Importation, from Mexico into the United States, 

of Potato, Solanum tuberosum, Tubers Intended 

for Consumption

A Pathway-initiated Commodity Risk Assessment

April 2011

Agency contact:

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Plant Protection and Quarantine

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300

Raleigh, North Carolina 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 i

Executive Summary

In this document we present results of an assessment of the risks associated with the importation, 

from Mexico into the United States (the 50 states and Caribbean territories), of ware potatoes

(i.e., potatoes for consumption only), Solanum tuberosum L. A search of available sources of 

information and APHIS, PPQ port interception records identified eight quarantine pests of S. 

tuberosum that occur in Mexico and could be introduced into the United States in consignments 

of that commodity.

Consequences of Introduction were estimated by assessing five elements that reflect the biology 

and ecology of the pests: climate/host interaction, host range, dispersal potential, economic 

impact, and environmental impact, resulting in the calculation of a risk value. Likelihood of 

Introduction was estimated by considering both the quantity of the commodity to be imported 

annually and the potential for pest introduction, resulting in the calculation of a second risk 

value. The two values were summed to estimate an overall Pest Risk Potential, which is an 

estimation of risk in the absence of mitigation.

Quarantine pests considered likely to follow the import pathway are presented in the following 

table, indicating their risk ratings.

Estimated risks associated with the introduction of quarantine pests of potato from Mexico.

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk 

Potential

Epicaerus cognatus Sharp Medium Medium Medium

Copitarsia decolora (Guenée) High Medium Medium

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 (Smith) 

Yabuuchi et al.

High High High

Rosellinia bunodes (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. High Low Medium

Rosellinia pepo Pat. Medium Low Medium

Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.) Percival High Medium High

Thecaphora solani (Thirum. & O’Brien) Mordue Medium Low Medium

Nacobbus aberrans (Thorne) Thorne & Allen High High High
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 ii

Table of Contents

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................... i

1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 1

1.1. Background.......................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Commodity Information ...................................................................................................... 1

2. Risk Assessment ......................................................................................................................... 2

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action........................................................................................ 2

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) ............................... 3

2.3. Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions ................................... 3

2.4. Pest Categorization—Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely to 

Follow the Pathway .................................................................................................................... 7

2.5. Consequences of Introduction—Economic/Environmental Importance ........................... 48

2.6. Likelihood of Introduction—Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity ............................ 60

2.7. Conclusion—Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures............... 67

3. Literature Cited ......................................................................................................................... 68
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 1

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

This document was prepared by the Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory of the 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology, USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), in response to a request to evaluate the 

risks associated with the importation of commercially produced fresh tubers of potato, Solanum 

tuberosum L., for consumption, from Mexico into the United States (including the 50 states and 

Caribbean territories).

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) provides guidance for conducting pest risk 

analyses. The methods used here are consistent with guidelines provided by the IPPC, 

specifically the International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) on ‘Pest Risk 

Analysis for Quarantine Pests, Including Analysis of Environmental Risks and Living Modified 

Organisms’ (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11). The use of biological and phytosanitary terms is consistent 

with the ‘Glossary of Phytosanitary Terms and the Compendium of Phytosanitary Terms’ (IPPC, 

2009: ISPM #5). 

Three stages of pest risk analysis are described in international standards: Stage 1, Initiation, 

Stage 2, Risk Assessment, and Stage 3, Risk Management. This document satisfies the 

requirements of Stages 1 and 2.

This is a qualitative risk analysis; estimates of risk are expressed in terms of High, Medium, and 

Low pest risk potentials based on the combined ratings for specified risk elements (PPQ, 2000)

related to the probability and consequences of importing this ware potatoes commodity from 

Mexico. For the purposes of this assessment High, Medium, and Low probabilities will be 

defined as:

High: More likely to occur than not to occur

Medium: As likely to occur as not to occur

Low: Less likely to occur than not to occur

The appropriate risk management strategy for a particular pest depends on the risk posed by that 

pest. Identification of appropriate sanitary and phytosanitary measures to mitigate the risk, if any, 

for this pest is undertaken as part of Stage 3 (Risk Management). Other than listing possible 

mitigation options for the pests of concern, we did not discuss risk management in this 

document.

1.2. Commodity Information

Potatoes are grown on about 70,000 ha in Mexico, primarily in the states of Chihuahua,

Coahuila, Guanajuato, México, Michoacán, Nuevo León, Sinaloa, Sonora, Tlaxcala, and 

Veracruz (Haverkort & Wiersema, 2007) (Fig. 1). Production in 2008 exceeded 1.6 million 

tonnes (FAO, 2011b), at a producer price of about $422 per tonne (FAO, 2011a). Mexico ranks 

33rd in global potato production (NPC, 2011b).
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 2

Potato production in the United States in 2009 was approximately 19.5 million tonnes, at a 

producer price of about $180 per tonne (NASS, 2010). The United States is the world’s fifth 

largest potato producer (NPC, 2011b).

Figure 1. Map of Mexico showing states (red dots), in which potatoes are produced (source:

http://www.planetware.com/map/mexico-mexico-mexican-states-map-mex-mex1.htm).

2. Risk Assessment

2.1. Initiating Event: Proposed Action

This risk assessment was developed in response to a request, by the government of Mexico in 

2001 (Hernandez, 2001), for USDA authorization to permit imports of fresh ware potato tubers

(for consumption) from Mexico into the United States. Entry of this commodity into the United 

States presents the risk of introduction of exotic plant pests. Title 7, Part 319, Section 56 of the 

United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR §319.56) provides regulatory authority for the 

importation of fruits and vegetables from foreign countries into the United States.
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 3

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

This step examines the potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the United 

States (Table 1; USDA, 2000). If the assessment indicates significant weed potential, then a 

“pest-initiated” risk assessment is conducted.

Table 1. Assessment of the weed potential of potato.

Commodity: Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) (Solanaceae)

Phase 1: Potato is naturalized in all 50 states and the territory of Puerto Rico (ERS, 2007; USDA-NRCS, 

2011). The crop is grown commercially in 36 states (NPC, 2011a).

Phase 2: Is the species listed in:

Yes A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979)

No The World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977) or World Weeds: Natural Histories and 

Distribution (Holm et al., 1997)

No 1982 Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds: Exotic Weeds for 

Federal Noxious Weed Act (Gunn & Ritchie, 1982)

No Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977)

No Weed Science Society of America Composite List of Weeds (WSSA, 2010)

Yes Is there any literature reference or database indicating weediness (e.g., AGRICOLA, CAB 

Abstracts, Biological Abstracts; search on “species name” combined with “weed”)

Phase 3: Solanum tuberosum is listed by Holm et al. (1979) as a common weed in Finland and as present 

as a weed in India, Turkey, and the United States. Randall (2002) categorized S. tuberosum as a weed 

with the following statuses: weed, naturalised, cultivation escape, casual alien. However, the species is

well established and widespread in the United States, where it has long been grown commercially (Kehr

et al., 1964). Importation of fresh tubers from Mexico is unlikely to increase the plant’s weed potential 

beyond that existing at present. A pest-initiated risk assessment therefore is not necessary.

2.3. Previous Risk Assessments, Current Status, and Pest Interceptions

2.3.1. Previous Risk Assessment

2002 – The Importation, from Mexico into the Continental United States, of Greenhouse-Grown 

Mini-tuber Potato, Solanum tuberosum L., Intended for Propagation (June 28, 2002). 

Qualitative, Pathway-initiated Risk Assessment. USDA-APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL.

2.3.2. Decision History for Solanum tuberosum from Central and South America

1971 – Deny entry from Nicaragua, as “[n]either entomology nor pathology findings support a 

relaxation of the Potato Regulations as they apply to Nicaragua.”

1971 – Deny entry from Colombia since “[p]otatoes are restricted entry under the Potato 

Regulations and have never been approved from Colombia. The above pests [listed on the 

decision sheet] provide ample justification for retaining this position.”
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 4

Currently, potato tuber imports from Mexico are not authorized by 7 CFR §319.56. Pest 

interceptions at U.S. ports-of-entry on Solanum tuberosum from Mexico are summarized below

(Table 2).

Table 2. U.S. port interceptions on Solanum tuberosum from Mexico (1984-2011).1

Organism Plant Part 

Infested

Location of 

Interception

Purpose Interceptions

(no.)

ACARI

Cryptostigmata, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Oribatulidae

Oribatulidae, species of Root Baggage Consumption 1

ARANEAE

Araneae, species of No data Baggage Consumption 1

INSECTA

Insecta, species of Leaf Permit cargo Consumption 1

COLEOPTERA

Anthicidae

Anthicidae, species of No data Baggage Consumption 1

Chrysomelidae

Chrysomelidae, species of Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 1

No data Baggage Consumption 1

Epitrix sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Galerucella sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Curculionidae

Colecerus sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Conotrachelus sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 4

Copturus sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 2

Curculionidae, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 2

Stores Non-entry 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 6

General cargo Consumption 1

Cylindrocopturus sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Diaprepes sp. Root Baggage Non-entry 1

Epicaerus sp. Bulb2 Baggage Consumption 5

Fruit Baggage Consumption 7

Stores Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 14

Quarters Non-entry 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 39

No data Baggage Consumption 49

Epicaerus cognatus Sharp Root Baggage Consumption 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 5

Organism Plant Part 

Infested

Location of 

Interception

Purpose Interceptions

(no.)

Premnotrypes sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Rhynchophorinae, species of Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Sitophilus sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Sphenophorus sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

No data Baggage Consumption 1

Trichobaris sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Elateridae

Conoderus laurenti (Guérin) Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Scarabaeidae

Diplotaxis sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Tenebrionidae

Blapstinus sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Epitragus sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 2

DERMAPTERA

Dermaptera, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Forficulidae

Forficulidae, species of No data Baggage Consumption 1

DIPTERA

Diptera, species of Root Baggage Consumption 1

Agromyzidae

Agromyzidae, species of Leaf Permit cargo Consumption 3

Ceratopogonidae

Ceratopogonidae, species of Root Baggage Consumption 1

No data Baggage Consumption 1

Drosophilidae

Drosophilidae, species of Bulb2 Miscellaneous Consumption 1

Muscidae

Musca sp. No data Baggage Consumption 1

Mycetophilidae

Mycetophilidae, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Phoridae

Phoridae, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Syrphidae

Syrphidae, species of Stem Baggage Consumption 1

No data Baggage Consumption 1

Tephritidae

Tephritidae, species of Root Baggage Consumption 1

HEMIPTERA

Aphididae

Aphididae, species of Plant Baggage Propagation 1

Largidae

Largus cinctus Herrich-Schäffer Stem Baggage Consumption 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 6

Organism Plant Part 

Infested

Location of 

Interception

Purpose Interceptions

(no.)

Lygaeidae

Prytanes sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Pentatomidae

Euschistus sp. Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Pseudococcidae

Planococcus citri (Risso) Root Baggage Consumption 1

Planococcus sp. Fruit

HYMENOPTERA

Formicidae

Camponotus sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Solenopsis geminata (F.) Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

LEPIDOPTERA

Lepidoptera, species of Root Baggage Consumption 1

Gelechiidae

Gelechiidae, species of Root Baggage Consumption 5

Stores Non-entry 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) Fruit Baggage Consumption 3

Root Baggage Consumption 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 3

No data Baggage Consumption 7

Noctuidae

Noctuidae, species of Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Oecophoridae

Oecophoridae, species of Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Sesiidae

Sesiidae, species of Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Tortricidae

Tortricidae, species of Root Baggage Consumption 2

ORTHOPTERA

Gryllidae

Acheta domesticus (L.) Root Miscellaneous Non-entry 1

BACTERIUM

Streptomyces scabies (Thaxt.) Waksman 

& Henrici

Bulb2 Baggage Consumption 1

Fruit Baggage Consumption 9

Root Baggage Consumption 7

Stem Baggage Consumption 4

No data Baggage Consumption 8

FUNGI

Aspergillus sp. Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 1

Cladosporium sp. Root Baggage Consumption 3
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 7

Organism Plant Part 

Infested

Location of 

Interception

Purpose Interceptions

(no.)

Stem Baggage Consumption 2

Miscellaneous Consumption 1

Coniothyrium sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Fusarium sp. Root Baggage Consumption 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Fusarium solani (Mart.) Sacc. No data Baggage Consumption 1

Microsphaeropsis sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Phoma sp. Leaf Mail Consumption 1

Stem Baggage Consumption 1

Rhizoctonia solani Kühn Fruit Baggage Consumption 8

Root Baggage Consumption 11

No data Baggage Consumption 5

Spongospora solani Brunchorst Fruit Baggage Consumption 5

Root Baggage Consumption 4

No data Baggage Consumption 2

Spongospora subterranea (Wallroth) 

Lagerheim

Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 1

No data Baggage Consumption 1

Thecaphora solani (Thirum. & O'Brien) 

Mordue

Bulb2 Baggage Consumption 2

Fruit Baggage Consumption 1

Plant Baggage Consumption 1

Root Baggage Consumption 9

Stem Baggage Consumption 7

No data Baggage Consumption 46

NEMATODA

Cactodera sp. Stem Baggage Consumption 1

1Records from the USDA-APHIS Agricultural Quarantine Activity Systems Pest Interception Database (Pest ID). 

Last access: February 2011.

2May refer to the potato tuber. Bulb crops comprise members of the Liliaceae, particularly species of Allium (Tsao 

& Lo, 2004).

2.4. Pest Categorization—Identification of Quarantine Pests and Quarantine Pests Likely 

to Follow the Pathway

Pests and potential pests associated with potato, that also occur in Mexico, are listed below

(Table 3). The list includes information on the presence or absence of the pest in the United 

States, the affected plant part or parts, the quarantine status of the pest with respect to the United 

States, an indication of the pest-commodity association, and pertinent references for pest 

distribution and biology.

Pests in shaded rows are quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway and selected for further 

analysis.
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 8

Table 3. Pests and potential pests in Mexico associated with potato (Solanum tuberosum L.).1

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

ARTHROPODS

ACARI

Acaridae

Rhizoglyphus robini

Claparède

MX, US R, S No No Fan & Zhang (2003)

Eriophyidae

Aculops lycopersici (Tryon) MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Jeppson et 

al. (1975)

Tetranychidae

Bryobia praetiosa Koch MX, US L No No Bolland et al. (1998); 

Jeppson et al. (1975)

Tetranychus cinnabarinus

(Boisduval)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Tetranychus desertorum

Banks

MX, US L No No Bolland et al. (1998); 

Estébanes & Baker 

(1966)

Tetranychus ludeni Zacher MX, US L No No Jeppson et al. (1975)

Tetranychus marianae

McGregor

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Denmark 

(1970)

Tetranychus urticae Koch 

(= T. telarius L.)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Schubert 

(1967)

BLATODEA

Blaberidae

Pycnoscelus surinamensis

(L.)

MX, US S No No Bruner et al. (1945);

Palacios & Jiménez 

(1997); Suiter & Koehler 

(2003)

INSECTA

Coleoptera: Anthribidae

Araecerus fasciculatus (De 

Geer)

MX, US T No No5 CABI (2011); Mphuru 

(1974)

Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae

Acalymma trivittatum

(Mannerheim)

MX, US L, S No No Capinera (2001);

MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983); Metcalf & 

Metcalf (1993)

Acalymma vittatum (F.) (= 

Diabrotica 

melanocephala [F.])

MX, US I, L, S No No CABI (2011); MAF 

(2004)

Agroiconota bivittata (Say) MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Altica amethystina (Olivier) MX L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 9

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Cerotoma atrofasciata 

Jacoby

MX, US L No No Gámez-Virués & Eben 

(2005); MAF (2004); 

Riley et al. (2003)

Cerotoma ruficornis

(Olivier)

MX L Yes No CABI (2011); Kost & 

Heil (2006)

Chaetocnema confinis

Crotch

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Lingafelter 

(2001)

Chaetocnema pulicaria

Melsheimer

MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Elliot (1938)

Charidotella (= Coptocycla, 

Metriona) bicolor (F.)

MX, US L No No Britton (1918); CABI 

(2011); Rausher & 

Simms (1989)

Charidotella sexpunctata

(F.)

MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); Harris 

(2005); Riley et al. (2003)

Colaspis hesperia Blake MX, US L

6 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Cyclotrypema furcata

(Olivier)

MX, US I, L, R7 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Deloyala guttata (Olivier) MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Diabrotica sp. MX I, L, R7 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Diabrotica adelpha Harold MX I, L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Diabrotica balteata

LeConte

MX, US I, L, R, S, 

T

No No8 CABI (2011); Mayea & 

Mendez (1980); 

Rodriguez-del-Bosque & 

Magallanes-Estala (1994)

Diabrotica nummularis

Harold

MX L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Diabrotica porracea Harold MX L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Diabrotica tibialis Jacoby MX, US I, L, R7 No No Branson & Krysan 

(1987); MAF (2004)

Diabrotica 

undecimpunctata

Mannerheim (= D. 

duodecimpunctata [F.])

MX, US I, L No No EPPO (2011); MacGregor 

& Gutiérrez (1983); 

McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Riley et al. (2003)

Diabrotica virgifera

LeConte

MX, US L, R No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Diachus auratus (F.) MX, US I, L No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003); Wood & 

Knowlton (1949)

Diphaulaca wagneri Harold MX L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Disonycha arizonae Casey MX, US L

9 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 10

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Disonycha collata (F.) MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); El 

Aydam & Bürki (1997); 

Riley et al. (2003)

Disonycha glabrata (F.) MX, US L, R No No Clark et al. (2004); El 

Aydam & Bürki (1997); 

Riley et al. (2003)

Epitrix sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Epitrix cucumeris (Harris) MX, US L, R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Capinera 

(2001); Lingafelter 

(2001)

Epitrix fasciata Blatchley 

(= E. parvula [F.])

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Lingafelter 

(2001); Mayea & Mendez 

(1980); Bruner et al.

(1945)

Epitrix hirtipennis

(Melsheimer)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Lingafelter 

(2001); Webb (2006)

Epitrix subcrinita

(LeConte)

MX, US L, R, T No Yes Capinera (2001); 

McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Galerucella sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Glyptina cerina (LeConte) MX, US L

9 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Gratiana pallidula

(Boheman)

MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Lema daturaphila Kogan & 

Goeden (= L. trilinea

White, L. trilineata

[Oliver])

MX, US L No No Anonymous (2007); 

Clark et al. (2004); 

Fornoni et al. (2003); 

Riley et al. (2003)

Lema nigrovittata (GuérinMéneville)MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); 

Pallister (1953); Riley et 

al. (2003)

Lema opulenta Gemminger 

& Harold

MX, US L

11 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Lema trivittata Say MX, US L No No Anonymous ([s.d.]); 

Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Leptinotarsa decemlineata

(Say)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Leptinotarsa defecta (Stål) MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); Cuda

et al. (2002); Riley et al.

(2003)

Leptinotarsa haldemani

(Rogers)

MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); Haley 

Sperling & Mitchell 

(1991); Riley et al. (2003)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 11

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Leptinotarsa lineolata

(Stål)

MX, US L

12 No No13 Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Leptinotarsa rubiginosa

(Rogers)

MX, US L

12 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Leptinotarsa texana

Schaeffer

MX, US L No No Clark et al. (2004); Cuda

et al. (2002); Riley et al.

(2003)

Leptinotarsa 

undecimlineata (Stål)

MX L Yes No Cañas et al., 2002; Clark

et al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Myochrous cyphus Blake MX, US L, S14 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Omophoita cyanipennis (F.) MX, US L

15 No No Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Orsodacne atra (Ahrens) MX, US I No No Clark et al. (2004); 

Cripps et al. (2006); 

Kevan et al. (1993); Riley

et al. (2003)

Phyllotreta albionica

(LeConte)

MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Phyllotreta pusilla Horn MX, US L, R No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Plagiometriona clavata (F.) MX, US L No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Vencl et al.

(1999); Woodruff (2010)

Psylliodes punctulatus

Melsheimer

MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Sumitrosis inaequalis

(Weber)

MX, US L No No16 Clark et al. (2004); Riley

et al. (2003)

Systena blanda Melsheimer MX, US L, R No No Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Systena s-littera (L.) MX L Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Typophorus nigritus (F.) MX, US L, R, S, T No Yes Capinera (2001); Clark et 

al. (2004); Riley et al.

(2003)

Coleoptera: Coccinellidae

Epilachna varivestis

Mulsant

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Kogan 

(1977)

Coleoptera: Curculionidae

Anthonomus baridioides

Champion

MX L Yes No García (1974); Matienzo

et al. (2003)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 12

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Distribution2

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Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Anthonomus eugenii Cano MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Elmore 

(1942)

Colecerus sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Collabismodes rhombifer

(Champion)

MX S Yes No Gordón et al. (1988); 

King & Saunders (1984)

Collabismodes 

subparallelus

(Champion)

MX S Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Conotrachelus sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Copturus sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Cylas formicarius F. MX, US L, R, S No No17 CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)

Cylindrocopturus sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Diaprepes sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Epicaerus sp. MX F, R, S Yes No PestID (2011)

Epicaerus cognatus Sharp MX L, T Yes Yes Anonymous (1959); 

CABI (2011)

Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Pantomorus cervinus

(Boheman)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Phyrdenus muriceus 

(Germar)

MX, US L, R, S, T No Yes McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Novo et al.

(2002); O’Brien & 

Wibmer (1982)

Premnotrypes sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Sphenophorus sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Trichobaris sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Trichobaris mucorea 

(LeConte)

MX, US S No No Morrill (1927); O’Brien 

& Wibmer (1982)

Trichobaris trinotata (Say) MX, US S No No CABI (2011); Hill 

(1987); Rodríguez & 

Rodríguez (1984)

Coleoptera: Elateridae

Conoderus amplicollis

(Gyllenhal)

MX, US T No Yes Jansson & Lecrone 

(1989); Stone & Wilcox 

(1979)

Conoderus laurenti

(Guérin)

MX S No18 No PestID (2011)

Coleoptera: Meloidae

Epicauta cinerea (Förster) MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Chapais 

(1913); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Epicauta corvina (LeConte) MX, US L No No Brisley (1924); McGuire 

& Crandall (1967); 

Vaurie (1950)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 13

Pest Geographic

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Pathway

References

Epicauta diversicornis

(Haag)

MX L

19 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Epicauta longicollis

(LeConte)

MX, US L

19 No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Vaurie (1950)

Epicauta maculata (Say) MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); 

McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Vaurie (1950)

Epicauta pardalis LeConte MX, US L

19 No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Vaurie (1950)

Epicauta vittata (F.) MX, US L No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Selander (1984)

Epicauta vitticollis (Haag) MX L

19 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Lytta quadrimaculata

(Chevrolat)

MX, US L

19 No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Vaurie (1950)

Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae

Anomala flavipennis

Burmeister (= A. kansana

Hayes & McColloch)

MX, US L, R No No Hayes & McColloch 

(1924); Rodríguez-delBosque et al. (1995); 

Smith (2003)

Diplotaxis sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Euphoria pulchella (Gory 

& Percheron)

MX I Yes No Maes (2004); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Lachnosterna sp.? MX R Yes No De la Rosa (1942)

Phyllophaga spp. MX R, T20 Yes No21 McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Phyllophaga dentex (Bates) MX, US R, T20 No No21 Evans (2003); McGuire 

& Crandall (1967)

Phyllophaga menetriesii

(Blanchard)

MX R Yes No Aragón & Morón (2004); 

CABI (2011); King 

(1984)

Phyllophaga obsoleta

(Blanchard)

MX, US L, R, T No No21 Aragón et al. (2001); 

Deloya & Valenzuela 

(1999); Evans (2003)

Phyllophaga setifera

(Burmeister)

MX, US R, T20 No No21 Aragón et al. (2001); 

Evans (2003)

Phyllophaga zunilensis

(Bates)

MX R, T20 Yes No21 Evans (2003); King 

(1984)

Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae

Alaetrinus (= Opatrinus) 

pullus (Sahlberg)

MX, US R No No Iwan (2002); PestID 

(2011)

Blapstinus sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Epitragus sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Tribolium castaneum

(Herbst)

MX, US T No No5 CABI (2011); Sharma et 

al. (1987)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 14

Pest Geographic

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Pest4

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Pathway

References

Coleoptera: Trogossitidae

Tenebroides mauritanicus

(L.)

MX, US T No No5 CABI (2011); Sharma et 

al. (1987)

Diptera: Agromyzidae

Liriomyza huidobrensis

(Blanchard)

MX L Yes No22 CABI (2011); Takano et 

al. (2005)

Liriomyza pusilla (Meigen) MX, US L No No MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983); Wolfenbarger 

(1958)

Liriomyza sativae

Blanchard (= L. munda

Frick)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Diptera: Anthomyiidae

Delia platura (Meigen) (= 

Hylemya cilicrura

[Rondani], H. platura

[Meigen])

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); MacGregor 

& Gutiérrez (1983); 

Munro (1954)

Pegomya hyoscyami

(Panzer)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); 

Geigenmüller (1970)

Diptera: Tephritidae

Neotephritis finalis (Loew) MX, US I No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Stone et al.

(1965); White & ElsonHarris (1992)

Oedicarena latifrons

(Wulp)23

MX, US F No No Deloya & Valenzuela 

(1999); White & ElsonHarris (1992)

Paroxyna spp. MX I

24 Yes No García (1974)

Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae

Aleyrodes sp. MX L

29 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Aleyrodes spiraeoides

Quaintance

MX, US L No No Evans (2005); Landis & 

Getzendaner (1947); Ruiz 

(1993)

Bemisia argentifolii

Bellows & Perring (= B. 

tabaci [Gennadius]

biotype B)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Simmons 

& Elsey (1995)

Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Trialeurodes spp. MX L

29 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Trialeurodes abutiloneus

(Haldeman)

MX, US L No No Jones (2003); Mound & 

Halsey (1978)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 15

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Pathway

References

Trialeurodes vaporariorum

(Westwood)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Hemiptera: Aphididae

Acyrthosiphon malvae

(Mosley)

MX, US I, L, S No No Blackman & Eastop 

(2000); Fitter & Peat 

(1994); Jensen et al.

(2008)

Acyrthosiphon pisum

(Harris)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Aphis craccivora Koch MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Aphis fabae Scopoli MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Aphis frangulae Kaltenbach MX, US L No No Anonymous (2005a); 

Jensen et al. (2008)

Aphis gossypii Glover MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Aphis nasturtii Kaltenbach MX, US L No No Anonymous (2005a); 

Jensen et al. (2008)

Aphis sambuci L. MX, US L No No CABI (2011); De Bokx & 

Piron (1990); Jensen et al.

(2008)

Aphis spiraecola Patch MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Aulacorthum circumflexum

(Buckton)

MX, US L No No Blackman & Eastop 

(2000); Hill (1987); 

Jensen et al. (2008)

Aulacorthum solani

Kaltenbach

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Jensen et 

al. (2008)

Hyalopterus pruni

(Geoffroy)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Jensen et 

al. (2008)

Hyperomyzus lactucae (L.) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Lipaphis erysimi

(Kaltenbach)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Srivastava

et al. (1971)

Macrosiphum euphorbiae

(Thomas) (= M. 

solanifolii [Ashmead])

MX, US L No No Blackman & Eastop 

(2000); CABI (2011); 

MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983)

Metopolophium dirhodum

(Walker)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Hoof 

(1980)

Myzus certus (Walker) MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Hoof 

(1980); Jensen et al.

(2008)

Myzus ornatus Laing MX, US L No No Blackman & Eastop 

(2000); Jensen et al.

(2008); Stufkens & 

Teulon (2001)

Myzus persicae (Sulzer) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 16

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Pathway

References

Rhopalosiphoninus 

latysiphon (Davidson)

MX, US R, S, T No No30 Blackman & Eastop 

(2000); Gratwick (1989); 

Jensen et al. (2008)

Rhopalosiphum maidis

(Fitch)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Rhopalosiphum padi (L.) MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Rough & 

Close (1965)

Rhopalosiphum 

rufiabdominale (Sasaki)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011)

Sitobion (= Macrosiphum)

avenae (F.)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Shands et 

al. (1962)

Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae

Russellaspis (= 

Asterolecanium)

pustulans (Cockerell)

MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Garcia (1999); Hamon 

(1977)

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae

Aceratagallia spp. MX L

31 Yes No Almeyda-León et al. 

(2008)

Aceratagallia fuscoscripta

Oman

MX, US L

31 No No McKamey (2001); 

Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Aceratagallia 

sanguinolenta

(Provancher)

MX, US L No No McKamey (2001); 

Metcalf & Metcalf 

(1993); Radcliffe & 

Johnson (1994)

Agallia barretti Ball MX, US L

31 No No McKamey (2001); 

Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Agallia quadripunctata

(Provancher)

MX, US L

31 No No McKamey (2001); 

O’Brien & Rich (1979)

Agalliopsis sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Agrosoma placetis Medler MX L Yes No Coto & Saunders (2004); 

King & Saunders (1984)

Carneocephala sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Carneocephala sagittifera

(Uhler)

MX, US L

31 No No Metcalf (1954); Ramírez 

& Ramos-Elorduy (1978)

Ciminius sidanus (Ball) MX, US L

31 No No McKamey (2001); 

Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Circulifer tenellus (Baker) MX, US L No No McKamey (2001); 

Munyaneza & Upton 

(2005)

Draeculacephala 

crassicornis Van Duzee

MX, US L No No Dowdy (1947); Ramírez 

& Ramos-Elorduy (1978)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 17

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Pathway

References

Draeculacephala minerva

Ball

MX, US L No No Cabrera-La Rosa et al.

(2008); Marín et al. 

(2009)

Draeculacephala portola

Ball

MX, US L

32 No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); McKamey (2001)

Elymana sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Empoasca spp. MX L

33 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Empoasca abrupta DeLong MX, US L No No García (1974); McKamey 

(2001)

Empoasca fabae (Harris) MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Ramírez & 

Ramos-Elorduy (1978)

Empoasca kraemeri Ross & 

Moore

MX L Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Serrano & 

Backus (1998)

Empoasca mexara Ross & 

Moore

MX, US L

33 No No Gill (1986); Marín et al. 

(2009)

Empoasca solana DeLong MX, US L No No McKamey (2001); 

Metcalf & Metcalf 

(1993); Radcliffe & 

Johnson (1994)

Idiocerus sp. MX I, L34 Yes No Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Keonolla confluens (Uhler) MX, US L

31 No No McKamey (2001); 

Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Macrosteles lepidus (Van 

Duzee)

MX, US L

31 No No Brown (1939); Ramírez 

& Ramos-Elorduy (1978)

Macrosteles quadrilineatus

Forbes (= M. fascifrons

[Stål])

MX, US L, S No No MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983); McKamey 

(2001); Radcliffe & 

Johnson (1994)

Macrosteles urticae Moore 

& Ross

MX L

31 Yes No Ramírez & RamosElorduy (1978)

Macrosteles variatus

(Fallén)

MX, US L

31 No No Brown (1939); Ramírez 

& Ramos-Elorduy (1978)

Oncopsis sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Paraphlepsius sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Phera centrolineata

(Signoret)

MX, US L

31 No No Marín et al. (2009); 

McKamey (2001)

Scaphytopius sp. MX L

31 Yes No Marín et al. (2009)

Hemiptera: Cixiidae

Oliarus acicus Caldwell MX, US L No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Meyerdirk & Hart 

(1982)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 18

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References

Hemiptera: Coreidae

Acanthocephala femorata

(F.)

MX, US L, S No No Froeschner (1998a); MAF 

(2004); Metcalf & 

Metcalf (1993)

Leptoglossus zonatus

(Dallas)

MX, US F, L No No Allen (1969); Grimm & 

Somarriba (1999); 

MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983)

Phthia picta (Drury) MX, US L No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Schuster & 

Stansly (2005)

Sphictyrtus pretiosus (Stål) MX F

25 Yes No García (1974)

Hemiptera: Coccidae

Saissetia tolucana (Parrott 

& Cockerell)

MX S Yes No Ben-Dov et al. (2011)

Hemiptera: Delphacidae

Stobaera sp. MX L, S35 Yes No García (1974)

Hemiptera: Diaspididae

Aspidiotus nerii Bouché MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

CABI (2011)

Parlatoria oleae (Colvée) MX, US L, S No No Biche & Sellami (1999); 

Watson (2005)

Hemiptera: Largidae

Largus cinctus HerrichSchäfferMX, US S No No CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)

Largus succinctus (L.) MX, US F No No Arnett (2000); Felt 

(1899); García (1974)

Hemiptera: Lygaeidae

Nysius ericae (Schilling) MX L Yes No26 McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Sweet (2000)

Nysius niger Baker MX, US L No No Ashlock & Slater (1998); 

Sweet (2000); Tate 

(1933)

Nysius raphanus Howard MX, US L No No Sweet (2000); Wene 

(1958)

Pachybrachius bilobatus

(Say)

MX, US L, S No No King & Saunders (1984)

Prytanes sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Hemiptera: Membracidae

Metcalfiella monogramma

(Germar)

MX S Yes No Coto & Saunders (2004); 

García (1974)

Spissistilus festinus (Say) MX, US S No No CABI (2011); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967); 

Spurgeon & Mueller 

(1993)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 19

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Pathway

References

Hemiptera: Miridae

Creontiades rubrinervis

(Stål)

MX, US I, L No No King & Saunders (1984)

Lygus sp. MX F, I, L, S27 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Lygus elisus Van Duzee MX, US F, I, L, S27 No No Anonymous (2011); 

Henry & Wheeler (1998)

Lygus hesperus Knight MX, US I, L, S No No Anonymous (2011); 

Rosenheim et al. (2004); 

Wheeler (2000)

Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de 

Beauvois)

MX, US I, L No No CABI (2011); Wright et 

al. (2006)

Poecilocapsus lineatus (F.) MX, US L No No Henry & Wheeler (1998); 

Hodgson et al. (1974)

Polymerus cuneatus

(Distant)

MX S Yes No García (1974); Wheeler 

(2001)

Hemiptera: Ortheziidae

Insignorthezia insignis

(Browne) (= Orthezia 

insignis Browne)

MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

CABI (2011)

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae

Arvelius albopunctatus (De 

Geer)

MX, US F, L, S No No Panizzi et al. (2000)

Edessa rufomarginata (De 

Geer)

MX L Yes No Ely e Silva et al. (2004); 

Monte (1932); Panizzi et 

al. (2000)

Euschistus sp. MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Euschistus biformis Stål MX, US F, I, L28 No No Froeschner (1998b); 

McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Murgantia histrionica

(Hahn)

MX, US I, L No No CABI (2011); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Nezara viridula (L.) MX, US F, L, S No No CABI (2011); Kiritani & 

Hôkyo (1962)

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae

Dysmicoccus brevipes

(Cockerell)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Dysmicoccus mackenziei

Beardsley

MX, US R, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Granara de Willink 

(2009); Miller & Miller 

(2002)

Ferrisia malvastra

(McDaniel) (= F. 

consobrina Williams & 

Watson)

MX, US L, R No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Culik et al. (2006); 

Hodgson & Hilburn 

(1991)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 20

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Pathway

References

Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

CABI (2011)

Maconellicoccus hirsutus

(Green)

MX, US L No No Anonymous (2005b); 

Meyerdirk et al. (2001); 

Williams (1996)

Nipaecoccus nipae

(Maskell)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Nipaecoccus viridis

(Newstead)

MX, US (HI) L, S Yes No CABI (2011)

Phenacoccus gossypii

Townsend & Cockerell

MX, US L No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Hill (1983); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Phenacoccus madeirensis

Green

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Phenacoccus parvus

Morrison

MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Day et al. (2003)

Phenacoccus solani Ferris MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Flanders (1944)

Phenacoccus solenopsis

Tinsley

MX, US L, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Joshi et al. (2010)

Planococcus sp. MX F Yes No PestID (2011)

Planococcus citri (Risso) MX, US L, R, S No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

CABI (2011); Hosny 

(1939)

Planococcus minor

(Maskell)

MX S Yes No CABI (2011); Maity et al.

(1998)

Pseudococcus calceolariae

(Maskell) (= P. gahani

Green)

MX, US T No No36 CABI (2011); Williams 

(1924)

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi Gimpel & 

Miller

MX, US L, S No No Gimpel & Miller (1996)

Pseudococcus longispinus

(Targioni Tozzetti)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Pseudococcus maritimus

(Ehrhorn)

MX, US L, R, T No No37 Ben-Dov et al. (2011); 

Boock et al. (1960); Hill 

(1987)

Pseudococcus sorghiellus

(Forbes)

MX, US R No No Gimpel & Miller (1996)

Pseudococcus viburni

(Signoret)

MX, US T No Yes Gimpel & Miller (1996)

Rhizoecus falcifer Kunckel 

d’Herculais

MX, US R No No Ben-Dov et al. (2011)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 21

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Pathway

References

Hemiptera: Psyllidae

Bactericera (= Paratrioza)

cockerelli (Sulc)

MX, US L No No Cadena-Hinojosa et al.

(2003); Ever & Crawford 

(1933); Liu & Trumble 

(2006)

Bactericera (= Paratrioza)

maculipennis (Crawford)

MX, US L

38 No No Burckhardt & Lauterer 

(1997); Marín et al. 

(2009)

Heteropsylla texana

(Crawford)

MX, US I, L No No Almeyda-León et al. 

(2008); Donnelly (2002)

Paracarsidara gigantea

(Crawford)

MX S Yes No Armando & Fraternidad 

(2008); Marín et al.

(2009)

Hemiptera: Rhopalidae

Arhyssus lateralis (Say) MX, US S No No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Paskewitz & 

McPherson (1983)

Hemiptera: Tingidae

Gargaphia iridescens

Champion

MX, US L No No Fenton (1934); McGuire 

& Crandall (1967)

Gargaphia solani

Heidemann

MX, US L No No Neal & Schaefer (2000)

Hymenoptera: Formicidae

Atta spp. MX L Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967); Wilson (1971)

Atta cephalotes (L.) MX, US L No No CABI (2011); MAF 

(2004)

Atta insularis Guérin MX, US L No No Bruner et al. (1945); 

CABI (2011)

Camponotus sp. MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Solenopsis geminata (F.) MX, US F, Sd No No Bruner et al. (1945); 

CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)

Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Estigmene acrea (Drury) MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Payne 

(1919)

Spilosoma virginica (F.) MX, US L No No Capinera (2001); Opler et 

al. (2010); Robinson et al.

(2002)

Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae

Keiferia lycopersicella

(Walsingham)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Pectinophora gossypiella

(Saunders)

MX, US R No No39 CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 22

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Distribution2

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Pathway

References

Phthorimaea operculella

(Zeller)

MX, US F, L, R, S, 

T

No Yes CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)

Tildenia glochinella

(Zeller) (= Keiferia 

glochinella [Zeller], 

Phthorimaea glochinella

Zeller)

MX, US L No No Heppner (2002); Morrill 

(1925); Povolny (1967); 

Robinson et al. (2011); 

Seliškar (2002)

Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae

Urbanus proteus (L.) MX, US L No No Capinera (2005a); 

MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983)

Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae

Tmolus (= Strymon) echion

(L.)

MX, US I, L No No CTAHR (2006); Opler et 

al. (2010)

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae

Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Agrotis malefida Guenée MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Elías et al.

(1966); Schuster & 

Boling (1973)

Agrotis repleta Walker MX L, S Yes No King & Saunders (1984)

Autographa californica

(Speyer)

MX, US L No No Capinera (2001)

Chrysodeixis (= 

Pseudoplusia) includens

(Walker)

MX, US L No No Avila & Rodríguez-delBosque (2005); CABI 

(2011)

Copitarsia spp. MX F, L, S40 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Copitarsia decolora

(Guenée) (= C. turbata

[Herrich-Schäffer])

MX L, S, T Yes Yes Alcalá (1978); Alcázar et 

al. (2004); Grau et al.

(2003); Simmons & 

Pogue (2004)

Copitarsia incommoda

(Walker) (= C. consueta

[Walker])

MX S, T Yes No41 Flores-Pérez et al. (2004); 

Munro (1954); Simmons 

& Pogue (2004)

Euxoa auxiliaris (Grote) MX, US L No No Anweiler (2011); 

Capinera (2001); 

Robinson et al. (2002)

Feltia (= Agrotis)

subterranea (F.) (= F. 

annexa [Treitschke])

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Deloya & 

Valenzuela (1999); 

MacGregor & Gutiérrez 

(1983); Metcalf & 

Metcalf (1993); Nuessly

et al. (2004)

Helicoverpa (= Heliothis)

armigera (Hübner)

MX L Yes No42 Hill (1983); Miller (1987)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 23

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References

Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) MX, US F, L, S No No CABI (2011); Capinera 

(2007)

Heliothis virescens (F.) MX, US F, L No No Barber (1933); CABI 

(2011)

Mamestra configurata

Walker

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Mythimna (= Pseudaletia)

unipuncta (Haworth)

MX, US L No No Anonymous (2011); CAB 

(1967); CABI (2011)

Peridroma saucia (Hübner) MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Spodoptera dolichos (F.) MX, US L, S No No Capinera (2001); Pogue 

(2010); Robinson et al.

(2011); Sanchez (2000)

Spodoptera eridania (Stoll) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Spodoptera exigua

(Hübner)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. 

Smith)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Spodoptera ornithogalli

(Guenée) (= Prodenia 

ornithogalli Guenée)

MX, US L No No Bruner et al. (1945); 

Capinera (2005b); Pogue 

(2010)

Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Xestia c-nigrum (L.) MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae

Cynthia (= Vanessa) cardui

(L.)

MX, US L No No Opler et al. (2010); 

Robinson et al. (2011)

Lepidoptera: Pyralidae

Ephestia kuehniella (Zeller) MX, US T No No43 Barnes (1958); CABI 

(2011); Linsley (1944); 

Metcalf & Metcalf (1993)

Etiella zinckenella

(Treitschke)

MX, US R, S, Sd No No44 CABI (2011); PestID 

(2011)

Plodia interpunctella

(Hübner)

MX, US T No No45 CABI (2011); Linsley 

(1944)

Lepidoptera: Sphingidae

Manduca sp. MX L

46 Yes No McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Manduca quinquemaculata

(Haworth)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Manduca (= 

Phlegethontius) sexta

(L.)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); García 

(1974)

Lepidoptera: Tortricidae

Amorbia emigratella

(Busck)

MX, US L No No Burke et al. (1994); Mau 

& Martin Kessing (1992)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 24

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References

Cydia (= Carpocapsa) 

pomonella (L.)

MX, US F No No CABI (2011); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Orthoptera: Acrididae

Melanoplus sanguinipes

(F.) (= M. mexicanus

[Saussure])

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Gurney & 

Brooks (1959)

Orthoptera: Gryllidae

Acheta domesticus (L.) MX, US R No No Quarantine interception;10 

Walker (2007)

Gryllus assimilis (F.) MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); MacGregor 

& Gutiérrez (1983); 

Metcalf & Metcalf (1993)

Orthoptera: Gryllotalpidae

Gryllotalpa sp. MX R, S, T47 Yes No48 McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Orthoptera: Stenopelmatidae

Stenopelmatus sp. MX R, T49 Yes No50 McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Stenopelmatus fuscus

Haldeman

MX, US T No No50 Ebeling (1975)

Thysanoptera: Thripidae

Caliothrips fasciatus

(Pergande)

MX, US I, L No No King & Saunders (1984)

Frankliniella occidentalis

(Pergande)

MX, US I, L No No CABI (2011); Gerhardt & 

Turley (1961)

Thrips palmi Karny MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Thrips tabaci Lindeman MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

VIROIDS

Citrus exocortis 

(Pospiviroidae)

MX, US All parts No No51 CABI (2011)

Potato spindle tuber 

(Pospiviroidae)

MX, US Sd, T Yes52 No53 CABI (2011); Singh et al.

(2000); Stevenson et al.

(2001)

Tomato planta macho 

(Pospiviroidae)

MX L, R, S Yes No51 Boonham et al. (2005); 

Galindo et al. (1982)

VIRUSES

Abutilon mosaic 

(Geminiviridae)

MX, US L, R, S No No De la Torre-Almaráz et 

al. (2006); Anonymous 

(2009c); Wellman (1977)

Alfalfa mosaic 

(Bromoviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Beet curly top 

(Geminiviridae)

MX, US L, R, T No Yes CABI/EPPO (1997f); 

Jeffries (1998)

Beet western yellows 

(Luteoviridae)

MX, US L, R, S No No Brunt et al. (1996); 

Johnstone et al. (1989)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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References

Chilli (pepper) mosaic MX, US ? No No54 Brauer & Eichardson 

(1957); Leyendecker & 

Nakayama (1956); 

Thornberry (1966)

Cucumber mosaic 

(Bromoviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Potato aucuba mosaic 

(Flexiviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Anonymous (2009b); 

Brunt et al. (1996); 

Lozoya-Saldaña et al.

(2002)

Potato leafroll (= Corium 

solani [Holmes]) 

(Luteoviridae)

MX, US F, I, L, S, 

T

No Yes Alvarez (1976); CABI 

(2011); Tsyplenkov 

(2009)

Potato virus A (= Marmor 

solani Holmes) 

(Potyviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Alvarez (1976); 

Anonymous (2009a); 

Bartels (1971); Brunt et 

al. (1996); Pérez-Moreno

et al. (2004)

Potato virus M 

(Flexiviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Potato virus S 

(Flexiviridae)

MX, US F, I, L, R, 

S, T

No Yes CABI (2011)

Potato virus X 

(Flexiviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes CABI (2011); PérezMoreno et al. (2004)

Potato virus Y (Potyviridae) MX, US F, I, L, R, 

S, T

No Yes CABI (2011)

Sowbane mosaic MX, US L No No Brunt et al. (1996); 

Jeffries (1998); 

Weingartner & Hooker 

(2001)

Tobacco etch (Potyviridae) MX, US L No No55 Brunt et al. (1996); 

Thornberry (1966)

Tobacco mosaic MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011); Piedra-Ibbara et 

al. (2005)

Tobacco rattle MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011); Pérez-Moreno et 

al. (2004)

Tobacco ringspot 

(Comoviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Tobacco streak 

(Bromoviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Tomato bushy stunt 

(Tombusviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); 

Martinez et al. (1974); 

Thornberry (1966)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 26

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References

Tomato mosaic MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011); Nelson et al.

(1994)

Tomato ringspot 

(Comoviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes CABI (2011); 

CABI/EPPO (1997g); 

Romanenko et al. (2004)

Tomato spotted wilt 

(Bunyaviridae)

MX, US All parts No Yes Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011)

Tomato yellow leaf curl 

(Geminiviridae) (= 

tomato leaf curl)

MX, US L, S No No Brunt et al. (1996); CABI 

(2011); MAF (2006)

BACTERIA

Bacillus cereus Frankland 

& Frankland 

(Sphingobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes Altayar & Sutherland 

(2006); CABI (2011); 

Muñoz-Castellanos et al.

(2006)

Bacillus circulans Jordan 

(Sphingobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes Ghosh et al. (2003); 

Muñoz-Castellanos et al.

(2006); Rosso et al.

(2002)

Bacillus megaterium De 

Bary 

(Sphingobacteriales)

MX, US R, T No Yes Lutman & Wheeler 

(1948); Yáñez-Morales et 

al. (2003)

Bacillus mesentericus

Trevisan 

(Sphingobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes Davidson (1948); 

McGuire & Crandall 

(1967)

Bacillus subtilis

(Ehrenberg) Cohn 

(Sphingobacteriales)

MX, US L, T No Yes Brighigna et al. (1992); 

CABI (2011); 

Malcolmson (1960)

Burkholderia cepacia (ex 

Burkholder) Yabuuchi et 

al. (Burkholderiales) (= 

Pseudomonas cepacia

[ex Burkholder] Palleroni 

& Holmes)

MX, US T No Yes Burkhead et al. (1994); 

CABI (2011); YáñezMorales et al. (2003)

Chromobacterium 

violaceum Bergonzini 

(Neisseriales)

MX, US R

56 No No Crosse et al. (2006); Farr 

& Rossman (2010); 

Hernandez et al. (1981)

Clavibacter michiganensis

subsp. sepedonicus

(Spieckermann & 

Kotthoff) Davis et al. (= 

Corynebacterium 

sepedonicum (Spieck. & 

Kotth.) Skaptason & 

Burkholder 

(Actinomycetales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2006); 

CABI/EPPO (1997c); 

García (1971)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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References

Corynebacterium sp. 

(Actinomycetales)

MX T Yes Yes Alvarez (1976)

Enterobacter (= 

Aerobacter) aerogenes

Hormaeche & Edwards 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Dorozhkin

et al. (1979); Euzéby 

(1997); Vazquez et al.

(2000)

Enterobacter cloacae

(Jordan) Hormaeche & 

Edwards 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); HerschMartínez et al. (2005); 

Schisler et al. (1997)

Erwinia sp. 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX S, T57 Yes Yes Alvarez (1976)

Erwinia carotovora subsp. 

atroseptica (van Hall) 

Dye (= E. atroseptica

[van Hall] Jennison, 

Pectobacterium 

atrosepticum [van Hall] 

Patel & Kulkarni) 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US F, S, T No Yes Alvarez (1979); Bradbury 

(1986); CABI (2011); 

NAPPO (2010)

Erwinia carotovora subsp. 

carotovora (Jones) 

Bergey et al. (= 

Pectobacterium 

carotovorum [Jones] 

Waldee) 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Bradbury (1986); CABI 

(2011); NAPPO (2010)

Erwinia chrysanthemi

(Burkh.) Young et al. 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US S, T No Yes CABI (2011); YáñezMorales et al. (2003)

Pantoea agglomerans

(Beijerinck) Gavini et al. 

(= Erwinia herbicola

[Löhnis] Dye) 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Cui et al.

(2003)

Pseudomonas sp. 

(Pseudomonadales)

MX T

58 Yes Yes Alvarez (1976)

Pseudomonas fluorescens

(Trevisan) Migula 

(Pseudomonadales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Cui et al.

(2003); Mazari-Hiriart et 

al. (2000)

Pseudomonas putida

(Trevisan) Migula 

(Pseudomonadales)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Glandorf et 

al. (1994); MarrónMontiel et al. (2006)

Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

syringae van Hall (= P. 

syringae van Hall) 

(Pseudomonadales)

MX, US L, S No No Bradbury (1986); CABI 

(2011); Fucikovsky & 

Luna (1987)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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References

Pseudomonas syringae pv. 

tabaci (Wolf & Foster) 

Young et al. 

(Pseudomonadales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Ralstonia solanacearum

race 1 (Smith) Yabuuchi 

et al. (Burkholderiales) 

(= Pseudomonas 

solanacearum [Smith] 

Smith)

MX, US L, T No Yes CABI (2011); McGuire & 

Crandall (1967)

Ralstonia solanacearum

race 3 (Smith) Yabuuchi 

et al. (Burkholderiales)59

MX R, S, T Yes Yes CABI (1999); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Rhizobium radiobacter

(Beijerinck & van 

Delden) Young et al. (= 

Agrobacterium 

tumefaciens [Smith & 

Townsend] Conn) 

(Rhizobiales)

MX, US R, S No No Bradbury (1986); CABI 

(2011)

Salmonella enteritidis

(Gaertner) Castellani & 

Chalmers 

(Enterobacteriales)

MX, US T No Yes Altekruse et al. (2006); 

Quiroz-Santiago et al.

(2009)

Streptomyces scabies (ex 

Thaxter) Lambert & 

Loria (= Actinomyces 

scabies [Thaxt.] Gussow) 

(Actinomycetales)

MX, US F, R, S, T No Yes CIP (1996); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Quarantine interception;10

Wellman (1977)

Xanthomonas campestris

pv. vesicatoria (Doidge) 

Dye (= X. vesicatoria

[Doidge] Dowson) 

(Xanthomonadales)

MX, US L, S No No Bradbury (1986); 

Hayward & Waterston 

(1964)

PHYTOPLASMAS

Aster yellows 

(Acholeplasmatales)

MX, US S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Khadhair

et al. (2003); Munyaneza

et al. (2006); Stevenson et 

al. (2001)

Candidatus Liberibacter 

solanacearum’ (= ‘Ca. L. 

psyllaurous’)

MX, US T No Yes Munyaneza et al. (2009, 

2010)

Candidatus Phytoplasma 

aurantifolia’

MX, US L, T No Yes Santos-Cervantes et al.

(2010)

Candidatus Phytoplasma 

asteris’ (= Potato hair 

sprouts-inducing)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Lee et al. (2004); LeyvaLópez et al. (2002); 

NCBI (2009)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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Pathway

References

Columbia Basin potato 

purple top

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Munyaneza et al. (2006, 

2007)

Mexican periwinkle 

virescence 

(Acholeplasmatales)

MX, US L, T No Yes Jomantiene et al. (1998); 

Santos-Cervantes et al.

(2010)

Potato purple-top wilt MX, US All parts No Yes CABI/EPPO (1997d); 

Jeffries (1998)

Potato witches broom MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); SEM 

(1995)

X-disease group MX, US L, T No Yes Santos-Cervantes et al.

(2010)

FUNGI and OOMYCETES

Acremonium strictum W. 

Gams (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (= 

Cephalosporium 

acremonium auct. non 

Corda)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Alternaria sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX L, T60 Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Alternaria alternata

(Fr.:Fr.) Keissl. (= A. 

tenuis Nees) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Somani (2004); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Alternaria brassicae

(Berk.) Sacc. (= A. 

macrospora [Sacc.] 

Sawada) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Alternaria porri (Ellis) Cif. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Alternaria solani Sorauer 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (= 

Macrosporium solani

Ellis & Martin)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes CIP (1996); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Alternaria tenuissima

(Kunze:Fr.) Wiltshire 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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References

Armillaria mellea

(Vahl:Fr.) Kumm. 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales)

MX, US R No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Arthrinium phaeospermum

(Corda) Ellis 

(Ascomycetes)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Aspergillus sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX F, R Yes No PestID (2011)

Aspergillus flavus Link:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Somani 

(2004)

Aspergillus fumigatus

Fresen. (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Somani (2004)

Aspergillus niger Tiegh. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Athelia rolfsii (Curzi) Tu & 

Kimbr. (Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales) (= 

Corticium rolfsii Curzi) 

(anamorph: Sclerotium 

rolfsii Sacc.)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Aureobasidium pullulans

(de Bary) Arnaud 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

MX, US L No No Alarcón-González et al.

(1990); CABI (2011); 

Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Hollomon (1967)

Boeremia exigua var. 

exigua (Desm.) 

Aveskamp et al. (= 

Phoma exigua var. 

exigua Desm., P. exigua

Desm., Phyllosticta 

bonanseana Sacc., P. 

hortorum Speg.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Boeremia lycopersici

(Cooke) Aveskamp et al. 

(= Ascochyta lycopersici

Brunaud) (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
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References

Botryotinia fuckeliana (de 

Bary) Whetzel 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales) (anamorph: 

Botrytis cinerea

Pers.:Fr.)

MX, US I, L, S, T No Yes Choiseul & Carnegie 

(2000); Farr & Rossman 

(2010); Stevenson et al.

(2001)

Ceratocystis paradoxa

(Dade) Moreau 

(Ascomycetes: 

Microascales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Cercospora sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX L Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Cercospora physalidis Ellis 

(= C. solanicola Atk.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Choanephora cucurbitarum

(Berk. & Ravenel) Thaxt. 

(Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

MX, US L, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Rojas-Martínez et al.

(2009); Stevenson et al.

(2001)

Cladosporium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX R, S Yes No PestID (2011)

Cladosporium 

cladosporioides (Fresen.) 

De Vries (Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US R No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

PestID (2011)

Cladosporium herbarum

(Pers.:Fr.) Link 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US L, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kuczyn ́ska (1983)

Cladosporium oxysporum

Berk. & Curtis

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Núñez-Camargo et al.

(2003)

Clasterosporium 

putrefaciens (Fuckel) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes) (= 

Sporidesmium 

putrefaciens Fuckel)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
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Pathway

References

Cochliobolus australiensis

(Tsuda & Ueyama) 

Alcorn (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (anamorph: 

Bipolaris australiensis

[Ellis] Tsuda & Ueyama) 

(= Drechslera 

australiensis [Bugnic.] 

Subram. & Jain ex Ellis)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Dwivedi (1983); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Cochliobolus hawaiiensis

Alcorn (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (anamorph: 

Bipolaris hawaiiensis

[Ellis] Uchida & 

Aragaki) (= Drechslera 

hawaiiensis Ellis)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Dwivedi (1983); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Cochliobolus lunatus

Nelson & Haasis 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Colletotrichum sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

MX L, S61 Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Colletotrichum capsici

(Syd.) Butler & Bisby 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Colletotrichum coccodes

(Wallr.) Hughes (= C. 

atramentarium [Berk. & 

Broome] Taubenh.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Lira-Saldivar et al.

(2006); Malamud et al.

(1994); Nitzan et al.

(2006)

Colletotrichum dematium

(Pers.:Fr.) Grove 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Ram & Lele (1968)

Coniothyrium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX R Yes No PestID (2011)

Corticium vagum Berk. & 

Curtis (Agaricomycetes: 

Corticiales)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Corynespora cassiicola

(Berk. & Curtis) Wei 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 33

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

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Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Curvularia pallescens

Boedijn (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Amusa et al. (2003); Farr 

& Rossman (2010); Singh 

& Rai (1980)

Cylindrocladium scoparium

Morg. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Almeida & Bolkan 

(1981); Farr & Rossman 

(2010)

Didymella bryoniae

(Auersw.) Rehm 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011)

Didymella lycopersici Kleb. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (= 

Ascochyta lycopersici

Brunaud) (anamorph: 

Phoma lycopersici

Cooke)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Doratomyces stemonitis

(Pers.:Fr.) Morton & Sm. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Microascales) (= 

Stysanus stemonitis

[Pers.:Fr.] Corda)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Epicoccum nigrum Link (= 

E. purpurascens Ehrenb.) 

(Ascomycetes)

MX, US L, T No Yes Chand & Logan (1984); 

Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kuczyn ́ska (1983)

Elsinoë ampelina Shear 

(Ascomycetes: 

Myriangiales)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Erysiphe pisi var. pisi DC. 

(= E. communis

[Wallr.:Fr.] Schltdl.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Erysiphe polygoni DC. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Fulvia fulva (Cooke) Cif. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales) (= 

Cladosporium fulvum

Cooke)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Fusariella obstipa (Pollack) 

Hughes (Ascomycetes) 

(= Dendryphion obstipum

Pollack)

MX, US L, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Hughes (1949); McGuire 

& Crandall (1967); Singh 

& Rai (1980)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 34

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Fusarium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX R, S Yes No PestID (2011)

Fusarium cerealis (Cooke) 

Sacc. (= F. crookwellense

Burgess et al.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Montiel-González et al.

(2005); Theron & Holz 

(1989)

Fusarium culmorum (Sm.) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Fusarium equiseti (Corda) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes El-Hassan et al. (2004); 

Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Montiel-González et al.

(2005)

Fusarium incarnatum

(Desm.) Sacc. (= F. 

pallidoroseum [Cooke] 

Sacc., F. semitectum

Berk. & Ravenel) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Somani (2004)

Fusarium moniliforme

Sheld. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kassim (1986)

Fusarium oxysporum

Schltdl.:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. 

vasinfectum (Atk.) 

Snyder & Hansen (= F. 

vasinfectum Atk.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US All parts No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Fusarium poae (Peck) 

Wollenw. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Lõiveke (2006); TequidaMeneses et al. (2002)

Fusarium roseum Link:Fr. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Rafiq et al. (1995)

Fusarium roseum f. cereale

(Cooke) Snyder & 

Hansen (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Miller et al. (1996); 

Snyder & Hansen (1945)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 35

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Fusarium sacchari (Butler) 

Gams (= 

Cephalosporium sacchari

Butler) (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Leslie et al. (2005)

Fusarium sambucinum

Fuckel (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Mezzalama et al. (2000)

Fusarium sporotrichioides

Sherb. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Janke (1976); MontielGonzález et al. (2005)

Fusarium subglutinans

(Wollenw. & Reinking) 

Nelson et al. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Fusarium sulphureum

Schltdl. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) 

(teleomorph: Gibberella 

cyanogena [Desm.] 

Sacc.)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Guigón et al. (1994)

Fusarium ventricosum

Appel & Wollenw. (= F. 

argillaceum [Fr.:Fr.] 

Sacc., sensu Wollenw.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Núñez-Camargo et al.

(2003)

Fusarium verticillioides

(Sacc.) Nirenberg 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Sharifi et al. (2009)

Fusicoccum dimidiatum

(Penz.) Farr 

(Dothideomycetes: 

Botryosphaeriales) (= 

Hendersonula toruloidea

Nattrass)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Punithalingam & 

Waterston (1970)

Geotrichum candidum Link

(Saccharomycetes: 

Saccharomycetales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kishimoto & Baker 

(1969)

Gibberella avenacea Cook 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (anamorph: 

Fusarium avenaceum

[Fr.:Fr.] Sacc.)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 36

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Gibberella baccata (Wallr.) 

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011)

Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) 

Petch (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (anamorph: 

Fusarium graminearum

Schwabe)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); DaamiRemadi et al. (2006); Farr 

& Rossman (2010)

Glomerella cingulata

(Stoneman) Spauld. & 

Schrenk (Ascomycetes) 

(anamorph: 

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides [Penz.] 

Penz. & Sacc.)

MX, US L, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Golovinomyces 

cichoracearum (DC.) 

Heluta (= Erysiphe 

cichoracearum DC.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX, US L, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Golovinomyces orontii

(Castagne) Heluta 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX, US L No No Cunnington et al. (2005); 

Farr & Rossman (2010)

Haematonectria 

haematococca (Berk. & 

Broome) Samuels & 

Rossman (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (= Nectria 

haematococca Berk. & 

Broome) (anamorph: 

Fusarium solani [Mart.] 

Sacc.)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); Hunter 

& Buddenhagen (1972)

Helminthosporium solani

Durieu & Mont. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (= 

Spondylocladium 

atrovirens [Harz] Harz ex 

Sacc.)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Hypocrea rufa (Pers.:Fr.) 

Fr. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (anamorph: 

Trichoderma viride

Pers.:Fr.)

MX, US S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 37

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Lasiodiplodia theobromae

(Pat.) Griffon & Maubl. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales) (= 

Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat.)

MX, US L, R, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Leptosphaerulina trifolii

(Rostr.) Petr. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales) (= 

Pseudoplea trifolii

[Rostr.] Petr.)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Leveillula taurica (Lév.) 

Arnaud (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011)

Macrophomina phaseolina

(Tassi) Goidanich 

(Ascomycetes) (= 

Sclerotium bataticola

Taubenhaus)

MX, US S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kirk (2008a); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Monographella nivalis

(Schaffnit) Müll. 

(Sordariomycetes: 

Xylariales) (= Fusarium 

nivale [Fr.] Sorauer)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Kirk (2008b); Rakhimov 

& Khakimov (2000)

Microsphaeropsis sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Myrothecium roridum

Tode:Fr. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US S No No Brooks (1945); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Nectria sp. (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX S Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Nectria ventricosa Booth 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales) (= 

Hypomyces solani

Reinke & Berthier) 

(anamorph: Fusarium 

ventricosum Appel & 

Wollenw.)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Hwang (1948); Wellman 

(1977)

Neocosmospora vasinfecta

var. vasinfecta Sm. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US R, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 38

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Nigrospora sphaerica

(Sacc.) Mason 

(Ascomycetes: 

Trichosphaeriales)

MX, US F, L, S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Oidium sp. (Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX L Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Oidium balsamii Mont. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Erysiphales)

MX L Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Papulaspora coprophila

(Zukal) Hotson 

(Ascomycetes)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Penicillium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX T

62 Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Penicillium chrysogenum

Thom (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US T No Yes Contois (1953); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); Somani 

(2004); Tequida-Meneses

et al. (2002)

Penicillium dangeardii Pitt 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales) (teleomorph:

Talaromyces flavus

[Klöcker] Stolk & 

Samson)

MX, US R No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Spink & Rowe (1989)

Penicillium expansum Link 

(= P. glaucum Link) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Lugauskas et al. (2005)

Penicillium janthinellum

Biourge (Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales)

MX, US T No Yes Froto & Bailey de Ibarra 

(1983); Somani (2004)

Periconia byssoides Pers. 

(Ascomycetes)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Peyronellaea glomerata

(Corda) Goid. ex 

Togliani (= Phoma 

glomerata [Corda] 

Wollenw. & Hochapfel) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Morgan-Jones (1967); 

Wiese (1987)

Phoma sp. (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX L, S Yes No PestID (2011)

Phoma destructiva Plowr. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 39

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

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Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Phoma herbarum var. 

herbarum Westend. (= P. 

herbarum Westend.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L, T No Yes Borborua (1990); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); Janke & 

Zott (1980); Rivero-Cruz

et al. (2003)

Phyllosticta gossypina Ellis 

& Martin (Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Phymatotrichopsis 

omnivora (Duggar) 

Hennebert (= 

Phymatotrichum

omnivorum Duggar) 

(Basidiomycetes)

MX, US R No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora cactorum

(Lebert & Cohn) Schröt. 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US S No No Causin et al. (2005); Farr 

& Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora capsici

Leonian (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US F, R, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora cinnamomi

var. cinnamomi Rands (= 

P. cinnamomi Rands) 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US R No No Erwin & Ribeiro (1996); 

Farr & Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora citrophthora

(Sm. & Sm.) Leonian 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US F, L, R, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora cryptogea

Pethybr. & Laff. 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US L, R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); Ojeda 

& Zak (1993); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Phytophthora drechsleri

Tucker (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora 

erythroseptica var. 

erythroseptica

Waterhouse (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US T No Yes Erwin & Ribeiro (1996); 

Farr & Rossman (2010)

Phytophthora infestans

(Mont.) de Bary 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales) 

(= Peronospora infestans

[Mont.] Casp.)

MX, US All parts No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 40

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Phytophthora nicotianae

Breda de Haan (= 

Phytophthora parasitica

Dastur) (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Erwin & Ribeiro (1996); 

Farr & Rossman (2010); 

García (1971)

Phytophthora palmivora

var. palmivora (Butler) 

Butler (= P. agaves

Gandara, P. faberi

Maubl., P. palmivora

[Butler] Butler) 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US T No Yes Erwin & Ribeiro (1996); 

Farr & Rossman (2010)

Pleospora herbarum

(Pers.:Fr.) Rabenh. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001); 

Weingartner & Hooker 

(2001)

Polysaccopsis hieronymi

(Schröt.) Henn. 

(Ustilaginomycetes: 

Urocystales)

MX L, S Yes No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Puccinia pittieriana Henn. 

(Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

MX F, I, L, S Yes No CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Puccinia substriata Ellis & 

Barthol. (= P. tubulosa

[Pat. & Gaillard] Arthur) 

(Urediniomycetes: 

Uredinales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Ramachar & Cummins 

(1965); Wellman (1972)

Pythium aphanidermatum

(Edson) Fitzp. 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Pythium arrhenomanes

Drechsler (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Pythium debaryanum Auct. 

non Hesse (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US T No Yes Badilla (1975); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Pythium irregulare

Buisman (= P. 

polymorphon Sideris) 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US R No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Pythium myriotylum

Drechsler (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

MX, US R, S No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); Kang et 

al. (2006)

Pythium ultimum Trow 

(Oomycetes: Pythiales)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Johnson et 

al. (2004)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 41

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Ramularia solani Sherb. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US L

63 No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Rhizoctonia crocorum

(Pers.:Fr.) DC. (= R. 

violacea Tul. & Tul.) 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Corticiales) (teleomorph: 

Helicobasidium 

purpureum Pat.)

MX, US S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Rhizoctonia microsclerotia

Matz (Basidiomycetes: 

Corticiales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Rhizopus sp. (Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

MX T

64 Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Rhizopus stolonifer

(Ehrenb.:Fr.) Vuill. (= R. 

nigricans Ehrenb.) 

(Zygomycetes: 

Mucorales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Somani (2004)

Rosellinia bunodes (Berk. 

& Broome) Sacc. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

MX, US (PR, 

VI)

R, S, T Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Rosellinia necatrix Prill. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Rosellinia pepo Pat. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

MX R, S, T Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Wellman (1977)

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

(Lib.) de Bary 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

MX, US S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Septoria lycopersici Speg. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Mycosphaerellales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Spongospora subterranea f. 

sp. subterranea

Tomlinson (= S. solani

Brunchorst, S. 

subterranea [Wallroth] 

Lagerheim) 

(Plasmodiophoromycetes

: Plasmodiophorales)

MX, US F, R, S, T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Quarantine interception;10

Stevenson et al. (2001)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 42

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Stemphylium solani G.F. 

Weber (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Synchytrium endobioticum

(Schilb.) Percival 

(Chytridiomycetes: 

Chytridiales)

MX, US I, L, S, T Yes65 Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Thanatephorus cucumeris

(Frank) Donk 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales) (= 

Corticium solani [Prill. & 

Delacr.] Bourdot & 

Galzin, Pellicularia 

filamentosa [Pat.] 

Rogers) (anamorph: 

Rhizoctonia solani Kühn)

MX, US F, R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010); 

Quarantine interception;10

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Thecaphora solani

(Thirum. & O’Brien) 

Mordue 

(Ustilaginomycetes: 

Ustilaginales) (= 

Angiosorus solani

Thirum. & O’Brien)

MX F, R, S, T Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Quarantine interception;10

Stevenson et al. (2001); 

Weingartner & Hooker 

(2001)

Thielaviopsis basicola

(Berk. & Broome) 

Ferraris (Ascomycetes: 

Microascales) (= Chalara 

elegans Nag Raj & 

Kendr.)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Trichothecium roseum

[Pers.:Fr.] Link 

(Ascomycetes)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010); 

Somani (2004)

Ulocladium atrum Preuss 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Farr & 

Rossman (2010)

Verticillium sp. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX T

66 Yes Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

Verticillium albo-atrum

Reinke & Berthier 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US R, S, T No Yes CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Verticillium dahliae Kleb. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US All parts No Yes CABI (2011)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 43

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

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Pathway

References

Verticillium lateritium

(Ehrenb.) Rabenh. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

MX, US S No No Farr & Rossman (2010)

Xylaria apiculata Cooke 

(Ascomycetes: 

Xylariales)

MX, US T No Yes Farr & Rossman (2010)

NEMATODES

Aphelenchoides sp. 

(Aphelenchoididae)

MX R

67 Yes No Desgarennes et al. (2009)

Aphelenchoides fragariae

(Ritzema Bos) Christie 

(Aphelenchoididae)

MX, US L No No CABI (2011); Jensen et 

al. (1979)

Aphelenchus avenae

Bastian (Aphelenchidae)

MX, US T No Yes Handoo (2007); Khan & 

Hussain (2004)

Belonolaimus 

longicaudatus Rau 

(Belonolaimidae)

MX, US R, T No No68 CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Cactodera sp. 

(Heteroderidae)

MX S Yes No PestID (2011)

Cactodera cacti Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007)

Ditylenchus destructor

Thorne (Anguinidae)

MX, US S, T No Yes Brodie et al. (1993); 

CABI (2011)

Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kühn) 

Filipjev (Anguinidae)

MX, US L, S, T No Yes Brodie et al. (1993); 

CABI (2011)

Ecumenicus monohystera

(de Man) Thorne 

(Qudsianematidae)

MX, US R

67 No No Desgarennes et al. (2009); 

UNL (2011)

Globodera rostochiensis

(Wollenweber) Behrens 

(= Heterodera 

rostochiensis

Wollenweber) 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R, T Yes69 No70 Brodie (1993); CABI 

(2011); Handoo (2007); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Globodera solanacearum

(Miller & Gray) Behrens 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R No No Handoo (2007): Jensen et 

al. (1979)

Globodera tabacum

(Lownsbery & 

Lownsbery) Behrens 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011)

Helicotylenchus digonicus

Perry (Hoplolaimidae)

MX, US T

71 No Yes Handoo (2007); Olthof et 

al. (1982)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 44

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Helicotylenchus dihystera

(Cobb) Sher (= H. 

nannus Steiner) 

(Hoplolaimidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Wellman 

(1977)

Helicotylenchus 

pseudorobustus (Steiner) 

Golden (Hoplolaimidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007)

Heterodera n. sp. 

(Heteroderidae)

MX R

72 Yes No Handoo (2007)

Heterodera marioni

(Cornu) Goodey 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes Carter (1945); 

Cunningham (1936); 

Handoo (2007)

Heterodera schachtii

Schmidt (Heteroderidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007)

Meloidogyne sp. 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX R, T73 Yes Yes Handoo (2007)

Meloidogyne arenaria

(Neal) Chitwood 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011)

Meloidogyne chitwoodi

Golden et al. 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011)

Meloidogyne exigua Goeldi 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes Lehman & Lordello 

(1982); Vazquez (1971); 

Wellman (1977)

Meloidogyne hapla

Chitwood 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007)

Meloidogyne incognita

(Kofoid & White) 

Chitwood 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Meloidogyne javanica

(Treub) Chitwood 

(Meloidogynidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Stevenson

et al. (2001)

Nacobbus aberrans

(Thorne) Thorne & Allen 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T Yes74 Yes Manzanilla-López et al.

(2002)

Paratrichodorus minor

(Colbran) Siddiqi 

(Trichodoridae)

MX, US R, T No No68 Handoo (2007); 

Stevenson et al. (2001)

Paratylenchus sp. 

(Criconematidae)

MX R

67 Yes No Desgarennes et al. (2009)

Pratylenchus sp. 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX R

75 Yes No Handoo (2007)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 45

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Pratylenchus brachyurus

(Godfrey) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011)

Pratylenchus coffeae

(Zimmermann) Filipjev 

& Schuurmans 

Steckhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011)

Pratylenchus hexincisus

Taylor & Jenkins 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, S No No Brodie (1984); Handoo 

(2007)

Pratylenchus neglectus

(Rensch) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R No No Hafez et al. (1999); 

Handoo (2007); Sandoval 

& Téliz (1990)

Pratylenchus penetrans

(Cobb) Filipjev & 

Schuurmans Stekhoven 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Raabe et 

al. (1981)

Pratylenchus pratensis (de 

Man) Filipjev 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes Handoo (2007); Jatala & 

Kaltenbach (1978); Raabe

et al. (1981)

Pratylenchus scribneri

Steiner (Pratylenchidae)

MX, US T No Yes Loof (1991)

Pratylenchus thornei Sher 

& Allen (Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Hooker 

(1981)

Pratylenchus vulnus Allen 

& Jensen 

(Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Téliz & 

Goheen (1968); 

Weingartner & Hooker 

(2001)

Psilenchus hilarulus de 

Man (Tylenchidae)

MX, US T No Yes Handoo (2007); Khan & 

Hussain (2004)

Punctodera chalcoensis

Stone et al. 

(Heteroderidae)

MX T Yes No76 Handoo (2007)

Punctodera punctata

(Thorne) Mulvey & 

Stone (= Heterodera 

punctata Thorne) 

(Heteroderidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007)

Radopholus similis (Cobb) 

Thorne (Pratylenchidae)

MX, US R, T No Yes CABI (2011); Louw 

(1982)

Rotylenchulus reniformis

Linford & Oliveira 

(Hoplolaimidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 46

Pest Geographic

Distribution2

Plant Part

Affected3

Quarantine

Pest4

Follow 

Pathway

References

Scutellonema brachyurus

(Steiner) Andrássy 

(Hoplolaimidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007); Schuerger & 

McClure (1983)

Tylenchorhynchus 

annulatus (Cassidy) 

Golden (= T. martini

Fielding) 

(Dolichodoridae)

MX, US T No Yes CABI (2011); Handoo 

(2007); Khan & Hussain 

(2004)

Xiphinema sp. 

(Xiphinematidae)

MX R

77 Yes No Alvarez (1976)

Xiphinema americanum

Cobb (Xiphinematidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011)

Xiphinema index Thorne & 

Allen (Xiphinematidae)

MX, US R No No CABI (2011); Zullini 

(1973)

1

Synonyms: Lycopersicon tuberosum (L.) Mill., Solanum andigenum-tuberosum, S. aracatscha Bess., S. chocclo Bukasov & 

Lechn., S. esculentum Neck., S. leptostigma Juz. ex Bukasov, S. sinense Blanco, S. tuberosum-andigenum (Wellman, 1972, 

1977; Brunt et al., 1996; Porcher, 2010).

2 Distribution: HI = Hawaii, MX = Mexico, PR = Puerto Rico, US = United States, VI = U.S. Virgin Islands

3

Plant Parts: F = Fruit, I = Inflorescence, L = Leaf, R = Root, S = Stem, Sd = Seed, T = Tuber

4 Organisms listed at the level of genus, although regarded as quarantine pests because of their uncertain identity, are not 

considered for further analysis as their identity is not defined clearly enough to ensure that the risk assessment is performed on a 

distinct organism (IPPC, 2009: ISPM #11).

5

Species is a stored-products pest (CABI, 2011), and is considered unlikely to be associated with potato tubers at harvest.

6

Feeding site typical of species of Chrysomelidae (Riley et al., 2002).

7

Feeding site typical of species of Galerucinae (Riley et al., 2002).

8 Larvae are surface feeders on substrates, such as sweet potato storage roots (Pitre & Kantack, 1962). They are considered 

unlikely to remain with potato tubers through harvest and post-harvest processing.

9

Feeding site typical of species of Alticini (Riley et al., 2002).

10 This footnote was deleted.

11

Feeding site typical of species of Criocerinae (Riley et al., 2002).

12

Feeding site typical of species of Leptinotarsa (Hsiao, 1988).

13

Species apparently is restricted to hosts in Hymenoclea (Asteraceae) (Jolivet, 1998; Clark et al., 2004). Potato is not

considered to be a usual host.

14

Feeding sites typical of species of Myochrous (e.g., McGregor, 1917; Roel & Degrande, 1989).

15

Feeding site typical of species of Omophoita (e.g., O. sexnotata [Harold]; Bergmann et al., 1983).

16

Potato is considered a doubtful host (Clark et al., 2004).

17 Host plants are largely or exclusively restricted to Convolvulaceae (Capinera, 2009).

18 Likely a misspelling of C. laurentii (Guérin-Méneville), which is considered to be a synonym of C. amplicollis (Stone, 

1975).

19 Feeding site typical of species of Meloidae (Metcalf & Metcalf, 1993).

20

Feeding sites typical of species of Phyllophaga (Capinera, 2001).

21 Larvae may feed externally on tubers (Capinera, 2001), but are considered unlikely to remain with tubers through harvest 

and post-harvest processing.

22 Record for Mexico (Takano et al., 2005) apparently is a misidentification. There is no credible evidence that the species 

occurs in that country (Scheffer & Lewis, 2001; CABI, 2002; EPPO, 2006a).

23 May be a synonym of Euribia latifrons (Wulp), recorded on potato in Mexico (García, 1974). The genus Euribia Meigen 

has been given as a synonym of Urophora Robineau-Desvoidy, but apparently is an invalid name (Stone et al., 1965; 

Foote, 1980).

24

Feeding site typical of species of Paroxyna (Novak & Foote, 1968).
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 47

25

Feeding site typical of species of Sphictyrtus (e.g., S. chryseis [Lichtenstein]; Ojima et al., 1976).

26

Species is considered to be strictly Palaearctic (Old World) in distribution (Sweet, 2000).

27

Feeding sites typical of species of Lygus (Metcalf & Metcalf, 1993; Capinera, 2001).

28

Feeding sites typical of species of Euschistus (Capinera, 2001).

29

Feeding site characteristic of Aleyrodidae (Metcalf & Metcalf, 1993).

30 Species may occur on potato tubers in the field (Aguiar & Ilharco, 1997) and sprouts of stored potato tubers (Gratwick, 

1989), but is considered unlikely to be associated with fresh tubers for export.

31 Feeding site typical of species of Cicadellidae (DeLong, 1971).

32

Feeding site typical of species of Draeculacephala (e.g., D. mollipes [Say]; Hill, 1987).

33

Feeding site typical of species of Empoasca (Hill, 1987).

34

Feeding sites typical of species of Idiocerus (Hill, 1987).

35

Feeding sites typical of species of Stobaera (e.g., S. concinna [Stål], S. tricarinata [Say]; Reimer & Goeden, 1982; Calvert

et al., 1987).

36

Species has been recorded on potato tubers (Williams, 1924), but is considered unlikely to remain with tubers through 

harvest and post-harvest processing.

37

Species may infest stored potato (Boock et al., 1960), but is considered unlikely to be associated with fresh tubers for 

export.

38

Feeding site typical of species of Bactericera (e.g., B. tremblayi [Wagner]; Kazemi & Jafarloo, 2008).

39 Host plants are restricted to Malvaceae (Metcalf & Metcalf, 1993).

40 Plant parts typically attacked by larvae of Copitarsia spp. (Venette & Gould, 2006).

41 Geographic range of this species apparently is restricted to South America (Simmons & Pogue, 2004). Its reported 

occurrence in Mexico (MacGregor & Gutiérrez, 1983; Flores-Pérez et al., 2004) apparently is based on a misidentification.

42 Reports of this species’ occurrence in the New World apparently result from a misidentification of H. zea (Boddie) (CABI, 

2011).

43 Species is a stored-products pest (Metcalf & Metcalf, 1993), and is considered unlikely to be associated with potato tubers 

at harvest.

44 Host plants are restricted to Fabaceae (Capinera, 2001).

45

Species is a stored-products pest (CABI, 2011), which may infest dehydrated potato (Linsley, 1944). It is considered 

unlikely to be associated with fresh potato tubers at harvest.

46

Feeding site typical of species of Manduca (Hill, 1987).

47

Feeding sites typical of species of Gryllotalpa (Hill, 1987).

48

Feeding damage to tubers or tuberous roots by species of Gryllotalpa (e.g., G. africana Palisot de Beauvois; Matsuura et 

al., 1985) is superficial. The pest is considered unlikely to remain with potato tubers through harvest and post-harvest

processing.

49

Feeding sites typical of species of Stenopelmatus (Ebeling, 1975; Vandergast et al., 2007).

50 Although potato and other root crops may be fed upon while in the soil (Ebeling, 1975), as it is an external feeder, the 

insect is not considered likely to remain with potato tubers through harvest and post-harvest processing.

51 Potato apparently is only an experimental host (Jeffries & James, 2005).

52 Prohibited/quarantine pest (7 CFR §319.37-2). The viroid is under official control in the U.S. potato crop (EPPO, 2004).

53 The viroid has not been identified in commercial potato crops in Mexico (Martínez-Soriano et al., 1996).

54 Record is based on a single bibliographic entry (Thornberry, 1966). Existence or host status of this virus is not 

corroborated by available, comprehensive sources (e.g., Brunt et al., 1996; Stevenson et al., 2001; Büchen-Osmond, 2006; 

Robinson et al., 2007).

55 Virus infects potato only experimentally (Jeffries, 1998).

56 Typically inhabiting the rhizosphere of plants (e.g., Idris et al., 2007), and presumably associated with roots.

57

Sites of infection in potato typical of species of Erwinia (Stevenson et al., 2001).

58

Site of infection in potato typical of species of Pseudomonas (Stevenson et al., 2001).

59 Often referred to as “biovar 2 (race 3),” which, in general, is equivalent to race 3 sensu lato (Hayward, 1991; Fegan & 

Prior, 2005).

60 Sites of infection typical of species of Alternaria (e.g., Stevenson et al., 2001).

61 Sites of infection typical of species of Colletotrichum (Horst, 2001).

62 Site of infection in potato reported for Penicillium sp. (Somani & Chauhan, 2001).

63 Site of infection typical of species of Ramularia (Horst, 2001).

64 Site of infection in potato reported for Rhizopus sp. (Somani & Chauhan, 2001).

65 Previously reported from Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia in the United States (e.g., Farr & Rossman, 2010), 

the pathogen has since been eradicated from those states (O’Brien & Rich, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 1997a).
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 48

66

Site of infection in potato reported for Verticillium sp. (Somani & Chauhan, 2001).

67 Recorded from the rhizosphere of potato (Desgarennes et al., 2009), and presumably associated with roots.

68

Species is an ectoparasite (Stevenson et al., 2001), and is considered unlikely to remain with potato tubers through harvest 

and processing.

69 Under official control (7 CFR §301.85).

70 Under official control in Mexico (NAPPO, 2010).

71 Site of infestation typical of species of Helicotylenchus (Hooker, 1981).

72 Site of infestation typical of species of Heterodera (Weischer, 1977).

73 Sites of infestation typical of species of Meloidogyne (Stevenson et al., 2001).

74 The potato pathotype of N. aberrans, which occurs in Mexico, is absent from the United States (Inserra et al., 2005).

75 Preferred feeding site of species of Pratylenchus (Stevenson et al., 2001).

76

Species apparently is restricted to hosts in the genus Zea (Poaceae) (Stone et al., 1976; Baldwin & Mundo-Ocampo, 1991; 

SON, 2003). The single interception, with seed potatoes (Handoo, 2007), is not indicative of a true host association.

77

Site of infestation in potato typical of species of Xiphinema (Jatala, 1986).

We did not place Musca sp. on the pest list above because a single interception in baggage is 

insufficient evidence for a host association.

Quarantine pests that reasonably can be expected to follow the pathway (i.e., be included in 

consignments of potato tubers) are subjected to steps 5-7 (USDA, 2000) in the following sections 

of this risk assessment. These pests are listed below (Table 4).

Table 4. Quarantine pests selected for further analysis.

Type Organism

Arthropods Epicaerus cognatus Sharp (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Copitarsia decolora (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 (Smith) Yabuuchi et al. (Burkholderiales)

Fungi Rosellinia bunodes (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. (Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Rosellinia pepo Pat. (Ascomycetes: Xylariales)

Synchytrium endobioticum (Schilb.) Percival (Chytridiomycetes: Chytridiales)

Thecaphora solani (Thirum. & O’Brien) Mordue (Ustilaginomycetes: Ustilaginales)

Nematode Nacobbus aberrans (Thorne) Thorne & Allen (Pratylenchidae)

2.5. Consequences of Introduction—Economic/Environmental Importance

Potential consequences of introduction are rated using five risk elements: Climate-Host 

Interaction, Host Range, Dispersal Potential, Economic Impact, and Environmental Impact. 

These elements reflect the biology, host ranges and climatic/geographic distributions of the pests. 

For each risk element, pests are assigned a rating of Low (1 point), Medium (2 points), or High 

(3 points) (USDA, 2000). A Cumulative Risk Rating is then calculated by summing all risk 

element values. Risk values determined for the consequences of introduction for each pest are 

summarized below (Table 5).
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 49

Copitarsia decolora Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Copitarsia decolora (= C. turbata [Herrich-Schäffer]; Simmons & Pogue, 2004) is 

reported to occur in Argentina (Chubut to Santiago del Estero), Bolivia, Chile (Region I 

to Region X), Colombia (Cundinamarca, Antioquia), Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala 

(Totonicapán), Mexico (Aguascalientes, Chiapas, Durango, Guerrero, México, Mexico 

City, Michoacán, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, Veracruz), Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela 

(Liberman, 1986; Castillo & Angulo, 1991; Angulo & Olivares, 2003; Simmons & 

Pogue, 2004; Muñiz et al., 2007; Angulo & Olivares, 2010; Quimbayo et al., 2010)

(Plant Hardiness Zones 8-13; Fig. 2). It is estimated that the species could establish in 

the United States in areas corresponding to Zones 8-13.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

This species has been recorded on numerous hosts, including Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae), 

Medicago sativa (Fabaceae), Capsicum frutescens and Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), 

Cynara scolymus and Helianthus sp. (Asteraceae), Allium spp. (Liliaceae), Fragaria 

ananassa and Malus pumila (Rosaceae), Simmondsia chinensis (Simmondsiaceae), Zea 

mays and Triticum sp. (Poaceae), Pistacia vera (Anacardiaceae), Beta vulgaris

(Chenopodiaceae), Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae), Dianthus caryophyllus

(Caryophyllaceae), Feijoa sellowiana (Myrtaceae), Actinidia deliciosa (Actinidiaceae) 

(Angulo & Olivares, 2003); Alstroemeria sp. (Amaryllidaceae), Anemone japonica

(Ranunculaceae), Antirrhinum majus (Scrophulariaceae), Astilbe sp. (Saxifragaceae), 

Lisianthus sp. (Gentianaceae), Bupleurum sp. (Apiaceae) (Quimbayo et al., 2010); 

Asparagus officinalis (Liliaceae) (Gould & Huamán, 2006); and Amaranthus cruentus

(Amaranthaceae) (Guerrero et al., 2000).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Average fecundity has been reported to range from 572 (Arce de Hamity & Neder de 

Román, 1992) to 1038 (Larraín, 1996) eggs per female under laboratory conditions. Four 

generations per year have been recorded (FIA, 2004). Under ideal conditions, population 

growth in the species was calculated to be 14% per generation (Gould et al., 2005). 

Early-instar larvae may disperse locally on the wind (FIA, 2004). Long-distance spread 

is accomplished by the migration of adults, which has served to extend the species’ 

range throughout much of South America (Paz et al., 2008), and via the movement of 

infested plant materials in commerce. The species has been intercepted at U.S. ports on 

grape and apple from Chilea(Santacroce, 1993), and various other commodities, 

including potato (Pogue & Simmons, 2008). This species thus exhibits high reproductive 

and dispersal potentials. Risk is estimated to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Copitarsia decolora is said to be the most economically important member of the genus 

(Simmons & Scheffer, 2004). It is one of the main pests of pearl lupin (Lupinus

mutabilis), a legume crop of great importance in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru (Jacobsen & 

Mujica, 2006, 2008). In Peru, the species, known as “gusano de tierra” (soil worm), is a 

major pest of potato (Alcalá, 1978; Canales & Canto, 1999), attacking foliage and 

tubers, and is one of a complex of pests (including Spodoptera eridania Stoll and 

agromyzid leafminers) of broad bean (Vicia faba), that reduces yield by 50-60% 

(Gomez, 1972). Defoliation on the order of 60% has been reported in rape (Brassica 

napus var. napus), although with no appreciable effect on yield (Larraín, 1996). 

Infestation of other cole crops has been reported to result in loss of yield (Suárez-Vargas

et al., 2006). The noctuid also is a significant pest of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) 

(Lamborot et al., 1999) and artichoke (Cynara scolymus) (Urra & Apablaza, 2005) in 

Chile, and infests cut flowers for export in Colombia (Moreno & Serna, 2006; Quimbayo

High (3)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 50

Copitarsia decolora Risk Ratings

et al., 2010). It occasionally is found on fruit trees, and the larvae may bore into 

immature fruits (Santacroce, 1993).

1

Selective pesticides, such as Bacillus thuringiensis

var. kurstaki, and growth regulators (e.g., diflubenzuron, teflubenzuron, or triflumuron) 

are applied for control (FIA, 2004), which may increase costs of crop production. 

Copitarsia spp. are quarantine pests for Brazil, New Zealand, Paraguay, and Taiwan 

(Purdue University, 2011), suggesting that the introduction of C. decolora into the 

United States could result in a loss of foreign markets for various commodities. Risk 

attending the potential economic impact of this pest is estimated to be high.

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Copitarsia decolora poses a potential threat to native plant species in the United States 

closely related to its known hosts, such as Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, S. 

sandwicense, Amaranthus brownii, A. pumilus, Helianthus eggertii, H. paradoxus, and 

H. schweinitzii, that are listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12 and occur 

within the moth’s potential range in the United States. As Copitarsia spp. are reported to 

pose significant threats to agriculture (e.g., Venette & Gould, 2006), introduction of C. 

decolora into the United States might result in the initiation of chemical eradication 

programs. Also, as effective parasitoids of the moth are known (Neder de Roman & Arce 

de Hamity, 1991; Lamborot et al., 1995), its introduction could spur the initiation of 

biological control programs. Risk of adverse environmental consequences attending the 

introduction of this pest is estimated to be high.

High (3)

a Name recorded as Copitarsia consueta (Walker) (valid name: C. incommoda [Walker]; Simmons & Pogue, 2004), 

which likely is a misidentification of C. decolora (= C. turbata; Simmons & Pogue, 2004). Angulo & Olivares 

(2003) stated that C. incommoda and C. turbata are frequently mistaken for each other, as they are very similar in 

external appearance. According to these authors, C. incommoda does not occur in Chile and is not recorded on 

grape.

Epicaerus cognatus Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Epicaerus cognatus is native to Mexico (Hernandez, 1937), where it has been reported 

to occur in mountainous areas of several states (Chihuahua, Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, 

Hidalgo, and México) and Mexico City (Anonymous, 1943, 1959) (Plant Hardiness 

Zones 8-11; Fig. 2). Its potential distribution in the United States is estimated to include 

a like range of hardiness zones.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

This weevil has been recorded on Solanum tuberosum and a wild species of Solanum

(Wheeler et al., 1951; Anonymous, 1959). It was said to feed on several wild plants in 

Mexico (Anonymous, 1928a), but these were not identified.

Low (1)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Surprisingly little information is available on the biology of this serious pest. Females 

deposit eggs on leaves, usually in batches of 10-15, over several months; some 

individuals may continue oviposition into a second year (Hernandez, 1937). There is one

generation per year (Anonymous, 1928a). Thus, a high biotic potential is not indicated.

The weevil has been intercepted in potato tubers at U.S. ports numerous times since 

1922 (Anonymous, 1959; Girard, 1974), indicating its potential to be moved long 

distances rapidly by human agency. Risk is judged to be medium.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Epicaerus cognatus has long been a serious pest of potato in Mexico (Anonymous, 

1928a). Damage is caused by larvae tunneling through, and feeding within, tubers

High (3)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 51

Figure 2. Plant hardiness zones of the world (modified from Magarey et al., 2008).
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 52

Epicaerus cognatus Risk Ratings

(Anonymous, 1959), presumably reducing yield. Control measures commonly have 

included the application of insecticides to foliage (Hernandez, 1937) and soil fumigation 

(Anonymous, 1928b), which increase costs of crop production. The species is a 

quarantine pest for numerous countries, including Guatemala, Uruguay, Paraguay, 

Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Korea (Purdue University, 2011), and 

Africa (APPO, 2003), suggesting that its introduction could result in a loss of foreign 

markets for U.S. potatoes. A high risk is indicated.

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

As it feeds on closely related species, E. cognatus has the potential to attack Solanum

drymophilum in Puerto Rico, and S. incompletum and S. sandwicense in Hawaii, all 

listed as Endangered in Title 50, Part 17, Section 12 of the United States Code of Federal 

Regulations (50 CFR §17.12: Endangered and threatened plants). Introduction of the 

weevil probably would not result in the initiation of chemical control programs, as the 

broad-spectrum insecticides commonly used in U.S. potato production (Webb, 2006; 

Godfrey et al., 2008) likely would prove adequate for control purposes. There is no 

indication that the pest has been the target of biological control programs. Risk is 

estimated to be medium.

Medium (2)

Nacobbus aberrans Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

The potato pathotype of N. aberrans occurs only in Latin America. It has been reported 

from Mexico (Hidalgo, México, Morelos), and the Andean regions of Argentina (Jujuy, 

Salta), Bolivia (Chuquisaca, Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Tarija), Chile, 

Ecuador, and Peru (Manzanilla-López et al., 2002; Inserra et al., 2005; Lax et al., 2006; 

Suárez et al., 2009; Manzanilla-López, 2010) (Plant Hardiness Zones 7-11; Fig. 2). Its 

potential distribution in the United States is estimated to include Zones 7-11.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Rangea

This organism attacks a variety of plant species in several families. Hosts include 

Solanum tuberosum, S. lycopersicum, S. melongena, S. nigrum, Capsicum annuum, 

Physalis sp., Datura quercifolia (= D. ferox), and Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), Beta

vulgaris, Spinacia oleracea, Chenopodium album, C. quinoa, and Bassia scoparia (= 

Kochia scoparia) (Chenopodiaceae), Sysimbrium irio, Brassica rapa, B. nigra, and B. 

oleracea (Brassicaceae), Daucus carota (Apiaceae), Pisum sativum (Fabaceae), Cucumis

sativus, Cucurbita pepo, and C. maxima (Cucurbitaceae), Amaranthus sp. 

(Amaranthaceae), Lactuca sativa (Asteraceae), Tropaeolum tuberosum (Tropaeolaceae), 

Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae), Ullucus tuberosus (Basellaceae), Stellaria media

and Spergula arvensis (Caryophyllaceae), Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae), and 

Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) (Inserra et al., 2005).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Fecundity in the potato pathotype of N. aberrans is reported to range from 231 to 372 

eggs per female on potato; several generations per year may be produced if hosts are 

available (Canto, 1992). Rapid, local and long-distance dissemination of the organism is 

accomplished by the transport of infested tubers (Jatala & Bridge, 1990; Brodie et al., 

1993). Soil adhering to tubers also may serve to spread the pathogen (Jatala & 

Kaltenbach, 1979). This pest has high reproductive and dispersal potentials. Risk is 

judged to be high.

High (3)
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Nacobbus aberrans Risk Ratings

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Attack of roots by N. aberrans induces the growth of small, round galls or knots 

arranged in bead-like fashion (as in a rosary) (Brodie et al., 1993). Damage to potato 

results from a weakened and functionally reduced root system, which reduces tuber 

numbers and size (Brodie, 1984). Yield losses of 60-90% in potato crops have been 

reported (Inserra et al., 1985). In Bolivia, the nematode has been considered the most 

important constraint to potato production (Jatala & Bridge, 1990); losses valued at $52 

million have been reported (Franco et al., 1999). It also has been reported to have a 

synergistic interaction with the wart fungus, Synchytrium endobioticum, in potato 

(Brodie et al., 1993), presumably increasing the severity of disease. Soil fumigants and 

granular nematicides have been used for control, but are expensive (Brodie et al., 1993), 

and thus increase costs of crop production. Nacobbus aberrans is a quarantine pest for at 

least 38 countries (Lehman, 2004), including Japan, Korea, Brazil, Israel, Turkey, the 

European Union, and Taiwan (Purdue University, 2011), suggesting that introduction of 

the potato pathotype into the United States could result in the loss of foreign markets to 

American producers of potatoes and other economically important crops. Risk is 

considered to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

The potato pathotype of N. aberrans has the potential to attack plants in the United 

States listed as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12. Potentially at risk are close 

relatives of recorded hosts, such as Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, S. 

sandwicense, Cucurbita okeechobeensis ssp. okeechobeensis, Amaranthus brownii, A. 

pumilus, and Portulaca sclerocarpa. Introduction of the potato pathotype into the United 

States probably would not result in initiation of chemical control programs, as the broadspectrum nematicides (e.g., organophosphates, oxime carbamates) applied to the U.S. 

potato crop (Godfrey et al., 2008; Noling, 2009) have proven to be effective for its 

control (Hooker, 1981). However, its introduction could spur the initiation of biological 

control programs. Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2007) demonstrated the potential of strains of 

the fungus, Pochonia chlamydosporia (Goddard) Zare & Gams (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales), as egg parasites, for control of the nematode. Risk is considered to be 

high.

High (3)

a

Synonymy according to USDA-NRCS (2011).

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Race 3 of R. solanacearum has been reported from Africa (Burundi, Cameroon, Canary 

Islands, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Mauritius, Nigeria, Réunion, Rwanda, South 

Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia), Asia (Bangladesh, China [Fujian, Guangdong, 

Guangxi, Hebei, Jiangsu, Zhejiang], India, Indonesia [Java], Iran, Japan [Kyushu],

Lebanon, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand), Australia (New 

South Wales, Queensland, Victoria), Papua New Guinea, Europe (Belgium, France, 

Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, United Kingdom), North 

America (Costa Rica, Guadeloupe, Mexico [Chihuahua, Coahuila, Michoacan, Morelos, 

Queretaro, Sinaloa]), and South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,

Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela) (CABI, 1999; Németh et al., 2002; Boonsuebsakul et al., 

2003; Elphinstone, 2005; EPPO, 2006b; Sanchez et al., 2008; Toukam et al., 2009; 

Khoodoo et al., 2010) (Plant Hardiness Zones 6-13; Fig. 2). The potential distribution of 

the species in the United States is estimated to extend across Zones 6-13.

High (3)
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Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 Risk Ratings

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Hosts of the organism include Solanum tuberosum, S. lycopersicum, S. melongena, 

Capsicum annuum, and other, wild species of Solanaceae, Pelargonium × hortorum

(Geraniaceae), Polygonum capitatum (Polygonaceae), Amaranthus spp. 

(Amaranthaceae), Bidens pilosa and Erigeron floribundus (Asteraceae), Leucas 

martinicensis (Labiatae), Oxalis latifolia (Oxalidaceae), Spergula arvensis

(Caryophyllaceae), Urtica dioica (Urticaceae), Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae), 

Chenopodium spp. (Chenopodiaceae), Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae), Phaseolus 

vulgaris (Fabaceae), and Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) (Tusiime et al., 1998; 

Wenneker et al., 1999; Pradhanang et al., 2000; Williamson et al., 2002; Janse et al., 

2004).

High (3)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Under favorable conditions, infection by R. solanacearum race 3 in hosts, such as 

potato, may cause a rapid, general wilting, eventually resulting in plant death 

(Champoiseau et al., 2009). The pathogen is highly contagious (Jeffries, 1998) and 

highly pathogenic on potato (O’Brien & Rich, 1979). High temperatures and abundant

soil moisture usually favor disease development, leading to epiphytotics in crops 

(Stevenson et al., 2001). Local, plant-to-plant spread of the pathogen may occur through 

the movement of bacteria in soil, on contaminated machinery, and via surface runoff 

water (Champoiseau et al., 2009). Rapid, long-distance dispersal is accomplished via the 

movement of infected plants by human agency. For example, Hayward (1991) suggested 

that the present broad geographic distribution of the organism, from a presumed origin in 

South America as a pathogen of potato, reflected the ease with which it is carried as 

latent infections in seed tubers. It is thought to have spread to western Europe in infected

seed or early ware potatoes imported from Egypt and perhaps other countries in the 

eastern Mediterranean region (Mazzucchi, 1995; Janse, 1996) and in infected geranium 

cuttings from Kenya (Janse et al., 2004). This pathogen exhibits a high level of virulence 

and a significant potential for long-distance dispersal. Risk is judged to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 causes brown rot of potato (Champoiseau et al., 2009).

Bacteria invade the vascular tissues of stems, roots, and tubers, causing them to turn 

brown and resulting in decay of tubers (Stevenson et al., 2001). Once initiated, infection 

may increase rapidly, and 100% of a crop may be lost (Silveira et al., 1998). Worldwide, 

losses total an estimated $950 million annually (Elphinstone, 2005; Milling et al., 2009).

In areas, in which the organism has quarantine status, significant economic losses may 

result from the destruction of infected crops, costs of additional eradication efforts, and 

restrictions on further production on contaminated land (Elphinstone, 2005). For 

example, the eradication of R. solanacearum race 3 from the United States, following 

introduction of the pathogen in infected geraniums imported from Kenya and Central 

America in 2003, cost growers and regulators an estimated $10 million and involved the 

destruction of approximately 5 million plants (Swanson et al., 2005). Chemicals, in the 

form of soil fumigants and antibiotics, have been used for control in potato crops (e.g., 

Kabeil et al., 2008), but increase costs of production. Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 is 

an A2 quarantine pest for Europe (CABI/EPPO, 1997e) and a quarantine pest for Canada 

(EPPO, 2007), suggesting that its introduction could result in a loss of foreign markets 

for U.S. potatoes or tomatoes. Risk that introduction of this pathogen will result in a 

significant negative economic impact on U.S. agriculture is considered high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Within its likely area of establishment in the United States, this pathogen has the 

High (3)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 Risk Ratings

potential to infect native plants designated as Threatened or Endangered in 50 CFR 

§17.12, such as Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, S. sandwicense, Amaranthus 

brownii, A. pumilus, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Bidens micrantha ssp. kalealaha, B. 

wiebkei, Erigeron decumbens var. decumbens, E. maguirei, E. parishii, and E. 

rhizomalus. Although chemical pesticides have proven largely to be ineffective or 

impractical against R. solanacearum race 3 (Saddler, 2005), evaluation of biotic agents 

for control of the pathogen has yielded encouraging results (e.g., Milling et al., 2004; 

Yamada et al., 2007), suggesting that its introduction could spur the initiation of 

biological control programs. Risk of an adverse impact on the environment resulting 

from the introduction of R. solanacearum race 3 is judged to be high.

Rosellinia bunodes Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Rosellinia bunodes (= R. echinata Massee; Farr & Rossman, 2010) is widespread in the 

subtropics and tropics. It has been reported from North America (Costa Rica, Cuba,

Dominica, El Salvador, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Hispaniola, Honduras, 

Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint 

Vincent), South America (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guiana, Peru, Trinidad and 

Tobago, Venezuela), Africa (Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the 

Congo, Uganda), and Asia (India [Nilgris, Maharashtra], Indonesia [Java, Sumatra],

Japan, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan), and Papua New Guinea (Sivanesan & 

Holliday, 1972; CAB, 1985; Farr & Rossman, 2010) (Plant Hardiness Zones 7-13; Fig. 

2). The potential distribution of the fungus in the United States is estimated to span

Zones 7-13.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Rangea

The fungus infects a variety of plant species in several families. Hosts include Alnus

acuminata (Betulaceae) (Bermúdez & Carranza, 1990); Artocarpus heterophyllus (= A. 

integer) (Moraceae), Persea americana (Lauraceae), Musa acuminata (Musaceae), 

Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), Hevea brasiliensis and Manihot esculenta

(Euphorbiaceae), Citrus sp. (Rutaceae), Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), Colocasia

esculenta (= C. antiquorum) (Araceae), Dryobalanops aromatica (Dipterocarpaceae), 

Zingiber sp. (Zingiberaceae), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Malvaceae), Holigarna longifolia

(Anacardiaceae), Leucaena leucocephala (= L. glauca) (Fabaceae), Camellia sinensis

(Theaceae), Piper nigrum (Piperaceae), Schleichera trijuga (Sapindaceae), Dioscorea sp. 

(Dioscoreaceae), Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae) (Sivanesan & Holliday, 1972); 

Eugenia sp. (Myrtaceae), Jasminum officinale (= J. grandiflorum) (Oleaceae), Miconia

sp. (Melastomataceae), Polyscias guilfoylei (Araliaceae), Urtica sp. (Urticaceae) (Farr & 

Rossman, 2010); Melia azedarach (Meliaceae) (Wolar, 1972); Cyathea arborea

(Cyatheaceae), Capsicum frutescens, Cyphomandra betacea, Solanum tuberosum, S. 

melongena, and Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae), Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae), 

Erythroxylum coca (Erythroxylaceae), Euterpe spp. (Arecaceae), Ipomoea batatas

(Convolvulaceae), Macadamia integrifolia (= M. ternifolia) (Proteaceae), Oxalis

tuberosa (Oxalidaceae), Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae), Tabernaemontana divaricata

(Apocynaceae), Tragopogon porrifolius (Asteraceae) (Wellman, 1977); Solenostemon 

scutellarioides (= Coleus blumei) (Lamiaceae) (Villalobos et al., 2009); Bixa orellana

(Bixaceae) (Spaulding, 1961); and Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) (Duke & 

duCellier, 1993).

High (3)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

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Rosellinia bunodes Risk Ratings

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Under conditions favorable for development of disease (e.g., soil constantly moist and 

rich in organic matter; Wellman, 1972), R. bunodes is an aggressive pathogen. Mycelial

growth is vigorous, leading to a high rate of mortality in hosts (López-Duque & 

Fernández-Borrero, 1966). Plants may die so rapidly that leaves are not shed (South, 

1921; Weber, 1973), suggesting a high degree of virulence. Oliveira et al. (2008)

considered R. bunodes to be the most aggressive of Rosellinia species. The disease is 

propagated locally, from plant to plant, by growth and spread of mycelia through soil

(Weber, 1973). The broad distribution of the pathogen, extending across four continents,

suggests that it has been dispersed extensively by human agency. In coffee culture, for 

example, it was known to have been introduced into new areas on transplanted seedlings 

sourced from infected soil (Tucker, 1929). A high biotic potential and high capacity for 

dispersal are indicated for this species. Risk is estimated to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

The fungus causes a root rot in hosts, initially resulting in wilt and proceeding to death 

of the entire plant (Sivanesan & Holliday, 1972). It causes severe root, stolon, and tuber 

infections in potato (Wellman, 1977). In Peru, R. bunodes is one of a complex of three 

Rosellinia species infecting potato, causing yield losses of 20-100% (Torres, 2002b).

Losses of 20% have been recorded in cacao crops (Feitosa & Pimentel, 1991). It is one 

of the fungi that causes storage rots in yam (Dioscorea) tubers, resulting in severe losses

(Kay, 1987). Application of fungicides may reduce the incidence of disease (Torres, 

2002b), but increase costs of production. The fungus is a quarantine pest for Korea, 

Thailand (Purdue University, 2011), Asia and the Pacific region (EPPO, 2007), and

Africa (APPO, 1999). Its introduction, therefore, could result in a loss of foreign markets 

for a variety of American agricultural products. Risk is considered to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

As it infects related species, R. bunodes poses a potential threat to plants listed in 50 

CFR §17.12, such as Manihot walkerae, Cyathea dryopteroides, Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp. immaculatus, H. brackenridgei, H. clayi, H. waimeae ssp. hannerae, Eugenia 

haematocarpa, E. koolauensis, E. woodburyana, Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum,

and S. sandwicense. Introduction of the fungus could result in the initiation of biological 

control programs. Results of field studies by Mendoza et al. (2003) suggested that 

microbial antagonists could be effective in controlling the pathogen. Risk is estimated to 

be high.

High (3)

a

Synonymy according to USDA-NRCS (2011).

Rosellinia pepo Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

With the exception of disjunct populations in China (Hainan) and Papua New Guinea, 

the distribution of R. pepo is restricted to the New World tropics. The species has been 

reported from Barbados, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican 

Republic, El Salvador, Ecuador, French Antilles, Grenada, Guatemala, Jamaica, Mexico 

(Tabasco), Panama, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Surinam, Trinidad, U.S. Virgin Islands,

and Venezuela (Wellman, 1977; CABI, 1991; Farr & Rossman, 2010) (Fig. 2). We 

estimate its potential distribution in the United States is Plant Hardiness Zones 11-13.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #2: Host Rangea

Hosts include Albizia malacocarpa, Canavalia sp., and Gliricidia sepium (Fabaceae), 

High (3)
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Rosellinia pepo Risk Ratings

Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae), Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae), Citrus sp. (Rutaceae), 

Euterpe oleracea (Arecaceae), Manihot esculenta (= M. utilissima) (Euphorbiaceae) 

(Farr & Rossman, 2010); Persea americana (Lauraceae), Musa sp. (Musaceae), 

Artocarpus altilis and A. heterophyllus (= A. integer) (Moraceae), Colocasia esculenta

(= C. antiquorum) (Araceae) (Booth & Holliday, 1972); Cedrela odorata (= C. 

mexicana) (Meliaceae), Eugenia sp., Psidium guajava, and Pimenta racemosa

(Myrtaceae), Ipomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae), Jasminum officinale (= J. 

grandiflorum) (Oleaceae), Prunus sp. (Rosaceae), Schinus spp. (Anacardiaceae), 

Solanum tuberosum (Solanaceae), Camellia sinensis (= Thea sinensis) (Theaceae)

(Wellman, 1977); Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) (Weber, 1973); Macadamia

integrifolia (Proteaceae) (Realpe et al., 2006); and Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae) 

(Oliveira et al., 2008).

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Results of studies on cacao by Waterston (1941) and Aranzazu (1996) suggested that R. 

pepo was mainly a saprophyte, and only facultatively parasitic, implying a low level of 

virulence. López-Duque & Fernández-Borrero (1966) found the fungus to be less 

virulent than R. bunodes in coffee plantations. Local dissemination of the pathogen from 

diseased to healthy plants is primarily through root-to-root contact (Oliveira et al., 2008). 

The broad distribution of the species, with populations recorded in three continents and 

Australasia, suggests that it’s spread has been facilitated by human activity. Because a 

high biotic potential is not indicated, risk is estimated to be medium.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

The fungus causes a disease known as black root rot (Booth & Holliday, 1972), which 

results in severe root rots, and stolon and tuber infections in potato (Wellman, 1977). In 

Peru, R. pepo is one of a complex of three Rosellinia species infecting potato, causing 

yield losses of 20-100% (Torres, 2002b). The fungus also is the causal agent of a major 

disease of cacao (Ploetz, 2007). Incidence of disease in macadamia has been reported to 

range from 5-70% (Realpe et al., 2006). Various fungicides have been used to control R. 

pepo (Torres, 2002b; Ten Hoopen & Krauss, 2006), but increase costs of crop 

production. Introduction of the pathogen into the United States could result in a loss of 

foreign markets. It is a quarantine pest for Thailand (Purdue University, 2011) and for 

countries of the Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission and the Interafrican 

Phytosanitary Council (EPPO, 2007). Risk is considered to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Rosellinia pepo poses a potential threat to tropical species listed in 50 CFR §17.12, such 

as Canavalia molokaiensis, Eugenia haematocarpa, E. koolauensis, E. woodburyana, 

Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, and S. sandwicense. Introduction of the fungus

into the United States probably would not result in the initiation of programs for its 

control. Chemical control of Rosellinia diseases has proven largely to be ineffective and 

uneconomical; cultural methods have shown the most promise for managing disease 

incidence (Mendoza et al., 2003). Moreover, the broad-spectrum fungicides used to 

control the fungus (e.g., benomyl, carbendazim, thiabendazole, prochloraz, 

cyproconazole; Ten Hoopen & Krauss, 2006) are already in widespread use in U.S.

agriculture (Davidse, 1986; Vinggaard et al., 2006; Peffer et al., 2007), including potato 

production (Powelson & Rowe, 2008), and likely would be perceived as adequate for 

control purposes. The efficacy of biological control apparently has been little

investigated, if at all. Risk is estimated to be medium.

Medium (2)

a

Synonymy according to USDA-NRCS (2011) and USDA (2010).
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Synchytrium endobioticum Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

Synchytrium endobioticum is thought to have originated in the Andean region of South 

America, where it coevolved with the potato (Stevenson et al., 2001). It has been 

reported from Bolivia, Brazil, Falkland Islands, Peru, Mexico (México, Distrito Federal), 

Canada (Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island), Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Czech 

Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Faroe Islands, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, 

Luxembourg, Montenegro, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia (European),

Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Ukraine, Armenia, Bhutan, 

India (Assam, Sikkim, West Bengal), Nepal, Turkey, Algeria, South Africa, Tunisia, and 

New Zealand (South Island) (Alvarez, 1976; CABI/EPPO, 1997a; CABI, 1998; Farr & 

Rossman, 2010) (Plant Hardiness Zones 3-13; Fig. 2). The potential distribution of the 

fungus in the United States is estimated to span a like range of plant hardiness zones.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Hosts of the fungus are restricted to Solanaceae, and include Solanum tuberosum, S. 

lycopersicum, S. sto1oniferum, S. vallis-mexici, S. jamesii, S. commersonii, S. chacoense,

other species of Solanum, and Nicotiana sp. (Weiss, 1925; Niederhauser, 1953; Chang & 

Rossman, 1987; Farr & Rossman, 2010).

Medium (2)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Synchytrium endobioticum produces copious numbers of motile zoospores to infect or 

re-infect hosts; under suitable conditions, there may be numerous generations per year 

(CABI/EPPO, 1997a). Gall formation in the host, a symptom of infection, proceeds 

rapidly, gall volume increasing as much as 1800-fold in little more than two weeks 

(Stevenson et al., 2001). Local spread of the pathogen through the soil or in surface 

water is slow, on the order of a few centimeters per year (Weiss, 1925). Short-distance 

dissemination also may be facilitated by wind (Hampson, 1996) or the movement of soil 

fauna (Hampson & Coombes, 1989). Rapid, long-distance dispersal occurs via the 

transport of infected potato tubers or contaminated soil in international trade

(CABI/EPPO, 1997a). This species exhibits high reproductive and dispersal capacities. 

Risk is considered to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Potato wart disease, caused by S. endobioticum, is considered so important that, for 

decades, domestic and foreign quarantines have been in force worldwide to prevent its 

spread (CABI/EPPO, 1997a). Once the fungus is established in a field, an entire potato

crop may be lost or otherwise rendered unmarketable; moreover, the fungus is so 

persistent that potatoes cannot be grown again safely for many years, nor can the land be 

used for any plants intended for export (Hampson, 1993; CABI/EPPO, 1997a). The 

fungus also has been reported to be a vector of potato virus X (Stevenson et al., 2001).

Infected tubers develop galls (warts), which reduce their market value (Osterbauer, 

2010). Introduction of S. endobioticum into the United States likely would result in a loss 

of domestic and foreign markets, as occurred in Canada after its detection there

(Hampson et al., 1996; Clark et al., 2007). Where the fungus occurs, domestic movement 

of potatoes or other crops grown in infested soil often is restricted, resulting in a loss of 

sales (Chang & Rossman, 1987). The species is a quarantine pest for numerous 

countries, including Norway, Malaysia, Korea, Japan, China, Thailand, Australia, 

Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, Egypt, Israel, and the European Union (EPPO, 2007; Purdue 

University, 2011). Risk is considered to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Synchytrium endobioticum poses a potential threat to Solanum drymophilum, S. 

incompletum, and S. sandwicense, listed as Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12. Introduction 

Medium (2)
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Synchytrium endobioticum Risk Ratings

of the pathogen is not likely to stimulate the initiation of control programs. Resting 

spores, which may remain viable in soil for decades (Stevenson et al., 2001), are highly 

resistant to fungicides, and the only effective chemical agents have proven to be too 

toxic to crops and the soil microflora (Walker, 1976). Quarantine and sanitation 

measures, and the use of resistant potato cultivars are the principal means of disease 

control (CABI/EPPO, 1997a; Stevenson et al., 2001). There is no indication that the 

potential of biological control for managing the pest has been evaluated. Risk of negative 

environmental impacts attending the introduction of this species is estimated to be 

medium.

Thecaphora solani Risk Ratings

Risk Element #1: Climate-Host Interaction

The distribution of T. solani is confined to the American tropics and subtropics. It has 

been reported from Bolivia, Chile (Regions I, IV, and IX), Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico 

(Aguascalientes, Baja California Norte, Chihuahua, Guanajuato, Jalisco), Panama, Peru, 

Venezuela (Jiménez, 1985; CABI/EPPO, 1997b; Andrade et al., 2004; Farr & Rossman, 

2010) (Plant Hardiness Zones 8-13; Fig. 2). The fungus is prevalent in cool, 

mountainous regions, but also occurs in warmer, coastal areas (Stevenson et al., 2001).

The potential range of the fungus in the United States is estimated to span Zones 8-13.

High (3)

Risk Element #2: Host Range

Hosts are various species of Solanaceae, including Solanum tuberosum, S. lycopersicum, 

S. stoloniferum, and Datura stramonium (CABI/EPPO, 1997b; Farr & Rossman, 2010).

Medium (2)

Risk Element #3: Dispersal Potential

Thecaphora solani does not appear to be an aggressive or highly virulent pathogen.

Andrade et al. (2004) reported difficulty in culturing the fungus in vitro because of a low 

rate of germination of teliospores and an extremely low growth rate in mycelia. It is said 

to have a very low natural dispersal potential (CABI/EPPO, 1997b). Locally, irrigation 

water and grazing livestock may contribute to spread (Stevenson et al., 2001). Rapid, 

long-distance dispersal is effected by the transport of infected tubers of potato and other 

Solanum species (Mordue, 1970; CABI/EPPO, 1997b). The fungus has been intercepted 

at U.S. ports on at least 127 occasions on Solanum species from Mexico (USDA-APHIS 

Agricultural Quarantine Activity Systems Pest Interception Database [Pest ID]). Because 

a high biotic potential is not indicated for this species, risk is judged to be medium.

Medium (2)

Risk Element #4: Economic Impact

Thecaphora solani causes the disease known as potato smut, which produces tumorous 

outgrowths (galls) on stolons, tubers, and underground portions of stems, and can reduce 

yields in potato crops by up to 85% (Stevenson et al., 2001). On tubers, galls vary in size 

from less than 1 mm to 4 mm or more in diameter, and their presence results in a loss in 

quality of the crop (Andrade et al., 2004). Chemicals have been used, as soil fumigants 

or tuber treatments, to control the fungus (Torres, 2002a; Wale et al., 2008), but increase 

costs of crop production. Introduction of the pathogen likely would result in a loss of 

foreign markets for U.S. potatoes. It is a quarantine pest for several countries, including 

Korea, Norway, Argentina, Brazil, China, Israel, Turkey, Taiwan, the European Union, 

and Russia (EPPO, 2007; Purdue University, 2011). Risk is estimated to be high.

High (3)

Risk Element #5: Environmental Impact

Thecaphora solani poses a potential threat to Solanum drymophilum, S. incompletum, 

and S. sandwicense, listed as Endangered in 50 CFR §17.12. Introduction of the 

Medium (2)
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 60

Thecaphora solani Risk Ratings

pathogen is not likely to stimulate the initiation of control programs. Being soil-borne, 

once established, its eradication is considered practically impossible (CABI/EPPO, 

1997b). A variety of fungicides has been evaluated for control of the disease, but with 

limited success; some have achieved a reduction in the severity of infection, but not the 

elimination of the pathogen (Wale et al., 2008). Management of the disease generally has 

relied on cultural methods, such as sanitation, long rotation cycles, and the use of clean 

seed, and resistant cultivars (Stevenson et al., 2001). The broad-spectrum fungicides 

currently used in U.S. potato production (e.g., Godfrey et al., 2008; Olson et al., 2010)

probably would be perceived as adequate for control purposes. There is no indication 

that the potential of biological control for managing the pest has been evaluated. Risk is 

considered to be medium.

Table 5. Risk rating for Consequences of Introduction (potato, Solanum tuberosum, from 

Mexico).

Pest Risk Element Cumulative Risk 

1 2 3 4 5 Rating

Copitarsia decolora High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Epicaerus cognatus High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Medium (11)

Nacobbus aberrans High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Rosellinia bunodes High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15)

Rosellinia pepo Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Medium (12)

Synchytrium endobioticum High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (13)

Thecaphora solani High (3) Med (2) Med (2) High (3) Med (2) Medium (12)

2.6. Likelihood of Introduction—Quantity Imported and Pest Opportunity

Likelihood of introduction is a function of both the quantity of the commodity imported annually 

and pest opportunity, which consists of five criteria that consider the potential for pest survival 

along the pathway (USDA, 2000). Risk values determined for the likelihood of introduction of 

each pest are summarized below (Table 8).

2.6.1. Quantity of commodity imported annually

The rating for the quantity imported annually usually is based on the amount reported by the 

exporting country, and is converted into standard units of 40-foot-long shipping containers. The 

quantity of potatoes to be imported annually from Mexico into the United States has not been 

communicated. However, if it is assumed that tuber production will increase to a level permitting 

exports to the United States to equal, at a minimum, current production (≈ 1.6 million tonnes; 

FAO, 2011b), volume will exceed the capacity of 64,000 40-foot-long shipping containers. Risk 

is estimated to be high.

2.6.2. Survive post-harvest treatment

Specific post-harvest treatment of potato tubers in Mexico has not been communicated.

However, Epicaerus cognatus, as an internal feeder (Anonymous, 1959), would be expected to 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 61

have a high probability (> 10%; USDA, 2000) of surviving minimal post-harvest treatment, such 

as washing and culling, especially if infestation of the tuber had not progressed to such an 

advanced stage that damage was obvious. Infested potatoes may not show external damage, such 

as larval entrance holes (Anonymous, 1959). Similarly, external symptoms may or may not be 

visible on potato tubers infected by Synchytrium endobioticum and Ralstonia solanacearum race 

3, depending on the state of development of the disease (Chang & Rossman, 1987; Janse, 2004), 

damage being confined, at least initially, to internal tissues (O’Brien & Rich, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 

1997a). Tubers containing juveniles and adults of Nacobbus aberrans usually show no 

symptoms of infection (Lehman, 2004; Manzanilla-López et al., 2004). The nematodes may

penetrate tubers to a depth of 1-2 mm (Canto, 1992). Thus, these pests may go undetected by 

visual inspection and are likely to be protected from any disinfestation or disinfection operation

that treats the tuber surface only. They also are estimated to have a high probability of surviving 

post-harvest treatment.

Damage caused by the feeding of Copitarsia decolora on or within tubers is readily apparent and 

may be severe (Alcázar et al., 2004). Similarly, symptoms of disease in tubers infected by the 

remaining fungi tend to be obvious at harvest. Tubers infected by Rosellinia spp. are covered 

superficially, either partially or totally, by mycelial growth (Torres, 2002b), and frequently rot 

before harvest (Stevenson et al., 2001). Tubers infected by Thecaphora solani are misshapen, 

with warty swellings (galls) on the surface (Barrus & Muller, 1943; CABI/EPPO, 1997b). After 

initial infection, gall development proceeds throughout the growing season (Mordue, 1970). 

Tubers affected by these pests are likely to be detected and culled at harvest or in the 

packinghouse. The likelihood of these pests’ surviving post-harvest treatment, therefore, is 

considered low.

2.6.3. Survive shipment

The conditions under which potato will be shipped from Mexico to the United States have not 

been communicated. Interception records may provide some indication of the ability of pest 

organisms to survive shipping conditions. A large number of live organisms intercepted with 

commodities at U.S. ports-of-entry suggests that environmental conditions in shipping containers 

and aircraft cargo holds are favorable for their survival (e.g., Pasek, 2000). By the same 

reasoning, low rates of interception may suggest that certain pests do not survive well conditions 

under which commercial produce from Mexico is shipped. There were no interception records 

for most of the pests of concern, and but a single interception recorded for Thecaphora solani

(Table 6). These organisms are estimated to present a low risk of surviving shipment (< 0.1%; 

USDA, 2000). Between 1992 and 2010, Copitarsia spp. were intercepted in significant numbers

in cargo from Mexico (Table 6). Risk of their surviving shipment is considered to be high.

Table 6. Interceptions at U.S. ports of pests of concern on or in various agricultural commodities

in cargo from Mexico.

a

Pest Individuals or Infections Intercepted (no.)

Copitarsia spp.b733

Epicaerus cognatus 0

Nacobbus aberrans 0

Ralstonia solanacearum 0
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 62

Pest Individuals or Infections Intercepted (no.)

Rosellinia spp. 0

Synchytrium endobioticum 0

Thecaphora solani 1

aData from the USDA-APHIS Agricultural Quarantine Activity Systems Pest Interception Database (Pest ID). Last 

access: April 2011.

bRecords include C. decolora. All species of Copitarsia occurring in Mexico are members of the C. decolora species 

group, a complex of cryptic species with very similar morphological traits (Angulo & Olivares, 2003; Pogue & 

Simmons, 2008), and are assumed to have similar biology.

2.6.4. Not detected at a port-of-entry

As with assessing the probability that potato pests will survive post-harvest treatment, estimating 

the likelihood that these pests will not be detected at a port-of-entry involves consideration of 

pest biology and degree of concealment. Epicaerus cognatus, as an internal feeder, would be 

expected to have a high probability of evading detection, especially if infestation of the tuber had 

not progressed to such an advanced stage that damage was obvious. Infested potatoes may not 

show external damage, such as larval entrance holes (Anonymous, 1959). Similarly, external 

symptoms may or may not be visible on potato tubers infected by Synchytrium endobioticum and 

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3, depending on the state of development of the disease (Chang & 

Rossman, 1987; Janse, 2004), damage being confined, at least initially, to internal tissues 

(O’Brien & Rich, 1979; CABI/EPPO, 1997a). There is no galling or deformation associated with 

N. aberrans infection of tubers (Jatala & Bridge, 1990). Further, Lehman (2004) has suggested 

that, as a result of recent trade agreements between the United States and countries, in which the 

potato pathotype of N. aberrans occurs, vegetable hosts of the organism have been moved in 

trade with minimal regulatory inspection. These pathogens also are likely to have a high 

probability of passing undetected at a port-of-entry.

Damage caused by the feeding of Copitarsia decolora on or within tubers is readily apparent 

(Alcázar et al., 2004), and likely would betray the presence of larvae within tubers. Similarly, 

symptoms of disease in tubers infected by the remaining fungi tend to be obvious at harvest and 

beyond. Tubers infected by Rosellinia bunodes and R. pepo are covered superficially, either 

partially or totally, by mycelial growth, and exhibit signs of rot (Torres, 2002b). Tubers infected 

by Thecaphora solani are misshapen, with warty swellings (galls) on the surface (Barrus & 

Muller, 1943; CABI/EPPO, 1997b). After initial infection, gall development proceeds 

throughout the growing season (Mordue, 1970). Because of the highly visible damage they do to 

potato tubers, these pests are likely to be detected at a port-of-entry. Risk is estimated to be low.

2.6.5. Moved to a habitat suitable for survival

Because of its high nutritive value, versatility in recipes, and perceived health benefits, potato 

tends to have broad appeal among consumers (Bohl & Johnson, 2010). Hence, potato tubers 

from Mexico are likely to be sold in every state. However, under the assumption that demand for 

the vegetable is proportional to the size of the consumer population in potential markets, imports 

might be concentrated more in some regions of the United States than in others, not all of which 

may have climatic conditions conducive to pest survival. Every state, the District of Columbia,

Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands include areas within Plant Hardiness Zone 3 or higher 

(Fig. 3). Assuming that infestations or infections by all pests will be randomly distributed among 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 63

Figure 3. Plant hardiness zones in the United States (modified from Magarey et al., 2008).

consignments, because it has the potential to found populations in parts of the United States 

comprising 100% of likely markets for potatoes (Table 7), Synchytrium endobioticum is

estimated to have a high probability of moving to habitat suitable for survival. Although not 

quite as eurytopic, Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 has the potential to become established in a 

broad proportion of the United States (Zones 6 and above), comprising 92% of likely markets for 

potatoes (Table 7). It also is considered to have a high probability of moving to habitat suitable 

for survival. The bacterium probably would be excluded only from those areas of the country

with a continental climate, which include several major potato-producing states (NASS, 2010). 

Results of experiments reported by Scherf et al. (2010) suggested that R. solanacearum race 3 

was unlikely to become established in commercial potato-growing regions of the northern United 

States because it is unable to survive frequent near-freezing temperature fluctuations, even when 

sheltered in host plant tissue.

Habitats considered suitable for the remaining pests, with the exception of Rosellinia pepo,

(within Zones 7 and above and 8 and above) occur in 26 states and the District of Columbia, and 

16 states, respectively, plus Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, comprising a much narrower 

range (47-72%) of likely markets for potatoes (Table 7). However, three of the most populous 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 64

states (California, Florida, and Texas; USCB, 2010: Table 12) occur, at least partially, within 

Zones 7-8 and above, and are likely to constitute large markets for potatoes. The probability that 

these species will move to suitable habitat is estimated to be medium.

Distributional data suggest that R. pepo has narrow climatic tolerances, and potentially could 

become established in approximately 2% of likely markets for potatoes (Table 7). This species is 

estimated to have a low probability of moving to suitable habitat.

Table 7. Proportion of likely potato markets within potential pest range in the United States.a

Pest Estimated Potential U.S. Range 

(Plant Hardiness Zones)b

Likely Potato Markets Within 

Rangec(percent)

Copitarsia decolora 8-13 47

Epicaerus cognatus 8-11 47

Nacobbus aberrans 7-11 72

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 6-13 92

Rosellinia bunodes 7-13 72

Rosellinia pepo 11-13 2

Synchytrium endobioticum 3-13 100

Thecaphora solani 8-13 47

a

Includes District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

b

From Section 5: Consequences of Introduction.

c

Population data from USCB (2010: Tables 12 and 1312).

2.6.6. Come into contact with host material suitable for reproduction

Assessment of the probability that an introduced plant pest will come into contact with suitable 

host material must take into account not only the availability, in time and space, of its host plants 

and of the particular plant parts fed upon or used for reproduction, but also the pest’s inherent 

powers of movement allowing it to find and colonize hosts successfully.

In Mexico, potato production occurs between March and November in the coastal plains, and 

between April and September in the highlands (Haverkort & Wiersema, 2007). Hosts in the 

United States, if present in an area of pest introduction, could be available in suitable condition 

(i.e., with new vegetative growth or developing fruit) during much of this period (e.g., AprilOctober or longer), particularly in southern areas of the country. However, additional factors 

must be considered to gauge the likelihood that an introduced organism will find hosts suitable 

for survival and reproduction.

Even if they succeed in reaching a new region, immigrant organisms are likely to be destroyed 

quickly by a multitude of physical or biotic agents present in the environment. Data quantifying 

the number of species actually dispersed from their native ranges, the number arriving at a new 

site, and the number of these that subsequently perish are almost entirely lacking, but, based on 

the number of species that have been collected only once far beyond their native range, the local 

extinction of immigrants soon after their arrival must be enormous (Mack et al., 2000). Other 

examples serve to illustrate the poor prospects for establishment and the extinction risks faced by 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 65

small adventive populations. In a study of the success of various groups of invading organisms, 

Williamson & Fitter (1996) found that no greater than 1% of insects introduced into a new region 

became established. Controlled studies of insects introduced for biological weed control, in 

which conditions for establishment generally were optimal, showed that small founding 

populations (at densities likely to be greater than those typically infesting imported commodities, 

such as fruits and vegetables) tended to become extinct within three years of introduction 

(Memmott et al., 1998; Grevstad, 1999). The probability, therefore, that pest organisms entering 

the United States in consignments of fruits and vegetables will be successful in finding suitable 

hosts might be assumed a priori to be low.

Potatoes will be imported for consumption only. Thus, the tubers would be expected to have only 

a limited probability of introduction directly into the natural or agricultural environments, in 

which hosts might be found. The Pest ID database, maintained by APHIS, provides a record of 

interceptions at U.S. ports of quarantine pests on various commodities (fruits and vegetables, 

plant propagative material). As only a small percentage of goods passing through the ports is 

inspected (< 2%; NRC, 2002), a reasonable assumption is that at least some of these pests also 

are present in the many more items that are entering the country without inspection (cf. Work et 

al., 2005), and are thus presented with opportunities to become established. Yet there is no 

record of establishment for many of these pests. For example, since 1984, at least 173 and 124

specimens of Copitarsia decolora and Thecaphora solani, respectively, have been intercepted on 

various commodities (many in cargo) for consumption (Pest ID). During that period, these pests 

have failed to become established in the United States.

Potato appears to be the main host of Epicaerus cognatus (Anonymous, 1928a; Hernandez, 

1937), although another, unidentified wild species of Solanum (“wild potato”) also has been

recorded (Wheeler et al., 1951). Production of the crop in areas of the United States, in which 

climatic conditions favor survival of E. cognatus (Plant Hardiness Zones 8-11; Table 7), is

generally sparse (Fig. 4). The probability that small numbers of the weevil, arriving with 

consignments of potato tubers from Mexico, would be able readily to locate suitable hosts likely

is low.

In a study designed to examine pest survival on imported commodities for consumption, Gould 

& Huamán (2006) found that discarded produce (e.g., asparagus) was unlikely to support 

development of C. decolora larvae. All of the individuals tested died before completing 

development to the adult stage, although a small percentage of first instars escaped from trash 

bins. However, given the myriad abiotic and biotic mortality factors in the environment arrayed 

against neonate Lepidoptera (Zalucki et al., 2002), their prospects for survival and successful 

establishment would not be encouraging. Also, because they lack wings, larvae of C. decolora

have limited powers of dispersal, and thus lack the ability to locate hosts quickly.

Plant material for consumption, such as fresh fruit and vegetables, is considered generally to 

pose a low risk as a pathway for establishment of fungi, in contrast to propagative material (Palm 

& Rossman, 2003). For fungi, successful establishment by wind-blown spores is influenced by 

the quantity of spores produced, the number of spores that becomes airborne, wind direction and 

speed, the ability of spores to survive adverse environmental conditions, and the availability of 

susceptible hosts (Roberts & Boothroyd, 1972). An optimal set of conditions enabling Rosellinia 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 66

bunodes, R. pepo, Synchytrium endobioticum, and Thecaphora solani to infect hosts in the 

United States is considered unlikely to occur.

Figure 4. Commercial potato (Solanum tuberosum) production areas in the United States (source: 

NCSU/APHIS Plant Pest Forecast System [NAPPFAST]).

For all of the above reasons, the probability that E. cognatus, C. decolora, the Rosellinia species, 

S. endobioticum, and T. solani will come into contact with suitable host material is estimated to 
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 67

be low.

Hosts of Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 are widespread in the United States, many of them 

growing wild as uncultivated, weedy species (USDA-NRCS, 2011). The bacterium spreads 

through soil, and often is present as symptomless infections in weed hosts (Stevenson et al., 

2001). It can survive in soil for years, forming a reservoir of inoculum, from which it can 

disperse (Champoiseau et al., 2009). Introduction of infected potato tubers into landfills could 

result in establishment of the pathogen in domestic populations of several of its weedy hosts, 

such as species of Amaranthus and Chenopodium, Urtica dioica, and Portulaca oleracea. Risk is 

estimated to be high.

Hosts of Nacobbus aberrans also are broadly distributed in the United States, many of them 

growing wild as uncultivated, weedy species (USDA-NRCS, 2011). Nematodes may survive in 

stored potato tubers (Manzanilla-López et al., 2002) and soil (Jatala & Kaltenbach, 1979; Brodie

et al., 1993) for an extended period. Weed hosts, such as Spergula arvensis, are said to favor 

survival and establishment of N. aberrans in the absence of a potato crop (Brodie et al., 1993). 

The second-stage juveniles are described as highly motile and migratory (Manzanilla-López et 

al., 2002). Introduction of infected potato tubers into landfills could result in establishment of the 

pathogen in domestic populations of several of its weedy hosts, such as species of Amaranthus

and Chenopodium, S. arvensis, and Portulaca oleracea. Risk is estimated to be high.

Table 8. Risk rating for Likelihood of Introduction (potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico).

Pest Quantity 

Imported 

Annually

Survive 

Postharvest 

Treatment

Survive 

Shipment

Not 

Detected 

at Port-ofEntry

Moved to 

Suitable 

Habitat

Contact 

with Host 

Material

Cumulative 

Risk Rating

Copitarsia 

decolora

High (3) Low (1) High (3) Low (1) Med (2) Low (1) Medium (11)

Epicaerus 

cognatus

High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) Med (2) Low (1) Medium (13)

Nacobbus 

aberrans

High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (15)

Ralstonia 

solanacearum

race 3 

High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (16)

Rosellinia 

bunodes

High (3) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Med (2) Low (1) Low (9)

Rosellinia pepo High (3) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Low (8)

Synchytrium 

endobioticum

High (3) High (3) Low (1) High (3) High (3) Low (1) Medium (14)

Thecaphora 

solani

High (3) Low (1) Low (1) Low (1) Med (2) Low (1) Low (9)

2.7. Conclusion—Pest Risk Potential and Pests Requiring Phytosanitary Measures
Pest Risk Assessment for Ware Potato, Solanum tuberosum, from Mexico

Ver. 1 (Original) April 22, 2011 68

The summation of the values for the consequences of introduction and the likelihood of 

introduction for each pest yields Pest Risk Potential (USDA, 2000) (Table 9). This is an estimate 

of the unmitigated risk associated with this importation.

For pests with a Pest Risk Potential value of Low, mitigation typically will not be required, as 

port-of-entry inspection is expected to provide sufficient phytosanitary security (USDA, 2000). 

A value within the Medium range indicates that specific phytosanitary measures may be 

necessary. High Pest Risk Potential means that specific phytosanitary measures are strongly 

recommended, and that mere port-of-entry inspection is not considered sufficient to provide 

phytosanitary security. The selection of appropriate phytosanitary measures to mitigate risk is 

undertaken as part of Risk Management, and is not addressed in this document.

Table 9. Pest Risk Potential.

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction

Likelihood of 

Introduction

Pest Risk Potential

Copitarsia decolora High (15) Medium (11) Medium (26)

Epicaerus cognatus Medium (11) Medium (13) Medium (24)

Nacobbus aberrans High (15) High (15) High (30)

Ralstonia solanacearum race 3 High (15) High (16) High (31)

Rosellinia bunodes High (15) Low (9) Medium (24)

Rosellinia pepo Medium (12) Low (8) Medium (20)

Synchytrium endobioticum High (13) Medium (14) High (27)

Thecaphora solani Medium (12) Low (9) Medium (21)

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