SAMHSA

Disaster Technical Assistance Center

Supplemental Research Bulletin:

Disaster Behavioral Health Interventions Inventory

May 2015
This Supplemental Research Bulletin is an inventory rather than a review of current research in 

the field of disaster behavioral health (DBH). The inventory primarily comprises disaster-specific 

interventions, although several may also be used to assist people who are suffering with 

distress or disorders associated with other types of traumatic events. The interventions used to 

support survivors of other types of traumatic events are generally applicable to disaster 

survivors in the later stages of response activities. Finally, a few of the interventions (those used 

in the long-term recovery phase of disaster) are applicable only when the survivors have been 

fully assessed by a licensed or certified professional and determined to have a diagnosable 

disorder, such as major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or other anxietyrelated disorders. 

The immediate and intermediate interventions help achieve two goals of disaster behavioral 

health:

• Mitigate the development of serious mental disorders.

• Provide tools that support the natural recovery process that occurs with time for the

majority of the affected population.

The majority of interventions applied in the acute/immediate and intermediate response 

phases are appropriate for survivors who continue to function well but may have continuing 

bothersome symptoms and who have not been formally diagnosed with a mental illness.

According to a recent study, the prevalence of PTSD 6 years after a disaster was 11.3 percent, 

and the current prevalence was 4.2 percent, with onset mainly within 1 month and remission 

within 3 years post-disaster.i

Many variables contribute to whether a person will experience 

PTSD, such as their history of trauma, preexisting mental health condition, socioeconomic 

status, access to social supports, and other influences. These survivors should be provided with 

treatment options as soon as their condition has been identified, or as soon as they have been 

formally assessed by a mental health professional. Formal mental health treatment services are 

at the far end of the spectrum in terms of DBH.

Most interventions are categorized by the time in which they should be administered after a 

disaster (early, intermediate, and long term) and can be applied to the majority of survivors 

who experience the most common reactions. Interventions that are available via Internet, 

smartphone applications, and other electronic technology are inventoried within their own 

category. We also use checklists that identify standard aspects of each intervention, including: 

• The modality by which they can be delivered (e.g., individual, family, group)

• The settings in which they can be delivered (e.g., in the field, in schools, at the

workplace)

• The status of their research base (with a wide spectrum from empirical evidence to

unpublished)

• References

We hope this inventory of interventions is helpful to your work in responding to the behavioral 

health needs of disaster survivors.
Warmest regards,

CAPT Erik Hierholzer, B.S.N. 

Program Management Officer, Emergency Mental Health and Traumatic Stress Services Branch 

Erik.hierholzer@samhsa.hhs.gov

Nikki Bellamy, Ph.D. 

Public Health Advisor, Emergency Mental Health and Traumatic Stress Services Branch 

Nikki.bellamy@samhsa.hhs.gov

Brenda Mannix 

SAMHSA DTAC Project Director 

DTAC@samhsa.hhs.gov

i

 Arnberg, F.K., Johannesson, K.B., and Michel, P. (2013). Prevalence and duration of PTSD in survivors 6 years after 

a natural disaster. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(3), 347-352.

Please note: SAMHSA does not officially endorse each intervention; rather this document presents intervention 

practices commonly used in the field and reported in the science- and evidence-based research literature.
CONTENTS

EARLY INTERVENTIONS ........................................................................................................................1 

1. Assessment, Crisis Intervention, and Trauma Treatment (ACT) ............................................................ 1

2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Acute Stress Disorder (CBT for ASD)................................................... 2

3. Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) .................................................................................. 3

4. Consultation, Outreach, Debriefing, Education, and Crisis Counseling Disaster Mental Health

Service Model (CODE-C DMHSM) .......................................................................................................... 4

5. Crisis Counseling Assistance and Training Program (CCP)......................................................................... 5

6. Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) ............................................................................................... 6

7. Early Psychological Intervention (EPI).................................................................................................... 7

8. The Families’ GOALS Project: Going on After Loss................................................................................. 8

9. Group Crisis Intervention: Public Mental Health Service Delivery Protocols: Group Interventions

for Disaster Preparedness and Response............................................................................................... 9

10. Healing After Trauma Skills (HATS) .................................................................................................... 10

11. National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA) Crisis Response Team (CRT)............................ 11

12. Operation Solace Program Model...................................................................................................... 12

13. Psychological First Aid (PFA) .............................................................................................................. 13

14. The PFA RAPID Model........................................................................................................................ 14

15. Nebraska PFA..................................................................................................................................... 15

16. PFA for Schools.................................................................................................................................. 16

17. Building Workforce Resilience Through the Practice of Psychological First Aid—A Course for

Supervisors and Leaders (PFA-L) ....................................................................................................... 17

18. PsyStart Rapid Mental Health Triage and Incident Management System.......................................... 18

19. Listen, Protect, Connect Model of PFA .............................................................................................. 19

20. Recovery Efforts After Adult and Child Trauma (REACT) ................................................................... 20

21. Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral to Treatment (SBIRT)............................................................ 21

22. Seeking Safety.................................................................................................................................... 22

23. Wave Riders.............................................................................................................................................. 23

24. Mental Health First Aid (MHFA)......................................................................................................... 24

INTERMEDIATE INTERVENTIONS......................................................................................................... 25

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Post-Disaster Distress (CBT-PD)...................................................... 25

2. Classroom-Based Intervention (CBI).................................................................................................... 27

3. Cognitive Behavioral Intervention in Schools (CBITS).......................................................................... 28

4. Mind/Body Therapies.......................................................................................................................... 29

5. Skills for Psychological Recovery (SPR) ................................................................................................ 31

6. Specialized Crisis Counseling Services (SCCS)..........................................................................................32

7. Writing for Recovery........................................................................................................................... 33
LONG-TERM INTERVENTIONS ........................................................................................................... 34

1. Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT)................................................................................................... 34

2. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) ...............................................................36

3. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT).........................................................................................................38

4. Prolonged Exposure Therapy ............................................................................................................. 39

5. Psychodynamic Psychotherapies.......................................................................................................40

6. Skill Training in Affect and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR).............................................................41

7. Systematic Desensitization ................................................................................................................ 42

8. Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT) .................................................................. 43

9. Trauma Systems Therapy (TST) ......................................................................................................... 44

INTERNET-BASED INTERVENTIONS (IBIs)/APPLICATIONS (APPS).........................................................46

1. Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) Coach Mobile App..................................................................... 46

2. Disaster Distress Helpline/TalkWithUs...............................................................................................48

3. My Disaster Recovery (web based).................................................................................................... 49

4. National Suicide Prevention Lifeline..................................................................................................50

5. PTSD COACH ......................................................................................................................................51

6. Bounce Back/Bounce Back Now (technology based).........................................................................52

APP-BASED RESOURCE TOOLS FOR RESPONDERS............................................................................... 53

1. SAMHSA Behavioral Health Disaster Response App ..........................................................................53

2. SAMHSA Suicide Safe Mobile App.....................................................................................................53

3. Psychological First Aid (PFA) Mobile App........................................................................................... 53
| Page 1

EARLY INTERVENTIONS

A National Institutes of Health study published in the International Journal of Emergency Mental Health

in 2005 examined the behavioral health of a sample of New York City residents 2 years after 9/11. The

authors recommended that “crisis intervention services should be considered as a first line of

emergency management for those potentially affected by large-scale community disasters.”1 Early

interventions are typically defined as any form of psychological intervention delivered within the first 4 

weeks of a potentially traumatic event.2 Some early interventions are intended for implementation

during the acute phase (within hours or days of a traumatic event), whereas others are initiated 1 to 4 

weeks post incident.3 These interventions are meant to “lend” survivors the strengths needed to

decrease their fear responses (thereby calming themselves) and access immediate care and support,

allowing them to move to the next stage of recovery.

1. Assessment, Crisis Intervention, and Trauma Treatment (ACT)

Author: Albert R. Roberts

Website: http://btci.edina.clockss.org/cgi/reprint/2/1/1

Brief Description: ACT is a conceptual three-stage framework and intervention model that can be useful

in helping mental health professionals provide acute crisis and trauma treatment services. This model

may be thought of as a sequential set of assessments and intervention strategies, as it integrates various

assessment and triage protocols with the seven-stage crisis intervention model and the 10-step acute

traumatic stress management protocol.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

☒ Qualitative Research

1 Boscarino, J.A., Adams, R.E., & Figley, C.R. (2005). A prospective cohort study of the effectiveness of employer-sponsored

crisis interventions after a major disaster. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 7(1), 9–22. 2 National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Mental health and mass violence. Evidence-based early psychological

intervention for victims/survivors of mass violence. A workshop to reach consensus on best practices. NIH Publication No. 02- 

5138. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 3 Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Dang, S.T., Sackville, T., & Basten, C. (1998). Treatment of acute stress disorder: A comparison of

cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(5), 862–866.
| Page 2

2. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Acute Stress Disorder (CBT for ASD)

Author: Richard Bryant, University of New South Wales, Australia

Website: http://www.istss.org/treating-trauma/treatment-materials/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-foracute-stress-diso.aspx

Brief Description: ASD encompasses posttraumatic stress reactions that are present just after an event

until 4 weeks post-trauma. Past studies (Bryant, Sackville, Dang, Moulds, & Guthrie, 1999; Harvey & 

Bryant, 1998) suggest that up to 80 percent of people with ASD will go on to suffer PTSD within 6 

months. This early intervention treatment manual includes descriptions for six sessions of structured

CBT, including prolonged exposure. More recent research indicates that people who receive CBT in the

initial month after trauma present with less intense PTSD than those who receive supportive counseling

(Bryant, Moulds, & Nixon, 2003).

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other: Clinical Setting

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP) 

□ Qualitative Research

Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Dang, S.T., Sackville, T., & Basten, C. (1998). Treatment of acute stress

disorder: A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. Journal of

Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(5), 862–866.

Bryant, R.A., Moulds, M.L., & Nixon, R.V.D. (2003). Cognitive behaviour therapy of acute stress

disorder: A four-year follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(4), 489–494.

Bryant, R.A., Sackville, T., Dang, S.T., Moulds, M., & Guthrie, R. (1999). Treating acute stress disorder:

An evaluation of cognitive behavior therapy and supportive counseling techniques. American Journal

of Psychiatry, 156(11), 1780–1786.

Harvey, A.G., & Bryant, R.A. (1998). The relationship between acute stress disorder and

posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective evaluation of motor vehicle accident survivors. Journal

of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(3), 507–512. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.66.3.507
| Page 3

3. Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT)

Authors: The first CERT teams were developed and implemented by the Los Angeles City Fire

Department in 1985. The training in this model was made available nationally in 1993 by the Federal

Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at the Emergency Management Institute and the National Fire

Academy, who adopted and expanded the CERT materials, believing them to be applicable to all

hazards.

Website: http://www.fema.gov/community-emergency-response-teams

Brief Description: The goal of the CERT program is to educate people about disaster preparedness for

local hazards and train them in basic disaster response skills, such as fire safety, light search and rescue,

team organization, and disaster medical operations. Using the training learned in the classroom and

during exercises, CERT members can assist others in their neighborhood or workplace following an event

when professional responders are not immediately available to help.

Delivery Mode

Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒

☒

Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 4

4. Consultation, Outreach, Debriefing, Education, and Crisis Counseling Disaster Mental Health

Service Model (CODE-C DMHSM)

Authors: Diane Myers and David Wee

Website: http://www.psychceu.com/disaster/disaster.asp

Brief Description: CODE-C DMHSM is a comprehensive, integrated, multiservice model that can be used

to address the wide range of survivor mental health needs in communities following disasters. CODE-C 

DMHSM facilitates communication between disaster mental health practitioners, emergency managers,

and persons who will receive services by using a standard nomenclature. The tool also helps users

understand service components and the differences between disaster mental health services and other

more traditional approaches to mental health service delivery.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based 

Behavioral Practice (EBBP) 

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 5

5. Crisis Counseling Assistance and Training Program (CCP)

Authors: FEMA and SAMHSA

Website: http://samhsa.gov/dtac/ccp

Brief Description: FEMA implements the CCP as a supplemental disaster assistance program available to

the United States and its territories. The mission of the CCP is to assist individuals and communities in

recovering from the effects of natural and human-caused disasters through the provision of communitybased outreach and psycho-educational services.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Boscarino, J.A., Adams, R.E., & Figley, C.R. (2005). A prospective cohort study of the effectiveness of

employer-sponsored crisis interventions after a major disaster. International Journal of Emergency

Mental Health, 7(1), 9–22.
| Page 6

6. Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD)

Author: Jeffrey T. Mitchell

Website: http://www.info-trauma.org/flash/media-e/mitchellCriticalIncidentStressDebriefing.pdf

Brief Description: CISD is a 7-phase, small group, crisis intervention process. It is one of the crisis

intervention techniques that fall under the umbrella of Critical Incident Stress Management. The

process was developed exclusively for small, homogeneous emergency incident responder groups who

have encountered a powerful traumatic event, with the goals of reducing distress and restoring group

cohesion.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family □ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

☒ Qualitative Research
| Page 7

7. Early Psychological Intervention (EPI)

Authors: Multiple affiliates (e.g., the American Red Cross, Salvation Army, National Organization for

Victim Assistance, and the International Critical Incident Stress Foundation)

Website: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/massviolence_34410.pdf

Brief Description: EPI refers to a body of psychological interventions designed to mitigate acute distress

while not interfering with the natural recovery processes. These interventions typically occur within the

first month of a traumatic event, are multicomponent systems, and may involve Psychological First Aid,

triage, needs assessments, consultation, crisis intervention, and fostering of resilience and natural

supports, as well as psychological and medical treatments.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 8

8. The Families’ GOALS Project: Going on After Loss

Author: Mental Health Association New Jersey

Website: http://www.mhanj.org/new-jersey-hope-and-healing-emotional-support-for-those-impactedby-superstorm-sandy-2/

Brief Description: The Families’ GOALs project has a firm theoretical grounding in disaster mental

health, grief theory, family systems theory, and resiliency work and is designed to provide a series of

psycho-educational support groups for families that have experienced a traumatic loss event. The

structured curriculum is detailed for groups from pre-K through high school, as well as adults and

families, with clear, specific instructions for course execution. The project was supported by the

New Jersey Department of Human Services Division of Mental Health through funding from SAMHSA

and FEMA.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 9

9. Group Crisis Intervention: Public Mental Health Service Delivery Protocols: Group Interventions

for Disaster Preparedness and Response

Author: American Group Psychotherapy Association

Website: http://www.agpa.org/home/practice-resources/member-benefit-programs/agpa-at-work-inthe-community/programs-and-services-available

Brief Description: A set of best practice interventions for use in delivering group-based mental health

support services following disasters to population-specific survivors and responders, including

Uniformed Services personnel (also applicable to the Armed Services), children and families, school

communities, adolescents,survivors, witnesses and family members, helpers, and service delivery

workers.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual (children) ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group (children) ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 10

10. Healing After Trauma Skills (HATS)

Authors: Robin H. Gurwitch and Anne K. Messenbaugh

Website: http://www.nctsnet.org/nctsn_assets/pdfs/edu_materials/HATS2ndEdition.pdf

Brief Description: HATS was designed to be facilitated by teachers, psychologists, and other counselors

working with kindergarten, elementary, and early middle school children who have experienced a 

disaster or other traumatic event. The manual provides information about how children are affected by

trauma/disaster, as well as tools for enhancing the sharing of experiences, ideas, and thoughts about

the trauma/disaster and for building a repertoire of coping skills. Although HATS was developed for use

in the classroom or with small groups, it can be amended for use with individual children.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual (children) □ Family (general)

☒ Group (children) □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 11

11. National Organization for Victim Assistance (NOVA) Crisis Response Team (CRT)

Author: NOVA

Website: https://www.trynova.org/help-crisis-victims/crisis-training/

Brief Description: A CRT is made up of individuals trained to provide trauma mitigation and education in

the aftermath of a critical incident, either small-scale or mass-casualty, scaling the response to the need,

from one individual to thousands. NOVA CRT training participants have a minimum of 24 hours of skillbased, field-tested training. These teams could be state-based (e.g., out of a state attorney general’s

office) or local (e.g., a school district). Most teams have extensive training and experience in a wide

range of traumatic events, from shootings to natural disasters.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual (children) □ Family (general)

☒ Group (children) ☒ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 12

12. Operation Solace Program Model

Authors: Former U.S. Army Surgeon General, Lieutenant General James B. Peake (2000–2004)

Website:

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/11095067_Operation_Solace_overview_of_the_mental_healt

h_intervention_following_the_September_11_2001_Pentagon_attack/file/9c960521bf7884bf0d.pdf

Brief Description: The goal of Operation Solace is to reduce the severity and/or chronicity of the stress

reactions, grief reactions, other psychiatric morbidity, and unexplained physical symptoms among the

“at-risk” population occurring as a result of the September 11, 2001, attack on the Pentagon. The model

is a comprehensive behavioral health system that integrates primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention

strategies, and preclinical as well as clinical intervention strategies. Although the efficacy of this type of

program in preventing psychiatric disorders is not known, the program has received wide support and

praise from Pentagon employees and senior military leadership.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

☒ Qualitative Research
| Page 13

13. Psychological First Aid (PFA)*

Authors: The National Child Traumatic Stress Network and the National Center for PTSD. Development

and production of this program model was supported by SAMHSA.

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/materials/manuals/psych-first-aid.asp

Brief Description: PFA is an evidence-informed modular approach for assisting people in the immediate

aftermath of disaster and terrorism to reduce initial distress, and to foster short- and long-term adaptive

functioning. It can be used in a variety of settings by first responders, incident commanders, primary 

and emergency health care providers, school crisis response teams, faith-based organizations, disaster

relief organizations, CERT programs, the Medical Reserve Corps, and the Citizens Corps.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

*There are currently several adaptations of PFA, most of which are targeted to specific populations, including

community religious professionals, Medical Reserve Corps members, and staff at facilitiesfor families and youth

who are experiencing homelessness. PFA has also been translated into several languages. Directly below are links

to those PFA models which follow the primary structure of PFA, but are tailored to specific populations.

 Psychological First Aid for Schools

 Psychological First Aid Field Operations Guide for Community Religious Professionals

 Psychological First Aid Medical Reserve Corps Field Operations Guide

 Psychological First Aid for Families Experiencing Homelessness

 Psychological First Aid for Youth Experiencing Homelessness

The four PFA models on the following pages include somewhat more expanded content from the

original PFA.
| Page 14

14. The PFA RAPID Model

Authors: Johns Hopkins Preparedness and Emergency Response Learning Center

Website: http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-publichealth-preparedness/training/PFA.html

Brief Description: The PFA RAPID Model is a six-hour, interactive, face-to-face training that provides

public health professionals without former mental health education with the concepts and skills

associated with PFA. The RAPID model (Reflective Listening, Assessment, Prioritization, Intervention, and

Disposition) provides health professionals who volunteer or are asked to respond in times of emergency

with information on non-physical injuries and trauma. Additionally, the model is readily applicable to

public health settings, the workplace, the military, mass disaster venues, and the demands of more well

circumscribed critical incidents (e.g., dealing with the psychological aftermath of accidents, robberies,

suicide, homicide, or community violence).

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 15

15. Nebraska PFA

Authors: Robin Zagurski, Denise Bulling, and Robin Chang

Website:

http://www.nebhands.nebraska.edu/files/psych%20first%20aid%20participant%20guide%2005r.pdf

Brief Description: The purpose of the Nebraska PFA program is to equip disaster response professionals

(referred to as “natural helpers”) to provide psychological support to survivors of critical events. The

training program is segmented into seven modules: Psychological Support, Stress and Coping,

Supportive Communication, Promoting Community Self-Help, Populations with Special Needs, Helping

the Helper, and De-Escalation.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 16

16. PFA for Schools

Authors: The National Child Traumatic Stress Network and the National Center for PTSD

Website: http://www.nctsn.org/content/psychological-first-aid-schoolspfa

Brief Description: This manual is written for school staff and provides an evidence-informed approach

for assisting children, teens, adults, and families in the aftermath of a school crisis, disaster, or terrorism

event. The guide includes handouts and worksheets for adults and children.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 17

17. Building Workforce Resilience Through the Practice of Psychological First Aid—A Course for

Supervisors and Leaders (PFA-L)

Authors: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response of the U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services, and the National Association of County and City Health Officials 

Website: 

https://live.blueskybroadcast.com/bsb/client/CL_DEFAULT.asp?Client=354947&PCAT=7365&CAT=9403

Brief Description: PFA-L is a 90-minute online course that uses scenarios and exercises to teach leaders 

and staff the principles and application of PFA for them to use every day as well as during emergencies. 

Offered free of charge, the course covers topics including stress reactions during disaster response, core 

components of PFA, and how to provide PFA as a manager or supervisor. It is designed for leaders in 

areas including emergency management, public health, and disaster response to help them build and 

sustain the resilience of their staff. Mod

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family □ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders 

Delivery Setting 

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community 

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies ☒ Other 

Research Base 

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based 

Behavioral Practice (EBBP) 

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 18

18. PsyStart Rapid Mental Health Triage and Incident Management System

Author: Merritt Schreiber

Website: http://www.cdms.uci.edu/PDF/PsySTART-cdms02142012.pdf

Brief Description: PsySTART, or Psychological Simple Triage and Rapid Treatment, is a strategy for rapid

mental health triage and incident management during large-scale disasters and terrorism events that

can help responders rapidly assess and provide for any surge in acute and longer-term mental health

impacts after disasters. PsySTART has three components: community resilience, rapid triage “tag”

(designed for field use by responders without mental health expertise), and an information technology

platform to manage the collection and analysis of triage information.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 19

19. Listen, Protect, Connect Model of PFA

Authors: Merritt Schreiber and Robin Gurwitch

Website: For Parents: http://www.ready.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/PFA_Parents.pdf

For Teachers: http://www.ready.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/PFA_SchoolCrisis.pdf

Brief Description: Listen, protect, and connect are the three steps of PFA for assisting a child after a 

disaster. The authors suggest that professionals listen and observe a child’s reactions, talk simply and

honestly about what happened, and encourage parents and guardians to connect to members of their

family and community for resources for disaster survivors.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Ramirez, M., Harland, K., Frederick, M., Shephard, R., Wong, M., & Cavanaugh, J.E. (2013). Listen

protect connect for traumatized schoolchildren: A pilot study of psychological first aid. BMC

Psychology, 1(26). Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/2050-7283/1/26
| Page 20

20. Recovery Efforts After Adult and Child Trauma (REACT)

Author: Russell T. Jones, Virginia Tech University

Website: http://www.firetrauma.com

Brief Description: The REACT model is an interactive reference tool for families that can help them

prepare and recover from house fires (the original intent of the model) and other traumatic events. The

model was based on work done at the Yale Child Study Center and was expanded to include training for

community responders. The model has been implemented after various traumatic events, including

Hurricane Katrina.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically-Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 21

21. Screening, Brief Intervention, Referral to Treatment (SBIRT)

Author: SAMHSA evidence-based treatment

Website: http://www.samhsa.gov/sbirt

Brief Description: SBIRT is a public health approach to the delivery of early intervention and treatment

services for people with substance use disorders and those at risk of developing these disorders. Many

different types of community settings provide opportunities for early intervention with at-risk substance

users before more severe consequences occur.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 22

22. Seeking Safety

Author: Lisa M. Najavits

Website: http://www.treatment-innovations.org/seeking-safety.html

Brief Description: Seeking Safety is a present-focused therapy to help people attain safety from

trauma/PTSD and substance abuse. It has been conducted in group and individual formats; for women,

men, and mixed-gender individuals; using all topics or fewer topics; in a variety of settings (outpatient,

inpatient, residential); and for both substance abuse and dependence. It has also been used with

people who have a trauma history, but do not meet criteria for PTSD.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 23

23. Wave Riders

Author: Mental Health Association in New Jersey

Website: http://www.mhanj.org/new-jersey-hope-and-healing/

Brief Description: This after school, psycho-education based intervention offers empowerment,

encouragement, positivity, and ongoing resiliency building. The Sandy Wave Riders (SWR) program is a 

six-session, group intervention involving a series of highly structured, expressive-behavioral activities.

The aim of the activities is to significantly reduce stress reactions, anxiety, fear, and sadness (which can

interfere with a sense of security) as well as have an impact on academic performance or behavior by

allowing and guiding children to do what they do best: playing, learning, and creative problem-solving.

The activities also work toward developing an increase of hope, self-esteem, self-efficacy, daily

functioning, and adaptive skills.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 24

24. Mental Health First Aid (MHFA)*

*While MHFA is not a DBH-specific model of intervention, it may be useful in a crisisintervention situation, such as

a disaster that involves persons experiencing a mental health emergency.

Author: National Council for Behavioral HealthCare

Website: http://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/cs/

http://nrepp.samhsa.gov/ViewIntervention.aspx?id=321

Brief Description: MHFA is an adult public education program designed to improve participants’

knowledge and modify their attitudes and perceptions about mental health and related issues, including

how to respond to individuals who are experiencing one or more acute mental health crises (e.g.,

suicidal thoughts and/or behavior, acute stress reaction, panic attacks, and/or acute psychotic behavior)

or are in the early stages of one or more chronic mental health problems (e.g., depressive, anxiety,

and/or psychotic disorders, which may occur with substance abuse).

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family □ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 25

INTERMEDIATE INTERVENTIONS

Prior to reporting to a disaster scene, it is important for DBH responders to have knowledge of the level

and types of behavioral health response activities being conducted in the communities to which they are

assigned. This knowledge can help responders prepare for survivors’ emotional responses, particularly if

their basic needs for safety, shelter, food, and medical care were not met in the early aftermath of the

incident. Other survivors may just be getting a sense of their losses as the calendar stretches out from

the date of the event. Thus, in the intermediate phase (approximately 6 months through the 1-year

anniversary period), responders can expect to see some responses that are more typical during the

immediate phase. Many survivors who received PFA and other immediate interventions may still

experience disturbing symptoms and may welcome and benefit from intermediate interventions. These

interventions primarily include educational and cognitive types of activities meant to decrease anxiety

symptoms and increase coping skills, as well as the survivor’s sense of competence in his or her ability to

recover (i.e., self-efficacy) without mental health treatment. The interventions generally include

psycho-education, anxiety management techniques, coping strategies, exposure, and cognitive

restructuring. The research indicates that cognitive behavioral interventions, which emphasize the

teaching of skills that can be used across a range of settings or problems, continue to be the most

effective and easily accepted by clients. In this section, we include cognitive-based intermediate

treatments for disaster survivors.

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Post-Disaster Distress (CBT-PD)

Author: Jessica Hamblen, National Center for PTSD

Website: N/A

Brief Description: CBT-PD is a manualized, 10-session intervention that focuses on identifying and

challenging maladaptive disaster-related beliefs. “Post-disaster distress” encompasses a range of

cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions to disaster, including symptoms of depression, stress, 

vulnerability, and functional difficulties. The intervention includes four components: psycho-education,

breathing retraining, behavioral activation, and cognitive restructuring.
| Page 26

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

☒ Qualitative Research

Hamblen, J.L., Gibson, L.E., Mueser, K.T., & Norris, F.H. (2006). Cognitive behavioral therapy for

prolonged postdisaster distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(8), 1043–1052.

Hamblen, J.L., Norris, F.H., Pietruszkiewicz, S., Gibson, L.E., Naturale, A.J., & Louis, C. (2009). Cognitive

behavioral therapy for postdisaster distress: A community based treatment program for survivors of

Hurricane Katrina. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 36, 206–214. doi: 10.1007/s10488- 

009-0213-3 
| Page 27

2. Classroom-Based Intervention (CBI)

Author: Robert Macy, Center for Trauma Psychology

Website: N/A

Brief Description: CBI is a 4-week, 12-session classroom, clinic, and camp-based group intervention

involving a series of highly structured expressive-behavioral activities. These activities can significantly

reduce traumatic stress reactions, anxiety, fear, and depressed moods by allowing and guiding children

to do what they do best: playing, learning, and engaging in creative problem solving. CBI was especially

designed and developed to be implemented in schools and community centers in order to assist

teachers and administrators with stabilization and resiliency building during the school day or in afterschool time utilizing curriculum design that is similar to the current educational model.

CBI was not developed to prevent PTSD or other major behavioral health disorders. Rather, CBI aims to

identify existing coping resources among children and youth facing difficult circumstances, and to

sustain the utilization of those resources in the service of psychological and psychosocial recovery

over time.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically-Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Tol, W.A., Komproe, I.H., Susanty, D., Jordans, M.J., Macy, R.D., & De Jong, J.T. (2008). School-based

mental health intervention for children affected by political violence in Indonesia: A cluster

randomized trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300(6), 665–662.
| Page 28

3. Cognitive Behavioral Intervention in Schools (CBITS)

Author: Lisa Jaycox

Website: N/A

Brief Description: CBITS is a 10-session CBT group intervention that was designed for use in an innercity school mental health clinic with a multicultural population. CBITS incorporates CBT skills in a group

format (5–8 students per group) to address symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression related to

exposure to violence. A new set of techniques is introduced in each session using a mixture of didactic

presentation, age-appropriate examples, and games to solidify concepts. Individuals work on

worksheets during and between sessions. The techniques taught to the students are similar to those

used in other CBT groups for individuals with PTSD. The CBITS intervention emphasizes applying

techniques learned in the program to the child’s own problems. Homework assignments are developed

collaboratively between the student and the clinician in each session and are reviewed at the beginning

of the next session.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual □ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Stein, B.D., Kataoka, S., Jaycox, L., Wong, M., Fink, A., Escudero, P., & Zaragoza, C. (2002). Theoretical

basis and program design of a school-based mental health intervention for traumatized immigrant

children: A collaborative research partnership. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 

29(3), 318–326.

Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L.H., Kataoka, S.H., Wong, M., Tu, W., Elliott, M.N., & Fink, A. (2003). A mental

health intervention for schoolchildren exposed to violence: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of

the American Medical Association, 290(5), 603–611. doi: 10.1001/jama.290.5.603.
| Page 29

4. Mind/Body Therapies

Authors: Various authors

Website: N/A

Brief Description: Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy includes mindfulness, which Kabat-Zinn (1992)

defined as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally.” Mindfulness is seen as an important agent of change in these approaches because it

shifts the individual’s perspective in a way that counteracts psychopathological processes. Mindfulness

is not, however, the only mechanism of change in these therapies because behavioral and cognitive

principles are also strongly incorporated. These interventions may best be considered hybrids rather

than Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), but future research will be necessary to

determine the relative contribution of their components. Mindfulness-based interventions show

promise for stress reduction in general medical conditions, and initial evidence suggests that they are

accepted in trauma-exposed individuals.

Mindfulness-based stress reduction is a group intervention that incorporates mindfulness practices,

including meditation and yoga. The literature on cognitive changes related to mindfulness suggests that

through practice of shifting attention and assuming a nonjudgmentalstance, patients may learn to be

less reactive to intrusive or ruminative thoughts. Mantra meditation has more commonly been linked to

decreasing physiological arousal. For patients with PTSD, this may be a good coping strategy for times

when memories are intentionally (as in exposure-based therapy) or unintentionally triggered.

Compassion meditation, which involves directing feelings of warmth and compassion towards others,

has been linked to increases in positive emotion and social connectedness. Given the deficits in positive

emotion and feelings of connection with others that are characteristic of PTSD, compassion meditation 

is a promising strategy but is without empirical application to PTSD. At this point, there is very limited

empirical evidence of the effectiveness of this type of therapy, so it may be best applied as an adjunct to

other PTSD treatments.

Analysis of recent, systematic reviews identified limited but promising support for the efficacy of mindbody therapies for depression and anxiety disorders, and no relevant findings for manipulative and

body-based, movement-based, or energy therapies. Overall, the current evidence base does not

support the use of CAM interventions as an alternative to current empirically established approaches for

PTSD, or as first-line interventions recommended within evidence-based clinical guidelines. Yet,

anecdotally, many report liking mind-body therapies and engaging in them.
| Page 30

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

☒ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A.O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L.G., Fletcher, K.E., Pbert, L., ... Santorelli, S.F.

(1992). Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety

disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(7), 936–943.
| Page 31

5. Skills for Psychological Recovery (SPR)

Authors: National Center for PTSD and the National Child Traumatic Stress Network

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/materials/manuals/skills_psych_recovery_manual.asp

Brief Description: SPR is a modular intervention designed to follow PFA in the weeks and months

following disasters and mass violence events and includes a brief information-gathering component to

determine skills that would most benefit survivors immediately. SPR can help survivors gain skills to

manage distress and cope with post-disaster stress and adversity. SPR utilizes skills-building components

from mental health treatments that have been found helpful in a variety of post-trauma situations,

including problem-solving, positive activities scheduling, managing reactions, helpful thinking, 

and building healthy social connections. SPR is culturally informed and appropriate for survivors across

the lifespan.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group ☒ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 32

6. Specialized Crisis Counseling Services (SCCS)

Author: SAMHSA

Website: http://www.samhsa.gov

Brief Description: SCCS was created in 2007 to provide more individualized and enhanced services to

children, adults, and families affected by the U.S. Gulf Coast hurricanes of 2005. The primary objectives

of the program were to engage survivors through outreach, empower survivors to take an active role in

the services they receive, and to provide solution-focused, skill-based interventions and other resources

to facilitate their recovery. Specialized Crisis Counselors and Resource Linkage Coordinators utilized a 

dyadic model to assist survivors with their recovery needs.

SCCS is organized within a 5-step model that includes: (1) assessing the current needs of survivors, (2)

reviewing cases through team meetings to determine appropriate services, (3) providing services and

resources to survivors, (4) monitoring and supporting staff through ongoing training, supervision, and

consultation, and (5) reviewing successes and further resource needs with survivors during the final visit.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 33

7. Writing for Recovery

Author: James Pennebaker

Website: N/A

Brief Description: Writing about an emotional experience can help survivors normalize their distressing

reactions to a traumatic event. The use of narrative technique is increasingly incorporated in CBT with

adults (Neuner et al., 2004; Schauer, Neuner, & Elbert, 2005) and recently with children (Schauer et al.,

2004). The Writing for Recovery model provides specific instruction to survivors on a writing exercise,

including two short periods of writing each day for three days (the days can be consecutive or spaced

apart). The participants are asked to write about their innermost thoughts and feelings for 15 minutes.

At the end of the period, participants leave their writing aside. Writing can even be once a week over 3 

weeks if it is difficult to have shorter-spaced periods. Even writing on a single day on three occasions is

likely to be beneficial.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

☒ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms ☒ Faith-Based Settings

☒ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Klasnick, C., Karunkara, U., & Elbert, T. (2004). A comparison of narrative

exposure therapy, supportive counseling, and psychoeducation for treating posttraumatic stress

disorder in an African refugee settlement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 579–587. 

Schauer, E., Neuner, F., Elbert, T., Ertl, V., Onyut, L.P., Odenwald, M., & Schauer, M. (2004). Narrative

exposure therapy in children: A case study. Intervention, 2(1), 18–32.

Schauer, M., Neuner, F., & Elbert, T. (2005). Narrative exposure therapy: A short-term intervention

for traumatic stress disorders after war, terror, or torture. Ashland, OH: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.
| Page 34

LONG-TERM INTERVENTIONS

Long-term interventions include those that are conducted in both the early and intermediate phases of

the disaster response in addition to those that are listed throughout this report. Again, while it may be

somewhat unusual, larger-scale traumatic events may inhibit survivors from attending to their emotions

until much later, when protective denial or a break in daily stressors finally gives way. This allows a 

release of the “emotional holding” that was necessary for safety, and eases other concerns such as

“being strong for one’s family.” It is very important to also note that long-term interventions are much

more geared toward people who are diagnosed with a mental illness; most of that research focuses on

PTSD. Thus, most of the interventions listed in this section are geared toward survivors who have been

professionally diagnosed with PTSD.

According to the Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies,

cognitive-behavioral approaches are the best-established treatment of PTSD (Foa, Keane, & Friedman,

2000). A number of studies have compared cognitive-behavioral treatment (CBT) to different control

conditions in individuals with acute stress disorder or PTSD in the weeks or first few months following a 

trauma. In a recent literature review, Ehlers and Clark (2003) reported that brief CBT appeared to be

more effective than supportive counseling, self-help, repeated assessment, or a naturalistic control

group. Research has also shown that CBT is effective months or even years after a traumatic event.

1. Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT)

Authors: Patricia Resick and Monica Schnicke

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/

Brief Description: CPT was developed to specifically treat PTSD among people who have experienced a 

sexual assault. CPT lasts 12 sessions and can be viewed as a combination of cognitive therapy and

exposure therapy. CPT is like cognitive therapy in that it is based in the idea that PTSD symptoms stem

from a conflict between pre-trauma beliefs about the self and world (for example, the belief that

“nothing bad will happen to me”) and post-trauma information (for example, the trauma as evidence

that the world is not a safe place). These conflicts are called “stuck points” and are addressed through

the next component in CPT—writing about the trauma.

Like exposure therapy, in CPT, the client/survivor is asked to write about his or her traumatic event in

detail. The patient is then instructed to read the story aloud repeatedly in and outside of the session.

The therapist helps the client identify and address stuck points and errors in thinking, sometimes called

“cognitive restructuring.” Errors in thinking may include, for example, “I am bad person” or “I did

something to deserve this.” The therapist may help the client/survivor address these errors or stuck

points by having the client gather evidence for and against those thoughts.
| Page 35

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Resick, P.A., & Schnicke, M.K. (1992). Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims. Journal

of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 748–756.

Resik, P.A., Nishith, P., Weaver, T.L., Astin, M.C., & Feuer, C.A. (2002). A comparison of cognitiveprocessing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic

posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 

70(4), 867–879. 

Foa, E.B., Keane, T.M., & Friedman, M.J. (2000). Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines

from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Ehlers, A., & Clark, D.M. (2003). Early psychological interventions for adult survivors of trauma: 

A review. Biological Psychiatry, 53(9), 817–826.
| Page 36

2. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

Author: Francine Shapiro

Website: http://www.emdr.com/general-information/what-is-emdr.html

Brief Description: EMDR is a comprehensive,

integrative psychotherapy approach. It combines

elements of many effective psychotherapies into

structured protocols that are designed to maximize

treatment effects. These include psychodynamic,

cognitive behavioral, interpersonal, experiential, and

body-centered therapies. EMDR psychotherapy is an

information processing therapy and uses an eightphase approach to address the experiential

contributors of a wide range of pathologies. It

attends to the past experiences that have set the

groundwork for pathology, the current situations that

trigger dysfunctional emotions, beliefs and

sensations, and the positive experience needed to

enhance future adaptive behaviors and mental

health. During treatment, various procedures and

protocols are used to address the entire clinical

picture. One of the procedural elements is “dual

stimulation” using bilateral eye movements, tones, or

taps. During the reprocessing phases, the client

attends momentarily to past memories, present

triggers, or anticipated future experiences while

simultaneously focusing on a set of external stimulus.

During that time, clients generally experience the emergence of insight, changes in memories, or new

associations. The clinician assists the client in focusing on appropriate material before the initiation of

each subsequent set.

Additionally, the U.S. Department of

Veterans Affairs (VA) offers an online

training course on EMDR by Josef

Ruzek at the National Center for PTSD

website:

http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/

continuing_ed/emdr.asp. 

This PTSD 101 online course reviews

the VA/Department of Defense (DOD)

2010 clinical practice guideline

recommendations regarding EMDR

for PTSD. It also provides an overview

of the components of each treatment

and presents the research evidence

behind EMDR for PTSD. Continuing

education credits are available.
| Page 37

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Shapiro, F., & Maxfield, L. (2002). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR):

Information processing in the treatment of trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(8), 933–946.

A full description of the theory, sequence of treatment, and research on protocols and active

mechanisms can be found in: Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing:

Basic principles, protocols and procedures (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
| Page 38

3. Stress Inoculation Training (SIT)

Author: Josef Ruzek, National Center for PTSD

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/continuing_ed/emdr.asp (online training course with

CEU opportunity)

Brief Description: The basic goal of SIT is to help a 

client/survivor gain confidence in his ability to cope 

with anxiety and fear stemming from trauma 

reminders.

In SIT, the therapist helps the client become more 

aware of things that serve as reminders or cues for 

fear and anxiety. The therapist helps the patient 

learn how to detect and identify cues as soon as they 

appear so that the patient can put the newly learned 

coping skills into immediate action. In doing so, the 

patient can tackle the anxiety and stress early on 

before it gets out of control. Clients also learn a 

variety of coping skills that are useful in managing 

anxiety, such as muscle relaxation and deep 

breathing.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family □ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Online Training: SIT

This PTSD 101 online course reviews the 

VA/DOD 2010 clinical practice guideline 

recommendations regarding Eye 

Movement Desensitization and 

Reprocessing (EMDR) and SIT for PTSD. 

The training provides an overview of the 

components of each treatment and 

presents the research evidence for 

EMDR and SIT for PTSD. 
| Page 39

4. Prolonged Exposure Therapy

Author: Edna Foa

Website: N/A

Brief Description: The goal of exposure therapy is to help reduce the level of fear and anxiety

connected with trauma reminders, thereby also reducing avoidance, or anxiety and fear when

encountering a reminder. This is usually done by having the client confront (or be exposed to) the

reminders that he fears without avoiding them. This may be done by actively exposing someone to

reminders (for example, showing someone a picture that reminds him of the traumatic event) or

through the use of imagination.

By dealing with the fear and anxiety, the patient can learn that these feelings will lessen on their own,

eventually reducing the extent to which these reminders are viewed as threatening and fearful.

Exposure therapy is usually paired with teaching the patient different relaxation skills.

Delivery Mode

□ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 40

5. Psychodynamic Psychotherapies

Authors: Numerous authors of varied therapies have shown to be effective over time.

Website: N/A

Brief Description: Psychodynamic approaches to PTSD focus on a number of different factors that may

influence or cause PTSD symptoms, such as early childhood experiences (particularly parental

attachment), current relationships, and defense mechanisms (i.e., what people do to protect themselves

from upsetting thoughts and feelings that are the result of experiencing a traumatic event). The

treatment works by helping clients get in touch with and work through those painful unconscious

feelings. To do this, the psychodynamic therapist will assist the client/survivor with recognizing the

defense mechanisms being used and what they are being used for, and connecting with and

appropriately releasing those feelings and thoughts that were previously being avoided.

Psychodynamic psychotherapy for PTSD has not been studied as extensively as cognitive behavioral

therapy for PTSD. Of the studies that have been conducted, though, it has been shown that

psychodynamic psychotherapy can have a number of benefits. For example, studies of psychodynamic

psychotherapy for PTSD have shown that after therapy, people report improvement in their

interpersonal relationships, fewer feelings of hostility and inadequacy, more confidence and

assertiveness, and reductions in PTSD symptoms and depression.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

☒ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 41

6. Skill Training in Affect and Interpersonal Regulation (STAIR)

Author: Marylene Cloitre, National Center for PTSD

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/continuing_ed/STAIR_online_training.asp

Brief Description: STAIR is an evidence-based cognitive behavioral therapy for individuals with PTSD,

including chronic and complicated forms, as well as for individuals with PTSD and co-occurring disorders.

DBH professionals using STAIR can teach clients skills in emotion regulation and interpersonal

functioning.

This online STAIR training consists of eight modules covering several core treatment components. STAIR

can be provided as a standalone therapy or as a complement to trauma-focused therapies. The goals

and objectives of this intervention include:

 To become informed about the impact of trauma on emotion regulation and social

(interpersonal) functioning

 To be able to identify at least one strategy that increases emotional awareness

 To be able to identify at least three strategies that improve emotion regulation in PTSD patients

 To be able to formulate interpersonal schemas related to problematic social and interpersonal

functioning

 To be able to develop and test alternative interpersonal schemas with the client

 To learn at least two strategies for effective assertiveness behaviors

 To learn at least one strategy for improving flexibility in interpersonal expectations

and behaviors

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

☒ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies □ Other

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☒ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 42

7. Systematic Desensitization

Author: Joseph Wolpe

Website: N/A

Brief Description: Joseph Wolpe developed this technique to help treat anxiety-related disorders and

phobias. This technique is based on the principles of classical conditioning and the premise that what

has been learned (conditioned) can be unlearned. Ample research shows that systematic

desensitization is effective in reducing anxiety and panic attacks associated with fearful situations.

Systematic desensitization usually starts with having the client imagine him or herself in a progression of

fearful situations and using relaxation strategies that compete with anxiety. Once the client can

successfully manage anxiety while imagining fearful events, he or she can apply the technique to reallife situations. The goal of the process is to become gradually desensitized to the triggers that are

causing distress.

Before beginning systematic desensitization, clients should have mastered relaxation training and

developed a hierarchical list of feared situations (from least feared to most feared). Some techniques

commonly used in relaxation training include deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and

visualization.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 43

8. Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (TF-CBT)

Authors: Judith Cohen and Anthony Mannarino

Website: http://tfcbt.musc.edu/

Brief Description: TF-CBTWeb is a 10-hour, web-based, multimedia distance education course for

mental health professionals seeking to learn TF-CBT (Cohen, Mannarino, & Deblinger, 2006; Deblinger & 

Heflin, 1996). It was developed for professionals holding a master’s degree or above or graduate

students in a mental health discipline such as clinical social work, professional counseling, clinical

psychology, psychiatry, marital and family therapy, or psychiatric nursing. The training modality was

designed to be used by busy, front-line practitioners who often have little time and few resources for

traditional approaches to professional education. The modular, self-study approach of TF-CBTWeb

allows practitioners to learn at their own pace when it is convenient for them. They can access the

training whenever they have time, and from virtually any computer with Internet access. The modular

approach means they can space their learning over time and return to the course whenever they like.

TF-CBTWeb is offered at no charge, and mental health professionals who complete the course receive

10 contact hours of continuing education from the Medical University of South Carolina. Another 

intervention, Trauma Systems Therapy, has its roots in TF-CBT and is described on the following page.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based □ Qualitative Research

Deblinger, E., & Heflin, A.H. (1996). Treating sexually abused children and their nonoffending parents:

A cognitive behavioral approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Cohen, J.A., Mannarino, A.P., & Deblinger, E. (Eds.). (2012). Trauma-focused CBT for children and

adolescents: Treatment applications. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)
| Page 44

9. Trauma Systems Therapy (TST)

Authors: Glenn Saxe, B. Heidi Ellis, and Julie B. Kaplow 

Website: N/A

Brief Description: With its roots in TF-CBT, TST is a phase-based type of therapy for children and youth 

ages 6 to 19 who have experienced at least one trauma. Specifically, it is designed for children and 

youth who have trouble regulating their emotions because of their traumatic experience and stressors 

in their social environment, including family, school, and neighborhood. TST has up to five phases—

surviving, stabilizing, enduring, understanding, and transcending—although a child or youth may not 

move through all the phases; providers of TST may opt to place him or her in the phase that 

corresponds to what he or she needs upon entering therapy. If a child or youth completes all phases, 

TST takes 1 year. TST involves treatment modules including home- and community-based services, 

services advocacy, emotional regulation skills training, cognitive processing, and psychopharmacology. It 

requires more integration of services and collaboration of service providers than do some other types of 

therapy, as well as legal advocacy for the services advocacy module. A manual is available to help 

people learn about and provide this type of therapy; it is titled Collaborative Treatment of Traumatized 

Children and Teens: The Trauma Systems Therapy Approach. Generally, the treatment team meets 

weekly for purposes of collaboration and supervision. 

Delivery Mode 

☒ Individual ☒ Family (general) 

☐ Group ☒ Community 

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors 

☐ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☐ Other Responders 

Delivery Setting 

☐ Family Assistance Centers ☒ Field/Community 

☒ Private Homes ☒ Schools (general) 

☒ Classrooms ☐ Faith-Based Settings 

☒ Responder Agencies ☐ Other 

Research Base 

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☐ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST) 

☐ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based 

Behavioral Practice (EBBP) 

☐ Qualitative Research 
| Page 45

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American 

Psychologist, 34, 844–850.

Casey, R., Saxe, G., Ellis, B. H., Rubin, D., & Allee, L. (2005). Children with medical traumatic stress: 

Expanding Trauma Systems Therapy. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological 

Association Conference, Washington, DC.

Ellis, B. H. (2004, October). Trauma Systems Therapy for refugees. Paper presented at the 

International Conference, Anthropology and Health: Cross-Cultural Aspects of Mental Health and 

Psychosocial Well-Being in Immigrant/Refugee Adolescents. Hvar, Croatia.

Ellis, B. Heidi, Saxe, G., & Hansen, S. (2005, November). Trauma Systems Therapy: Dissemination and 

implementation in two settings. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society 

for Traumatic Stress Studies, Toronto, Canada.

Saxe, G., & Ellis, B. H. (2005, June). Comprehensive care for traumatized children: Trauma Systems 

Therapy. Paper presented at the annual Boston University Trauma Conference, Boston, MA.

Saxe, G., Ellis, B. H., & Kaplow, J. (2004, June). Treating child traumatic stress: Self regulation and the 

social environment. Paper presented at annual Boston University Trauma Conference, Psychological 

Trauma: Maturational Processes and Therapeutic Interventions. Boston, MA.

Saxe, G. N., Ellis, B. H., & Fogler, J. (2005). Comprehensive care for traumatized children: An open 

trial examines Trauma Systems Therapy. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 443–448.

Saxe, G. N., Ellis, B. H. & Kaplow, J. (2006, October). Collaborative care for traumatized children and 

teens: A Trauma Systems Therapy approach. Guilford Press, NY.
| Page 46

INTERNET-BASED INTERVENTIONS (IBIs)/APPLICATIONS (APPS)

As more of the general population engages in accessing information on the Internet via personal and

public access computers, tablets, smartphones, and now Google Glass (an eye glass-propped, head-andeye-movement-initiated electronic tool), Internet-based interventions developed for use in the

aftermath of disasters are increasing. Additionally, apps containing content that can be downloaded

pre- and post-disaster to assist with preparedness and response activities are also now available. These

means of intervention provide immediate access (when Internet services are available) and are often

free (for those who own the electronic equipment that is used to access the programs and apps). These

programs also deliver a standardized intervention, although some IBIs and apps can provide a degree of

personalization depending on the sophistication and interactive aspects of the application. The 

broadest audience—everyone who has been affected by the disaster—can access the interventions, and

everyone can access them at the same time (as long as the tools and the Internet remain accessible and

functional). Such interventions also have a feel of self-help, and are certainly self-applied, because the

survivor makes the decision to access them and can do so without the presence of a DBH responder or

other mental health or substance misuse professional. Here, we note several disaster specific apps, that

are internet and smart phone based (including texting from smartphones), from psycho-educational

based tools to screening and more clinically intense interventions.

1. Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) Coach Mobile App

Authors: CPT Coach was a collaborative effort between VA’s National Center for PTSD, VA’s Sierra

Pacific (VISN 21) MIRECC, and DOD’s National Center for Telehealth and Technology.

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/materials/apps/cpt_mobileapp_pro.asp

Brief Description: Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) is an evidence-based psychotherapy for PTSD.

Research has shown CPT to be one of the most effective treatments for PTSD.

CPT Coach is an application (app) for mobile devices (iPhone, Android phone, iPod Touch, iPad, or

Android tablet) that was created to increase conveniences for clinicians and patients working through

the CPT treatment manual. The app is downloaded onto a patient’s mobile device to be used as a 

treatment companion during CPT. Features include:

 Psycho-education, including graphics, about CPT and its treatment components

 PTSD symptom tracking over time to evaluate treatment progress and outcomes

 Continuous availability of homework assignments and worksheets to facilitate feedback and

monitor patient adherence to between-session assignments

 Reminders for therapy sessions

Download the free CPT Coach mobile app from iTunes (iOS).
| Page 47

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other Internet

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 48

2. Disaster Distress Helpline/TalkWithUs

Authors: Link2Health Solutions (funded by SAMHSA); administered by the Mental Health Association of

New York City

Website: http://disasterdistress.samhsa.gov

Brief Description: The Disaster Distress Helpline is the first 24/7, year-round crisis intervention hotline

for people experiencing the emotional effects of a disaster. Calls are answered by trained crisis

counselors at 1-800-985-5990 (toll-free). Disaster survivors can also text “TalkWithUs” to 66746.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other: Telephone; Texting

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 49

3. My Disaster Recovery (web based)

Authors: Charles Benight and Josef Ruzek

Website: http://disaster.bluesunsupport.com/

Brief Description: My Disaster Recovery is a self-help service designed to help survivors who have

experienced a recent disaster to learn more about post-disaster stress and cope more effectively with

the effects of the disaster. It provides important knowledge concerning what to expect regarding

recovery from the disaster. It teaches specific skills to help make survivors stronger in dealing with the

challenges of moving forward. It can also provide feedback on how the client/survivor is progressing

and, if necessary, how to seek professional help.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other: Internet

Research Base

☒ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Benight, C.C., Ruzek, J.I., & Waldrep, E. (2008). Internet interventions for traumatic stress: A review

and theoretically-based example. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 513–520.
| Page 50

4. National Suicide Prevention Lifeline

Authors: Link2Health Solutions, Inc., an independent subsidiary of the Mental Health Association of 

New York City (MHA of NYC), as well as MHA of NYC, the National Association of State Mental Health 

Program Directors, and Living Works, Inc. The Lifeline is funded by SAMHSA. 

Website: http://www.suicidepreventionlifeline.org

Brief Description: People experiencing emotional distress or suicidal crisis may call the National 

Suicide Prevention Lifeline 24/7 for confidential support free of charge. The Lifeline also features a 

specialized service for prevention of suicide among U.S. veterans. The toll-free Lifeline number is 

1-800-273-TALK (8255) for support in English and 1-888-628-9454 for support in Spanish. Through the 

English-language website, people can also access an online chat feature for another mode of 

emotional support. 

Delivery Mode 

☒ Individual ☐ Family (general) 

☐ Group ☐ Community 

☐ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors 

☐ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders 

Delivery Setting 

☐ Family Assistance Centers ☐ Field/Community 

☐ Private Homes ☐ Schools (general) 

☐ Classrooms ☐ Faith-Based Settings 

☐ Responder Agencies ☒ Other: Telephone; Texting 

Research Base 

☐ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) ☐ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST) 

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based 

Behavioral Practice (EBBP) 

☐ Qualitative Research 
| Page 51

5. PTSD COACH

Authors: The VA’s National Center for PTSD in partnership with the Department of Defense's National

Center for Telehealth and Technology.

Website: http://www.ptsd.va.gov/public/materials/apps/PTSDCoach.asp

Brief Description: The PTSD Coach app can help users learn about and manage symptoms that often

occur after trauma by providing them with facts and self-help skills based on research. Features include:

 Reliable information on PTSD and treatments that work

 Tools for screening and tracking symptoms

 Convenient, easy-to-use tools that can help people handle stress symptoms

 Direct links to support and help

Download the free PTSD Coach from iTunes (iOS) and Google Play (Android).

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

☒ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

☒ Rescue and Recovery Responders ☒ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other Mobile App

Research Base

□ Empirically Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence-Supported Treatment (EST)

☒ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research
| Page 52

6. Bounce Back/Bounce Back Now (technology based)

Author: Kenneth Ruggiero

Website: N/A

Brief Description: Disaster Recovery Web is a web-based intervention designed to address post-disaster

mental health and generalsymptom distress in the acute aftermath of disasters. Modules are centered

on translation of evidence-based cognitive–behavioral approaches into brief web-deliverable formats,

and users are screened into modules only when they endorsed relevant symptoms. The interactive web

modules provide education and recommendations regarding effective coping strategies to manage

mental health and health-risk behavior.

Delivery Mode

☒ Individual □ Family (general)

□ Group □ Community

□ Victim Family ☒ Direct Survivors

□ Rescue and Recovery Responders □ Other Responders

Delivery Setting

□ Family Assistance Centers □ Field/Community

□ Private Homes □ Schools (general)

□ Classrooms □ Faith-Based Settings

□ Responder Agencies ☒ Other Internet

Research Base

☒ Empirically-Supported Treatment (EST) □ Evidence Supported Treatment (EST)

□ Evidence-Informed or Evidence-Based

Behavioral Practice (EBBP)

□ Qualitative Research

Ruggiero, K.J., Resnick, H.S., Paul, L.A., Gros, K., McCauley, J.L., Acierno, R., ... Galea. S. (2012).

Randomized controlled trial of an Internet-based intervention using random-digit-dial recruitment:

The disaster recovery web project. Contemporary Clinical Trials, 33, 237–246.
| Page 53

APP-BASED RESOURCE TOOLS FOR RESPONDERS

1. SAMHSA Behavioral Health Disaster Response App

Author: SAMHSA

Website: http://store.samhsa.gov/apps/disaster/

Brief Description: The SAMHSA Disaster App makes it easy to provide quality support to survivors.

Users can navigate pre-deployment preparation, on-the-ground assistance, post-deployment resources,

and more—at the touch of a button from the home screen. Users also can share resources, like tips for

helping survivors cope, and find local behavioral health services. And, self-care support for responders

is available at all stages of deployment.

2. SAMHSA Suicide Safe Mobile App

Author: SAMHSA

Website: http://store.samhsa.gov/apps/suicidesafe

Brief Description: The SAMHSA Suicide Safe Mobile App is designed to help responders and other 

health care providers support survivors experiencing suicidal ideation. Based on the Suicide 

Assessment Five-step Evaluation and Triage (SAFE-T) practice guidelines, the app helps responders 

understand the guidelines and how to use them. It also allows them to download resources, talk with 

survivors about suicidal ideation, share crisis line numbers and other resources with survivors, and 

help survivors find behavioral health treatment in their area.

Download the free Suicide Safe Mobile App from iTunes (iOS) and Google Play (Android). 

3. Psychological First Aid (PFA) Mobile App

Author: U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs

Brief Description: Following disasters or emergencies, the free PFA Mobile app can assist responders

who provide PFA to adults, families, and children.

Download the free PFA Mobile app from iTunes (iOS) and Google Play (Android).