distribution and threats of the species and populations occurring in 

the NWHI as a basis for their management.

The expected outcome of research into these issues is improved management of these 

populations and the resources and habitats upon which they depend, for example, identifying 

critical habitat needed by key species in the NWHI that may be sensitive to human impact 

and environmental change. 

Current knowledge

Research undertaken to date on active transport of species into the NWHI involves mark and 

recapture studies as well as passive tracking studies with the use of satellite tags or a network 

of fixed acoustic monitoring stations. Specific studies on the movement of organisms into and 

within the NWHI include mark and recapture of albatross (Anderson et al. 2006, see USFWS 

action plan for complete references) as well as spinner dolphins (Karczmarski 2005), and 

satellite tracking of endangered species (monk seals) (Parrish and Abernathy 2006) and top 

predators (sharks and jacks) (Lowe et al. 2006). Acoustic telemetry of jobfish (a snapper) and 

giant trevally (a jack) demonstrated site fidelity (Meyer et al., 2007a, b). These large predatory 

fish moved within the atoll toward channels and reef passes to spawn, but did not wander from 

one atoll to another. Ongoing research includes the use of satellite tags and a network of 23 fixed 

acoustic monitoring stations at nine NWHI locations and 50 stations in the MHI to monitor top 

marine predators (sharks and jacks) implanted with acoustic tags (Meyer and Holland 2007). 

Data from these listening stations will be analyzed in relation to various environmental and 

biological factors (including those affected by anthropogenic activity) to identify the factors that 

may influence movement of target species. Satellite and geolocator tags are currently deployed 

on Laysan and black-footed albatross and red-tailed tropicbirds on Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, 

and FFS to understand breeding and non-breeding season movement patterns (J. Klavitter pers. 

comm.). Like albatross, with their far-ranging distribution, most breeding seabirds face threats 

outside the NWHI and are in great need of study.

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND MOVEMENT OF LIVING 

RESOURCES RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for the life of the plan.

• TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage potential threats over 

the life of the plan.

• TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source beaches are stable or increasing 

for the life of the plan. 

Managing Human Uses: 

Permitting Action Plan

• P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts.
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Other ongoing studies that document the movements and population trends of breeding seabird 

species in the NWHI include long-term, at-sea surveys conducted by NOAA and others (see 

publications by Balance, SWFSC). Many seabird species are not sufficiently monitored at the 

breeding colonies; therefore, increases and changes in population size are detected from data 

collected at-sea in their foraging ranges.

Long-term trends in biological and anthropogenic activities in the Monument have been 

monitored using non-intrusive passive acoustic methods since 2006. In September 2006, 

four Ecological Acoustic Recorders (EARs) were deployed at French Frigate Shoals, Pearl 

and Hermes, and Kure. Three additional EARs were installed at Maro Reef, Lisianski Island, 

and Midway, and a second unit was deployed at Pearl and Hermes, in September, 2008 

(HIMB 2009).

Research needs and opportunities

Table 8. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of active 

transport/movement of resources in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Ecological Processes and Connectivity

Active transport and movement of living resources

Monitor exchange of monk seals between 

subpopulations and the MHI using photoid, telemetry and other techniques.Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES 1.2

Support research to investigate 

movements and habitat use of predatory 

Galapagos sharks at French Frigate 

Shoals

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI and 

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MCS-1.5 TES-1.2 

TES-1.6

Determine what scales apex predators 

operate at to better understand their 

impacts to marine communities and how 

to protect these highly mobile species.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.5

Assess marine turtle movements and 

migrations within the NWHI and between 

the MHI, Johnston Atoll, and NWHI 

through biotelemetry, tag returns, and 

sightings.

High 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.5

Determine home ranges of various 

fish species to better understand their 

role/function in the ecosystem, and to 

determine the scale at which protection 

is best implemented. 

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.5
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3.2.4 Population dynamics and genetic structure

Genetic studies of flora and fauna can compare the similarity or differences of the genetic 

material between populations of species at various locations across the NWHI. These studies 

create the potential to quantify the relative connectivity between populations at discrete sites 

as well as the continuum of the flow of genetic material across the entire archipelago. These 

kinds of genetic studies can produce data on the thousands of different species found in the 

archipelago, regardless of life history traits and reproductive strategies. These data inform 

our understanding of population dynamics and connectivity patterns within the NWHI, and 

between the NWHI, the MHI, and with other parts of the Pacific region. Studies of genetic 

structure are often the only method that can provide insights into population size and gene flow 

rates for many species. The value and certainty of genetic studies are well documented, and 

these studies can provide unbiased and extensive data to help understand issues such as life 

history traits and the impacts of genetic bottlenecks on species. These results contribute to the 

improved understanding of the ecosystem and sound management decisions, for example, on 

identifying species groups that need stricter protection and locating sanctuary areas.

The expected output from research to address genetic structure and population dynamics will 

be improved understanding of species level biodiversity in the NWHI as a basis for effective 

management and conservation, especially when linked with information on passive transport 

and active movement of organisms. 

Current knowledge

Genetic studies began in the waters of the NWHI when fishery managers needed to know 

whether larval dispersal in commercial bottomfish populations allowed for these stocks 

to be classified as an archipelago-wide or a discrete population. Since 2000, a number of 

genetic studies on a wide variety of species have been conducted that address many different 

questions. Studies of corals at FFS indicate connectivity between Johnston Atoll, 900 miles 

south of the NWHI. This information will aid managers in understanding the resilience of 

species to disease and bleaching events. Likewise, genetic studies on discrete spinner dolphin 

pods from the Big Island to Kure Atoll assisted in understanding how these populations behave 

and how they should be managed (Andrews et al. 2008). 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO POPULATION DYNAMICS AND GENETIC

STRUCTURE RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine 

ecosystems for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage potential threats 

over the life of the plan.

• TES-3: Ensure that nesting populations of green turtles at source beaches are stable or

increasing for the life of the plan. 

• TES-7: Establish populations of each listed plant species on one to three additional Monument 

islands and ensure genetic material is also protected in approved repositories for the life of

the plan.
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Ongoing projects compare genetic connectivity across the archipelago and provide an 

understanding of individual movement and larval dispersal on an ecosystem scale, as well as 

genetic differentiation within individual island ecosystems. Preliminary studies on the biological 

connectivity of fish and invertebrates in the NWHI indicate that dispersal is highly species 

dependent. Genetic analyses of species distribution have shown strong differentiation in the 

absence of obvious geographic barriers, suggesting more restricted movement of larvae and the 

possibility that local adaptation may be an important aspect in the ecosystem. These findings have 

profound implications for marine resource management and may help explain the high degree of 

species endemism that is not seen in any other tropical marine ecosystem of comparable size. 

The population structure and genetic history of black-footed albatross and Laysan albatrosses 

have been studied by Walsh and Edwards (2005) and Young and VanderWerf (2008). In 

addition to the information on the demography and life history of these species, these data are 

also useful in determining the provenance of birds killed during commercial fishery operations.

Selkoe and others at HIMB developed and tested statistical methodology and a framework for 

“interdisciplinary seascape genetics” to build predictive models of connectivity in the NWHI 

based on biogeographic, oceanographic and genetic data (HIMB 2009).

Research needs and opportunities

Table 9. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of population 

dynamics and genetic structure in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Ecological Processes and Connectivity

Population dynamics and genetic structure

Utilize genetic analyses to identify 

maternity of monk seal pups to increase 

the accuracy of reproductive rate 

estimates for population monitoring 

purposes.

Critical 1 to 5 years Conserving Wildlife 

and Habitats TES 1.2

Use molecular tools to assess the 

genetic structure of marine turtle 

populations nesting and foraging in the 

NWHI and to investigate changes in 

population dynamics over time.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding and 

Interpreting the 

NWHI

MCS-1.5

Determine if there are multiple distinct 

populations of cetaceans to enhance 

conservation and protection of these 

highly mobile species.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI and 

Conserving Wildlife 

and Habitats

MCS-1.5 TES1.3 TES-1.2 

Conduct studies of population 

demography and genetic structure on 

selected dominant or keystone plants, 

vertebrates, or invertebrates.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI and 

Conserving Wildlife 

and Habitats

MCS-1.5 

HMC-5.1
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3.2.5 Resilience

Understanding ecosystem resilience - the ability of the NWHI ecosystem to absorb or

recover from disturbance and stress - will enable the NWHI to be managed to best maintain 

functions and services in response to short- and long-term change, including climate change. 

Understanding ecosystem resilience is important in knowing how well natural systems will 

respond to perturbations and changes in environmental conditions. Research across a gradient 

of environmental stressors in the NWHI can test critical questions about why and how some 

taxa or ecosystems appear to rebound well from stress while others do not. Understanding 

the capability and mechanisms that facilitate resilience in the ecosystem, especially regarding 

(a) the pathways to resilience, and (b) the naturally occurring modifiers of resilience, enables 

managers to focus on priority components of the ecosystem. Studies across a range of priority 

components and across a gradient of environmental stress conditions and stress agents can lead 

to a robust capacity for projecting ecosystem reactions to likely changes through models. 

Research on ecosystem resilience can be expected to improve management by integrating 

information on how the ecosystem will respond to short-term impacts and long-term change and 

thereby increase the ability for managers to anticipate, model and address changes in the system.

Current knowledge

Numerous studies include aspects that relate to the ability of species, populations, or habitat 

to respond to stress and that monitor species, populations, and habitats in relation to specific 

impacts. However, there has been little or no work in the NWHI that specifically focuses on 

resilience, especially at the ecosystem level.

Researchers at HIMB have initiated studies focused on factors that affect the resilience of 

coral colonies to bleaching and disease. One study (Stat and Gates) is examining how the 

various Symbiodinium types are distributed among coral hosts, and the extent to which the 

corals themselves influence the type of Symbiodinium they acquire. The relationship of coral 

to symbionts is a critical factor determining the resilience of coral communities to climate 

change HIMB 2009). Another study (Aeby) is examining the role of biodiversity in limiting 

the spread of coral disease. 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO RESILIENCE RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for the life of the 

plan. 
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 10. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of resilience in 

the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Ecological Processes and Connectivity

Resilience

Use remote sensing as well as insitu observations and instrumentation 

deployed at long-term observing sites 

to provide time-series datasets which 

are utilized for the monitoring, alerting, 

modeling, and reporting of environmental 

and biological phenomena influencing 

and associated with coral reef fish 

populations.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 MCS-1.5 

MCS-1.4

Use remote sensing as well as insitu observations and instrumentation 

deployed at long-term observing sites 

to provide time-series datasets which 

are utilized for the monitoring, alerting, 

modeling, and reporting of environmental 

and biological phenomena influencing 

and associated with coral reef 

ecosystem resilience.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 MCS-1.5 

MCS-1.4

3.3 Human Impacts

Despite its remote location and largely uninhabited condition, the NWHI are subject to a 

wide range of past, present, and future anthropogenic impacts, both from within and from 

outside the area. Understanding the sources, types, and magnitude of these impacts, as well 

as developing suitable responses, is essential for managing the Monument ecosystems. Some 

of the human impacts that have been the focus of past research efforts in the NWHI include 

studies on the effects of marine debris and pollution, un-permitted activities, the residual 

effects of historical human activities in the NWHI (such as dredging, landfills, storage 

tanks, and other contamination), and human-facilitated species invasions. These impacts are 

central components of the Science Plan. However, a new major anthropogenic threat to the 

Monument that requires immediate attention is the study of impacts of climate change on these 

ecosystems. The research plan for detecting and responding to emerging threats must remain 

readily adaptable, as anticipating all important emerging human impacts in the Monument is 

impossible. Research, management, and recreational activities have the potential to impact 

species and habitats, and these impacts need to understood and avoided.

A growing body of evidence indicates that specific human activities have directly affected global 

climate, and are continuing to do so. In turn, climatic changes such as increased sea temperature 

and ocean acidification may make marine resources more vulnerable to other human activities 
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(Harley et al. 2006). Changes in sea level, sea temperature, ocean chemistry, ocean currents, 

precipitation, and other marine processes influence biological communities in complex ways. 

For example, environmental perturbations outside of the evolutionary norm may reduce the 

suitability of the habitat for key native species. This is seen when elevated sea temperatures 

lead to coral bleaching. The initial damage to coral, if extensive enough, can cause a cascade 

of effects that degrade the reef habitat for organisms that once used the reef for food, shelter, 

or spawning (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007). Corals may be overgrown with algae, or invasive 

species may gain a competitive advantage when native species are compromised (Coles et al. 

2009). Although coral are the most widely recognized marine invertebrates affected by climate 

change, other benthic invertebrates are impacted as well. Environmental changes associated 

with climate change are linked to larger ecological processes, including changes in larval 

dispersal and recruitment success, shifts in community structure and range extensions, and 

the establishment and spread of invasive species (Przeslawski et al. 2008). Increases in water 

temperature have been implicated in the encroachment of invasive ascidians (Stachowicz et al., 

2002) and bryozoans (Saunders and Metaxas 2007). Additional pathways by which humans 

affect climate change are discussed in Section 3.3.3. 

3.3.1 Human activities

Despite its remote location and largely uninhabited condition, the NWHI have been subject 

to a wide range of anthropogenic stressors, notably: marine pollution, dredging, invasive 

species, vessel groundings, and fishing. Understanding the sources, types, and magnitude of 

human interactions with the physical and biological environment of the NWHI is essential 

for management of the NWHI. This focus area is concerned with understanding the impact 

of anthropogenic activities on the NWHI ecosystem and identifying potential management 

actions to mitigate these impacts. 

For example, dredging associated with coastal development has altered current flow, temperature 

regimes, shoreline configuration, and coastal erosion patterns with deleterious effects to coral 

reef ecosystems (Maragos, pers. comm.). Additionally, multiple studies by the Navy, the Coast 

Guard, FWS, and academic institutions, including University of Hawai‘i, Rutgers University, 

University of Michigan, University of California-Davis, and University of California-Santa 

Cruz, have documented contaminants on islands and shallow waters in the Monument, 

including pesticides, batteries (lead and mercury), transformers with PCBs, capacitors, and 

barrels. These studies have shown that up to 30 percent of the material consumed by foraging 

seabirds can be soil (Hui and Beyer 1998, Beyer et al. 1994), and that contaminated soil can 

result in direct intake of toxic substances by foraging birds. As a specific example, ingestion 

of sand contaminated by carbofuran, a pesticide washed ashore with marine debris on Laysan, 

is attributed with causing the deaths of endangered Laysan finches, until FWS identified and 

removed the source (Campbell et al. 2004, David et al. 2001). 

Existing management actions to mitigate human impacts include the collection of marine 

debris, eradication of invasive species at Kure, Laysan, FFS, and Midway, and the monitoring 

and removal of contaminants. FWS continues to monitor contaminant levels in and around 

buildings at Midway and to remediate lead contamination that causes “droop wing” and 

mortality of fledging albatross. The Navy and Coast Guard have also remediated some 

contamination in soil, sediment, water, reefs, and marine and terrestrial biota.
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STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO HUMAN IMPACTS RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-1: Support activities that advance recovery of the Hawaiian monk seal for the life of the 

plan. 

• TES-2: Determine the status of cetacean populations and verify and manage potential threats 

over the life of the plan.

• TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating Endangered

Species Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the plan. 

Migratory Birds Action Plan

• MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as habitat destruction by invasive

species, disease, contaminants (including oil), and fisheries interactions for the life of the plan. 

• MB-3: Monitor populations and habitats of migratory birds at a level sufficient to ascertain 

natural variation and then to detect changes in excess of that variation that might be attributed

to human activities, including anthropogenic climate change. 

Habitat Management and Conservation Action Plan

• HMC-1: Within 15 years, develop and implement a strategy for restoring the health and 

biological diversity of the shallow reefs and shoals where anthropogenic disturbances are known 

to have changed the ecosystem, using best available information about pre-disturbance 

conditions. 

• HMC-2: Within 10 years, investigate and inventory sources of known contamination from

historical human uses of the NWHI and, where appropriate, coordinate with responsible parties 

to develop plans and complete cleanup actions. 

• HMC-9: Protect and maintain 120 acres of vertical rocky cliff-face habitat at Nihoa and 

Mokumanamana for nesting seabirds for the life of the plan. 

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources:

Marine Debris Action Plan

• MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the plan. 

• MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris within 5 

years. 

• MD-3: Develop outreach materials regarding marine debris within 2 years.

Alien Species Action Plan

• AS-1: Conduct planning to prioritize by threat level, invasiveness, and practicality of

eradication or control all nonnative organisms in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• AS-2: Engage in active surveillance to monitor existing infestations and to detect new 

infestations of alien species over the life of the plan. 

• AS-3: Establish and enforce quarantine procedures appropriate for each site and habitat 

(terrestrial and aquatic) in the Monument to prevent the invasion or reinfestation of

nonindigenous species over the life of the plan.

• AS-9: Engage Monument users and the public in preventing the introduction and spread of

alien species.

• AS-10: Participate in statewide and Pacific regional alien species efforts.

Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan

• MTA-1: Increase awareness of navigational hazards and ecological sensitivity of the 

Monument. 

• MTA-2: Conduct studies to identify potential aircraft and vessel hazards and adopt measures

to prevent adverse impacts.

Managing Human Uses: 

Permitting Action Plan

• P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts.
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Current knowledge

Historical coastal development and disturbance at the NWHI consisted of guano mining at 

Laysan, naval base construction at Midway and FFS, military activity on Pearl and Hermes, and 

construction and maintenance of U.S. Coast Guard Long-Range Aid to Navigation (LORAN). 

Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction by humans, whether directly or indirectly, 

of substances or energy to the marine environment that results in deleterious effects. These 

effects may include hazards to the health of marine life and humans, hindrance of marine 

activities, and impaired water quality. Marine pollution may originate from land-based or 

sea-based human activities in the form of point-source discharges, groundwater discharges, 

or nonpoint-source runoff. Studies conducted by the FWS, USCG, Navy, and the University 

of Hawai‘i have documented contamination in soil, sediment, and biota at FFS, Kure, and 

Midway. Direct impacts to black-footed albatrosses in the form of reduced hatching success 

have been linked to high organochlorine levels by Ludwig et al. (1997). Finkelstein et al. 

(2007) found a correlation between levels of organochlorines and elevated levels of mercury 

and impaired immune function in black-footed albatross.

Accumulation of marine debris is one of the greatest anthropogenic impacts on the NWHI 

ecosystem. Marine debris degrades the aesthetic value of the coastal environment, creates 

navigational hazards, and has significant bio-ecological impacts. Thousands of albatross 

chicks die each year with stomachs full of small plastic debris they were fed from parents 

foraging throughout the Monument and the Pacific. Mortality caused by entanglement in 

derelict fishing gear, primarily nets, has also been documented for several mobile marine 

species in the NWHI, with impact on the Hawaiian monk seal being of greatest concern 

because of the highly endangered status of this animal (Boland and Donohue 2003; Henderson 

1990, 2001). A multi-agency effort to remove and recycle derelict fishing gear and other 

marine debris has been in place since 1996. From 1996 to 2005, a total of 542 tons of marine 

debris was removed from the NWHI. In addition to removal efforts, strategic research is now 

focused on understanding the dynamics of marine debris, specifically accumulation rates and 

locations. A recent study estimated accumulation rates to be 52 metric tons annually, due to 

the location of the NWHI and the debris transport driven by North Pacific gyres and frontal 

zones. Even if all new input of debris were stopped, existing debris in the ocean will continue 

to accumulate in the NWHI for years to come.

Photo: Wayne Levin

Marine debris often liters shorelines across the entire 

span of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 11. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of human 

activities and associated impacts in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Human Impacts

Human activities and impacts

Track and evaluate the impacts of 

human activities and actions on natural 

resources to maintain and ensure 

ecosystem health and function. 

Critical 1 to 5 years Managing 

Human Uses P-2.2 VS-1.3

Locate, investigate and evaluate effects 

of contamination in terrestrial and 

nearshore areas.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-2.2 HMC-2.1 

HMC-2.2 

HMC-2.3 

HMC-2.5 

HMC-2.6 

HMC-2.7

Assess effects of ongoing human use on 

terrestrial habitat. Medium 10 plus years Managing Human Uses VS-1.3

Determine potential impacts to natural 

resources resulting from human 

presence to regulate human activities 

and minimize impact to the ecosystem. 

Medium 1 to 5 years

Achieving 

Effective 

Monument 

Operations

CFO-2.3

Investigate the integrity of known landfills 

and dumps to determine potential effects 

to surrounding habitats and biota.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-2.2

Use new technologies to improve the 

location and removal of debris at sea. Medium 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

MD-2.1 MD-2.2

Determine the effects of marine debris 

and evaluate its role in changes to 

ecosystem health and function.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

MD-2.1 MD-2.2

Determine the effects of manmade 

structures on nearshore and submerged 

habitats to evaluate its role in changes to 

ecosystem health and function.

Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-3.2

Research historic disposal sites and 

investigate them for contamination 

to determine potential effects on 

surrounding habitats and biota.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-2.3

Conduct studies to determine the effects 

of contaminants on seabird species. Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-2.2 MB-2.3 

HMC-2.1 

HMC-2.6 

HMC-2.7
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Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Human Impacts

Human activities and impacts

Characterize and monitor the effects 

of marine debris on cetaceans in the 

Monument.

Medium 10 plus years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats and 

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

TES-2.3 MD-2.1 

MD-2.2

Investigate effects of anthropogenic iron 

sources on marine resources. Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-2.4

Examine the correlation between 

reproductive success and contaminant 

loads in marine and terrestrial species to 

determine effects on population structure.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-4.2 MB-2.2

Research and Monitoring Activity Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management Plan 

Activity

Study contaminant levels in birds and 

their habitats. Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-2.2 HMC-2.1

Conduct risk assessment to determine 

safe levels of lead in soils. Medium 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-2.2 HMC-2.1 

HMC-2.2 

HMC-2.3 

HMC-2.5 

HMC-2.6 

HMC-2.7 

Conduct studies on potential aircraft 

and vessel hazards and impacts to 

surrounding habitats and species.

Low 10 plus years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

MTA-2.1

Monitor and fingerprint oil found washed 

ashore to determine origins of the 

imported oil.

Low 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-2.2 HMC-2.1 

HMC-2.2 

HMC-2.3 

HMC-2.5 

HMC-2.6 

HMC-2.7

Assess impacts of historic land use on 

impacted habitats and organisms. Low 10 plus years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-2.1 

HMC-2.2 

HMC-2.3 

HMC-2.7 

HMC-3.2
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3.3.2 Alien and invasive species

Although the remoteness and relative inaccessibility of the NWHI have helped to prevent the

introduction of most alien species, the area is vulnerable to introductions through a variety 

of pathways. Increased vessel visitation, deployment of gears used and exposed to alien and 

invasive species elsewhere, and transport of cargo are of particular concern. While continued 

rigorous inspection of all vessels’ hulls, equipment, and scientific gear, and a zero tolerance 

for aquatic invasive species or ballast water discharge, has minimized the exposure of the 

NWHI to alien and invasive species, introductions are still possible and hence are a substantial 

threat to Monument resources. Invasive species compete with native species and reduce their 

likelihood of survival. Understanding the status and trends of these species, and the pathways 

that introduce these species, will help minimize impact to the NWHI ecosystem. Aside from 

global climate change, invasive and alien species are the most severe threat to native and 

endemic species with limited distributions in the NWHI.

This focus area is concerned with understanding the impact of invasive species on marine 

and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystems of the NWHI. Principal goals are to identify 

the biological and ecological requirements of alien species, understand the interaction 

between native and alien species, and understand the influence of environmental conditions 

on turning alien species into invasive threats. These latter conditions may include changes 

in ocean temperature that may enable introduced species to spread to areas previously 

unavailable because of their physiological limitations. It is also critical to identify the major 

anthropogenic vectors and their attendant risks for introduction of invasive species into NWHI. 

The ultimate goal of research in this area is to safeguard native biodiversity to maintain a 

sustainable ecosystem function by minimizing the exposure of the NWHI to invasive species.

Information from invasive species studies is expected to help identify new alien species that have 

arrived in the NWHI, assess their potential impact, and determine effective eradication strategies. 

Additionally, this research should help identify vector pathways and hubs associated with 

introduction of invasive species into the area and provide tools to guide management.

Photo: James Watt Photo: Cynthia Vanderlip

Blueline snapper. Verbesina on Kure Atoll.
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Current knowledge

There is a considerable body of existing work on terrestrial invasive species in the NWHI 

(Conant and Rowland, in preparation; Nishida 1998, 2000; Wanless et al. 2007). Some of the 

species identified as invasive include the introduced grass Cenchrus echinatus; the invasive 

annual golden crown-beard (Verbesina encelioides;); the house mouse (Mus musculus) on 

Sand Island at Midway Atoll; 19 species of social hymenopterans such as ants and wasps 

at all islands in the Monument; the grey bird locust (Schistocerca nitens) at Nihoa Island, 

Mokumanamana, FFS, and Lisianski Island; and two introduced mosquito species, Aedes 

albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus, at Midway Atoll. Ongoing work in the NWHI has led 

to the successful eradication of Rattus rattus at Midway Atoll, Rattus exulans at Kure Atoll, 

and the introduced grass Cenchrus echinatus at Laysan Island. 

Invasive plant species have been implicated in the decline of nest success in several 

endangered seabirds in the NWHI. For example, the golden crown-beard has invaded the 

nesting habitat of the Laysan albatross and the black noddy; other invasive plants threaten the 

nesting habitats of the Bonin petrel, Christmas shearwater, Tristram’s Storm-petrel, masked 

booby, red-tailed tropic bird (Keller et al. 2009). 

Data on marine invasive species were collected from a marine invasive species survey by the 

Bishop Museum at Midway, from multidiscipline efforts conducted under the auspices of the 

NWHI NOWRAMP in 2000 and 2002, and USCG in 2000, 2002, and 2003. A total of 11 alien 

marine invertebrate, fish, and algal species have been recorded in the NWHI, with the highest 

concentrations at Midway Atoll (Godwin et al. 2006). Maritime vessels are recognized as the 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO ALIEN AND INVASIVE SPECIES RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources: 

Alien Species Action Plan

• AS-1: Conduct planning to prioritize by threat level, invasiveness, and practicality of

eradication or control all nonnative organisms in the Monument over the life of the plan. 

• AS-2: Engage in active surveillance to monitor existing infestations and to detect new 

infestations of alien species over the life of the plan. 

• AS-3: Establish and enforce quarantine procedures appropriate for each site and habitat 

(terrestrial and aquatic) in the Monument to prevent the invasion or reinfestation of

nonindigenous species over the life of the plan.

• AS-4: Eradicate the house mouse population on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, within 15 years.

• AS-5: Prioritize infestations of alien terrestrial arthropods by species and locations and, within

5 years, develop and subsequently implement plans to control and if possible eradicate the 

highest-priority species. 

• AS-6: Control and eventually eradicate the highest-priority invasive plants in the terrestrial 

parts of the Monument within 15 years. 

• AS-7: Investigate methods to eventually eradicate aquatic invasive organisms already known

to be present in the Monument, and conduct regular surveillance for new invasions.

• AS-8: Conduct and facilitate research designed to answer questions regarding invasive species 

detection; effects on ecosystem; and alien species prevention, control, and eradication over

the life of the plan.

• AS-9: Engage Monument users and the public in preventing the introduction and spread of

alien species.

• AS-10: Participate in statewide and Pacific regional alien species efforts.
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primary vector for transporting marine alien species through contaminated vessel equipment, 

hull fouling, ballast water, and ballast sediment. Additional vectors include deliberate and 

accidental release and transport by artificial substrates such as Fish Attractant Devices and 

marine debris.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 12. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of alien/

invasive species in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Human Impacts

Invasive species

Survey terrestrial alien/invasive species 

to determine presence and distribution, 

and impacts of these species.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats and 

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

MB-1.1 AS-1.2 

AS 2.1 AS-2.2 

AS-5.1 AS-5.2 

AS-5.3 AS-5.4 

AS-6.1 AS-6.2 

AS-6.3 AS-6.4 

AS-8.2

Investigate competitive interactions 

between alien/invasive and native 

species to attempt to mitigate for current 

and future invasions, as well as help 

prioritize control efforts. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-1.2 AS-7.1 

AS-7.2 AS-8.1

Identify and map distribution of social 

Hymenopterans. Critical 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-5.1

Investigate eradication techniques for all 

social Hymenopterans. Critical 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-5.2

Determine the methods of transport, rate 

of spread, and habitat preferences of 

alien/invasive species to inform protocols 

to attempt to stop introductions, slow 

spread, or mitigate for current invasions. 

Medium 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-2.1 AS-7.1 

AS-7.2 AS-8.1

Develop methods to control and/or 

eradicate terrestrial invasive species. Medium 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-5.4
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3.3.3 Climate change

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has established global change as a significant 

threat to marine environments and small island ecosystems (Mimura et al. 2007). Within this 

context, PMNM managers have identified understanding the impacts of global changes and 

evaluating options for adaptation as a high priority for research. In particular, five global 

change impacts have been identified as having the greatest potential effect on the NWHI 

ecosystem: more extreme weather events, changes in sea temperature, rising sea levels, 

alternations in oceanic chemistry, and shifts in precipitation patterns. Some of the main 

impacts from these changes may include:

• Loss of coastal habitats, due to storms and sea level rise, that impact marine animal

nesting and foraging areas with few alternatives for relocation due to the remoteness of

the NWHI.

• Degradation of coral reef ecosystems due to increased incidence of coral bleaching,

disease, and storm damage, compounded by reduced calcification rates and rising sea levels. 

• Impacts on marine food webs due to habitat loss and ocean acidification

• Degradation of terrestrial ecosystems due to changing weather patterns and shifts in

freshwater systems.

Current knowledge

Although the specific effects of climate change are difficult to predict, existing data 

about conditions and trends at the Monument support the assumption that global change 

is currently impacting NWHI ecosystems, or will in the future (Friedlander et al. 2009). 

For example, sea level rise is expected to inundate shorelines and reduce critical habitat 

for endangered Hawaiian monk seals and threatened Hawaiian green sea turtles at Pearl 

and Hermes Reef (Baker et al. 2006). Millions of nesting seabirds and migratory Arctic 

shorebirds are also predicted to be effected. 

Regional predictions for the North Central Pacific Gyre area are for increases of surface 

temperature of 0.5 to 1.0 °C, within the life of the Management Plan. The magnitude of sea 

level rise by 2090 from thermal expansion of water and melting of land-based ice sheets 

ranges from 0.18 meters to 0.59 meters. A rise of 0.48 meters is predicted to cause loss of 

3 to 65 percent of the terrestrial habitat in the NWHI, ranging from severe effects on the 

low, sandy atolls and minimal effect on Mokumanamana and Nihoa (Baker et al. 2006). 

Projected precipitation maps indicate a decrease of 10 to 20 percent of average precipitation 

by 2090 in the NWHI. It is likely that future tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine

ecosystems for the life of the plan, as appropriate.
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will become more intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation 

associated with ongoing increases in tropical sea surface temperatures. Shoreline erosion 

and saltwater intrusion into subsurface freshwater aquifers have already been noted 

throughout the Pacific (Shea et al. 2001).

Anomalies in sea temperature are expected to increasingly cause coral bleaching in the 

NWHI. Mass coral bleaching in the NWHI occurred during late summer 2002 (Aeby et al. 

2003; Kenyon and Brainard 2006; Hoeke et al. 2006). Before this event, the NWHI were 

believed to be less susceptible to bleaching because they lie at high latitude. Bleaching 

was most severe, however, at the three northernmost atolls (Pearl and Hermes, Midway, and 

Kure), which experienced both higher and lower sea water temperatures than the other reef 

areas of the NWHI. Bleaching occurred but was less severe at Lisianski and farther south in 

the NWHI.

Of the studies implemented in the NWHI in 2010, many are focused on questions that 

may provide insight into the impacts of climate change. Among these are studies of coral 

bleaching, skin cancer in fish, parasite life cycles, genetic diversity of reef fishes, biological 

indicators of coral disease, temperature effects on coral health, behavior of top marine 

predators, and molecular diversity of coral-endosymbionts (NOAA 2010). Historical 

research programs can provide baseline condition data that create a framework within which 

climate change hypotheses can be tested. For many questions, however, no historical data 

are available, and current work is aimed at documenting baseline conditions. 

Photo: Dan Polhemus

Aerial image of Pearl and Hermes.
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 13. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of climate 

change in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Human Impacts

Climate change

Determine how climate change affects 

the distribution and populations of 

species in the NWHI to identify sensitive 

areas and species. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 MCS-1.3 

MCS-1.4

Forecast areas or species groups 

that may be particularly sensitive, 

and determine plans for mitigation in 

advance.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.5

Model the effects of sea level rise on 

terrestrial resources. Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MB-3.1 HMC-3.1 

HMC-3.2

Forecast areas or species assemblages 

that may be particularly sensitive to 

increasing sea surface temperatures, 

and determine plans for mitigation in 

advance.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.3 MCS-1.4 

MCS-1.5

Forecast areas or species assemblages 

that may be particularly sensitive to 

rising sea levels and/or changes in 

currents, and determine plans for 

mitigation in advance.

High 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.3 MCS-1.4 

MCS-1.5

Forecast areas or species assemblages 

that may be particularly sensitive to 

ocean acidification, and determine plans 

for mitigation in advance.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.3 MCS-1.4 

MCS-1.5

Model potential changes in frequency 

and intensity of extreme climate events Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2 TES-1.3 

TES-3.2 TES-3.3 

MB-3.1 HMC-3.1 

HMC-3.2

3.4 Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change

Long-term monitoring is an essential tool for scientists to detect and understand changes in 

the ecosystem. Monitoring may also identify issues that may warrant active management 

actions. Effective monitoring requires appropriate parameters and measures that can 

effectively detect change and trends within three categories: ecosystem and ecological 

changes, biodiversity and habitat changes, and changes caused by human activities. 

Ongoing monitoring using these parameters provides the basis for identifying the system’s 

intrinsic variability, and understanding temporal and spatial changes in its process and 

patterns as a basis for improved management.
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Growing concern about the ways that climate change may affect resources at the Monument is 

reflected in the Science Plan. Research and monitoring projects that include specific variables 

related to climate change are essential to understanding the process by which climate change affects 

local resources. For example, studies of coral disease and coral bleaching include an analysis of 

sea temperatures. Likewise, studies of the range expansion of an invasive species may evaluate 

temperature as well as ocean circulation patterns to understand changes in distribution. Effective 

monitoring requires that interaction among variables be evaluated along spatial and temporal 

gradients so that cause and effect relationships can be tested. The Science Plan recognizes that 

conditions in the Monument reflect the interaction of ecological processes and human impacts on 

biodiversity and habitats. Climate change can affect all of these elements, singularly and jointly.

3.4.1 Ecological process metrics and monitoring

Understanding the ecological processes behind ecosystem change and how ecosystems have

changed in the past is critical to modeling future conditions and identifying management 

needs. An appropriate suite of parameters and indicators is necessary to effectively detect 

changes in ecological processes and ecosystems. These metrics should be designed to 

characterize natural variability and, when possible, differentiate between natural and 

anthropogenic effects at useful resolutions. However, metrics must also be practical and 

simple so that non-scientists can understand them and the trends they document.

Recognizing the resource and logistical limitations of monitoring a large, remote area such as the 

NWHI, ecosystem monitoring must focus on a set of sensitive indicators that collectively serve 

as the proxy for total ecosystem behavior. Monitoring must be both spatially and temporally 

rigorous, the former being statistically robust to present an unbiased characterization of the 

various habitats, and the latter accounting for all key parameters during each sampling event to 

capture the degree of temporal variability in these systems. The remoteness of the NWHI will 

require some reliance on remotely sensed indicators because of the cost of transportation, onisland accessibility, and the limited seasonal windows for safe ship-based field activities. As the 

understanding of ecosystems improves, new parameters, indicators, and technologies will emerge 

to increase the scope, power, predictability, and implications of monitoring. 

Understanding how various components of the NWHI connect with each other, and how 

they link the NWHI with the MHI and other parts of the Pacific, is a particularly important 

consideration for monitoring. A critical component is measuring the rates, scale, and spatial 

structure of exchange, or connectivity, among subpopulations of species and communities. 

It is also important that monitoring protocols be established and followed to ensure that 

information is reliable and comparable over time. The key ecosystem and ecological processes 

that require monitoring include:

• Oceanographic processes (physical and chemical)

• Passive transport of nutrients, living resources, and contaminants/pollution

• Active transport and movement of living resources

• Population dynamics and genetic structure

• Resilience
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The expected outcome is development of parameters and indicators that enable useful, 

effective, and efficient monitoring of the ecosystems and ecological processes of the NWHI, 

including connectivity and resilience, building on and integrating existing monitoring 

programs as much as possible.

Current knowledge

Monitoring programs have addressed a wide range of weather, water quality, and chemistry 

parameters, circulation patterns, and oceanographic characteristics through a variety of means. 

In particular, a number of studies have been undertaken to understand oceanographic processes 

and transport in the NWHI using buoy arrays, drifters, and remote sensing. Monitoring 

oceanic characteristics has demonstrated spatial patterns in transport and ocean productivity. 

Much of the work on ecological processes is described in Section 3.2.1 of this report. 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO ECOLOGICAL PROCESS METRICS RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems for 

the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Photo: NOAA

Deep-Ocean Assessment and Reporting of 

Tsunamis or DART® bouys during maintenance.
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 14. Prioritized list of research needed to further understanding of ecosystem and 

ecological processes in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change 

Ecosystem and ecological process metrics and monitoring

Determine how energy and nutrients 

transfer through ecosystems, enabling 

managers to identify important habitats 

or food sources that drive communities. 

High 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 TES-1.2

Determine species interactions within 

and between ecosystem components. High 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 TES-1.2

3.4.2 Biodiversity and habitat metrics and monitoring

Central to the conservation and management of the NWHI is a goal to maintain the health of

its biological diversity, populations of living resources, and marine and terrestrial habitats. 

Within this context, it is critical for managers to understand changes in the area’s species 

and habitats. 

An appropriate suite of parameters and indicators is an essential requirement for effectively 

detecting changes in species and habitats over time. Differentiating between natural and 

human impacts on biodiversity and habitats is also important. Metrics must be scientifically 

robust and relevant, while also being practical and sensitive to the trends they are intended to 

document. Monitoring must be able to characterize the status and changes in biodiversity and 

habitats, at appropriate spatial and temporal resolutions, and provide sufficient information to 

guide remedial efforts, if needed. 

Documenting the status of species and habitats, and understanding how the distribution and 

abundance of NWHI biodiversity is related to the MHI and other parts of the Pacific are 

particularly important considerations for monitoring. Assessing the rates, scale, and spatial 

structure of exchange among populations of species and the communities is a key aspect, as is 

focusing on areas and issues that threaten the ecosystems. It is also important that monitoring 

protocols be followed or established to ensure that information is reliable and comparable over 

time. The key biodiversity components that require appropriate parameters, indicators, and 

monitoring include:

• Status and trends of habitats

• Status and trends of native species (genetic, taxa, and populations)

• Specially protected species (genetic, taxa, and populations)

• Health, disease, and contamination
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The expected outcome is an understanding of ecosystem health over broad spatial and 

temporal scales. Models will be developed that enable the status of species and populations 

within the NWHI to be projected in relation to specific short-term impacts or long-term 

environmental changes. Studies and modeling of priority species and populations across a 

gradient of environmental stress conditions and stress agents will lead to a robust capacity for 

projecting the response of taxa and populations to likely changes. Where specific threats are at 

hand, monitoring can also serve to substantiate and design management measures to reduce or 

eliminate those threats.

Current knowledge

Several existing programs are gathering data related to species and habitats. These efforts are 

especially well developed and long standing for specially protected and endangered species, 

including the Hawaiian monk seal, five species of baleen whales, at least 19 other species of 

whales and dolphins, marine turtles (green, hawksbill, loggerhead, and leatherback), migratory 

birds (such as the Laysan and black-footed albatross and other seabirds), five bird species that are 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO BIODIVERSITY AND HABITAT METRICS RESEARCH 

AND MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

Photo: Kittipong Janthasang

Laysan albatross.
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listed under the ESA, and six plant species known historically from the NWHI that are listed as 

endangered. Seabird abundance and nesting distribution are monitored, and work is proposed to 

develop a revised standardized monitoring plan.

In the marine environment of the NWHI, NOAA Fisheries has conducted quantitative 

monitoring of reef fishes as part of the Monk Seal Forage Base Study. The NOWRAMP/ 

NWHI RAMP cruise series was established in 2000 to assess the biodiversity and resources of 

all 10 emergent reefs and shallow (less than 20 meter) shoals. The Draft Atlas of the ShallowWater Benthic Habitats of the NWHI (NOAA 2003) and the Bathymetric Atlas of the NWHI 

(Miller et al. 2004) describe the marine habitats and bathymetry of the NWHI and establish 

important baseline information for monitoring programs. NWHI RAMP cruises continue to 

monitor the marine ecosystem an annual basis. 

NOAA’s Biogeography Branch joined with the Monument to design and implement a 

biogeographic assessment. The almost 400-page report contains dozens of maps, figures, and 

tables with up-to-date research results on oceanographic and geologic processes, marine and 

terrestrial living resources, and major environmental concerns. Chapters on connectivity and 

management emphasize that the work was undertaken to provide direct support to the research 

and management needs of the Monument (Friedlander et al 2009). 

Scientists at HIMB have joined 11 NOAA cruises since 2005 to initiate a variety of studies 

on coral (Acropora, Montipora capitata, Pocillopora), fishes (moray eels, yellow tang, 

butterflyfish, parrotfish, and sharks) and mammals (monk seal, spinner dolphin). Topics 

include genetics, behavior, foraging ecology, statistical modeling, and other primary research.

Terrestrial habitats of the NWHI have been prioritized in terms of their importance to native 

and specially protected species. Past research on health and disease at the NWHI includes 

work on coral and reef fish disease and avian botulism.

Photo: James Watt

An expanse of blue at Pearl and Hermes Atoll.
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Research needs and opportunities

Table 15. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of biodiversity 

and habitat metrics in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change 

Biodiversity and habitat metrics and monitoring

Determine the distribution patterns of 

cetacean species within the Monument 

boundaries.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-2.1

Continue annual monitoring and 

modeling of threatened and endangered 

species populations to evaluate 

population trends and progress towards 

recovery.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

TES-1.2

Use a combination of optical and diver 

data collection techniques to gather 

ecosystem monitoring data for evaluation 

of population trends of fishes, corals and 

other invertebrates.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.4

Monitor changes in the species 

composition and structure of terrestrial 

habitats.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-3.1 

HMC-4.7 

HMC-5.2

Use a combination of optical and diver 

data collection techniques to detect coral 

bleaching and/or disease outbreaks.

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.2 

MCS-1.3

Track changes that occur in the deep 

water ecosystems (>30 meters) and 

evaluate how these habitats are linked 

to shallow reef as feeding grounds or 

possible areas of refuge. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.4

Determine the most efficient and 

accurate statistical sampling design 

for the reef monitoring program to 

effectively survey the reefs of the NWHI 

efficiently, within the constraints of 

accessibility, to provide for accurate 

abundance measures for corals, fish and 

invertebrates and track changes in their 

numbers through time.

Medium 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-2.2
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3.4.3 Human impact metrics and monitoring

Although the NWHI are remote and largely uninhabited, they are subject to a wide range of 

anthropogenic stressors, from within the area as well as from external sources. Management 

of the NWHI will require regular information on the sources, types, magnitude, and effects 

of human interaction with the NWHI ecosystem. Determining the incidence, rates, scale, 

and spatial and temporal aspects of human activities is essential to this effort. Monitoring 

protocols must therefore be in place to ensure that information is reliable and comparable 

over time.

An appropriate suite of parameters and indicators is an essential requirement of effectively 

tracking human activities and impacts over time at useful spatial and temporal resolutions. 

Metrics must be scientifically robust and relevant, yet also practical and simple so that nonscientists can understand them and the trends they document. A full understanding of the 

impacts of human activities, both land-based and marine, is essential to support ecosystembased conservation and management. The anthropogenic sources that require appropriate 

parameters, indicators, and monitoring are related to:

• Human activities, resource use, and waste disposal

• Invasive species

• Climate change

• Ship groundings and fuel spills

• Residual fishing impacts

• Toxic and hazardous military and LORAN waste

• Research

• Marine debris

• Illegal fishing

Photo: James Watt

Researchers at work.
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In addition, it will be necessary to monitor the effects of management actions and research 

activities that are undertaken in the NWHI, both to verify that these activities have 

achieved their desired outcomes and to decide whether there are unintended impacts from 

management interventions.

The expected outcome is the ability to minimize human impacts by monitoring changes caused 

by human activities and management actions in the NWHI. Parameters and indicators will be 

developed that enable useful, effective, and efficient monitoring to be implemented. 

Current knowledge

Monitoring human activities and their impacts has been undertaken in a variety of ways 

in the NWHI, usually in relation to specific physical developments, resource uses, species 

introductions, or rehabilitation efforts. Examples include the efforts to study and address 

historical coastal developments and disturbances, such as naval base construction at 

Midway and FFS, LORAN stations, and conversion of abandoned buildings. Studies 

have documented contamination in soil, sediment, and biota at FFS, Kure, and Midway. 

Marine pollution from land-based or sea-based human activities in the form of point-source 

discharges, groundwater discharges, ingestion by wildlife, or nonpoint-source runoff have 

been monitored in some parts of the NWHI. Accumulation of marine debris is a significant 

STRATEGIES IN THE MONUMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN OF RELEVANCE TO HUMAN IMPACTS METRICS RESEARCH AND 

MONITORING

Understanding and Interpreting the NWHI: 

Marine Conservation Science Action Plan

• MCS-1: Continue and enhance research, characterization, and monitoring of marine ecosystems

for the life of the plan, as appropriate.

• MCS-2: Assess and prioritize research and monitoring activities over the life of the plan.

Conserving Wildlife and Habitats: 

Threatened and Endangered Species Action Plan

• TES-8: Ensure protection of threatened and endangered species by facilitating Endangered

Species Act consultations for Monument activities throughout the life of the plan. 

Migratory Birds Action Plan

• MB-2: Minimize the impact of threats to migratory birds such as habitat destruction by invasive

species, disease, contaminants (including oil), and fisheries interactions for the life of the plan. 

• MB-3: Monitor populations and habitats of migratory birds at a level sufficient to ascertain 

natural variation and then to detect changes in excess of that variation that might be attributed

to human activities, including anthropogenic climate change. 

Reducing Threats to Monument Resources: 

Marine Debris Action Plan

• MD-1: Remove and prevent marine debris throughout the life of the plan. 

• MD-2: Investigate the sources, types, and accumulation rates of marine debris within 5 years. 

• MD-3: Develop outreach materials regarding marine debris within 2 years.

Maritime Transportation and Aviation Action Plan

• MTA-1: Increase awareness of navigational hazards and ecological sensitivity of the Monument. 

• MTA-2: Conduct studies to identify potential aircraft and vessel hazards and adopt measures to

prevent adverse impacts.

Managing Human Uses: 

Permitting Action Plan

• P-2: Track and monitor permitted activities and their impacts.
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anthropogenic impact on the NWHI ecosystem. A multi-agency effort to remove and recycle 

derelict fishing gear and other marine debris has been in place since 1996 and has tracked 

the amount of debris that is accumulating.

There is considerable amount of data on terrestrial invasive species at the NWHI, which 

include grasses, annual plants, the house mouse, 19 species of ants and wasp, the grey 

bird locust, and two introduced mosquito species. Marine invasive species surveys have 

identified 11 alien marine invertebrate, fish, and algal species in the NWHI, with the highest 

concentrations at Midway Atoll.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 16. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further understanding of human 

impact metrics in the NWHI.

Research and Monitoring 

Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Indicators and Monitoring of Ecosystem Change 

Human impact metrics and monitoring 

Characterize and monitor terrestrial 

alien/invasive species. Critical 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-1.2 AS-2.1 

AS-5.1 AS-8.2

Determine the current extent of alien/

invasive presence in the NWHI, and 

follow the populations through time 

to inform/enhance decisions to either 

attempt eradication or mitigate the 

effects on native species. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-1.2 AS-2.1 

AS-2.2 AS.7.2 

AS-8.1

Monitor the residual carbofuran 

contamination on Laysan Island. Medium 6 to 10 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

HMC-2.6

3.5 Modeling and Forecasting of Ecosystem Change

Modeling is a tool to understand or predict changes in the ecosystem or its individual parts. 

Ecological models can benefit resource managers in understanding complex functional 

linkages and relative benefits and risks to Monument resources from various management 

decisions. As such, and if viewed as a tool rather than an end goal, the broad research theme 

of modeling relates to nearly all strategies outlined in the Management Plan. 

A solid understanding of ecological processes, habitat and biological diversity, and human 

activities of the NWHI, along with robust monitoring, provides inputs to modeling that 

can predict impacts and support more effective management. This understanding creates 

the potential to develop models within these themes for specific issues (such as larval 

recruitment linked to current patterns, changes in populations of protected species, impacts 

of management interventions, and projected effects of climate change). Broader integration 

of data and monitoring results on ecosystem and ecological processes, habitats and 
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biodiversity, and human activities makes possible the development of models for individual 

components, as well as broad-scale models of the NWHI that capture and describe processes 

in the whole Monument ecosystem.

Incorporating measures of climate change, such as sea temperature, sea level, and carbon 

dioxide concentrations, into models of ecosystem processes makes the models more 

complex but also more representative of conditions at the Monument. Data from around 

the world suggest variables that may be important to include. For example, one predicted 

result of climate change is the large-scale redistribution of global fisheries catch potential 

from tropical to higher-latitude regions within the next 50 years as a result of increased 

water temperature, altered ocean currents and changes in coastal upwelling (Cheung et 

al. 2009). Models are tested and improved by inputs of site-specific data collected during 

boundary events. The Science Plan recognizes that rare or extreme climatic events may 

occur unexpectedly, and scientists must remain ready to launch surveys and other data 

collecting activities whenever the need arises. The Plan was developed to be flexible so that 

opportunities for collaboration can be implemented as more scientists turn their attention to 

the effects of climate change on the Monument’s resources. 

3.5.1 Modeling the ecosystem and ecological processes

Ecosystem models and forecasting are based on sufficient understanding of ecological 

processes and characteristics, including patterns, linkages, and resilience. Good modeling 

of ecological processes allows forecasting of significant changes in the ecosystem to be 

anticipated or predicted and action taken to minimize impacts. Understanding priority 

parameters and indicators at a variety of levels — genetic, taxa, populations, habitat, 

processes, and stressors — supports development of effective models that are sensitive to 

the scale, resolution, and frequency of sampling. The ecological linkages and patterns of 

the complex mosaic of ecosystem components of the NWHI need to be understood at an 

appropriate scale that can be used to monitor, manage, and model the system. The modeling 

of ecological patterns and linkages improves over time with an increased understanding 

Photo: Greg McFall

Small anemone at Pearl and Hermes Atoll.
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of the spatial and temporal variation in physical and biological characteristics. Ecosystem 

modeling and forecasting can provide the means to project the resilience of natural systems 

in responding to potential short-term impacts and long-term change, with ecosystem changes 

anticipated or predicted and management actions taken to help ensure that ecosystem 

resilience is maintained, so that the ecosystem is best able to absorb or recover from 

disturbance and change. 

The expected outcome is development of comprehensive ecosystem models that include 

ecological linkages and patterns, and ecosystem resilience. Studies and modeling across a 

range of priority components and across a gradient of environmental stress conditions and 

stress agents will lead to a robust capacity for projecting the reactions of an ecosystem to 

likely changes. 

 Numerous efforts are under way to develop models for parts of the NWHI ecosystem 

functions and processes. Example models involve oceanographic circulation, trophic levels, 

transport, productivity, and carrying capacity. Similarly, efforts are ongoing to document 

ecological linkages within the archipelago, both biotic (for example, movement of adult 

organisms) and abiotic (such as passive transport of larvae). These are the first steps to 

broader modeling of ecological linkages and patterns in support of more comprehensive 

ecosystem models and forecasting. Genetic analyses of species distribution have shown 

strong differentiation in the absence of obvious geographic barriers that would suggest more 

restricted movement of larvae and the possibility that local adaptation may be an important 

driver in the ecosystem. 

Research needs and opportunities

Table 17. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of ecosystem and 

ecological function in the NWHI.

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Modeling and Forecasting of Ecosystem Change

Modeling the ecosystem and ecological processes

Understand how physical processes 

drive biological communities to enhance 

management of communities with respect 

to current patterns, upwelling, etc. 

Critical 1 to 5 years

Understanding 

and Interpreting 

the NWHI

MCS-1.1 

MCS-1.5

Understand how physical processes 

impact island structure and function. Critical 1 to 5 years

Conserving 

Wildlife and 

Habitats

 HMC-3.1 

HMC-3.2
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3.5.2 Modeling biodiversity and habitats

Protecting, preserving, and enhancing the native biodiversity of the marine and terrestrial 

environment are core functions in managing the NWHI. Understanding and projecting likely 

trends in the status of the species and habitats that make up the biodiversity of the area would 

enable managers to better protect these resources. Modeling requires information on the 

distribution and abundance of species populations and the processes that affect their distribution 

and abundance. In the NWHI, understanding and modeling passive and active transport of flora 

and fauna are of particular importance. Related is the need to understand the connectivity of the 

NWHI’s species and habitats to those of the MHI and other parts of the Pacific.

Information on existing and likely human impacts, including climate change, and the response 

of flora and fauna to short- and long-term changes is also important in being able to model 

future scenarios for biodiversity. Appropriate parameters and indicators must be selected at a 

variety of levels, such as genetic, taxa, population, habitat, process, and stressor, to support the 

development of effective models. With these kinds of data, modeling species, populations, and 

habitats can allow for forecasting significant changes, allowing managers to take preemptive 

action to minimize impacts on the diversity of the NWHI ecosystems. 

The expected outcome is the development of models that enable the status of species, 

populations, and habitats within the NWHI to be projected in relation to specific short-term 

impacts or long-term environmental changes. Studies and modeling of priority species, 

populations, and habitats across a gradient of environmental stress conditions and stress agents 

will lead to a robust capacity for projecting the response of flora and fauna to likely changes. 

Photo: James Watt

Large number of Galapagos sharks at Maro Reef.
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Current knowledge

Much of the previous research on biodiversity and habitats of the NWHI will contribute to the 

development of models for these areas. Some studies more specifically generate information 

directly related to modeling the conditions of species and population or habitat dynamics. For 

example, research on the genetics of species distribution have shown differentiation in the 

absence of obvious geographic barriers, suggesting more restricted movement of larvae and 

the possibility that local adaptation may be an important driver in some species. 

Research needs and opportunities

Table 18. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of biodiversity and 

habitats in the NWHI:

Research and 

Monitoring Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Modeling and Forecasting of Ecosystem Change

Modeling biodiversity and habitats 

No stated project needs in the next 5 

years.

3.5.3 Modeling human impacts and management

A variety of short-term and long-term impacts from human activities are the greatest 

threat to the integrity and future of the resources and biodiversity of the NWHI ecosystem. 

Short-term impacts include marine debris, ship groundings, and potential oil spills from 

maritime traffic. Long-term impacts include invasive species and more diffuse, complex 

impacts such as chronic pollution and climate change. In addition, management actions 

and research themselves have impacts that need to be considered and addressed. Modeling 

human activities and their impacts enables managers to identify the species, populations, 

habitats, and processes at risk. These models will allow for the possibility of identifying and 

implementing preventative management actions, as well as to develop response action plans. 

With a good knowledge of the kind and level of human activities likely to affect the NWHI, 

models could be developed to forecast the location and extent of impacts under various 

change scenarios.

The expected outcome is the development of models that enable the impacts of human 

activities and management actions to be understood and addressed preventatively or through 

development of response action plans.

Current knowledge

The efforts to document the sources of human use and impacts on the NWHI ecosystem 

will contribute to development of models that project the effects of these threats. Some 

studies more specifically generate information directly related to modeling human impacts, 

particularly those that have to do with oceanographic circulation, transport models, and 

carrying capacity models. 
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Current efforts are underway to quantify the impacts of research to sites in the NWHI. Data 

collected from permitted activities, including sites visited and numbers of collections, will 

provide information necessary to model and evaluate potential human-based stressors, both 

direct and indirect, on NWHI habitats and resources.

Research needs and opportunities

Table 19. Prioritized list of research activities needed to further modeling of human impacts in 

the NWHI.

Research and Monitoring 

Activity

Average 

Rating

Timeframe 

(years)

Priority 

Management 

Need

Management 

Plan Activity

Modeling and Forecasting of Ecosystem Change

Modeling human impacts and management

Advance knowledge of possible alien 

species invasion locations to enhance 

early detection fan allow for advance 

planning for mitigation in the case of 

possible invasions. 

High 1 to 5 years

Reducing 

Threats to 

Monument 

Resources

AS-1.2 AS-2.3 

AS-7.2 AS-8.1 

AS-8.2

Photo: Cynthia Vanderlip

Susan Middleton sifts through debris inside the carcass 

of ‘Shed Bird,’ Kure Atoll
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Photo: James Watt

A colony of Lobe coral at Lisianski Island.
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