DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEEIOE

BULLETIN

UNITED STATES

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

No. 46

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1888

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

J. W. POWELL, D1KECTOH

NATURE AND ORIGIN

DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME

BT

R. A. F. PENROSE, Jr.

WITH AN

INTRODUCTION BY N. S. SHALER

WASHINGTON

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

1888

CONTENTS.

Page.

Introduction by N. S. Shaler.....................:............................ 9

Importance of phosphate of lime in nature................ .................... 21

Classification of deposits of phosphate of lime................................. 21

Mineral phosphates............................................................ 22

Apatites .................................................................. 22

Apatites of Canada ................................................... 23

Apatites of Norway ................ ................... ............ .... 42

Apatites of Spain...................... ............................... 45

Phosphorites.............................................................. 46

Phosphorites of Nassau................................................. 46

Phosphorites of southwestern France .................................. 48

Phosphorites of Spain................... ............................. 53

Rock phosphates............................................................... 59

Amorphous nodular phosphates............................................ 60

Amorphous nodular phosphates of South Carolina...................... 60

Amorphous nodular phosphates of North Carolina................. --.- 70

Amorphous nodular phosphates of Alabama.. .......................... 75

Amorphous nodular phosphates of Martha's Vineyard.................. 78

Amorphous nodular phosphates of Florida............................. 78

Amorphous nodular phosphate deposits of North Wales ................ 80

Amorphous nodular phosphate deposits of England.................... 84

Phosphate beds of Cretaceous Upper Greensand .................... 84

Phosphate beds of Cretaceous Lower Greensand ................... 90

Tertiary phosphate beds............................... ............ 94

History of the rock phosphates of England......................... 96

Phosphates of Belgium................................................ 102

Phosphates of northern France........................................ 107

Phosphates of central France..........................._.....-...----. Ill

Phosphates of Russia...............,................._,......--...--.- 112

Phosphatic limestone beds................................................. 116

Phosphatic limestones of Kentucky..................................... 116

Guanos ..................................................^................ 117

Soluble guanos......................................................... 117

Leached guanos........................................................ 122

Bone beds ...... ..................'........................._.............. 126

Cave deposits...... ................................................... 126

Lacustrine deposits ................................................... 127

Bibliography .................................................................. 129

(479) 5

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page. 

PLATE I. Map showing location of phosphatic deposits of South Carolina..... GO

II. Map showing location of phosphatic deposits of North Carolina..... 70

III. Map of European Russia, showing the phosphate beds .............. 112

FlG. 1. Section at Olyinpia, Bath County, Ky............................... 15

2. Apatite in the Bonanza pit, Union mine, Portland, Ottawa County,

Quebec .............................'................-- .......-... 24

3. Section on south side of hill on north side of RheaiimO L.lke, Templeton, Ottawa County, Quebec ........................... .......... 25

4. Dike at the Union mine, Portland West, Ottawa County, Quebec .... 26

5. Ideal section southeast and northwest through the Emerald mine hill,

Buckingham, Ottawa County, Quebec ............................ 26

6. Section in a pit near the Emerald mine (looking west), Buckingham,

Ottawa County, Quebec .. ...^.................. ^................. 27

7. Section of apatite vein near Smith's mine, Oso, Frontenac County,

Ontario.......................................................... 28

8. Surface rock at Turner's Island, Clear Lake, Canada................. 28

9. Pyroxene surface, Star Hill, Union mine, Portland West, Ottawa

County, Quebec .................................................. 29

10. Opening in the west side of a hill near Smith's mine, Oso, Frontenac

Comity,' Ontario .................................................. 29

11. Bowlder of country rock embedded in pyroxene etc., High Rock mine,

Portland West, Ottawa County, Quebec............................ 30

12. Section of one of the northwest and southeast veins at Foxtou's min'e,

Loughbore', Froutenac County, Ontario........................... 30

13. Horizontal section showing natural cavity in vein, Loughboro', Fronteuac County, Ontario.................................. .......... 31

14. Northeast side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa

County, Quebec ................................................... 32

15. Southwest side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa

County, Quebec ........ .......................................... 33

16. Southeast side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa

County, Quebec............................................ ....-i. 34

17. Northwest side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa

County, Quebec...... ............................................ 35

18. Part of the northeast wall of McLaurin's mine, Templeton, Ottawa

County, Quebec .................................................. 35

19. Section at McKenzie's opening, looking .ENE., Bowman, Ottawa

County, Quebec .................................................. 36

20. Section in a pit near the Emerald min<>,, Buckingham, Ottawa County,

Quebec .......................................................... 38

21. North side of the cut in the west side of North Star hill, Portland

East, Ottawa County, Quebec .................................... 39

(481) 7
ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. 22. Section at Cubach, Nassau, Prussia, after D. C. Davies ................ 47

23. Section at Staft'el, Nassau, Prussia, after D. C. Davies...... .......... 47

24. Section from Truxillo to Logrosan, Spain, after Daubeny and Widdriugton ......................................................... 54

25. Ground plan of the C&ceres mines in 1875, after C. U. Shepard, jr.... 5(i

26. The Estrella deposit in Esfcremadura, Spain, after C. U. Shepard, jr.. 57

27. Section ENE. and W3W. through Pinckuey's phosphate field, South

Carolina ........................................................... C4

28. Average section in Piuckney's phosphate mine, Berkeley County, S. C. 64

29. Section in one of Fishbnrne's pits, South Carolina ................... 65

30. Strata overlying the phosphate bed at Castle Hayne, New Hanover

County, N. C. .................................................... 73

31. Section in quarry at Rocky Hill, on Lochloosa Creek, near Magnesia

Springs, Alachua County, Fla...... ............................... 79

32. Section of strata at Cwmgwyuen phosphate mine, southwest of Llangynog, North Wales, after D. C. Davies.. ...... ................ .... 80

33. Section of strata at Berwyn phosphate mine, west of Llangynog, North

Wales, after D. C. Davies..... .................................... 8t

34. Distorted bed in Cambridgeshire, England, after O. Fisher .......... 90

35. Section at Upware, Cambridgeshire, England, after W. Keeping..... 90

36. Section at Sandy, Bedfordshire, England, after J. F. Walker.. ....... 91

(482J
INTRODUCTION.

By N. S. SHALER.

The circumstances which have led to the preparation of the subjoined report on mineral phosphates are as follows, viz: In 1870 the 

present writer was employed by the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, the late Benjamin Peirce, to examine the phosphate beds of South 

Carolina with a view to determining the limits of that field; it was 

also deemed desirable to ascertain, if possible, the conditions which led 

to the formation of the deposits.

It was at that time the intention of Professor Peirce to have the 

geology of the belt of country within the limits of the Coast Survey 

maps carefully determined, so that they might be shaped in a way that 

would better serve the commercial interests of the country and also 

have a greater scientific value. After a time it appeared that there 

were legal difficulties in the way of publishing these studies in the reports of the Coast Survey and this work was suspended. It was the 

hope of Professor Peirce to secure a modification of the law, but before 

this was accomplished he retired from the post of Superintendent and 

his successor deemed it best to abandon the project. During the two 

years in which I was engaged in this work on the geology of the coast 

line I became very much interested in the problems connected with the 

origin and distribution of phosphatic deposits. From 1873 to 1880, 

while employed as State geologist of Kentucky, I had a chance to see 

a good deal of the somewhat phosphatic limestones of the Cainbro-Silurian sections, a set of beds which, by their decay, have given great 

fertility to the soils that lie upoa them. The researches of Dr. Eobert 

Peter, the chemist of that survey, made it plain that the phosphatic 

contents of the soils are among the first materials to be exhausted by 

the careless tillage which characterizes our American agriculture, and 

that they are the most costly to restore to the soil.

Extending the general inquiry to the grain-producing districts which 

lie to the north and west of Kentucky, it became evident that all those 

States, which are now the granary of this country and the chief source 

of supply for European markets as well, are rapidly exhausting their 

soils and will soon be in grave need of phosphatic manures. The im-

(483) 9
10 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

portance of such manures has so far been well recognized only by the 

cotton growers of this country, yet it is evident that in a short time 

this class of fertilizers will be equally in demand for all forms of grain 

crops.

These considerations have led me to the conclusion that the geological history of phosphatic deposits shouldreceive more deliberate attention than has yet been given to it

When I began my work in the U. S. Geological Survey, I asked permission of the Director to continue my studies on phosphatic deposits. 

There was at the time no money available for these studies; it was 

therefore necessary that they should be carried on without other expense to the Survey than that involved in the small share of my time 

which could be given to the supervision of the work. It was my good 

fortune, however, to find in one of my students of geology. Dr. E. A. 

F. Peurose, jr., a person who was willing at his own cost to undertake a preliminary study of the whole field as far as our knowledge extends and thus to prepare the problems concerning American phosphate 

deposits for detailed inquiry. This work he has pursued with great 

intelligence and energy during the two years in which he has been 

engaged in it. In this task he has examined all the known phosphate 

deposits of the United States and Canada and has made a careful inquiry into the literature of the subject, as is shown by the extended 

bibliography which is appended to this report.

The object of this work being to make a necessary preparation for 

the further study of the American phosphatic deposits, Dr. Penrose's 

studies were not designed to be encyclopedic in their scope, but rather 

to afford a synopsis of what is known of the deposits in this and other 

countries. So little is yet generally known of the several conditions 

under which these deposits may occur that it would be very bliud work 

to search for thera in this country without a careful endeavor to bring 

together the experience which has been gained in other countries. It 

will be evident to the reader of Dr. Peurose's report that the workable 

deposits of phosphates are found in a greater variety of circumstances 

than those which contain most mineral substances that have an economic value. It is not likely that we have as yet exhausted the inquiry 

into the modes of occurrence of this substance; but this synopsis of 

the experience in this and other countries, which is much more extensive than any other which has been published, will, I believe, serve as a 

guide to the further search for sources of supplies of phosphatic manures. It will also be evident to the reader that the conditions of occurrence of these deposits in Europe make it plain that the search for 

them in this country may advantageously be directed to many districts 

in which they have not as yet been found.

So far the vein deposits of apatite, such as those which are so abundant north of the St. Lawrence, have not been found in workable quantities within the limits of the United States, though the general geo-

(484)
SHALKH.] INTRODUCTION. 11

\ logical conditions of the Laurentian area exist iu the Adirondack district and in the southern parts of the Appalachian system as well as in 

several districts of the Rocky Mountains. It would be remarkable if extensive deposits of this nature, so common in Canada and iu the equiv- 

'alent rocks of northern and southern Europe, should not be found at 

itaany points in our American Arch^au formations. It is on this account 

tli.it so much space in this report is given to the description and illustratiQn of the Canadian apatite deposits. So, too, we may hope to find 

in th&.n-iicient rocks of this country deposits analogous to the great 

LogrosaH and Caceres veins in the province of Estretnadura, Spain.

The CiQt^ceous deposits of Belgium (which at the present time are, 

next afteu fche phosphate beds of South Carolina, the most productive 

in the worlJ) present a type of beds not yet found in paying quantities in the'Puited States, though deposits of the same age, formed 

under about ft)® same conditions, abound in this country, It is not

to be expected t!Mt phosphatic deposits will exactly repeat themselves 

in strata of the same age in widely separated regions j yet it is clear 

from the summary account of the geological distribution of these phosphates iu Europe and North America that in the case of these, as well 

as in that of other s&bstances of value in the arts, there are certain 

guiding principles whic\we may base on the stratigraphy of the deposits to aid our search. Tfre known workable deposits of a phosphatic 

nature are limited to certain portions of the geological section. Beginning at the surface of the deposits now forming, these zones are, in 

descending order, as follows:

(1) Superficial deposits, including («) those formed in the manner of 

guanos j (b) the deposits formed in fcbejjottozns of fresh-water swamps, 

sometimes in connection with deposits of bog iron"^rg (hematite-); and 

(c) deposits which are the result of the long-continued deftly of rocks 

containing a small portion of lime phosphate intermingled witii^lime 

carbonate, as, for instance, the deposits of Jforth Carolina. This superficial group of deposits has no other common feature save that they are 

on the surface and are due to causes now or recently in action.

(2) Deposits of the'Tertiary and Upper Cretaceous. These deposits 

are generally the result of reactions which took place on ancient laud 

surfaces, the phosphatic matter being such as formed in swamp beds 

or iu ablation deposits like those of the Carolinas or ot eastern England. 

Below the level of the Cretaceous no important deposits of phosphate 

have been found iu the vast section of rocks which lies between that 

era and the Devonian horizons.

(3) In the horizons below the level of the Upper Silurian bedded rock 

phosphates and apatite deposits occur. These infra-Devonian bedded 

rock phosphates seem to have derived their phosphatic matter from the 

animals, brachiopods and small crustaceans, which separated that substance from the sea insects or other food which the old oceans afforded.

(485)
12 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

These phosphate-bearing invertebrates appear to have been particularly 

abundant in the early Paleozoic seas.

(4) JBelow the level of the Silurian the phosphatic deposits which have 

been worked probably belong altogether to the class of apatites or crystallized lime phosphates, and are probably all new deposits. They evidently occur through a large part of the Laurentiau section, though, sq' 

far, the known deposits of economic importance are possibly limited .#0 

one portion of that vast series of rocks. ^

The apparent absence of phosphatic deposits of economic importance 

in the section between the Devonian and the Cretaceous is remarkable. 

It is possible that it may be due to our lack of knowledge as to the 

chemical character of the deposits in those parts of the earth's crust. 

It is more likely, however, that such deposits do not there e»xist, owing 

to the fact that the invertebrate species of animals which secrete phosphatic matter in their skeletons became relatively less ab/iindant in the 

middle portion of the geological section; while the ve^ebrate species, 

the birds which accumulate guanos and the fishes whiq'h afford an abundance of bones and teeth to littoral deposits, as well as the mammalia 

whose skeletons occasionally form a considerable element in the later 

deposits, did not begin to contribute phosphatic master to the rocks until 

comparatively modern times. /'

The absence of phosphatic deposits in the/Ifpper Paleozoic and Lower 

Mesozoic strata is well shown by the fact that, while in the Carboniferous and the Triassic beds there are abundant land surfaces which have 

been carefully explored, no phosphatic deposits of economic importance 

have been found in them, while on th& relatively very limited areas of 

the Tertiary and Cretaceous formations where old land areas have been 

explored a large ijumuei of deposits of beds of nodular phosphate have 

been found.

Frath the facts set forth in Dr, Penrose's report and the unpublished

results of certain studies on swamps, we may draw certain general conclusions as to the best method of prosecuting the search for unknown 

deposits of American phosphates. These conclusions are essentially as 

follows:

First, as regards the superficial and recently formed deposits of phosphates. We are driven to the conclusion that this class of deposits may 

reasonably be sought for wherever soft calcareous beds containing a certain amount of lime phosphate have been subjected to long continued 

leaching by waters containing the share of carbonic acid gas which belongs to all rain-water after it has passed through the mat of decayed 

vegetation. As long ago as 1870 I became convinced that it was to the 

leaching out of the carbonate of lime by the carbonated water of the soil 

bed that we owe in the main the concentration of the nodular phosphates of South Carolina. 1 Although it is still necessary to explain 

> See Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, 1871, p. 222. 

(486)
BHALER.J INTRODUCTION. 13

many of the details of this process to adapt it to the peculiar circumstances of particular deposits, it seems to me that it is the key to the 

most common forms of superficial accumulations of nodular phosphates. 

In an admirable description of the phosphate beds in the neighborhood 

of Mons, in Belgium, by Mr. F. L. Cornet, 1 that distinguished author 

has independently propounded this simple hypothesis, and several 

other writers on the subject have apprehended the importance of this 

leaching action.

It is evidently essential to this process of concentration that the surface of the deposits which are leaching away should have been, preserved 

from the action of mechanical erosion, which would have prevented the 

formation of phosphatic concentrates.

Inquiry into the conditions of the swamp deposits of this country has 

satisfied me that beneath the surface of many of our fresh- water marshes, 

and probably in a lesser degree beneath the marine deposits of the same 

nature, there isa more or less important concentration of lime phosphates 

constantly going on. The effect of this action is seen in the remarkable 

fitness of these fresh-water swamp soils for the production of grain 

crops. For instance, in the case of the Dismal Swamp district in Vir. 

ginia and North Carolina we find that the soils on which the swamp deposit rests are extremely barren, while in the mud that has accumulated 

beneath the swamp we have a rich store of phosphates, potash, and 

soda, which causes the soil of these swamps to be extremely well suited 

to grain tillage as soon as it is drained. In a similar way in the swamps 

of New England and elsewhere we find the bog-iron ores which are frequently accumulated in their bottoms very rich in phosphatic matter. 

The evidence is not yet complete that this phosphatic material becomes 

aggregated into nodules in the swamp muds, but the number of cases 

in which nodules have been found in this position makes it quite likely 

that the nodula'tion of the material may go on in that position. The 

present condition of the inquiry goes, in a word, to show that wherever 

we have a region long overlaid by swampy matter we may expect a 

certain concentration of lime phosphates in the lower part of the marsh 

deposit. Wherever the swamp area lies upon somewhat phosphatic 

marls which have been slowly washed away by the downward leaching 

of the waters charged with the acids arising from decayed vegetation, 

or where the swamp deposits, even when not resting on such marls, are 

in a position to receive the waste from beds containing phosphates, we 

may expect to find a considerable concentration of phosphatic matter 

in the swamp bed. By the erosion of these swamps we may have the 

nodules of phosphate couceutrated in beds such as occupy the estuaries 

of the rivers near Charleston, S. C.

The area of swamp lauds which fulfill these conditions is very large. 

They exist in numerous areas in more than half the so-called Southern

1 See Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 42, 1886, p. 325.

(487)
14 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OP LIME. [BULL. 46.

States. At present it can only be said that they afford the conditions 

which, so far as the theory goes, should lead to the accumulation of 

phosphatic deposits of greater or less importance. It will be a simple 

matter to explain these deposits, though it is a task requiring a patient study of a large field. Although it is likely that the phosphatic 

materials will be found aggregated into nodules at many points in this 

area it will not be safe to assume that they will be found in the same 

form as those which occur about Charleston, S. C. The nodules found 

in the beds about the last named point, though in my opinion originating 

beneath swampy deposits, have apparently been, in part at least, swept 

from their original beds by the rivers which enter the sea at that point 

and have thus been concentrated in estuarine deposits.

Although local concentrations of phosphatic nodules other than those 

now kuown ma,y well be sought for in the Southern States, I do not 

think that the precise conditions or character of the deposits as found 

at Charleston should be expected to repeat themselves elsewhere. It 

is characteristic of the process of concentration of phosphatic, as well 

as of other matter into nodules that the material takes on a great 

variety of aspects, each proper to a particular site, and this although 

the surrounding circumstances of the several localities may apparently 

be identical.

Next lower on the geologic section we have, in the Tertiary region of 

the Mauvaises Terres, extensive deposits of vertebrate remains which 

may possibly yield some commercially important supplies of bone phosphates. Although none of the existing sources of supply of these materials come from deposits of the nature of those found in Nebraska, 

the conditions of that remarkable region are so peculiar that it will not 

be well to pass it by without inquiry.

While the American Cretaceous deposits are, as a whole, decidedly 

different from those of the Old World, the Greensand beds of the 

Section in the two countries present considerable likeness in their characters. It is probable that in this country, as in Europe, considerable 

parts of the Cretaceous section are somewhat phosphatic, and that those 

beds containing disseminated phosphatic matter have been in many 

places exposed to the process of leaching in former geologic periods. 

Therefore we may reasonably search in the Cretaceous beds of this 

country for the same class of phosphatic deposits which have proved so 

important in the northern parts of Europe.

Although some peculiar deposits of phosphate have been found in the 

Devonian rocks of Nassau, it may safely be assumed that below the line 

of the Cretaceous we have no facts to guide us in our search for phosphates until we come to the horizon of the Upper Silurian limestones, at 

about the level of the uppermost beds of the Upper Silurian, as far as 

that level can be determined by the perplexing assemblage of fossils. 

There occurs in Bath County, Ky., a thick bed of much decayed, very 

phosphatic siderite. This deposit covers but a small area and cou-

(488)
SflALEK.J INTRODUCTION. 15

sists of a patch of limestone about fifteen feet thick, which has been 

converted into siderite by the inleaching of iron-bearing waters from 

the ferruginous Ohio (Devonian) shales which formerly overlaid the 

bed. Since the escarpment of the Ohio shales retreated beyond this 

bed it has been subjected to oxidation and is now in the main converted 

into a much decayed limonite. Beneath this limonite there is a greenish, argillaceous sand which contains frequent nodules of lime phosphate. 

These nodules are smooth-surfaced and not unlike some of the nodules 

from the Carolina district. They contain as much as 92 per cent, of lime 

phosphate. It seems likely that these nodules were formed by the leaching out of the lime phosphate from the overlying ferruginous layers, 

which has completely removed the lime carbonate, but has not removed 

the whole of the less soluble lime phosphate (Fig. 1).

FIG. 1. Section at Olympia, Bath County, Ky. (Preston ore bed). A, soil; B, limonite iron ore ; 

C. sklerite iron ore; D, phosphatic nodules. Scale: 1 inck= 12 feet.

Although this deposit of nodules is not of sufficient abundance to have 

any economic value, it is clear that we have in it an indication of a method 

where, by a slight variation of the conditions, important beds of nodular 

phosphates might be found.

In the horizons of the Carnbro-Silurian section, or, as it is generally 

called, the Lower Silurian, there is much greater reason to expect the 

occurrence of workable phosphates than in the beds immediately above. 

It is likely that the most important of the Spanish deposits belong in 

strata of this period, and the Welsh deposits of this general age are of 

noteworthy extent. We know, moreover, that the commoner marine 

animals of this part of the geological section were particularly adapted 

for the secretion of lime phosphate.

The search of this portion of the section for phosphates sho'uld be 

directed to two ends: first, to finding beds of very phosphatic limestone; 

and, second, to discovering veins formed by a segregation of lime phosphates either in the form of the Spanish deposits referred to by Dr. 

Penrose or in the condition of nodular accumulations. The a.rea of rocks 

of these Lower Silurian and Cambrian periods in this country is very 

extensive, and so far there has been no search of them for phosphatic 

materials. The little work done in Kentucky during the above-men-

(489)
lb DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. luuLL.46. \

tioned geological survey served only to show that the proportion of 

lime phosphate in the rocks is extremely variable, and that in certain 

beds it is so considerable that the material might advantageously be 

used iii a local way for fertilizing purposes.1

The search for phosphatic materials in the stratified rocks demands 

a method of inquiry that has not yet been applied to the study of our 

rocks. It seems to me that the method, or rather methods, should be 

as follows:

First, there should be a careful inquiry to determine the share in 

which the several important groups of rock-making organic forms contribute phosphatic matter to strata. This can be accomplished by carefully comparing the chemical character of particular strata with the 

fossils the beds contain. When this determination is made we shall 

have one means of guiding our inquiries, which will surely be of great 

value in the search for bedded phosphates.

Secondly, we should have a carefully executed chemical survey of our 

stratified rocks. Enough can be gathered from the scattered records of 

chemical analysis to make it plain that certain features of the chemical 

character of particular beds or divisions of strata often extend laterally for great distances. This is sho'wn in a general way by the character of the soils formed of the waste of particular horizons; for. instance, the deposits of the horizon on which lies the Cincinnati group 

of this country and the equivalent deposits of Europe are nearly always 

well suited to grasses and grains and have a great endurance to tillage. 

It is now desirable to take these beds which promise to afford mineral 

manures and subject each stratum to analyses which shall determine the 

quantity of phosphoric matter, soda, and potash which they contain, so 

that their fitness for use as mineral manures may be ascertained.

Below the level of the Silurian and Cambrian strata, and partly in 

those sections where they have been much metamorphosed, lies the field

of the vein phosphates. It is more than likely that in this vast thickness of rocks with their development in this country there are many 

extensive sources of this class of phosphates which await discovery. 

As yet no careful search has been made for such veins in any part of 

the United States. The regions most likely to contain such deposits 

are found in the central parts of the Appalachian system of mountains,

1 Among the analyses recently made by the chemists of the Kentucky geological 

snrvoy is one which indicates the presence of phosphoric acid in considerable quantities in the limestones of Corniferous age exposed at Stewart's mill, on Lulbegrud 

Creek, in Clark County. This partial analysis, for which I am indebted to Mr. John 

R. Proctor, the present director of the Kentucky survey, is as follows, viz: 

Lime carbonate............................................................ 21.380

Magnesia.................................................................. 3.055

Phosphoric acid............................................................ 9.710

Potash .................................................................... .830

Soda .................:.................................................... .228

Siliceous nodules insoluble in acids......................................... 27.580

(490)
INTKODUCTION. 17

especially in the section from Virginia southward; in the Archaean district of Missouri and Arkansas, and in the vast region of highly metamorphic rocks of the Cordilleran district, extending from the Eocky 

Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. It is true that at present the economic 

value of phosphatic deposits in the western part of the continent would 

probably be small, on account of the great cost of transportation to the 

seaboard districts; but the growing use of phosphatic manures in the 

Mississippi Valley and the rapid exhaustion of the soils of that district will soon give commercial importance to any sources of supply of 

phosphates that may be found in any parts of the Cordilleras which 

are convenient to transportation.

A proper study of the mineral manures of this country can best be 

carried on by means of a well considered co-operation between geological explorers and the experiment stations of the several States. At 

present the methods of using mineral phosphates are extremely costly: 

not only is the material brought into the soluble condition by saturation in sulphuric acid, but it is then mingled with ammouiacal and other 

matter to increase its effect as a fertilizer. The result is that, although 

a ton of Carolina phosphate now costs but $6, the average price of the 

manufactured product to the consumer at the phosphate factories is 

about $30 per ton. Jt is probable that the essential value of the phosphatic ingredients to the plants of most soils is not enhanced by this 

costly treatment, though an incidental but dearly purchased gain, in the 

case of some crops, is obtained from the ammouiacal matter. The only 

effect of the superphosphatizing on the phosphatic. matter is to make it 

more immediately absorbable by the plants. If placed on the soil without any other preparation than grinding, lime phosphate will slowly 

pass into a condition in which it may be absorbed by plants, while if 

treated with sulphuric acid it is for a time at least in a soluble state. 

That this treatment is not essential is well shown by the fact that the 

phosphatic matter derived from the rocks is brought into a condition 

for absorption by the ordinary process of decay in soils. Our present 

costly method of applying phosphates has come about through the 

commercial history of artificial manures, which is as follows:

Before guanos were brought into use the English farmers had learned 

that they could profitably use thephospjiatic marls of their Tertiary and 

Cretaceous deposits without any artificial preparation. If guanos had 

not existed it seems likely that mineral phosphates would have always 

been used in this way. When the Peruvian guanos came into use 

they afforded a much more stimulating material than any other purchasable manures, and in a short time they established the type of commercial fertilizers. When the sources of supply of these guanos became in part exhausted, artificial compounds, formed on a basis of rock 

phosphates or apatites, were devised to take their place. These were made 

to imitate the effect of the guanos as closely as possible. Like them, they 

Bull. 4G 2 (491)
18 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

gave a quick though temporary stimulus to the soil, enabling the farmer 

to obtain the greater part of the return for his investment in the season 

following the application of the high-priced manure. Very generally 

the fertilizer, guano or compounded material, was applied with the 

seed or dibbled in the soil alongside the young plant, so that it would 

be immediately available in the first stages of its growth, and, what is a 

more important consideration, that it might take less of the substance 

to give the effect than if it were sown broadcast over the surface or 

mingled with the soil of the whole field.

In this way a habit has been established in the art of using phosphates, as well as in the composition of the material, whicb, like all commercial habits, is hard to overcome. The question to be determined is 

as to the utility of phosphates with other modes of treatment than those 

which are applied to the imitation guanos. At present this treatment 

requires the commingling of the lime phosphate with a number of costly 

substances. The manufacture can only be advantageously carried on 

at points remote from the districts where the materials are produced 

and remote from the fields where they are used, so that the costs of 

transportation are great. The problems to be solved by the agricultural 

stations are as follows:

(1) As to-the effect, immediate as well as permanent, arising from the 

application of ground phosphatic rock commingled with other materials 

on soils used for the production of different crops.

(2) As to the degree of comminution of the material which is most 

advantageous. It seems possible that fine pulverizing may take the 

place in a measure of superphosphatizing.

(3) As to the effect of mingling the powdered rock with ordinary 

barn yard manure, peat, and other similar substances.

(4) As to the effect of lime phosphate used alone on soils containing 

different mineral constituents, as, for instance, those having considerable proportions of lime carbonate and those having but little of that 

substance.

(5) As to the proportion of the lime phosphate which it is necessary 

to apply in order to produce different degrees of effect upon the fertility 

of soils.

It is desirable that these and^ther experiments should be tried at a 

number of stations in different parts of the country, in order that the 

needs of various crops may be considered and the effect of the fertilizers on different classes of soils ascertained.

The effect of a small amount of lime phosphate on the fertility of the 

soil is clearly great, but so far we do not know with accuracy the 

amount necessary to produce a given effect. The range in phosphoric 

acid contents in the soils of Kentucky, as determined from many hundred 

analyses, varies from 0.540 to O.OG1.1 In most cases the fitness of the

l See report of Dr. Robert Peter iu Kcpts. Geol. Survey Kentucky, new series, vol. 

5,1878, N. S. Sbaler, Director:

(492)
BHALKR.] INTRODUCTION. 19

soil for grain tillage is measurably proportionate to the phosphatic contents. It seems almost certain, though not yet demonstrated, that the 

greater part of the phosphatic matter in the soil is in the state known 

tisinsoluble, and that it only becomes in small part, year by year, soluble, 

or, in other words, fitted for assimilation by plants. Whenever the soil 

contains the quautity of lime which characterizes the better class of 

Kentucky soils it is supposed that even if soluble phosphatic manures 

areoapplied the superphosphate becomes again insoluble by taking 

up a molecule of lime. It is therefore an interesting question as to the 

means by which the lime phosphate enters the plants. It may be that 

the solution is effected through the action of the various humic acids 

of the soil or it may arise from some specific change which takes place 

at the contact of the soil with the roots. It is evident that this point 

requires precise determination, for on it will depend further experiments as to the methods of applying phosphatic manures,

There is yet another point on which we need experiments. Many of 

our rock phosphates, especially those which are distinctly bedded, contain low percentages of phosphatic matter. Many of our lime phosphates contain crystals of apatite and calcite so intermingled that it is 

not possible to separate them ; yet from these deposits it will be easy 

to produce a mixture of lime carbonate and lime phosphate containing 

from 10 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid. The value of such material 

for manure has never been determined. If it can be used in a way which 

will give to the fields the full value for both the lime and the phosphorus 

it will open a way for an extensive production of cheap fertilizers.

The foregoing considerations give the general results of the preliminary inquiry into phosphatic manures of which Dr. Penrose's work forms 

a part. Before we go further into these studies I much desire to have 

the criticism and advice of other's who have considered this subject. It 

is with this view that I have ventured to give in the foregoing pages an 

account of the aim of the inquiries I have in hand. The questions are 

at once chemical and geological, and demand much co-operation for their 

solution. Much of the work of searching for the unknown phosphatic 

deposits of this country will necessarily have to be undertaken by local 

students of geology or by commercial explorers in search of such deposits. Unfortunately, the unfamiliar aspect of the various forms of 

phosphatic deposits will make this task under any circumstances difficult. There is no substance of equally wide diffusion among those of 

considerable commercial importance which, in the present state of popular knowledge, so readily escapes detection as lime phosphate. It may 

be hoped that the following memoir may make it easier for explorers to 

recognize this class of deposits.

My own as well as Dr. Penrose's acknowledgments are due to many 

persons who have given him aid in the prosecution of his work. To 

Prof. Charles U. Shepard, jr., of Charleston, S. C., Dr. Penrose is par-

(493)
20 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OP LIME. [BULL.46.

ticularly indebted for much information and access to a great deal of 

valuable matter contained in his unpublished notes on American and 

foreign phosphatic deposits.

Injustice to Harvard University it should be said that the followingreport, although designed as a memoir of the TJ. S. Geological Survey, 

was used in manuscript form by Dr. Penrose as his thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy in that institution.

(494)
OF DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

By E. A. F. PENROSE, JR.

IMPORTANCE.OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME IN NATURE.

Phosphorus is one of the most universally distributed of all the elements. It is found in all animal and vegetable matter, as well as in 

most eruptive and sedimentary rocks. Phosphoric acid composes over 

40 per cent, of the ashes of bones and in the vegetable kingdom it is 

especially abundant in the seeds of plants. Thus the ash of wheat contains over 49 per cent, of phosphoric acid.

It has been estimated that for each cow kept on a pasture through 

the summer there are carried off, in veal, butter and cheese, not less 

than fifty pounds of phosphate of lime. Consequently it will be seen 

that phosphoric acid is one of the most important elements of plant 

food, and no soil can be productive which is destitute of it. The necessity of restoring phosphoric acid to an exhausted soil has been acknowledged from very ancient times, though the cause of its stimulating effect was unknown until a comparatively late date. In the days of 

the Komans the excrements of birds, from pigeon-houses and bird-cages, 

brought a high price, and Edrisi relates that the Arabians, as early as 

1154 A. D., used the guano deposits found along their coast for agricultural purposes. Garcilaso de la Yega (Comentarios Eeales, lib. V, 

1G04) says that the Peruvians, in the twelfth century, used the guano 

beds on their islands as fertilizers. Of such importance did they esteem 

the material of these beds that the penalty of death was imposed by the 

early Incas on any one found killing the birds that made these precious 

deposits. It was not, however, until the early part of this century, when 

Liebig and others showed the important part played by phosphoric acid 

in vegetable life, that artificial phosphatic manures came into use, and 

it is only in the last twenty years that the mining of natural phosphates 

with their conversion into superphosphates has assumed its present 

great and steadily increasing importance.

CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

</

The classification of deposits of phosphate of lime is a matter attended 

with many difficulties, not only on account of the great variety of forms 

in which phosphate of lime occurs, but also because many varieties grad-

(495) 21
22 . DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. , [BULL.46.

ually blend into one another, thus often rendering it uncertain to which 

class a special deposit should be referred. The classification given below is based mainly on the chemical composition of the deposits. These 

are grouped under two principal headings, namely, mineral phosphates 

and rode phosphates.1 The former includes all deposits of phosphate 

of lime which, besides having the other properties inherent in a true 

mineral, have a definite chemical composition or at least show a strong 

tendency toward such properties and composition. The latter includes 

those deposits which, having no definite chemical composition and lacking the homogeneous nature and other fixed characteristics of a true 

mineral, cannot be classed with mineral phosphates. These two classes 

are again subdivided as follows:

( Anatites 5 Fluor-apatites. 

Mineral phosphates. < F ' \ Chlor-apatites.

( Phosphorites.

f ( Loose nodules. 

Amorphous nodular phosphates. < Cemented nodules or conglom-

( erates.

Rock phosphates, i Phosphatic limestone beds. 

Guanos. \ Soluble guanos. 

\ Leached guanos, 

t Bone. beds.

The various phosphate deposits of North and South America, Europe, 

Africa, and other localities will be treated under the different divisions 

of the above classification, each deposit being described under the heading to which it belongs. Mineral phosphates will be taken up first, and 

then the various representatives of rock phosphates will be described. 

Special attention will be given to the phosphate deposits of the United 

States and Canada, which were visited and studied by the writer.

MINERAL PHOSPHATES. 

0 APATITES.

Apatite is found in both stratified and crystalline rocks, but is much 

more plentiful in the latter, especially in metamorphic limestone, syenite, garnetiferous, horublendic, and pyroxenic, gneiss, mica-schist, and 

igneous and volcanic rocks.

The mineral occurs in both the massive and the crystalline form. It 

belongs to the hexagonal system of crystallization, has a vitreous or 

subresiuous luster, is translucent and sometimes transparent, has a 

hardness of 5, a specific gravity of 3.17 to 3.25, is brittle, of a white, yellow, green, or red color, gives off phosphorescent light when heated,

1 It will be seen that the determination which phosphate shall be classed under 

minerals and which under rocks must in certain cases be somewhat arbitrary, but 

the classification is intended simply as a matter of convenience in describing the 

various deposits, and as such answers its purpose sufficiently well.

(496)
APATItJES OF CAtfAM. 2o

and becomes electric by application of heat or friction. It occurs principally in the early crystalline rocks and is found iii New York, New 

Jersey, Maine, Canada, and other places in North America. In Europe 

it is found in England, France, Saxony, Tyrol, Bohemia, Spain, Norway, and many other regions. The only deposits of economic importance as yet discovered are in Canada, Norway, and Spain.

P.rof. J. D. Dana gives as a formula of apatite Ca :jO8r2+£(Cl2F2), in 

which the fluorine and the chlorine may replace each other in any proportion, When there is more fluorine than chlorine present the mineral is called fluor-apatite, and when less it is called chlor-apatite. 1 The 

apatites of Canada and of Spain, as well as most of those from Norway, 

are essentially fluor-apatites, though they almost always contain 0.01 

to 0.5 of chlorine. Occasionally apatites are found free from chlorine, 

as some of those of Nassau and the Tyrol, but they are never found entirely free from fluorine. The apatite of Suarum, Norway, contains 

more chlorine than any other known apatite, amounting, as it does, to 

2.71 per cent, of that element.2 The apatite deposits of Canada, being 

at present more extensively worked than any others and consequently 

better known, will be described first; after them the apatites of Norway 

and Spain.

APATITES OP CANADA.

Phosphates were discovered in considerable quantities in Canada before the middle of this century, and were described by Dr. T. Sterry 

Hunt in the Canadian Geological Survey Reports for 1848. Shortly 

afterwards they were mined in the counties of Lanark and Leeds,. Ontario. But the first regular mining operations of any considrable importance were begun in 1871, in the townships of Buckingham and 

Portland, Ottawa County, Quebec, where apatite had been discovered 

several years later than in Ontario. The first company to operate on 

a large scale here was known as the Buckingham Mining Company. It 

worked successfully until 1875, when a sudden fall in the prices of the 

phosphate market led to a stoppage. For several years after this the 

mines were worked by private parties, until, in the years 1881 to 1883, 

the large mining companies which now control the richest properties 

in Canada were organized. Many of the phosphate properties in Ontario have been worked by the so-called "contract system." Under 

this system the farmers of the neighborhood, whenever they are without employment, blast out a little phosphate. The result of such a 

method is, of course, that the whole of a property is soon cut up with 

small pits and trenches, rarely exceeding twenty feet in depth, and often 

interfering considerably with later and larger mining operations.

There are two principal districts in Canada where apatite occurs in 

considerable quantities. Thefirst is in Ottawa County, Province of Que1 J. D. Dana: Manual of Mineralogy and Litholn^.v, '8d5, P- 213. 

2 O. Ramon T. Munos de Luna: Estudios quiiuicos sobre ecouoraia agricola en 

general, y particularmente sobre la. irnportancia de los abonos fosfatados.

(497)
24 DEPOSITS OF > PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

bee. It consists of a belt running from near the Ottawa River, on tlie 

south, for over sixty miles in a northerly direction, through Buckingham, Portland, Tern pleton, Wakefield, Denholm, Bowman, Hincks, and 

other townships. The belt probably stretches still farther to the north, 

but the country in that direction has been but little explored, and is 

scarcely known, except to trappers and Indians. The belt averages in 

width from fifteen to twenty-five miles.

FIG. 2. Apatite in the Bonanza pit, Union mine, Portland, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. A, apatite; B, mica; C, white feldspar; D, pink and white feldspar, mica, and pyroxene. Scale: 1 inch = 

16 fe»t.

The second phosphate district is in Ontario, principally in the counties 

of Leeds, Lanark, Frontenac, Addington, and Renfrew. This district 

is much larger than that of Quebec. But the apatite is much more 

scattered, and, though special deposits are in some places much more 

continuous than those of Quebec, the mineral has not yet been discovered in such large pockets as occur in the latter district. The belt 

which contains the deposits runs from about fifteen miles north of the 

St. Lawrence River in a northerly direction to the Ottawa River, a distance of about one hundred miles. It varies from fifty to seventy-five 

miles in breadth.

The above-mentioned districts are the regions where apatite has been 

found most plentifully, but it also occurs in other places, though, so 

far as has been discovered, in much smaller quantities. 1

The apatite occurs in the upper part of the Lower Laurentian formation, the horizon being characterized by large quantities of pyroxene 

rock. The principal phosphate-bearing baud consists of quartzites, 

gneisses, schists, feldspar, and pyroxenic and calcareous rocks, having 

au aggregate thickness, according to Vetinor, of twenty-six hundred to

1 Lately it has been found that apatite is very generally distributed in Pontiac 

County, Quebec.

(498)
1'EXnOSB.] APATITES OF CANADA. 25

thirty-nine hundred feet. All the beds are more or less completely 

metamorphosed, being sometimes indistinctly stratified and at other 

times massive and with no traces of bedding. The rocks, often contorted, all dip at a vertical or almost vertical angle. Sometimes the 

gneiss contains large quantities of mica and has a distinctly foliated structure. At other times it is impregnated with large quantities of pyroxene, as in the Quebec district. In the Ontario district 

this pyroxene is often replaced by hornblende of a dark-green, lustrous character. A highly garnetiferous gneiss is also often found 

in large quantities in some of the apatite localities. In the Quebec district there is a series of trap dikes running in a general east 

and west direction. By some they are supposed to be connected with 

the occurrence of the apatite. But the trap is, probably, of a later date 

than the apatite, as it is sometimes found passing through pockets of 

that mineral (Fig. 4).

FIG. 3. Section on south side of hill on north side of Khoanmo Lake, Templeton, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. A, stratified rock; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar. Scale: 1 inch = 16 feet.

The principal difference between the country rock of the Quebec district and that of the Ontario district is that the rocks in the latter region are often rnuc h more hornblenclic than those in the former, and 

are often found in the form of a more or less hornbleudic gneiss. The 

country in the Quebec apatite district is rough and mountainous. The 

hills are of a remarkably uniform height, rarely rising over five 

hundred to six hundred feet above the level of the neighboring Du 

Lievre River. In Ontario, on the other hand, the land in Leeds, 

Lanark, Frontenac, and Addington Counties* is low, and sometimes 

shows a smooth, glaciated surface, covered by a thin layer of soil. 

In Renfrew County, however, the land is more hilly, and resembles 

that of the Ottawa district. As before remarked, the apatite occurs, 

almost without exception, in association with pyroxenic or hornblendic rocks. This rule holds especially true in the Quebec district,

(499)
DEPOSITS Oi1 PHOSPHATE OF

where the phosphate has never yet been found without being associated with pyroxene rock, possibly often of vein origin. This, called 

pyroxeuite by Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, occurs in ridges, running in a general northeast aud southwest direction, following the general course of

3TlG. 4. Dike at "Onion mine, Portland West, Ottawa County, Quehcc, Canada. A, apatite; B, trap;

C, pyroxene.

the strike of the country gneisses. It forms, together with lilac-colored 

orthoclase, quartzite, and trap, the mass of many of the hills in the 

phosphate district, while the stratified and massive gneisses are often

seen bordering the sides of the ridges, as shown in Fig. 5.

FIG. 5. Ideal section southeast and northwest through the Emerald mine hill, Buckingham, Ottawa 

County, Quebec, Canada. A, couutry quartzita, gneiss, etc.; B, pyroxene. Scale: 1 inch = 180 feet.

The pyroxene rock is never found distinctly bedded, thougti occasionally a series of parallel lines can be traced through it, which, while possibly the remains of stratification, are probably often joint planes. Sometimes, when the pyroxeuite has been weathered, apparent signs o.f bed-

(500)
I'KXROSK.J APATITES OF CANADA.

ding are "brought out, which are often parallel to the bedding of the 

country rock. Thus at Bob's Lake mine, in Frontenac County, a richgreen pyroxenite occurs which exhibits this structure. For 10 feet 

down from the surface this apparent bedding can be distinguished. It 

gradually grows fainter, until it disappears in the massive pyroxenite 

below. A similar phenomenon has been observed at the Emerald mine, 

Buckingham Township, Ottawa County, Quebec, and at several other 

places (Fig. 6). It can also be seen in the crystalline rocks on Newport 

Island, opposite Tiverton, li. I. There, for a depth of from one to two 

feet, an apparent stratification can be seen, and the rock below gradually 

becomes more massive, until it merges into the apparently homogeneous 

mass of the hill.

I-I-I-I-I-H-I-I-I-I-I-M-I-I-I-IFm. 6. Section in a pit near the Emerald mine (looking west), Buckingham, Ottawa County, Quebec, 

Cuuada. A, apatite; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar; D, pyrite. Scale, 1 inch= 6 feet.

The pyroxene occurs in several different forms. Sometimes it is 

massive, of a light or dark green color, and opaque or translucent; at 

other times it is granular and easily crumbled.. Occasionally it occurs 

in a distinctly crystalline form, the crystals being in color of different 

shades of a dull green, generally opaque or translucent, but sometimes, 

though rarely, almost transparent. The massive variety is the most 

common, and composes the greater part of the pyroxenites found in the 

phosphate districts.

Tue associated feldspar is generally a. crystalline orthoclase, 'varying in color from white to pink and lilac ; occasionally, as in Denholm 

and Bowman Townships, Ottawa County, Quebec, it occurs as a whitish-brown, finely crystalline rock. The trap is of the dark, almost 

black, variety. Thin sections under a microscope show it to have a very

(501),
28 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

variable composition a net-work of striated blades of triclinic feldspar, brownish augite, black opaque grains of magnetite, and, commonly, 

small quantities of a green, chloritic mineral. 1 The quartzite is white, 

gray, or blue. The blue variety often contains specks of felsite. 

These pyroxenes, feldspars, and quartzites are often mixed up in a perfect net-work, very similar to that seen at Marblehead, Mass., and at

FIG. 7. Section of apatite vein near Smith's mine, Oso, Frontenac County, Ontario, Canada. A,, 

country syenite; R, red and green apatite. Scale: 1 inch = 8 feet.

many places in the metamorphic rocks of Mount Desert Island. Often 

whole hills are formed of these rocks, mixed in various proportions 

(Figs. 8 and 9). The gneiss in some places has no distinct line of separation from the pyroxene, but seems to have been impregnated with 

some of it, forming for a few feet from the line of contact a more or less 

pyroxenic gneiss, which is easily decayed and eroded by weathering 

(see Fig. 3).

FIG. 8. Horizontal view of surface rock at Tumor's Island, Clear Lake, Canada. A, feldspar; 

B, pyroxenite; C, hornblende; D, feldspar dykes; E, soil. Scale: 1 inch = 6 feet.

In the Ontario district, as mentioned before, the pyroxene is often replaced by hornblende. Thus at Bell's mine, in Frontenac County, little 

or no pyroxene is met with, arid in its placo large quantities of dark 

green hornblende occur. The apatite here is found in a rock consisting 

1 B. J. Harringtou : Gi-ol. Survey Canada, Rept. Progress, 1377-78.
PENR08E.] APATITES OF CANADA. 29

of green hornblende and white feldspar, which forms a ridge about one 

hundred yards wide parallel to the strike of-the country gneiss. To 

complete the list of rocks found in the apatite districts it is necessary 

to mention the large veins of crystalline calcite, which often contain 

serpentine and chrysotile. In the occurrence of these veins this Canadian apatite region is in marked contrast with that of Norway, where 

little calcareous matter is found.

FIG. 9. Pyroxene surface, Star Hill, Union mine, Portland, East Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar. Scale: 1 inch = 8 feet.

The apatite of Canada is found occurring in a great variety of ways. 

Prof. T. Sterry Hunt regards most of the workable deposits as veins, 

but he thinks there are also some deposits which occur in beds. He has 

discovered small masses of apatite marking the lines of stratification in

FIG. 10. Opening in west side of a hill near Smith's mine, Oso, Froutenac County, Ontario, Canada. 

A, country syenite; B, apaJite. Scale: 1 inch = 24 feet.

the pyroxene.1 An instance of this was seen by the writer in an old pit 

in Buckingham Township, Ottawa County, Quebec, where the apparent 

lines of stratification were marked by bands of apatite (see Fig. 6).

1 Geol. Survey Canada, Repfc. Progress for 1863. 

(503)
30 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. (HULL. 46.

Professor Hunt thinks that most of the deposits of apatite are concretionary vein stones and have resulted from a hot-water solution. He 

bases his belief upon several characteristic facts concerning Canada 

apatite, such as the rounded form of many of the apatite crystals, which

0

FIG. 11. Bowlder of country rock embedded in pyroxene etc., High Hock mine, Portland West, 

Ottawa, County, Quebec, Canada. A, apatite; B, country gneiss; C, mica, pyroxene, and feldspar. 

Scale: 1 inch = 6 feet.

he regards as clue to the action of paitial solution after deposition, and 

not of fusion, as suggested by Dr. Eminons. 1 Another argument is that 

one mineral in the vein is often found iucrusting or containing fragFio. 12. Section of one of (he northwest and southeast veins at Foxton's mine, Loughboro', Frontenac 

County, Ontario, C.iuacla. A, apatite; B, pyroxoue; C, country gneiss. Soalo: 1 iuch = 7 feet.

ments of another. Thus it is very common to find masses of crystalline 

calcite rounded into pebbles and buried in the centers of apatite crystals, which are themselves worn and rounded, showing, as DC. Hunt

'Nat. Hist. New York, pt. 4, Geology, 1843, pp. 57,58. Souioot'tnedike stones of eastern Massachusetts, especially those iu the town of Somerville, contain phosphate 

crystals which are similarly rounded. N. S. S.

(504)
APATITES OF CANADA. 31

thinks, that the erosive action in the veins has taken place in at least 

two different epochs. The appearance iu the veins of drusy cavities 

and the parallel deposition of the different minerals observed in many 

veins are also arguments for the theory of concretionary structure. 

Professor Dawsou thinks that many of the deposits of the Ontario district are true beds. 1

FIG. 13. Horizontal section showing natural cavity in vein, Lonphboro', Frontenac County, Ontario, 

Canada. A, country gneiss; B, apatite; C, pyroxene; D, calcite. Scale: 1 inch = 7 feet.

Prof. B. J. Harrington2 thinks that most of the phosphate deposits 

 will come under the heading of fissure veins and pockets. He shows 

that many of the deposits cannot be beds, because they cut across the 

strata of the conn try «rock;

Many of the veins are of considerable length. A. very continuous 

vein, composed of hornblende, calcite, and apatite, mixed in varying 

proportions and associated with sphene, zircon, mica, scapolite, etc., 

is found iu Eenfrew County, Ontario. This vein, or what may be a 

series of .similar and parallel veins, was traced by the writer for a distance of three miles, and it is said by the native prospectors to be traceable for 27 miles. It, runs in a K 40° E. direction, widening and contracting at intervals and varying from three to thirty feet in thickness. It 

can best be examined on Turner's Island, in Clear Lake, Eenfrew County, 

Ontario, where several small openings have been made in it for the purpose of mining the rich apatite found there.3 The island is three-quarters of a mile long and from one hundred feet to a quarter of a mile 

wide. The vein runs through its longer axis from one end to the other. 

The apatite occurs in crystals, sometimes in considerable quantities 

and composing the greater part of the vein matter and at other times

'Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. *>, I87o, p. 2c9.

2 Geol. Survey Canada., Kept. Progress for 1877-'78-'?9.

3 The same or a similar vein is seen to great advantage ou the land of Xavier 

Plaunt, on the south side of Clear Lake. It widens and contracts at intervals and 

runs in the same general direction as the Turner's Island vein.

(505)
32 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

scattered sparingly through a mass of the crystalline minerals which 

accompany it. Apatite crystals of immense size have been found hereOne prism is said to have weighed seven hundred pounds j a crystal of 

zircon, almost a foot in diameter, is also said to have been found in the 

same vein. A crystal of sphene from this locality in the Harvard Mineral Cabinet measures over a foot in length. The country rock on the 

island consists of a confused mass of feldspar, coarse-grained, unstratified 

gneiss, and of a rock composed of feldspar and hornblende. Small quantities of green pyroxene are also found (see Fig. 8). The vein is said to 

change into pure calcite at its extremities. It shows no signs, as far as 

seen, of banded or concretionary structure, but consists of a mass of 

crystallized minerals mixed in an apparently indiscriminate manner.

FIG. 14. Northeast side of a pit in the North Star mine, Portland East, Ottavra County, Quebec, 

Canada. A, apatite; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar. Scale: 1 inch = 10 feet.

Like most apatite deposits in Canada, the vein has no sharp line of division from the country rock, but gradually blends into it. The hornblende in the country rock becomes more perfectly crystalline and occurs in larger masses as the vein is approached, until finally, when 

the vein is met, the hornblende and the feldspar crystallize out separately among the other minerals. " Such a blending of a vein with 

the walls," says Professor Dana, " is a natural result when its formation 

in a fissure takes place at a high temperature during the metamorphism 

or crystallization of the containing rock." 1 This blending of the country 

rock with the vein matter does not, however, always happen, as sev- 

? Dana's Mauual of Geology, 1875, p. 733. 

(506)
PENUOSE.] APATITES OF CANADA. 33

eral cases were found where the apatite and associated minerals came 

into direct and sharp contact with the country rock (see Figs. 7 and 20). 

Thus, on the land of the Sly brothers, in Oso, Frontenac County, Ontario, 

there is a vein two feet wide in a gneissic rock. The boundary lines of 

the vein are sharply defined and white, red, and transparent calcite is 

associated with grass-green hornblende and brown apatite, in a mass 

apparently devoid of any banded structure (see Fig. 7). The vein dips 

at an angle of 85° N. and strikes E. and W. The country rock strikes N. 

20° B. and dips 40° to 45° ESE. A somewhat similar instance is seen 

in the same township at Boyd Smith's mine. Here were three veins 

apparently occupying joint planes*, and parallel to one another (see Fig. 

10). The veins are composed principally of apatite and hornblende, 

and their general character is very similar to that of the last vein described. They strike N. 15° W. and dip at 10° NE. The strike of the 

country gneiss is 1ST. 35° E,, dip 60° SB., so that it is evident that 

the deposits cannot be beds. They can be traced for 50 yards along 

the side of the hill.

FIG. 15. Southwest side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite; B, pyroxene. Scale: linch= 10fe6u,.

Some of the veins of apatite show a distinctly banded structure. 

On the land of James Foxton, in Frontenac County, township of Loughboro', there is a series of gash-veins running in a general northwest and 

southeast direction. They are of all sizes, from small ones not two inches 

thick to large ones three to six feet wide. The general character of all of 

them is the same. They occur in the country gneiss aud, pcpupy an a^ 

Bull, 46- 3 (507)
34 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.4S.

most vertical position. Fig. 12 shows a section of one of them, and most 

of the others are like it. It will be seen that the pyroxene lines both 

sides of the vein and the apatite comes in the middle. The strike and 

the width of nine of these veins were found to be:

N. 11° W., six inches wide. Bed apatite.

N. 10° W., eighteen inches wide. Red apatite.

N. 8° W., one to three feet wide. Red apatite.

N. 20° W., one foot wide. Red apatite.

N. 8° W., one foot wide. Red apatite.

N. 35° W., six inches to one foot wide. Red apatite.

N. 36° W., one foot wide. Red apatite.

N. 45° W.,one foot wide. Red apatite.

N. 30° W., one foot wide. Red apatite.

The country gneiss is much contorted and strikes in various directions. It has an almost vertical dip. On the same properties there are 

also other veins running in various directions, but they are generally of 

small extent. In one place a vein was seen composed on one side of 

a band of apatite and on the other of a band of pyrites of iron containing masses of talc.

FIG. 16. Southeast side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar; D, mica. Scale: 1 inch= 10 feet.

Another instance of a banded vein occurs at Mud Lake, Templeton 

Township, Ottawa County, Quebec, where apatite,'mica, and pyroxene 

form the contents of the vein.1 But it is generally in the Ontario district that the banded structure is most often seen.

In the township of North Burgess, Lanark County, Ontario, are many 

examples of phosphate^bearing veins, some of which can be traced for

1 B. J Harrington: Geol. Survey Canada, Rept. Progress for 1877-78-79.

(508)
PKNK08B.] APATITES OP CANADA. 35

over half a mile, while others are short and amount to little more than 

pockets. In places the ground is literally cut up by a net-work of these 

veins, varying from a few inches to over ten feet wide. Occasionally they

A B c a A

FIG. 17. Northwest side of a pit at North Star mine, Portland East, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite; B, pyroxene; C, feldspar; D, mica. Scale: 1 inch = 10 feet.

are found widening into bunches almost twenty feet across. The veins 

often show a banded structure and consist of mica and pyroxenite on 

the outside and apatite in the center. The outside bands of the veins 

are in some cases composed of a dark, almost black, talcose material.

FIG. 18. Part of the northeast wall of McLaurin's mine, Templeton. Otta.wa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite; B, pyroxene. Scale: 1 incb = 5 feet.

In other places the contents of the vein consist of apatite, mica, pyroxenite, and white and flesh or salmon colored calcite, indiscriminately

(509)
36 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

mixed and associated with small quantities of scapolite, zircon, sphene, 

talc, hornblende, specular iron ore, zeolites, and other minerals. Veins 

also occur which are almost entirely composed of apatite crystals scattered in a matrix of granular quartzite.

On the land of the Anglo-Canadian Phosphate Company, at Otty Lake, 

North Burgess, where some of these veins have been opened to a depth of 

seventy to eighty feet, the mode of occurrence of the apatite is well seen. 

The prevailing country rock here is quartzite and garnetiferous gneiss. 

In some cases the line of division between the vein matter and the country rock is sharply drawn, while in others they gradually blend. Both 

of these phenomena, as well as the banded and the unbanded structure, 

are often seen in different parts of the same vein. The apatite occurs in 

bunches, sometimes connected by seams of the same mineral. From a 

single one of these bunches over a thousand tons have been taken.

If 10. 19. Section at MeK enzie's opening, looking EEE., Bowman, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite, wiUi pyroxene crystals; E, pyroxene; C, limestone. Scale: 1 inch = 50 feet.

The contents of the phosphate-bearing veins are often very variable 

at different points in the same vein, sometimes consisting mostly of apatite, scapolite, feldspar, and pyroxene, and at others being composed of 

crystalline limestone bearing crystals of the above minerals. Such a 

formation is seen on Henry Barr's land, in Eenfrew County. At the 

McKenzie mine, in Bowman Township, Ottawa County, Quebec, there 

is a vein in a hill of lilac-colored feldspar and pyroxenite. One part of 

the vein is composed of massive apatite, holding crystals of pyroxene 

and scapolite, while another about fifty feet distant assumes a totally 

different character, being composed of a pink, crystalline calcite, bearing 

crystals of apatite. In some places the calcite has been worn away by 

the infiltration of water, and then the structure of the vein can be seen. 

The cavity is lined with crystals of scapolite and pyroxene, which come 

next to the country rock, while the calcite, bearing the crystals of apatite, comes in the middle (Fig. 19). This formation of drusy cavities in 

limestone leads is very'common, especially in the Ontario district. Often 

the calcareous matter has been washed away, and crystals of apatite 

and their fragments are scattered over the bottom of the hollow. The,

(510)
APATITES OF CANADA. 37

formation of cavities seems especially apt to take place at the point of 

junction of the limestone and a harder mineral in the vein. Thus in the 

township of Loughboro', Frontenac County, Ontario, was seen the cavity 

represented .in Fig. 13, where a mass of limestone in a vein came in contact with a mass of apatite-bearing pyroxenite. From this opening several hundred pounds of loose apatite crystals were taken. Though it 

will thus be seen that the apatite of Canada often occurs in well defined 

veins, yet the largest deposits yet discovered occur in irregular masses in ° 

the pyroxenic and feldspathic rocks (see Figs. 2, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 

21). They seem to occur at some places in fissures and at others as simple 

segregations. As a general rule it may be said that the vein character 

is best developed in the Ontario district, while the segregation and 

pocket formations are more common in the Quebec district. A very 

characteristic section, showing the occurrence of pockets of apatite is 

given in Fig. 18, It is a figure from the side of McLaurin's mine in

Templeton, Ottawa County, Quebec. The mineral seems to lie in no 

definite vein, but to have been formed by the segregation of apatite 

from the including rocks. This seems especially probable, as the surrounding pyroxene often contains 10 to 15 per cent, of apatite and 

seems to increase in richness as the pocket is approached. It is also well 

known that phosphate of lime has, more than any other mineral, the 

property of forming into concretionary and segregated masses.' Thus 

Professor Eogers found, in the materials dredged in the Challenger expedition, numerous phosphatic concretions scattered over many parts 

of the sea bottoms. Again, in the phosphorite deposits of southwestern 

France and of Estremadura, in Spain., the concretionary form is one of 

the most common conditions of the phosphate, while in the phosphate 

region of South Carolina the nodular phosphates, especially those from 

Bull River, show sometimes a distinctly concretionary structure. At 

Crown Point, E". Y., phosphate of lime occurs in radiating and botryoidal masses forming the eupyrchroite of Emmons, and even in the 

guano beds of Peru concretionary nodules of phosphate of lime have 

been found. 1

The pockets and fissures of apatite are of variable size (see Figs. 2, 

14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 21), sometimes being only a fraction of an inch in 

diameter and sometimes consisting of immense bodies of massive or 

crystalline apatite, measuring many feet in thickness. Such pockets 

are to be seen at the Emerald, Battle Lake, North Star, High Eock, 

Union, and other mines on the Du Lievre River. The apatite is, generally, not sharply divided from the pyroxenite, but gradually blends 

with it. The pockets show sometimes a banded structure, such as that 

of a cavity lined with pyroxene and the central part occupied by apatite. 

Occasional large bowlders of country rock are found embedded in the

1 Iu the introduction to this report yet other instances of concretionary forms are 

noted, as well as the fact that many are probably at present forming in the muds beneath certain swamps. N. S. S.

(511)
38 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. (BUM-. 46.

apatite (see Fig. 12). Nearly all these pockets and fissure veins seein to 

take their distinctive characters from the including rocks. -Thus where 

the including rock is pyroxenic, feldspathic, and calcareous, the crystals 

associated with the apatite are generally pyroxene, feldspar, and calcite; 

and where the country rock contains large amounts of hornblende, as 

at Bell's mine, Storrington, Frontenac County, at Barr's mine, and on 

Turner's Island in Clear Lake, in Eenfrew County, Ontario, there are 

always found large quantities of this mineral in the vein matter. The 

few veins, however, in which the lines of separation from the country 

rock are sharply drawn, do not seem to be so dependent on the including rocks for their component minerals.

FIG. 20. Section in a pit near the Emerald mine, Buckingham, Ottawa County, Quebec, Canada. 

A, apatite: B, schistose pyroxene; C, drift. Scale-. 1 inch = 6 feet.

The depth to which the apatite extends is probably, for all practical 

purposes, unlimited. Some bunches of the mineral run out, but others 

are found at a greater or less distance below. The deepest openings in 

Canada are the North Star mine, township of Portland, county of Ottawa, Quebec, and the Battle Lake mine, township of Templetou, of the 

same county. In September, 1886, they had reached the depths, respectively, of 350 feet and 210 feet. In both shafts large bunches of 

apatite were found, separated by pyroxenic or micaceous rocks containing smaller seams and bunches of that mineral.

The apatite of Canada varies considerably in its physical character. 

Its color is green, red, brown, white, blue, purple, or black. The black 

color is generally caused by the decomposition of the associated iron 

pyrites and is seenia Ottawa and Frontenac Counties. Apatite occurs 

in the crystalline, subcrystalline, massive, or granular form. The granular variety, known as " sugar apatite," 'is of a white or pale-green 

color and looks like coarse sand, more or less coherent. It occurs principally at the Little Rapids mine, township of Portland, and McLaurin's 

mines,township of Teinpleton, Ottawa.County, Quebec, and is one of 

the purest forms of apatite mined. It is uncertain what could have

(512)
PENKOSE.] APATITES OF CANADA. 39

caused the apatite to assume this granular condition. Some shipments 

from Ottawa County have analyzed 88 per cent, of tribasic phosphate 

of lime. The apatite varies very much in its ability to withstand weathering. When it is free from 

pyrites it endures it very 

well and is almost as resistant to corrosion as quartz; 

but when pyrite is present 

it quickly crumbles away. 

In some places where pyrites of iron and copper are

found the apatite is brown 

and rusty for a depth of 

several feet.

Below is given a list of |

some of the more important 

minerals of the Canada apatite districts. The crystals often occur of immense 

size and in a state of great 

perfection. The zircons, ^ 

sphenes, scapolites, pyrox- % 

enes, apatites, and micas | 

are especially fine, and » 

probably are found nowhere else in such quantities and in such perfection:

Apatite. Opal.

Calcite. Chalcedony.

Fluor-spar. Albite.

Pyroxene. Scapolite.

Hornblende. Wilsonite.

Phlogopite. Talc (steatite).

Garnet. Chlorite.

Epidote. Prehuite.

Idocrase. Chabasite.

Tourmaline. Galena.

Titauite. Sphalerite.

Zircon. Molybdenite.

Orthoclase. Graphite. 

Quartz.

The apatite, after being 

blasted out, is put through 

the process of " cobbing," 

which consists in breaking it with a hammer from the adhering impurities.

(513)
40 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

The highest grade which is shipped rarely averages over 85 per cent, 

tribasic phosphate of lime, aud none of the mines ship much phosphate 

which does not average at least 70 per cent. Eighty per cent, apatite 

is considered first quality and sells for 11 to 12 pence a unit. 1 The principal market for the Canada apatite is Europe. Great Britain and 

Germany consume over three-fourths of the total product, which, in 

1885, amounted to 23,908 tons. The market is unlimited and the output is yearly increasing, so that phosphate mining bids fair, in a few 

years, to be one of the most important industries of Canada. The annexed tables will show the output of the mines iii past years, as well as 

the present markets.

According to the Canadian Mining Eeview, January, 1886, the product for the past five years has been :

Tons. 

1881 ....................................................................... 15,601

1882....................................................................... 17,181

1883 ....................................................................... 17,840

1884 ....................................................................... 22,143

1885 ....................................................................... 23,908

Total for five years................................................... 96.673

Shipments to different ports (same authority):

Tons, 1884. TODS, 1885.

Liverpool ......................................................... 8,557 9,563

London............................................................ 4,389 7,683

Hamburg.......................................................... 2,970 3,524

Bristol ............................................................. 1,824 2,056

Glasgow........................................................... 3,083 482

Barrow ............................................................ ...... 350

Penarth Roads...................................... ............... 100 100

Cardiff ............................................................ ...... 65

Sharpness... .............................."............. . .......... ...... 45

Hull............................................................... ...... 40

Dublin ............................................................. 210 ......

Sunderland ......................... .----.......................... 60 ......

Bristol Channel..........................................'.......... 50 ......

United States...................................................... 200 ......

Consumed in Canada............................................... 700 ......

Total....................................................... 22,143 23,908

From Ontario district, 1885................................................. 1,500

From Quebec district, 1885................................................. 22,408

The origin or chemical history of these Laurentiau phosphates has 

been a matter of considerable dispute. Dr. T. S. Hunt says that 

phosphates, like silica and iron oxide, were doubtless constituents of 

the primitive earth's crust, and that the production of apatite crystals 

in granite veins or in crystalline schists is a process as independent

1 The expression 11 to 12 pence a unit is the commercial method of signifying the 

value of the apatite. It means 11 to 12 pence for each per cent. Thus 80 per cent, 

phosphate at 11 to 12 pence per unit would be worth $17.60 to $19.20 per ton

(5U)
PBHBOSE.) APATITES OF CANADA. 41

of life as the formation of crystals of quartz or of hematite. 1 Trof 

J. W. Dawson,2 on the other hand, thinks the Canada apatites are of 

animal origin, and bases his belief on the presence of eozoon and of 

graphite in the associated beds and of the fluoride of lime in the apatite. He says: "The probability of the animal origin of the Laureutian apatite is, perhaps, further strengthened by the prevalence of animals with phosphatic crusts and skeletons in the primordial age, giving 

a presumption that, in the still earlier Laurentiau, a similar preference 

for phosphatic matter may have existed, and, perhaps, may have extended to still lower forms of life, just as, in more modern times, the 

appropriation of phosphate of lime by the higher animals, for their 

bones, seems to have been accompanied by a diminution of its use in 

animals of lower grade." 3 Messrs. Brogger and Reusch,4 in their description of the Norwegian apatites, think that they are of purely eruptive origin.

1 Chem. and Geol. Essays, 1875, p. 311. ~~~~~~

2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 32, 1876, p. 290.

3 The reader should note the fact that since the admirable researches of Mobins it 

is doubtful whether eozoon be of organic origin. N. S. S. 

«Zeitschr. Deutsch. geol. Gesell., Berlin, vol. 27,1875.

(515)
42 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

Table giving analyses of apatites of Canada by Christian Hoffman, Geological Survey of

Canada, 1877-78.

[I is from Storrington, province of Ontario ; II is from Buckingham, province of Quebec ; III is 

from North Burgess, province of Ontario ; .IV is from Portland, province of Quebec; V is fromLonghboro', province of Ontario : VI is from Portland, province of Quebec ; VII is from Buckingham, province of Quebec ; VIII is from Templeton, province of Quebec. ]

Phosphoric acid (1) .

Carbonic acid (4) ...

Nickel, cobalt, and

Sesquioxide of iron

A llrnlia

Insoluble residue...

(1) Equal to tribasic 

phosphate of lime. 

(2) Equal to fluoride

(3) Equal to chloride of calcium .... 

(4) Equal to carbon-

(5) Equal to pyrrhotite. ..............

I.

40. 373 

3 311

0.438

0.026 

47. 828

3.732

0.151

0.609

0.151

?

3.890

100. 509

88. 138 

6.796

0. 685 

0.059

II.

41. 080 

3.474

0.260

0.370 

49. 16 L

3.803

0.158

0.705

0.125

?

. 0. 370

99. 506

89. 682 

7.131

0.406 

0.840

HI.

39. 046 

3.791

0.476

0.096 

46. 327

4.258

0.548

1.190

1.290

?

3.490

100. 512

85. 241 

7.781

0.744 

0.218

IV.

41. 139 

3.863

0.229

0.223 

49. 335

4.195

0.180

' 0.566

0.094

1

O.OGO

99. 884

89. 810 

7.929

0.358 

0.507

V.

40. 868 

3.731

0.428

0.105 

48. 475

4. 1C8

0.158

0.835

0.905

?

1.150

100. 823

89. 219 

7.658

0.669 

0.239

VI.

40.518 

3.377

0.086

0.855 

49. 041

3.603

0.205

0.267

0.083 

?

1.630

99. 665

88. 455 

6.932

0.134 

1.943

VII.

34. 032

0. 101

2.848 

44. 198

' 3. 507

3.062

0.422

1.979

0.120 

?

2. 050

100. 544

74. 295 

5.860

0.158 

6.473

8 Q77

VIII.

40.812 

3.554

0.040

0.518 

49. 102

3.763

0.620

0.565

0.125 

?

0.630

99. 7^9

89. 098 

7.295

0.062 

1.177

Analysis of apatite of Canada, ly Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.

IX.

Phosphoric acid ............................................................ 39.80

(Equal to bone phosphate, 86.88.) 

Sand ....................................................................... 5.91

APATITES OF NORWAY.

Under the heading of apatites com e the phosphate deposits of Norway. They are found on the southern coast, and extend from Langegund Fjord to Arendal. They are also found scatteringly in Kongsberg, in the parish of Snarum. Most of them are fluor-apatites, though 

they all contain some chlorine, and the apatite from Snarum contains 

2.71 per cent, of this element.1 The apatite occurs in both the crystalline and the massive form, and varies from white and yellow to green

1 A dark-blue or greenish-blue variety of crystalline apatite is found at Arendal, 

and is known as moropite.

(516)
*ENKOSE.] APATITES OF NORWAY. 43

or red. Some of it is the richest phosphate at present mined, averaging at times over 90 per cent, of phosphate of lime.1 (See analyses, 

p. 45).

The mineral occurs in veins in the country gneisses, granites, quartzites, and schists, and also in a rock called by Brogger and Keusch spotted 

gabbro (gefleckter G-abbro), which is composed of brown hornblende and 

white or gray labradorite. It is generally supposed to be of eruptive 

origin. From its description it is very similar to the rock, including 

the apatite, at Bell's mine, Storriugton, Ontario, described above, which 

is composed of green hornblendes' and white feldspar, and occurs as 

an apparently eruptive mass in the country gneiss. The apatite seems 

to occur indifferently in this hornblende rock and in the other country 

rocks, though, wherever it has been discovered in the latter, the spotted gabbro is generally found in the neighborhood. The apatite is associated most commonly with micas, enstatite, hornblende, pyroxene, 

albite, tourmaline, copper and iron pyrites, and other minerals, including many other species of rarer occurrence which are hereafter enumerated. As in the Canadian deposits, the contents of the veins are 

variable, being in some places composed almost entirely of either mica 

or enstatite, or both, and in others consisting of apatite with only a 

few micaceous and pyroxenic impurities. The veins are markedly dif. 

ferent from the Canada veins in the fact that they contain only very 

little carbonate of lime. The large calcareous veins containing apatite^ 

which are so common in the Canadian apatite districts, are never found 

in the apatite districts of Norway. The apatite veins in Norway are 

often very numerous and run in all directions, forming a perfect network all through the rock. Thus at Oedegarden there is an area of 

58 square rods which is cut up by innumerable veins of all sizes. The 

principal one of these has been worked to a considerable extent; it dips 

at 45°, has a thickness of one foot to four feet, and a length of about 

five hundred yards. Dr. 0. U. Shepard, jr., who visited it in 1874, 

says: u lt was found in the face of a low, rocky ledge, occurring in 

mica and a clay slate." 2 The veins often show a banded structure, having the mica and hornblende on the outside and the apatite in the center, though in other places they also show, as is generally the case in 

Canada, a confused mass of crystallized minerals. At Eegardsheien 

there are five parallel veins, one of them one and a half feet thick 

and one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet long; four dip at 30°, 

while the fifth is almost vertical (Brogger and Eeusch). At Krageroe there is a large vein seven feet wide. It occurs in granitoid and 

schist rocks, though from the summit of the hill, from which it crops 

out, there protrudes the eruptive gabbro. The vein matter is coin1 Some of the phosphate deposits of Norway, especially at Kragerb'e, piirtake very 

much of the nature of phosphorites, but they are all classed together here, as both 

varieties are so intimately associated that they cannot be conveniently separated.

a Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., MS.

(517)
DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. . 46.

posed largely of hornblende and apatite in varying proportions, with 

crystals of rutile occasionally scattered through the mass. The hornblende often contains cavities lined with crystals of the same substance, 

and of quartz, apatite, and other minerals. At Nestesvag the apatite 

vein occurs in quartzite. The minerals found in the Norway apatite 

are: 1

Quartz.

Apatite.

Calcite.

Talc.

Orthoclase.

Albite.

Oligoclase (arid albite).

Esmarkite (auorthite?).

Scapolite (and paleo-albite).

Tourmaline.

Hornblende.

Pyroxene.

Enstatite.

Pnlogopite and green magnesiau mica.

Chlorite.

Aspasiolite.

Titanite.

Hematite.

Rutile.

Menaccauite.

Magnetite.

Copper pyrite.

Magnetic pyrite.

Iron pyrite.

The apatite of Norway was mined as early as 1854. The first deposits worked were those of Kragerb'e, from which, between the years 1854 

and 1858, 13,000 tons were taken and sold for $110,000. The Oedegarden deposits were discovered in 1874 by Axel Esinark, a Norwegian 

mineralogist. They have since been worked on a small scale. The 

difficulty of mining Norwegian apatite has been so great, however, that 

the yearly output has never, exceeded a few thousand tons, and the 

mineral at present has been almost driven out of the market by the 

Canada, Curae.oa. and other high-grade phosphates.

As regards the origin of the Norwegian apatites, Brogger and Eeusch 

think they are of eruptive origin. The banded structure of the veins 

they ascribe to the way the minerals solidified from a state of fusion. 

The country rocks are almost absolutely destitute of phosphoric acid in 

any form, and, consequently, they iufer that the vein matter is in no 

way dependent on the surrounding rocks. Another argument which 

they bring up in support of the eruptive theory is that veins are often 

seen to be fine-grained on the outside and coarse and crystalline in. 

the center.

Table giving analyses of apatite of Norway, &y Dehern.

Equivalent to bone phosphate. .

Yellowish 

brown.

34.82

76.01 

7.07

Brown.

33.25

72.58 

7.81

Black.

26.25

57.30 

21.01

General 

sample.

34.88

76.14 

4.95

Poor 

quality.

17.56

38.33 

35. 89

'Zeitschr. Deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. 27, 1875, pp. 672, 673. 

(518)
PENROSE,] APATITES OF SPAIN. 45 

Table giving analyses of high-grade Norwegian apatite, ly Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.

I.

38.79

83.68

8.13

II.

37.66

82.21

7.39

Analysis of apatite from Arendal, Norway, ~by G. Eose.

Phosphoric acid (1)....................................................... 42.229

Fluorine (2).............................................................. 3.415

Chlorine (3).............................................................. 0.512

Lime ..................................................................... 49.960

Calcium.................................................................. 3.884

100.000

(1) Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime............. ....................... 92.189

(2) Equal to fluoricle of calcium........................................... 7.010

(3) Equal to chloride of calcium...................... ..................... 0.801

APATITES OF SPAIN.

The only other apatite deposits which have yet become of commercial importance are in Spain. At Malpartida de Caceres are the mines 

of Senor Grappin. The mineral occurs in granite, and about six thousand 

tons annually have been shipped in good years, Considerable deposits 

of apatite are found at Zarza la Mayor, and at Ceclavin, in the district 

of Alcantara, near the Portuguese frontier3 and about twenty miles 

from theTagus. Crystalline apatite is also found in the volcanic rocks 

at Jumilla, in the province of Murcia, which averages 86 per cent, phosphate of lime. 1 It is also found in the provinces of Alemtejo and Zamora.2 The Jumilla apatite is often of the yellowish-green variety, 

known as asparagus stone or Spargelstein.

The Spanish apatite deposits are limited in quantity, compared with 

the phosphorite deposits of that country, and they have never produced 

more than a very few thousand tons annually. At present, on account 

of the disturbed political condition of the country, no apatite is exported.

A description of the other Spanish deposits is given under the subject 

of phosphorites.

Analyses of Spanish apatite. 

[I. Apatite from Zarza la Mayor, by Dr. C. 17. Shepard, jr., MSS.J

Tribasic phosphate of lime.................................................. 79.16

Sand.................................. ..................................... 7.09

1 O. Ramon T. MuTios de Luna: Estudios quimicos sobre economia agricola en general, y particularmerite sobre la importancia de los ahouos fosfatados. Madrid. 1668. 

? Naranjo y Garza etLino Peiinelas: Bull. Soc. gdologiqne France, 1860, p. 157,

(519)
46 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.46.

[II. Apatite from Murcia, by G-. Eose-l 

Phosphoric acid (1)........................................................ 42.172

Fluorine (2)............................................................... 3.434

Chlorine (3)........'....................................................... 0.566

Lirne...................................................................... 49.894

Calcium................ ................................................... 3.934

100.000

(1) Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime...................................... 92.066

(2) Equal to fluoride of calcium............................................ 7.049

. (3) Equal to chloride of calcium............................................ 0.885

PHOSPHORITES.

" The name phosphorite was used by Kirwan for all apatite, but in 

his mind it especially included the fibrous, concretionary, and partly 

scaly mineral from Estremadura, Spain, and elsewhere." 1 In this 

latter sense it is used here, but it will also include certain vitreous and 

earthy forms which are often so intimately associated with the abovementioned varieties and which often run into them by such gradations 

that they are best described together.

The phosphatic deposits of Nassau, in Germany 5 those of the southwest of France, commercially known as " Bordeaux phosphates," and 

those of Estremadura and Caceres, in Spain, come under this head.

PHOSPHORITES OF NASSAU.

The phosphorite deposits of Nassau were discovered in 1864 by Herr 

Victor Meyer, of Limburg, though as early as 1850 Dr. Sandberger had 

discovered apatite in the manganese mines of Kleinfeld.

The principal phosphorite deposits occupy an irregular area, bounded 

on the northeast by the town of Weilburg, on the northwest by the 

Westerwald, on the east by the Taunus Mountains, and on the south 

by the town of Dietz. The general appearance of the country is that 

of a broad plain, intersected by the Lahn and its tributaries. The 

phosphorite is found in cavities in a hard, massive, dolomitic limestone

of the Devonian age. The following section,2 in an ascending order, 

will show the geologic relations of the deposits:

(1) Porphyry, dark to light gray arid green, containing cavities of calcareous 

matter.

(2) Slaty and shaly beds, much contorted.

(3) Dark-red sandstone, containing beds of hematite.

(4) Dolomitic limestone, white, blue, or pink in color, resting uuconformably on 

the underlying bed.

(5) Phosphorite deposits.

(6) Brown clay, supposed to be Tertiary.

The phosphorite is sometimes found on the surface and sometimes 

under as much as two hundred feet of clay. The hollows containing the phosphorite are generally much worn and have all their edges 

rounded off, as if they had been exposed to the action of water for a 

long time before the phosphorite was deposited in them (Figs. 22, 23).

1 J. D. Dana: A System of Mineralogy, 1873, p. 531. 

8 D. C. Davids.; Geol. Mag., vol. 5, London, 1868, p. 262. 

(520)
PENKOSB.J PHOSPHORITES OF NASSAU. 47

The phosphatic deposits vary from six inches to six feet in thickness and seetn to attain their greatest continuity in a belt running in a 

northeast and southwest direction, thinning out gradually at both extremities. They seem to occur only with the limestone, and are no 

longer found when that rock disappears. This would seem to indicate 

that they depend on the limestone for their origin.

FIG. 22. Section at Cubach, Nassau, Prussia. After D. C. Davies: Geological Magazine, London, 1868. 

A, clay; B, phosphate of lime; C, manganese; D, dolomite,

The phosphorite is found in a great variety of forms. It is generally 

massive, fibrous, earthy, porous, jasper-like, kidney-shaped, stalactitic, 

or nodular. Occasionally there are found in it minute crystals of 

apatite (Davies). Sometimes, also, it occurs as an incrustation, and it 

is then known as staffelite, from its abundance near the town of Staffel.

FIG. 23. Section at Staffel, Nasaau, Prussia. After D. C. Davies : Geological Magazine, London, 1868. 

A, dolomite; B, clay; C, phosphate of lime.

This mineral is, generally, white, yellow, green, or brown in color, and 

occasionally translucent. The'other varieties are of almost all colors, 

white, yellow, red, gray, blue, green, biown, or black. Occasionally a 

brecciated variety is found, but the larger part of the deposit is of the 

massive kind.1 The hardness varies from 1 to 5. With the phosphorite occasionally occur deposits of crystalline hematite and manganese 

ore. These minerals are most common on the outside edges of the 

phosphate-bearing area, but are also found with it in the same deposit. 

The amount of phosphate of lime in the phosphorite is very variable, 

averaging from 60 to 92 per cent, (see analyses). It is generally richest 

when associated with the least hematite and manganese and, when free 

from the former mineral, it makes an excellent superphosphate. Among 

the other minerals associated with this deposit are wavellite, calcite, 

quartz, wollastonite, jasper, and chalcedony.

» Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., MS. * 

(521)
48 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

There are no signs of organic remains in the Nassau phosphorites, 

but they are generally believed to be of animal origin. Dr. Mohr 

thinks they were formed by the concentration of the phosphate of lime 

from the underlying limestones. At present not much phosphorite is exported on account of the difficulty of freeing it from the associated iron 

and the expense of mining it. Several years ago, however, large quantities were sent to England, and in 1867 the total output of all the mines 

amounted to 30,000 tons, which sold, according to its quality, for $5 to 

$8 per ton. It is still used in considerable quantities along the Rhine.

Table of analyses of Nassau phosphorites.

Fresenius 

and Foster.

Pnre staffelite.

45.79

0.16

6.42

1.08

0.58

0.42

34.48

1.51

4.83

3.45

2.45

101. 17 

1.45

99.72

Freseiaius.

General 

sample.

47.31

0.12

3.77

1.67

0.66

0.52

33.84

2.75

5.04

2.11

2,74

100. 53 

0.84

99.69

Wicke.

General 

sample.

49 11

0

9!?

8.22

2.23

1.26

0.09

30.63

2.78

6.61

3.74

3.00

1.07

102. 17 

1.57

100. 60

PHOSPHORITES OF SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE.

The phosphorites of the southwest of France are in the departments 

of Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Aveyron. The region is limited by the 

valleys of the rivers Lere, Celle", and Aveyron, and the phosphorite is 

found in largest quantities near Oaylus and at St. Antonin, Limogne, 

Cajarc, Figeac, Villeneuve, Bozouls, and other places on the southwestern side of the central plateau. The material occurs in fissures and 

cavities in the surfaces of hard, compact, gray limestone plateaus which 

belong to the Oxfordo-Coralline group of the Jurassic formation. The 

deposits are of two kinds.1 The first occurs in irregular cavities, never 

over a few yards long, and partaking more or less of the character of 

pockets ; the second, in the form of elongated leads, with sides which 

are nearly vertical and which run in a generally parallel direction, 

widening and narrowing at intervals. They are generally shallow and

1 Mr. Daubr6e: ConjptesrcudnsAcatl.sci., Paris, vol. 73, 1871,

(522)
PENKOSB.] PHOSPHORITES OF SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE. 49

thin out very rapidly at a short distance from the surface. They often, 

however, continue for some distance longitudinally. Thus, at Pendare", 

the surface of the phosphate lead is three to ten yards wide and has 

been followed in a straight line for 100 yards. Any sudden turn or curve 

in the fissure is, according to Mr. Eey-Lescure, 1 almost sure to make the 

lead thin and poor. The richest leads are those which run in a straight 

line and have walls which are smooth and tend toward a vertical position. According.to Mr. Daubree,2 the fissures seem to follow certain 

definite directions. Thus, at Peudare" and Mas-Merlin, they run BNE. 

and WS W. At the same time there is another series of leads running at 

right angles to these. The phosphatic material of the leads running in 

different directions is of very different character, as will be hereafter 

shown.

The phosphorite occurs in a great number of forms. Sometimes it 

has a rounded, concentric, and radiated structure 5 at others it occurs 

in nodular and luammillated masses. Often it is found in agate-like 

zones, forming twenty to thirty layers in a thickness of a centimeter. 

Sometimes it occurs as geodes,3 and at other times it is foond in fibrous 

masses, very much resembling aragonite. The phosphorite varies very 

much in hardness, compactness, and general appearance. The purest 

form is as hard as apatite, has a resinous or subvitreous luster and 

a yellowish-brown color. Sometimes the color is of a light blue, possibly due to the presence of phosphate of iron. The impure varieties are white, yellow, or red, and are often soft and earthy. The 

phosphorite which occurs in the form of nodules is often hollow in 

the interior, containing loose stones in the cavities (Daubre"e). The 

whole mass is mixed with siliceous pebbles, clay (more or less ferruginous), loose blocks of calcareous rock, and pisolites of iron, all solidified 

into a mass varying very much in compactness and generally containing numerous cracks and cavities. Often pyrolusite is associated with 

the phosphorite, occurring in thin layers or.in the form of dendrites. 

The presence of iodides has been detected, in which respect it resembles 

the phosphorite of Amberg in Bavaria. Minute quantities of bromides 

are also found. The presence of pisolites of iron is most frequent near 

beds of iron ore; and the iron, according to Bey-Lescure,4 probably has 

been derived from such beds.

Mr. Trutat has found that in the leads which run EKE. and WSW. 

the phosphorite is compact, vitreous, agate-like, and, rarely, geodic. 

In the leads at right angles to these the mass of phosphatic material 

consists apparently of geodes filled with carbonate of lime or ferruginous clay. The geodes are, however, generally broken and in fragments, 

so that their contents cannot be observed. The leads of the first variety

' Bull. Soc. g6ologique France, 3d series, vol. 3, 1875, p. 398. 

2 Comptes rendus Acad. set., Paris, vol. 73, 1871.

3 Mr. Leymerie: Note sur les phosphorites du Qnercy, Toulouse, 1872.

4 Bull. Soc. ge"ologique France, 3d series, vol. 3, 1875.

(523)
50 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

generally consist of long fissures with parallel walls, while those of the 

second variety represent the irregular pockets described by Daubre'e. 

Trutat thinks that the EKE. and WSW. leads were formed first, and 

that those at right angles to them were formed later, by the action of carbonic acid, which dissolved part of the original leads and redeposited 

it in new hollows and crevices.

The phosphorite deposits are usually capped by a deposit of ferruginous clay, containing pisolites of iron, bones of land animals, and numerous land and fresh-water shells. Among the bones are the remains 

of many carnivorous, herbivorous, and omnivorous animals, all mixed 

together. The bones are well preserved and not affected by chemical 

action. The deposits of Cregols and Beduer have afforded immense 

quantities of bones of carnivorous animals, and in the deposits of Eaynal, Servanac, and Mouillac are found the remains of many skeletons 

of anthracotherium, palseotherium, and rhinoceros of several varieties. 

The bones are also occasionally found embedded in the phosphatic matter itself.1 Thus, near La Mandine there are so many remains of palseotherium (P. medium) that from one cubic decimeter of phosphatized 

marl four or five fragments of different jawbones and many other 

bones were obtained. Eemains of hysenodon and many land and fresh 

water mollusks, among them Planorbis and Limncea, as well as turtle remains, are found in many deposits. Bones of cainotheriuui and 

anoplotherium are of frequent occurrence. Though the rock which 

contains the phosphorite deposits is of Jurassic age, the phosphate 

itself is generally believed to be of early Tertiary (Eocene) age. The 

way in which the phosphorite came to occupy its present position, however, has been a much more disputed point than the time in which the 

deposit was formed. Daubre'e,2 Eey-Lescure,3 Leymerie,4 and others 

are of the opinion that the phosphate came from mineral springs, 

rising from the bottom of the fissures. The phosphate was dissolved

by the action of hot water .containing carbonic acid, and, when it came 

into the fissures, the carbonic acid was lost and the phosphate was deposited. They think the bones are too few to have anything to do 

with the origin of the phosphate.

Eilhol 5 urges against this theory that in all the deposits which have 

been worked out, and thus afforded a chance of examining the sides of 

the crevasse, he has found that the phosphate does not run into other 

leads by narrow necks and veins, as Eey-Lescure asserts, but that the 

leads are in no way connected with each other and that the crevices 

show no openings through the limestone which could have served as 

an exit for the phosphatic solution. Consequently he concludes that

1 Mr. Daubre'e: Comptes reudus Acad. sei., Paris, vol. 73, 1871.

2 Alph. Peron: Bull. Soc. gdologique France, 3d series, vol. 2, 1874.

3 Bull. Soc. g6ologique France, 3d series, vol. 3, 1875.

4 Note sur les phosphorites du Quercy, Toulouse, 1872.

5 Annalessci. g6ol., vol. 7,1876; Rechcrches sur les phosphorites du Quercy, pp. 1-22.0.

(524)
FENKOSE.J PHOSPHOEITES OF SOUTHWESTERN FRANCE. 51

the deposits were formed by a solution of phosphate oflinie in carbonic 

acid, running from the surface downward into the fissure. When all 

the fissures were filled the solution often spent its strength in phosphatizing the marl of the neighborhood. Thus at La Mandine Basse 

they find a calcareous marl containing 25 to 30 per cent, phosphate of 

lime.

Mr. Combes1 thinks the phosphate bed was formed by phosphatic 

vapors rising up through the Jurassic limestone and phosphatizing it. 

He thinks a similar action is going on at the present time. Mr. Malinowski2 thinks that the beds are of purely animal origin and that volcanic eruptions of Auvergne killed all the animals of the period and thus 

furnished the phosphate to fill up the fissures. Mr. Delfortrie 3 thinks 

the deposit is of Quaternary age and derived from altered guano.

Mr. Peron* h&s shown that the phosphate deposits only occur where 

the Tertiary deposit now exists or where it has existed in jtime past. 

Thus on the Jurassic plateau at Bach, Mouillac, and Malpe"rie, the Tertiary formation which covers it at Lavaurette, Monpalach, and Lasalle, 

in Tarn-et-Garonne, has been eroded. Yet both districts are rich in 

phosphate. On the other hand, at Laussiers and Anglars, where he 

supposes the Tertiary has never existed, there is no phosphate. He 

thinks the phosphate deposits are synchronous with the Lower Tertiary of Aude and Tarn. The waters of the Eocene, he supposes, came 

suddenly over the Jurassic plateau, overwhelming the numerous laud 

animals of the region and sweeping the remains of these and masses of 

guano into crevices and cavities, together with quartz pebbles, land and 

fresh-water shells, and other debris. Then the action of time and carbonated waters partially metamorphosed the phosphate and converted 

it into concretions and other forms of phosphorite in the midst of the 

clay and bones. At a later time the superficial deposits of bones were 

laid down.

The strongest arguments of the advocates of the hydrothermic theory - 

are the presence in the phosphorite deposits of iodine and manganese, 

and of pisolites of iron, which are generally of hot spring origin.

Peron thinks these latter were formed during the deposition of the 

Lower Tertiary formation. He also calls attention to the fact that phosphorite has nowhere been found in the southwest of France at a greater 

height above the sea than 320 meters. This he explains by supposing 

that the waters of the early Tertiary did not extend above this height.

The phosphorites of the southwest of France were discovered in 1865, 

on the plateau of Quercy, in the department of Lot, by Mr. Andre" Pouraarede. Five years later the deposits of Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Aveyron were discovered and worked until the last few years,

'Phosphorites du Quercy, Revue scieutifique, 1872, No. 12.

2 Traite" special des phosphates de chaux natifs, Cahors, 1873.

3 Les gttesde chaux phosphate's dans le depart, du Lot, Bordeaux, 1873.

4 Bull. Soc. g6ologique France, 2d series, vol. 2, 1874.

(525)
52 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. ' I'BULL. 46.

when the exports ceased. The best deposits had given oat and the others contained so much iron and aluniiua that the material was very undesirable as a source of superphosphate. For several years, from 1870 to 

1875, an average of 20,000 tons per annum was exported.1 Some of the 

mines are still worked, but the phosphate is used only in a raw state 

and for local purposes.

Soon after mining had begun in this region, Guillier estimated that 

the total contents of all the mines would not exceed 100,000 tons. This 

estimate was much too small, bat it serves to show that the deposit is 

a very limited one. The phosphate was formerly collected in loose 

bowlders from the fields for the purpose of building walls. At the 

Pearl mine, near Cajarc, the phosphorite crops out at the surface.1 At 

the depth of 75 feet the lead becomes very thin and uncertain. The 

mass of the phosphorite is, in some places, 10 feet thick, but ordinarily 

it consists of several more or less parallel bauds, which end abruptly.

One of the largest mines is at Larnagol, in the department of Lot. 

It is situated on the' summit of an Oxfordian plateau over a thousand 

feet high. The first quality rock is cleaned by hammer and hand, and 

the second quality in a simple horizontal washer, driven by steam. The 

phosphorite contains both chlorine and fluorine, but in much smaller 

quantities than exist in apatite. As has been said before, it also contains 

iodine, and in some specimens traces ot bromine have been detected.

Table of analyses of phosphorites from soutlnvestern France. 

[I. Analyses by Bobierre.]

Total lime ..............

Water volatilized at red

heat, fluorine, chlorine, carbonicacid.and

oxides of iron and

Lime in excess of phosphoric acid, and combined -with carbonic

acid, fluorine, and

I.

1.00

38.00

51.47

100. 00

6.87

II.

4.70

32.94

III.

12.70

36.48

IV.

12.06

31 8d

V.

3.00

36.80

VI.

1.00

37.10

VII.

1.40

37.00

51.50

10.10

100. 00

8.10

vm.

0.93

3fi 19

48.92

11. 83 .

100.00

3.94

'Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., MS. 

(526)
PHOSPHORITES OF SPAIN. 53

Table of analyses of phosphorites from, southwestern France Continued. 

[II. Analyses by C. U. Shepard, jr.]

High-grade

phosphorite,

from MasMeiiin.

Low-grade 

phosphorite,

from 

Larnagol.

Phosphoric acid ............................................ 38.64 21.46

Equal bone phosphate .................................. 84.35 46.85

Sand........................................................ 1.00 14.58

Superphosphates made from 12 parts (by weight) of rock and 9 parts 

of sulphuric acid (1.50 specific gravity) gave:

High grade ................... 14. 98 per cent, soluble phosphoric acid.

Low grade .................... 5.04 per cent, soluble phosphoric acid.

[III. Analyses of commercial Bordeaux phosphate by C. IT. Shepard, jr.]

I. H.

Phosphoric acid ........................................................ 35.46 34.45

Equal bone phosphate .............................................. 77.41 75.20

Sand.................................................................... 4.35 8.55

Superphosphates made in the same way as the last case gave:

i.

Soluble phosphoric acid ................................................ 15.00 12.48

PHOSPHORITES OF SPAIN.

The phosphorite deposits of Spain are situated near the towns of 

Logrosan and Caceres, in Estrernadura. The two localities differ somewhat in the mode of occurrence of the phosphorite as well as in its 

physical properties, and will therefore be treated separately.

Logrosan deposits. The country in which these occur is a broad tableland composed of a clay slate and studded here and there with conical 

peaks rising abruptly from the level of the plain, and often reaching 

the height of three hundred to six hundred feet above the surrounding 

surface. There also occur numerous long, flat ridges, rising, like the 

peaks, abruptly from the surface of the plateau. The slate is of very 

variable character, being composed sometimes of a dark-blue, fissile 

schist, sometimes of a micaceous or a talcose schist, and at other times 

of alternating beds ot talc and feldspar.1 No fossils are found in this 

formation, but in a very similar deposit near Almaden, and about 

eighty miles from the town of Logrosan, are found numerous fossils, 

1 Charles Daubeuy and Captain Widdrington: Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1845.

(527)
54 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [mu~rt.

t

such as Sjpirifer attenuatus and trilobites. Consequently the slate 

formation of Logrosan and Caceres has been referred by some French 

and Spanish geologists to the Silurian formation. Le Play1 refers 

it to an older formation than the fossiliferous slates of the neighborhood of Alrnaden. The conical peaks rising up from this formation 

are granitic intrusions. They are very feldspathic and often much 

weathered. In this latter respect they differ from the long, flat 

ridges spoken of above. These are beds of quartzite interstratified 

with the country rock, which has a quite regular, almost vertical 

dip. The . quartzite is sometimes very compact and homogeneous 

and at others it is granular and often resembles a sandstone. It has 

resisted the erosive action, which has worn down the more easily attacked parts of the slate formation and now stands 6ut in bold, angular 

ridges. The section (Fig. 24) from Truxillo to Logrosan, a distance of 

seven Spanish leagues, will show the general character of the country. 

Besides the rocks already mentioned, large veins of dark limestone 

are occasionally found cutting through the slate formations.

k "B. A a

FIG. 24. Section from Truxillo to Logrosan, Spain, after Daubeny and Widdrington. A, granite;

B, slate; C, phosphorite.

The phosphorite occurs in true veins and in pockets. Occasionally 

it occurs as a vein at the line of junction of the granite with the country 

slate. It is of a variable character, occurring sometimes in an amorphous and compact form, at others in a fibrous or concretionary state, 

often inclosing pebbles of white or ferruginous quartz. It varies in 

color from white and yellow to a rich, jasper-like red. It is often covered with dendrites of manganese, and occasionally agate-like varieties 

are found in which the phosphate is interstratified with bands of lilac 

amethyst. The palmated variety is generally the purest and the most 

abundant. It has a hardness of 5.5, and a specific gravity of 3.12. 

When heated in a darkened room it gives oft' a bright phosphorescent 

light.2

At Logrosan there are six principal deposits of phosphorite. They 

are known as Costauaza, Jungal, Castillon, Angustias, Terrenos Co 

lorados, and La Cambre Bojera. The Costauaza vein is by far the 

largest phosphorite vein known in all Spain, and perhaps in the world 

(Shepard).3 It extends for about two and a half miles from the foot of 

Mt. Boyales, on the north, in a southeasterly direction past Mt. Cristobal. The vein dips at an angle of 60° to 90° toward the east (Garza and

1 Annales des mines, 1836.

2 Sur la phosphorite de Logrosau, Estremadnra, Messrs. Naraujo y Garza and Lino 

Peiluelas: Bull. Soc. ge"ologique France, I860, vol. 17, p. 157.

3 Foreign Phosphates, 1879, p. 25.

(528)
PHOSPHORITES OF SPAIN. 55

Penuelas), and cuts obliquely through the country slate, which has a 

strike of north 15° to 45° east, and a dip of 70° southwest. The vein 

has been worked principally where it crosses hills, and especially near 

the chapel of Nuestra Senora del Consuelo. It varies from ten to 

twenty feet in width and contains streaks of quartz and horses of country rock. The walls of the slate show signs of considerable decomposition and disintegration. The vein thins out at each end, and also grows 

narrow at a depth; though, as the excavation is only about forty feet 

deep, the bottom has not yet been reached.1

The second vein, Jungal, is at the entrance of the town of Logrosan, 

on the road to Truxillo. It has a mean width of 32 inches and a length 

of one thousand to twelve hundred feet. In most respects it resembles 

the Costenaza vein, but is on a much smaller scale.

The Castillon vein runs under the town for a considerable distance

and varies in width from five to six and three-fourths feet. It presents a

mass of phosphorite of great purity.

The Angustias lead is on the side of the hill Nuestra Senora del Consuelo and runs towards Mt. Boy ales. It is not so valuable as some 

of the other leads, because of being much cut up by quartz veins and 

horses of country rock.

The Terrenos Colorados vein is 330 feet long and averages six and 

two-thirds feet wide. It is parallel to the Cambre Bojera lead, which is 

about the same size.

The general direction of all these veins is northwest and southeast, 

with a dip of 60° to 90°.

The Logrosan phosphate has a subcrystalline structure; some specimens are fibrous and radiating and often resemble feathers. It is soft 

and chalky to the touch, easily broken, but difficult to grind into a fine 

powder. An examination under the microscope exhibits conchoidal 

figures interrupted with spherical grains, devoid of color and opaque 

(Shepard). It is infusible before the blowpipe; but,on being subjected 

to long-continued heat, a luminous disk, perceptible in the dark, makes 

its appearance at the point of contact of the mineral and flame, and a 

green phosphorescence appears when it is heated for a short time. It is 

readily soluble in hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acid.

The highest-grade material is rosy white or yellowish white in color, 

soft, concentric, often brilliantly radiated, with a mamillary or con. 

choidal surface. Eed spots from iron and beautiful dendrites of manganese are not infrequent. The poorer qualities are milky white, vitr,eous, hard, and, though free from limestone, contain considerable silica.

The shipment of phosphate from Logrosan involves great trouble and 

expense. The mineral is drawn by ox or mule teams to the nearest railroad, a distance of 30 miles, and is shipped at Yillanueva de la Serena. 

This carriage costs about 20 cents per cwt., and the carts make two 

1 Dr. C. U. Sliepard, jr., MS. 

(529)
DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 40.

trips a week, carrying 40 to 50 cwt. each trip. This, with the expense 

of getting it to Lisbon and thence to England, makes it cost about $15 

a ton to land in London. First-class phosphorite (80 to 85 per cent.) 

sold there, in 1875, for'$25 a ton.

In the Caceres district, which supplies most of the phosphorite 

shipped from Spain, the mode of its occurrence differs from that in the 

Logrosan district. While in the latter it occurs in veins, sometimes 

of considerable length, at Caceres it occurs in pockets in great veins of 

quartz and dark limestone, which are found cutting through the country slate. The principal mines are united in the Fraterjidad Company, 

and are known as the Esmeralda, Estrella, San Eugenio, Abundancia, 

Cacereria, San Salvador, and La Perla. 1 The first four, being the only 

mines of much importance, will alone be described. As will be seen 

from the ground plan (Fig. 25), the limestone and quartz veins, in 

which the phosphate is found, occur in both the granite and the slate 

rocks.

FIG. 25. Ground plan of the Caceres mines in 1875; after Dr. C. TJ. Shepard, jr. (MS.). 1, Abundancia mine; 2, Carcerena mine; 3, San Eugenio mine; 4, San Salvador mine; 5, Estrolla mine; 6, Eatneralda mine; 7, La Perla mine.

The Esmeralda mine is considered the largest and best of the Caceres 

mines. There are two veins penetrating the side of a hill in a north

1 C. U. Shepard, jr., MS. 

(530) .
PJCXHOSE.l PHOSPHORITES OF SPAIN. 57

and east direction, respectively, at an angle of about 45°. The vein to 

the north has a thickness of ten to twenty feet, and contains a variable 

quantity of limestone and siliceous rock. The immediately surrounding 

rock is limestone of a hard, brown character, which has beea excavated 

for a depth of some one hundred feet (1875). The leads appear to 

narrow as they are followed into the hill. The exterior of the mass of 

phosphate is hard, white, and compact, while toward the center it becomes soft, crumbly, and 'of a rosy color (Shepard). There is less 

hard, siliceous rock here than in the other mines.

At the Estrella mine the lead enters the hill in which the Esmeralda 

mine is situated at an angle of 45°. The total thickness of the deposit is 

ten to twenty feet. It is very irregular in shape and grows thinner as it 

enters the hill. It contains less of the rich, pulverulent variety of phosphorite and more of the compact, vitreous variety than the last mineLike the Esmeralda mine, it is in a limestone vein (Fig. 26).

FIG. 26. The Estrella deposit in Estremadura, Spain; after C. TJ. Shepard, jr. (MS.). A, limestone;

B, phosphorite.

The San Eugenio mine is smaller than either the Esmeralda or the Estrella. The lead is almost vertical and the phosphorite in some places 

is of a very high grade, but in others it is very siliceous and impure.

The Abuudancia mine has been abandoned on account of the trouble 

from water. It is simply a round open pit 75 feet deep and 100 feet in 

diameter. It once gave large quantities of excellent phosphorite, but 

what is now left is siliceous and contains only 50 to 65 per cent. phos. 

phate of lime, while the best Spanish phosphate will average 80 to 85 

percent. (See analyses pp. 58, 59.) The Caceres phosphate is massive 

and amorphous and of two varieties: (1) Somewhat granular, easily 

crumpled, and of a white or rosy color j (2) dense, vitreous, hard, and 

white, with occasional streaks'of quartz or limestone.

Caceres is 43 miles north of Merida, a station on the railroad between 

Madrid and Lisbon, and near the Portuguese frontier. The cost of 

transportation between the two places varies from 12£ to 20 cents per 

cwt. Thence to Lisbon costs $4.55 per ton, making the% total cost to 

Lisbon amount to $5 to $8 per ton. GKie Caceres mines were not opened

(531)
58 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

until 1800, and from that time until 1875 the mines had exported only 

124,156 tons of phosphorite.

The Logrosan deposits were the first phosphorites found in Spain. 

The-earliest mention of them is by William Bowles in 1782.1 He says 

that at the base of the Guadalupe Mountains, and near the town called 

Logrosan, the royal road is traversed by a vein of phosphoric stone, 

running in a north and south direction. It was also mentioned by La 

Play, Proust, and others in the early part of this century. But the 

deposit did not attract much attention until Professor Daubeny, of Oxford, and Captain Widdriugton 2 visited the Logrosan country in 1844 

and made a thorough study of the one vein then known. Later, in 

1849, Mr. JSTaranjo y G-arza, by order of the Spanish government, made 

a survey of the basin of the Guadiaua and gave a description of the 

Logrosan phosphate deposits.3

The Caceres deposits were discovered in 1860 by Mr. E. De Luna.

Ever since about 1855 the Spanish phosphorites have been worked 

at intervals. The phosphorite is of excellent quality, commands a 

high price, and makes as good a superphosphate as any phosphate 

known. But the expenses of transportation and the occasionally unsettled political condition of the country have been great detriments to 

the development of the mines.

Analyses of phosphorites of Spain.

[I. Logrosan phosphate, by De Luna.]

Water..................................................................... 0.40

Boue phosphate of lime .................................................... 82.10

Phosphate of iron.......................................................... 5.20

Phosphate of magnesia..................................................... 0. 30

Fluorideof lime............................................................. 7.31

Carbonate of lime................................... ........................ 1.74

Chloride of lime ........................................................... Q. 40

Silica...................................................................... 2.55

100. 00

[II. Logrosan phosphorite, by Professor Daubeny.] 

Silica ..................................................................... 1.70

Protoxide of iron .......................................................... 3.15

Fluoride of lime .............................................. ............. 14.00

Phosphate of lime ............................................. ............ 81.15

fill. Logrosan phosphate, by Messrs. Pelletier and Donadei.]

Phosphoric acid............................................................ 40.12

Silica and clay............................................................. 3.10

Hydrochloric acid ......................................................... 0. 06

Hydrofluoric acid........................... ................................ 2.27

Lime .........................................L............................ 53.50

Peroxide of iron ........................................................... 0.61

Loss....-...-.........-....-.....-..--.....-....-...--..--, ................ 0.79

'Natural History and Physical Geography of Spain, Madrid, 1782.

2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 1, 1845, pp. 5'2-55.

3 La Gazette de Madrid, July 22, 1849. Kevista Minerva (March and July, 1855).

(532)
PBHBOBB.J PHOSPHORITES OF SPAIN.

[IV to VII. Logrosan phosphate, by Dr. 0. U. Shepard, jr., and Dr.

IV. AVhito 

and hard.

36.97

80.71

.12. 63

V. Yellowish white 

and hard.

,77. 55

82.97

7.40

VI. -Rosy 

white and 

compact.

42.17

92.06

Trace

VII. While, 

soft, and 

inainmillary.

41.72

91.00

4.32

__ - .

[VIII to XIV. Caceres phosphate, by Dr. C. TJ. Shepard, jr., and Dr. Wanicr.]

Phosphoric acid ..............

Equal hone phosphate . . .

Sand .........................

g®

3

H ^'g

t> a'p

37.38

81.60

3.40

o

-rM n 

i t

32.06

69.99

22.97

2 n

C5 SJ

02* 5

(§ *

M&

38.07

83.11

G.30

o

3"*

°TS

M C

y a

29.09

63.50

2.70

a o

<u

H ^

M M

39.07

85.29

9.19

CO 'S

t < ^

kj a

^2

27.00

58.94

3.76

g"5 «

'^ ^ flj

CO 73 0

>« £ §

S|§.U

36.18

78.98

Trace

[XV. Caceres phosphate, by Bobierre and Friedol.] 

Insoluble siliceous matter .......... ............ ............................. 21.05

Water expelled at red heat.... a............................................. 3.00

Tribasic phosphate of lime ...... ............................................ 72.10

Loss, oxide of iron, etc...................................................... 3.85

100. 00 

[XVI. Phpsphate from Montanchcz, by Bobierre and Friedel.]

Tribasic phosphate of lime ................................................. 85.03

Carbonate of linie.......................................................... 10. 35

Water expelled at red heat................................................. 2.40

Silica, oxide of iron, etc.................................................... 2.22

100.00

Phosphorites include, besides those deposits already mentioned under 

that heading, the minerals staffelite, epiphosphorite, pyrophosphorite, 

eupyrchroite, hydro-apatite, monite, monetite, and other forms, all of 

which occur either in scattered .pockets, incrustations, and concretions, 

or as radiated, botryoidal, and subcrystalline masses. Some of them 

occur scattered through certain phosphorites and rock phosphates, and 

are mentioned in connection with those deposits. They are rarely of 

any commercial importance.

Fibrous and concretionary phosphorites have been mined in small 

quantities at Amberg, Bavaria.

Thin seams of soft, whitish phosphorite, called osteolite, occur at Hanau, in Germany, but, as yet, the mineral has not been found there in 

sufficient quantities to be of commercial value.

ROCK PHOSPHATES.

This class of phosphates includes, as already mentioned, those deposits which, having no definite chemical composition and lacking the 

homogeneous nature and other fixed characteristics of a true mineral,

(533)
60 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.46.

cannot be classified with mineral phosphates. They may be treated as 

amorphous nodular phosphates, phosphatie limestone beds, guanos, and 

bone beds.

AMORPHOUS NODULAB PHOSPHATES.

This subdivision comprises the phosphate deposits of South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Martha's Vineyard, some of the Florida 

deposits, the deposits of North Wales, England, Belgium, northern central and eastern France, and Eussia. They generally consist of calcareous matter, more or less completely phosphatized, and occur either as 

loose nodules in a matrix of variable composition, or as a conglomerate in which the pebbles are phosphate of lime and the matrix is of a 

calcareous, phosphatie, siliceous, or ferruginous nature. They are the 

most important, commercially, of all the phosphate deposits. About 

600,000 to 700,000 tons are yearly mined, of which, in 1884,437,000 tons 

came from South Carolina and the rest mostly from England, France, 

and Belgium. On the other hand, the total output of all the apatite 

mines in America and Europe in the best years has not exceeded 50,000 

tons.

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF" SOUTH CAROLINA.

The nature of the phosphate beds of South Carolina was recognized 

by Prof. C. U. Shepard, sr., before 1860, but the nodules were not 

put to any practical use until, in 1S67-'6S, Prof. F. S. Holmes and Drs. 

Pratt and St. Julien Eavenel, after showing by numerous analyses 

their richness in phosphate of lime, urged the formation of a company 

for mining these valuable deposits. . Through the energy of Professor 

Holmes and Mr. <GK T. Lewis, of Philadelphia, the first company for 

mining phosphate in South Carolina was organized in 1868. It was 

known as the Charleston Phosphate Mining and Manufacturing Company. Siuce that year no less than fifteen large mining establishments

have been started in South Carolina, of which some of the more important are the Bradley, Piuckney, and Bolton, in Berkeley County, and 

the Coosaw and Oak Point properties, in Beaufort County.

Nodular phosphatie deposits are found at intervals all along the Atlantic Coast of the United States, from North Carolina down to the 

southern extremity of Florida, but the richest beds occur in South Carolina, in a strip of country running from Broad River 60 miles along 

the coast in a northeast direction. The belt has a width of from ten 

to twenty miles. The phosphate does not occur continuously over this 

region, but in patches, sometimes having an area of many square miles 

and again only covering a few acres. In this whole area of more 

than nine hundred square miles, the hills rarely rise to a height of over 

ten to fifteen feet above high-water level, and the country is cut up into 

islands and peninsulas by the numerous tide-water inlets and creeks. 

The Tertiary deposits form a fringe along the Atlantic Coast and the 

Gulf of Mexico from New Jersey to Texas, but are best developed in the

(534)
U. 6. OEOLOGICAL SURVEY

BULLETIN NO. 46 PL. I'

MAP

OP PAHTS OF

CHARLESTON. COLIETO^&BEAUEOKE 

COUNTIES S.C,
PJWE08K.J PHOSPHATES OP SOUTH CAROLINA. 61

central portion of this extensive belt. The Claiborne marls, the Santee 

buhrstones and limestones, and the shell sands of Alabama are tlie low 

est beds of this series. Beneath them lie the Pedee marls, which belongto the secondary formation and contain fossils resembling those from 

the Chalk of Europe. Immediately over this formation in S.outh Carolina are the Eocene marls. These beds are very extensively developed 

in that State and are called by Mr. Buffiu "The Great Carolina marl 

bed," which is divided into three divisions, known, in an ascending 

order, as the Santee Kiver, Cooper Eiver, and Ashley liiver beds. The 

whole formation is about seven hundred feet deep and contains 55 to 95 

per cent, of carbonate of lime. Itis one of the. most important marl beds 

in the world, on account of both its extent and its agricultural value. The 

upper part of the Ashley marl contains a great number of fossil shark 

teeth and cetacean bones, and has been called by Professor Tuomey 

"the fish bed of the Charleston basin." Overlying this "fish bed" is 

a deposit of sands and clays of very irregular thickness arid containing 

many shells. The bed sometimes runs out altogether and at other 

times is several feet in thickness. 1 It is directly overlaid by a bed containing many shark teeth and cetacean bones, as well as the remains of 

the mastodon, megatherium, elephant, deer, horse, cow, hog, muskrat, 

and other land animals. Besides these animal remains, the bed contains very numerous irregularly shaped nodules containing 25 to 70 per 

cent, of phosphate of lime. This is the bed that is worked for phosphates (see Figs. 27, 28, and 29). Sometimes the underlying stratum 

has not existed or has been eroded and the nodule bed rests directly on 

the Eocene marls. It is composed mostly of nodules, associated with a 

much smaller and very variable quantity of bones of laud and sea animals, buried in a matrix of a variable character. Sometimes they are 

in a bed of highly siliceous sand, containing many flat pebbles of white 

quartz; at other times the matrix consists of ordinary clay or of sand 

and clay mixed. A light blue or green clay is also often seen.

The nodules are of very irregular shape and vary from 1th e size of 

a pea to that of a mass weighing a ton or more. The larger masses, 

however, are often composed of a number of small nodules cemented 

together. With the nodules and the bones are associated numerous 

phosphatic. casts of the interiors of shells, as well as masses, of rare occurrence, which have the appearance of fossil dung (coprolites). The 

nodules, like those of England and of France, are all more or less 

waterworn and rounded and are much bored by marine animals. It 

is generally the harder varieties that are most bored and. most irregular 

in shape. This may be due to the fact that, being hard, they preserve 

their original irregular shape and the marks of the boring animals better 

than the softer varieties. The nodules vary in hardness from 2 to 4 

and have a specific gravity of 2.2 to 2.5.2 When a fragment is rubbed,

1 F, S. Holiues: The Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina. 

2 Dr. C. U. Sheparcl, jr.: South Carolina Phosphates,

(535)
62 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

or, better, when two fragments are rubbed together, they give off an 

odor of decayed organic matter. They are marked by a complete absence of crystalline structures, though in some rare cases, as in the 

Bull River phosphate, a distinct concretionary structure is observable. 

The nodules generally contain casts of Eocene shells and, in some 

cases, marine bones and shark teeth. The bones of land animals, 

though mixed with the nodules, are never found embedded in them, 

showing that these bones were'probably deposited after the formation 

of the nodules.

The nodules are found on the bottoms of most of the rivers running 

through the phosphate district, having been washed out of their original 

beds. These river deposits in many cases have proved to be of great 

commercial value. The nodules are, as a rule, of a much darker color 

than those of the land and are often black. They are sometimes very 

siliceous, the separate grains of sand being plainly visible to the naked 

eye. These grains are due to the sand in the marl before it was phosphatized. Such seems to have been the case with much of the Beaufort Eiver phosphate. In some cases, however, the siliceous matter is 

probably due to the replacement of some of the carbonate or phosphate 

of lime in the original nodule by silica, and the result has been to make 

the nodule much harder. Such,a silicifying action was probably due 

to the presence of soluble silicates in the river waters. In some 

places, as at the Bolton mine, the laud nodules are also very siliceous, 

and possibly became so by having once formed the bottom of a river 

or a bay.

At least eleven varieties of nodules, differing much in their physical 

character, and often in their chemical composition, may be distinguished among the phosphates taken out of the South Carolina beds. 

These are:

(1) A jet-black variety with a bright, shining, glossy enamel of the

same color. It is very rare and generally occurs in small patches. It 

contains numerous fossils and shells. It is found in Parrot Creek 

(see map, PI. I).

(2) A brown variety with a bright enamel of the same color. It is 

very rich and is found in considerable quantities at the Bradley mine 

and on the land of the Charleston Mining and Manufacturing.Company.

(3) A light-brown variety with little or no enamel. It bleaches white 

when exposed to the sun and is found on the land of the Bradley Company, of the Charleston Mining and Manufacturing Company, and in 

many other localities.

(4) A light, chalky variety containing many shells and generally 

poorer in quality than the varieties mentioned above. It is very widely 

distributed over the South Carolina phosphate region, and is simply 

marl which has not been so highly phosphatized as the harder and 

darker varieties.

(536)
PENROSE.-J ' PHOSPHATES OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 63

(5) A dark grayish-black variety with little or no enamel. It is very 

siliceous and contains many shells. It is generally found in rivers, and 

is especially characteristic of the Stono Eiver district.

(6) A gray variety composed of a mass of shells and transparent siliceous sand, cemented together by a phosphatic cement. Sometimes 

shark teeth are included in the mass. At times it is hard and compact, 

and at others it is loose, soft, and porous. Such varieties are found in 

large quantities in the Beaufort Eiver. They are often mixed with a 

much better quality of nodule which raises the average phosphatic contents.

(7) A dark-gray, phosphatic conglomerate, in which the pebbles are 

quartz and feldspar, varying from the size of a mustard seed to that of 

a buckshot. The matrix is a dark-gray, phosphatic marl. This variety 

is very rare in South C arolina, but is found in small quantities in the 

Bull River district.

(8) Nodules having a black enamel and alight or dark gray interior. 

They contain many shell casts and are found in the Coosaw Eiver and 

on the Edisto Eiver at Fishburne's mine.

(9) A variety consisting of a mass of concentrically laminated nodules 

cemented together with a matrix of marl containing many shells. This 

variety is rare and was found only in the Bull Eiver. It is generally 

rich in phosphatic matter.

(10) A ferruginous, rusty-brown variety, very siliceous and of poor 

quality.

(11) Brown or black masses having tbe general appearance of fossil 

dung (coprolites) and probably of that nature. They are hard and very 

rich in phosphate of lime. Eeal coprolites are of rare occurrence.

Occasionally large, flat, non-concretionary masses are found, which 

are highly phosphatized on the upper side, while toward the lower side 

the mass grows poorer and poorer in phosphates, until it differs but 

little in composition from the underlying marl. In such cases the phosphatized part of the rock is of a darker color than the other part. 

The upper side is also much smoother and harder than the lower side, 

which is often very jagged and is sometimes almost as soft as the underlying marl. This formation shows that in some cases at least the phosphatization has gone from above downward. Such a process is also 

proved by the fact that the marl immediately underlying the phosphate 

bed contains sometimes 20 to 30 per cent, of phosphate of lime,1 while 

this quantity decreases with the depth until, at a few inches below the 

nodule bed, it contains only 10 to 20 per cent. According to Professor 

Holmes, the marl is much richer in phosphate of lime in those places 

where it is overlaid by nodules than where no nodules are found.

Some of the varieties of nodules have been found to grow poorer in 

phosphoric acid as the center of the mass is approached. This is espelDr. C. U. Shopard, jr.: South Carolina Phosphates. 

(537)
DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 44.

cially true of those nodules which are coated with an enamel, it being 

invariably the case that the hard, enamel like crust is much richer than 

the soft and less compact interior. In this peculiarity the South Carolina nodules resemble many of those of England and the other phosphate localities in Europe. The phenomenon is dwelt on as one of the 

strongest arguments for the theory originated by Professor Holmes, 

that the nodules have been formed by the phosphatization of lumps of

FIG. 27. Section ENE. and WS~W. through Pinckney's phosphate field, South Carolina. A, sand; 

B, ferruginous sand; C, phosphate rock; D, Ashloy marl. Scale: 1 inch = 60 feet.

marl. It may, however, be mentioned that a similar condition of the 

nodule could be produced by the action of waters containing carbonic 

acid, which would tend to leach out the carbonate and leave the less 

soluble phosphate of lime. Of course this action would be more pronounced on the exterior than in the interior of the nodule, and consequently the result would be a mass much richer in phosphate of lime 

on the outside than in the inside.

FIG. 28. Average section in Pinckney's phosphate mine, Berkeley County, South Carolina. A, clay 

sand; B, ferruginous sand; C, phosphate rock; D, Ashley marl. Scale: 1 inch = 6 feet.

The nodule bed varies in thickness from a few inches to about two 

feet and a half, the average being about seven to nine inches. It is only 

when the nodules are found in a pocket or depression in the underlying 

marl that the thickness reaches much overtwo feet, and even under such 

circumstances such a thickness is of very rare occurrence. The yield 

of phosphate per acre varies, not only with the thickness, but also with 

the compactness of the nodular stratum, as sometimes the nodules are 

packed as close as cobblestones in a road, while at others they are scattered loosely in the sand or clay matrix. The average yield of clean, dry 

phosphate is three hundred to twel ve hundred tons per acre. The phosphate bed is thought by professor Holmes to be of Post-Pliocene age. In

(538)
PENBOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 65

some places it crops out on the surface and at others is found at a much 

greater depth. Under the city of Charleston it is found at a deptlrof 

over sixty feet.1 Where the bed does not appear on the surface it 

is covered by alluvial deposits, consisting of clay, sand, or marl, or of 

strata of all three. Occasionally there is a stratum of highly ferruginous sand or gravel, sometimes indurated into a regular "hard-pan," 

directly overlying the phosphate bed and from one to ten inches thick 

(Figs. 27, 28, and 29). Sometimes this ferruginous substance has penetrated the whole bed to a depth of several inches and cemented the 

upper nodules into a solid mass; while the lower part of the bed is 

much looser and more easily mined. Again the sand overlying and 

intermixed with the nodules has sometimes been cemented together, 

especially in river bottoms, by the action of soluble silicates. Such has 

been the case with the phosphate in parts of the Stono Kiver. Here the 

nodules have in some places been completely permeated by silica and 

form a solid floor on the river bottom.

FIG. 29. Section in one of Fisbburne'a pits, Sonth Carolina. A, sand; B, ferruginous sand; C, phosphate nodules in clay matrix. Scale: 1 inch = 7 feet.

The following sections by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., show the general 

mode of occurrence of the superficial beds of phosphate: 

A. Land deposits:

I. Soil and subsoil. A few inches to a foot in depth.

II. A light-colored, siliceous clay, iron stained in places, and containing much fine, 

transparent sand, and minute scales of silvery mica, with little calcareous 

matter, one foot or more in thickness.

III. (Wanting in the more superficial beds.) A Hue, argillaceous marl, prohably altered marsh mud. It does not adhere to the tongue or give an argillaceous 

odor. Fragments of recent shells occur in this deposit. Its depth is about 

two feet.

IV. A thin layer of coarse sand, one to three inches in depth.

V. The phosphate nodules in either a loose, siliceous or a tenaceous, bluish or rich buffcolored, argillaceous marl, frequently accompanied with abundant fossil bones 

and teeth. The upper nodules are often harder, the lower softer, and at some 

land localities exhibit a gradual transition, by loss of cohesion and decrease 

of phosphatic contents into

VI. A marl, highly phosphatic toward the rock-bed, and containing occasionally 

20 to 30 per cent, of phosphates, but at the depth of a few inches containing 

only 10 to 20 per cent, of those constituents.

1 Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.: South Carolina Phosphates.

Bull. 46 (539)
66 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. LflULL.46.

VII. Argillaceous or arenaceous marls, containing 7 to 10 per cent, of phosphates. 

B. River deposits: 

Beneath the river deposits occur either 

I. A gray marl, sometimes in nodules resembling phosphate, with 5 per cent, of 

phosphates, underlaid by

II. A ivhite, hard marl inclosing phosphate grains and containing 3 feo 5 per cent, of 

phosphates (Wando River); or

I. A green sand with some clay and rich in black phosphatic grains, occurring with 

the phosphatic rock and beneath it, containing 15 per cent, of phosphates.

II. Soft and hard marls several feet in thickness, and containing 10 to 15 per cent.

of phosphates (Stono River); or

I. Hard marls. Poor in phosphates (£ to 1 per cent.) unless their tops be coated 

with phosphate rock (Coosaw River). 1

It is difficult to calculate the yield of river nodules per acre, as the 

currents have heaped them up in, some places and carried them away 

from others.

As will be seen from the accompanying map by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr. 

(PI. I), there are three principal localities in the phosphate region where 

active mining operations are now carried on. It is not, however, all 

over these areas, but only in certain parts of them, that the nodules 

are found. Nor are they the only places in South Carolina where phosphates occur, but they are the districts where they are found at a depth 

beneath the superficial deposits not too great to permit profitable mining. 1 The first of these regions lies north and east of Charleston and 

stretches from the Wando River and the eastern branch of the Cooper 

River on tte northeast to Eantowles Creek and Stono River on the 

southwest. In this area are some of the largest phosphate diggings in 

South Carolina, including as it does the Bradley, Charleston Mining and 

Manufacturing, the Magnolia, Bolton, and Black and Williams's mines. 

There also are the river deposits in the Wando, Stono, and Cooper Rivers. 

Large quantities of small nodules of excellent quality have been obtained 

from the bed of the upper part of the Wando Eiver. Phosphate of good

quality has also been gotten from the bed of Stono River, but the deposit forms in some places such a solid floor on the river bottom that 

mining operations at the present low price of phosphate would be unprofitable. Mainly on account of their inaccessibility the deposits in 

the eastern branch of the Cooper have not been much worked.

The second of the three principal phosphate districts is due west of 

the locality last described and extends from the Edisto River on the 

east to Horseshoe Creek on the west, including the river deposits in 

these two streams. The phosphate found in this region is of excellent 

quality, but does not occur in a continuous bed or at a constant depth. 

Consequently it can be profitably mined in few places. It occurs largely 

in pockets and patches on the underlying bed.

The third locality where phosphate exists at a conveniently accessible 

depth extends with intervals from the Bull to the Broad Rivers, and

J Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.: South. Carolina Phosphates. 

(540)
PHOSPHATES OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 67

includes not only the deposits in these rivers, but also the deposits in 

the Coosaw and Beaufort Eivers and those on Chisholm's Island. This 

area is essentially a river mining district, though phosphate of good 

quality is mined on parts of Chisholm's Island by the Pacific Guano 

Company and by Messrs. Wiley and Gordon. Nodules of excellent 

quality are obtained from the bottoms of the Bull and Coosaw Eivers, 

but those of Beaufort Eiver are generally very siliceous, the separate 

grains of sand being plainly visible to the naked eye.

Outside of the localities mentioned above, phosphatic nodules have 

also been obtained from the upper part of Hospa Creek and from the 

Coosawhatchie Eiver (see map, PI. I). Besides the bed of phosphatic 

nodules already described, other beds have been found in boring artesian wells in Charleston and the neighborhood which are at a much 

greater depth and are of a similar nature. Dr. 0. U. Shepard, jr., in 

speaking of these borings, says:

The samples thus collected have heen carefully examined and analyzed, the most 

important contribution to our knowledge being the discovery of the existence of several deeper layers of phosphate rock, occurring at the depth of 300 feet from the surface, and, in the form of isolated pebbles, to a much greater distance. These lower 

deposits are probably not thicker than a few inches, and consequently they lack all 

but scientific interest.

The phosphate of South Carolina is obtained from the land and from 

the river bottoms. The mining on the land is done in open trenches. 

The area to be mined has to be ditched in order to drain it before mining operations can be begun. Sometimes it is necessary to build embankments, to prevent the diggings from being flooded in stormy 

weather. At the Boltori mine, on Stono Eiver, high tides sometimes rise 

two feet above the level of the land. Drainage is, in some mines, hastened by the use of steam pumps. It does not usually pay, unless the 

phosphate is of extraordinary quality, to remove more than eight or nine 

, feet of overlying earth. The Pacific Guano Company, however, has 

lately introduced the use of a steam excavator to dig the nodules, and 

it is supposed that work can be profitably carried on at a greater depth 

with this machine than with pick and shovel.

The phosphate is carried on cars, generally drawn by an engine, from 

the mines to the washers. Here it is broken by machinery into coarse 

fragments not larger than about five inches in diameter, and then passed 

into the washers, where it is freed from the adhering sand and clay. 

Several different kinds of washers are used. The most common one is 

a long trough, in which revolves a shaft armed with a projection in the 

form of a broken helix. The trough is inclined at a small angle. The 

nodules are passed from the breakers to the lower end of the trough 

and are forced up the inclined plane by the revolving shaft against a 

strong stream of water. Sometimes the phosphate is washed in a revolving cylinder perforated with holes and supplied on the inside with 

spiral flanges of steel. A stream of water is thrown into the cylinder

(541)
68 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL 46.

through an iron pipe. After passing through the washers the nodules 

fall on an iron screen, which separates the large masses from the smaller 

pieces. Sometimes two or three screens having different-sized meshes 

are used. The small-sized product is of lower grade than the large, as 

it is mixed with numerous siliceous pebbles which have gone through 

the screen with it.

The next step is to dry the nodules. This is done either by burning 

them with wood in large sheds, which sometimes hold several thousand 

tons, or by passing hot air through, the mass. Sometimes the nodules 

are treated with fire and hot air combined. IH this way they are freed 

from the 12 to 18 per cent, of moisture which they contained after being washed and are ready for shipment. On cooling, the nodules absorb about 1 per cent, of moisture, and such is their porosity that they 

can be made to absorb 5 to 15 per cent, of water.1 The drying of the 

nodules takes 35 to 40 cords of wood for 1,000 tons of nodules, and the 

process lasts thirty-six to forty hours. The drying and burning of the 

phosphate not only save the freight on the water which it originally 

contained, but also make it better fitted for manufacturing purposes.

The nodules in the river bottoms are now obtained by dredging 

boats, though, a few years ago, large quantities were obtained by negro divers and with oyster tongs. The dredging scoops have to be 

very strongly built in order to break through the nodular stratum. 

The boats are held in position at the four corners by what are called 

" spuds." These are strong square poles with iron points. They are 

dropped into the water before dredging is begun, and go through the 

nodule stratum and down into the bed below, thus affording a firm support to fche boat. The nodules are thrown from the scoop into the 

washer, which is on .a lighter alongside the dredging boat. The washer, 

in some cases, is the same as those used by the land-mining companies j 

but often it consists of a truncated cone, with perforated sides, revolving on a horizontal axis. It is supplied on the inside with steel spirals, 

arranged around the side like the grooves in a rifle. Into both ends of 

the cone heavy streams of water flow. The nodules are dumped by the 

dredge into the small end of the cone and come out at the large end. 

They are then removed by a derrick to another lighter and towed to 

shore.

Besides the ordinary dredging machine, several other contrivances 

are used for raising phosphate from river bottoms. The owners of 

the Sea Island Chemical Works, instead of using the ordinary dredging scoop, have a contrivance consisting of six large claws which open 

when they descend, and close, forming a kind of bucket, when they rise. 

It is said that one of the machines which this company owns can 

dredge in 50 to 60 feet of water, while the ordinary dredging boat cannot raise the phosphate in over 20 feet of water. Another dredge has 

been lately introduced by Mr. Brotherhood and is known as the Broth- 

*Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.: South Carolina Phosphates, 1880. 

(542)
ENROBE,! PHOSPHATES OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 69

erhood dredge. It consists of a revolving chain of thirty-two buckets, 

and is very similar to the dredge used to deepen the channel of the 

St. Lawrence Eiver some years ago.

The deposits of South Carolina, though of low grade compared with 

some others, are now more generally used than any other known phosphate* The output of the mines, which is yearly increasing, is shipped 

to the North, South, and East by sea and to the West by rail. This 

popularity is due, not only to the cheapness of the phosphate ($3 to $6 

per ton in 1886), but to the many good qualities of the low-grade acid 

phosphate made from it. The fact that the nodule bed extends, at an 

accessible depth, over many miles of country, the easy approach for large 

vessels up to the very mines, the abundance of water, fuel, and labor, and 

a climate that permits mining operations to be carried on throughout 

the whole year, all combine to make the South Carolina phosphates the

cheapest and consequently the most productive source of supply of

this material.

The mode of formation of the South Carolina nodules has been a matter of considerable dispute. Professor Holmes thinks that the surface 

of the Eocene marl was worn, by the action of boring animals and of 

erosion, into numerous lumps and balls. .These, with bones of sea animals, were washed upon the seashore and, as the coastline began to rise, 

were collected into salt-water lagoons and swamps. Numerous quadrupeds came to lick the salt, and deposited their faeces and often died 

here. Hence the presence of bones of laud and sea animals in the phosphate beds. The phosphoric acid in the faeces and carcasses of these 

animals phosphatized the lumps of marl and thus formed the phosphatic 

nodules.

Prof. N. S. Shaler thinks that the nodules, in some cases, have been 

formed by concretionary and segregating action at the bottom of 

swamps. Many facts, such as the frequent occurrence of phosphatic 

nodules in patches, and often in concave basins, as in Russia, as well 

as their association with peaty beds, as in North Carolina, seem, in 

many cases, to strongly favor this theory. Phosphatic nodules have 

also been found at the bottom of beds of limonite in the Ohio Valley. 

Professor Shaler thinks that the nodules were scattered sparingly in 

the deposit in which they were formed and that they were concentrated 

in their present position by the erosion of the original bed. 1

Analyses of South Carolina rock phosphates, ~by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., in South Carolina 

Phosphates, Charleston, 1880.

An average of several hundred analyses gave :

Per cent. 

Phosphoric acid.......................................................... 25 to 28

Equivalent to bone phosphate of lime............................... 55 to 61

Carbonic acid.... ..................................................... 2.5 to 5

Equivalent to carbonate of lime.................................... 5 to 11

'Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 13, 1869-70, p. 222. 

(543)
70 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46

Per cent. 

Sulphuric acid.... ...i................................................. 0.5 to 2

Lirae.................................................................. 35.0 to 42

Magnesia .............................................................. Trace to 2

Alumina .............................................................. Trace to 2

Sesquioxide of iron .................................................... l.Oto 4

Fluorine .............................................................. l.Oto 2

Sand and silica ........................................................ 4.0 to 12

Organic matter and combined water ................................... 2.0 to 6

Moisture . .......................................................... 0.5to 4

Table of analyses of Soulh Carolina rock phosphates ly Dr. C. U. Sliepardjr.

Organic matter and comEqual in carbonate of

Equivalent in bone

Sand......................

light- River no

nodule. lored 

 £3 i

in

3.68

4.78

468

10.69

25.61

55.91

11.55

dark- River no

nodule. lored 

03 °

4.28

9.73

26.68

58.24

12.41

QORivernodule.

o

M

5.59

3.89

8.84

25.75

56.21

11.77

land hley River 

dried. lodule, 

 4

0.00

5.26

4.47

10.04

27.01

58.95

11.37

land River jper 

.deposit.

0

0

.10

.07

3.55

8.06

27.11

59.18

15.39

Island sholm's 

odule, dried.

f. a

O

0 84

4.22

3.54

8.04

27.26

59.50

9.06

nodule, 11 River 

dried. 

aM

0.79

5.80

3.61

8.19

25.14

54.88

13.30

»sawRivernoddried. ule, 

o

O

0.57

4.31

3.79

8.61

27.26

59.51

9.06

nod- River9saw 

dried. ule, 

o

O

0.66

3.75

4.34

9.84

26.78

58.46

11.77

Analysis of Soulh Carolina rock phosphate from Oak Point Mine, l)y Dr. C. U. Shepard,jr.

Bone phosphate of lime .................................................... 58.66

Carbonate of lime........................................................... 6.90

Analysis ofpliosphatie nodules from Bulow mine, properly of William L Bradley, lyR.A.

F. Penrose,jr. 

Bone phosphate of lime .................................................... 62.039

Carbonate of lime.......................................................... 6.914

Organic matter and moisture ............................................... 5.106

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF NORTH CAROLINA.

Deposits of phosphate of lime have been known to exist in the flat 

country near the coast of North Carolina for several years, but not much 

attention was paid to them until 1884, when, under the direction of Dr. 

Dabuey, of the agricultural station of that State, they were thoroughly 

examined. The result seemed to show that the phosphates were either 

too scanty in quantity or too poor in quality to be of much commercial 

importance. They are found in the southeastern part of North Carolina, and principally in the counties of Sampson, Dupliu, Fender, Onslow, Columbus, and New Hanover.

(544)
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

BULLETIN NO. 48 PL, U

MAP

SHOWING LOCATION.OF

PHOSPHATE'BEDS

Now known within Ten Feet1 of the surface of ground,

DUPLIN'SSS SAMPSON COUNTIES,

North Carolina.

October. 4M1?-.

PARTOf

SAMPSOMCO
PHOSPHATES OP NORTH CAROLINA. 71

The deposits are of two kinds: (1) Beds of nodules, resembling very 

much the South Carolina beds and (2) a conglomerate in which the 

pebbles are phosphate and the matrix a white calcareous rock.

(1) The beds of nodules overlie the Eocene marl and consistof numerous phosphatic nodules, shark teeth and bones, associated in a sandy 

matrix or in a shell marl. Generally, the bed immediately overlies a 

stratum of shell marl and is occasionally overlaid by a similar stratum. 

Sometimes the underlying bed is replaced by a deposit of a pale green, 

indurated sand, containing shark teeth and other bones. The two following sections will show the mode of occurrence of these phosphates:

1. Soil, sand or clay, 5 to 10 feet.

2. Shell marl, 5 to 10 feet.

3. Bed bearing phosphate nodules, 1 to 3 feet.

4. Sea-green, sandy marl, 2 to 4 feet.

5. Ferruginous hard pan, 6 to 12 inches.

6. Interstratified lignites and same sands as in 4.

The above section was obtained in a canal on the land of Mr. N. Daniel, Sampson County. Fragments of lignite are sometimes associated 

with the nodules.

Section 2, from the beds on J. W. Best's farm, Duplin County.

1. Sandy soil, 1 to 10 feet.

2. Nodule bed, 1 to 2 feet.

3. Shell marl.

The nodules are of a lead-gray color and vary from lumps the size of 

a man's fist to masses weighing several hundred pounds. The average 

size is larger than that of the South Carolina nodules. They vary in 

composition from the close, compact, and homogeneous masses found in 

some places in Onslow County, to the coarse-grained and highly siliceous 

rock of Sampson and Duplin Counties. The latter variety contains 

considerable quantities of sand, which can be distinguished with the 

naked eye, and occasionally siliceous pebbles the size of a chestnut. In 

fact, the nodules are often a phosphatic sandstone, in which the grains 

of sand are cemented by phosphatic matter. Occasionally they are 

found containing numerous Tertiary shells. Many shells are also found 

mixed with the nodules in the sandy matrix, and they preserve their 

most delicate outlines in a state of great perfection, while the nodules 

are much rolled and rounded. These facts would seem to show that the 

shells were brought into their present position by the animals that once 

inhabited them after the bed of nodules had been formed. A similar 

condition has been observed in the English beds of phosphate nodules. 

The North Carolina nodules are much bored by mollusks and in every 

respect resemble those from the Eussian Cretaceous formation.

The nodules all tend toward flat shapes, in which they differ from 

those of South Carolina, which have no definite, form. One specimen 

found measured 18 inches long 12 wide and 2 thick. This flat character 

would seem to favor the idea that the nodules were formed by the phos-

(545)
72 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LlMfi. [BULL. 46.

phatization of the surface of a bed of sandy marl. The phosphate, 

having a tendency to segregate, formed in some places richer than in 

others. Then, when the bed was exposed to erosion, only the parts 

which were strongly enough cemented together survived. Often, around 

the siliceous pebbles in a nodule, concentric bands of phosphate of lime 

may be observed, showing its strong tendency to form in segregations.

These deposits have not as yet been put to any commercial use. 

They are of a low grade, averaging only about 45 per cent, phosphate 

of lime, and occur only in small patches of from one to twelve acres.

(2) The second variety of phosphate deposits found in North Carolina 

belongs to the class of phosphatic conglomerates. They are found in New 

Hanover and Fender Counties and consist of a mass of Tertiary shark 

teeth, bones, nodules, and quartz pebbles, all well rolled and rounded 

and cemented together, along with grains of greensand, in a calcareous 

matrix. At Castle Hayne, New Hanover County, they occur in a bed 

sometimes over six feet deep. The largest pebbles and nodules are 

nearest the top of the formation and never exceed the size of a horsechestnut. They grow smaller with the depth, and at six feet they are 

not larger than an apple seed. The character of the whole mass of the 

deposit also varies very much with the depth. The top of the bed is a 

hard and solid rock, but at two feet it begins to get softer, and at three 

to four feet the conglomerate bed is simply a mass of loose, calcareous 

marl containing pebbles. The section below, from near Castle Hayne, 

N. C., will show the nature of this bed.

1. White sand 0 to 3 feet.

2. Brown to red, ferruginous, sandy clay or clayey sand, 1 to 3 feet.

3. Green clay, 6 to 12 iuches.

4. Dark-brown, indurated peat, 3 to 12 inches.

5. White, calcareous marl, 0 to 2 feet.

6. White shell rock, 0 to 14 inches.

7. Phosphatic conglomerate rock, 1 to 3 feet.

8. Gray inarl containing smaller nodules than the overlying bed, 2£ to 4-J feet.

9. Light-colored, calcareous marl, containing nodules which are smaller than those 

in the overlying beds and which grow fewer and smaller at a depth. Many shells.

The line between the shell rock (6) and the conglomerate bed (7) is 

very sharply drawn. There are occasionally a few nodules found in the 

shell rock near the line of contact, which may have been derived from 

the conglomerate. The surfaces of all the beds are very uneven, especially that of the calcareous marl in the above section, which occurs only 

in patches on top of the shell rock (Fig. 30).

Near Wilmington, N. C., the following section was obtained:

1. Sandy soil, 2 feet.

2. Greensand bearing a few phosphatic nodules about the size of a pea, 4 feet.

3. Gray marl, 6 feet.

4. Limestone rock bearing a variable amount of nodules, of the same size as near 

Castle Hayne.

The nodules in 4 sometimes make up as much as three-fourths of 

the contents of the bed; at others they occur scatteringly through the

(546)
PHOSPHATES OF NORTH

rock, and occasionally are not found at all. They are kidney and egg 

shaped and generally much less bored and irregular than the South 

Carolina nodules. They vary from gray to greenish black in color and 

have a specific gravity of 2.6 to 2.7.

FIG. 30. Strata overlying the phosphate bed at Castle Hayne, New Hanover County, North Carolina. 

A, sand; B, ferruginous, sandy clay; C, green clay; D, indurated peat; E, calcareous marl; F, 

white shell rock; G, phosphate conglomerate; H, inarl containing smaller nodules. Scale:1 inch = 

5 feet.

Two companies have been formed to grind this conglomerate rock 

and sell it for local use. The whole mass does not contain more than 

10 to 20 per cent, phosphate of lime, but it is said to have been successfully used as a fertilizer. The separate nodules are very variable la 

composition.

Table of analyses of North Carolina rock phosphates made at the North Carolina experiment

station.

ft to XI. From neighborhood of Warsaw, Duplin County.]

Samples dried at 212 degrees F. 

contain sand and insoluble

Equivalent to phosphoric

I.

0.92

38.00

3

Q1

45.16

20.10

i.......

ii.

1.57

28.92

2.43

57.18

26.19

III.

1.08

42.86

A IS

49 jL(\

1Q d^

IV.

1 7Q

5.17

^ 01

O7 OD

17.07

VIII.

0.66

30.44

6.30

53.03

94 90

V.

1 73

KQ 4.7

Q 19

28.19

12 91

IX.

0.39

36.59

6.30

45.78

Oft Q7

VI.

1.00

29.46

54.89

3.90

2

C 1 C

X.

45.62

4.59

OQ on

18.26

VII.

0.63

tf <}rt

4.96

dd *ii

9ft ^ft

XT.

44 73

2

QA

Oft 00

18.01

(547)
74 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OP LlME. [BOLL. 4&

Table of analyses of North Carolina rock phosphates etc. Continued. 

[XII to XVI. From neighborhood of N. A. Faison's, Duplin County.]

Equivalentto phosphoric acid .

XII. White 

compact.

2 07 

1.49 

12.00 

71.82 

32.90

XIII. Gray 

compact.

2.50 

0.05 

8.98 

76.82 

35.19

XIV. White 

gritty.

0.77 

32.79 

1.45 

7.42 

3.40

XV..

Gray.

. 2.70 

0.64 

7.07 

76. 54 

35.06

XVI. Common black.

0.81 

45.91 

5.84 

36.02 

16.50

[I to XV. Nodules from Sampson County, N. C.]

I.

47.18

5.91

28.09

II.

47.41

5.27

38.31

IX.

36.04

4.71

i4.82

III.

70.78

4 9rt

20.24

X.

52.53

5.68

32. 22

IV.

54.96

3 Q1

32.05

XI.

49.34

4.66

33.62

V.

1.58

O r,K

69.55

XII.

29.41

5.68

38.09

VI.

51.75

4.52

32.53

XIII.

51.93

6.43

29.93

VII.

32.16

3.91

50.73

XIV.

50.42

LbG

35.52

VIH.

44.99

^ 9S

37.70

XV.

53.43

6.43

29.47

[I to II. Nodules from P.ender County, N. C.]

I.

61.96

4.32

01 no

II.

24.77

15.55

47 t\(\

[I. Nodules from phosphatic conglomerate from New Hanover County, N. C.]

I.

Sand............................................................................................ 43.66

Carbonate of lime .............................................................................. 34.56

Magnesia ........................................................................................ 0.86

Potash.......................................................................................... 0.39

Oxide of iron and alumina...................................................................... 0.56

Phosphate of lime.............................................................................. 19.99

Sulp huric acid.................................................................................. Trace

Chlorine........................................................................................ Trace

100.02

[II to VIII. Nodules from phosphatic conglomerate from New Hanover County, N. C.]

Equivalent to phosphoric acid .

II.

22. 07

42.12

20. 50

9.39

III.

33.52

20.45

^t3 Q7

15.57

IV.

30.90

14.16

V.

18.50

39.04

25.34

11.61

VI.

20.02

42.12

22. 68

10.39

VII.

3.25

51.34

31.59

14.57

VIH.

31.66

15.94

42.09

19.28

(548)
I'EXROSE.l PHOSPHATES OF ALABAMA. 75

of analyses of North Carolina rock phosphates etc. Continued. 

[I to IV. Phosphatic conglomerate of New Haiiover County, N. C.]

1.

20.28

57. 29

11.81

5.41

II.

24.96

54.71

16.42

III.

42.98

10.12

20.64

12.57

IV.

35.48

51.81

6.40

2.83

fl. Phosphate conglomerate from New Hanover County, N. C.]

Carbonate of lime.................................. ........................ 64.26

Phosphate of lime.......................................................... 11.16

Equivalent to phosphoric acid, 5.11. 

Magnesia.................................................................. 0.81

Potash .................................................................... 0.40

Sulphates and chlorides .................. ................................... Trace

Sand, soluble silica, oxide of iron, alumina, etc., undetermined.............. 23.37

100.00

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF ALABAMA.

The phosphate deposits of Alabama belong to the Cretaceous formation and are found in two parallel belts running across the State. The 

following very general section, in an ascending order, will show their 

positions:

(1) Eutaw group.

(2) Phosphate stratum.

(3) Rotten limestone formation.

(4) Phosphate stratum. 

(5; Eipley group.

The Cretaceous formation of Alabama probably corresponds to the 

Upper Chalk of Europe, which also, in some places, contains beds of 

phosphatic nodules. It runs from the western part of Georgia in a 

WNW. direction through Alabama into Mississippi, where it takes an 

abrupt curve to the north. After passing through the western and northern part of Mississippi it enters Tennessee and runs through that State 

almost to the Kentucky boundary line. The. phosphate deposits, it is 

said, can be traced along a considerable length of -this formation, but, 

as far as has yet been discovered, it is only in Alabama, and there only 

in a few places, that the deposits are of considerable extent. In that 

State the Cretaceous strata dip gently to the south, and as a result of 

this dip the nodule bed, at the base of the Eotten Limestone, is found at 

ten to twenty miles north of the one at the summit of that formation.

The general character of the two deposits is very much the same. 

They are composed of shells, phosphatic nodules, shell casts, and fossils, 

all much worn, broken, and rounded, and buried in a matrix of a soft, 

 white or gray limestone. The nodules are generally flat in their general shape and chestnut brown in color, and average, in size, from one-

(549)
76 ' bEPosits oir MOSMATE otf LIME.

half an inch to three inches in diameter. They are very irregular iii 

form and occasionally show one side which is completely phosphatized 

and another which is composed largely of carbonate of lime. This is 

strong evidence for the theory of their formation by the phosphatization of the surface of a calcareous bed, as mentioned in the case of the 

North Carolina deposits. The fossils of the two beds differ considerably. Ammonites are very plentiful in both, but Hlppurites and Baciilites were found in much larger quantities in the lower bed than in the 

upper one. The following two sections will show the different relations 

of the two beds:

(a) Upper bed (at Coatopa):

1. Greeusand containing nodules and shell casts, but numerous only at the base, 

4 feet.

2. Soft, calcareous rock containing nodules, 1 foot to 1| feet.

3. Rotten limestone.

(b) Lower bed (at Hamburg):

1. Greensand bearing some casts and nodules, 0 to 5 feet.

2. Gray limestone containing many nodules, 5 feet.

3. Hard, indurated sand ledge, containing shells, 8 to 12 inches.

4. Yellow sand containing shells, 2 feet.

5. Ferruginous sand containing specks of mica, about SO feet, 

G. Indurated sand ledge containing shells 8 to 12 inches.

7. Yellow sand containing shells, 2 feet.

8. Greensand.

The section of the upper bed is well seen at the town of Coatopa, in 

Sumter County. The Greensand here is often oxidized and has a rusbyred appearance; it composes a large part of the surface soil in the 

neighborhood and forms part of the so-called " Black Belt," famous 

for its fertility. It contains many phosphatic shell casts, but is generally richest in them near the line of contact with the underlying bed, 

where they sometimes make up 50 per cent, of the whole mass. Occasionally they cover the whole surface of the ground aud must be carted 

away in order to permit agricultural operations. The underlying bed 

contains many more nodules and shell casts than the Greensand. 

Sometimes it .is almost a solid mass of them with a soft, gray, calcareous 

matrix. The bed is from 1 foot to 1£ feet thick and seems to underlie 

a large extent of country. In some places the nodules and fossils are 

more scattered in the bed than in others, and in still other places the 

bed has been entirely eroded away and the Greensand comes into 

direct contact with the Eotten Limestone. Very few bones were found 

in this upper bed.

Outcrops of this same nodule bed can be seen near the Tombigbee 

River, at Moscow, and also at Livingston, on the Sucarnochee Eiver. 

In the underlying Rotten Limestone there are no phosphatic nodules.

The section of the lower nodule bed is seen at numerous places all 

across the State. Thus it is found at Eutaw, Selma, Greenborough, 

Prattville, Wetumpka, and especially well at Hamburg, near Marion,

(550)
PEKBOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF ALABAMA. 77

In this last place the surface is largely composed of greensand, though, 

in some places, this is washed off, exposing the phosphate-bearing bed. 

Where the ground has been much eroded and cut into gullies, it is covered by a solid sheet of nodules, phosphatized shell casts, fossils, ferruginous concretions, and unaltered shells. There is a much larger per 

cent, of the brown nodules here than in the upper nodule bed; but as 

in that bed, so here, the nodules are very few compared with the fossils 

and shell casts. The indurated ledge represented in the section seems 

to have the same general composition as the sand that underlies it, but 

to be in a hardened condition.

The phosphate deposits of Alabama are more difficult to mine than 

the South Carolina phosphates and cannoL be shipped as cheaply. Consequently they have not as yet been put to any practical use. But they 

have been found in sufficient quantities in several places to become of 

considerable local importance, Among other places, they are found 

in considerable quantities on the laud of Mr. J. P. Wiatt, near Coatopa, 

and of Mr. Spencer and Messrs. Davis, near Hamburg.

Table of analyses of amorphous nodular phosphates of Alabama. 

[Northern belt, (a) The nodules and phospbatic casts of fossils from Spencer's field, Hamburg, Ala.]

Surface nodules, sample I

Nodules from near Selraa .. 

Nodules from near Selma . . 

Nodules from near Selma . . 

Nodules from near Selma . .

Phosphoric 

acid.

22.00

in on

^ ^

25.66

26.1 

25.8 

36.0 

38.0

Bone phosphate.

48.00

89 Sd

77 30

55.88

56.90 

56.24 

78.48 

82.84

Aiialyist.

bam a. 

Do.

Do.

John Daniel, University of Alabama. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.

[ (6) Matrix of the nodules from Spencer's field, Hamburg, Ala.]

1

Blue matrix of nodules. .... 

White matrix of nodules . . .

Phosphoric 

acid.

5.12

1.2

4.65

8.00

2.2 

3.0

Bono phosphate.

11.16

9.16

10.14

17.44

4.80 

7.85

Aualyist.

Do.

Charles Gibson, Chicago. 

Do.

(551)
78 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL 46.

Table of analyses of amorphous nodular phosphates of Alabama Continued. 

[II. Southern belt. (Bulletin No. 5 of the department of agriculture of Alabama.)]

Insoluble 

matter.

8.48

15.02

9.38

25.52

Phosphoric 

acid.

1.10

,64

14.56

1.55

Bone phosphate.

2.40

1.39

31.78

3.38

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF MARTHA'S VINEYARD.

The phosphates of Martha's Vineyard occur as black or dark-gray 

nodules, varying from one-fourth of an inch to four inches in diameter, 

in two beds of Greensand. The beds are of Tertiary age and are well 

seen in the cliff's at Gay Head. They are each 18 to 24 inches thick 

and dip at an almost vertical angle. They are associated with beds of 

lignite, clay, and sand. The nodules are mixed with numerous bones 

of cetaceans, crustacean remains, and other fossils. The more southerly 

of the two beds contains 5 to 15 per cent, of nodules and bones, while 

the bed to the north contains in some places almost no nodules, and 

in others as much as 25 per cent, of them. The nodules have a waterworn appearance and have been much bored by marine mollusks. 

They give off a smell of decayed organic matter when two fragments 

are rubbed together, and have a hardness of about 3.

This deposit has not yet been put to any practical use. The nodules 

are probably too scattered in the bed and too expensive to mine to allow them to be of any commercial value.1

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATES OF FLORIDA.

Phosphate deposits have been found in various places in Florida, 

but as far as is yet known they are either of too small extent or of too 

poor quality to pay for mining. The only deposit which covers more 

than a few acres is found in Alachua County, near the central part of 

the State. The phosphate found here belongs to the subdivision of 

phosphatic conglomerates. The rock consists of small pebbles, from 

the size of a mustard seed to that of a pea, closely packed in a matrix 

of indurated calcareous marl. The pebbles are very compact, have a 

small conchoidal fracture and sometimes an enamel-like luster. They 

are creamy white to chestnut brown in color and are associated with

1 It seems to me certain that these beds containing nodules were deposited in the 

delta of a large river and that the nodules, together with the greater part of the fossils with which they are intermingled, were derived from pre-existing strata in essentially the same manner as those which occur iu the estuaries of the rivers near 

Charleston, S. C.

For a further description of these deposits see a report on the island of Martha's 

Vineyard, nowinpress, ,to appear in the Seventh Annual Eeport of the U. S. Geological Survey. N. S. S. o

(552)
1'ENUOSE.] 13HOSPHATES OF FLORIDA. 79

worn and rounded bones and shells. Prof. C. U. Sheparcl, sr., thinks 

that many of the pebbles may be the worn casts of marine shells, while 

some of them seem to be fragments of coral. This conglomerate occurs 

in masses weighing from one to twenty pounds. The largest mass yet 

found was 18 inches long, 14 wide, and 4 thick. The pebbles occur in a 

bed covering about ten acres arid are associated with pieces of a porous 

limestone rock, very common in the region. The bed varies from a 

fraction of a foot to five feet in thickness. Sometimes it crops out at the 

surface, and at others it is found at a depth of four or more feet. At 

Gainesville, a town 19 miles west of this bed, a similar rock is said to 

have been found, in boring an artesian well, at a depth of 248 feet.

The masses of rock are not nodules, but seem to be simply broken 

fragments. They are much weathered and rounded and are buried in 

sand.

In some places the pebbles, rounded bones, and coral fragments occur 

loose in a calcareous matrix, as if weathered out of the original conglomerate. Samples of pebbles from this loose material are said by 

one of the owners of this place (Dr. Simmons) to average 85 per cent, 

phosphate of lime, while the whole mass of the rock, as analyzed by 

0. U. Shepard, jr., averages about 48 per cent.

FIG. 31. Section in quarry at Rocky Hill, on Lochloosa Creek, near Magnesia Springs, Alachna 

County, Ma. A, sandy soil; B, calcareous nodules, -white, brown, and purple, embedded in sand; 

C, spongy, calcareous rock, blending at a depth of 3 to 4 feet into aphosphatic rock. Scale: 1 inch= 

8 feet.

On the northwest side of this bed runs a stream known as Lochloosa Creek, beyond which is a ridge rising sixty to seventy-five feet 

above the creek, and called Rocky Hill. The hill is overlaid almost 

entirely by a deposit of calcareous stones and pebbles, embedded in 

sand, which sometimes entirely runs out, and again reaches a depth of 

over six feet. Below is a soft, porous, calcareous rock, which is of a 

spongy consistency and hardens on exposure to air. It is quarried for 

building the chimneys and foundations of houses. In one of the quarries examined this formation gradually blended, at a depth of three to 

four feet, into a massive and compact phosphate rock, which is similar 

in appearance to the phosphatic fragments in the bed described above, 

except that it is in a solid mass, and is probably the ledge whence the 

fragments were derived. The surface of the spongy, calcareous rock is 

very uneven and has been much eroded (Fig. 31). It seems as if Rocky 

Hill, when submerged, was much worn before the pebbles and the sand 

were deposited on top of it.

(553)
80 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME.

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF NORTH WALES.

[BULL. 46.

The rock phosphate deposits of North Wales belong to the Caradoc 

and Bala group of the Cambro Silurian or Lower Silurian formation. 

They immediately overlie the Baia limestone beds and are overlaid by 

fossiliferous shales, sometimes more or less calcareous. They belong 

to the class of rock phosphates, or phosphates having no definite chemical composition, and are remarkable as being, geologically, the oldest 

of the commercially important phosphate beds which still preserve the 

remains of organic life.

The phosphate bed has been traced by Mr. D. C. Davies from the 

town of Llanfyllin to the hills north and west of Dinas Mowddwy. 1 Mr. 

Davies has calculated that the area already known to contain this bed 

amounts to almost 140 square miles, and he thinks it will probably be 

found wherever the Bala limestone occurs.

FIG. 32. Section of strata at Cwmgwynen phosphate mine, southwest of Llangynog, North Wales; 

. after D. C. Davies, Quarterly Journal Geological Society of London, 1875. Scale: 1 inch = 80 feet.

As will be seen from the sections (Figs. 32 and 33), the formation in 

which the phosphate bed occurs has been much twisted and contorted. 

In fact, the phosphate bed, wherever found, is in an almost vertical position. It varies from ten to fifteen inches in thickness and consists of a 

mass of black nodules, varying from the size of an egg to that of a cocoanut, "closely packed together and even running into each other." 

The nodules are cemented into a solid mass by a black matrix, and the 

whole mass gives an average of 46 per cent, phosphate of lime, while 

the separate nodules sometimes contain 64 per cent. The bed contains 

considerable graphite, which gives the black color to both the nodules 

and the matrix and often gives the former a polished and glossy ap- 

'Geol. Mag., vol. 2, London, 1875, p. 183. 

(554)
PENHOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF NORTH WALES. 81

pearance. There are numerous remains of animal life in the bed, but 

the whole deposit has been so affected by chemical action that, though 

the traces of organic forms are left, it is often very difficult to distinguish them. Still Davies1 has recognized the remains of Modiola, 

Aviculopecten, Orthoceras, Orthis, Lingula, and trilobites, besides traces 

of many other species.

A. BO D. £F.U

FlG. 33. Section of strata at Berwyn phosphorite mine, west of Llangynog, North Wales; after

D C. Davies, Geological Magazine, London, 1875. Scale: l inch=32 feet.

M. H. Johnson,2 who has made numerous sections of the North Wales 

nodules, has found that many of them contain a species of sponge. He 

has also found in the nodules fragments of mollusk and crustacean 

shells, with bodies looking like Coscinopora. From these observations 

he concludes that the nodules are of organic structure. It seems more 

likely, however, that the nodules resulted from the phosphatization of 

a calcareous bed, which may have contained the organic remains discovered by Mr. Johnson in the nodules. Davies thinks the bed represents the remains of an old Laminarian zone and that it originated by 

the phosphatization of calcareous matter by the phosphates from animal 

matter and seaweed.

The nodules have been so affected by heat and chemical action that 

they often are found blending and running into each other. They sometimes blend gradually with the matrix, the whole bed assuming a shaly 

structure, so that it is often impossible to draw .a distinct line of division. The mass of the stratum is sometimes found to have a very similar composition over large areas; but where the underlying bed be- 

.comes more arenaceous the nodules become much poorer in phosphate 

and richer in siliceous matter.3 Thus, at Green Park, the bed averages 

only 20 per cent, phosphate of lime. The phosphate stratum, in some 

places, contains numerous concretions and crystals of sulphide of iron, 

which rust on exposure to the atmosphere, thus changing the color of 

the bed from black to brown. The phosphate of lime is itself often 

replaced by these sulphides. Such is the case in many parts of the 

western outcrop of the bed, especially on the flanks of Mount Arau

1 Geol. Mag., vol. 4, London, H67, pp. ^51-253. 

* Ibid., vol. 2, n. s., 1875, p. 238.

3 This is a strong argument for the theory of the formation of the nodules by the, 

phosphatization of the underlying bed.

Q T-Q (555)
82 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

Mowddwy. Such large quantities of sulphides and graphite as are 

found in this phosphate bed, according to Davies, seem to show the 

former presence of vegetable life.

An examination of the analyses given farther on will show that there 

is little or no carbonate of lime in these phosphates. Davies, in speaking of this fact, says:!

Schmidt found in the inner side of the mouth of Unio and Anodonta no less than 

15 percent, of phosphate of lime, 3 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and 82 per cent, of 

organic matter, from -which, the inference \vas drawn that the phosphate was separated from the blood by this organ for the purpose of cell formation. 3 The doctor adds: 

" It seems probable that the carbonate is converted, in the animal, into phosphate by 

the phosphorus it contains." Here, perhaps, we have a clew to the missing carbonate. 

The great preponderance of phosphatic organisms, with which the period covered by 

the deposit commenced, gradually absorbed and secreted all carbonate of lirne, 

whether held in solution in the water or redissolved from the shells of dead mollusks ; and so, turning it into phosphate, grew and multiplied exceedingly, and became at last almost sole masters of the position by this appropriation, until the supply of carbonate of lime became insufficient for their sustenance, as the mineral conditions came on under which the overlying shales were deposited.

It seems possible, however, that the absence of carbonate of lime in 

the Wales phosphate is due to its having been leached out during the 

process of partial metamorphosis to which the bed has been exposed, 

as the effect of metamorphosis is often to segregate from the rock which 

is being acted on the minerals of which it is composed.

The phosphate bed is often separated into two or three smaller beds 

by thin bands of the underlying limestone. It is always found, however, that when the upper one or two beds, as the case may be, run into 

the overlying shale they always run out and the lowest bed is always 

the continuous one.

The bed immediately underlying the phosphate bed is a pure limestone, often covered on the surface with small brachiopods and other 

fossils, It has an average thickness of 6 inches and contains is to 20

per cent, phosphate of lime. Like the phosphate bed, it is very continuous and the two are always found together. It is underlaid by a 

large series of interstratified shales and more or less fossiliferous limestones. This formation, known as the Bala limestone, gradually runs 

into the underlying ash beds.

The phosphate bed is overlaid by a series of fossiliferous shales. 

Those immediately over it have all been phosphatized to a greater or less 

extent, and the more the phosphatization has gone on the more completely have all traces of organic life been obliterated. In the overlying shale at Cwmgwynen, Davies found remains of Ecliinosphcerites 

balticus, Caryocystites, and other echinoderms, Linf/ulcc, Modiolce, Theca

1 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1875, vol. 31, pp. 364.

2 ijnio and Anodonta, as well as all other species of the suborder to which they 

belong, are fresh-water forms, while the beds under consideration are certainly of 

marine origin. It is most likely that the phosphate matter came from brachiopods, 

and trilobiteg. N. S. S.

(556)
FENKOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF NORTH WALES. 83

Forbesii, Gyclbceras arcuatum, C. Sonax, Orthocerata, Illcenus Davisii, 

and other forms.

The phosphate bed of North Wales was discovered by a miner in 1863, 

in a ravine near Cwingwynen, 5 miles from the town of Llanfyllin. 

At first the nature and value of the bed were unknown, but finally a 

specimen was sent to Dr. A. Yolcker, who analyzed it and made known 

its importance. Several mines have since been started at Cwingwyueu, 

Penygarnedd, Berwyn, Llanfyllin, and other places, but none of them 

has been successful and at present no Welsh phospbate is mined. 

The reasons for this want of success were the distance of the mines from 

any railroad or navigable river, the low percentage of phosphoric acid 

(see analyses), and the depressed state of the phosphate market. Moreover, the bed is expensive to work, as regular mining operations are 

necessary to win the phosphate; it also often contains considerable 

iroD, which causes superphosphate made from it to have a sticky consistency.

Analyses of North Wales rock phosphates.

fl and II. Analyses of two specimens from Cwmgwynen, by Yolcker (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1875).]

I. II.

Phosphate of lime............................................... 64.16 48.50

"There was no carbonate of lime, some fluoride of calcium, alumina, and oxide of

iron. 

"The darker-colored contained more graphite and were richer in phosphate of

lime than the lighter-colored specimens."

fill. Analyses of nodule from Berwyn mine, North Wales, by D. H. Richards (ibid., vol. 31, pp

364, 365).]

Moisture and organic matter .............................................. 4.200

Sand..................................................................... 22.600

Tribasic phosphate of lime................................................ 64.165

Oxide of iron and alumina............ ... v........... ...................... 6.890

Other constituents not determined......................................... 2.145

100.000 

Another analysis of a similar nodule gave 61.44 per cent, phosphate of lime.

[IV and V. Analyses of Berwyn miiio phosphate, North Wales, by F. C. Hills and Co. (ibid., p. 365).]

IV. V.

Loss on burning............................................... 6.77 3.06

Phosphoric acid (1)........ .... ......................... ...... 22.54 20.92

Lime........ ........I.......................................... 31.08 30.13

Oxide of iron and carbonic acid............................... 19.12 22.88

Insoluble matters............................................. 20.49 23.01

Total.................................... ............... 100.00 100.00

(1) Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime........................ 49.207 45.67

Five other analyses of the bulk of the deposit, made by Messrs. Hills, gave an average of 46.85 per cent, phosphate of lime. There was also in all the samples about 

one-half per cent, of copper. Analyses of phosphate from near Llanfyllin, North 

Wales, gave Messrs. Hills "a range of from 20 to 30 per cent, of phosphate of lirne," 

(Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1875, vol. 31, p. 365.)

(557)
84 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

[VI and VII. Analyses of two samples from northwest of Dinas Mowddwy and Llan-y-Mowddwy, 

North Wales, by Hills (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1875).]

VI. VII. 

Phosphate of lime............................................ 2.90 1.72

Sulphur ...................................................... 34.38 34.20

The rest was made up of sand, iron, and alumina. ^

[Vm. Analysis of North Wales phosphatic limestone, by Volcker (Kep. Brit. Assoc. Advanc. Sci,

1865, p. 38).] 

Tribasic phosphate of lime...........'...................................... 34.92

Oxide ofirou ............................................................. 2.34

Alumina.................................................................. 6.52

Carbonate of lime......................................................... 20.75

Carbonate of magnesia ..................................................... 5.92

Magnesia, in a state of silicate............................................. 2.07

Iron pyrites............................................................... 2.79

Sulphuric acid ............................................................ 0.16

Insoluble siliceous matter ......................................... '.... .... 20.95

Organic matter and loss................................................... 3.58

100.00

[IX. Analysis of phosphatic black shale, by Volcker (ibid., p. 38).] 

Organic matter and loss ....................................... ............ 3.98

Lime....; ..--............................................................ 37.16

Phosphoric acid .......................................................... 29.67

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime, 64.16. 

Magnesia................................................................. 0.14

Oxide of iron ............................................................. 1.07

Alumina.................................,i............................... 5.84

Matter insoluble in dilute hydrochloric acid ............................... 22.14

100.00 

[X. Analysis of phosphatic black shale, by Volcker (ibid., p. 39).]

Tribasic phosphate of lime................................................ 52.15

Lime, present as fluoride of calcium and as silicate......................... 4.23

Magnesia................................................................. 0.32

Alumina.................................................................. 7.71

Oxide of iron .............................................................. 2.01

Sulphuric acid............................................................ 0.26

Iron pyrites............................................................... 7.52

Insoluble siliceous matter................................................. 22.44

Organic matter and loss ................................................... 3.36

100.00

AMORPHOUS NODULAR PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF ENGLAND.

Phosphates are found in England, both in the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. The Cretaceous phosphates are the most important, 

in both quantity and quality. They occur in two different parts of the 

Lower Cretaceous, namely, in the Upper and in the Lower Greensand.

Phosphatic beds of Cretaceous Upper Greensand. The outcrop of the 

Upper Greensand formation in England begins in the north at Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire, and runs west and southwest for about 

twenty miles, when it turns abruptly to the southeast and extends continuously in that direction to within three miles of the north coast of the 

Wash, where it becomes covered with alluvium. It appears again oil

(558)
MOSPttATEg OF ENGLAND. 85

the south shdre of the Wash at St. Edmunds and runs south by southwest to Downham Market. Here it becomes covered with alluvium 

and does not appear again for about twenty-three miles, when it crops 

out three miles below Cambridge, on the Cam. From Cambridge it 

runs in a southwesterly direction through the counties of Cambridge, 

Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Berks, Wilts, and Dorset, and reaches 

the southern coast at Lyme Eegis and Sidmouth. On the southern 

coast of Dorsetshire there are numerous outcrops of Upper Greensand, 

as well as on the Isle of Wight. In the southeast of England there 

is also a very considerable Greensand outcrop. It commences near 

Beachy Head, in Sussex, and runs west by a little north to Petersfield, 

in the east of Hampshire. Here it turns abruptly to the north and runs 

in this direction to Alton and Farnham, in Hampshire and Surrey, respectively. Thence it takes another abrupt turn to the east, and runs

in a general easterly direction until it comes to the coast agaiu, at Folkestone in Kent.

The Lower Greensand is not so continuous as the upper, but it occurs at intervals along most of the outcrops mentioned above, and in 

Sussex and Kent it is the uninterrupted accompaniment of the Upper 

Greensand. In Yorkshire it runs from Flamborough Head west for about 

fifteen miles. It crops out again with the Upper Greensand about three 

miles south of Barton and runs continuously to Burgh. Again it crops 

out near Cambridge, and extends thence to Buzzard in Bedford. From 

there on, in a southwest direction, it occursrin small outcrops along the 

line of the Upper Greensand In the Isle of Wight there are large 

outcrops of it. This same Greensand belt can be traced across the 

English Channel to the Continent. In the Brunswick and Hartz districts, at 'Goslar, Schoeppenstedt, and Salzgitter, the same nodules and 

shell casts are found as in the Lower Greeusand in Cambridgeshire and 

Bedfordshire. But, though the belt is thus seen to have a very wide 

extent, the conditions which are necessary for the profitable working 

of a phosphate deposit are so many and so rarely satisfied that the phosphatic beds have been mined in very few places throughout this many 

hundred miles of outcrop. On the Continent the bed has been worked 

to no considerable extent.

The relative positions of the Upper and Lower Greensand formations 

is best shown by a section. The following one is given by Messrs. 

Paine and Way. 1

The Cretaceous formation of England is divided into the Chalk and 

the Greensand. These again are subdivided as follows :

( 1. Soft, white chalk with flints. 

Chalk............................... .< 2. Hard, white chalk with few or no flints.

( 3. Chalk marl.

f 1. Upper Greensand and firestone rock, 

G naand I 2. Gault, or blueinarl.

......... ...................< g Lower Greensand, made of iron sand and

t occasional limestone beds. 

. Royal Agric. Soc., vol. 9, 1848. 

(559)
86 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPUA.fi} OF LIME.

The first two beds of thev chalk are very poor in phosphoric acid, 

rarely containing over twelve one-hundredths of 1 per cent., but the 

underlying marl is much richer and sometimes contains almost 2 per 

cent, of phosphoric acid. The marl is of a grayish color and contains 

specks of Greensand, which become more and more numerous until the 

marl gradually merges into the underlying Greensand bed containing 

the phosphatio nodules. The passage from the Upper Greensand to the 

Gault is often very abrupt, especially in Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, where the nodule bed often lies on the eroded surface of the 

Gault. The Lower Cretaceous deposits of Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire differ from those of the south and west of England in the 

fact that the former lack that great thickness of Upper Greensand which 

exists in. the southern counties. At the same time the lower beds of 

the Chalk are the same in both areas. In Hampshire and Dorsetshire 

there is a thin stratum, similar to the Cambridge nodule beds, which, 

like it, passes up gradually into the Chalk marl. But the difference is 

that in the case of the southern counties the arenaceous deposit, which 

sometimes reaches the thickness of many feet, comes between the phosphate bed and the Gault, while in the case of the Cambridge and Bedford deposits the nodule bed, which rarely exceeds one foot in thickness, 

rests immediately on the Gault. Concerning the absence of this arenaceous deposit in Cambridgeshire, Mr. O. Fisher1 says: "It is probably 

due to the ridge of old rocks beneath the London area, which shut off 

the early Cretaceous sea, tcKthe north of it, from those southwestern 

lands which yielded the sandy spoils." He also suspects a similar cause 

to have "produced the marked change between the Lower Cretaceous 

rocks in Cambridgeshire and the corresponding beds in Norfolk and 

Lincolnshire." Mr. Seeley2 .thinks that this increased thickness of 

Greensand .to the south and southwest is due partly to the shelving of 

the sea bottom towards the south and partly to a current piling it up

in the hollow, but principally because the southern area was nearer to 

the old plutonic rocks, whence, he thinks, the necessary ingredients of 

the Greensand came.

The principal phosphate diggings have been in the Upper Greensand 

of Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire. The nodules in this deposit are 

buried in the Greensand, which varies from one inch to a foot in thickness and which is all that is left in these districts to represent the immense thickness of Greensand in the southern counties. In fact, it is a 

matter of serious doubt with some geologists whether the two deposits 

really represent one and the same geologic horizon.

The matrix of the nodules is not pure Greensand, but is composed 

partly of siliceous and calcareous matter and partly of glauconitic and 

phosphatic grains. The siliceous matter consists mostly of colored

1 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 29, 1873, p. 62. 

8 Geol. Mag., vol. 3, London, 1866.

(560)
PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. ' 87

qaartz, obsidian, and grit. The calcareous matter is composed mostly of 

sponge-spicules, spines and plates of echinoderms, minute shells, polyzoa, 

bivalve entomostraca, microscopic corals, foraminifers, and calcareous 

concretions.1 There are also in the bed "lumps of Chalk marl2 which 

have fewer green grains in them than the matrix in which they are embedded." From this and other facts Mr. Fisher concludes that these 

phosphate beds seem to have been washed out of a calcareous marl, 

similar in character to the marl which lies above it. In short, he continues, the nodule bed is a condensation of the " Chalk marl with glauconite grains." On the other hand, Mr. Sollas thinks that the nodule 

bed has been derived from the destruction of the underlying Gault. The 

Gault contains nodules and fossils, but not nearly so many as the overlying bed. Mr. Fisher urges against this hypothesis that the nodules 

of the Gault are smaller and of a lighter color than those of the nodule 

bed proper. Though the nodules are of a lighter color on the surface, 

the interior is of a color very similar to that of the Greensand nodules. 

Mr. Sollas shows that by the action of hydrochloric acid the Greensand 

nodules assume this same color on the surface, and consequently it is 

possible that the Gault nodules may have been acted on by water, acidulated by some acid or acid salt, percolating through the bed, and thus 

had their surfaces bleached.

The phosphatic part of the nodule bed consists of shell casts, fossils, 

and nodules. There are numerous species of Rhabdospongia, Bonneyia, 

Acanthophora, Polycantha, Retis, and Hylospongla, besides many other 

Cretaceous forms. The nodules and casts are of a black or dark-brown o

color and have a very variable specific gravity and hardness.

Many of them are worn, broken, and rounded, showing them to be 

clearly derivative masses, while others are perfect in shape and show 

no signs of having been removed from their original bed.3 The derivative fossils and nodules are covered with Plicatulce, and the smooth, 

broken surfaces of many of them, which are coated in this way, show, 

as Mr. Fisher tliiuks, that they must have been phosphatized before 

being deposited in their present bed, and he thinks that the phosphate was concentrated from a carbonic acid solution by animal matter. Besides the shell casts and fossils, there are two distinct varieties of nodules proper. The first is a reddish-brown and utterly 

shapeless variety. It is very soft when freshly dug, never becoming 

harder than ordinary chalk.4 It has a very light specific gravity and 

is invariably rich in phosphoric acid.5 A second variety is much more 

plentiful than the last. It consists of a dark-brown.mass of a very 

variable shape. It is hard and heavy. It varies from pieces of rnicro-

' W. J. Sollas: Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 28, 1872, p. 398. 

2 O. Fisher: ibid., vol. 29, 1873, p. 53. 

3 O. Fisher: ibid.

4 Paine and Way : Jour. Royal Agric. Soc., 1848.

5 See analyses.

(561)
88 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LlME. [BULL. 46.

scopic smallhess to masses weighing four pounds. It occurs adhering 

to the surfaces of Syphonce, corals, and shells, and appears to have once 

been in a plastic state. This substance has been called by Dr. G. A; 

Mantell * " molluskite," and he considers it the remains of the soft parts 

of mollusks. In describing it he says:

This substance is of a dark-brown or black color, and occurs either in shapeless 

masses, which are irregularly distributed among the shells and other organic remains, 

in sandstone, limestone, etc., or as casts of shells, or occupying their cavities. » * * 

Upon analysis this substance is found to contain a large proportion of auimal carbon. 

The rocks of flrestoue at Southbourne, on the Sussex coast, are mottled with brown 

molluskite and hard amorphous concretions, consisting of carbon and phosphate of 

lime, mixed with sand and other extraneous matter. Casts of sholls of the genera 

Venus and Area, etc., entirely composed of the same kind of materials, are also 

abundant in those rocks. * * * The gelatinous bodies of the Trigonice, Osirece, 

Kostellarice, Terebrattilce, etc., detached from their shells, may have been intermingled 

with the drifted wood in a sand-bank; while in some instances the animal matter 

would remain in the shells, be converted into molluskite, and retain the form of the 

original.

Both Mr. Fisher2 and Mr. Sollas.2 who have spent considerable time 

in studying the nodule bed of the Upper Greeusand, concur in the 

belief that the nodules are not of either concretionary or coprolitic origin, but are composed of phosphatized animal matter. In this belief 

they agree with the theory of Dr. Mautell in its most important point.

Many of the nodules are traversed by shrinkage cracks and wrinkles 

and have a peculiar granulated surface like that of leather. Mr. O. 

Fisher says:

On the whole a microscopical examination of these bodies rather recalls me, so far, 

to my original opinion that they were sponges, while at the same time it must be 

admitted that in their external appearance they much resemble Alcyonaria.

It is often found that the nodules are richer in their exterior part than 

in the interior. Thus Professor Way-found the following results in analyzing different parts of a spongoicl body: 3

p . . ( 32.27 per cent, phosphate of limo.

{ 61.71 per cent, carbonate of lime.

Intermediate................................. j 13 ' 87percent- P1108?^*6 of lime-

( 67.14 per cent, carbonate of lime

j , . (10.26 per cent, phosphate of lime.

i 67.17 per cent, carbonate of lime.

Such results have been found to hold true with many other phosphates 

and show, beyond a doubt, that the phosphatization went on from the 

outside towards the interior. As regards the internal structure of 

some of these nodules, Mr. Sollas says :4

Thin sections examined under the microscope vary from colorless to yellowish, 

brown when transparent, but sometimes they are almost opaque from included earthy

1 Medals of Creation, vol. 1, p. 432.

2 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 29, London, 1873.

3 Jour. Eoy. Agric. Soc., 1848.

4 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol.29, London, 1873.

(562)
HSNBOSR.J . PHOSPHATES OF ENGLASftJ.

matter. Granular patches of a deep-red color are sometimes scattered throughout 

the lighter-colored portions. Spicules occur in many sections, presenting some of 

the most characteristic forms of sponge-spicules; as, for example, h^xaradiate, triradiate, hamate, sinuate, and connecting forms. These spicnles are frequently grouped 

together in a manner which seems to indicate that they cannot have heen washed in 

IVom the sea bed during fossilization. Globular bodies ?fr-j inch in diameter are numerous ; they seem to be gemmules. Polycislina and Xanthidict occur in some sections. 

With polarized light the sections appear distinctly cryptocrystalline, presenting an" 

appearance very nearly resembling that of chalk flints when examined in the same 

way. A very curious phenomenon may be alluded to here. A number of small circles 

may be seen in some sections, each of which is marked by a black cross, the arms of 

which radiate from the cenier to the circumference. On turning the analyzer the cross 

revolves aud, when the analyzer has been turned round 90°, is replaced by a coruplementarily illuminated cross. The explanation of these appearances seems to be as 

follows: Small G-lobigerina shells and other similar spaces occur in the nodules, into 

which the crystalline apatite, which was diffused throughout the fossil, has penetrated and crystallized inwards from their walls to their centers, thus forming a 

radiating mass of crystals. It is well known that crystals arranged in this way will 

.produce the phenomena described.

Mr. Sollas1 thinks that many of the nodules of the Upper Greensand 

are phosphatized sponges. Others he considers to be "phosphatized 

animal matter decomposed so far as to have lost all traces of its original structure before mineralization." He found fish scales and bones 

in many of these nodules, and therefore concludes that the animal matter was sometimes derived from small fish. He does not seem to take 

into consideration that the scales and bones may have been buried in 

a matrix of calcareous matter, and that this substance, whether it was 

marl or limestone, may have been phosphatized, thus forming phosphatic masses, which, of course, would contain the same fossils as the 

original calcareous substance from which they were formed.

The phosphate bed of the Upper Greensand varies considerably, not 

only in the quantity of phosphatic nodules, but also in the chemical 

composition of the individual nodules. Itis often found that two places 

may be equally rich in the quantity of nodules, while the content of 

phosphoric acid in them may be widely different.

All through the counties of Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, and Devon the 

nodules are very much more siliceous and less abundant than the nodules of Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire.2 Besides the variability in 

the phosphatic richness of the bed, it is also sometimes very variable in 

its mode of occurrence. At times it will cover many square miles continuously, while at others it occurs in pockets in the surface of the 

Gault. At other times, according to Mr. Fisher, the bed shows signs 

of contortion, as indicated in Fig. 34. It will be seen, by examining the 

analyses given beyond, that the Greensand matrix of the phosphatic 

nodules varies also very much in its content of phosphoric acid. The

1 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. 28,1872, p. 398, 

8 L. Jenyns: Geol. Mag., London, 1866,

(563)
DEPOSITS OF PMOSPHATE OF {BULL. 46.

amount varies from 2 to 10 per cent., and is probably due to small 

grains of phosphatic matter in it.

FIG. 34. Distorted bed in Cambridgeshiret England; after 0. Fisher: Geological Magazine, London) 

1871. A, shelly soil; B, clay or clayey gravel; C, white clay; D, phosphate nodule bed ; E, Gault.

Phosphatic beds of Cretaceous Lower Greensand. These beds occur between the Coral Bag formation at the base and the Gault on the top> 

Their position with regard to these formations will be best seen in Fig. 

35, section at Up ware, Cambridgeshire.1 The Coral Bag is a coralline 

rock varying much in texture, sometimes loose and porous, and at others 

compact and oolitic or arenaceous. Upon this the Kimmeridge Clays 

rest, probably conformably.2 But at some places, as at Upware, the 

Kimmeridge Clay has been washed off the Coral Eag, which, in such 

c.ases, often comes into direct contact with the overlying nodule bed. 

Sometimes, as a result of this destruction, there is a deposit of fragments of Coral Kag and Ivimmeridge Clay immediately overlying the 

Coral Eag formation.

FIG. 35. Section at Upware, Cambridgeshire; after W. Keeping. \ A, Gault and phosphatic nodule 

beds; B, clay, sand, and nodule beds; C, Kimmeridge Clay and Coral Kag; D, junction bed.

Next in an ascending series comes the "lower phosphate bed.'' 

Mr. Keeping considers this as the first definite bed of the Upware 

Neocomian. It consists of a mass, indiscriminately mixed together, 

of phosphatic nodules and shell casts, fossils, pebbles of quartz, flint, 

Lydian stone, and jasper, besides occasionally a fragment of Coral Eag. 

They are all more or less rounded and worn, though some of them still 

preserve their angular shape. The stones and nodules vary from one1-rhe Fossils and Paljeontological Affinities of the Neocomian Deposits of Upware 

and Brickhill, by Walter Keeping, p. 4. 

2 Ibid., p. 3.

(564)
PHOSPHATES 01? ENGLAND.

sixteenth to an inch in diameter and are embedded in a sandy matrix. 

Very often tbe mass has been cemented together by calcareous matter, forming irregular patches of conglomerate. There also occur in 

this bed many delicate and beautiful shells of mollusca, which are not 

at all worn, but preserve their most delicate parts intact. Lamellibranchs and gasteropoda are numerous.

Above this bed comes a bed of sand composed largely of grains of 

ironstone, quartz, chert, and Lydian stone. Near the overlying and 

underlying beds there are irregular masses of slightly phosphatic sandstone.

Next above this sand bed comes the "upper phosphate bed." It 

resembles the "lower phosphate bed" in most respects, except that its 

nodules are of a lighter color, and the bed is not cemented by carbonate of lime, so that it has nowhere been indurated into a conglomerate. 

The siliceous pebbles are the same.

Overlying this is another bed of sand very similar to the lower 

sand bed.

Above this comes a clay bed. It has been referred to the Gault, but 

Messrs. Keeping and Bonney think that it is probably the representative of a bed of sandy clay belonging to the Lower G-reensand. This 

is thought more likely, because phosphatic nodule beds, especially in the 

Cretaceous formation, usually occupy the lines of chronological breaks.

The overlying bed is another bed of phosphatic nodules. It contains many fossils and is very similar to the two nodule beds alrea'dy 

described. This bell is overlaid by the Gault formation.

FIG. 36. Section at Sandy, Bedfordshire, England, after J. F. "Walker. A, sand; B, oxide of iron

C, conglomerate; D, sand.

Sometimes the three phosphate beds mentioned above seem to combine into one (Fig 36). Sometimes, also, the lower bed is not cemented, 

but is loose and sandy, just like the upper beds. The following sections 

will show the variations in the upper Neocomiau deposits :

Section l>y W. Keeping and E. B. Tawney, at Spinney Abbey.

Ft. In. 

f 1. Brown surface earth .................................................. 1 6

(

2. Head of blueclay..................................................... 0 9 

3. Irregular gravelly zone, the pebbles being mostly flints and coprolites, 

about ..........-...........-..-...........................'......... 0 3

(565)
92 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE 6F L1M&

Ft. In. 

f 4. Blue, yellow, and coarsely mottled plastic clay, with seatte'fe'd coarse

quartz and other sand grains and numerous sandy concretions........ 2 0

5. The "silt bed," a chOcolate-bfoWn and yellowish sandy p'assing into a 

sandy clay, Which is father coarse, loose, and like an ordinary shore 

sand. It consists principally of quartz and iron grains. This bed 

passes gradually Into bed 4 ..................;.; . ii4 .................. 2 0

(j. The "upper coprolite seam," a pebble bed of pliosphatic nodules, LydB< ian stone, chert, quartz, and other pebbles as big as beans packed in 

loose, iron-colored sand. Some irony concretions occur in its upper 

part, where it passes into bed 3.................. .................... 2 0

7. The "lower coprolite seam," a thin band where the coprolites are 

darker and better than in the upper seam. The sandy matrix is 

hardened almost to a rock by carbonate of lime, which was probably 

derived from the underlying bed (a)...... ........................... 0 3

v

f A calcareous grit of coralline age. It is a hard, gritty, bedded limeC<{ stone, gray colored, with scattered large oolitic grains; no fossils

I seen................................................................

In the last section the nodules are darkest near the base. The phosphatic and siliceous pebbles are in about equal quantities. Silicified 

wood, ferruginous concretions, and hard lumps of clay are numerous. 

The nodules contain more alumina than those of the Upper Greensaud 

(Walker).

The nodules proper of the phosphate beds are of a very variable 

character, in which respect they resemble the nodules of North and 

South Carolina. They vary in size from pieces no larger than a grain 

of sand to masses weighing 3 or 4 pounds. They give off an organic 

smell when rubbed, have a cubic fracture, and vary from yellow to 

chocolate brown in color. Their hardness is 3 to 4. The darker nodules 

are near the bottom of the bed5 though, in most cases, the color depends 

on the substance originally phosphatized (Keeping). The nodules sometimes are of a perfectly homogeneous and opal-like nature. From this 

they go through all stages of sandiness, till they are simply nodules of 

phosphatic sandstone. Keeping, in describing them, says:

There are certain curious branching, interlacing, undulating, or simply straightcrossing structures forming little gutters over the surface of the nodule, and canals 

penetrating into its substance. * * * Some of these are mere shrinkage cracks 

and others are the marks of where " episites," such as Serpulcu and Polyzoa, have been 

attached to the inner surface of the original shell; others again are probably the 

work of boring creatures, especially sponges, but the great variety and many peculiarities of type that occur and their constant association with phosphatic nodules 

are facts not sufficiently explained by the accumulated work of all the above-mentioned agents. 1

These nodules are iiot so rich in phosphate of lime as those of the 

Tipper Greensand; they average 40 to 50 per cent. (Vb'lcker), while 

those above the Gault average 50 to. 60 per cent., phosphate of lime 

(Way). '(See analyses.)

1 This exactly describes the surface of many of the phosphatio nodules of the Alabama Cretaceous formation.

(566)
PBNBOSE.) PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. 93

Most of the fossils in these Lower Greensand phosphate beds have 

been derived from older formations. They are rolled and worn to such 

an extent that it is frequently impossible to identify them. Keeping, 

in speaking of the piles of phosphatic material at the mines, says, 

that '< the coprolite heap looks like one mass of Ammonites Uplex, mostly 

worn and fragmentary." The fossils are mostly worn species of mollusca of Oxfordian, Kimmeridgean, or Portlandian species of the Upper 

Jurassic (W. Keeping). Many of the derived species are of the Neocomian age, such as Ammonites Deshayesii, Ancyloceras sp., Samites 

sp., Thetis minor Sowerby, Terebratula ovoides Sowerby, and other 

forms.

Thus it will be seen that these latter fossils have been derived from 

a bed but very little older than the nodule bed, as this latter deposit 

belongs, according to J. F. Walker, 1 to the Upper Neocomian formation, Mr. Walker 2 also thinks that a large number of the derived 

fossils came from the underlying Kimmeridge Clay. Many of the 

fossils of the Upware nodule bed are preserved in amorphous or crystalline calcite, others in ferruginous sandstone and phosphate of lime. 

The fossil wood is silicified. According to W. Keeping, all the shell 

casts and fossils that have been mineralized by phosphate or limonite 

are derived fossils and belong mostly to Jurassic species. They are 

easily recognized by their rolled and water-worn condition. Walker 

divides the fossils into (a) indigenous fauna, preserved in oxide of iron, 

and (&) derived fossils, preserved in phosphate of lime. H. G. Seeley, 

on the other hand, thinks that all these fossils are natives of the beds 

in which they are found.

As regards the mode of phosphatization of these beds, Walker, Keeping, Teall, and others agree in the theory that it is the result of the 

soaking of calcareous substances in decomposed animal and vegetable 

matter. The Coral Rag fragments in the bed are not at all phosphatized. 

In this particular the deposit resembles those of Alabama and the Carolinas, where shells perfectly free from phosphatic matter are associated 

with beds of highly phosphatic nodules and fossils. This would seem 

to show that the uon-phosphatic substances were deposited after the 

nodules had been phosphatized. But Dr. C. U. Shepartl, jr.,3 and W. 

Keeping explain the phenomenon by supposing that the purer forms of 

carbonate of lime are not so susceptible to phosphatizatiou as the impure forms.

A very distinctive feature between the Upper and Lower Greensand 

phosphate deposits is the nature of the matrix of the nodules in the 

two formations. As has been already said, the matrix of the Upper 

Greensand is a calcareous Greensand containing 2 to 10 per cent, of 

phosphoric acid, while the matrix of the Lower Greensaud nodule beds

1 MOD. Fossil TrigoniiB, Pubs. Palaeontographical Soc., vol. 29, 1875, p. 145,

2 Annals Mag. Nat. Hist., 1866.

3 South Carolina Phosphates.

(567)
94 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

is a highly siliceous sand, containing no phosphate, except where the 

nodules have been decomposed. The siliceous pebbles of these lower 

beds are of very general distribution. They are found all along the 

Lower Greensand outcrop in England at TJpware, Sutton, Brickhill, 

Farringtpn, and other places, also in the Neocoinian strata at' Schoppenstedt, in Brunswick. Many of these pebbles are fossiliferous.

Mr. Keeping1 found in some chert pebbles many shells and crinoids 

of the Carboniferous age. In others he found many Jurassic shells 

and echinodertns. He thinks most of the pebbles were derived from 

an ancient barrier axis, which, iu the Lower Neocomian period, separated the north from the south Neocomian seas in Europe, but " which 

was in the time of the deposition of the iron sand series suffering rapid 

denudation and destruction."

The Lower Greensand phosphate beds have numerous outcrops in 

Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. They are, however, thought by W. Keeping 

not to be of the same age as the beds of Cambridge and Bedford, but 

to belong to the Sandgate and Hythe series.

Tertiary phosphate beds. The Tertiary phosphate deposits occur in 

or directly under the various Crag formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, and 

Essex, but are richest and most extensive in the county of Suffolk. 

The Crag of Suffolk and Norfolk runs along the coast from about 5 

miles northwest of Kromer, in Norfolk, for a distance of 70 to 80 miles 

to Hard wick, in the northern part of Essex. This belt is from 7 to 22 

miles wide, being widest in the neighborhood of Norwich and narrowest 

at Halesworth, in Suffolk. Beyond these limits the Crag often occurs 

in patches in the county of Essex. The Suffolk and Norfolk Crag does 

not extend all over the above mentioned area, but in many places it is 

covered by alluvium, and in others, especially in Essex and in the south 

of Suffolk, it has been removed by erosion, and the London clay crops 

out.

It is in the county of Suffolk, and especially in the district between 

the rivers Orwell, Deben, and Aide, and in the country surrounding 

the central mass of Coralline Crag at Sutton, that the Tertiary phosphate beds have been most successfully and profitably. worked. The 

Crag formation of this country is composed largely of the Coralline and 

Red Crags. These formations are each separable into two divisions. 

Prof. J. Prestwich2 has divided the Coralline Crag into the upper part, 

consisting mostly of remains of Bryozoa, and the lower part, consisting 

of light-colored sand with many shells mixed in with it. The two beds 

together are rarely over 20 feet thick, and rest on the London Clay 

(Eocene). The Bed Crag consists of irregularly stratified sands stained 

with oxide of iron. It comes above the Coralline Crag, though in most

Fossils arid Palseontological Affinities of the Neocomian Deposits of Upware 

and Brickhill, 1883.

Quart, Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 27, 1871.

(568)
PENROSE.] PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. 95

cases it rests directly on the London Clay, the Coralline Crag having 

been eroded. The two divisions of the Keel Crag are often very difficult 

to distinguish. The only difference is that the lower division usually 

has more shells scattered through it. According to Professor Prestwich, 

the lower division includes all the beds going under the name of red 

and Norwich Crag, while the upper division includes the Chillesford 

sands and clays. Both the Coralline and the Eed Crags belong to the 

Tipper Pliocene period and are of the same age as the Upper Antwerp 

Crag. 1

The phosphate beds occur at the base of the Coralline and Eed Crags 

and immediately over the London Clay. The bed sometimes thins out, 

and at other times it separates into two seams, divided only by a few 

feet of shelly crag. Occasionally, also, nodules, and seams of nodules, 

are found running through all parts of the Eed Crag, though the bed at 

its base is generally the largest and most continuous, The phosphate 

bed consists of a mass of phosphatic nodules and shell casts, siliceous 

pebbles, teeth of cetacea and sharks, and many mammal bones, besides 

occasional fragments of Lower Greensand chert, granite, and chalk 

flints. There are numerous fossils and shells, Cardium edule, Pectunculus glycymeris, Cyprina islandica, and other forms. The bed varies 

from 2 to 18 inches in thickness. The nodules vary considerably in 

both quality and quantity. They are at times of a compact and brittle 

nature, while at others they are tough and siliceous. They average 

about 53 per cent, phosphate of lime and 13 per cent, phosphate of iron. 

The quantity of bones in the beds also varies very much. Sometimes 

there are few and at other times there are great quantities of mastodon and rhinoceros teeth and bones of other mammals, similar in 

some respects to those at Eppelsheim in Germany.2 Large cetacean 

bones and teeth of Charcharodon and Oxychina are also found. There 

is considerable dispute concerning the origin of the fossils and nodules 

in the phosphate beds of the Crag. That most of them are derived 

masses is shown by their worn and rounded condition. Mr. Jenyns3 

believes that they have come from the London Clay, and in support of 

this view he calls attention to the similarity of the nodules of the two 

formations. Professor Prestwich4 thinks that most, if not all, of the 

nodules of the Eed Crag came from the Coralline Crag.

The phosphate deposits of Norfolk are few and scattered. Most of 

the phosphatic material from this county is in the form of mastodon, 

elephant, and rhinoceros bones from the forest and elephant beds. None 

of the Crag phosphate beds have proved so valuable as the Cretaceous 

beds. The nodules are harder and more siliceous, making them more 

difficult to grind and less valuable as a soil stimulant when in the un-

'Geol. Mag., Lonclou, 1865. 

2 E. Ray Laukester: ibid. 

s 3 Ibid., vol. 3, 1866.

4 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 27, 187J,

(569)
96 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BUM..46.

acidulated state. Besides this, they contain considerable phosphate of 

iron, which causes a superphosphate, made from such nodules, to have 

a sticky consistency and to be very liable to " revert" to an insoluble 

condition.

The Crag nodules resemble those of the Cretaceous formation, as well 

as some of those of South Carolina, in the fact that the exterior part 

often contains more phosphoric acid than the interior. The following 

analyses by T. J. Herapath1 illustrate this fact:

Exterior. Interior.

1 < 1.105 per cent, fluoride of lime. 0.611 per cent, fluoride of lime.

( 40.019 per cent, phosphoric acid. 34.015 per cent, phosphoric acid.

o ( 3.996 per cent, fluoride of lime. 1.961 per cent, fluoride of lime. 

I 32.043 per cent, phosphoric acid. 21.046 per cent, phosphoric acid.

History of the rock phosphates of England. The Greensaud of England 

has been used as a fertilizer for many generations. As early as 1790 it 

was considered so valuable as a soil stimulant that it was carried in 

carts, sometimes for m any miles, all over the counties of Essex and 

Kent. Immense pits, dug in the Greensaud marl, concerning which 

there, is no historic record and which are now overgrown by large oaks 

and other forest trees, bear witness to the great value placed on this 

marl in by-gone times. A remarkable example is seen at Worldham, 

where there is a large excavation 15 feet deep, from which, once, 

thousands of tons of greensand were removed. Bat the heaps of phosphatic nodules which are often found near these pits, and which seem 

to have been thrown away as worthless, show that the value of this 

part of the bed was not known.

It was not until nearly the middle of this century that the agricultural 

value of these nodules was appreciated. Doctors Mantel, Buckland, 

and Fitton, in the early part of the century, pointed out the existence of 

beds of nodules and fossils in the Cretaceous and Tertiary- formations 

of England, but simply spoke of them as remarkable beds of fossils and 

nodules. Mr. Berthier, in 1820, also made analyses of similar nodules 

found in France! But their use as a plant food was not recognized 

until Professor Henslow made a study of the Eed Crag nodules at Felixtow in 1842, and suggested their use in agriculture before the British Association in 1845. It was at this time that the name coprolite, or 

fossil dung, was first given to these nodules by Professor Henslow. 

At a later date he saw his mistake in believing the phosphatic masses 

to be of coprolitic origin, and considerably modified his views. It was 

certainly a most unfortunate name, as it has since been shown that real 

fossil dung is a thing of very rare occurrence, and hence the name coprolite, as applied to beds of nodular phosphates, is misleading.

Amoug the most active of the early advocates of English phosphates

'Jour. Eoyal Agric. Soc., 1851, 

(570)
PENROBE.1 PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. 97

were J. M. Paine and J. T. Way,1 who analyzed many specimens of the 

material and made many practical experiments, which went far to open 

up the phosphate mining industry in England. From that time on the 

use of the Euglish phosphatic nodules became more and more extensive, 

until within the,last few years the immense exports of phosphate of 

lime from South Carolina, the West Indies, and other localities have 

thrown so much of that material on the market that the English deposits have become a source of minor importance.

The principal mining operations are carried on in the counties of 

Cambridge, Bedford, and Suffolk. According to O. Fisher,2 writing in 

1873, the miners in Cambridge had to pay $700 per acre for the right to 

dig phosphate and had to return the land to its original level condition 

and resoil it. With all this expense the average yield was only 300 tons 

per acre, which sold at $12 a ton j while in the South Carolina diggings 

the yield is 300 to 1,500 tons per acre and it sold, at that time, for $9 

a ton. The nodules in England were dug to the depth of 20 feet, but 

it did not pay to go any deeper.

Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., informs me that he visited the diggings at 

Whaddon, near Eowsley, in 1875. They were then working at the 

depth of 8 to 18 feet, all the surface beds having been exhausted. 

Sums from $500 to $1,250 per acre were paid for the right to take the 

rock, and the yields per acre were from 150 to 400 tons. The mining 

was done in open trenches. The phosphate rock was washed in circular horizontal tubes and was kept moving by rakes worked by steam. 

The capacity was about 5 tons daily, and the cost of washing about 85 

cents a ton. Wages were $6 a week. The nodules were sun-dried and 

then carted to the railroad for 50 cents per ton.

The production for the three counties of Bedford, Cambridge, and 

Suffolk from 1875 to 1881 is given as follows :3 Tons

1875...................................................................... 250,000

1876...................................................................... 258,000

1877...................................................................... 69,000

1878...................................................................... 54,000

1879...................................................................... 34,000

1880...................................................................... 30,000

1881 ...................................................................... 31,500

Analyses of the amorphous nodular phosphates of England.

[I. "Molluskite," from the Upper Greensand, by M. Berthier.J 

Phosphate of lime......................................................... 57.00

Carbonate of lime.......................................................... 7.00

Carbonate of Magnesia ................................................... 2.00

Silicate of iron and alumina .............,.......................:.......... 25.00

Water and bituminous matter ............................................. 7.00

98.00

'Jour. Eoyal Agric. Soc., 1848.

2 Quart. Jour. Geol. SOP,. London, vol. 29,1873.

3 Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom, by Robert Hunt, F. R. S. (From D. C, 

Davies, Earthy and Mineral Mining, London, 1884.) 

Bull. 46 7 (571)
98 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.46.

fll. Phosphate from the Upper Greensand, at Dippen Hall (Way).J

Insoluble siliceous matter.................................................... 9.84

Soluble silica....... ................................................ 2.36

Phosphoric acid.......... ................'................ ................. 27.60

Equal to bone earth phosphate, 59.60.

Carbonic acid............................................................. 6.96

Lime ..................................................................... 44.56

Magnesia and loss......................................................... 0.8t

Oxide of iron and alumina................................................ 4. (51

Organic matter ....................................................... 3.26

100.00 

[III. Fossil sponge, a branching Alcyonite from the Upper Greensand (Way).)

Insoluble siliceous matter and soluble silica................................ 7.68

Phosphoric acid........................................................... 29.87

Equal to bone earth phosphate, 61.30.

Carbonic acid............................................................. 8.77

Lime ..................................................................... 42.29

Oxide of iron and alumina ................................................ 6.87

Water, organic matter, fluorine and loss ................................... 4.52

100.00

[IV. Red nodule from the Upper Greensand, at? Dippen Hall (Way).]

Insoluble siliceous matter, with a little clay................................ 7.18

Soluble silica ............................................................. 3.28

Organic matter ........................................................... 2.49

Phosphoric acid ........................................................... 27.13

Equal to bone earth phosphate, 55.96.

Carbonic acid............................................................. 8.77

Lime ..................................................................... 39.85

Magnesia................................................................. 0.96

Oxide of iron and alumina ................................................ 10.60

Fluorine...................................................... uu .......... Trace

100.26 

(V< Phosphatic noddles from the Upper Greensand (Yolcker).]

Moisture and organic matter .............................................. 4.68

Lime ..................................................................... 43.21

Magnesia................................................................. 1.12

Oxide of iron.............................................................. 2. 46

Alumina................................................................... 1. 36

Phosphoric acid.................. ......................................... 25.29

Carbonic acid............................................................. 6.66

Sulphuric acid............................................................ 0. 76

Chloride of sodium'.......... ........................................... 0.09-

Potash ................................................................... 0.32

Soda ..................................................................... 0.50

Insoluble siliceous matter................................................. 8.64

Fluoride and loss ........................ '...... ............................ 4.96

100.05 

(572)
PENROSE.] PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. 99

[VI. Tipper Greensand from Dippen Hall (Way).]

Coarse Fine

part. part.

Insoluble siliceous matter ........... ...................... . 21.85 26.25

Soluble silica........... ...................................... 20.18 18.11

Organic matter................ ..... ........................ 6.25 5.95

Phosphoric acid .................................................. 7.80 10.38

Carbonic acid..................................................... 10.91 10.34

Lime............................................................. 20.58 19.87

Magnesia.............................. ................ ...... 1.59 0.87

Oxide of iron and alumina ........ ......... ................ 8.18 6.18

Potash and soda, not estimated................ ................

97.^34 97.95

[VII. Upper Greensand from Dippen Hall ("Way).]

Coarse Fine

part. part.

Insoluble siliceous matter ......................................... 26.83 32.81

Soluble silica..................................................... 26,30 29.14

Organic matter ..............................................:.... 2.64 3.02

Phosphoric acid(1) .......... .................................. 9.31 6.61

Carbonic acid ..................................................... 2.35 2.30

Lime............................................................. 15.24 9.53

Magnesia................ ....................... ...... . 1.43 1.97

Oxide of iron and alumina ........................................ 13.11 11.46

Potash ........................................................... Notest. 3.10

Soda............................................................. Not ost. 0.00

99.94 

(1) Equal to bone earth phosphate................. .... . 19.22........

(1) Equivalent of earthy bone.............................. ............ 13.63

[Vin. Cambridgeshire glauconite (Professor Liveing).]

Water.................................................................... 10.80

Silica .................. ............................................ 51.09

Alumina.........!........................................................ 9.00

Iron(protoxide) .......................................................... 19.54

Magnesia. ....................................... .... . ...... 3.37

Lime ..................... ............................... .......... 0.30

Soda ................................................ .................. 3.56

Potash ................................................................... 2.47

100.13 

[IX. Phosphate nodules from Lower Greensand (Way).]

Insoluble siliceous matter .................................................. 43.87

Soluble silica .............................................................. 3^25

Organic matter, water, and fluorine ........................................ 3.44

Phosphoric acid...................................................... ...... 20.80

Equal to bone earth phosphate, 42.48.

Carbonate of lime.......................................................... 1.06

Lime in combination with phosphoric acid.................................. 23.86

Oxide of iron and alumina ................................................. 3.35

Magnesia and loss.......................................................... 0.37

100.00 

(573)
100 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

[X. Phosphatic nodule from Lower Greeiisand (Way).]

Silica and sand ............................................................ 13.64

Sulphate of lime.................................. ......................... 50.16

Water in combination...................................................... 14.97

Water (accidental) .............................................. ................ 7.47

Phosphoric acid............................................................. 4.80

Lime, additional........................................................... 0.27

Oxide of iron and alumina..........................._..................... 8.82

100.13

From the above analysis it will be sSen that most of the phosphoric 

acid must have been in combination with iron and alumina.

[XI. Large green grains from a Lower Greensand phosphatio conglomerate (Way).]

Soluble and insoluble siliceous matter ...................................... 18.53

Water..................................................... ................ 2.28

Phosphoric acid............................................................ 20.65

Carbonic acid........'...................................................... 4. 01

Sulphuric acid ............................................................. 5.13

Lime ....................................I................................. 34.61

Oxide of iron.............................................................. 7.24

Alumina................................................................... 0.98

Potash .......................^............................................ 1.79

Soda...................................................................... 1.87

97.09 

[.XII. Lower Greensand nodules (Volcker).]

Average samples

 of siftings from Washed rock 

layers at 1 and from another 

2 feet. place.

Water of combination................................... 5.17 5.67

Phosphoric acid......................................... A 22.39 215.12

Lime ................................................... 32.73 26.69

Magnesia, alumina, and fluorine (by difference).......... 6.64 4.51

Carbonic acid.........--...--....---...--.....--...-.-.. 3.06 22.18

Oxideof iron........................................... ^8.08 20.61

Siliceous matter........................................ 21.93 25.22

100.00 100.00 

[XIII. Partial analysis of phosphatic conglomerate, Lower Greensand, from Folkstone, by Way].

Insoluble siliceous matter ........... ............i......................... 30.60

Phosphoric acid............................................................. 7.23

Potash ..................................................................... 3.31

Soda ....................................................................... 1.02

[XIV. Lower Greensand mass, from which the principal fossils and nodules were picked, by Way.]

Insoluble siliceous matter .................................................. 75.46

Soluble silica ............................................................... 8.12

Organic matter ............... .......................^....................... 2.30

Phosphoric acid.............................................................. 0.64

1 Phosphate of lime, 48.51; carbonate of lime, 6.95. 

* Phosphate of lime, 32.76; carbonate of lime, 4.95,

(574)
PENKOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF ENGLAND. 101

Carbonic acid.... ........................................................... 5.. 64

Lime..........-...............--..... .................................. 2.01

Magnesia.............-.......-.....-....---.. ...- -.-..-.... ...--. - 0.18

Oxide of iron and alumina .................................................. ,5.59

99.94 

Analyses of crag phosphates.

Those average 50 to 60 percent, phosphate of lime (Way).

[I. Phosphate from the crag at Surrey, by Herapath.]

Water.................................................................... 3.400

Organic matter ........................................................... Trace

Silica with some silicate of alumina and silica of iron....................... 13.240

Chloride of sodium........................................................ Trace

Sulphate of soda.......................................................... Trace

Carbonate of lime......................................................... 28.400

Carbonate of magnesia.................................................... Trace

Sulphate of lime.......................................................... 0.736

Phosphate of lime (tribasic) .................................-. -- 21.830

Phosphate of magnesia..................................................... Trace

Perphosphate of iron ................... n ................................. 24.760

Phosphate of alumina...................................................... 6.998

Phosphate of manganese .............................. ...^................ Trace

Flnoride of calcium....................................................... Some

Loss....................................................................... 0.586

100.000 

[II. Partial analysis of three Suffolk nodules, by Herapath. J

Earthy and other phosphates.............................. 64.056 79.545 67.176

FJuorideof calcium....................................... 0.311 2.554 2.768

Nitrogen .................................................. Traces 0.0314 Undet.

[III. Crag nodules from coast of Suffolk (Herapath).]

Water with a little organic matter....................... 4. 000 3.560

Salts soluble in water (chloride of lime and sulphate of

soda)................................................. Trace Trace

Silicic acid, colored red by a little undecomposed silicate

of iron...... .......................................... 5.792 6.309

Carbonateof lime........................................ 10.280 8.959

Sulphate of lime........................................ Distinct trace 0.611

Phosphate of lime (tribasic)............................. 70.920 69.099

Phosphate of magnesia. ................................. Trace only Trace

Perphosphate of iron.................................... ' 6.850 8.616

Phosphate of alumina.............. ..................... 1.550 2.026

Oxide of manganese .................................... Trace 0.016

Fluoride of calcium..................................... 0.608 0.804

100.000 100. 000 

Nitrogen...... ............... .......................... .0254 Undet.

flV. Suffolk orag phosphate (Herapath).]

Water driven off at from 300°-350° F .............................. 2.600

Water and organic matter, expelled at a red heat.... .............. 9.000

Chloride of sodium, etc............................................ Evident trace

(575)
102 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

Carbonate of lime................................................. 39.500

Carbonate of magnesia...... ...................................... 0.520

Sulphate of lime.................................................. Distinct trace

Phosphate of lime...................................__.......... 15.860

Phosphate of magnesia............................................ Trace

Perphosphate of iron............................................... 9.200

Phosphate of alumina............................................. 4.708

Peroxide of iron................................._............... None

Alumina.......................................................... 6.212

Fluoride of calcium............................................... 1.698

Silicic acid........................................................ 10.601

	99.899 

[V. Suffolk phosphate nodules, by Herapath.J

Water and organic matter...................................... 7.200 9.210

Chloride of sodium and sulphate of sodium...................... Trace Trace

Carbonate of lime.............................................. 18.514 5.176

Carbonate of magnesia......................................... 0.855 2.016

Sulphate of lime............................................... Some 1.161

Phosphateof lime.............................................. 51.018' 45.815

Phosphate of magnesia _...................................... Trace Trace

Perphosphate of iron........................................... 8.902 12.47(5

Phosphate of alumina.. ^....................................... 2.700 6.387

Oxide ofmaganese............................................. 0.057 0.267

Peroxide of iron................................................ *..-.... ........

Alumina....................................................... ......... ...--...

Fluoride of calcium............................................ 3.161 2.688

Silicic acid and loss............................................ 7.593 14.804

100.000 100.000

Nitrogen ...................................................... 0.0289 0.0198

PHOSPHATES OF BELGIUM.

The phosphate deposits of Belgium belong to the upper part of the 

Cretaceous formation. They are mined almost exclusively in the province of Hainaut, which is the southern part of the kingdom, and borders on the French province of Aisne. The following section will show 

the general geologic relations of the phosphate beds of this region :

Tufeau de Ciply (Ciply Marl) l \ Craie de 

Poudingue de Ciply (Ciply Conglomerate) > Maastricht 

Craie Grise ou Brune (Brown or Gray Chalk) ' (in part). 

Craie Blanche (White Chalk).

The top bed, Tufeau de Ciply, is a soft, coarse-grained, calcareous 

rock of a white or light yellow color. It crops out in numerous places 

in the communes of Cuesmes, Hyou, Ciply, and Mesvin, and rests uncomformably on the underlying beds. In Cuesmes it comes in direct 

contact with the White Chalk (Craie Blanche), but in Ciply and Mesvin 

it is separated from it by a considerable thickness of intervening strata,

1 In his recent memoir (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, pp. 325-340,1886) Mr. Cornet 

expresses the opinion "that the Brown Phosphatic Chalk of Ciply and the Chalk of 

Spiennes should be regarded as forming together one geological whole, a peculiar stage 

of the Belgia'n Cretaceous series." N. S. S.

(576)
PENROSE.J PHOSPHATES OF BELGIUM. 103

as shown in the section above. Immediately under the Tufeau comes 

 the Ciply Conglomerate. This is a denudation deposit, and is known 

as the Poudingue de Ciply, or Poudiugue de la Malogne. 1 In some 

places it immediately overlies the White Chalk, as in the neighborhood 

of Ciply, and at others it is separated from it by a very variable thickness of Gray or Brown Chalk. The Conglomerate consists of a mass of 

phosphatic nodules, shell casts, and fossils, cemented by a calcareous 

matrix. Sometimes the bed is cemented into a solid mass, and again it 

is loose, and easily worked with pick and shovel. There are numerous shells and remains of gasteropods, lamellibranchs, brachiopods, seaurchins, and sponges. There are, also, many teeth and vertebrate bones 

of fish and sharks, all much worn and rounded, showing clearly that 

they have been changed from the bed in which they were originally deposited. Belemnitella mucronata and Ostrea vesicularis are among the 

common forms found in the bed. z The nodules vary from a quarter of an 

inch to 5 inches in diameter, and are generally of a brown color. They 

contain a small quantity of phosphate of lime (25 to 50 per cent.) compared with that of American and English phosphates, which rarely run 

under 55 per cent, and 50 per cent, of phosphate, respectively. When 

ground and heated in a dark room the Ciply phosphate shows the same 

phosphorescence as the Spanish phosphorite, but in a less degree. The 

nodule bed is very continuous at the base of the Tufeau de Ciply, 3 but 

is generally in such a thin sheet that it does not pay to work it. Occasionally, however, it has been collected in pockets on the surface 

of the underlying bed, to such an extent that it has been mined with 

profit. Such is the case in Cuesmes and Ciply, where openings have 

been made and large quantities of phosphate taken out. The thickness 

of the bed is very variable, ranging generally from a few inches to 3 

feet. The underlying bed is much worn and eroded on the top.4

It is from the bed immediately underlying the Ciply Conglomerate 

that over nine-tenths of the phosphate now mined in Belgium is obtained. 

This bed is known.as the Craie Grise or Craie Brune, and comes between 

the Ciply nodule bed and the White Chalk (Craie Blanche). It is of a 

very variable thickness, being in some places entirely eroded, so that the 

Ciply Conglomerate comes in direct contact with the White Chalk. At 

other localities it reaches a very considerable thickness, as near the town 

of Ciply, where it is 30 meters deep. The bed consists of a coarsegrained rock, easily crumbled in the fingers, softer at the top than at 

the bottom, and of a gray or brown color. It is formed of a mixture of 

grains of carbonate of lime and small pebbles of phosphate of lime, 

about the size of a pin head. The proportions of the two constituents

1 Cornet and Briart: Bull. Acad. roy. Belgiqne, 2d series, vol. 37, 1844, pp. 338,844. 

2 F. L. Cornet: Bull. Soc. ge"ologique France, 3d series, vol. 2, 1874, p. 570. 

3 Mr. Melsens: Bull. Acad. roy. Belgique, 2d series, vol. 38, 1874, pp. 25-52. 

4 F. L. Cornet: Bull. Soc. ge"ologique France, 3d series, vol. 2, 1874, pp. 567-577.

(577)
104 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.46.

are about 25 to 30 per cent, of grains of carbonate of lime, and 70 to 75 

per cent, of phosphatic pebbles. The phosphate grains are equally 

plentiful all through the upper 10 feet of the bed, but below this they 

begin to grow scarcer and scarcer, until the bed gradually runs into the" 

White Chalk (Craie Blanche). In this lower bed no phosphatic nodules 

are found, but in their place there occur beds of brown, siliceous nodules 

lying between the strata. The overlying phosphate bed (Craie Grise 

or Craie Brune) is a regularly stratified deposit and dips gently to the 

northwest.

The phosphate grains were at first thought to be glaucouite which 

had been turned brown by weathering. They are of a brown color and 

are very porous. When exposed to the action of heat for some time 

they become crumbly and very easy to grind. This is explained by Mr. 

JSTivoit 1 as being caused by the decomposition of the animal matter in 

the nodules. The specific gravity is 1.80 to 2.90. The phosphatic bed 

runs in a band of several hundred meters' breadth, through Cuesmes, 

Hyou, Ciply, Mesvin, Nouvelles, and Spiennes, all in the province of 

Hainaut. Estimating the surface of the belt as 180 hectares (444.78 

acres), and supposing that mining can be carried on to a depth of 8 

meters, there would be 14,500,000 cubic meters of workable rock in the 

place.2

The upper part of the phosphate bed averages 11.50 per cent, of phosphoric acid (see analyses p. 107). A large part (50 to 55 per cent.) is 

composed of carbonate of lime. Numerous methods have been tried to 

separate the phosphate from the matrix. Treating the mass with hydrochloric acid3 has been tried, in the hope of dissolving out the carbonate 

and leaving the phosphate untouched, but it was found that the acid 

attacked the phosphate at the same time as it did the carbonate. Another method is to expose the mass of nodules and matrix to the air for 

some time in order to allow it to disintegrate. It is then separated from 

a part of the associated carbonate of lime by shaking on a screen, or 

washing in a stream of running water, which carries off the more finely 

divided part of the carbonate. Sometimes the rock is ground, and a 

considerable part of the limestone removed by a fan. This method is, 

however, not as efficient as the washing process, and is only used 

where.water is'scarce. By none of these processes has the quality risen 

above 40 to 50 per cent, phosphate of lime.4

An examination of the analyses given will show that the freer the 

phosphatic grains are from the calcareous matrix, the nearer they approach in composition to the nodules of the Ciply Conglomerate.5 They

'Mr. Nivoit: Comptes rendus Acad. sci., Paris, vol. 79, 1874.

2 Cornet and Briart: Bull. Acad. roy. Belgique, 2d series, vol.37, 1874, p. 841.

3 A. Petermann : Bull. Acad. Sci. Roy. Belgique, vol. 39, 1875, p. 31.

4 According to Cornet experiments are now in progress which indicate that the proportion of phosphate may .be raised to 65 per cent. See Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 

London, vol. 42, 1886, p. 334. N. S. S.

5 Mr. Nivoit: Compt. Rendus Acad. sci., vol. 79, Paris, 1874.

(578)
PENROSB.J PHOSPHATES OF BELGIUM. 105

resemble very much in composition the nodules of the Marues Crayeuses 

in France. The Poudingue de Ciply and the underlying Craie Grise or 

Craie Brune combine to make a formation very similar to.the phosphate 

conglomerate of New Hanover County, the Poudingue resembling the 

upper part of the New Hanover bed and the Craie Grise or Oraie Bruue 

resembling the lower part. As will be seen by referring to the description of the North Carolina bed, the upper part contains much larger 

nodules and is more compact than the lower part, which is of a loose 

texture and has nodules of more uniform composition than the upper 

part. The nodules of the lower part of the New Hanover bed resemble 

those of the Craie Grise or Craie Brune both in decreasing in quantity 

at a depth and in their brown color. The principal differences are that 

the American beds are of Tertiary age, while the Belgium beds belong 

to the Cretaceous period. The nodules are smaller in the Chalk beds 

than in the lower part of the New Hanover beds, while the nodules of

the Ciply Conglomerate are apt to be larger than those of the upper 

New Hanover bed. Also, the nodules of the upper part of. the New 

Hanover beds are of more variable physical and chemical character 

than those of the Ciply Conglomerate.

The phosphates of the Ciply Conglomerate bed were discovered as 

early as 1858 by Mr. Lehardy de Beaulieu,1 and were described again in 

18G6 by Messrs. Cornet and Briart.2 But it was not until 1873 when 

Messrs. De Cuyper and Gendebien and Mr. Desailby opened mines, that 

the phosphates of Belgium were worked.

The phosphates of the Craie Grise were discovered in 1873 by Messrs. 

Cornet and Briart,3 and since that time they have been almost the only 

beds worked, as they have proved more profitable than the Conglomerate bed. The mining is generally done in open trenches, though shallow shafts are sometimes sunk, and horizontal galleries are run in from 

the sides for a distance of 10 to 12 meters.

1 M6moires et Pub. Soc. sci. Hainaut, 2d series, vol. 7, 1860.

2 Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, vol. 22, 1866.

3 Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique, vol. 37,1874.

NOTE. As this report is going to press I have received a memoir of Mr. F. L. Cornet, 

published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, August 2, 

1886, pp. 325-340, entitled "On the Upper Cretaceous series and'the Phosphatic beds 

in the neighborhood of Mons (Belgium)." This valuable memoir contains some important information concerning the geological and economic history of the region 

about Mons. The most important points are summarized below:

Production of the Mona district in English tons.

Tear. Tons.

1881 ............................ 29,528

1882 ............................ 40,043

1883 ............................. 58,660

1884 ............................ 85,000

Year.

1877 ............................ 3,850

1878 ............................ 5,630

1879 ............................ 7,578

1880 ............................ 15,500

The most important points set forth in this contribution concern the circumstances 

which have led to the formation of the phosphates of the Mona district. The author

(579)
106 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL, 46.

Analyses of the amorphous nodular phosphate of Belgium. 

[I. Ciply Conglomerate nodules (A. Petermann, Bull. Acad. roy. Belgique, vol. 39).]

Water and organic matter ................................................. 6.39

Carbonate lime ;........................................................... 40.55

Phosphate lime (21.82 phosphoric acid) ..................................... 47.63

Sulphate lime.............................................................. 3.19

Silica...................................................................... 0.31

Magnesia (chlorine and alkalies not determined)............................ 1.93

100.00

[II. Nodules (Nivoit, Assoc. fran§. avanc. sci., 1875).]

Constituents.

(1) Equal to phosphate of lime.....

From 

Perth es, 

at base of 

Craie 

Blanche.

25.10

1.65

1.20

50.89

21.10

0.14

100. 08

46.06

0 95

From Ciply 

Conglomerate.

25.55

1.30

0.90

51.60

20.35

0.12

' 0.25

0.18

100. 25

44.42 

0.35

Craie Grise 

(whole 

nines, nodules and 

matrix).

31.00

2.10

1.10

54.00

11.13

99.33

24.30

a Some of the nitrogen is in the form of ammonia salts.

clearly shows that these phosphates have been formed by the concentration of phosphatic matter originally disseminated in lime carbonate, the concentration having 

been effected by the action of water containing carbonic acid gas derived from decayed vegetation. Even iu its somewhat concentrated form the proportion of lime

phosphate is too low and that of lime carbonate too high for the material to be used 

in the manufacture of superphosphates. "But," says the author, "by simple mechanical processes, either by dry or wet methods, a product is obtained which contains from 40 to 50 per cent, of phosphate. Some experiments now being made lead 

us to hope that a proportion of 65 per cent, may be reached." These experiments in 

concentration have a great interest to us, for the reason that they may show the way 

by which the low-grade phosphates of Alabama and other parts of this country can 

be utilized.

The diagrams accompanying this report are of interest, as they show the relation 

of the phosphatic deposits to the erosive agents which have served to bring about 

this concentration in superficial beds. N. S. S.

(580)
PENK08B.] PHOSPHATES OF NORTHERN PRANCE. 107

[III. CraieBrune (Nivoit, ibid.)l

a

Constituents.

Sulphuric acid..........................................

Nodules and

mixed. matrix 

2

QO

53.24

0 19

1.01

0 10

28.10

0.89

11.66

1.06

T^Tinft

100. 00

"Washed nodules.

4.40

52.00

Trace

1.29

0.28

24.32

0.92

15.19

1.60

100.00

[IV. CraieBrune (Petermann, Bull. Acad. Sci. roy. Belgique, vol. 39, p. 34).]

Phosphoric acid.

(a) Mass poor in phosphate grains.. ........__......_.................. 10.60

(b) Mass poor in phosphate grains......................................... 9.27

(c) Mass rich in phosphate grains ......................................... 13.90

(d) Incoherent fragments ................................................. 10.87

(e) Incoherent fragments .....................__........................ 11.62

(/) Incoherent fragmentsi................................................. 10.87

IV. Craie grise ou brune (Nivoit, Assoc. frai^aise avanc. sci., 1875).]

Loss by calcination......................... .............................. 31.00

Sand and clay ............................................................ 2.10

Phosphoric acid........................................................... 11.13

Lime ............................................ .. . .

Oxide of iron..................

Loss and undetermined matter.

54.00

1.10

0.67

100.00

PHOSPHATES OF NORTHERN FRANCE.

The phosphates of northern France occur mostly in the provinces of 

Ardennes and Meuse, though they are also found in smaller quantities 

in other northern provinces. They are in the Cretaceous, and, like 

the phosphates of the English Cretaceous, appear both at the summit 

and base of the Gault (Gault Argileux). But there is also a third bed, 

which is not found in England, and which occurs immediately under 

the Craie Blanche, a calcareous bed corresponding to the Upper Chalk 

of England. The following section will show the relative positions of 

these beds, in descending order:

(1) Craie Blanche (" Upper Chalk").

(2) Marnes Crayeuses ("Chalk Marl").

(581)
108 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OP LIME. [BULL.46.

(3) Sables Glauconieux (Chloritic Marl of England).

(4) Gaize (Upper Greensand of England).

(5) Gault Argileux (Gault of England).

(6) Sable Vert (Lower Greensand).

The above section can be seen in many places in the western part of 

the provinces of Ardennes and Meuse.

The nodule beds in the Upper and Lower Greensand resemble, in 

many respects, the corresponding beds in England. The Lower Greensand has a very variable thickness, sometimes running out almost 

entirely, and at others attaining a depth of 50 feet. It is at the base 

of this mass of sandy cla.y, colored sometimes by grains of glauconite, that the Lower Greeusand phosphate bed occurs.1 The nodules 

are rounded, worn, and mixed with many fossils and shell casts. They 

vary from the size of a nut to that of a man's fist. They are of a brown 

color, and are generally of a lighter hue on the surface than in the center. Sometimes the nodules occur loose in the sand and at others, as at 

Clermont and Varennes, they are cemented into a conglomerate. There 

are in the bed numerous shark teeth, shells, remains of crustaceans, and 

other fossils. The nodules often contain grains of quartz and greensand, 

veins or crystals of pyrite, gypsum, and sometimes of galena. There 

are also often associated with them concretions of pyrite, crystals of 

gypsum, and balls of ferruginous clay.

The French nodules resemble the English in being of a variable consistency, sometimes being very compact and glassy in appearance, and 

at others being so siliceous that they often, as at Beurey. look like 

grains of sand cemented by a little phosphate. It has already been 

shown that the composition of such nodules, at least so far as the relative amounts of silica and carbonate of lime are concerned, depends 

largely on the character of the water bottom from which the nodules 

were formed.

The nodule bed of the French Lower Greensand is very continuous 

and rarely runs out,1 though it varies considerably in thickness, ranging from two to nine inches, and averaging about seven inches.2 There 

are also nodules, more or less phospliatic, scattered through the overlying Lower Greensand, as well as through the Gault, but they are not in 

sufficient quantities to be of any commercial importance. The nodules 

and shell casts of the Gault are much more homogeneous and compact 

in their composition than those of the Lower Greensand.3

The next phosphate bed, in an ascending series, comes in the Upper

1 Mr. Nivoit: Assoc. franp. avanc. sci., 1875.

2 The nodules contain 8.80 to 50.54 per cent, phosphate of lime and average 39 per 

cent.

3 It will be seen that there is only one regular bed of nodules in the French Lower 

Greensand, while in the English formation of the same horizon there are three beds^ 

which, however, often run into each other and form one stratum.

(582)
FKNUOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF NORTHERN FRANCE.

Greeusand, or " Gaize," which is a lenticular deposit lying between the 

Gault beneath and the Sables Glauconieux above. It reaches its maximum thickness of 105 meters near the town of d'An try. It runs out 

in the north at d'Attigny and in the south near Nettancourt. It is a 

more or less clayey and siliceous deposit, often containing a large amount 

of silica in a semi-gelatinous form. The phosphate bed lies about 50 

feet from the base of this deposit, and is irregular and undulating. It 

is of variable thickness, ranging from two to twelve inches and averaging about five inches. 1 The nodules average 55 per cent, phosphate of 

lime and are of the same general character all through the bed. Their 

surface is black or dark green, and is richer in phosphate than the 

interior, which is often simply a mass resembling in every respect the 

Gaize formation surrounding the nodules. In this respect these resemble some of the English phosphates, which are often found to contain 

50 per cent, of phosphate on the exterior part, while towards the 

interior the quantity of phosphoric acid grows less and less till, in 

the center of the nodule, there is a mass of marly sand or sandy marl. 

The fossils are very numerous and are all much rolled and worn. In 

the Sables Glauconieux, which overlie this bed, there are found very 

similar nodules. They do not, however, occur in a regular stratum, but 

are scattered through the formation.

The last bed of phosphate, in an ascending series, which is found in 

the Ardennes and Meuse Cretaceous, lies at the base of the Craie 

Blanche (Upper Chalk), and on top of the Marries Crayeuses (Chalk 

Marl). These nodules differ considerably from the underlying phosphates. They are of a white or gray color, homogeneous in composition, 

and consist almost entirely of carbonate and phosphate of lime. The 

bed is of very little commercial importance, as it is thin, irregular, and 

apt to run out.

All these French Cretaceous phosphates are very soft and porous, 

and can absorb a large amount of water. They easily disintegrate on 

exposure to air, and are readily ground to an impalpable powder. In 

fact, those of the Marnes Crayeuses are so soft that they go to pieces 

while being washed, and are, therefore, not much used. The French 

differ from the Belgium nodules in having more siliceous matter and less 

carbonate of lime.2

The nodules are dug in trenches or in shafts, from which galleries 

thirty to forty feet long are run. They are washed by throwing them on 

a screen over which a stream of water is running, thus reducing the mass 

to from one-half to one-third of its original weight. When water is 

scarce they are allowed to lie exposed to the air until dry, and then 

shaken on a screen. Thus cleaned they retain 10 to 15 per cent, of their 

original matrix. They are then broken and ground.

1 Nivoit: Assoc.franc, avanc. sci., 1875.

2 Mr. Nivoit thinks that the nodules were formed by a phosphatic solution coming 

in contact with carbonate .of lime either already deposited or being deposited.

(585)
110 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

The principal phosphate raining districts are the canton Grand Pre", in 

Ardennes, and the cantons Clermont, Louppy-le-Chateau, and Villotte, 

in Meuse. The nodules of the Lower Greensand have been more extensively mined than the other beds, having been worked in seventy 

communes; while the Upper Greensand nodules are worked in twelve, 

and the Marnes Crayeuses in only one commune (at Sainte Marie, near 

Vauziers). The nodules at the base of the Craie Blanche have not been 

profitably worked in either Ardennes or Meuse.

The production of phosphate of lime from the north of France in 1875 

was 66,000 tons, of which 41,000 came from Meuse and 25,000 from 

Ardennes, and 1,500 workmen were employed in washing and mining.

Following is a table1 showing the cost of mining and shipping one 

cubic meter of nodules from the Lower Greensand, allowing 1,500 

kilograms to the cubic meter. Also a table showing the expense of 

treating in the same way one cubic meter of Upper Greensand nodules, 

allowing in this case a weight of 1,600 kilograms to the cubic meter.

Cost of mining and shipping phosphates of northern France.

Items of expense.

\V&si}in£?

Total for a cubic meter. ...........................

Total for a ton.......................................

Green- Lower

sand.

France. 

4.00

1 f\ 7^

4.00

2

CA

9.00

1.75

5.00

42.00

28.00

Upper Greensand.

Francs. 

10.00

31.00

4.00

5.00

10.40

2

CA

5.00

67.90

Analyses of amorphous nodular rocTc phosphates of northern France.

[I. Grand Pr6 nodules, Upper Greensand, by Nivoit.] 

Loss by calcination......................................................

Clay, sand, and greensand ................................................

Phosphoric acid..~.......................................................

Lime ....................................................................

Oxide of iron..........-.....---.-........................................

42

20

27

3

[II. Nodules from base of Craie Blanche by Nivoit.] 

Loss by calcination ........................................................ 25.10

Clay and sand ............................................................. 1.65

Phosphoric acid............................................................ 21.10

Chlorine, 0.14

Lime...................................................................... 50.89

Oxide of iron .............................................................. 1.20

100.08

1 Nivoit: Assoc. franc, avanc. sci., 1875. 

(584)
PENR08E.] PHOSPHATES OF CENTRAL FRANCE. Ill

[III. Similar nodules, analyzed at the HScole des Mines, Paris.]

Silica...................................................................... 4.80

Alumina and oxide of iron.................................................. 3.20

Carbonate of lime.......................................................... 45.84

Phosphate of lime.......................................................... 46.13

100.00

[IV. Sables Verts nodules, by Nivoit (Assoe. franc, avanc. sci., 1875).]

Loss and matter not determined . .

Total........................

I. From 

Islettes.

15.00

27.98

18.72

4.30

21.00

2.10

0.90

100. 00

II. From 

Louppy le 

Chateau.

9 an

23.80

22.03

2.12

11.30

29.33

1.82

100. 00

III. From 

d'Andernay.

10.50

31.03

18.78

0.89

15.65

20.80

2.35

100. 00

IV. From 

Beurey.

8.00

39.80

16.30

0.92

10.60

22.00

0.89

1.49

100. 00

[V. Gaize nodules from Grand Pr6, by Nivoit.]

Loss by calcination............................................................................ 7.20

Sand and clay.................................................................................. 13.50

Phosphoric acid ..................................... ....................................... 31.00

Sulphuric acid............... ................................... ......................... 1.00

Oxide of iron ..........I......... ........ ................................................ 7.50

Lime .......................................................................................... 38.50

Loss and matter not determined............................................................... 1.30

Total.................................................................................... 100.00

[VI. Nodules from the Marnes Crayeuses, Sainte-Marie, by Nivoit.]

Loss by calcination ............................................................................ 16.20

Sand and clay.................................................................................. 26.30

Phosphoric acid................................................................................ 18.00

Oxide of iron .................................................................................. 12.15

Lime ......................................................................................... 27.35

Total.................................................................................... 100.00

PHOSPHATES OF CENTRAL FRANCE.

The phosphates of the center of France, in the department of Cdted'Or, and in the southeast, near the source of the Rhone, around Bellegarde, are of the Lower Gault and Lower Greensand formations. They 

differ in no material way from the corresponding beds in Ardennes and 

Meuse. The same formations are worked farther south along the 

Rhone, at Seyssel, near Grenoble, and elsewhere. In Isere and Drome 

there is a bed not represented in the north; it is a thin, glauconitic 

stratum, lying between the Valenginien and the Marnes d'Hauterive. It 

contains Belemnites dilatatus and Belemnites pestilliformis. The same

(585)
112 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

bed also crops out near Castellane and Nice. It is of very little commercial importance.

The phosphate bed of Cote-d'Or consists of a bed of yellow sand of 

fine texture, mixed with shells, fossils, and phosphatic nodules, which 

often form a separate bed in the sand. The bed immediately underlies 

the gray and red clays of the Gault.

PHOSPHATES OF RUSSIA.

The principal phosphate deposits in Russia are found in the Cretaceous formation, though deposits of very limited extent have also been 

found in the Tertiary, Jurassic, and Silurian. The Cretaceous phosphates are developed here on a larger and more continuous scale than 

those of any other part of Europe or those of America. The main deposit lies between the Volga and the Dnieper Rivers, and the area 

covered has been estimated by Yermoloff at 20,000,000 hectares (about 

50,000,000 acres). It begins in the government of Smolensk aud extends almost uninterruptedly in a southeasterly direction to beyond 

Woronesch. This area is about 370 miles long by 60 to 125 wide. South 

of this belt the phosphate bed is lost under the overlying beds, but it 

reappears again on the southern boundary of the Cretaceous basin. 

North of Woronesch the bed has been destroyed by erosion, but it is 

found again 125 miles northwest, in the neighborhood of the villages of 

Tambof and Spask and Simbirsk. Besides these principal localities, 

the phosphate bed is found in several other places between the Baltic, 

Caspian, and Black Seas. Mr. Yermoloff, l in speaking of the great extent of the Russian phosphates, says:

Nous ne croyons pas exage"rer en affirmant que la Eussie centrale repose sur du phosphate de chanx, qu'elle pourrait en paver la moiti6 de 1'Europe, taut les couches 

qu'elle renferme sont iue"puisables de richesses.

The Cretaceous series in central European Russia forms a basin, only 

the northern boundary of which has as yet been thoroughly explored. 

The phosphate beds are found at two different horizons in this formation. 

The first is at the base of the White Chalk or Craie Blanche, and corresponds to the White Chalk bed of Ardennes and Meuse. The second 

is at the base of the Greensaud (Cenomanian, or Gres Verts) and is 

mixed with glauconite and sand. It corresponds to the beds of the same 

horizon in central and northern France. The deposit at the base of the 

Chalk is the most important, and the onft most often seen. The phosphatic material occurs in the form of shell-casts, nodules, and fossils, 

mixed together in a bed of gray or yellow sand, and is commonly known 

as "ssamorod" (native stone). The nodules are of a black-brown or 

gray color, and are often cemented together, forming a solid mass, which 

is used as a building and paving stone. The phosphate often occurs in 

several different beds, separated only by a thin layer of calcareous or

1 Alex. Yermoloff: Jour, agric. pratique, 1872. 

(586)
U. 3. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN NO. 46 PL. Ill

EUROPEAN RUSSIA

SHOWING THE PHOSPHATE BEDS

PHOSPHATE BEDS

PROBABLE EXTENSION OF BEDS 
PENBOSE.] PHOSPHATES OF RUSSIA. 113

siliceous matter. There are usually from one to three of these separate 

beds and sometimes as many as seven. Their thickness varies from 6 

to 20 inches.

The following sections by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., will show the position of the phosphate beds:

Section 1. In the township of Briansk, government of Orel, on the banks of the 

Desna, the ssamorod occurs in large flat pieces, 3 to 4 feet square and 10 inches 

thick.

The order of occurrence is as follows:

(1) Argillaceous marl.

(2) White chalk.

(3) Siliceous marl, with thin layers of chalk and small nodules of phosphate of lime

11 feet thick.

(4) Ssamorod occurring (as above described) in flat slabs.

(5) White sand 2 feet thick.

(6) Second deposit of ssamorod, in nodules; 8 inches thick.

(7) Brown sand over 5 feet thick.

The upper deposit of phosphate slabs consists of hard brown nodules, cemented together by siliceous and calcareous matter. The lower layers are dark green and soft 

when first dug.

Section 2. The 'same slabs also occur in the neighborhood of Kursk and towards 

Orel. At Dmitrovsk the occurrence is as follows:

(1) Red clay, 7 feet thick.

(2) White, calcareous marl, containing many small, phosphatic nodules, 4 feet thick.

(3) Very small nodules of phosphate cemented by calcareous matter, 14 inches thick.

(4) Thin layer of brown quartz sand with small nodules. *

(5) Phosphatic slabs, 10 inches thick.

These slabs are not flat on the upper side, but irregular and kidney-formed. The 

size of the slabs varies considerably ; some are as large as 3 feet long by 2 wide. 

Section 3. The occurrence at Jablovsk is as follows:

(1) Soil and earth.

(2) Marl, a few feet in thickness.

(3) Chalk, a few feet in thickness.

(4) Siliceous marl, with fine grains and pebbles of phosphate, 1 to 2 feet thick.

(5) Sand a few inches thick.

(6) Phosphate rock.

Here the rock comes to sight on the sides of water-worn gullies in the rolling 

country. 1

The phosphate stratum underlies an immense extent of country, but 

it is often at such an inaccessible depth, that most of it is of but little 

practical value, and it can only be profitably mined where it crops out in 

the ravines. Besides their inaccessibility, the nodules are of poor 

quality, varying, as they do, in their content of phosphoric acid from

12 to 35 per cent., and averaging only 20 per cent.2 The nodules are 

very siliceous, the grains of sand being plainly visible in them. In this 

respect they very much resemble the No'rth Carolina Tertiary phosphates.

 ij)r. c. U. Shepard, jr., MSS.

2Alex. Yermoloff, Jour, agric. pratique vol. 1,1872.

Bull. 46 8 (587)
114 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [Bum4H.

When the nodules are cemented together in slabs, the masses are 

generally 1 to 2 feet square and 8 to 12 inches thick. Their upper surface is smooth, shiny, and mammillated; the lower one, which is irregular and uneven, shows plainly that the slabs are composed of nodules 

held together by a siliceous and calcareous cement.

According to Yermoloff the beds of Smolensk, Orel, Kursk, and Woronesch contain not less than 6,000 tons»per acre, while those of Tambov, which are said to be the richest in Eussia, contain 20,000 to 30,000 

tons per acre.

As regards the origin of these phosphates, Count Keyserling thinks 

that they were formed by carbonated waters dissolving the phosphate of 

lime of the bones and other phosphatic matter of dead animals and redepositing it in a bed of siliceous and calcareous marl.

The existence of ssamorod in central Eussia has been known ever 

since the early part of this century, but its value was not appreciated. 

In the geological survey of Eussia, by Sir E. Murchison, the phosphate 

rock is simply spoken of as " a shelly agglomerate and concretionary 

iron-stone," and several deposits of it are ospoken of as " ferruginous, 

siliceous, and concretionary banks." The discovery that ssamorod is 

a phosphatic rock is due to Professor Chodneif, of St. Petersburg-, in 

1845. Count A. Keyserling and Professor Claus, of Dorpat, first made 

known the existence of phosphate in the departments of Kursk and 

Woronesch a few years later. In 1866, Professor Engelhardt,' in his 

geological survey of Eussia, afforded valuable information coucerniug 

the extent, value, and accessibility of the phosphatic beds.

Several factories have been started to make use of these deposits, but 

generally with little success. Large works were started at Ukolowa, 

Eiga, and in Kursk, but were soon closed. The phosphate is of too 

low grade to pay for the expense of mining it.

Besides the beds already described, phosphatic deposits of much more

limited extent have been found elsewhere in Russia. Thus Professor 

Schwackhofer,1 of Vienna, has discovered a deposit of phosphatic nodules in the Silurian schists of Poland, on the Dniester. The average 

of twenty-five analyses gave 74.23 per cent, bone phosphate, which 

is much higher than the average of Eussian Cretaceous phosphates. 

The amount of phosphatic material in the bed is, however, very limited, 

and consequently it is of no commercial importance. A phosphatic 

limestone containing 12 per cent, of phosphoric acid had also be6n discovered in the government of Novgorod.2

1 Ueber das Vorkominen und die Bilduug von Phosphoriteri an den Ufern des Dniesters in Russisch-Podolien, Galizien und der Bukowina, by Professor Schwackhofer.

2 A. Yermoloff, Jour, agric. pratique, vol. 1,1872.

(588)
PENROSE.] PHOSPHATES OF EUSSIA.

Analyses of the amorphous nodular phosphates of Russia.

115

[Analyses given Dr. C. IT. Shepard, jr., by T. Lahusen, of the Imperial School of Mines, St. Petersburg.]

[With the exception mentioned under the head of notes all the samples analyzed were nodular.]

Locality.

Belskaga in 

Koslavl.

Do.........

Seschti in Roslavl.

Briansk.. ...... 

Do.........

Linbachina in 

Briansk.

Do.........

Kotovetz i n 

Schtyrovosk.

Turoff. ........

Bytschkoff.....

Spask.... ...... 

Do.........

Do.........

Do.........

Government.

Smolensk . 

....do.....

....do .....

Orel...... 

....do.....

....do.....

....do..... 

....do.....

Kursk .... 

....do.....

....do.....

....do.....

....do..... 

....do.....

....do .....

....do.....

Chemist.

Engelhardt . . .

Schmidt ......

Engelhardt . . .

Morkjraff. ....

Malyschatf . . .

....do.........

....do.........

....do......... 

....do.........

....do.........

....do.........

Bone 

phosphate of 

lime.

31.15 

60. 42 to 63. 39

36.18

C 35. 25 

\ 39. 26

33.37

45.36

31.92 

62.65

59.01 

C 28. 92

36.87

29. 92 to 40. 47

36. 18 to 41. 24

15. 98 to 60. 76

60.00 

40.32

58.64

27. 57

Sand.

43. 69 to 50. 13 

5. 51 to 7. 61

44.57

39.77 

37.43

48.25

28.79

47.47 

9.15

11.97 

57.10

to 53. 70 

44.92

43. 29 to 50. 45

45. 26 to 35. 50

13. 03 to 54. 16

9.50 

41.28

12.25

59.70

Notes.

Siliceous.

Siliceous.

Green and soft. 

Brown and hard.

meal.

Gray. 

Black.

Cemented in siliceous 

chalk. 

Upper side of flat cakes.

Lower side.

Argillaceous.

Do.

[Analysis by Dr. C. TJ. Shepard, jr., of phosphate rock ground at the mill at tTkolowa, Central Bussia.1 !

Quartz ...................

Organic matter ...........

Sulphate of lime ..........

Bone phosphate of lime .:. 

Carbonate of lime ........

Fluoride of lime ..........

Phosphate of magnesia....

Alumina and oxide of iron

|By Dr. 0. tT. Shepard, jr., Jablovsky phosphate rock.2]

Phosphoric acid....................

Equivalent bone phosphate of lime. 

Sand and insoluble siliceous matter.

34.05

0.90

1.60

42.05

12.23

6.98

1.30

1.16

100.27

13.35

29.14

54.40

1 Ground phosphate rock partially freed from sand.

2 A superphosphate made from 12 parts (by weight) of this phosphate and 9 parts 

of sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.50) gave a product which was wet, sticky, and 

acid.

(589)
116

Phosphoric acid. 

Lime ...........

Magnesia .......

DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

[Analysis of Russian phosphate rock, by Tormoloff.]

IUULL. 46.

20.26

29.07

0.00

[Russian rock phosphates, by Yermoloff.]

,

Block of nodules from oneof the richest beds of the government of Tarn bov, by Yernioloff ......................

Fossil bone from same locality as last, analyzed at AgriFossil wood from phosphate bed near Spask, byEngelhardt

Phosphate from government of Orel, analyzed at the

01

 e

p 

a

c5

0

50.00

9.50

59.70

35.50

1.45

7.10

o

t-

,3-0

P-'o 01 a

a

ft*

13.60

27.48

12.63

20.26

31.76

35.23

29.84

-d'o

o

P

o

.3

OS

O

3.45

3.95

1.98

3.44

6.06

 a

o

o

A

5*

m

.86

0.44

0.85

......

1.39

6

a

1-1

21.00

42.00

18.54

29.07

48.53

51.90

47.99

cS

01 

CD

P

«

^

0.65

0.40

1.4E

0.47

 a P

p S

1 «

,3 x

"1 °

2.20

3.19

3.47

0.32

1.15

0.89

I Analysis of Silurian phosphate rock from the Dniester, by Professor Schwackhofer.]

Phosphate of lime....................................................... 74.23

Saud and insoluble matter............................................... 5.61

Fluorideof lime...............i......................................... 6.00

Oxide of iron ........................................................... 0.50-5.0

PHOSPHATIO LIMESTONE BEDS.

Under this heading are included those sedimentary limestones which 

contain considerable quantities of phosphate of lime. Such deposits 

have been found in Kentucky; and Yermoloff mentions that a limestone containing 12 per cent, phosphate of lime exists in the governnient of Novgorod, Eussia.

Most limestones contain a small per cent, of phosphate, but as yet 

very few have been found which contain large amounts, and none are 

known which have become of commercial importance.

PIIOSPHATIC LIMESTONES OF KENTUCKY.

Several beds of phosphatic. limestone have been discovered by Prof. 

N. S. Shaler in Kentucky, but the one richest in phosphate of lime was 

found in Fayette County.1 It belongs to the lower part of the Cincinnati group and consists of a thin stratum, never reaching a greater 

thickness than from 6 to 12 inches. It is a " somewhat friable rock of 

a bluish gray color; brownish gray on the weathered surfaces; containing many microscopic marine univalve shells. Adheres strongly to the 

tongue." It is much more brittle than the associated limestones, and 

contains 31.815 per cent, of phosphoric acid. It is probable that beds of

1 Geol. Survey Kentucky, N. S. Shaler, Director, 1878, New. Series, vol. 4, p. 65.

(590)
rnsnoBK.1 GUANOS. 117

this kind derived their phosphate of lime from the numerous animals, 

having phosphatic shells, which inhabited the Silurian, sea.

Phosphatic limestone beds, like those just described, supply the soil 

of the surrounding country with large quantities of phosphate of lime, 

and it is very likely that the wonderful fertility of some districts in the 

limestone regions of Kentucky and Virginia is due to the decomposition, 

of such beds.

Analysis of Fayette County phosphatic limestone, by Dr. Peter (Kentucky Geol. Surv., 1878).

Dried at 212° F. .

Phosphoric acid, lime, magnesia, alumina, iron oxide ........................ 85.270

Carbonate of lime......................................................... 9.180

Carbonate of magnesia.... ................................................. .371

Silica and insoluble silicates......................--.-.---.-.-----..-...---. 4.780

FJuoride of calcium, alkalies, orgauic matter, etc., not estimated .. ........ .399

Total............................................................... 100.000

GUANOS.

The class of guanos includes all those deposits which are largely, or 

entirely, composed of the excrement of birds. Such deposits are subdivided into soluble guano and leached guano. The former is composed 

of deposits which have preserved all, or a large part of, their soluble 

ingredients, while the latter includes such as have lost these soluble 

constituents by the action of rain or sea-water, and have been converted 

into a mass, insoluble, or almost insoluble, in water, and varying, in 

consistency, from a loose powder to a hard compact rock.

The soluble guanos will be treated first, and then the leached guanos 

will be described.

SOLUBLE GUANO.

Most of the soluble guano of commerce has come from the coast of 

Peru. It has been used in that country for agricultural purposes from 

very ancient times. Of such value was it esteemed by the natives that 

the punishment of death was imposed by the early Incas and their 

Spanish successors on any one who was found killing the birds that 

made these precious deposits. Peruvian guano was first recommended 

(1804) to be used in the raw state for agricultural purposes in Europe 

.by Humboldt, who brought a specimen from the islands off the coast of 

Peru; but it was not exported in any considerable quantities until 1842, 

when 182 tons were shipped to England. After that time the use of it increased very rapidly until 1870-1875, when the best beds were exhausted, 

and the use of acidulated phosphates gradually drove the poorer qualities almost entirely out of the market. It is still imported to the United 

States and Europe as a source of superphosphate. In the raw state 

very little of it is used compared with the immense quantities of superphosphates now sold.

. (591)
118 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

The following tables will show the imports into Great Britain, Germany, and France:

Imports into Great Britain (Stockhardf).

Cwt.

1844 .......................... 208,502

1845 .......................... 568,600

1846 .......................... 1,784,060

1847 .......................... 1,647,840

1848 .......................... 1,428,280

1849 .......................... 1,668,760

1850 .......................... 2,3:58,500

1851 .......................... 4,860,280

1852 .......................... 2,597,780

1853 .......................... 2,463,320

1854 .......................... 4,470,222

Imports into Germany (Meyn). 1

1855 .............

1856 ............

1857.............

1858.............

1859 .............

1860 .............

1861 ..............

1862.............

1863 .............

1872.............

1873.............

Cwt. 

............. 6,101,220

............. 3,830,020

............. 5,767,240

............. 7,070,820

............. 1,682,440

............. 2,828,700

............. 3,568,460

............. 2,832,720

.......'...... 4,671,480

............. 117,089

............. 184,921

Tons.

1861 ............................. 25,000

1862 ............................. 30,000

1863 ............................. 48,785

1864 ............................. 50,699

1665 .................. ............ 59,940

Tons.

1866 ............................. 55,621

1867 ............................. 52.413

1868 ............................. 73,922

1869 ............................ 85,233

Imports into France (Meyn).'1

Tons.

1857 ............................. 52,OnO

1858 ............................. 3«,000

1859 ............................. 33,000

1860 ............................. 40,000

1861 ............................. 38,000

Tons. 

1862............................. 46,000

1863 ........:.................... 68,000

18G4 ............................. 69,000

1865 ............................. 47,000

1866.........................1... 57,000

The deposits of guano are found mostly on the islands on the coast of 

Peru and Bolivia. They are also found on the mainland, but these are 

not so large as those on the islands. The deposits consist of the excrements of flamingoes, divers, penguins, and other sea fowls, mixed with

the carcasses of these birds, as well as those of seals, sea-lions, and other 

marine animals, which inhabit these seas in vast numbers. The guano 

is generally pulverulent on the surface, but becomes compact at a depth. 

It is in some places over a hundred feet in thickness, and is white to 

brown in color. There often occur in it small lumps containing ammonia 

salts, and others containing large quantities of phosphate of lime or silica. 

Gypsum is also abundant in some of the guano beds. The phosphates in 

the guano occur largely as tricalcic, dicalcic, ammonio-magnesic, and 

ammonic phosphates, so that a large part of it is in a very soluble rorm, 

hence its value as plant food. There is also in the guano a soluble base 

called guanine, with the formula C5H5N5O. It will thus be seen 

that, though some of the ingredients of guano are insoluble, others are 

very soluble, and, for the preservation of such a deposit a very dry 

climate is necessary. The coast of Peru is peculiarly adapted to the 

formation of guano beds, not only on account of the absence of rain,1but

'Die natiirliolien Phosphate. 

(592) '
1'ENiiosE.] SOLUBLE GUANO. 119

also on account of the large flocks of sea birds which inhabit the islands along the coast and feed on the vast schools of fish swarming in 

the surrounding seas.

The first beds that were mined were on the Chincha Islands, off the 

coast of Peru. The guano of this locality was the richest of all the 

deposits on the South American coast. The islands are small, rarely 

more than three miles in circumference, and the beds were practically 

exhausted as early as 1872. Among the other islands which have been 

worked and stripped of their valuable deposits are those of Macabi and 

Guauape, north of the Cbincha Islands, as well as those of Ballestas, 

Lobos, Foca, Pabellon de Pica, Tortuga, Huanillos, and many other 

islands on the same coast. As will be seen from the analyses, the composition of the guano from these localities varies considerably. It de, 

pends on the .circumstances under which the deposit was formed, such 

as the amount of rain, the exposure to the spray of the sea-water, and

other conditions.

Though the Peruvian coast is the most important locality for guano, 

yet it has been obtained in considerable quantities in other places also. 

It is found near the Cape of Good Hope and northwest of it, at Saldanha Bay. It is also found on the island of Ichaboe, as well as at 

Algoa Bay, which is on the southern coast of Africa. The guano from 

these African localities has often been leached by the action of rain and 

sea water, but it is also found containing large quantities of soluble 

. salts of ammonia and phosphorus. The island of Ichaboe contained 

200,000 tons of guano, all of which was removed in fifteen months after 

its discovery in 1844.

Soluble guano has been found on the Kuria Muria Islands, on the 

coast of Arabia; at Shark's Bay, Australia, and at many other places 

in small quantities. The variety known as "bat guano" is generally 

found in caves, and consists of the dung of bats, mixed with the bodies 

of their dead, as well as with the remains of rats, mice, etc. Such deposits are of very limited extent. They are found in many places in 

America and Europe. In the United States bat guano is found in Indiana, Kentucky, Alabama, and many other States. Near San Antonio, 

Tex., there are several caves containing large quantities of it. It is 

also found in many places along the coast of the Mediterranean, and 

especially in Italy.

Analyses of soluble guano.

fI. Mean of 21 analyses of Macabi Island guano, by Barral.] 

Nitrogen................................................................... 10.90

Phosphates ............................................................__ 27.60

Potash..................................................................... 2 to 3

fIT. Analysis of Macabi guano, by Bobierre.j' 

Water ..--...:.--...................'. ...................,................ 30.80

Bone phosphate .............'.....'. ....'.....................,............---. 35.50

Nitrogen...................................................'................ -8.22

(593)
120 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL. 46.

[HI. Analysis of GuaQape Island guano, by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr.]

Nitrogen .......................................................... 8.20 to 12.80

Phosphoric acid..................................................... 10.77 to 17.62

Sand and siliceous matter.......................................... 0.75 to 3.75

Water............................................................. 11.83 to 29.96

[IV. Average of 22 analyses of Guaiiape guano, by Barral.]

Nitrogen................................................................... 10.95

Phosphates ...................................................... ......... 28.00

Potash.......... ........................................................... 2 to 3

[V. Analysis of Guafiape guano, by Bobierre.'J

Water 

Sand .

........................^....................................... 24.00

................................................................ 1.30

Organic matter and ammoniacal salts (1)...........-.. ................... 37.00

Bone phosphate of lime .................................................... 36. 00

Undetermined matter ...................................................... 1.70

(1) Nitrogen

100.00

7.75

[VI. Analyses of soluble guanos, by Deh6rain.]

Equivalent in ammonia. .

Angamos, coast 

of Bolivia. 

White guano.

70. 21 to 52. 92 

20. 09 to 14. 38 

24. 36 to J7. 44 

13. 30 to 20. 95

Bolivian.

23. 00 

3.38 

4.10 

48.60

Los Patos.

32.45 

5.92 

7.18 

34. 81

Mexican coast.

13. 05 to 18. 00 

0. 21 to 3. 45 

0.26 to 4.19 

8. 00 to 25. 00

Island of Elide, 

coast of 

California.

27. 37 to 34. 50 

1. 34 to 6. 98 

1.62 to 8.46 

1 28. 00 to 31. 00

Galapagos, 

Ecuador.

0. 7 

0.85 

60.30

llot de 

Pedro-Bey, 

coast of 

Cuba.

6.16. 

0.28 

0.34

48.52

Falkland 

Islands.

17. 35 to 28. 68

0.56 to 2.26 

0.68 to 2.74 

'21. 46 to 25. 62

'Containing sometimes very considerable quantities of phosphates of alumina and tbe oxide of iron. 

[VII. Analysis of Peruvian guano by Dr. TTre, Am. Jour. Agric., 1845.]

Uric, acid ^ r......................................... .^.................... 10.50

Ammonia. "................................................................. 19.00

Phosphoric acid............................................................ 14.00

Lime and magnesia.... ..................................................... 16.00

Salts of soda and potash........................ ............................ 6.00

Oxalic acid, with carbonic and muriatic acids.............................. 13.00

Water.................. ............ ...................................... 13.00

Sand...................................... ................................ 2.00

Volatile and organic matters .......... .................................... 6.50

100.00

(594)
SOLUBLE GUANO. 121

[VIII. Analysis of Peruvian guano, by Ncsbit, Agricultural Chemistry, London, 1859.]

Moisture.-......... .......... .............................................. 15,10

Organic matter, etc. (1).................................................... 51.27

Silica....................................................................... 2.20

Phosphate of lime.......................... ................................ 22.13

Phosphoric acid...... ...................................................... 3.23

Equal to phosphate of lime, 7.00.

Alkaline salts, etc.......................................................... 6.07

100. 00 

(1) Nitrogen............................................................... 13.54

(1) Ammonia.............................................................. 16.42

[IX. Analysis of Iclmboe guano, Am. Jour. Agric., 1845.]

Ammonia..................................-.....................'.......... 13.50

Hnmic acid................................................................ 4.00

Phosphates ................................................................ 25.00

Oxalic, etc., acids.......................................................... 20.00

Salts of soda, etc........................................................... 7.00

Water and volatile matter ................................................. 27.50

Sand ...................................................................... 3.00

100.00

[X. Analyses of soluble guanos, by Nesbit, Agricultural Chemistry.]

Angamos.

II.

Peruvian. Chilian. Boliv- Salclanha 

Bay.

Shark's 

Bay.

j Moisture ...............

Organic matter, etc. (1) 

i Sand ...................

Phosphates.............

Alkaline salts, etc......

(1) Nitrogen..........

(1) Equal to ammonia.

10.90

67.30

1.04

16.10

4.60

100.00

19.95

24.19

12.55

61.07

5.36

13.76

7.26

100.00

18.24

22.12

9.30

57.30

0.75

23.05

9.60

100. 0.0

15.54

18.87

20.46

18.50

22.70

31. 00

7.54

100. 20

4. 50

5.47

16.00

13.16

3.16

60.23

7.45

100. 00

2.11

2.56

17.92

14.08

2.80

59.40

5.80

14.47

7.85

14.47

29.54

33.67

100. 00 100. 00

0.63

0.76

0.35

0.47

[XI. Analyses of Peruvian guano and of Ichaboe guano; from The Cultivator, vol.1, 1844.]

Peruvian 

guano.

Ichaboe 

guano.

Water and volatile ammonia .........................

Organic matter and ammoniacal salts ...............

Chloride and sulphate of soda.......................

Insoluble siliceous matter...........................

Phosphate of lime and little phosphate of magnesia 

Carbonates of lime and magnesia ....................

15.27

51.44

5.50

0.57

21.11

6.11

100.00

3.14

63.52

5.02

1.10

22.20

4.96

100.00

(595)
122 DEPOSITS OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [fluu,.46. 

[XII. Analyses of soluble guauo, by Norton, Elements of Scientific Agriculture, I860.]

Bolivian.

56 to 64

25 to 29

Peruvian.

7 to 10

56 to 60

16 to 23

Chilian.

10 to 13

50 to 56

22 to 30

Icbaboe.

18 to 26

36 to 44

21 to 29

fXIII. Analyses of soluble guanos, Cameron, Chemistry of Agriculture.]

Water ........................

Sand, clay, and other useless

Upper 

Peruvian.

10.00

21.68

(4.50)

51.50

14.32

2.70

100. 00

Ichaboe.

20.00

24.40

(6. 00)

20. 40

6.20

29.00

100. 00

Bird 

Island.

15.00

6.50

37.25

40.00

1.15

0.10

100. 00

Cuban.

26.00

4.10

43.70

24.10

2.10

100.00

Kuria 

Maria.

18.10

12.41

(2. 05)

42.67

4.19

4.13

18.50

100. 00

1 

Patagoman.

25.00

18.30

(2. 00)

44.00

2.10

10.60

100.00

[XIV. Analysis of soluble guano from " an inland in the Pacific," by B. S. Burn, Tear-Book of AgriCultural Facts.]

Water.........................,.............................._... 4.60 4.60

Organic matter and auimoniacal salts.............................. 16.85 10. 38

Phosphates ........................................................ 71.40 69.90

Carbonate of lime .................................................. 3.15 7.90

Alkaline salts..................................................... 3.90 1.07

Sand ............................................................. 0.10 0.15

Ammonia

100.00

1.32

100. 00 

1.2G

[XV. Analysis of bat guano, Roport Indiana .Geological Survey, 1879, p. 163.)

Loss at red heat ............................................................ 44.10

Organic matter ............................................................. 4.90

Ammonia ................................................................... 4.25

Silica....................................................................... 6.13

Alumina.......... .......................................................... 14.30

Ferric oxide ................................................................ 1.20

Lime ............................................................'........... 7.95

Magnesia .................................................................... 1.11

Sulphuric acid .............................................................. 5.21

Carbonic acid............................................................... 3.77

Phosphoric acid............................................................. 1.21

Chlorides of alkalies and loss.................. .*............................ 5.87

100.00

LEACHED GUANOS.

The second subdivision of guano deposits is leached guano. It is 

either pulverulent, or in a more or less solidified mass, and consists of 

guano from which all or almost all the soluble constituents have been

(596)
FENROSE.] LEACHED GUANO. 123

dissolved by the action of rain and sea water. It is found most plentifully on some of the small islands in the Pacific Ocean, northeast of 

Australia, and on many of the West India Islands. It is also found in 

some places on the coast of Chili, as on the promontory of Mexillones. 

Here it occurs as a light yellow phosphatic powder, containing lumps 

of the same substance and averaging 75 to 81 per cent, of bone phosphate of lime.

Leached guano is found in the Pacific principally on the islands lying between longitude 150° to 180° west and latitude 10° K to 10° S. 

Most of this area was put by Congress under the protection of the 

United States in 1856. It contains some forty guano islands. They 

are all small and low. and are built up by the formation of coral reefs. 

Often there is a salt-water lagoon in the center of the island. Among 

the richest localities are Baker, Howland, Jarvis, McKean, Maiden, 

Starbuck, and Phoenix Islands. The guano is generally pulverulent 

on the top, and more or less solidified below. Occasionally the soluble 

portions have been washed into the underlying coral, forming a phosphatic limestone. The following is a section on Baker Island:

(1) Pulverulent leached guano, yellow.

(2) Denser stratum of same substance as (1).

(3) Coral rock containing gypsum.

On Jarvis Island a bed of gypsum has been formed by the evaporation of a central lagoon. Overlying this is a deposit of leached guano, 

from one inch to one foot thick, covered by a phosphatic crust. Under 

this crust the bed contains b'oth basic and neutral phosphate of lime. 

This fact is thought by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., to be due to the decomposition of the tribasic phosphate by the gypsum. Occasionally concretionary nodules, composed of iuterstratified layers of phosphate of 

lime and gypsum, are found. On Maiden Island there is a boggy deposit, which gives off sulphureted hydrogen fro°m the mutual decomposition of the guano and the gypsum.

In the West Indies, leached guano has been found on many of the 

coral islands and reefs, all the way from the Bahamas to the coast of 

Venezuela. Among the principal localities are Sombrero, Navassa, 

Turk, St. Martin, Aruba, Cura9oa, Orchillas, Arenas, Roncador, Swan, 

and Cat, or Guanahani Islands, the Pedro and Morant Keys, and the 

reefs of Los Monges and Aves in Maracaibo Gulf. The phosphate from 

the different localities varies very much. That from Maracaibo Gulf occurs in a compact or granular form of a light brown color. Sometimes 

it is distinctly mamniillated, and at other times it has a concentric 

structure. It often has a white phosphatic enamel like that which 

covers the basalt of Ascension Island. The deposit contains many fish 

bones, and is rich in phosphate of lime, which sometimes amounts to 

over 85 per cent, of the rock. The Sombrero Island phosphate occurs 

in two forms t (1) As a granular, porous, and.friable mass, in color 

white, pink, green, blue, or yellow j (2) as a dense, massive, and homo-

(597)
124 DEPOSITS OP PHOSPHATE OP LIME. [nuu.4fc

geneous deposit of a white or yellow color. It contains 75 to 80 per cent, 

of phosphate of lime. Many bones occur, and at times the deposit takes 

the form of a real bone breccia. The principal rock of the island is a 

palagonite tufa, filled with shells and bones.

The Navassa phosphate is found on an uninhabited island, consisting 

of a terrace encircled by a high plateau. The phosphate is found in 

pockets in the living coral, and in the numerous depressions and hollows 

on the island. It is of a dark brown color, and is composed of a hard 

mass of oolitic grains. It contains 10 to 15 per cent, of alumina and 

oxide of iron (Meyn), and is therefore not very popular as a source of 

superphosphate, as it makes a sticky product.

The phosphate of Aruba Island is of a hard, massive variety, and is 

white to dark brown in color. Occasionally the underlying coral on this 

island, as well as on many others in both the West Indies and the Pacific Ocean, has been phosphatized by the infiltration of the soluble 

parts of the original guano deposits. Thus at Aruba large masses of 

coral, containing 70 to 75 per cent, phosphate of lime, are found.

Several distinct phosphate minerals occur in pockets in the phosphate 

beds in the West Indies. One of them, known as pyrophosphorite, was 

described by Dr. C. U. Shepard, jr., in the American Journal of Science, 

January, 1878. It is snow white, amorphous, opaque, and has a fracture 

like magnesite. It has a hardness of 3 to 3.5, and a specific gravity of 

2.50 to 2.53. It is essentially an ortho pyrophosphate of lime with 

pyrophosphate of magnesia, and has the formula Mg2P2O7+4(Ca3P2O8 , 

Ca2P2O7 ).

On the islands of Mona and Moneta, in the West Indies, occur the 

minerals monite and monetite. They were described and named by 

Prof. C. U. Shepard, sr., in the American Journal of Science, May, 1882. 

The monetite occurs as a crystalline mineral, of a white or brown color, 

in association with monite, which is a white, soft, incoherent mass.

Moaetite is a crystallized dicalcic ortho-phosphate and has the formula 

CaHPO4 . Monite has the formula Ca3P2O8 +H2O.

Deposits of leached guano have been found on several islands in the 

Gulf of California. The deposit on Eaza Island averaged over 41 per 

cent, of phosphoric acid, which corresponds to over 85 per cent, of phosphate of lime. (See analyses.) The beds in this island have been 

exhausted.

The deposits of the West Indies supply most of the leached guano 

now sold. Curagoa annually produces 50,000 to 70,000 tons, and Sombrero about 10,000. The other islands produce much less. The Pacific 

Ocean islands are, at present, little worked. The difficulty with many 

of the West India deposits is that they contain large quantities of phgsphate of iron and alumina, which make them very undesirable as sources 

of superphosphate. On some of the islands there occur beds of almost 

pure phosphate of iron and alumina.

(598)
PENKOSE.] LEACHED GUANO. 125

Table of analyses of leached guanos. 

[I. Analyses of Baker Island guano (constituents, lumps, crust, coral rock, etc.), by Siegert.]

"Water.................

Combustible matter (I) 

Potash.................

Soda...................

Lime...................

Magnesia..............

Phosphoric acid .......

Sulphuric acid.........

Carbonic acid..........

Total... 

(1) Nitrogen.

1.45

2.57

0.10

0.45

53.78

0.27

0.00

1.40

39.98

100. 00

0.00

(*)

10.25

5.11

0.44

0.73

43.83

0.42

33.97

2.07

3.18

100.00

0.00

9.03

4.02

0.43

0. 02

43.44

0.60

33.62

6.81

1.43

100. 00

0.00

0.90

4.47

0.46

1.21

45.82

1.89

38.98

1.16

5.11

100. 00

0.00

8.20

8.30

0.62

1.13

40.63

1.75

37.16

1.17

1.04

100. 00

0.92

(') Unchanged coral white rock.

(') Yellow-brown crust, often several inches thick, with white interior, of coralline structure.

(3 ) Gray-brown balls, soft to pulverulent, often several inches thick; coralline structure feebly 

marked.

(4 ) Porcelain-like cakes, smooth or rough, soft, 1 to 4 inches thick, and in parallel plates.

(5 ) Whole guano powdered.

[II. Analysis of Howland Island guano, by Dryedale.]

Water............................................................ .......... 7.20

Combustible matter......................................................... 14.18

Phosphates...... ........................................................... 75.32

Sulphate of lime.................. '.... ...................................... 1.60

Carbonate of lime........................................................... 1.27

Chloride of alkalies.................. .................................... 0.43

Sand.......................... . . ....... ............................. Trace

100.00 

[III. Analyses of Jarvis Island guano, dried at 105 C.]

Powder. Lumps.

Water of combination and combustible matter..................... 20.80 18.50

Anhydrous sulphate of lime...... ................................. 30.00 5.00

Phosphates of lime and magnesia................................:.. 43.20 73.00

Siliceous residue.................................................. 2.00 1.00

Undetermined ingredients and loss................................ 4.00 2.50

100.00 100.00

[IV. Analyses of Phoenix Island guano, by Bumpier.]

Water........................................ .................... 1.19 2.08

Combustible matter................................................ 2.03 5.22

Phosphateof lime................................................. 76.00 70.70

Phosphate of magnesia............................................ 5.19 13.47

Carbonate of lime.............. _................................ 0.68 10.50

Sulphate of lime.................................................. 0.34 5.10

Nitrogen in the combustible matter..................i..._....... 0,39 0.77

(599)
126 DEPOSITS'OF PHOSPHATE OF LIME. [BULL.46.

[V. Analysis of Aves guano, by Vtilcker.] 

Water.................................................. .................... 2.39

Organic matter and water of combination.................................... 7.93

Lime.............................. ......................................... 39.48

Magnesia................................................................... 1.17

Phosphoric acid............................................................. 41.34

Sulphuric acid.............................................................. 4.57

Insoluble siliceous matter........................ .*.. ........................ 2.28

99.16 

Containing nitrogen......................... ............................. 0.139

[VI. Analyses of Navassa phosphate.]

BretGilbert, schneider.

Water............................................................ 3.01 3.54

Organic matter and water of combination.......................... 7.17 4.64

Lime...................................... ....................... 40.19 38.35

Magnesia............................................................... 1.72

Seqnioxideof iron...............................................) 3.40

Alumina........................................................-S ' 6.50

Potash.................................................................. 0.34

Soda.. T ..........-...-...-...--....--................................... 0.32

Phosphoric acid................................................... 33.28 35.60

Sulphuric acid.......................................................... 0.19

Chlorine...... .......................................................... 0.08

Carbonic acid..................................................... 2.15 2.58

Silica.................................................. ................ 1.34

Sand.......................................... ................... 2.53 1.31

100.00 99.91

[VII. Analysis of Kaza Island phosphate, by Dr. H. Gilbert.] 

Water...................................................................... 1.92

Neutral phosphate of lime...... ............ ................................^ 58.78

Bone phosphate of lime...... ................................................ 18.86

Tribasic phosphate of magnesia...... .... ...*.. .............................. 3.35

Sulphate of litne.... ...................................... .................. 8.26

Oxide of iron ................................................................ 0. 99

Silicic acid........ ......................................................... 3. 3j3

Organic matter...... ....................................................... 4.81

* ««__^H

100. 32 

BONE BEDS.

These deposits include beds which are composed largely of bones.1 

They occur principally as cave and lacustrine deposits.

CAVE DEPOSITS.

Caverns have always been the places of refuge and the sepulchers of 

many kinds of animals, and sometimes bones have collected in them in 

sufficient quantities to form beds many feet thick. Such deposits are

phosphate beds of South Carolina and other similar deposits do not belong 

under this heading, for, though many bones occur in them, they are few compared 

with the accompanying phosphatic nodules.

(600)
PENROSE.J BONE BEDS. 127

much larger and more plentiful in Europe than in North America. The 

reason for this seems to be that in this country there were none of the 

carnivora, such as the jackals and hyenas, which have the habit of dragging their prey to their lairs. Consequently our caverns, notwithstanding their abundance and the great number of animals which have lived 

about them, are generally wanting in the extensive osseous breccias 

which characterize many caves in England, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and many other parts of Europe.

Many of the caves of the Southern States have been much resorted 

to by bats. The excrements of these creatures, together with the bones 

of those that have died there, have in many cases formed extensive 

beds of phosphatic and nitrogenous matter.1 During the early part of 

this century, and during the civil war, saltpeter was extensively manufactured from them, and some of them have also been worked as a 

source of phosphate of lime.

LACUSTRINE DEPOSITS.

These deposits occur generally about the swampy margins of salt 

licks, as at Big Bone Lick in Kentucky2, and in the ancient lake deposits west of the Mississippi River, as in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska. Similar beds are also found in many parts of Europe. The 

bones found in such localities are the remains of animals which came to 

the swamps to lick the salt found there, or in search of refuge. Many 

died natural deaths, while others were mired in the boggy earth, and, 

being unable to extricate themselves, perished. In this way bones accumulated often in very considerable quantities.

These deposits, as well as those of the cave class, are generally too 

limited in extent to be of any commercial importance.

1 These deposits have been described under the heading of Guanos.

2 An account of this deposit may bo found in an appendix to Mr. J. A. Alien's monograph on The History of the Buffalo, in the memoirs of the Kentucky Geological Survey, Vol. I, 1876.

(601)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

A.

Adams (Robert C.). The phosphate industry of Canada. 

Canadian Economics, pp. 189-193, 1883. 

Alabama: 

SMITH. Bull. No. 5, Alabama State Dep. Agric.,

1884.

STUBBS. Bull. No. 5, Alabama State Dep. 

Agric., 1884.

Alien (K.L.). Guano.

A Brief Compendium of American Agriculture, New York, 1847.

Aoust (Virlet d'). Formation dcs couches 

de gres par transports inole"culaires do la matiere da ciment. 

Formation des uodules de phosphate de chaux par im transport 

mole"culaire de ce dernier.

Bull. Soc. geol. France, xxii, pp. 130-138, 

1864-'65.

Austen (Eobert Alfred Cloyne). On the

position in the Cretaceous series

of beds containing phosphate of

lime.

Quart. Jonr. Geol. Soc. London, iv, pp. 257-

262, 1848. 

B.

Badouseau (M.). Sur lea gisemeuts de 

chaux phosphatde de l'Estr6rnadure. 

Bull. Soc. cent, agric. France, xxxviii.

Barclay (David). Comparison of guano

with other manures. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., vi, pp. 175-

176, 1845.

Bartlett (Levi). Disco very of phosphate 

of lime at Hurdstown, New Jersey.

American Agriculturist, x, pp. 123,124, 1851. 

Belgium: 

BOBIERRE. Comp. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiii, pp.

1361-1363, 187L

BRIAKT and CORNET. Bull. Acad. roy. Belg. 

2e s6r., xxii, pp. 329-339, 1866.

 Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2° ser., xxxvii,

pp. 838-841,1874. 

COKNET. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3" s6r., ii,

pp. 5C7-577, 1873-'74.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xlii, pp. 

325-340, 1886.

 See Briart and Cornet.

Bull 46 9

Belgium Continued. 

LAMBERT. Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2" s6r., xxix,

pp. 254-259,1870. 

MELSENS. Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2° s6r.,

xxxviii. pp. 23-35, 1874. 

NivoiT. Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxix, pp.

256-259,1874.

 Assoc. fran9- avanc. sci., 4° session, pp.

662-676,1875. 

PETEHMANN. Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2° s6r.,

xxxviii, p. 652,1874.

 Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2° s6r.,xxxix, pp. 

12-13,1875.

 Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2e ser., xlv, p. 3,

1878.

SHEPAKD. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston, 1879. 

Bell (Alfred). The succession of the Crags.

Geol. Mag., ix, pp. 209-215, London, 1872. 

Bell (Robert). On the mode of occurrence of apatite in Canada.

Eng. and Mining Jour., xxxix, p. 316. .

Bigsby (John Jeremiah). On the Laurentian formation.

Geol. Mag., i, pp. 154-158,200-206, London, 1864. 

Blanchere (H. de la). Phosphates de 

chaux et usines de Bellegarde.

Jour, agric. prat., pp. C30-632, 1873.

Bobierre (Aclolphe). Sur la composition de la chaux phosphatde r6- 

cemment exploit6e dans les d6- 

partements de Tarn-et-Garonne 

et du Lot.

Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiii, pp. 1361-1363, 

1871.

 Chimie agricole. Paris, 1872.

 Contrdle des engrais dans la LoireInfdrieure.

Jour., agrio. prat., pp. 120-124,1873. 

Bonney (Thomas George). On the chloritic marl or Upper Greensand of 

the neighborhood of Cambridge. 

Geol. Mag., ix, pp. 143-144, London, 1872. 

Bordet(H.). Phosphatesfossilestrouve's

dans 11 n minerai de fer. 

Jour, agric. prat., p. 11,1873. 

Briart (Alph.) and F. L. Cornet. Note 

sur 1'existence, dans 1'EutreSambre et Mouse, d'un d6p6t 

contemporain du systeme du tuffeau de Maastricht et sur 1'age 

des autres couches cre"tace"es de 

cette partie du pays.

129
130 BIBLIOGRAPHY. [BULL. 46.

Briart Continued.

Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2e s6r., xxii, pp. 329-339, 

186(5.

 Notice sur les gisements de. phosphate de chaux dans le terrain 

cre~tac6 de la province de Hainaut.

Bull. Aoad. roy. Bolg.,26 s6r., xxxvii, pp. 838- 

841, 1874. .

Brodie (Peter Bellenger). On a deposit of phosphatic nodules in the 

Lower Greensaud at Sandy, Bedfordshire. 

Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 153-155, London, I860.

Brogger (W. C.). and II. H. Rensch. 

Vorkomiuen des Apatite in Norwegen.

Zeitsch. Deutscb. geol. Gesell., xxvii, pp. 646- 

702, 1875.

Broome (Gordon). Canadian phosphates 

considered with reference to their 

use in agriculture. 

Canadian Naturalist, v, pp. 241-263,1870.

 On the phosphate of lime and rnica 

found in North and South Bnrgess and North Elmsley (Ontario).

Geol. Surv. Canada, Eep. Prog., 1870-71, pp.

316-320'.

Buckland (William). On the causes of 

the general presence of phosphates in the strata of the earth 

and in all fertile soils.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., x, pp. 520-525, 

1843.

 On the discovery of a new species 

of pterodactyl; and also of the 

faeces of the Ichthyosaurus and

of a black substance resembling

sepia or India ink, in the Lias 

at Lyme Regis. 

Geol. Soc. Pi'oc., i, pp. 96-98, 142-143, 1834.

 On the occurrence of nodules 

(called petrified potatoes) found 

on the shores of Lough Neagh in 

Ireland.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, ii, pp. 103- 

104,1846.

 On the discovery of coprolites or 

fossil fseces in the Lias at Lyme 

Regis, and in other formations. 

Trails. Geol. Soc. London, 2d ser., iii, pp. 223,

235. 

Burn (R. Scott). Guano.

Tear Book of Agricultural Facts, 1859.

C.

Caillaux (Alfred). Origine des phosphates de chaux. 

Jour, agric. prat., pp. 310-314,1874. 

Calderon (M.). Note sur les phosphorites nouvellemcut de"couvertes 

dans le midi de 1'Espagne. 

Bull. Soc. geol. France. 3e ser., vii, pp. 11-12.

1878-79. 

Cameron (C. A.). Guanos.

Chemistry of Agriculture, Dublin, 1857.

Canada:

ADAMS. Canadian Economics, pp. 189-193,1883. 

BELL. Eng. and Mining Jour., xxxix, p. 316. 

BIGSBY. Geol. Mag., pp. 154, 200, London, 1864. 

BROOME. Canadian Nat., v, pp. 241-263, 1870.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Kep. Prog., 1870-'71,

pp. 316-320.

DAWKINS. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., 1884. 

DAWSOX. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxxii,

p. 285, 1876. 

HARIUXGTON. Geol. Snrv. Canada, Rep. Prog.,

1877-78, pp. 1G-50G. 

HOFFMANN. Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog.,

3877-78, pp. 1H-14H. 

HUNT. Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1851-'52,

p. 106.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., viii, p. 20D, ]852.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., pp. 202- 

204 and 224-229, 1863-'6U.

 Report on Deposits of Phosphate of Liruo 

on the Property of Messrs. Osborue, 

Bell, and Claxton, Ottawa.

 Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eug., xii, pp. 

459-468, 1883-'8J.

 Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., xiv, pp.*

495-496, 1885-'86. 

LOGAN. Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1852,

pp. 28-33.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1858, p. 64.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog , ]863, pp. 

125, 460-463, 757-761.

RICHARDSON. Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog.,

1866-'69, p. 125. 

SHEPAUU. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston,

1879. 

VENNOR. Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1870-

71, pp. 314,315.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1871-72, 

pp. 123-129.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1872-73, 

pp. 136-179.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1873-74, 

pp. 107-145.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rop. Prog., 1874-75, 

pp. 105-165.

 Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1876-'77, 

pp. 301-308.

 G6ologie du Canada, 1876-'77, pp. 343- 

363.

(604)
iPENROSE.] BIBLIOGRAPHY. 131

Ceris (A. de). Gisement do phosphate

do chaux & 1'lle de Sombrero. 

Jour, agric. prat., 763, 1868.

 De"couverto de nouveaux gisenients de phosphate de ehaux en 

France. 

Jour. ngnc. prat., p. 143, 1809.

 Gisoments do phosphates de 

chaux dans les de"partements de 

Tarn-.et-Garonne et du Lot. 

Jour, agric. prat., 2" s6r., p. 1216,1870-'71.

 -Gisement de phosphate dans la

Caroline du Sud. 

Jour, agric.prat., p. 1327,1870-71.

 Charles-worth (Edward). On the prospective annihilation of the Suffolk Eed "Crag as a geological 

formation, with .a few remarks 

about the Eed Crag phosphatic 

stones, " Coprolite."

Geol. Mag., v, pp. 577-580, London, 1868.

Chevreul (Michel Eugene). Communications sur le guano du P6rou.

Compt. rend; Acad. sci., Ixxvi, pp.1285, 1313, 

1376-1383, 1505-1508, 1873.

 Clarke (J. A.). Guanos.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xiv, p. 357.

Collenot (M.). Du phosphate de chaux

dans 1'Auxois.

Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3° s*Jr., v, pp. 671-687, 

1876-'77.

Convert (F.). Les phosphates de Bellegarde. 

Jour, agric. prat., pp. 405-408, 1873.

' Cook (George H.). Canfield's phosphate

of lime and iron-ore bed. 

Ann. Eep. Geol. New Jersey, pp. 34-38, 1871.

Cornet (F. L.). Compte rendu de 1'excursion du 31 aout aux environs 

de Ciply.

Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3" s6r., ii, pp. 567-577, 

1873-'74.

 Ou the upper Cretaceous series and 

the phosphatic beds in the neighborhood of Mons (Belgium). 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xlii, pp. 325-340,1886.

 See, also, Briart (Alph.) and F. L.

Cornet. 

Courtois (C.). Les phosphates de la

' C6te-d'Or. 

Jour, agric. prat., pp. 594-599,1878.

Cox (Edward T.). Bat Guano.

Geol. Surv, Indiana for 1878, pp. 163,164,1879.

D.

Dabney (Charles W.). North Carolina

phosphates.

Ecp. North Carolina Agric. Exp. Sta., pp. 

57-83,18S3.

Damour (Augustin Alexis). Phosphates

d'Yttria du Bre\sil.

.Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2" e6r., xiii, pp. 548- 

549, 1855-'56.

Dana (James Dwight). Guano Deposits. 

Corals and Coral Islands, New York, p. 283,

1872; pp. 291-297, ed. 1885. 

Daubeny (Charles) and S. E. Widdrington. On the occurrence of phosphorite in Estremadura. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., v, pp. 406- 

418,1845.

 On the occurrence of phosphorite 

in Estremadura.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, i, pp. 52-55, 

1845.

Daubre"e (Auguste). Notice sur la de"- 

couverte et la raise en exploitation de nouveaux gisemeuts de 

chaux phosphate"e. 

Ann. Mines, 6° s6r., xiii, pp. 67-95,1868.

 Gisement danslequel la chaux phosphate"e a e'te" rdcemment de'couverte dans les de'parteinents de

Taru-et-Garonne et du Lot.

Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiii, pp. 1028-1030,

1871.

 Gisement dauslequel la chaux phosphate'e a 6t6 rdcemmeut d<5couverte dans les ddnartements de

Tarn-et-Garonne et du Lot.

Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiv, pp. 1372-1373,

1872.

Davies (D. C.). On a bed of phosphate 

of lime northwest of Llanfylliu, 

North Wales. 

Geol. Mag.,iv, pp. 251-253, London, 1867.

 The deposits of phosphate of lime 

recently discovered in Nassau, 

North Germany. 

Geol. Mag., v, pp. 262-266, London, 1868,

 The phosphorite deposits of North

Wales. 

Geol. Mag., xii, p. 183, London, 1875.

 The phosphorite deposits of North

Wales.

Quart. Jour. GeoL Soc. London, xxxi, pp. 357- 

367,1875.

(605)
132 BIBLIOGKAPHY. [BULL. 46.

Dawkins (William Boyd). On some deposits of apatite near Ottawa, 

Canada.

Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. (1884), vol. 18, 

1886.

Bawson (John William). Note on the 

phosphates of the Lanrentian and 

Cambrian rocks.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, sxxii, p. 285, 

1876.

Doiialdson (John). Guano in soils and 

manures.

BufSeld (A. J.). Peru in the Guano Age. 

London: Bentley & Son, 1877.

 The Prospects of Peru. London: 

Newnaan, 1881.

B.

Egozcue (D. J.)and D. L. Mallada. Description de los criaderos de fosforita. 

Mem. de la Comision del mapa geol6gico de

Espafia, pp. 184-300, 1876. 

Eights (James). Origin of guano.

The Cultivator, i, pp. 370-380, 1814. 

Bmmons (Ebenezer). Discovery of an 

immense vein of phosphate of 

lime.

American Agriculturist, x, pp. 81, 82, 1851. 

England: 

AUSTEN. Quart: Jour. Geol. Soc., iv, pp. 257-

262, 1848. 

BEI.L, A. Geol. Mag., is, pp. 209-215, London,

1872. 

BONNEY. Geol. Mag., ix, pp. 143-144, London,

187?. 

BRODIE. Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 153-155, London,

1866. 

BUCKLAND. Geol. SOC. PrOC., i, pp. 96-98,1834.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Sole. London, ii, pp. 

103,104,1846.

 Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 2d ser., iii,

pp. 223-235. 

CHARLKSWORTH. Geol. Hag., v, pp. 577-580,

London, 1868. 

FISHER. Geol. Mag., viii, pp. 65-71, London,

1871.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxviii, 

pp. 396-397,1872.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxix, pp.

52-62. 1873. 

FITTON. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, 2d ser., iv,

pp. 103-378, 1835.

 Quart. Jour. Gool. Soc. London, iii, pp.

289-327, 1847. 

HENSLOW. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., notices and

ahstracts, loth meeting, pp. 51-52,1845. 

HBUAPATH. Jour.Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xii,

pp. 91-105, 1851. 

HICKS. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xxxi, pp. 368-

383, 1870.

England Continued.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xlii, pp. 3-19,

1886. 

JEXYNS. Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 307-308, London,

1866.

 Bath Nat. Hist. Club, 1867. 

JUDD. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xxiv, pp. 218- 

249, 1868.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soe., xxvi, pp. 326-

348, 1870. 

JUKES-BROWNE and SOLLAS. Quart. Jour. Geol.

Soc. London, xxix, pp. .11-15, 1873. 

KEEPING, H. Geol. Mag., pp. 272,273, London,

1868. 

KEEPING, W. Geol. Mag., pp. 372-375, London,

1875.

 Neocomian Fossils of Up ware and Brickhill.

LANKESTER. Geol. Mag., pp. 103-106, 14.9-152, 

London, 1865.

MANTELL. Medals of Creation, i, p. 432.

MAUR. Geol. Mag., pp. 268,269, London, 1876..

NESUIT. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, iv, p. 

262,1848.

PAINE and WAY. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st 

ser., ix, pp. 56-84, 1848.

PENNINGTON. Geol. Mag., ii, n. s., pp. 184,185,

London, 1875. 

PKESTVVICH. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London,

xxvi, pp. 281, 282, 1870.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxvii, pp.

115-146, 1871. 

R. (C. E.) Geol. Mag., ii, p. 527, London, 1865.

SEELEY. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii, pp. 173- 

183, 1866.

 Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 302-307, London, 1866. 

SHEPARU. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston,

S. C., 1879. 

SOLLAS. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxviii,

pp. 397-400,1872.

 Geol. Mag., x, p. 92. London, 1873.

 Geol. Mag., x, pp. 268-274, London, 1873.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxix,

pp. 76-81,1873.

 Geol. Mag., pp. 539-544, London, 1876.

 and Jukes-Browne. Quart. Jour. Geol.

Soc. London, xxix, pp. 11-15, 1873. 

Vb'LCKER. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xxi,

pp. 350-381, 1860. 

W[ALKEH], J. F. Geol.Mag.,n. s., iii, pp. 41-43.

London, 1876. 

WALKER. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d ser., xviii,

pp. 381-386,1866.

 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d ser., xx, pp. 

118-121, 1867.

 Geol. Mag , iv, pp. 309-310, London, 1867.

 Geol. Mag., v, pp. 26-27, London, 1868.

 Monog. Trigonise, Palaeontographical 

Soc., xxix, p. 145,1875.

WAY and PAINE. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st 

ser.,ix, pp. 56-81, 1848.

Wool'. Geol. Mag., iii, p. 371, London, 1866.

WOODWARD. Geol. Mag., i, pp. 112-114, London. 1804.

(600)
1'ENKOSE. ] BIBLIOGRAPHY.

F.

Filhol (Henri). Recherches sur les phosphorites du Quercy. Etude des 

fossiles qu'on y rencontre et sp6- 

cialetneut des niammiferes. 

Ann.sci.g6ol., Paris, vii, pp. 1-220, 1876.

Fisher (Osmond). On phenomena connected with denudation observed 

in the so-called coprolite pits 

near Haslingfield, Cambridgeshire. 

Geol. Mag., viii, pp. 65-71, London, 1871.

 On the phosphatic nodules of the 

Cretaceous rock of Cambridgeshire.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxviii, pp. 

396-397,1872.

 On the phosphatic nodules of the 

Cretaceous rock of Cambridgeshire.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxix, pp. 52- 

62,1873.'

Fitton (William Henry). Observations

on some of the strata between

the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite

in the southeast of England.

Trans. Geol. Soc., 2d ser., iv, pp. 103-378,1835.

 A stratigraphical account of the 

section from Atherfield to Rocken 

End, ou the southwest coast of 

the Isle of Wight. 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., iii, pp. 289-327,1817. 

France: 

AOUST. Bull. Soc. geol. France, xxii, pp. 130-

138, 1864-'65. 

BLAXCHERK. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 630-632,

1873. 

JBOBIERUE. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 120-124,

187S. 

BORDET. Jour, agric. prat., p. 11, 1873.

 -CAILLAUX. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 310-314, 

1874.

C£ius, A. do. Jour, agric. prat., p. 143, 1869.

 Jour, agric. prat., p. 121S, 1870-71. 

 OLLEXOT. Bull. Soc. g6ol. Prance, 3<° s6r., v,

pp. G71-687, 1876-'77. 

CONVERT. Jour, agric. prat, pp- 405-408,

1873.

 OURTOIS. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 594-599, 1878. 

DAUBREE. Ann. mines, 6° s6r., xiii, pp. 67-95,

1868.

 Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiii, pp. 1028- 

1036, 1871.

 Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxiv, pp. 1372-

1373, 1872.

FILHOL. Ann. sci. g6ol., vii, pp. 1-220, 1876. 

G-., C. Jour, agric. prat., p. 700, 1882. 

I&EORGE. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 818-820,1872. 

GERVAIS. Jour, zoologic, i, pp 261-268, 1872.

France Con tin ued. 

Grossomore. Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3e s6r., vi,

pp. 315-3] 7, 1877-78. 

GKUNER. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, xxviii, pp.

62-72, 1870-71.

JAILLE. Jour, agric. prat., 530,1873. 

KUHLMANN. Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxv, pp.

1678-1681, 1872. 

LORY. Assoc. fran9. avanc. sci., 4° session,

p. 676, 1875. 

MARTIN. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3e s6r., iii,

pp. 273-281, 1874^75.

MERICE. Jour, agric. prat., pp. 728-730,1876. 

MEUGY. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2° s6r., xiii,

pp. 604-605, 1855-'56.

 Ann. mines, 5° ser., xi, pp. 149-176, 1857. 

MIDI. Les gisements do phosphate do cliaux

du, Jour, agric. prat., pp. 307-309, 1872. 

NIVOIT. Assoc. franc,, avanc. sci., 4 e session,

pp. 662-676, 1875.

 Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3e 86r., viii, pp357-365, 1879-'80. 

PERON. Bull. Soc. g6ol. Franco, 3" s6r., ii, pp.

108-120, 1873-74. 

RET-LESCUUE. Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3e ser.,

iii, p. 398-418,1874-75. 

SHEFARD. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston, S.

C., 1879. 

VILLEXEUVE. Bull. Soc geol. France, 2°s6r., x,

pp. 631-634, 1852-'53.

G.

G (C,), Phosphates des Ardennes. 

Jour, agric. prat., p. 700,1882.

Gardner (D. P.). Analyses of guanos. 

The Cultivator, i, pp. 291-292, 1844.

George (Hector). Les phosphates de

chaux du Quercy. 

Jour, agric. prat., pp. 818-820, 1872. 

Germany: 

DAVIES. Geol. Mag., v, pp. 262-266, London.

1868.

GRUXEBERO. Jour, agric. prat., p. 344, 1869. 

NAUMANX. Elemente der Mineralogie, Leipzig

1859. 

SiiEFARi). Foreign phosphates, Charleston, S.

C., 1879.

VOLCKEK. Jour. Eoy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xxi, 

p. 350, 1860.

Gervais (Paul). Sur les niammiferes 

dont les ossements accorupagnent 

les de"p6ts de chaux phosphate'e 

des de"parternents de Tarn-et-Garonne et du Lot. 

Jour, zoologie, i, pp. 261-268, 1872.

Grossonore (A. de). Note sur un nouveau gisement de phosphate de 

chaux.

Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2e s6r., vi, pp. 315-317, 

1877-78.

(007)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. [BULL. 4R

Griineberg (H.). Phosphorite da Nassau.

Jour, agric. prat., p. 344, 1809. 

Gruner (Emm. L.). Note sur les nodules phosphate's de la Perte da 

Eh6ne. 

Bull. Soc. g6ol. Trance, xxviii, pp. 62-72,1870-

'71. 

Guano:

ALLEN. Compendium of American Agriculture, Kew York, 1847.

BAUCLAY. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser.,vi, 

pp. 175-176,1845.

BOHIERRE. Chimie agricole, Paris, 1872.

BuiiN. Tear Book of Agricultural Facts, 1859.

CAMERON. Chemistry of Agriculture, Dublin, 

1857.

CERIS. Jour, agric. prat., p. 703,1868.

CHEVREUL. Corapt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxvi,pp. 

1285,1313,1376-1383,1505-1508, 1873.

CLARKE. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.,2dser.,xiv, p. 

357.

Cox. Geol. Surv. Indiana, pp. 163-164,1879.

DAMOUK. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2e scr., xiii, 

pp. 548-549,1855-'56.

DANA. Corals and Coral Islands, p. 283, New 

York, 1872.

DONALDSON. Soils and Manures.

DUKFIELD. Peru in the Guano Age. London: 

Bentley & Son, 1877.

 The Prospects of Peru. London : Newman, 1881.

EIGHTS. The Cultivator, i, pp. 373-380, 1844.

GARDNER. The Cultivator, i, pp. 291-292,1844.

HAGUE. Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., xxxiv, pp. 224- 

243, 1862.

HOBSON, JIUKTADO &. Co. Facts Respecting 

Peruvian Guano, New York, 1870.

 Peruvian Guano, New York, 1877. 

HUDSON. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xii,

pp. 249-255,1851. 

HUGHES. Qnavt. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xii,

pp. 80-81, 1885. 

JOIINSTOX. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser.,ii,

pp. 301-321,1841.

MKRICE. Jour, agric. prat, pp. 728-730, 1876. 

MBYN. Die uatiirlichen Phosphate, Leipzig,

1873. 

MURCHISON. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser.,

xx, p. 31. 

NKSBIT. Properties of Peruvian Guano, Loir

don, 1859. 

NORTON. The Cultivator, i, pp. 245, 364, 1844.

 Elements of Scientific Agriculture, New

York, 1800. 

SiiARi'LES. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., xxii,

pp. 242-253, 1882-'83.

Guano Continued.

TESCHERMACHER. Am. Agriculturist, pp. 23-25. 

334-335,1844.

 Essay on Guano.

THAER. Principles of Agriculture, New York,

1846. 

URE. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., v, pp,

287-306,1845. 

YOLCKER. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., iv,

No. vii, pt. 1, pp. 176-196,1868.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc..2d ser., vi, No. 

xii, pt. 1, p. 142,1870.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., vi, No, 

xii, pt. 2, pp. 415-424,1870.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., viii, No. 

xv, pt. 1, p. 220,1872.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., ix, No. 

xvii, pt. 1, p. 261,1873.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xi, No. 

xxii, pt. 2, p. 349,1875.

 On Phosphatic Guanos, London, Clowes 

& Sons, 1876.

 Roy. Agric. Soc. Report xii, pt. 2, pp. 

440-459,1876.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xiii, No. 

xxT.pt. l.p. 189,1877.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xiv, No. 

xxvii, pt. 1, pp. 240-255, 1878.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xv, No. 

xxix, pt. 1, pp. 346-352,1879.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xvi, No. 

xxxi, pt. 1, pp. 311-321,1880.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.,2d ser., xvii, No. 

xxxiii.pt. 1, pp. 291-299,1881.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2dser., xviii, No. 

xxxv, pt. 1, pp. 333-345,1882.

 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.,2d ser., xix, No.

xxxvii, pt. 1, pp. 245-247,1883. 

WAY. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., x, pp,

190-230,1819.

Guerard (Arthur R.). An essay on application of finely ground mineral 

phosphate of lime and "ash-eleineut" as manures.

Charleston, S. C., News-Courier book presses, 

1882.

SiiEr-ARD, C.TJ., jr. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston, S. C., 1879.

BHEPAKD, C. U., sr. Rural Carolinian, May, 

1870; April, 1872.

ST. JOHN. British commercial reports, Ixxii, 

pp. 525-537,1878.

Hague (J. D.). On the phosphatic guanoislands of the Pacific Ocean. 

Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., xxxiv, pp. 224-243,1862.

Harrington (B. J.). Report on the minerals of some of the apatite-bearing veins of Ottawa County, 

Quebec.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1877-78, pp. 

1G-50G.

Henslow (John Steveus). Oil nodules, 

apparently coprolitic, from the-

(COS)
FENROSE.] BIBLIOGKAPHY. 135

Henslow Continued.

Red Crag, London Clay, and 

Greensand.

Rep. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci.,pp. 51, 52, notices 

and abstracts, 15th meeting, 1845.

Herapath (Thornton John). Some observations on the chemical composition and agricultural value of 

the fossil bones and pseudo-coprolites of the Crag.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xii, pp. 91- 

105,1851.

Hicks (Henry). On the occurrence of

phosphates in the Cambrian rocks.

(Analyses by Hucidleston, W. H.)

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxxi, pp. 368-

376,1875.

 Eesults of recent research in some

bone-caves in North Wales (Flynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn).

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xlii, pp. 3-16,

1886.

Hitchcock (Edward). Occurrence of 

phosphate of lime in Massachusetts.

Geol. of Massachusetts, pp. 310, 343, 396, 502,

1833.

Hitchcock (Charles H.). Natural fertilizers of New Hampshire.

Geol. of New Hampshire, iii, pt. 5, 94-95,1878. 

Hobson, Hnrtado & Co. Facts RespectiugPeruviau Guano. New York, 

1870.

 Peruvian Guano. Now York, 1877.

Hoffmann (Christian). Chemical contributions to the geology of Canada. On Canadian apatite. 

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1877-78, pp. 

1H-14H.

Holmes (Francis S.). Phosphate Rocks 

of South Carolina and the Great 

Carolina Marl Bed, Charleston, 

S. C., 1872.

Hudson (James). On American phosphate of lime.

Jour. Koy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xii, pp. 249-255, 

1851.

Hughes (George). On some West Indian

phosphates.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.London, xii, pp. 80-81, 

1885.

Hunt (Thomas Sterry). Black phosphatic nodules at R. Ouelle, in a 

calcareous conglomerate, Lower 

Canada.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1851-'52, p. 

106.

Hunt Continued.

 Examination of phosphatic matters, supposed bones, and coprolites, occurring in the Lower Silurian rocks of Canada.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. ,viii, p. 209,1852.

Apatite.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1863-'6C, pp. 

202-204; 224-229.

 Areport upon the deposits of phosphate of lime on the property of 

Messrs. Osborne, Bell and Claxton. Ottawa.

 The apatite deposits of Canada. 

Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Eng., xii, pp. 459- 

468,1883-'8l.

 Note on the apatite region of Canada. 

Trans. Amer. lust. Mining Eng., xiv, pp.

495-496, 1885-'86.

Indiana:

Cox.. GeoL Survey Indiana, pp. 163-164(1879).

J.

Jackson (Charles T.). Phosphates in

New Hampshire.

Final Rep. Geol. of New Hampshire, p. 115, 

1844.

 Crystal of phosphorite from Kurdstown, N. J. (Analysis.) 

Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., xi, pp. 402,403,1851. 

Jaille (Alexaudre). Phosphates du Midi

et les phosphates des Ardennes. 

Jour, agric. prat., ii, p. 530,1873. " 

Jenyns(Leonard). Phosphatic nodules. 

Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 307,308, London, 1866.

 Phosphatic nodules of the eastern

 counties. 

Proc. Bath Nat. Hist. Club, i, part 1, pp. 8-23,

1867-'69.

Johnson (M. Hawkins). Note on the 

structure of the phosphatic nodules from the top of the Bala 

limestone in North Wales. 

Geol. Mag., n. s., ii, p. 238, London, 1875. 

Johnston (James F. W.). Deposits of 

guano along the Peruvian coast. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., ii, pp. 301-302,

1811.

Judd (John W.). On the Speeton clayt 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxiv, pp. 218-- 

249,1868.

 On the Neocomian strata of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxvi, pp. 326- 

348,1870.

(609)
136 BIBLIOGRAPHY. [BULL. 46.

Jukes-Browne (Alfred J.) and W. Johnson Sollas. On the included rock 

fragments of the Cambridge Upper Greensand.

Quarfc. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxix, pp. 11- 

15, 1873.

K.

Keeping (H.). Discovery of Gault with

phosphatic stratum atUpware. 

Geol. Mag, v, pp.. 272,273, London, 18G8.

Keeping (Walter). On the occurrence 

of Neocomiau sands with phosphatic nodules at Brickhill, Bedfordshire. 

Geol. Mag., n. s., ii, pp. 372-375, London, 1875.

 The fossils and palajontological 

affinities of the Neocomian deposits of Upware and Brickhill.

Kentucky:

SHALEB. Geol. Surv. Kentucky, n. s., i'v, pp.

18-65, 1878.

K6nig(Joseph). EinflusseiuigerArnmonsalze auf die Fiillung der Phosphorsaure durch molybdiinsaures 

Am in on. 

Zeitscbr. anal. Chetnie, pp. S05-307, 1871.

Kuhlmann(Fre'd.). Recherche dubrome 

efc de 1'Lode dans les phosphates 

calcaires.

Corapt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixxv, pp. 1G78-1681, 

1872.

L.

Lambert (Gustave). D6oouverte d'un

gisement do phosphate de chaux

au-dessous de la ville de Louvain. 

Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2e s6r., xxix, pp. 254-259,

187U.

Lankester (E. Ray). On the Crags of 

Suffolk and Antwerp.

Geol. Mag., pp. 103-106,149-152, London, 1865.

Leidy (Joseph). Description of vertebrate remains, chiefly from the 

phosphate beds of South Carolina. 

Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pkila., 2d ser.,viii, pp.

209-262, 1874-1881.

Logan (Sir William Edmond). Phosphate of lime.

Geol. Surv. Cauada, Kep. Prog , 1851-'02, pp. 

28-33.

 Phosphate of lime.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Kep. Prog., 1858, p. 64.

 Phosphate of lime.

Geol. Snrv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1863, pp. 125, 

460-463, 757-7C1.

Lory (Charles). Les gisements de phosphate du sud-est de la France. 

Assoc. franc, avanc. sci.. 4e session, p. G76,

1875.

Luna (Rarnon de). Sur des gisements 

considerables de phosphate de 

chaux dans l'Estre"madure. 

Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixi, pp. 47-52, 1865.

 On considerable deposits of phosphate of lime at Caceres, Estremadura. 

Geol. Mag., ii, p. 446, London, 1865.

 Sur uu gisemeut de phosphate de 

chaux ddcouverte dans 1'Estre"- 

madure.

Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixiii, pp. 220-221, 

1866.

Luna (Rarnon Torres Mufioz de). Estudios quiinicos sobre economia 

agricola en general, y particularmente sobre la importancia de los 

abonosfosfatados. Madrid, 1868.

M.

Mallada (D. L.). See Egozcue (D. J.) 

and D. L. Mallada.

Mantell (Gideon Algernon). Molluskite. 

Medals of Creation, i, p. 432.

Marr (J. E.). Note on the occurrence 

ofphosphatizcd carbonate of lime 

at Cave Ha, Yorkshire. 

Geol. Mag., n. s., iii, pp. 268-269, London, 1876.

Martin (Jules). Des nodules phosphate's 

du Gault efc de la COte-d'Or et 

des conditions particulieres du 

de"p6b de cet e"tage.

Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3e s6r., iii, pp. 273-280, 

1874-75.

Massachusetts:

HITCHCOCK. Geol. of Massachusetts, pp. 310, 

343, 306, 502, 1833.

Melsens (H. Louis F.). Note sur Fimportance du gisement de phosphate de chaux des environs de 

Ciply (Province de Hainaut). 

Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2e s6r., xxxviii, pp. 

23-35, 1874.

Merice (E.). Phosphates et guanos. 

Jour, aftric. prat., pp. 728-730, 1876.

Meugy (A.). Phosphate de chaux en uodules dans la craie de Rethcl 

(Ardennes). (Ardennes). 

Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2" s6r., xiii, pp. 604-605, 

1855-'56.

(610)
PENUOSK.J BIBLIOGRAPHY. 137

Meugy Continued.

 : Me~moire sur la de"couverte des 

phosphates do chaux terreux en 

France et snr 1'emplol do cet engrais dans la culture. 

Ann. mines, 5e ser., xi, pp. 149-176, 1857.

Meyii (L.). Die natiirlichen Phosphate.

Leipzig, 1873. 

Midi, les gisements do phosphate de

chaux du. 

Jour, agric. prat., pp. 307-309, 1872.

Morfit (Campbell). Mineral phosphates 

and pure fertilizers. New York, 

1872.

Morton. Cyclopedia o f Agriculture. 

Blackie & Son, London.

Murchison (Sir Roderick Impey). On

the commercial aud agricultural 

value of certain phosphatic rocks 

of the Anguilla Isle in the Leeward Islands. 

Jour. Itoy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xx, p. 31.

N.

Naismith (Thomas) and J. F. Potts.

Charleston phosphates. 

Geol. Mag., viii, p. 235, London, 1871.

Naranjo y Garza (P.) and Lino Peiiuelas. Sur la phosphorite de Logrosan (Estrejnadure). 

Bull. Soc. geol. France, 2e ser., 'xvii, pp. 157-

161,1860. 

Naumann (Carl Friedrich). Staifelite

von Limburg. 

Elemente der Mineralogie, Leipzig, 1859.

Nesbit (J. C. ) On the presence of phos-

 phoric acid in the subordinate

members of the Chalk formation.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, iv, p. 262,1848.

 On the AgriculturalChemistry and 

the Nature and Properties of 

Peruvian Guano. London, 1859.

New Hampshire:

HITCHCOCK, C. H. Geol. of New Hampshire,

iii, part 5, pp. 94-98, 1878.

JACKSON, C. T. Final Rep. Geol. of New Hampshire, p. 115,1844.

New Jersey:

BAKTLKTT, L. American Agriculturist, x, pp.

123,124, 1851. 

COOK, G. H. Ann. Rep. Geol. New Jersey

pp. 34-38,1871. 

HUDSON, J. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., xii, pp. 249-

255, 1851. 

JACKSON; C . T. Am. Jour. Sci., 2d ser., xi, pp.

402, 403,1851.

New York:

EJIMONS, E. American Agriculturist, x, pp. SI82, 1851.

HUDSON, J. Jour. Roy. Agric.'Soc., xii, pp. 249- 

255,1851.

Nichols (James E.). South Carolina

phosphates. 

Rep. Agric. Soc. Mass., pp. 98-110,1871-72.

Nivoit (Edmond). Sur les phosphates de

chaux de Ciply, en Belgique. 

Compt. rend. Acad. sci.,lxxix, pp. 250-259, 

1874.

 Sur les phosphates do chaux du 

terrain cre"tace" dans le nord do la 

France et la Belgique. 

Assoc. frang. avanc. sci., 4" session, pp. 

662-676,1875.

 De 1'acide phosphorique claus les 

terrains de transition efc de Lias 

des Ardennes.

Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3° e6r., viii, pp. 3.J7-365, 

1879-'80. '

North Carolina:

DABNEY. Hop. North Carolina Agric. Experimental Station, pp. 57-83, 1883. 

PHILLIPS. North Carolina Phosphates, "Wilmington, N. C., 1883.

Norton (John P.). Guanos. 

The Cultivator, i, pp. 245-364, J 844.

 Guano. Elements of Scientific 

Agriculture. New York, 1860.

Norway :

BROGGER and REUSCII. Zeitschr. Deutsch. geol.

Gesoll., xxvii, pp. 646-702,1875. 

REUSCII and BUOGGEU. Zeitschr. Deutsch. geol.

Gesell., xxvii, pp. 646-702,1875. 

SHEPAKD. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston, S.

C., 1879. 

VOLCKER. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., Istser., xxi,

p. 350, 1860.

Paine (J. Man waring) and J. Thomas 

Way. On the phosphoric strata 

of the Chalk formation. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser.. ix, pp. 56- 

84, 1848.

Penniugton (Rorke). On the bone caves

near Castleton, Derbyshire. 

Geol. Mag., pp. 184,185, London.

Penuelas (Lino). See Naranjo y Garza

(P.) and Lino Penuelas. 

Peron (Alph.). Les gisemeuts de phosphate de chaux de Tarn-et-Garoune.'

Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3" se>., ii, pp. 108- 

 120, 1873-'74.

(611)
138 BIBLIOGRAPHY. [BULL. 4&

Petermann (A.)- Note sur les gisements

de phosphates en Belgique. 

Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 2» ser., xxxviii, p. 652, 

1874; xxxix, pp. 12, 13, 1875; xlv, p. 3, 

1878.

Phillips (W. B.). North Carolina Phosphates. Wilmington, N. C., 1883.

Potts (J. F.). See Naismith (Thomas) 

and J. F. Potts.

Prestwich (Joseph). On the Crag of

Norfolk and associated beds, 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxvi, pp. 

281-282, 1870.

 On the structure of the Crag beds

of Suffolk and Norfolk. 

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxvii, pp. 

115,116,1871.

R.

R. (C. E.). The phosphate bed at Folkstone.

Geol. Mag., ii, p. 527, London, 1865. 

Reusch (H. H.). See Brb'gger (W. C.)

and H. H. Reusch. 

Rey-Lescure (M.). Note sur les phosphatieres de Tarn-et-Garonne. 

Bull. Soc. geol. France, 3° ser., iii, p. 398- 

418,1874-'75.

Richardson (J.)- Phosphatic serpulites. 

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1866-'C9, p. 125. 

Russia:

SHEPARD. Foreign Phosphates, Charleston,

S. C., 1879. 

YERMOLOFF. Jour. agri. prat., 1872, i, pp. 660-

665.

S.

Seeley (Harry). Notice of Torynocrinus 

and other new and little known 

fossils from the Upper Greeusand 

of Hunstanton, commonly called 

the Hunstantou Red Rock. 

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d ser., xvii, pp. 173- 

183, 1866.

 The rock of the Cambridge Greensand.

Geol. Mag., iii, pp. 302-307, London, 1866. 

Shaler (Nathaniel Southgate). Phosphate beds of South Carolina. 

Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xiii, p. 222, 1869-70.

 Phosphatic limestone, Fayette

County. 

Geol. Surv. Kentucky, new ser., iv, pp. 18, G5,

1878.

Sharpies (Stephen P.). Turk's Island 

and the guano caves of the Caicos Islands.

Proc.Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxii, pp. 242-253, 

. 1882-'83.

Shepard(Charles Upham, jr.). Foreign 

phosphates. Charleston, S., C., 

1879.

 South Carolina Phosphates. 

Charleston, S.C., 1880.

Shepard ( Charles Upham, sr.). Gualiape Island guano. 

Eural Carolinian, May, 1870 ; April, 1872.

Smith (Eugene A.). Report on the phosphates of Alabama. 

Bull. No. 5, Alabama State Dep. Agric., 1884.

Sollas(W. Johnson). Some observations 

on the Upper Greensand formation of Cambridge.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxviii, pp. 

397-400, 1872.

 Coprolitesof the Upper Greensand.

Geol. Mag., x, p. 92, London, 1873.

 On the Foramihifera and sponges 

of the Upper Greensand of Cambridge. 

Geol. Mag., x, pp. 268-274, London, 1873.

 On the coprolites of the Upper 

Greensaud formation, and on 

flints.

Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxix, pp. 76- 

81,1873.

 On the glauconite grannies of the

Cambridge Greensand. 

Geol. Mag., n. s., iii, pp. 539-544, London, 1876.

 See, also, Jukes-Browne (Alfred J.) 

and W. Johnson Sollas.

South Carolina:

CERIS (A. de). Jour, agric. prat., p. 1327, 1870-

'71. 

HOLMES. The Great Carolina Mail Bed.

Charleston, S. C., 1872.

LEIDY (Joseph). Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., 2d ser.,

viii, pp. 209-262, Phila., 1874-1881. 

.NAISMITH and POTTS. Geol. Mag., viii, p. 235, 

London, 1871.

NICHOLS. Rep. Agric. Soc. Mass., pp. 98-110, 

1871-'72.

POTTS and NAISMITH. Geol. Mag., viii, p. 235j 

London, 1871.

SHALEU. Proc. Bost. Soc.Nat. Hist., xiii, p. 222, 

1869-'71.

SHEPARD. South Carolina Phosphates. Charleston, S. C., 1880.

Spain:

BADOUBEAU. Bull. Soc. cent, agric. France, 

xxxviii.

CALDERON. Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 3° s6r., vii, 

pp. 11-12, 1878-'79.

DAUBEXY and WIDDRIXOTON. Jour. Eoy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., v, pp. 406-418, 1815.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., i, pp. 52-55,1845. 

EfiozcuE Y MALLADA. Mem. de la Comision del 

mapa geol. Espana, pp. 184-300, 1876.

(632)
PENROSE.] BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Spain Continued.

LIJNA. Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Paris, Isi, pp. 

47-52, 1865.

 Geol. Mag., p. 446, London, 18G5.

 Compt. rend. Acad. sci., Ixiii, pp. 220- 

221, Paris, 1866.

 Estudios quimicos sobre econoiuia agricola, etc. Madrid, 18G8. 

MALLADA Y EGOZCUE. Mem. de la Comision del

mapa geol. Espana, pp. 184-300, 1876. 

NAUAXJO Y GARZA and PESUELAS. Bull. Soc.

g6ol. Prance, 2e s6r., xvii, pp. 157-161,

1860. 

PESUELAS and NAIIAKJO Y GAKZA. Bull. Soc.

g6ol. France, 2e ser., xvii, pp. 157-161,

1860. 

SHEPAKD. Foreign Phosphates. Charleston, S.

C., 1879. 

VEUNEY. Jour. Koy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., vi,

pp. 331-333,1845.

YILANOVA Y PIERA. Compendio de geologia,

Madrid, 1872. 

VfiLCKEK. Jour. Koy. Agric. Soo., 1st ser., xxi,

p. 355. 

WIDDRINOTON and DAUBEXY. Jour. Roy. Ag.

ric. Soc., 1st SOT., v, pp. 406-418, 1845.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., i, pp. 52-55,1845. 

St.John (Spencer). Guano statistics. 

Brit. Commercial Reports, Ixxii, pp. 525-537,

1878.

Stubbs (William B.). Eeport on the phosphates of Alabama. 

Bull. No. 5, Alabama State Dep. Agric., 1884.

T.

Teschermacher (J. E.). Guano.

American Agriculturist, pp. 23-25; 334-335,

1844.

 Essay on guano.

Thaer (A.D.). Guano. Principles of agriculture.

Translated by W.Shaw and C. "W. Johnson, 

N. Y., 1846.

U.

lire (Andrew). Analyses of guano.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., v, pp. 287-306,

1845.

V.

Vennor (Henry G ). Phosphate of lime

in Canada.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1870-'71, pp. 

314-315.

 Phosphate of lime in Canada. 

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1871-72, pp. 

123-129.

 Report on Frontenac, Leeds, and

Lanark Counties, Ontario. 

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1872-'73, pp. 

136-179.

Vennor Continued.

 Synclinal forms of phosphate 

rocks in Loughboro' and Bedford 

Townships.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1873-74, pp. 

107-145.

 Report of exploration surveys in 

the rear portions of Frontenac 

and Lanark Counties, with notes 

on some of the' economic minerals of Canada.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1874-'75, pp.. 

105-165.

 Report on surveys in the counties, 

of Renfrew, Pontiac, and Ottawa, 

Avith notes on the iron ores, apatite, and plumbago deposits of 

Ottawa County.

Geol. Surv. Canada, Rep. Prog., 1876-77, pp.. 

' 224-230.

 Les gisements d'apatite et de plombagine des cantons de Buckingham, Portland, Templeton et 

Hull, comt6 d'Ottawa. 

G6ologique du Canada, pp. 343-363,1876-77. 

Verney (Sir Harry). On the use of

Spanish phosphate. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., vi, pp.331-333, 

1845.

Vilanova y Piera (D. Juan). Compeudio de geologia. Madrid, 1872.

Villeneuve (H. de). Sur des rognons 

phosphate's de la craie du de"- 

partement du Nord.

Bull. Soc. g6ol. France, 2e sor., x, pp. 631-634, 

1852-'53.

Volcker (Augustus). On the chemical 

composition and commercial value 

of Norwegian apatite, Spanish 

phosphorite, coprolites, and other 

phosphatic materials used in England for agricultural purposes.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., xxi, pp.. 

350-381, 1860.

 On phosphatic deposits recently

discovered in North Wales. 

Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 37, 1865.

 On the solubility of phosphaticmaterials, with special reference 

to the practical efficacy of the various forms in which bones are 

used in agriculture.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st sor., iv, No. vii, pt. 

1, pp. 179-196, 1868.

0 (613)
140 BIBLIOGRAPHY. [BULL. 46.

Vb'lcker Continued.

 Analyses of two samples of GuaSiape guano. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., vi, No. vii, pt. 

1, p. 112, 1870. (In report of consulting 

chemist for 1869.)

 Oil the composition and practical 

value of several samples of native 

guano prepared by the A B C sewage process of the Native Guano 

Company.

 Jour. Roy. Agile. Soc., 2d ser., vol. vi, No. 

xii, pt. 2, pp. 415-424, 1870.

 Analyses of samples from various 

cargoes of guano imported from 

the Ballestas Isles.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., viii, No. xv, pt. 

1, p. 220, 1872.

 Composition of two samples of soluble Peruvian guano. 

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.,.2d ser., ix, No. xvii, 

pt. 1, p. 261,1873. (In report of consulting chemist for 1872.)

 Analyses, of Peruvian and other

guanos.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xi, No. xxii, 

pt. 2, p. 349, 1875. (In annual report of 

consulting chemist.)

 On. phosphatic guanos. London: 

W. Clowes & Sous, 1876.

 On phosphatic guanos.

Roy. Agric. Soc. Report, vii, pt. 2, pp. 440-459, 

J876.

 : Analyses of Peruvian and other

guanos.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xiii, No. xxv, 

pt. 1, p. 189, 1877. (In animal report of 

consulting chemist.)

 ' Analyses of Peruvian and other

guanos.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 2d ser., xiv, No. xxvii, 

pt. 1, pp. 246-255, 1878 j 2d ser., xv, No. 

xxix, pt.l, pp. 346-352,1879; 2d ser., xvi, 

No. xxxi, pt. ]., pp. 311-321,1880; 2d ser., 

xvii, No. xxxiii, pt. 1, pp. 291-299, 1881; 

2d ser/, xviii, No. xxxv, pt. 1, pp. 333-345, 

1882; 2d ser., xix, No. xxxvii, pt. 1, pp. 

245-247,1883. (In annual reports of consul ting chemist.)

W. 

Wales :

DAVJES. Geol. Mag., iv, pp. 251-253, London, 

1867.

 Geol. Mag., ii, n. s., p. 183, London, 1875.

 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xxxi, pp. 

357-367, 1875.

Wales Cpntinued.

JOHNSON, M. H. Geol. Mag., ii, n. s., p. 238. London, 1875.

SiiEr-ARD, C. TJ., jr. Foreign Phosphates. 

Charleston, S. C., 1879.

VOLCKEK. Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 37,1865.

W[alker] (John Francis). Tho Patton 

and Wickeu phosphatic deposits. 

Geol. Mag., iii, n. s., pp. 41-43, London, 1876.

 On a phosphatic deposit in the 

Lower Greensaud of Bedfordshire.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d ser., xviii, pp. 31-32, 

381-380, 1866.

 A reply to H. G. Seeley's remarks 

on my account of the phosphatic 

deposits at Patton, in Bedford- 

 shire.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3d ser., xx, pp. 118-121, 

1867.

 On some new coprolite workings

in the Fens. 

Geol. Mag., iv, pp. 309-310, London, 1867.

 On a new phosphatic deposit near

Upware, Cambridgeshire. 

Geol. Mag., v, pp. 26-27, London, 1868.

 Upware deposits.

Monog. Trigoniae, No. iii, PaLcontographical 

Soc., xxix, p. 145.

Way (John Thomas). On the composition and money value of the different varieties of guano. 

.Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., 1st ser., x,pp. 196-230, 

1649.

 See Paine (J. Mauwaring) and J. T.

Way. 

Widdrington (S. E.). See Daubeny

(Charles) and S. E. Widdriugton. 

Wood (Searles Valentine). On the structure of the Eed Crag. 

Geol. Mag., iii, p. 371, London, 1866. 

Woodward (Samuel P.). Notes on Plicatula Sigillina, an undescribed 

fossil of the Upper Chalk and 

Cambridge phosphate-bed. 

Geol. Mag., i, pp. 112-114, London, 1864.

Y.

Yermoloff(Alexis). Les phosphates de

chaux de la Russie. 

Jour, agric. prat., i, pp. 660-665,1872.

(614)

0
INDEX.

A.

Page.

African guano.......................................... 119

Alabama,phosphates of........................... 75-78

Alien, J. A.,cited ...................................... 127

Anglo-Canadian Phosphate Company,

Canada, operations of..................... 36

Apatite, nature and occurrences of..........22,23-46

Apatitesof Canada................................... 23-42

Apatites of Norway................................. 42-45

Apatites of Spain...................................... 45

Arabian guano........................... ............. 119,122

Australian guano..................................... 119-122

B.

Barral, J. A., analyses by.......................... 119,120

Bat guano................................................ 119-122

Beaulieu,L. de, cited................................ 105

Belgium, phosphates of....................... 10,102-107

Belgium phosphates, method of treatment of...... ..................................... 104

Berthier,P.,cited ....................... ; . ......... 96,97

Bibliography............................................ 129-614

Bobierre, Adolphe, analyses by...... 52.59,119,120

Bobierre and Friedel, analyses by........... 59

Bone beds................................................ 126.127

Bonney.T. Q-., cited................................. 91

Bowles, William, cited.............................. 58

Bretschneider, analyses by...................... 126

Briart, A., cited.................................. 103,104,105

Broggerand Reusch,cited ..................... 41,43,44

Buckingham Mining Company, operations of.'........................................... 23

Buckland, William,cited.......................... 96

Burn, R. S., analyses by ........................... 122

Ciiceres (Spain), phosphorite at............... 56-59

Cameron.C. A..analyses by..... ............... 122

Canada, apatites of................................... 23-42

Canadian Mining Review,cited.............. 40

Cave deposits........................................... 126,127

Charleston, S. C., phosphatic deposits

near............................................13,14,61,62

Chodneff, A.,cited ................................... 114

Claus, C. E.,cited...................................... 114

Combes, J.L., cited....................... ........... 51

Cornet, F.L., cited.......... ...............13,103,104,105

Cornetand Briart.cited ......................103,104, 10

5

D. 

Dana, J.D.,cited ......................................23,32,46

Daniel, John,analyses by......................... 77

Page. 

Dawson, J.W., cited................................. 31,41

Daubeny,Charles,cited............ .............. 58

analyses by ......... ............................. 58

Daubeny and Widdrington,cited............ 53

Daubree, Auguste, cited ..... ....................48,49,50

Davies,D.C.,cited ...............................46,80,81,82

Dean, L. Li., analyses by........................... 77

DehSrain, P. P., analyses by..................... 120

Dehern,analyses by................................. 44

Delfortrie, E., cited................................... 51

Devonian rocks of'Nassau, Germany,

phosphate deposits of.................... 14,15

Dismal Swamp district, phosphatic deposits of.................. ........................ 13

Drysdale, analyses by.............................. 125

Edrisi, cited........................... ................. 21

Emmons, E., cited .................................... 30

Engelhardt, cited ................................... 114

analyses by ....................................... 115

England, phosphates of........................... 84-102

Cretaceous phosphate beds of ........... 84-94

Tertiary phosphate beds of............... 94-96

Estramadura (Spain), phosphate deposits at.......................................... 37,46

F.

Filhol, Henri, cited ................................. 50

.Fitton, W. H., cited................................. 96

Fisher, O., cited......................... .........86,87,88,97

Florida, phosphates of............................. 78

France (southwestern), phosphates of...... 48-53

(northern), phosphates of.................. 107-111

(northern), treatment of phosphates 

of.................................................... 109

(central), phosphates of..................... 111-112

C. 

Gibson, Charles, analyses by .................. 77

Gilbert, H., analyses by........................... 12G

Guano, deposits of.................................... 117-126

Guano, African........................................ 119

Arabian.............................................. 119-122

Australian..... .................................... 119-122

Guanos, leached....................................... 122-126

soluble................................................ 117-122

Guillier, A..cited...................................... 52

H.

Harrington, B. J., cited..............

Harris, E. M., analyses by.........

(015)

.............28,31,34

141
142 INDEX.

Page. 

Henslow.J.S., cited................................. 96

Herapath, T. J., analyses by.................... 101

Herzberg, W.I., analyses by................... 77

Hills,F. C., & Co., analyses by................. 83,84

Holmes, F.S., cited..............................61,63,64,69

Hunt, Robert, cited ................................. 97

JIunt, T. Sterry,cited......................23,26,29,30,40

J. 

Jenyns, L.,cited....................................... 89,95

.Johnson, M. H., cited.............................. 81

Keeping, W., cited .......................90, 91, 92, 93, 94

Kentucky, phosphatic deposits of...... .....

14,15,16,116,117,127 

Keyserling, A., cited................................ 114

Kirwan, Richard, cited ........................... 46

Krageroe (Norway), phosphatic deposits

at..................................................... 43,44

L.

Lacustrine deposits................................. 127

Lankester, E. Ray, cited ......................... 95

..Laurentian phosphates, probable origin

of..................................................... 40,41

X,ePlay, F.,cited..................................... 54,58

Leymerie, A., cited ................................. 49,50

 Liebig, Justus von, cited.......................... 21

.Limestone beds....................................... 136,117

Little Rapids mine, structure at.............. 38

Liveing, G. D.,analyses by...................... 99

Logrosan, Spain, phosphorite at.............. 53-59

Luna, see Torres, Munos y Luna.............. 58

M. 

.Malinowski, J.,cited................................ 51

Mantell, G. A., cited.......................... ..... 88,96

Martha's Vineyard, phosphates of.......... 78

Mauvaises Torres, Nebraska, deposits of 14,127 

Melsens, L.H. F., cited............................. 103

Meyn, L., cited........................................ 118,124

Mohr.C. F., cited.............................. ...... 48

.Moropite, a form of apatite..................... 42,note

Murohison, R., cited. 114

Naranjo y Garza, cited................ .......45,54,55,58

Naratijo y Garza and Lino Penuelas,

cited.......................................... .....45,54,55

Nassau, Germany, phosphorite of........... 46-48

Nesbit, J. C., analyses by........................ 121

Nestesvag, Norway, phosphates, deposits at.............................................. . 44

New York, phosphate deposits of........... 37

Nivoit, E., cited............................104,108,109,110

analyses by..............................106,107,110,111

North Carolina phosphates..................... 70-75

Norton, J. P.,analyses by........................ 122

.Norway, phosphatic deposits of............... 42-45

O.

'Oedegarten, Norway, phosphate deposits

at..................................................... 43,44

 Osteolite, a form of phosphorite .............. 59

Page.

Paine and Way, cited...... .................. ......85, 87, 97

Paine, J..M., cited..................................... 97

Peirce, Benjamin, Superintendent U. S. 

Coast Survey, geological researches 

under.............................................. 9

Pelletier and Donadei, analyses by......... 58

Penuelas, Lino, cited. .............................. 45, 54, 55

Peron, Alph., cited ................................... 50,51

Peruvian guano....................................... 118-122

Peter, Robert, U. S. Coast Survey, chemical researches of ............................. 9

cited................................................... is

analyses by... ..................................... H7

Petermann, A........................................... 10G

Phosphates, amorphous nodular....... ....... 60-116

of South Carolina.............................. 60-70

of North Carolina... ........................... 70-75

of Alabama ...................................... 75-78

of Florida.......................................... 78

of Martha's Vineyard...... .................. ~8

of Wales............... ............................ 80

of England.................................. ...... 84

of Belgium.......................................... 102

Phosphatic deposits, classified........ ..........11, 12, 22

methods of search for......................... 16, 17

determination of value of, as manures 17, 19 

of Southwestern France, the». ries as 

to origin of...... ................................ 50,51

Phosphatic limestone of Kentucky......... 116, 117

Phosphatic rock... ........................ ........... 59-127

Phosphorites, deposits of......................... 46-59

of Spain............................ . ........; ..... 53-59

PoumarMe, Andre, cited.....................".... 51

Prestwich, J., cited...................... ............. 94,95

Proust, J.L., cited .................................... 58

Proctor, J. R., cited.................................. 16

Regiirdsheien, Norway, phosphatic deposits at.......................................... 43

Rey-Lescure, cited .................................. 49, 50

Richards, D. H., analyses by........... ......... 83

Rock phosphates..................................... 59-127

Rose.G., analyses by............................... 45,46

Ruffin, Edmund, cited......... ..................... 61

Rumpler, analyses by...... ........................ 125

Russia, phosphate of................................ 112-116

* S. 

Schmidt, cited........................................... 82

analyses by........................................ 115

Schwackhofer, F., cited...... ...................... 114

analyses by.... .................................... 115

Seeley, H.G., cited........ ..................'........, 86,93

Silurian phosphatic deposits .................. 15

Siegert, analyses by................................ 125

Shaler, N. S., introduction by.................. 9,20

notes by.......... ...... ......30,37,41,78,102,105-106

cited................................................... 69,116

Shepard, C.U., jr.. aid by..... ................... 19

analyses by.... .....42, 45, 53, 59, 69, 70, 79, 115, 120

cited. ........43, 47, 52, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67.

68,93,97,113,123,124 

Shepard, C.U., sr., cited........................... 79
143

Page. 

Sollas, W.J., cited....................... ............87,88,89

South Carolina, phosphatic deposits of...13,14,37,

00-70, C7-C9 

South Carolina phosphates, cost of......... 17

method of mining and treatment...... 67-69

Spain, phosphate deposits of...............lo, 45,53-59

Spargelstein, a form of apatite ............... 45

Ssamorod, a form of Russian phos»hatic

deposit............................................ 112

Stockhardt, J. A., cited...............".............. 118

Swamp lands of Southern States, phosphatic deposits of............................ 13,14

T. 

Tawney, E.B., cited................................. 91

Teall, J. J. H., cited................................. 93

Tertiary phosphate beds of England.....: 94-96

Torres, Muiios y Luna (Ramon), cited.....23,45,58

analyses by................. ....................... 58

Trutat, cited................... .......:..... ........... 49

'Tuomey, M.,cited.................................... 61

Page. 

Turner's Island, Clear Lake, Canada,

phosphate deposits of .................... 31,38

U. 

Ure, Andrew,analyses by..................... 120

Vega, Garcilaso de la, cited .................... 21

Vennor, Henry G-., cited....... .................. 24

Volcker, A., analyses by............ 83,84,98,100,12<>

cited..................................................: 92

W. 

Wales, phosphate deposit of................... 15,80

Walker, J. F., cited..................... .......... 91,92,93

Way, J.T., cited................................ 87,88,92,97

analyses by .............................. 98,99,100,101

Widdrington and Daubeny, cited ........... 53

Widdrington, S. E., cited ........................ 53

Y. 

Yermoloff, Alex., analyses by................. 115,110

cited............................................. 112,113,116

(617)