Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the 

Zarkashan Area of Interest

Contribution by Trude V.V. King and Michaela Johnson

Abstract

Computer analysis of the HyMap spectroscopic data of the Zarkashan area of interest (AOI) in 

the southeastern part of Afghanistan used spectrum matching techniques to identify the occurrence of 

selected materials at the surface based on characteristic absorption features (absorption bands) in the 

HyMap data compared with a library of spectral standards. The HyMap data have been used to better 

define the magnitude and extent of previously known mineral occurrences and identify potential areas of 

mineralization. HyMap data demonstrated the utility to serve as a highly effective tool, especially in the 

Zarkashan mine subarea, for detecting and mapping potential regions of mineralization in contact zones 

on the edges of intrusive bodies. In the Zarkashan mine subarea, well-defined contiguous areas of 

Fe2+Fe3+ Type 2 and epidote minerals delineate the boundary of the Zarkashan intrusion and are 

coincident with anomalous areas of reported high gold-concentration. The size and extent of the 

alteration shown in the HyMap data suggest that the distribution of copper and gold may be extensive. In 

the Bolo subarea, a linear trend of spectrally distinct pixels, primarily goethite and Fe2+Fe3+ Type 2, 

extends for 9 kilometers along the contact zone between Late Permian-age stratified rocks and the Late 

Cretaceous-Paleocene intrusion, which has been identified to be a potential region of deep gold-placer 

deposits.

15B.1 Introduction

Past studies of geologic data of Afghanistan revealed numerous areas with indications of 

potential mineral resources of various types (Peters and others, 2007; Abdullah and others, 1977).

Several of these areas were selected for follow-up studies using hyperspectral (imaging spectroscopy) 

data to characterize surface materials. This report contains the results of the spectroscopic data analyses 

and identifies sites within the Zarkashan area of interest (AOI) that deserve further investigation,

especially detailed geologic, geophysical, and geochemical investigations.

The Zarkashan AOI is approximately 240 kilometers (km) west and south of Kabul (fig. 15B–1) 

and is believed to host porphyry copper-gold, copper-gold skarn, polymetallic vein, tin-tungsten skarn, 

iron skarn, and lead-zinc skarn mineral deposits. In addition, placer gold and some tin and tungsten 

skarn occurrences are known to be present in the area (Peters and others, 2007; Abdullah and others, 

1977).

15B.1.1 Hyperspectral Data Collection and Processing

In 2007, imaging spectrometer data were acquired over most of Afghanistan as part of the U.S. 

Geological Survey "Oil and Gas Resources Assessment of the Katawaz and Helmand Basins” project. 

The spectrometer data were collected to characterize surface materials in support of assessments of 

resources (coal, water, minerals, oil, and gas) and earthquake hazards in the country (King and others, 

2010). Imaging spectrometers measure the reflectance of visible and near-infrared light from the Earth’s 

surface in many narrow channels, producing a reflectance spectrum for each image pixel. These 

reflectance spectra can be interpreted to identify absorption features that result from specific chemical 

transitions and molecular bonds that provide compositional information about surface materials. 

Imaging spectrometer data can only be used to characterize the upper surface materials, and not 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1155

subsurface composition or structure. The results of subsurface processes, however, can be indicated by 

the distribution of surface materials that can be detected using hyperspectral (imaging spectroscopy) 

data.

Figure 15B–1. The Zarkashan area of interest southwest of Kabul in the Ghazni and Zabul Provinces of 

Afghanistan.

15B.1.2 Collection of Imaging Spectrometer Data

The HyMap imaging spectrometer (Cocks and others, 1998) was flown over Afghanistan from 

August 22 to October 2, 2007 (Kokaly and others, 2008). HyMap has 512 cross-track pixels and covers 

the wavelength range from 0.43 to 2.48 microns in 128 channels. The imaging spectrometer was flown 

on a WB-57 high-altitude aircraft at 50,000 feet. There were 207 standard data flight lines and 11 crosscutting calibration lines collected over the country of Afghanistan for a total of 218 flight lines, covering 

a surface area of 438,012 square kilometers (km2) (Kokaly and others, 2008). Data were received in 

scaled-radiance format (calibrated to National Institute of Standards and Technology reference 

materials). Before processing, four channels that had low signal-to-noise ratios and (or) were in 

wavelength regions overlapped by adjacent detectors were removed from the image cubes. Each flight 

line was georeferenced to Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) base imagery in Universal Transverse 

Mercator (UTM) projection (Davis, 2007). 
1156 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

15B.1.3 Calibration

To ensure the utility of the hyperspectral dataset, a rigorous calibration process to remove 

atmospheric absorptions and residual instrument artifacts was applied. Before the calibration process 

started, each flight line was georeferenced to Landsat base imagery in UTM projection (Davis, 2007). 

Because of the extreme topographic relief and restricted access to ground calibration sites, modifications 

to the traditional USGS calibration procedures were required to calibrate the 2007 Afghanistan HyMap 

dataset (Hoefen and others, 2010). Radiance data were converted to apparent surface reflectance using 

the radiative transfer correction program Atmospheric CORrection Now (ACORN; ImSpec LLC, 

Palmdale, Calif). The ACORN program was run multiple times for each flight line, using average 

elevations in 100 meter (m) increments, covering the range of minimum to maximum elevation within 

the flight line. A single atmospherically corrected dataset was assembled from the ACORN results in 

100-m increments by determining the elevation of each pixel and selecting the atmospherically corrected 

pixel from the 100-m increment closest to the elevation of the pixel. The atmospherically corrected 

dataset was further empirically adjusted using ground-based reflectance measurements from the 

Kandahar Air Field, Bagram Air Base, and Mazar-e-Sharif Airport, as well as soil samples from two 

fallow fields. To improve the data quality, new calibration techniques were developed to address 

atmospheric differences within a flight line.

To refine data quality of ground-calibrated reflectance, a multiplier correction, computed by 

cross-calibrating north-south flight lines with a flight line that passed over a ground calibration site, was 

applied. For each north-south flight line, the pixels in overlapping regions of north-south and 

cross-cutting calibration lines, subject to slope, vegetation cover, and other restrictions, were used to 

develop these cross-calibration correction factors (Hoefen and others, 2010). The cross-calibration 

multiplier corrected any residual atmospheric contamination in the hyperspectral data that was not 

present in the spectra of the ground calibration site. 

15B.1.4 Materials Maps and Presentation

HyMap reflectance data were processed using Material Identification and Characterization 

Algorithm (MICA), a module of the USGS Processing Routines in IDL for Spectroscopic Measurements 

(PRISM) software (Kokaly, 2011). The MICA module compared the reflectance spectrum of each pixel 

of HyMap data against entries in a spectral reference library of minerals, vegetation, water, and other 

materials. The library included 97 reference spectra of well-characterized mineral and material 

standards. The resulting maps of material distribution, resampled to a 23 × 23-square-meter (m

2

) pixel 

grid, were used to prepare maps of mineral, vegetation, and other material occurrences. 

HyMap data were analyzed twice. The MICA module was first run using the set of minerals with 

absorption features in the visible and near-infrared wavelength region, producing the 1-micrometer (μm) 

map of iron-bearing minerals and other materials (King, Kokaly, and others, 2011). MICA was run 

again using the minerals with absorption features in the shortwave infrared region, producing the 2-μm 

map of carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials (Kokaly and others, 

2011). For clarity of presentation, some individual classes in these two maps were bundled by 

combining selected specific mineral types (for example kaolinites, montmorillonites, and hematites) to 

reduce the number of mineral classes. In addition, iron-bearing minerals with different mineral 

compositions but similar spectral features are difficult to classify as specific mineral species. Thus, 

generic spectral classes, including several minerals with similar absorption features, such as Fe3+ Type 1 

and Fe3+ Type 2, are depicted on the map. The carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, and altered minerals 

map has 32 classes. Minerals with slightly different mineral compositions but similar spectral features 

are less easy to distinguish; therefore, some identified classes consist of several minerals with similar 

spectra, such as the “Chlorite or Epidote” class. When comparisons with reference spectra produced no 

viable match, a designation of “not classified” was assigned to a pixel.

Although the occurrence of certain minerals (pyrophyllite, buddingtonite, dickite, jarosite) may 

suggest that mineralization processes may have once operated in the area, many of the minerals that 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1157

were identified are also common rock-forming minerals. Consequently, knowledge about the 

distribution patterns of the identified minerals is essential to understanding the causes of mapped 

mineral occurrences and evaluating the possible potential for related mineral deposits.

15B.1.5 Data Limitations

Geographic registration between various data sets is not always possible because of differences 

in collection methods and resolution. The geographic accuracy and quality of each data set are limited 

by the original source. Significant efforts were made to ensure the geographic accuracy of the HyMap 

data (Kokaly and others, 2008; Hoefen and others, 2010 ). However, exact registration between 

previously published known mineral occurrences, fault traces, geologic units, and structural boundaries 

in comparison to the HyMap data, may not be ideal. To resolve additional details, the digital versions of 

these maps can be viewed at a higher spatial resolution than is possible for a single page printed map. 

15B.2 Geologic Setting of the Zarkashan Area

The main Zarkashan AOI is located in the Ghazni and Zabul Provinces of Afghanistan 

(fig. 15B–1). The AOI covers approximately 1,692 km2

, and for the purposes of this investigation, 

includes three subareas, Bolo, Luman Tamaki, and Zarkashan mine, that are approximately 313 km2, 

356 km2, and 214 km2, respectively (fig. 15B–2). The elevation in the Zarkashan AOI ranges from 

1,877 to 3,416 m (fig. 15B–2). The highest terrain occurs along the northwestern half and in the central 

portion of the AOI. Numerous faults and fractures of various orientations are present in the area (fig. 

15B–3). A major tectonic feature separates the two high-terrain regions in the western part of the AOI.

Landsat TM data are useful for understanding the general characteristics and distribution of surficial 

material, including rocks and soil, unconsolidated sediments, vegetation, and hydrologic features. The 

TM data for the area indicate that the rocks range in color from very light gray, to shades of green, red, 

and reddish-brown (fig. 15B–3). 

Late Proterozoic metamorphic rocks, Lower Paleozoic rocks (limestone, dolomite and shale), 

and Carboniferous to Early Permian rocks (sandstone, siltstone, shale, and mafic volcanic rocks) occur 

in the AOI. These rocks are intruded by Oligocene-age rocks along the northwestern boundary of the 

AOI, and by Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rock in the east-central region (fig. 15B–4).

Intrusive rocks of Late Cretaceous to Paleocene age are present in the Bolo and Zarkashan mine 

subareas.

15B.2.1 Known Mineralization

Figure 15B–5 shows the locations of 40 areas where reconnaissance field geology and the 

geologic literature have identified probable mineralization. The locations of the mineral resources are 

also shown on the topical maps later in this report for the main Zarkashan AOI and three subareas (Bolo, 

Luman Tamaki, and Zarkashan mine) to illustrate how these mineralized prospects are reflected in the 

HyMap data. Mineralization within the AOI includes the following: (1) porphyry copper-gold; 

(2) copper-(gold) skarn; (3) polymetallic vein, (4) tin-tungsten skarn, (5) and lead-zinc skarn. In 

addition, placer gold occurrences are known to be present. Mineral prospects that occur in the Zarkashan 

AOI and are not included in one of the subareas include the Kharnay (skarn W), Tanghi (karst-type 

bauxite), Khinjak (unclassified), and an unnamed vein-W prospect. The known mineralization for the 

three subareas (Bolo, Luman Tamaki, and Zarkashan mine) are discussed next. The mineralogical 

characteristics for prospects in the AOI are summarized in table 15B–1. 

15B.2.1.1 Bolo Subarea

The Bolo subarea was delineated to include a number of gold-rich occurrences adjacent to the 

eastern contact of a Cretaceous granite pluton. This tract contains the Bolo and Utkul gold occurrences 

and the Alaghzar, Belaw, and Anghuri copper prospects. According to Abdullah and others, 1977, the 

Bolo subarea contains Permian to Triassic-age calcareous rocks overlain by Cretaceous limestone and 
1158 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

sandstone, all of which are intruded by Late Cretaceous to Paleocene stocks and plutons. The Bolo gold 

prospect consists of mineralization in upper Permian-age rocks (Abdullah and others, 1977). 

The Belaw copper-skarn occurrence (lat 32°57'50"N., long 67°33'20"E.) is confined to the 

contact zone between Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and Upper Permian age rocks. The Alaghzar copper 

occurrence is in Upper Permian and Devonian age rocks that have been intruded by rocks of Late 

Cretaceous-Paleocene age (Abdullah and others, 1977). The Anghuri copper prospect is in a mineralized 

zone that occurs in contact between Upper Permian and Late Cretaceous-Paleocene rocks; the Utkul 

gold occurrence (lat 32°55'50"N., long 67°33'40"E.) is in Late Permian age rocks. 

Figure 15B–2. Shaded relief map showing elevations of the Zarkashan area of interest, including the three 

subareas (Peters and others, 2007). Dark brown shading indicates higher elevations and blue shading indicates

lower elevations.

15B.2.1.2 Luman Tamaki Subarea

The Luman Tamaki subarea occurs in a northeast-striking tectonic zone of Middle Paleozoic 

sedimentary rock encompassing gold, polymetallic vein, and copper skarn mineral occurrences (Peters 

and others, 2007). Previous remote sensing studies using Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 

Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data identified zones of phyllic and argillic alteration (Mars and 

Rowan, 2007). According to Peters and others (this volume), the composition of the batholithic rocks is

not highly favorable for mineralization, and the widespread exposure of mesozonal (?) batholithic rocks 

suggests that the area is relatively deeply eroded, and that much of the porphyry environment that may 

have once been present has been removed by erosion. Both the Tamaki and Luman are gold-rich 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1159

occurrences, and a number of unnamed precious base-metal vein and skarn prospects are also present 

within the subarea. 

Figure 15B–3. Map showing faults and fractures within the Zarkashan area of interest (from Abdullah and 

Chmyriov, 1977, and Doebrich and others, 2006) superimposed on Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper data from 

Davis (2007).

15B.2.1.3 Zarkashan Mine Subarea

The Zarkashan copper-gold deposit as well as the Choh-i-Surkh, Dynamitic, and Sufi Kademi 

prospects contain gold and copper mineralization, within skarn and shattered zones altered by 

serpentinization, silicification and carbonatization (Peters and others, this volume).

The Choh-i-Surkh gold and copper prospect occurs in Middle Triassic age rocks and is 

characterized by the presence of hematite and limonite. The Dynamitic and Sufi Kademi gold and 

copper prospects lie in the northern part of the Zarkashan mine subarea. The Sufi Kademi occurrence is 

present along a bed of metasomatically altered conglomerate, largely composed of limestone pebbles, 

that occurs between Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous age rocks (Peters and others, this volume). The 

Dynamitic prospect occurs in Middle Triassic age rocks along an easterly trending ridge north of the 

Zarkashan mines (Peters and others, this volume). 

The Khinjaktu copper skarn prospect occurs on the southeastern side of the Zarkashan pluton 

along a north northwest-striking zone that penetrates the pluton from the south. The prospect contains 

gold mineralization in skarn at the contact between Upper Jurassic- Lower Cretaceous and Late 

Cretaceous-Paleocene age rocks (Peters and others, this volume). The Zardak gold prospect lies on the 
1160 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

southeastern side of the Zarkashan pluton in Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous limestone, and the 

Gulyakhel gold prospect lies between Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous and Late CretaceousPaleocene age rocks.

Figure 15B–4. Geologic map of the Zarkashan area of interest from the digital geologic map of Afghanistan 

(Abdullah and Chmyriov, 1977; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007).

15B.3 Hyperspectral Mineral Maps of the Zarkashan Area of Interest

Computer analysis of the HyMap data of the Zarkashan AOI using spectral mapping techniques 

resulted in the identification of a variety of surficial minerals. These minerals have been identified on 

the presence and wavelength position of absorption features in the 0.45 to 2.48-μm wavelength region. 

Two general categories of minerals are recognized: (1) iron-bearing minerals that have characteristic 

spectral absorption features that occur at wavelengths near the 1-μm region, and (2) a wide variety of 

minerals, including carbonates, mica and clay minerals, and sulfates, that have diagnostic spectral 

absorptions near the 2-μm region. Although the occurrence of certain minerals may suggest 

mineralization processes may have operated in the area, many of the minerals identified and mapped are 

also common rock-forming minerals or minerals that can be derived from the weathering of a variety of 

rock types. Consequently, the distribution patterns of the identified minerals and the geologic context in 

which they occur are extremely important in understanding the causes of the mapped mineral 

occurrences, and in assessing the possible potential for related mineral deposits. A series of maps was

produced for the entire Zarkashan AOI and the three subareas.
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1161

15B.3.1 Zarkashan Area

Figures 15B–6 and 15B–7 depict the distributions, respectively, of iron-bearing minerals 

(28 possible classes) and of carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials 

(32 possible classes) for the entire Zarkashan AOI. The Fe2+Fe3+ Type 2 minerals dominate the map of 

iron-bearing minerals; the calcitic minerals and mineral groups are the most abundant mineral type in 

the carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials map. Because of the large 

number of mineral classes represented and the subtleties of the distribution patterns in these image maps, 

it is instructive to display these results as a series of topical images, each depicting a group of minerals 

that are mineralogically related or commonly occur together in special geologic environments 

(figs. 15B–8-15B–13). Figure 15B–8 shows the distribution of carbonate minerals in the AOI, whereas

figure 15B–9 shows where the clays and micas were mapped. The distribution of iron oxide and 

hydroxide minerals is shown in figure 15B–10. Secondary minerals are shown in figure 15B–11, and 

minerals commonly found in hydrothermally altered rocks are mapped in figure 15B–12. 

Figure 15B–5. Map showing the location of known mineral occurrences in the Zarkashan area of interest (AOI). 

The map consists of four data layers: a shaded relief base map; a transparency of the geologic map (from Abdullah 

and others, 1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007); fault traces (from Abdullah and others, 

1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007); and known mineral occurrences (from Abdullah and

Chmyriov, 1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). The map shows the overall AOI and three 

subareas: Bolo, Luman Tamaki and Zarkashan mine. unk, unknown. 
1162 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Table 15B–1. List of known mineral occurrences in the Zarkashan area of interest. [MV, Mississippi Valley; Au, gold; W, tungsten; Cu, copper; Sn, tin; unk, unknown; Zn-Pb, zinc-lead] 

Name Deposit type Mineralogy Gangue Alteration

Tanghi

Tangha

Kharnay

Pir Khana

Khinjak

Gulyakhel

Lashkar-Qala

Zardak

Zarkashan

Khinjaktu

Bolo gold

Choh-i-Surkh

Dynamitic

Maghn

Anghuri copper

Utkul

Sufi-Kademi

Syaghar

Alaghzar copper

Mirzaka

Basharghar

Belaw

Tangi

Kareztu tin

Larga

Karst type bauxite

Vein Au

Skarn W

Vein hematite

Unclassified

Skarn Cu

Unk Au

Unk Au

Skarn Cu

Skarn Cu

Vein Au

Unk Au

Vein Au

Skarn Sn

Skarn Zn-Pb

Unk Au

Skarn Cu

skarn Sn

Skarn Cu

Skarn Sn

Skarn Cu

Skarn Cu

MV Zn-Pb

Skarn Sn

Skarn Sn

Bauxite

Sulfides

Scheelite; chalcopyrite; 

molybdenite; beryl

Limonite; martite

Hematite; limonite

Chalcopyrite; magnetite; 

bornite; covellite; pyrite

Pyrite; chalcopyrite; malachite; 

azurite; gold native

Pyrite; chalcopyrite; gold native

Chalcopyrite; pyrite; sphalerite; 

chalcocite; bornite; gold 

native

No data

Limonite

Hematite; limonite

Limonite

secondary mineral of copper; 

secondary mineral of lead; 

secondary mineral of zinc

Chalcopyrite; bornite; covellite

Sulfides

No data

Hematite; limonite; cassiterite; 

malachite; azurite; cerussite

Sulfides

Magnetite; cerussite; 

pyromorphite; galena; 

scheelite; cassiterite; 

arsenopyrite; wulfenite

Sulfides

Pyrite; chalcopyrite; gold native

Goethite; limonite

Sulfides

Hematite; magnetite; limonite

No data

Quartz

Garnet; pyroxene; 

wollastonite; 

rhodonite; 

quartz

No data

No data

No data

Dolomite

No data

Garnet; diopside; 

phlogopite; 

epidote; 

wollastonite; 

serpentine

No data

No data

No data

No data

Garnet; epidote; 

tourmaline; 

calcite

Garnet; pyroxene

No data

No data

No data

Garnet; pyroxene; 

serpentine

Quartz; serpentine

Diopside; 

vesuvianite; 

garnet

Garnet; pyroxene; 

serpentine

No data

No data

Garnet; quartz; 

calcite;

_

Silicification

Skarn alteration\ quartz 

alteration

Oxidation

Hematitization; 

limonitization

Skarn alteration

Dolomitization

_

Skarn 

alteration/overprinting 

serpentine

Skarn alteration

Limonitization

Marmorization

Limonitization

Skarn alteration; 

Hematitization

Skarn alteration 

Dolomitization; 

marmorization

Skarn alteration; 

hornfels

Skarn alteration; 

hematitization; 

Limonitization

skarn alteration; 

overprinting 

serpentinization; 

Limonitization

Silicification; 

overprinting 

serpentinization

Skarn alteration of 

diopside-vesuvianite 

facies

Skarn alteration; 

overprinting 

serpentinization; 

Limonitization

_

Skarn alteration

Skarn alteration; 

silicification; calcite 

alteration; 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1163

Name Deposit type Mineralogy Gangue Alteration

hematitization; 

limonitization

Luman Vein Au Sulfides Quartz Quartz alteration

Sare Luman Polymetallic vein Sulfides Quartz Silicification

Unnamed Skarn Cu Pyrite; chalcopyrite; sphalerite Ludwigite; epidote; 

serpentine

Skarn alteration of 

ludwigite-epidote 

facies; overprinting 

serpentinization

Lar Vein hematite Hematite No data Marmorization

Tamaki Vein Au Chalcopyrite; galena Quartz; sericite Silicification; 

sericitization

Unnamed Polymetallic vein Galena; sphalerite; chalcopyrite; 

quartz

Quartz; sericite Silicification; 

sericitization

Unnamed Polymetallic vein No data Quartz; muscovite Greisen alteration

Figure 15B–6. Map showing the distribution of iron-bearing and other alteration minerals in the Zarkashan area of

interest as detected in the HyMap data.
1164 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–7. Map showing the distribution of clays, carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, and other alteration 

minerals detected in the HyMap data for the Zarkashan area of interest. 

15B.3.1.1 Carbonate Minerals

The calcites, calcite and montmorillonite, and calcite and muscovite-illite groups are the 

dominant mapped materials, and are continuous across most geologic boundaries (fig. 15B–8). Dolomite 

and dolomitic mineral mixtures are present in the center of the AOI in Late Devonian to Carnain-Norian 

age rocks. The dolomitic and calcitic materials commonly occur in close proximity to one another.

15B.3.1.2 Clays and Micas

The phyllosilicates are the second most abundant mineral group mapped in the AOI (fig. 15B–9); 

muscovites and illites are the dominant minerals. The illites and muscovites most commonly occur 

together in subequal amounts (with muscovite predominant) on the western side of the large fault trace, 

with illite being more abundant than kaolinite in the Late Quaternary age rocks in the southeastern part 

of the AOI. Pixels of “chlorite or epidote” class minerals occur west of a large fault in the Oligocene age 

intrusive rocks and Late Proterozoic age rocks near lat 32°47'57.3"N., long 67°22'47"E. Montmorillonite 

is mapped in the Late Quaternary and Recent age rocks in the northeastern corner of the AOI. Small, but 

spatially distinct clusters of kaolinite and kaolinite group minerals are present in the western half of the 

AOI.
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1165

15B.3.1.3 Iron Oxides and Hydroxides

Figure 15B–10 shows the iron-bearing and other alteration minerals in the Zarkashan AOI. 

Goethite and iron hydroxides are the most abundant mineral groups, and are present in a number of 

stratified and intrusive geologic units. Epidote occurs in clusters in both the intrusive and stratified 

rocks. Hematitic minerals are mapped as small, spatially distinct pixel groups in the AOI.

Figure 15B–8. Map showing the distribution of carbonate-bearing minerals detected by the HyMap data in the 

Zarkashan area of interest. 

15B.3.1.4 Common Secondary Minerals

The occurrence and distribution of common secondary minerals in the AOI are shown in figure 

15B–11. Serpentine and serpentine group minerals are the most abundant secondary minerals mapped, 

and are primarily within the central portion of the AOI in Middle Triassic, Carnain-Norian, and 

Barremian-Aptian age rocks. The chlorite or epidote group minerals occur in spatially distinct groups in 

both intrusive and stratified rocks. 

15B.3.1.5 Common Alteration Minerals

Most of the minerals in this group are commonly present in hydrothermally altered rocks 

associated with epithermal processes. Consequently, where they occur in distinct clusters is of great 

interest in terms of potential mineral deposits. In the Zarkashan AOI, there are a limited number of 

spatially distinct pixels of common alteration minerals. Pixels of chlorite or epidote group minerals 

occur west of a large fault in the Oligocene age intrusive rocks and Late Proterozoic age rocks near 
1166 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

lat 32°47'57.3"N., long 67°22'47"E (fig 15B–12). Small, but well-defined clusters of kaolinite and 

kaolinite group minerals are present in the western and northern regions of the AOI. A few pixels of 

hydrated silica are mapped in the northwest corner of the AOI in Early Quaternary and CarboniferousEarly Permian age rocks (lat 33°13'11.12"N., long 67°46'0.96"E.). 

Figure 15B–9. Map showing the distribution of clays and micas identified in the HyMap data for the Zarkashan 

area of interest. 

15B.3.2 Bolo Subarea

The known mineral occurrence map (a semi-transparent geologic map overlain on a shaded relief 

image) shows the position of nine known mineral prospects in the Bolo subarea (fig. 15B–13). The 

subarea is approximately 313 km2

 in size, and elevations range from 1,877 to 3, 15B–10368 m 

(fig. 15B–14). 

Rocks in the TM data (fig. 15B–15) are light to dark gray, as well as shades of red, green, and 

blue. In general, rock color in the TM scene (Davis, 2007) does not correlate with the mapped geology 

(Dronov and others,1972; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). Numerous fault traces 

are present in the subarea. The geologic map of the area (fig. 15B–16) shows rocks ranging in age from 

Early Jurassic-Middle Jurassic to Late Quaternary. Early Cretaceous and Oligocene age intrusive rocks 

occur in the central part of the subarea. 

Figures 15B–17 and 15B–18 show the distribution of Fe-bearing and carbonate, sulfate, 

phyllosilicate and other alteration minerals, respectively. The map of Fe-bearing minerals (fig. 15B–17) 

shows that the Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 minerals are most abundant in the subarea, followed by goethitic, 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1167

Fe3+, Type 1, and Fe-hydroxide minerals. Fewer occurrences of epidote, Fe2+, Type 1, and hematite are 

mapped in the subarea. 

Figure 15B–10. Map showing the distribution of Fe-hydroxides and oxides mapped using the HyMap data for the 

Zarkashan area of interest. 

Figure 15B–18 shows the distribution of carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, 

and other materials (32 possible classes) in the subarea. Muscovite is the dominant mineral in the 

subarea, although smaller concentrations of chlorite or epidote group, dolomite group, and muscovite 

group minerals are also mapped. 

15B.3.2.1 Bolo Subarea Carbonate Minerals

Calcite-rich rocks are widespread and occur over the entire subarea (fig.15B–19). A lesser 

number of pixels mapped as dolomite and dolomitic mineral mixtures are distributed over much of the 

eastern and southern portions of the subarea. Calcite shows a strong correlation with dolomite and 

dolomite+montmorillonite/calcite group minerals. Spatially less abundant, but mineralogically 

significant, are the kaolinite group minerals near lat 32°57'45.37"N., long 67°33'39.9"E.

The Belaw (copper-skarn) and Bolo (gold) prospects occur in regions mapped as dolomitic 

material; the Utkul (gold), Tangha (vein gold), and Pir Khana (vein hematite) occurrences are in calcite 

rich-areas; the Alaghzar (copper), Anghuri (copper), and Lashkar-Qala (gold) occurrences and an 

unnamed vein gold prospect are in rocks mapped as calcite/clay.
1168 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–11. Map showing the occurrence and distribution of common secondary minerals detected in the 

HyMap data for the Zarkashan area of interest. 

15B.3.2.2 Bolo Subarea Clays and Micas

The HyMap data (fig. 15B–20) show the enrichment of clays and micas in the Bolo subarea.

Muscovites and illites are the spatially dominant mineral groups. The largest percentages of these 

minerals occur on the western side of the large fault on the western side of the AOI.

The chlorite or epidote group minerals are most predominant in the Late Proterozoic age rocks 

(lat 32°48'2.1"N., long 67°22'49.1"E.). Clusters of kaolinite-rich material occur along the contact of the 

Late Permian and Late Quaternary and Recent age rocks (lat 32°57'45.0"N., long 67°33'40.7"E.), and in 

the stratified Ordovician age rocks near the center of the subarea.

The Belaw, Alaghzar, and Lashkar-Qala prospects as well as the unnamed mineral prospects 

occur in areas mapped as muscovites and kaolinite group minerals in the HyMap data. 

15B.3.2.3 Bolo Subarea Iron Oxide and Hydroxide Minerals

Figure 15B–21 shows the distribution of iron oxides and hydroxides in the Bolo subarea. The 

goethite mineral group is spatially dominant; consistent patterns of goethitic minerals are distributed 

across the subarea. Tight spatial clustering of goethitic materials occurs in and near contact boundaries 

of Late Permian age rocks east of the major fault. Spatially well-defined zones of goethitic minerals 

occur in a topographically low area in Late Permian age rocks near lat 32°52'21.50"N., long 

67°29'29.85"E., and in a linear trend centered near lat 32°52'12.58"N., long 67°33'03.37"E. Hematite 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1169

occurs with the goethite in the Late Permian through Middle Triassic age rocks in the eastern half of the 

subarea.

Figure 15B–12. Map showing the distribution of common alteration minerals in the Zarkashan area of interest

based on the HyMap data. 

A spatially distinct pattern of epidote occurs in Late Proterozoic age rocks (lat 32°48'3.0"N., 

long 67°22'16.13"E.), and iron hydroxides are common in the subarea.

Only the Pir Khana and Bolo gold mineral prospects show correlation with the iron-hydroxides 

and oxides detected in the HyMap data. 

15B.3.2.4 Bolo Subarea Common Secondary Minerals

The serpentine mineral groups are the most abundant secondary minerals (fig.15B–22) in the 

subarea. The serpentine minerals are most common in the Late Permian, Early Triassic, and Middle 

Triassic age rocks on the eastern side of the subarea. “Chlorite or Epidote” group and epidote minerals 

form a spatially distinct pattern near lat 32°48'3.0"N., long 67°22'16.13"E. Minor amounts of epidote 

and chlorite group minerals and epidote also occur in other parts of the subarea.

None of the known mineral prospects in the subarea show a strong correlation with the 

secondary minerals detected in the HyMap data.
1170 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–13. Map showing known mineral occurrences in the Bolo subarea (from Abdullah and Chmyriov, 

1977, and Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). unk, unknown. 

15B.3.2.5 Bolo Subarea Common Alteration Minerals

Kaolinite group minerals are the most abundant and common alteration products detected in the 

HyMap data (fig. 15B–23). Spatially distinct areas of kaolinite occur along a linear trend near 

lat 32°57'45.0"N., long 67°33'40.7"E., as well as in Silurian age rocks near lat 32°51'2.17"N, 

long 67°28'26.14"E. The largest contiguous pattern of chlorite or epidote group minerals occurs in the 

Late Proterozoic age rocks near the southern boundary of the subarea. A few pixels of jarositic minerals 

are mapped in the Silurian age rocks near the western boundary of the subarea.

Belaw and Alaghzar are the only mineral prospects near the hydrothermal alteration minerals 

mapped in the HyMap data. 

15B.3.3 Luman Tamaki Subarea

The known mineral occurrence map shows the locations of the nine reported sites of 

mineralization in the Luman Tamaki subarea (fig. 15B–24). Most of the prospects in this subarea are not 

associated with minerals or mineral assemblages detected in the HyMap data. The elevation in the area 

ranges from 2,314 to 3,380 meters (fig. 15B–25). Stratified rocks in the subarea range in age from 

Ordovician to Late Quaternary and Recent; Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and Oligocene intrusive rocks 

are also present (fig. 15B–26). 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1171

Figure 15B–14. Shaded relief map showing elevations in the Bolo subarea. Dark brown shading indicates higher 

elevations and lower elevations are represented by blue shading. 

Landsat TM data from Davis (2007) indicate that the rocks in the subarea range in color from 

light gray to greenish, shades of brown, and dark gray (fig.15B–27). The extensive fault trace that 

bisects the subarea delineates a color difference between the Oligocene age intrusive rocks (light brown) 

on the west side of the fault trace, and the Ordovician and Early Devonian-Middle Devonian age 

stratified rocks (greenish) on the east side of the fault trace.

The hyperspectral data for the subarea (figs. 15B–28 and 15B–29) show the distribution of 

Fe-bearing minerals, and carbonate, phyllosilicate, sulfate and other alteration minerals, respectively.

The Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 and goethitic minerals are the dominant Fe-bearing minerals in the Luman Tamaki 

subarea. Muscovites and dolomite group minerals are the primary mineral phases detected in the HyMap 

data for carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials in the subarea 

(fig. 15B–29). 

15B.3.3.1 Luman Tamaki Subarea Carbonate Minerals

Figure 15B–30 shows the spatial distribution of carbonate-rich rocks that cover much of the 

subarea. Calcite and calcite group mineral mixtures occur over much of the subarea, with a large area of 

spatially distinct dolomite group minerals in the southeastern portion of the subarea in Late Permian, 

Early Triassic, Middle Triassic and Carnain-Norian age rocks. 
1172 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–15. Map showing faults and fractures in the Bolo subarea (from Abdullah and others, 1977, and 

Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007) superimposed on Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (TM) 

data from Davis (2007).

Dolomites and dolomite group minerals are also present as linear features in the Silurian through 

Middle Devonian age rocks east of the major fault trace. Phyllosilicate and kaolinite group minerals are 

spatially distributed over the subarea with a well-defined cluster near lat 33°9'16.55"N., long 

67°44'17.94"E.

The unnamed gold, unnamed polymetallic vein, and unnamed copper-skarn prospects occur in or 

near areas mapped as dolomite or dolomite group minerals based on the HyMap data.

15B.3.3.2 Luman Tamaki Subarea Clays and Micas

Figure 15B–31 shows the enrichment of phyllosilicate minerals in the Luman Tamaki subarea. 

Muscovite is the most abundant mineral in the subarea, and is primarily associated with the Oligocene 

age intrusive rocks, and to a lesser extent, Ordovician and Early Devonian-Middle Devonian age rocks. 

The muscovites are commonly associated with lesser amounts of illite.

The chlorite or epidote group minerals primarily occur in association with Ordovician-age 

intrusive rocks, and show a spatially distinct occurrence near lat 33°1'45.58"N., long 67°35'27.11"E.

Montmorillonite is present along the northern boundary of the subarea. Kaolinite and kaolinite group 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1173

minerals are mostly present in areas of Ordovician-age intrusive rocks, with lesser amounts in Silurian 

and Early Devonian-Middle Devonian stratified rocks east of the major fault trace.

Figure 15B–16. Geologic map of the Bolo subarea from the digital geologic map of Afghanistan (Abdullah and

others, 1977; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others 2007). 

The Luman prospect is in an area with spatially distinct pixels mapped as chlorite or epidote, 

Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 and muscovite. The Tamaki prospect is characterized by spatially distinct Fe2+Fe3+, 

Type 2, goethitic minerals, and chlorite or epidote group minerals. 

15B.3.3.3 Luman Tamaki Subarea Iron Oxides and Hydroxides

The distribution of Fe-oxides and hydroxides is shown in Figure 15B–32. Goethites and 

Fe-hydroxide minerals are the dominant mineral groups in the subarea. These groups primarily occur in 

Ordovician, Silurian, and Early Devonian-Middle Devonian age stratified rocks, and occur in lesser 

amounts in Late Devonian, Carboniferous-Early Permian, Late Permian, and Early Quaternary age 

rocks. Hematite is present in spatially distinct patterns in the Late Devonian age rocks near lat 

33°9'54.5"N., long 67°48'42.07"E. Epidote is mapped in Oligocene age intrusive rocks and the 

Carboniferous-Early Permian age rocks west of the dominant fault trace, and in Silurian and 

Carboniferous-Early Permian age stratified rocks east of the fault.
1174 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–17. Map showing iron-bearing and other alteration minerals detected in HyMap data for the Bolo 

subarea.

All of the mineral prospects in the subarea, with the exception of the unnamed gold prospect, are

in the general vicinity of one of the iron oxides or hydroxides group minerals detected in the HyMap 

data. The Lar vein hematite prospect is near a contiguous area mapped as hematite in the HyMap data.

15B.3.3.4 Luman Tamaki Subarea Common Secondary Minerals

Serpentine and serpentine group minerals are the widely distributed common secondary minerals 

in the Luman Tamaki subarea (fig.15B–33). The serpentine minerals primarily occur in stratified rocks 

east of the dominant fault trace. However, a small, distinct cluster of chlorite or epidote group and 

epidote occurs near lat 33°1'46.52"N., long 67°35'24.14"E., in the Ordovician age intrusive rocks. 

15B.3.3.5 Luman Tamaki Subarea Common Alteration Minerals

The kaolinite group minerals are the most abundant of the common alteration minerals in the 

subarea, and are primarily mapped in Ordovician-age intrusive rocks with lesser amounts in Silurian and 

Early Devonian-Middle Devonian stratified rocks east of the dominant fault (fig.15B–34). Spatially 

distinct kaolinite group minerals occur near lat 33°9'13.39"N., long 67°44'27.96"E., in the Oligocene age 

intrusive rocks. A small, distinct cluster of the chlorite or epidote group and epidote occurs near lat 

33°1'46.52"N., long 67°35'24.14"E. in the Ordovician-age intrusive rocks and is in close proximity to 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1175

iron carbonates and kaolinite group minerals. A contiguous area of the chlorite or epidote group and 

epidote occurs near the Luman prospect.

A small cluster of hydrated silica is mapped in the northernmost part of the subarea in Early 

Quaternary and Carboniferous-Early Permian age rocks.

Figure 15B–18. Map showing the distribution of clays, carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, and other alteration 

minerals for the Bolo subarea based on HyMap data.

15B.3.4 Zarkashan Mine Subarea

The known mineral occurrence map (fig. 15B–35) shows the position of reported mineral 

occurrences in the Zarkashan mine subarea (Abdullah and others, 1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, 

Peters and others, 2007). The subarea is approximately 214 km2 in extent, and elevations range from 

2,086 to 2,979 m (fig. 15B–36). 

A geologic map of the area (fig. 15B–37) shows rocks ranging in age from Late Permian to Late 

Quaternary and Recent. Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rocks occur in the central part of the 

subarea. The rocks in the TM data (fig. 15B–38) range in color from light to dark gray, and also include 

shades of reddish-brown. In general, the colors of the rock in the TM imagery do not correlate with the 

mapped geology (Abdullah and others, 1977; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). Two 

fault traces occur in the subarea.

Figures 15B–39 and 15B–40 show the distribution of Fe-bearing, and carbonate, sulfate, 

phyllosilicate and other alteration minerals, respectively (28 possible classes). The map of Fe-bearing 
1176 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

minerals (fig. 15B–39) shows that Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 minerals are most abundant in the subarea, followed 

by Fe-hydroxides, goethitic, and Fe3+, Type 1. Epidote and hematite are less common in the subarea. 

Figure 15B–40 shows the distribution of carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, 

and other materials (32 possible classes) for the subarea. Pixels mapped as calcite and calcite mineral 

mixtures are dominant in the area, although spatially distinct pixels of dolomite group minerals, 

serpentines, and muscovite and illite are also present. 

15B.3.4.1 Zarkashan Mine Subarea Carbonate Minerals

Calcite-rich rocks are widespread and occur over most of the subarea (fig.15B–41). Large 

contiguous areas mapped as dolomitic group minerals are present in the Early Triassic, Middle Triassic, 

and Carnain-Norian age rocks in the western part of the subarea. A spatially distinct, but small, group of 

iron-bearing carbonates are mapped in the Carnain-Norian age rocks (lat 35°59'2.49"N., long 

67°47'22.22"E.) near the northern boundary of the subarea. 

Figure 15B–19. Map showing the distribution of carbonate-bearing minerals in the Bolo subarea detected by the 

HyMap data. unk, unknown. 

The Dynamitic and Choh-i-Surkh gold prospects and the Sufi Kademi copper prospect, are 

mapped in areas primarily mapped as calcite in the HyMap data. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1177

15B.3.4.2 Zarkashan Mine Subarea Clays and Micas

The HyMap data (fig. 15B–42) show the enrichment of clays and micas in the Zarkashan mine 

subarea. Muscovites and illites are the spatially dominant mineral groups. Both groups mostly occur in 

the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rocks, but are also present to a lesser extent in stratified 

rocks. 

Small clusters or individual pixels of montmorillonite and kaolinite group minerals are present 

throughout most of the subarea. The largest spatially coherent pattern of kaolinite group and 

montmorillonite in the subarea occurs along the contact (lat 32°56'11.92"N., long 67°42'34.68"E.) of the 

Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rocks and Barremian-Aptian age stratified rocks. The chlorite 

or epidote group minerals do not form a spatially contiguous group of significant size in the subarea.

15B.3.4.3 Zarkashan Mine Subarea Iron Oxide and Hydroxide Minerals

Figure 15B–43 shows the distribution of Fe-oxides and hydroxides in the Zarkashan mine 

subarea. The Fe-hydroxide mineral group is spatially dominant within the subarea, and is commonly 

associated with goethitic minerals. The goethitic and Fe-hydroxide minerals are dispersed across the 

subarea and commonly form small spatially coherent patterns. Three spatially distinct, tightly spaced 

groups of coarse grained goethite occur near the Khinjaktu prospect (lat 32°54'42.64"N., long 

67°43'44.4"E.). 

Figure 15B–20. Map showing the distribution of clays and micas detected using the HyMap data in the Bolo 

subarea. unk, unknown. 
1178 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Epidote also occurs in spatially distinct patterns, primarily in the Carnain-Norian and BarremianAptian age stratified rocks and the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rocks. Hematites are mostly

in the northwestern corner of the subarea.

15B.3.4.4 Zarkashan Mine Subarea Common Secondary Minerals

The epidote and chlorite mineral group or epidote are the most abundant secondary minerals 

(fig.15B–44) in the subarea and are associated with both stratified and intrusive rocks. Serpentine and 

serpentine group mineral mixtures occur in small concentrations in all ages of stratified rocks, but are 

not mapped in the Late-Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive body. 

Figure 15B–21. Map showing the distribution of iron oxides and hydroxides in the Bolo subarea based on the 

HyMap data. unk, unknown. 

15B.3.4.5 Zarkashan Mine Subarea Common Alteration Minerals

There are relatively few pixels of mapped common alteration minerals in the subarea 

(fig. 15B–45). The most significant grouping is a small cluster of Fe-bearing carbonates that are mapped 

in the Carnain-Norian age rocks (lat 32°59'2.49"N., long 67°47'22.22"E.) near the northeastern boundary 

of the subarea. The largest spatially coherent pattern of kaolinite group and montmorillonite in the 

subarea occurs along the contact (lat 32°56'11.92"N., long 67°42'34.68"E.) between Late CretaceousPaleocene age intrusive rocks and Barremian-Aptian age stratified rocks. The chlorite or epidote mineral 

group minerals do not form spatially coherent groupings of significant size in the subarea.
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1179

Figure 15B–22. Map showing the distribution of common secondary minerals detected in the HyMap data for the 

Bolo subarea. unk, unknown. 

15B.4 Summary and Conclusions

The Zarkashan AOI and subareas (Bolo, Luman Tamaki, and Zarkashan mine) were thought to 

be favorable regions for near-term development of mineral production based on previous studies by 

geologists from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and its Eastern European allies between 

the early 1950s and about 1985 (Peters and others, 2007). Recent geophysical data collected by the 

USGS (Sweeney and others, 2006), and joint field sampling and analysis activities completed by the 

USGS in collaboration with the Task Force for Business and Stability Operations (TFBSO) of the 

Department of Defense, and the Afghanistan Geological Survey (AGS) of the Ministry of Mines of 

Afghanistan between 2009 and 2011, have provided valuable new data that substantially increases the 

understanding of the extent and value of the potential mineralization. The HyMap imaging spectroscopy 

data for the Zarkashan AOI further support this conclusion. 

Several gold target zones occur in the Zarkashan AOI; two primary regions are the Bolo and 

Zarkashan mine subareas (Peters and others, this volume). Although these areas require additional 

detailed mapping and sampling, the studies by the USGS and TFBSO during FY 2010 have

substantiated much of the previous Soviet findings and confirmed the presence of copper and gold in 

economically profitable concentrations. HyMap and ASTER data suggest that the distribution of the 

copper and gold may be extensive, and that a number of previously unknown medium- to large-size 
1180 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

areas of gold- and copper-rich mineralization are probable in the area (King, Johnson, and others, 2011). 

According to Peters and others (this volume) the Zarkashan copper-gold deposits would be amenable in 

the early stages of exploitation to simple metallurgy, and this would result in short lead times and short 

payback periods for mining of medium to large sized gold-copper ores.

Because of the nearly complete inclusion of the AOI within the boundaries of the three subareas, 

the discussion of the hyperspectral data for the AOI will be addressed by subareas. However, one 

mineralogical anomaly near lat 33°3'59.92"N., long 67°48'15.77"E., that is not included in a subarea is 

included in King, Johnson, and others (2011). 

Figure 15B–23. Map showing common alteration materials detected in the HyMap data for the Bolo subarea. unk, 

unknown. 

15B.4.1 Bolo Subarea

The Bolo subarea includes a number of gold-rich occurrences adjacent to the eastern boundary of 

a Cretaceous age granitic pluton. The tract contains the Bolo and Utkul gold occurrences, as well as the 

Alaghzar, Belaw, and Anghuri copper prospects. Additional evaluations and analysis are needed because

recent stream sediment field sampling completed by the USGS and TFBSO in 2010 did not include the 

sampling of prospective horizons in the streambed and, therefore, the sampled sediments are not 

considered representative of potential mineralization in the subarea

A linear trend of goethite, Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2, kaolinite, muscovite and lesser amounts of Fe3+, 

Type 1, (figs. 15B–6 and 15B–7) extends from near lat 32°59'33.37"N., long 67°34'31"E., to near 

lat 32°55'16.60"N., long 67°31'42.48"E., in a contact zone between Late Permian age stratified rocks 

and the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene intrusion, and includes the Belaw prospect (fig. 15B–46). The area 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1181

should be examined by additional fieldwork and supporting chemical analysis (King, Johnson, and 

others, 2011). 

Another region of potential mineralization occurs near lat 32°50’20.43”N., long 67°27’44.03”E., 

in a contact zone between Ordovician, Early Devonian-Middle Devonian, and Late Quaternary-Recent 

age rocks. The HyMap data for the area show that this region contains dolomitic, goethitic, and calcitic 

group minerals and Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2,and Fe3+, Type 1, with lesser amounts of serpentine and kaolinite 

group minerals, and has a similar compositional pattern to the mineralization mapped near the Belaw 

occurrence (figs. 15B–6 and 15B–7).

In the southern part of the subarea near lat 32°43'3.53"N., long 67°22'54.02"E. in Late 

Proterozoic age rocks, a spatially coherent group, roughly circular in shape, of epidote, muscovite, 

chlorite, and Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 minerals are mapped in the HyMap data.

HyMap data show that potential mineralization in this subarea differs in character from that of 

the Zarkashan mine subarea, presumably because of differences in the age and composition of the host 

rocks as well as the age and type of mineralization processes.

Figure 15B–24. Map showing known mineral occurrences in the Luman Tamaki subarea (Abdullah and Chmyriov, 

1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). unk, unknown. 

15B.4.2 Luman Tamaki Subarea

The Luman Tamaki subarea lies within a northeast-striking tectonic zone of Middle Paleozoic 

sedimentary rock encompassing gold, polymetallic vein, and copper skarn mineral occurrences. Previous 

remote sensing studies using ASTER data identified zones of phyllic and argillic alteration. The mineral 
1182 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

alteration patterns appear to be related to regional fractures within the batholith, and do not correlate 

well spatially with the known mineral prospects.

Both the Tamaki and Luman occurrences are reported to be gold-rich, and a number of unnamed 

precious- base metal-vein and skarn occurrences are also present within the subarea. The Luman 

prospect occurs in an area mapped as epidote, Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2, and muscovite (figs. 15B–28 and 

15B–29). The Tamaki prospect is characterized by spatially distinct Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2, goethitic minerals, 

and muscovite and minor amounts of calcitic group minerals and epidote. 

Figure 15B–25. Shaded relief map showing the elevations within the Luman Tamaki subarea. Dark brown 

shading indicates the higher elevations and the lower elevations are represented by blue shading. 

The Lar vein hematite prospect occurs in Late Devonian age rocks that are primarily dolomitic, 

calcitic, and Fe-Hydroxide group minerals with minor amounts of serpentine. A small cluster of 

hematite is mapped nearby. 

15B.4.3 Zarkashan Mine Subarea

Calcite and calcite mineral mixtures are the most dominant minerals in the Zarkashan mine 

subarea (fig. 15B–40), although spatially distinct pixels of dolomite group minerals, serpentines, 

muscovite and illite are also mapped. The calcite group minerals (calcite + muscovite/illite and calcite + 

montmorillonite), mixed with lesser amounts of dolomitic group minerals and scattered occurrences of 

calcite group minerals, are mapped in the main Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive body. Spatially 

distinct clusters of dolomitic group minerals and serpentines occur along the margins of the intrusion. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1183

Calcite group minerals occur in the Carnain-Norian and Barremian-Aptian age rocks on the periphery of 

the intrusion. 

Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 minerals are most abundant and spatially distinct Fe-bearing minerals in the 

subarea, although Fe-hydroxides, goethitic, and Fe3+, Type 1 minerals are also mapped (fig. 15B–39). 

Fewer pixels of spatially well-defined epidote and hematite are mapped in the subarea. Mixed Fe2+Fe3+, 

Type 2 and epidote pixels commonly occur and surround the main Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age 

intrusive rocks (fig. 15B–47). Smaller, spatially coherent patterns of goethitic and Fe3+, Type 1 minerals 

are also present along the margins of the intrusions in low topographic areas. The contact zone mineral 

assemblages detected in the HyMap data correspond to the aeromagmetic anomalies reported by 

Sweeney and others (2006). On the basis of field investigations and sampling during the 2010 

reconnaissance missions and subsequent chemical analysis, Peters and others (this volume) confirmed 

that the spatially distinct distribution of Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 and epidote minerals in the HyMap data 

redefined the extent and target zones around the main Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusion that are 

likely to contain ore-grade copper and gold, which suggests the HyMap data are an effective mineral 

exploration tool. 

Figure 15B–26. Geologic map of the Luman Tamaki subarea from the digital geologic map of Afghanistan 

(Abdullah and others, 1977; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). 

Fe2+ Fe3+ Type 2 and epidote minerals, with similar types of spatial relations as those adjacent to 

the margin of the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive, are present in the Carnain-Norian and Late 

Quaternary-Recent age rocks in the northeastern part of the subarea (lat 32°59'20.50"N., 

long 67°47'5.15"E.). The presence of these minerals is also associated with spatially related and distinct 
1184 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

patterns of goethitic and Fe3+ Type 1 minerals, similar to the peripheral area of the primary intrusion in 

the subarea (King, Johnson, and others, 2011). 

An east-west trend of spatially distinct pixels of hematite spans geologic boundaries in CarnainNorian and Barremian-Aptian age rocks, south of the east-west fault trace in the northwestern corner of 

the subarea, which is suggestive of fault-controlled mineralization (fig. 15B–39). 

The Zarkashan copper-gold deposit and Zardak mineral prospects occur in areas primarily 

mapped spatially as distinct patterns of Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2 and epidote minerals, with minor amounts of 

serpentine; both sites have been confirmed to contain gold (Peters and others, this volume). The 

Gulyakhel prospect, which lies within in Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous (Barremian-Aptian) age 

rocks, is also mapped in association with Fe2+Fe3+, Type 2, and epidote, with minor amounts of 

serpentine. On the basis of similarities in respective HyMap data, the Gulyakhel prospect may have a 

high potential for economic mineralization comparable to that of the Zarkashan and Zardak prospects.

The Dynamitic, Sufi Kademi and Choh-i-Surkh prospects host gold and copper mineralization, 

and occur in materials mapped in the HyMap data as primarily Fe3+ Type 1 and carbonate minerals. 

The Khinjaktu copper skarn prospect occurs on the eastern side of the main intrusion along a 

north northwest-trending zone that penetrates the pluton from the south, and contains gold 

mineralization in skarn at the contact between Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous (Barremian-Aptian) 

and Late Cretaceous-Paleocene age intrusive rocks (Peters and others, this volume). The HyMap data 

show the prospect occurring in a spatially distinct zone of muscovite and coarse grained goethite that is 

lower in elevation than the surface exposure of the pluton. 

Figure 15B–27. Map showing the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data for the Luman Tamaki subarea (from 

Davis, 2007).
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1185

Figure 15B–28. Map showing iron-bearing and other alteration minerals detected in the HyMap data of the Luman 

Tamaki subarea. 
1186 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–29. Map showing the distribution of clays, carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, and other alteration 

minerals in the Luman Tamaki subarea based on the HyMap data.
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1187

Figure 15B–30. Map showing the distribution of carbonate-bearing minerals in Luman Tamaki subarea detected 

in the HyMap data. unk, unknown. 
1188 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–31. Map showing distribution of clays and micas in the Luman Tamaki subarea based on HyMap 

data. unk, unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1189

Figure 15B–32. Map showing the distribution of Fe-hydroxides and oxides in the Luman Tamaki subarea based 

on HyMap data. unk, unknown. 
1190 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–33. Map showing the occurrence and distribution of common secondary minerals detected in the 

HyMap data for the Luman Tamaki subarea. unk, unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1191

Figure 15B–34. Map showing common alteration materials detected in the HyMap data for the Luman Tamaki 

subarea. unk, unknown. 
1192 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–35. Map showing the known mineral prospects in the Zarkashan mine subarea (Abdullah and 

Chmyriov, 1977, Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). unk, unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1193

Figure 15B–36. Shaded relief map showing elevations (semi-transparent geologic map overlain on a shaded 

relief image) in the Zarkashan mine subarea. Dark brown shading indicates higher elevations and blue shading 

indicates lower elevations.
1194 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–37. Geologic map of the Zarkashan mine subarea from the digital geologic map of Afghanistan

(Abdullah and others, 1977; Doebrich and others, 2006, Peters and others, 2007). 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1195

Figure 15B–38. Faults in the Zarkashan mine subarea (from Abdullah and Chmyriov, 1977, and Doebrich and 

others, 2006) superimposed on Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (TM) data from Davis (2007).
1196 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–39. Map showng iron-bearing and other alteration minerals detected in the HyMap data for the 

Zarkashan mine subarea. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1197

Figure 15B–40. Map showing the distribution of clays, carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, and other alteration 

minerals in the Zarkashan mine subarea based on the HyMap data. 
1198 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–41. Map showing the distribution of carbonate-bearing minerals in Zarkashan mine subarea based on 

the HyMap data. unk, unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1199

Figure 15B–42. Map showing the distribution of clays and micas in the Zarkashan mine subarea based on the the 

HyMap data. unk, unknown. 
1200 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–43. Map showing the distribution of Fe-hydroxides and oxides in the Zarkashan mine subarea based 

on the HyMap data. unk, unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1201

Figure 15B–44. Image showing the occurrence and distribution of common secondary minerals detected in the 

HyMap data for the Zarkashan mine subarea. unk, unknown. 
1202 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–45. Common alteration materials detected in the HyMap data in the Zarkashan mine subarea. unk, 

unknown. 
Chapter 15B. Analysis of Imaging Spectrometer Data for the Zarkashan Area of Interest 1203

Figure 15B–46. Three-dimensional view of the Bolo subarea created using a portion of figures 15B–6 and 

15B–17 overlain on a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Arrow shows the direction of the view relative to the map view 

images.
1204 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15B–47. Three-dimensional view of the Zarkashan mine subarea created using a portion of figures 15B–6 

and 15B–39 overlain on a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Arrow shows the direction of view relative to the map view 

images.

15B.5 References Cited

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., 1977, Geological map of Afghanistan: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Ministry of Mining and Industry of Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, scale 1:500,000. 

Abdullah, Sh., Chmyriov, V.M., Stazhilo-Alekseev, K.F., Dronov, V.I., Gannan, P.J., Rossovskiy, L.N., 

Kafarskiy, A.Kh., and Malyarov, E.P., 1977, Mineral resources of Afghanistan (2d ed.): Kabul, 

Afghanistan, Republic of Afghanistan Geological and Mineral Survey, 419 p. 

Cocks, T., Jenssen, R., Stewart, A., Wilson, I., and Shields, T., 1998, The HyMap airborne hyperspectral 

sensor—The system, calibration and performance, in

Davis, P.A., 2007, Landsat ETM+ false-color image mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1029, 22 p. (Also available at 

 Schaepman, M., Schlapfer, D., and Itten, K.I., 

eds., Proceedings of the 1st EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy, 6–8 October 1998, Zurich: 

Paris, European Association of Remote Sensing Laboratories, p. 37–43. 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1029/

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/ofr/ofr2005103.

.) 
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Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/ofr/ofr2005103.

Dronov, V.I., Kalimulin, S.M., Sborshchikov, I.M., Svezhentsov, V.P., Chistyakov, A.N., Zelensky, 

E.D., and Cherepov, P.G., 1972, The geology and minerals of North Afghanistan (parts of map sheets 

400-II and 500-I, the Kaysar-Hari Rod Interfluve area): [Afghanistan] Department of Geological and 

Mineral Survey, 44 p.

Hoefen, T.M., Kokaly, R.F., and King, T.V.V., 2010, Calibration of HyMap data covering the country

of Afghanistan, in Proceedings of the 15th Australasian Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry 

Conference, Alice Springs, Australia, September 12–17, 2010, p. 409, available at 

http://dl.dropbox.com/u/81114/15ARSPC-Proceedings.zip/.

King, T.V.V., Johnson, M.R., Hoefen, T.M., Kokaly, R.F., and Livo, K.E., 2011, Mapping potential 

mineral resource anomalies using HyMap data, in King, T.V.V., Johnson, M.R., Hubbard, B.E., and 

Drenth, B.J., eds, Identification of mineral resources in Afghanistan—Detecting and mapping resource 

anomalies in prioritized areas using geophysical and remote sensing (ASTER and HyMap) data in 

Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1229, available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1229/

King, T.V.V., Kokaly, R.F., Hoefen, T.M., and Knepper, D.H., 2010, Resource mapping in Afghanistan 

using HyMap data: Proceedings 15th Australasian Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Conference,

Alice Springs, Australia, September 12–17, 2010, p. 500.

.

King, T.V.V., Kokaly, R.F., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K. and Livo, K.E., 2011, Surface materials map of 

Afghanistan—Iron-bearing minerals and other materials: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Map 3152–B.

Kokaly, Ray, 2011, PRISM—Processing routines in IDL for spectroscopic measurements: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1155, available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1155/

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., and Livo, K.E., 2008, Airborne hyperspectral survey of Afghanistan 2007: 

Flight line planning and HyMap data collection, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008–

1235, 14 p.

.

Kokaly, R.F., King, T.V.V., Hoefen, T.M., Dudek, K. and Livo, K.E., 2011, Surface materials map of 

Afghanistan—Carbonates, phyllosilicates, sulfates, altered minerals, and other materials: U.S. 

Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Map 3152–A.

Mars, J.C., and Rowan, L.C., 2007, Mapping phyllic and argillic-altered rocks in southeastern 

Afghanistan using advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER) data: 

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007–1006, available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1006/.

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the U.S. 

Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2007, 

Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File 

Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD–ROM. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/

Sweeney, R.E., Kucks, R.P, Hill, P.L., and Finn, C.A., 2006, Aeromagnetic and gravity surveys in 

Afghanistan—A web site for distribution of data: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006–

1204, available at 

.)

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1204/.