Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area 

of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

7C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Haji-Gak iron area of interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007). The AOI is located in southeast Bamyan, northeast 

Wardak, and western Parwan Provinces (fig. 7C–1a,b). The three identified subareas, Haji-Gak 

Prospect, NE Haji-Gak, and Farenjal, occupy 180, 381, and 557 km2 (square kilometers), respectively, of 

the 2,079-km2 area of the AOI.

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of this data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan.

7C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Haji-Gak iron AOI is based on data generated for the Afghanistan 

agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 
550 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 551

b 

Figure 7C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
552 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

The AOI is located in the Capital and Central Highlands regions of the Afghanistan Agromet

network (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). There are no Agromet stations within 

the AOI, but there are stations to the west, south, and east. The Seasonal Bulletin states that “October 

2009 was a very dry month during the rainfall season (2009–2010) and it is typical in this time of the 

year. However, the Eastern and some parts in the Capital region experienced moderate rainfall, while in 

the remaining regions of the country seasonal dryness continued” (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, 

and Livestock, 2010). 

The Agromet station located in Bamyan is the closest station to the AOI for which 2009–2010 

water year and long-term average (LTA) precipitation and temperature data are available. The Bamyan 

Agromet station is about 95 km west of the center of the AOI at an elevation of 3,100 m (meters) above 

sea level (asl). The elevation at this station is similar to the elevation of much of the AOI and the climate 

probably is similar. Table 7C–1 presents available precipitation and temperature data for the Agromet

station located in Bamyan. 

Table 7C–1.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters;

Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation 

and temperature at the Bamyan Agrometeorological (Agromet) station 90 km west of the Haji-Gak iron area of 

interest, Afghanistan. °

C, degrees Celsius]

Precipitation Temperature

 Long-term average1 Long-term average

Agromet

Station

1 

Distance 

from AOI 

center 

(km)

Elevation 

(m) 

2009–

2010

Annual 

(mm)

Annual 

(mm)

Monthly 

minimum 

and month 

(mm)

Monthly 

maximum 

and month 

(mm)

Minimum 

and month 

(°C) 

Monthly 

mean 

(°C)

Maximum 

and month 

(°C) 

Bamyan 55 3,100 207.4 142

0 

August

34.3 

April

–6.8 

January 5.3

18.2

July

1 Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

The closest Agromet station to the AOI is located in Chack, Wardak Province. This station is 

located about 80 km south of the center of the AOI. The elevation of this station is approximately 

2,325 m asl. The only data reported for this station are the 2009–2010 water year precipitation data. The 

total precipitation recorded at this station for the 2009–2010 water year was 189 mm (millimeters). The 

highest monthly precipitation was 40 mm in August 2010 and the lowest was 0 mm in September 2009 

and July 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). 

The Bamyan Agromet station had a total of 17 reported snow days during the 2009–2010 water 

year, with the following distribution: November 2009, 4 days; December 2009, 2 days; January 2010, 

3 days; February 2010, 6 days; and March 2010, 2 days. A total snowfall of 99 cm (centimeters) was 

reported for Bamyan during the 2009–2010 water year. The snow-depth map for 17 January, 2010 

(Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, 2010, map 6), indicates a snow depth from 10 to 

30 cm in the AOI, but this estimate was made before the snowfall in February. Some mountain peaks 

and ridges in the southwest corner of the AOI are higher than 4,000 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a). Some 

perennial snow fields probably are present at these higher elevations, especially on north-facing slopes.

The maximum temperatures for the AOI during the 2009–2010 water year ranged from 35.5°

C 

(degrees Celsius) to 36.4°C (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, 2010, map 12). The 

closest Agromet station to the AOI for which temperature data are available is in Bamyan. The average 

monthly high temperature at this Agromet station for the 2009–2010 water year was 19.5°

C in July 2010 

and the average monthly low temperature was –4.51 in January 2010. The LTA high and low 

temperatures at this station are 18.2°C for July and –6.8°C for January (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation and Livestock, 2010).
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 553

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation in the AOI is mostly alpine vegetation classified by Breckle (2007, p. 161) as 

“thorny cushions, subalpine and alpine deserts and meadows.” Much of the upland surface of the AOI is 

bedrock outcrop with thin alluvial cover. Azonal riverine vegetation likely was present in the stream 

valleys, but the trees have been harvested for fuel and building materials. Most land suitable for farming 

has been plowed and planted, especially along major stream valleys and some of the ephemeral tributary 

stream valleys. Irrigated fields are present in many of the valleys in the AOI (fig. 7C–2).

7C.1.2 Demographics

The Haji-Gak iron AOI is sparsely populated, with the number of inhabitants ranging from 1 to 

50/ km2 as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) (fig. 7C–3). Some of the 

higher mountains are uninhabited as indicated by the gray shading in figure 7C–3. Some areas of 

concentrated population are present in the wider stream valleys, but the maximum population per square 

kilometer in these areas rarely exceeds the 101-500/km2 category. There are large settlements in eastern 

areas of the AOI (fig. 7C–4a), whereas western areas of the AOI are sparsely populated (fig. 7C–4b). 

The population density shown in figure 7C–3 has a pixel resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, 2010). There are very few mapped roads or tracks in the AOI. One road mapped as “all 

weather secondary” follows the Ghorband River valley through the northeast corner of the AOI 

(Afghanistan Information Management Service, 2003). A road mapped as “track” follows the Torkaman 

River from its confluence with the Ghorband River to the end of the Torkaman River (fig. 7C–1b).

7C.1.3 Topography and Geomorphology

The topography of the Haji-Gak iron AOI is dominated by an east-northeast-trending mountain 

range that runs the length of the AOI. The highest mapped peak in this mountain range is 4,602 m asl, 

and some peaks at each end of the range in the AOI exceed 4,000 m asl (Bohannon, 2005b). The 

southwest corner of the AOI contains a northwest-trending mountain range with peaks that exceed 

4,800 m asl. The elevation of the highest peak within the AOI in this mountain range is 4,927 m asl 

(Bohannon, 2005a). The rugged mountain terrain limits the number of roads and tracks. The valleys 

formed by the Ghorband and Torkaman Rivers flank the north and south sides of the central mountain 

ridge and are major topographic features in the AOI. The elevation of the Ghorbank River decreases 

from about 2,600 to about 1,900 m asl from west to east through the AOI. The Torkaman River is a 

major river parallel to and just outside the southern border of the AOI. The headwaters of the Torkaman 

River are in the mountains just south of the overlap between the Haji-Gak and NE Haji-Gak subareas 

(fig. 7C–1b, fig. 7C–4b). The elevation of this river decreases from about 3,000 m asl in the headwaters 

to 2,000 m asl at its confluence with the Ghorband River. The relief between the Ghorband and 

Torkaman River valleys and the adjacent 4,602-m-high peak in the central mountain range is about 

1,900 m (Bohannon, 2005b). There is considerable relief between the river valleys and along the entire 

length of the central mountain ridge (figs. 7C–4a and 7C–4b

The geomorphology of the AOI is controlled by erosion-resistant metamorphic and intrusive 

rocks that form high, rugged mountains and softer sedimentary rocks that form stream valleys 

(fig. 7C–5). The high mountains in the southwest corner of the AOI exhibit alpine glacier features such 

as arêtes, cirques, and cirque lakes (Davis, 2006). There is a strong east-northeast structural fabric in the 

AOI that determines the location and trend of the valleys. Perennial streams in and adjacent to the AOI 

exhibit a rectangular drainage pattern that may be fracture controlled. The ephemeral streams that drain 

the mountain slopes are linear and steep sided. 

).
554 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 7C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 555

Figure 7C–3. Population density of the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
556 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 

b 

Figure 7C–4. Photograph of (a) the Torkaman River valley in the Farenjal subarea, and (b) the headwaters area 

of the Syahang River in the Haji-Gak subarea (iron ore in the foreground) in the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in 

Afghanistan.
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 557

Figure 7C–5. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
558 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

7C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Haji-Gak iron AOI is in the “Central Afghanistan Hydrogeological Folded Region that occupies the 

central part of the country with a predominantly mountain climate.” The outcrops and near-surface rocks 

in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized 

geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 7C–5 with the underlying topography to allow examination 

of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figures 7C–6a and b show the generalized geohydrology 

without topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Wells in the AOI (discussed in the 

Groundwater section) are shown in figures 7C–6a and b

The conglomerate sediments and rocks geohydrologic group forms a string of outcrops from the 

northwest corner to the southeast corner of the AOI. This unit probably has good water-storage capacity 

but accounts for only about 10 percent of the outcrop in the AOI. No information is available about the 

thickness of this unit, but where it overlies the intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group it probably 

is not very thick. This unit is not likely to be a significant source of groundwater within the AOI.

Alluvial sediments probably are present in the bottoms of valleys in the AOI, as indicated by the 

distribution of irrigated areas (fig. 7C–2). The limited areal extent and thickness of these alluvial 

deposits precluded their depiction on the 1:250,000-scale geologic maps.

. Generalized geohydrologic groups were 

created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and 

rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic 

groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, 

table 2.3), are “conglomerate sediments and rocks, limestones and dolostones, sedimentary rocks, 

metamorphic rocks, and intrusive rocks and lavas” (fig. 7C–5). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used 

geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) 

mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic maps that cover 

this AOI are provided by Bohannon and Turner (2005) and Yount (2005).

Sedimentary rocks are present within and outside the southern border of the AOI and cover about 

30 percent of the AOI (fig. 7C–5). The area of the sedimentary rocks adjacent to the AOI, in the 

populated valley south of the AOI, is also large. There is no reported information on the thickness of this 

group but, where these rocks are cut by the Torkaman River, the relief from the bottom to the top of the 

valley is 1,000 m (Bohannon, 2005a, 2005b). This geohydrologic group could be a potential aquifer in 

and adjacent to the AOI. There is potential for recharge from the infiltration of water from snowmelt in 

the spring and early summer, and infiltration from the Torkaman River is possible throughout the year.

Sedimentary rocks also crop out in the northern third of the Farenjal subarea (figs. 7C–1b

The prominent mountain ridge in the center of the AOI is composed of metamorphic rocks that 

make up about 30 percent of the outcrop in the AOI (figs. 7C–5 and 7C–6). In the absence of extensive 

fracturing, the metamorphic rocks generally are not good aquifers. Intrusive rocks and lavas form the 

high mountains in the southwest corner of the AOI and an east-west-trending band of outcrop that cuts 

through the AOI (fig. 7C–5). In the absence of extensive fracturing, the intrusive rocks and lavas 

generally are not good aquifers.

and 7C–6).

Outcrops of the limestones and dolostones consist of small, isolated fault blocks. These rocks almost 

certainly do not yield large or sustained quantities of groundwater.
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 559

a 
560 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 7C–6. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b) 

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community supply wells in the Haji-Gak iron area of 

interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 561

7C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams in the Hagi-Gak iron AOI, modified from AIMS 

(Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping 

Agency, 1995), is shown in figure 7C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, generated 

with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 7C–2. Precipitation in these areas where 

many of the streams originate is probably similar to that in other mountainous regions in Afghanistan, 

with most precipitation falling as snow during the winter season (Breckle, 2007). The seasonal snowmelt 

and runoff account for the increase in streamflow during the months of March, April, and May. The 

snowfall that accumulates in the high mountains in and adjacent to the AOI (fig. 7C–4b

The course of the Ghorband River extends about 45 km through the AOI. Water from the 

Ghorband River and tributary ephemeral streams is heavily used to irrigate fields (fig. 7C–2). There are 

also concentrations of inhabitants in the Ghorband River valley (fig. 7C–3). The Torkaman River, a 

tributary to the Ghorband River, joins the Ghorband River in the Farenjal subarea. The course of the 

Torkaman River is parallel to and just outside the southern border of the AOI. Three ungaged 

streamflow estimation points are located on the Torkaman River (fig. 7C–2), and historical streamgage 

stations are located near the AOI on the Syahang (Syahsang), Helmand, and Bamyan Rivers (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010; Vining, 2010; Williams-Sether, 2008). The headwaters of the Syahang River are 

located in the Haji-Gak Prospect subarea more than 4,000 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a). The Syahang River 

is a tributary to the Helmand River and the streamgage station (Afghan identification number 4-

16.R00.3A) is about 9 km upstream from their confluence. This station is 3,010 m asl, has a drainage 

area of 160 km

) contributes 

surface-water flow to the streams in the spring and summer. 

2

, and has a period of record that extends from 7 May, 1970, to 30 September, 1980 

(Vining, 2010). The annual mean streamflow for the period of record is 1.66 m3/s (cubic meters per 

second), with a standard deviation of 0.48 m3/s. The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this 

station is 0.010 m3

/s/km2. The month with the highest annual mean streamflow is May, with 6.60 m3/s, 

and the month with the lowest annual mean streamflow is August, with 0.62 m3/s. Mean flows during 

the months of December through February ranged from 0.63 to 0.64 m3

/s for the period of record. The 

highest maximum monthly mean streamflow was 12.5 m3/s for May 1976 and the lowest minimum 

monthly mean streamflow was 0.82 m3/s for January and February 1973. Table 7C–2 presents a 

statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (Vining, 2010). Statistical 

summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at 

The Helmand River is south of the AOI. The streamgage station is about 3 km upstream from 

where the Syahang River joins the Helmand River (Afghan identification number 4-0.000-10M). This 

station is 2,955 m asl, has a drainage area of 605 km

http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.

2

, and has a period of record that extends from 8 

August, 1969, to 30 September, 1980 (Vining, 2010). The annual mean streamflow for the period of 

record is 3.90 m3

/s, with a standard deviation of 0.96 m3/s. The annual mean streamflow per unit area for 

this station is 0.006 m3/s/km2. The month with the highest annual mean streamflow was May, with 

15.3 m3/s, and the month with the lowest mean streamflow was October, with 1.19 m3/s. Mean flows 

during the winter months ranged from 1.22 to 1.31 m3/s for the period of record. The highest maximum 

monthly mean streamflow was 24.2 m3

/s for May 1976 and the lowest minimum monthly mean 

streamflow was 0.811 m3

The Bamyan River is just outside the northwest corner of the AOI, but has a tributary stream that 

originates in the high mountains in the southwest corner of the AOI (fig. 7C–1

/s for October 1978. Table 7C–3 presents a statistical summary of monthly and 

annual mean streamflows for this station (Vining, 2010). 

b). The streamgage station 

on the Bamyan River (Afghan identification number 14-9.R00-6T) is about 7 km upstream from the 

confluence of the river with the tributary stream. This station is 2,450 m asl, has a drainage area of 

1,660 km2

, and has a period of record that extends from 14 April, 1975, to 21 May, 1976 (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010). Only 1 year of record and no annual streamflow statistics are available for this 

station. The month with the highest streamflow was June 1975, with 12.8 m3

/s, and the month with the 
562 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

lowest streamflow was March 1976, with 2.24 m3/s. The calculated annual streamflow for this station is

4.5 m3/s. Table 7C–4 presents the statistical summary of monthly streamflows for this station (Olson

and Williams-Sether, 2010).

Table 7C–2.

[m

Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the streamgage station on the 

Syahsang River near Gardandewal (Vining, 2010). 3

4- 16.R00-3A SYAHSANG RIVER NEAR GARDANDEWAL

/s, cubic meters per second]

Month

Maximum Minimum Mean

Streamflow

(m3

Water year of

/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3

Water year of

/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3

Standard

deviation

(m /s) 3

Coefficient of

variation /s)

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October 1.12 1973 0.554 1972 0.75 0.18 0.24 3.81

November 1.06 1977 0.513 1972 0.72 0.18 0.25 3.66

December 0.916 1973 0.386 1972 0.64 0.16 0.25 3.27

January 0.820 1973 0.451 1972 0.63 0.13 0.21 3.18

February 0.820 1973 0.470 1972 0.63 0.11 0.18 3.22

March 1.31 1977 0.588 1972 0.91 0.24 0.26 4.63

April 6.79 1973 2.32 1980 3.97 1.37 0.34 20.2

May 12.5 1976 2.80 1979 6.60 3.62 0.55 33.6

June 4.89 1972 1.12 1971 2.46 1.43 0.58 12.5

July 2.72 1980 0.181 1971 0.99 0.67 0.67 5.04

August 0.925 1978 0.125 1971 0.62 0.24 0.39 3.15

September 1.00 1972 0.486 1971 0.74 0.18 0.24 3.77

Annual 2.29 1976 1.07 1971, 1979 1.66 0.48 0.29 100

Table 7C–3. (on following page) Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the 

streamgage station on the Helmand River at Gardandewal (Vining, 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

4- 0.000-10M HELMAND RIVER AT GARDANDEWAL

Maximum Minimum Mean

Streamflo Water year Streamflo Standard Coefficient Percentage Month Water year of Streamflow

w of w deviation of of annual

occurrence (m3/s) 3 (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) (m /s) variation streamflow

October 1.54 1970 0.811 1978 1.19 0.24 0.20 2.55

November 1.62 1973 1.00 1972 1.24 0.21 0.17 2.65

December 1.87 1973 0.935 1980 1.22 0.27 0.22 2.60

January 1.85 1973 0.889 1976 1.24 0.30 0.25 2.64

February 1.77 1970 0.960 1976 1.31 0.33 0.25 2.80

March 2.53 1978 1.58 1980 2.05 0.38 0.18 4.37

April 13.5 1976 5.52 1971 8.93 2.74 0.31 19.1

May 24.2 1976 8.78 1971 15.3 5.91 0.39 32.7

June 17.1 1972 3.03 1971 8.47 4.38 0.52 18.1

July 5.68 1980 1.68 1971 2.91 1.09 0.37 6.22

August 2.08 1979 0.945 1971 1.58 0.32 0.21 3.37

September 1.79 1969 0.910 1977 1.39 0.32 0.23 2.97

Annual 5.21 1976 2.52 1971 3.90 0.96 0.25 100

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S7, S8, and S9 (figs. 7C–1b and 7C–2) using a 

drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on historical flows at the Syahang River near 

Gardandewal (Afghan identification number 4-16.R0.00-3A). The Syahang River near Gardandewal 

streamgage station was selected as the most representative historical gage, on the basis of drainage-basin 

size and location in Afghanistan, for use with this method at this location. The mean annual streamflow

estimate for point S7 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 1,204 km2

, is about 13.3 m3/s. By applying the 

same method to the other two points, the mean annual streamflow estimates for points S8 and S9 are 

5.69 and 1.97 m3/s, respectively. The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is 
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 563

probably similar to that of the Syahang River near Gardandewal, with high flows in the spring to early 

summer and low flows in late fall and winter (app. 2). 

The concentration of population and irrigated areas along the streams indicates that the surfacewater resources in the AOI are heavily utilized by the local inhabitants (figs. 7C–2, 7C–3, 7C–4a). The 

diversion of water from the rivers to support mining activities would need to be closely monitored, 

particularly during low-flow periods, to ensure that the quantity and quality of the surface-water flow 

remain sufficient to supply water for irrigation and to provide recharge to the aquifers that supply 

groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic consumption. 

Table 7C–4. (on following page) Statistical summary of monthly streamflows for the streamgage station on the 

Bamyan River at Ahangaran (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second; ng., no data] 

14-9.R00-6T BAMYAN RIVER AT AHANGARAN

Maximum Minimum Mean

Streamflo Water year Standard Coefficie Percentage Month Water year of Streamflow Streamflow

w of deviation nt of of annual

occurrence (m3/s) (m3/s) 3 (m3/s) occurrence (m /s) variation streamflow

October 2.97 1976 2.97 1976 2.97 ng ng 5.49

November 2.59 1976 2.59 1976 2.59 ng ng 4.79

December 2.53 1976 2.53 1976 2.53 ng ng 4.68

January 2.29 1976 2.29 1976 2.29 ng ng 4.23

February 2.32 1976 2.32 1976 2.32 ng ng 4.29

March 2.24 1976 2.24 1976 2.24 ng ng 4.14

April 3.24 1976 3.24 1976 3.23 ng ng 5.98

May 6.77 1975 6.77 1975 6.77 ng ng 12.5

June 12.8 1975 12.8 1975 12.8 ng ng 23.7

July 7.75 1975 7.75 1975 7.75 ng ng 14.3

August 4.47 1975 4.47 1975 4.47 ng ng 8.26

September 4.12 1975 4.12 1975 4.12 ng ng 7.62

Annual ng ng ng ng ng ng ng 100

7C.2.2 Groundwater

Approximately 22 shallow community groundwater-supply wells have been installed in the HajiGak iron AOI by NGOs; there are likely other wells but information about groundwater resources in the 

AOI is limited. Nearly all of the community supply wells are in the Farenjal subarea (fig. 7C–6a).

Information about the wells can be found in a database maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for 

Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011). Well-depth and static-water-level information is available for most of 

the wells in this database (figs. 7C–6a,b). All but one of the supply wells are less than 25 m deep and the 

other well is 30 m deep. The median well depth is 13.4 m. The depth to water in the supply wells in the 

AOI is generally less than 20 m (fig.7C–6a

Available well-construction information is limited; however, most wells are “tube” wells (driven 

wells with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing) or dug wells with concrete-ring casing. Wells are generally 

installed in unconsolidated sediments, completed a few meters below the depth at which water is first 

encountered, and equipped with a hand pump. Figure 7C–6

). The median depth to water is 12.4 m. 

b shows the height of static water in the 

casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static depth to water). The median height of static 

water in well casings is 1.3 m. In the AOI, 2 m or less of static water is present in the wells. Such 

shallow wells were found to be vulnerable to seasonal water-level fluctuations and becoming dry for 

extended periods of time, or even permanently, in areas of the Kabul Basin where groundwater 

withdrawals are increasing (Mack and others, 2010). The NGO groundwater-supply wells are 

concentrated along the Torkaman River and a tributary stream in the Farenjal subarea (fig. 7C–6a).

Although these wells are located in mapped outcrops of the conglomerate sediments and rocks, 

sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, and intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic groups, the wells 

are likely installed in alluvium that consists of sand and gravel deposits in the bottom of stream valleys.
564 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

The shallow aquifers that are accessed by these wells are likely to be recharged from flow in the 

streams. The water levels in these wells may fluctuate seasonally. A few wells are located in outcrops of 

the conglomerate sediments and rocks geohydrologic group in an unnamed stream valley along the 

northern border of the AOI. The wells along this stream are probably also constructed in alluvial 

sediments in the bottom of the stream valley, and water levels in these wells fluctuate seasonally. The 

alluvial aquifers located in the stream valleys, where sufficiently thick, may have the capacity to supply 

water for local needs and other uses such as mining activities. 

The sedimentary rocks are mapped within and outside the southern border of the AOI 

(fig. 7C–6a). The Helmand River valley exposes as much as 1,000 m of the sedimentary rocks, 

indicating that this unit attains considerable thickness (Bohannon, 2005a and 2005b). The headwaters of 

the Helmand River are located in this geohydrologic group (figs. 7C–2, 7C–4b, and 7C–6a

7C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

), indicating 

that considerable water, probably in the form of snowmelt, likely is available for recharge to 

sedimentary- rock aquifers in the AOI. A component of spring discharge almost certainly supplies water 

to the Helmand River near its source. Sedimentary bedrock aquifers may be a promising resource in the 

AOI; however, no information is available about the characteristics of, or the quality of water in, the 

bedrock aquifers in the AOI. Field investigations including well drilling and testing would be needed to 

identify and quantify this potential resource. 

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the HajiGak iron AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011) were conducted using 

DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 7C–7) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and 

Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 7C–8a,b). Lineament identification and analysis 

have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments 

where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 

1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of high relative well yields in other 

bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments 

shown in figure 7C–7 were delineated visually, whereas those in figure 7C–8 were delineated using an 

automated process and on the basis of the multispectral characteristics of the land surface 

(B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). There are many east- to 

northeast-trending lineaments in the AOI that follow the regional structure, as well as mapped faults 

(fig. 7C–6a). Figure 7C–9 also indicates many north-trending lineaments, which may indicate the 

presence of a conjugate fracture pattern in the AOI. Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most 

productive where boreholes are located in areas of highly fractured bedrock. Areas where lineament 

density is high, such as in the Farenjal and NE Haji-Gak subareas (figs. 7C–7, 7C–8a, 7C–8b), 

potentially are areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. 

Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock waterwell placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and 

areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, 

including those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and 

additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture 

zones. 
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 565

Figure 7C–7. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital elevation model data and natural-color 

Landsat imagery in the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
566 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 7C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Haji-Gak Iron Area of Interest 567

b 

Figure 7C–8. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the 

Haji-Gak iron area of interest and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat 

imagery in the Haji-Gak iron area of interest in Afghanistan.
568 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

7C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources in the Haji-Gak iron area of interest (AOI) and surrounding area consist of both 

surface water and groundwater and are likely to be more available for mining and other uses than in 

other areas of Afghanistan. The elevations of some of the high mountains in the AOI exceed 

4,000 meters above sea level and likely receive considerable precipitation, especially as snowfall during 

the winter months. The runoff from the snowmelt in the spring and summer provides surface-water flow 

in the perennial and ephemeral streams in the AOI. The Ghorband and Torkaman Rivers flow through 

sections of the AOI, but the flow in these rivers fluctuates seasonally. Water from these rivers is used for 

irrigation and recharges the shallow alluvial aquifers located in the river valleys. Most water-supply 

wells in the AOI are located in the alluvial aquifers in the stream valleys, which are likely a highly 

utilized groundwater resource. Where valley-bottom alluvial aquifers are sufficiently thick, they may 

contain a limited amount of untapped groundwater that would be available to support mining activities.

The diversion of water from the rivers to support mining activities would need to be closely monitored, 

particularly during low-flow periods, so that the quantity and quality of the surface-water flow remain 

sufficient to supply water for irrigation and to provide recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater 

to the shallow wells for domestic consumption. 

There is no known information available on bedrock aquifers in the AOI or adjacent areas.

Some areas of the AOI are likely areas for further exploration for groundwater resources as indicated by 

generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses. Such areas may include the sedimentary rocks 

within and outside the southern border of the AOI. The quality and sustainability of water resources in 

the AOI remain to be determined, however. Careful evaluation and management of potential new 

surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing 

supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, geophysical 

surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and availability of 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

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