COMBATING 

TERRORISM

U.S. Efforts in

Northwest Africa 

Would Be 

Strengthened by 

Enhanced Program 

Management

Report to the Committee on Foreign 

Relations, U.S. Senate

June 2014

GAO-14-518

United States Government Accountability Office
United States Government Accountability Office

Highlights of GAO-14-518, a report to the 

Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate

June 2014

COMBATING TERRORISM

U.S. Efforts in Northwest Africa Would Be 

Strengthened by Enhanced Program Management

Why GAO Did This Study

Events in northwest Africa—such as al 

Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb’s 

seizure of territory in Mali in 2012 and 

Boko Haram’s near-daily attacks in 

Nigeria—have underscored concerns 

that the region is vulnerable to the 

spread of violent extremism. TSCTP, a 

U.S. multiagency counterterrorism 

effort begun in 2005, led by State, and 

primarily coordinated with USAID and 

DOD, focuses on strengthening partner 

countries’ counterterrorism capabilities 

and inhibiting the spread of terrorist 

ideology through diplomacy, 

development, and security assistance. 

This report examines (1) the status of 

TSCTP-related funding and U.S. 

agencies’ ability to track such funding; 

(2) the extent to which U.S. agency

implementation of TSCTP is consistent 

with key practices of interagency 

collaboration; and (3) whether U.S.

agencies considered partner country 

needs, absorptive capacities, and other 

donor efforts when selecting TSCTP 

activities. GAO reviewed agency 

documents, met with key officials in 

Washington, D.C., and conducted 

fieldwork at the U.S. Africa Command 

in Germany and in Algeria, Mauritania, 

and Niger. 

What GAO Recommends

GAO recommends that the Secretary 

of State and the Administrator of 

USAID ensure that TSCTP program 

managers take steps to routinely 

collect and assess information on the 

status of funds for TSCTP. GAO also

recommends that the Secretary of 

State take steps to better integrate the 

Department of Justice into TSCTP

coordination efforts. State and USAID 

both concurred with GAO’s

recommendations. 

What GAO Found

Nearly half of the funds allocated for the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism 

Partnership (TSCTP) since fiscal year 2009 have been disbursed, but TSCTP 

program managers are unable to readily provide data on the status of these

funds. As of late 2013, U.S. agencies reported disbursing nearly $140 million of 

the approximately $288 million allocated for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 

and 2013. Mali, Mauritania, and Niger were the top three recipients of bilateral 

funding. Although the Department of State’s (State) Foreign Affairs Manual and 

federal standards for internal control note that effective internal management 

requires financial information for planning, programming, and performance 

evaluation, TSCTP’s program managers do not routinely collect and assess data 

on the status of funding for TSCTP, such as the amount of funds unobligated. 

Consequently, TSCTP’s program managers may lack the day-to-day access to 

financial information that federal standards for internal control state is required to 

make operating decisions, monitor performance, and allocate resources.

TSCTP Allocations by Country and Regional Programs, Fiscal Years 2009-2013 

State, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and Department of 

Defense (DOD) actions to implement TSCTP are generally consistent with most 

but not all of the key practices of interagency collaboration that GAO has 

identified as important to enhancing collaborative agency efforts. For example, 

agencies have agreed on their roles and responsibilities, established a joint 

strategy, and defined a common outcome for TSCTP. However, although 

agencies have taken steps to leverage their resources and establish compatible 

procedures to operate across agency boundaries, the Department of Justice has 

not been fully integrated into TSCTP coordination efforts despite its expertise in 

building law enforcement capacity—one of TSCTP’s five lines of effort. 

U.S. agencies have used various means to consider partner country needs, 

absorptive capacities, and other donor efforts when selecting TSCTP activities. 

These include assessment reports, meetings with host governments, and 

bilateral and multilateral outreach to other donors. For example, the United 

States participates in the Global Counterterrorism Forum, a multilateral venue for 

sharing information on the counterterrorism activities of other donor nations.

View GAO-14-518. For more information, 

contact Charles Michael Johnson, Jr., at (202) 

512-7331 or johnsoncm@gao.gov.
Page i GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Letter 1 

Background 3

Nearly Half of Funds Allocated for TSCTP since 2009 Have Been 

Disbursed, but TSCTP Program Managers Are Unable to 

Readily Provide Data on the Status of Funding 12

TSCTP Implementation Is Generally Consistent with Most Key 

Practices of Interagency Collaboration, but the Department of 

Justice Can Be Better Integrated 19

U.S. Agencies Take Steps to Consider Partner Country Needs, 

Absorptive Capacities, and Other Donor Efforts when Selecting 

TSCTP Activities 26

Conclusions 29

Recommendations for Executive Action 30

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 30

Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 32

Appendix II Examples of Activities Conducted Using Funds Allocated for the 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 35

Appendix III Examples of Accounts and Programs That Support 

Counterterrorism Activities outside of the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership 39

Appendix IV Status of Funds Allocated for Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism 

Partnership Activities 42

Appendix V Comments from the Department of State 46

Appendix VI Comments from the U.S. Agency for International Development 49

Contents
Page ii GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Appendix VII GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 51

Related GAO Products 52

Tables

Table 1: Status of Funding for TSCTP, by Fiscal Year 

Appropriations (2009-2013) 13

Table 2: Status of Funding for TSCTP by Funding Account, Fiscal 

Years 2009-2013 14

Table 3: Status of Funding for TSCTP Country-Specific and 

Regional Programs, Fiscal Years 2009-2013 16

Table 4: Status of Peacekeeping Operations Funding for TSCTP 

Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as 

of November 2013 42

Table 5: Status of Development Assistance Funding for TSCTP 

Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as 

of December 2013 42

Table 6: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and 

Related Programs Antiterrorism Assistance Funding for 

TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-

2013), as of November 2013 43

Table 7: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and 

Related Programs Counterterrorism Finance Funding for 

TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-

2013), as of November 2013 43

Table 8: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and 

Related Programs Terrorist Interdiction Program Funding 

for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-

2013), as of November 2013 44

Table 9: Status of Economic Support Fund Funding for TSCTP 

Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as 

of November 2013 44

Table 10: Status of International Narcotics Control and Law 

Enforcement Funding for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year 

Appropriations (2009-2013), as of November 2013 45
Page iii GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figures

Figure 1: Terrorist Events Conducted by Select Terrorist Groups in 

TSCTP Countries, 2009-2012 4

Figure 2: Key Terrorist Groups in Northwest Africa and Their 

Regions of Operation, 2009-2014 5

Figure 3: Select Political, Security, and Terrorist Events in TSCTP 

Countries, 2009-2014 7

Figure 4: Overview of the Primary Agencies Participating in the 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP) 11

Figure 5: Funding Allocations for TSCTP Country-Specific and 

Regional Programs, Fiscal Years 2009-2013 15

Figure 6: Primary Agencies Supporting Each TSCTP Line of Effort 21

Figure 7: State TSCTP-Funded Imam Training and Interfaith 

Dialogue Workshop in Chad 35

Figure 8: USAID TSCTP-Funded Radio Studio in Niger 36

Figure 9: State TSCTP-Funded Radio Equipment for Mauritanian 

Military National Command Center and Body Armor and 

Night Vision Goggles for Mauritanian Special Forces 38
Page iv GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Abbreviations

AFRICOM U.S. Africa Command

AQIM al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb

DA Development Assistance

DHS Department of Homeland Security

DOD Department of Defense 

ESF Economic Support Fund

INCLE International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement

Justice Department of Justice

NADR Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related 

 Programs

PKO Peacekeeping Operations

State Department of State

Treasury Department of the Treasury

TSCTP Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership

USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright protection in the 

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without further permission from GAO. However, because this work may contain 

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Page 1 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

441 G St. N.W.

Washington, DC 20548

June 24, 2014

The Honorable Robert Menendez

Chairman

The Honorable Bob Corker

Ranking Member

Committee on Foreign Relations

United States Senate

Several recent events in northwest Africa have underscored concerns 

that the region’s vast ungoverned spaces, smuggling routes, porous 

borders, poverty, and fragile states offer a conducive environment for the 

spread of violent extremist ideology. In 2012, the terrorist group al Qaeda 

in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and its allies started seizing territory in 

Mali, prompting a French-led military intervention and ongoing 

international military involvement in northern Mali to disrupt terrorist 

activity. AQIM continues to plan and encourage kidnappings for ransom 

of U.S. citizens and other Westerners as its primary means of raising 

funds for operations. In January 2013, an offshoot of AQIM attacked a 

natural gas facility in Algeria, killing dozens of people, including three U.S. 

citizens. In Nigeria, the terrorist group Boko Haram has carried out neardaily attacks since conducting a suicide car bombing at a United Nations 

facility in 2011, to include an April 2014 bus station bombing in Nigeria’s 

capital that killed at least 75 people and the kidnapping of more than 230 

female students in northeast Nigeria later that same day, highlighting the 

continuing threat that terrorist groups in the region pose.

Since 2005, the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP) has 

been the primary U.S. counterterrorism initiative in northwest Africa. 

TSCTP is a Department of State (State)-led effort primarily coordinated 

with the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the 

Department of Defense (DOD) that focuses on strengthening partner 

country and regional counterterrorism capabilities and inhibiting the 

spread of terrorist ideology in the region through diplomacy, development, 

and security assistance activities in 11 countries—Algeria, Burkina Faso, 

Cameroon, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, 

and Tunisia.
 

Page 2 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

In response to your request that we conduct a follow-on review of 

TSCTP,1 this report examines (1) the status of TSCTP-related funding 

and U.S. agencies’ ability to track such funding; (2) the extent to which 

U.S. agency implementation of TSCTP is consistent with key practices of 

interagency collaboration; and (3) whether U.S. agencies considered 

partner country needs, absorptive capacities, and other donor efforts 

when selecting TSCTP activities.2

To address these objectives, we reviewed agency documents related to 

TSCTP—including strategy and planning documents, progress reporting, 

and funding information—as well as relevant documents from U.S. 

implementing partners, other international donors, and related multilateral 

entities, such as the Global Counterterrorism Forum.3 We also assessed 

the extent to which agency actions have been consistent with key 

practices GAO has identified for enhancing interagency collaboration and 

discussed U.S. assistance efforts with State, USAID, and DOD; the 

Departments of Justice (Justice), Homeland Security (DHS), and the 

Treasury (Treasury); and intelligence community officials in the 

Washington, D.C., area.4

 

1

We previously reported on TSCTP funding and implementation in 2008. See GAO, 

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Enhance Implementation of Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership, 

Additionally, we conducted fieldwork at the U.S. 

Africa Command (AFRICOM) in Germany in November 2013. We also 

conducted fieldwork in Algeria, Mauritania, and Niger in December 2013, 

during which we met with State, DOD, and USAID officials; U.S. 

implementing partners; representatives of partner country security forces 

and ministries; and international donors. See appendix I for a complete 

description of our scope and methodology.

GAO-08-860 (Washington, D.C.: July 31, 2008).

2

We reported separately on similar issues in our report on the U.S. Partnership for 

Regional East Africa Counterterrorism. See GAO, Combating Terrorism: State 

Department Can Improve Management of East Africa Program, GAO-14-502 

(Washington, D.C.: June 17, 2014). 

3

The Global Counterterrorism Forum was created in 2011 and, in addition to the United 

States, consists of 28 member countries and the European Union. The goal of the forum is 

to facilitate global cooperation in identifying and addressing critical civilian 

counterterrorism needs around the world.

4

GAO, Results-Oriented Government: Practices That Can Help Enhance and Sustain 

Collaboration among Federal Agencies, GAO-06-15 (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2005). 
 

Page 3 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

We conducted this performance audit from June 2013 to June 2014 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain 

sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our 

findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that 

the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives.

The United States established TSCTP in 2005 as a result of growing 

concerns about terrorist groups in the region affiliated with al Qaeda and 

the increased efforts of those groups to attract young recruits, among 

other reasons. Since 2005, terrorist activity in the region has increased 

significantly. Figure 1 illustrates the number of terrorist events conducted 

by select terrorist groups in the 11 TSCTP countries from 2009 to 2012.

Background
 

Page 4 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 1: Terrorist Events Conducted by Select Terrorist Groups in TSCTP Countries, 2009-2012

Notes: Terrorist events conducted by the following terrorist groups are included in this figure: al

Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, Ansaru, Boko Haram, and the Movement for Unity and Jihad in West 

Africa (which merged with another group in 2013 to form al-Murabitoun).

This figure only includes events that the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and 

Responses to Terrorism identified as events (1) aimed at attaining a political, economic, religious, or 

social goal; (2) where there was evidence of an intention to coerce, intimidate, or convey a message 

beyond the immediate victims; (3) falling outside legitimate warfare activities that are outside the 

parameters of international humanitarian law; and (4) that are not ambiguous as to their nature as 

terrorist incidents. Successful and unsuccessful attacks are included.

Terrorist event information is drawn entirely from publicly available materials and reflects what is 

reported in those sources. (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to 

Terrorism. (2012). Global Terrorism Database (data file). Retrieved from http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd

on May 5, 2014.)
 

Page 5 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

While Cameroon did not become a member of TSCTP until January 2014, we include it in the figure

above for illustrative purposes.

Key terrorist groups in northwest Africa and their regions of operation 

since 2009 are illustrated in figure 2.

Figure 2: Key Terrorist Groups in Northwest Africa and Their Regions of Operation, 2009-2014

Note: This figure is current as of June 2014. Countries shaded in gray are Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership countries.
 

Page 6 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 3 further illustrates some of the political and security events in 

TSCTP countries since 2009, including coups in Niger, Mauritania, and 

Mali, as well as significant terrorist events, such as Boko Haram’s August 

2011 attack in Nigeria outside the United Nations office in Abuja.5

 

5

Coups, human rights violations, and government abuses of power in partner countries, 

among other factors, can affect U.S. ability to provide assistance to such countries, 

including through TSCTP. 

It does 

not include the numerous kidnappings for ransom that have taken place 

since 2009 or other significant regional events that have affected TSCTP 

countries, such as the collapse of the Libyan government in 2011, which 

resulted in the spread of unsecured military-grade weapons and 

experienced fighters throughout the region.
 

Page 7 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 3: Select Political, Security, and Terrorist Events in TSCTP Countries, 2009-2014

Note: This figure does not include the numerous kidnappings by terrorist groups in this region since 

2009, including the April 2014 Boko Haram kidnapping of more than 230 female students in northeast 

Nigeria. 

To assist partner country efforts to tackle the terrorist threat in the region, 

State, USAID, and DOD have conducted a variety of activities using 

TSCTP-dedicated funding. State’s TSCTP activities include public 

diplomacy efforts as well as law enforcement training and equipping and 

criminal justice sector reform. USAID’s TSCTP activities include efforts to 

support youth employment, strengthen local governance capacity, and 

improve access to education. DOD’s TSCTP activities, which are funded 

by State, include counterterrorism training and equipping. See appendix II 

for additional details as well as illustrations of TSCTP activities.
 

Page 8 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Funding for TSCTP comes from various appropriation accounts and is 

administered by State or USAID, with DOD assisting in State’s 

implementation of one of these accounts.6

• Peacekeeping Operations (PKO)—authorizes the President to furnish 

assistance to friendly countries and international organizations for 

peacekeeping operations and other programs carried out in 

furtherance of the national security interest of the United States. PKO 

funds are State- and DOD-implemented and are used, in part, to train 

and equip military units tasked with monitoring and controlling border 

areas and territory exploited by terrorist elements.

These accounts include the 

following:

• Development Assistance (DA)—authorizes the President to provide 

assistance for various purposes, including agricultural development, 

education and human resources development, grant assistance for 

microenterprises, and a development fund for Africa, among other 

purposes. DA funds are USAID-implemented and are used to support 

host nation efforts to counter radicalization, recruitment, and violent 

extremist organizations.

• Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs 

(NADR)—authorizes the President to provide antiterrorism assistance, 

nonproliferation and export control assistance, and other assistance to 

foreign countries for various purposes. NADR funds are typically 

State-implemented and are used to support activities designed to 

enhance the law enforcement capacity and antiterrorism skills of 

partner countries by providing training, equipment, and mentoring to 

deter, detect, and respond to terrorism.

• Economic Support Fund (ESF)—authorizes the President to assist 

countries and organizations in order to promote economic or political 

stability. ESF funds are State- and USAID-implemented and are used, 

in part, to counter violent extremism.

 

6

While DOD does not directly fund TSCTP activities, its Operation Enduring Freedom–

Trans-Sahara program provides operational support for U.S. military personnel who 

conduct efforts to build partner nation counterterrorism capacity and synchronize security 

cooperation activities across the region, including those undertaken through TSCTP. DOD 

obligated approximately $205 million for Operation Enduring Freedom–Trans-Sahara

between fiscal years 2009 and 2013. 
 

Page 9 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

• International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE)—

authorizes the President to assist foreign countries and international 

organizations to control narcotics and other controlled substances, or 

for other anticrime purposes. INCLE funds are typically Stateimplemented and are used to develop and implement policies and 

programs that maintain the rule of law and strengthen institutional law 

enforcement and judicial capabilities, including combating 

transnational crime.

The five accounts funding TSCTP also fund other, non-TSCTP 

counterterrorism assistance to TSCTP countries, such as NADR funds 

that have been used to post Department of Justice legal advisers in some 

TSCTP countries. In addition, State, DOD, and other U.S. agencies such 

as Justice, Treasury, and DHS use other accounts to fund non-TSCTP

counterterrorism-related assistance in the TSCTP region. One such effort 

is DOD’s Section 1206 program, which provides counterterrorism training 

and equipment globally, including to TSCTP countries.7

Within State, the lead U.S. agency for TSCTP, the Office of Regional and 

Security Affairs within the Bureau of African Affairs is the lead coordinator 

for TSCTP activities across several State bureaus and is responsible for 

managing activities in Burkina Faso, Chad, Cameroon, Mali, Mauritania, 

Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal, while the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs is 

responsible for managing activities in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia.

See appendix III 

for more information about select accounts and programs that support 

U.S. counterterrorism efforts outside of TSCTP.

8

 

7

Section 1206 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2006, as 

amended, established this program, also known as the Global Train and Equip Program, 

which is used to build the capacity of foreign military forces and foreign security forces to 

conduct counterterrorism operations, and to enable foreign military forces to participate in 

or support military and stability operations in which the U.S. armed forces are a 

participant. Through this program, DOD may provide foreign military forces with 

equipment, supplies, training, and small-scale military construction activities. Programs 

funded with this assistance must be jointly formulated and implemented by the Secretaries 

of Defense and State, and the law authorizes DOD to provide the assistance with the

Secretary of State’s concurrence. 

At 

the country level, the U.S. embassy in each member country has a 

country team that facilitates interagency coordination as well as 

8

The Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs is responsible for 

coordinating TSCTP activities funded through INCLE. The Bureau of Counterterrorism 

coordinates TSCTP activities funded through NADR. The Bureau of Political-Military 

Affairs coordinates TSCTP activities funded through PKO. 
 

Page 10 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

implementation of programs such as TSCTP, as shown in figure 4. Each 

country team is led by and falls under the authority of the U.S. 

ambassador to that country and is generally made up of key officials from 

State, USAID, DOD, and other relevant agencies.9

 

9

If an agency is not present in a country, it may not be represented on that country team. 

For example, USAID is not present in Algeria, so USAID is not part of the country team at 

that embassy.
 

Page 11 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 4: Overview of the Primary Agencies Participating in the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP) 

USAID’s regional office in Accra, Ghana, and its bilateral office in 

Bamako, Mali, manage the agency’s TSCTP activities with support from 
 

Page 12 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

USAID bureaus in Washington, D.C.10 DOD’s Office of the Secretary of 

Defense is responsible for coordinating the agency’s TSCTP activities 

that are undertaken using State’s PKO funding.11 In addition, DOD 

representatives under the authority of AFRICOM work with country teams 

in coordinating and implementing TSCTP’s security assistance activities, 

as well as other counterterrorism-related activities in the region.

U.S. agencies allocated about $288 million for TSCTP between fiscal 

years 2009 and 2013, of which they have disbursed slightly less than half. 

Although State’s Foreign Affairs Manual and federal standards for internal 

control note that effective internal management requires financial 

information, TSCTP’s managers at State and USAID do not routinely 

collect and assess data on the status of funds for TSCTP activities, such 

as the amounts of funds unobligated or disbursed—key data that could 

help inform their management of the program.12 As a result, the process 

of providing us with a complete, sufficiently reliable set of information on 

the status of funds allocated for TSCTP took several months and, 

according to State and USAID officials, was very time-consuming and 

labor-intensive. Consequently, TSCTP’s program managers may lack the 

day-to-day access to financial information that federal standards for 

internal control state is required to make operating decisions, monitor 

performance, and allocate resources.13

 

10USAID’s Bureau for the Middle East coordinates TSCTP activities in Algeria, Morocco, 

and Tunisia, and the Bureau for Africa coordinates activities in Burkina Faso, Chad, 

Cameroon, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal.

11Within the Office of the Secretary of Defense, the Office of African Affairs oversees 

DOD’s TSCTP activities, provides policy and guidance to AFRICOM, and interfaces with 

other U.S. agencies in TSCTP implementation.

12State, Foreign Affairs Manual, 4 FAM 013, and GAO, Standards for Internal Control in 

the Federal Government, GAO/AIMD-00-21.3.1 (Washington, D.C.: Nov. 1, 1999).

13GAO/AIMD-00-21.3.1. 

Nearly Half of Funds 

Allocated for TSCTP 

since 2009 Have 

Been Disbursed, but 

TSCTP Program 

Managers Are Unable 

to Readily Provide 

Data on the Status of 

Funding
 

Page 13 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

While State and USAID could not readily provide data on the status of 

funding for TSCTP (as discussed in more detail later in this report), the 

data they eventually provided to us indicate that about $288 million was 

allocated for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 and 2013. As table 1 

illustrates, the amount of funds allocated for TSCTP declined each year 

between fiscal years 2010 and 2013, dropping from a high of about $80 

million in fiscal year 2010 to about $53 million in fiscal year 2013. As of 

late 2013, State and USAID had disbursed about $139 million, or 48 

percent, of the funds allocated for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 and 

2013.14

Table 1: Status of Funding for TSCTP, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013)

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 39,650 79,796 59,622 55,617 53,021 287,706 

Unobligated balance 2,108 3,331 a a 829 587 a 22,658 a 29,513 b

Unliquidated obligations 7,038 20,408 31,385 30,574 30,002 119,407

Disbursed 30,504 56,057 27,408 24,456 361 138,786

Source: GAO analysis of State and USAID data. | GAO-14-518

TSCTP Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership

PKO Peacekeeping Operations

DA Development Assistance

NADR Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs

ESF Economic Support Fund

INCLE International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement

Notes: The amounts above reflect totals from PKO, DA, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds dedicated for 

TSCTP activities. Data on PKO, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds are current as of November 2013, 

and data on DA funds are current as of December 2013. For the status of each account’s balances by 

fiscal year, see tables 4-10 in appendix IV.

a

 

14As we note throughout this report, the funding data we received from State are current 

as of November 2013, while the funding data we received from USAID are current as of 

December 2013. 

The unobligated balances from fiscal years 2009 through 2012, totaling about $6.9 million, reflect 

NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds that, according to State officials, were not obligated or were 

deobligated and may no longer be available to incur new obligations. Of the approximately $6.9

million, nearly $6.7 million is NADR funding, the execution of which State officials noted has 

sometimes been delayed or canceled because of political strife and other conditions on the ground in 

partner countries. Once the period of availability for obligation has expired, unobligated balances 

remain available for an additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting obligations properly 

chargeable to the appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds may remain available 

for contract modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.

Agencies Have Allocated 

Almost $288 Million and 

Disbursed Nearly $140 

Million for TSCTP since 

2009
 

Page 14 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

b

Of the approximately $288 million allocated in total for TSCTP between 

fiscal years 2009 and 2013, about 62 percent (about $178 million) came 

from the PKO and DA accounts. Table 2 shows the status of funding for 

TSCTP broken down by funding account. See appendix IV for further 

details on funding for TSCTP by funding account.

The approximately $22.7 million unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain 

available for obligation and that State and USAID are in the process of obligating. 

Table 2: Status of Funding for TSCTP by Funding Account, Fiscal Years 2009-2013

Dollars in thousands

Account Allocated

Unobligated 

balance

Unliquidated 

obligations Disbursed

PKO 92,040 - 34,784 57,256

DA 86,414 1,907 48,963 a 35,544

NADR 57,511 18,322 9,498 a 29,691

ESF 29,305 5,241 10,846 a 13,218

INCLE 22,436 4,043 15,316 a 3,077

Total 287,706 29,513a 119,407 138,786 

Source: GAO analysis of State and USAID data. | GAO-14-518

TSCTP Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership

PKO Peacekeeping Operations

DA Development Assistance

NADR Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs

ESF Economic Support Fund

INCLE International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement

Notes: Data on PKO, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds are current as of November 2013. Data on DA 

funds are current as of December 2013.

a

Of the approximately $288 million in total allocations for TSCTP between 

fiscal years 2009 and 2013, about $260 million has been allocated to 

Of the total unobligated balances shown, approximately $22.7 million (about $11.6 million of the 

NADR amount, about $5.2 million of the ESF amount, about $4 million of the INCLE amount, and 

about $1.9 million of the DA amount) is fiscal year 2013 funding that remains available for obligation 

and that State and USAID are in the process of obligating. The remaining approximately $6.9 million 

in total unobligated balances shown (about $6.7 million of the NADR amount, about $35,000 of the 

ESF amount, and about $81,000 of the INCLE amount) is funding from fiscal years 2009 through 

2012 that, according to State officials, was not obligated or was deobligated and may no longer be 

available to incur new obligations. Once the period of availability for obligation has expired, 

unobligated balances remain available for an additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting 

obligations properly chargeable to the appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds 

may remain available for contract modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.
 

Page 15 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

country-specific and regional programs.15

Figure 5: Funding Allocations for TSCTP Country-Specific and Regional Programs, Fiscal Years 2009-2013

Figure 5 shows the geographic 

distribution of allocations for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 and 2013. 

As the figure demonstrates, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger were the top 

three recipients of bilateral funding, collectively accounting for 

approximately $106 million of the funds allocated. In addition, State and 

USAID allocated about $82 million for regionally focused programs.

 

15The remaining approximately $28 million consists of about $10.5 million in fiscal year 

2013 funding that State and USAID are in the process of allocating and obligating to 

country-specific and regional programs and about $17.6 million in program management 

costs.
 

Page 16 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Notes: The amounts above reflect totals from PKO, DA, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds dedicated for 

TSCTP activities. Data on PKO, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds are current as of November 2013, 

and data on DA funds are current as of December 2013.

While the precise allocation amount for Algeria is slightly less than $10 million, we rounded the 

amount to $10 million for the purposes of the figure above. 

Cameroon did not become a member of TSCTP until January 2014. Consequently, it did not receive 

any funds allocated for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 and 2013.

As shown in table 3, about $133 million, or 51 percent, of the 

approximately $260 million allocated for country-specific and regional 

programs has been disbursed.16

Table 3: Status of Funding for TSCTP Country-Specific and Regional Programs, 

Fiscal Years 2009-2013

Dollars in thousands

Country/regional Allocated

Unobligated 

balance

Unliquidated 

obligations Disbursed

Regional activities 81,762 1,605 40,865 39,292 

Mali 40,580 1,391 14,780 24,409 

Mauritania 34,464 3,453 9,635 21,376 

Niger 30,749 3,052 15,174 12,523 

Chad 13,026 2,116 5,474 5,436 

Nigeria 12,831 2,587 5,380 4,864 

Morocco 11,693 1,066 4,492 6,135 

Algeria 9,981 752 4,785 4,444 

Senegal 9,835 1,009 1,543 7,283 

Tunisia 8,190 673 3,322 4,195 

Burkina Faso 6,583 1,349 1,725 3,509 

Total 259,694 19,053 a b 107,175c 133,466d

Source: GAO analysis of State and USAID data. | GAO-14-518

TSCTP Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership

PKO Peacekeeping Operations

DA Development Assistance

NADR Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs

ESF Economic Support Fund

INCLE International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement

 

16As noted earlier, the remaining approximately $28 million allocated for TSCTP between 

fiscal years 2009 and 2013 consists of about $10.5 million in fiscal year 2013 funding that 

State and USAID are in the process of allocating and obligating to country-specific and 

regional programs and about $17.6 million in program management costs.
 

Page 17 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Notes: The amounts above reflect totals from PKO, DA, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds dedicated for 

TSCTP activities. Data on PKO, NADR, ESF, and INCLE funds are current as of November 2013, 

and data on DA funds are current as of December 2013.

Because Cameroon did not become a member of TSCTP until January 2014, it did not receive any 

funds allocated for TSCTP between fiscal years 2009 and 2013.

a

Total allocations shown above exclude approximately $10.5 million in fiscal year 2013 funding that 

remains available for obligation and that State and USAID are in the process of allocating and 

obligating to country-specific and regional programs and about $17.6 million in program management 

costs. The total amount allocated for TSCTP from fiscal years 2009 to 2013 was about $288 million.

b

Total unobligated balances shown above exclude approximately $10.5 million in fiscal year 2013 

funding that remains available for obligation and that State and USAID are in the process of allocating 

and obligating to country-specific and regional programs. Of the total unobligated balances shown, 

approximately $12.2 million is fiscal year 2013 funding that remains available for obligation and that 

State and USAID are in the process of obligating. The remaining approximately $6.9 million in total 

unobligated balances is funding from fiscal years 2009 through 2012 that, according to State officials, 

was not obligated or was deobligated and may no longer be available to incur new obligations. Once 

the period of availability for obligation has expired, unobligated balances remain available for an 

additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting obligations properly chargeable to the 

appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds may remain available for contract 

modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.

c

Total unliquidated obligations shown above exclude approximately $12.2 million in program 

management costs.

d

Total disbursements shown above exclude approximately $5.3 million in program management 

costs.

State’s Foreign Affairs Manual notes that effective internal management 

requires financial information for planning, programming, budgeting, 

performance evaluation, and reporting.17 Further, federal internal control 

standards state that financial information is required on a day-to-day 

basis to make operating decisions, monitor performance, and allocate 

resources.18

 

17State, Foreign Affairs Manual, 4 FAM 013.

Various entities involved in TSCTP implementation, such as 

embassies and State’s functional bureaus, track data on the status of 

funding for TSCTP—such as the amounts unobligated and disbursed—

from the respective accounts that they manage. However, TSCTP’s 

program managers in State’s Bureaus of African Affairs and Near Eastern 

Affairs and at USAID do not routinely collect and assess such data to 

develop a complete picture of the status of TSCTP-dedicated funding. 

Program managers in both State bureaus said that their efforts to compile 

the status of funding for TSCTP to fulfill our request was the first time they 

had done so. One program manager explained that State currently lacks 

a system for routinely requesting and collecting such data from the 

various embassies and State bureaus involved in TSCTP implementation. 

18GAO/AIMD-00-21.3.1. 

State and USAID Program 

Managers Do Not 

Routinely Collect and 

Assess Data on the Status 

of Funds Allocated for 

TSCTP
 

Page 18 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Program managers in both regional bureaus added that, given other 

priorities, State currently lacks the manpower to develop such a system. 

Furthermore, officials from State’s Bureaus of Counterterrorism and 

International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs stated that although 

they track data on the status of TSCTP-dedicated funding from the 

accounts that they manage, they typically do not provide and have 

generally not been asked to provide such data to TSCTP program 

managers. Regarding USAID, officials there stated that the agency does 

not routinely track the status of its funding for TSCTP and therefore is not 

in a position to readily generate such data. Overall, the process of 

providing us with a complete, sufficiently reliable set of information on the 

status of funds allocated for TSCTP took several months and, according 

to State and USAID officials, was very time-consuming and laborintensive. Consequently, TSCTP’s program managers may lack the dayto-day access to financial information that federal standards for internal 

control state is needed to make operating decisions, monitor 

performance, and allocate resources.19

Notwithstanding these difficulties, TSCTP program managers outlined 

several ways in which having such data readily available would be useful 

for their management of TSCTP. For example, one program manager 

stated that the status of funding would be a valuable tool to have on hand 

at TSCTP’s quarterly senior-level meetings for the purpose of providing 

agency leadership with progress reports on the execution of TSCTPdedicated funds, including details on the extent to which funds from 

different accounts are being executed. Program managers in both 

regional bureaus also stated that through their efforts to compile the 

status of funding at our request, they identified millions of dollars in 

unobligated balances of which they were previously unaware. 

Specifically, as noted earlier, nearly $7 million in NADR, INCLE, and ESF 

funding from fiscal years 2009 through 2012 was not obligated or was 

deobligated20

 

19

and, according to State officials, may no longer be available 

to incur new obligations. One program manager explained that having 

routine access to such data would help him to identify funds for which the 

GAO/AIMD-00-21.3.1. 

20Annual appropriations laws routinely include a provision stating that if NADR, INCLE, 

and ESF funds are initially obligated within the period of availability, they may be 

deobligated and remain available for obligation for an additional 4 years. For the most 

recent provision, see Pub. L. No. 113-76, § 7011, Jan. 17, 2014.

Program Managers See Value 

in Routinely Collecting TSCTPRelated Funding Data
 

Page 19 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

period of availability for obligation would soon expire, which would then 

prompt him to work with the respective bureaus to develop other, more 

expedited options for using the funds in support of TSCTP. This official 

added that the Bureau of African Affairs is exploring the possibility of 

hiring additional staff to assist with TSCTP program data collection and 

analysis. Similarly, another program manager stated that he believes the 

data could be useful for program management purposes in ways that 

State has not yet anticipated, and that he plans to recruit staff to further 

analyze the data collected at our request to identify how else the data can 

inform TSCTP program management.

In implementing TSCTP, State, USAID, and DOD actions are generally 

consistent with most but not all the key practices of interagency 

collaboration that we previously reported as important to enhancing and 

sustaining collaborative agency efforts.21 Specifically, in regard to these 

key practices, agencies have (1) agreed on their roles and 

responsibilities, (2) established a joint strategy, (3) defined a common 

outcome, (4) developed consistent goals to reinforce agency 

accountability, and (5) taken steps to evaluate their results. However, 

although agencies have taken steps to (6) leverage their resources and 

(7) establish compatible procedures to operate across agency 

boundaries, State could do more to integrate Justice into TSCTP 

coordination efforts.22

 

21GAO-06-15. 

22We did not evaluate the eighth key practice of interagency collaboration—that agencies 

reinforce individual accountability for collaborative efforts through performance 

management systems—because it is outside the scope of our review.

TSCTP 

Implementation Is 

Generally Consistent 

with Most Key 

Practices of 

Interagency 

Collaboration, but the 

Department of Justice 

Can Be Better 

Integrated
 

Page 20 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Officials at State, USAID, and DOD said that they understand and agree 

on their respective roles and responsibilities related to TSCTP 

implementation—a key practice that facilitates decision making and 

assists agencies in organizing their efforts. Officials noted that State is the 

lead U.S. agency for TSCTP and that the National Security Council

articulated TSCTP agency roles and responsibilities in 2005. In part to 

assist in implementation of TSCTP and to facilitate decision making, 

officials said that in 2013 they established a quarterly meeting at the 

deputy assistant secretary level. Through these meetings, senior leaders 

have approved an interagency guiding strategy for TSCTP, agreed on 

expanding TSCTP membership, and discussed coordination opportunities 

with other international donors.23

Agencies have also taken action to address the key practice of 

establishing a joint strategy, as demonstrated by the January 2014 State-, 

USAID-, and DOD-approved TSCTP Guiding Strategy. Because this is a 

joint strategic document that also defines a common outcome and is 

consistent with agency goals, it addresses three key practices that we 

have previously reported assist in agency efforts to overcome differences 

in missions, cultures, and established ways of doing business; help 

agencies align activities and resources; and can reinforce agency 

accountability.

We confirmed these practices during our 

review of agency documents and in our discussions with agency officials.

24

 

23For example, one such quarterly meeting led to the recommendation to invite Cameroon 

to become a member of TSCTP. Subsequently, Cameroon became a member of TSCTP 

in January 2014.

Figure 6 depicts the five lines of effort articulated in the 

joint 2014 TSCTP strategy, which also provides a common outcome for 

U.S. agencies participating in TSCTP. Additionally, the TSCTP strategy is 

consistent with agency goals articulated in other strategic documents, 

such as State and USAID’s Mission Resource Requests and DOD’s 

Northwest Africa Campaign Plan, which outline complementary 

counterterrorism goals.

24GAO-06-15. 

Agencies Agree on Roles 

and Responsibilities and 

Have a Joint TSCTP 

Strategy That Defines a 

Common Outcome 

Consistent with Agency 

Goals
 

Page 21 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 6: Primary Agencies Supporting Each TSCTP Line of Effort

State, USAID, and DOD have taken steps to evaluate the progress of 

their TSCTP efforts and plan to conduct a holistic evaluation of TSCTP 

within a year. We have previously reported that evaluating and reporting 

on results is a key practice that can assist interagency efforts to identify 

areas for policy and operational improvement.25

1. Agency efforts to measure progress of specific programs that are a 

part of TSCTP:

To date, agencies have 

taken various steps to evaluate the progress of some TSCTP efforts. 

Examples of these steps include the following:

• State conducts assessments of its NADR-funded Antiterrorism 

Assistance program in TSCTP countries. Such assessments are 

conducted prior to providing assistance to a country and every 2-3 

years thereafter to measure progress. According to State officials, 

Antiterrorism Assistance assessments have been conducted in 

every TSCTP country and assist State in tailoring assistance. For 

example, State officials noted that the 2013 assessment in one 

 

25GAO-06-15. 

Agencies Have Taken 

Steps to Evaluate the 

Progress of Some TSCTP 

Efforts and Plan to 

Conduct a Holistic 

Evaluation
 

Page 22 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

TSCTP country found that the partner country forces were not 

effectively using the U.S. equipment provided. As a result, the 

officials stated that future assistance to that country will focus 

more on training and less on equipping.

• USAID periodically conducts evaluations and assessments of its 

Peace through Development program, which is primarily DAfunded and accounts for the majority of USAID’s TSCTP activities. 

Such reviews have been either regional or country-specific in 

nature and have identified areas of progress as well as areas for 

improvement. One impact evaluation completed in 2011 

concluded that USAID activities in Niger, Chad, and Mali had 

some positive effects on program participants. For example, the 

evaluation identified that media and messaging programs have 

made moderate progress in reaching vulnerable populations and 

are more effective in combination with other USAID activities. 

Recommendations from the evaluation included expanding 

assistance to insecure areas and considering whether program 

suspension could undermine U.S. objectives when designing 

activities.26

2. Agency and interagency efforts to measure progress toward 

counterterrorism goals that are not specific to TSCTP efforts:

• State conducts public opinion polls annually in most TSCTP 

countries. While these polls may be influenced by factors beyond 

U.S. counterterrorism assistance, they have shown that since 

2008 favorable opinions toward the United States have generally 

increased in TSCTP countries and that the United States has 

made progress in reducing perceptions that it is fighting Islam 

rather than terrorism.

• State and USAID track counterterrorism measures in their annual 

Foreign Operations Performance Reports and, prior to fiscal year 

 

26USAID’s recommendation to consider effects of project suspension was made after a 

military coup in Niger resulted in the suspension of a USAID activity, which adversely 

affected progress toward program goals, as demonstrated by both quantitative and 

qualitative data. Adverse effects noted in the evaluation included a reduction of trust in the 

United States as a result of the activity’s suspension. See Mid-Term Evaluation of 

USAID’s Counter-Extremism Programming in Africa (Washington, D.C.: Feb.1, 2011).
 

Page 23 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

2015, some country-specific Mission Resource Requests.27

• DOD conducts periodic classified assessments of DOD assistance 

efforts in northwest Africa to determine progress made toward the 

objectives outlined in DOD’s Northwest Africa Campaign Plan.

For 

example, the fiscal year 2014 Foreign Operations Performance 

Report showed that State and USAID had met or exceeded their 

2012 performance targets related to countering threats to the 

United States. Such performance targets include goals for the 

number of new groups or initiatives created to resolve conflict or 

drivers of conflict and the number of students trained through the 

Antiterrorism Assistance program, neither of which is specific to 

TSCTP countries, but both of which State and USAID exceeded in 

fiscal year 2012.

28

• The National Counterterrorism Center conducts an interagency 

assessment, generally annually, of progress made through U.S. 

counterterrorism efforts toward achieving the strategic goals of the 

National Strategy for Counterterrorism. This assessment also 

identifies areas where adjustments or changes are needed to 

ensure that U.S. goals are achieved.

Although agencies have taken some steps to evaluate their TSCTP 

efforts, they have not completed a comprehensive evaluation of the 

program. Additionally, agencies have not conducted and documented 

evaluations of all TSCTP activities that are funded from two of the five 

accounts that support TSCTP: PKO and ESF. For these accounts, 

agency officials said they primarily rely on informal feedback from posts to 

determine progress. Agency officials recognize that a more holistic 

evaluation of TSCTP-specific assistance is needed, noting that they plan 

 

27The annual Foreign Operations Performance Report is submitted to Congress as part of 

the congressional budget justification process. The Mission Resource Request is the first 

step in the State and USAID budget formulation process, where each U.S. mission, under 

chief of mission authority, annually justifies the resources required to achieve its foreign 

policy and management objectives. State and USAID bureaus evaluate the Mission 

Resource Requests to inform the Bureau Resource Requests, which are included in 

State’s annual presidential budget request submission to the Office of Management and 

Budget.

28Theater campaign plans, such as the Northwest Africa Campaign Plan, encompass the 

activities of a geographic combatant command—in this case, AFRICOM—and translate 

national or theater strategy into operational concepts and those concepts into unified 

action.
 

Page 24 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

to develop progress benchmarks for TSCTP within the next year to 

facilitate such an evaluation, consistent with a requirement in the National 

Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014.29

State, USAID, and DOD have taken several actions consistent with the 

key practices of leveraging resources and facilitating operations across 

agency boundaries, but can do more to integrate the Department of 

Justice. We have previously reported that leveraging resources and 

operating across agency boundaries can assist agencies with identifying 

opportunities to obtain additional benefits that would not be available if 

they were working separately and to prevent misunderstandings between 

the agencies.30

Agencies have also developed interagency working groups that meet 

regularly in Washington, D.C., as well as at U.S. embassies in partner 

countries.

Agencies have taken numerous actions consistent with 

these key practices. For example, State, USAID, and DOD rotate the 

hosting of an annual TSCTP conference, where U.S. embassy officials 

implementing TSCTP in partner countries and in Washington, D.C., meet 

and coordinate with their interagency and headquarters counterparts and 

with representatives from other international donors, such as France. U.S. 

embassy officials who have participated noted that this conference was 

particularly useful for identifying important points of contact and gaining a 

better understanding of TSCTP. We observed the interagency interaction 

during the most recent TSCTP conference, held in Washington, D.C., in 

October 2013.

31

 

29National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2014, Pub. L. No. 113-66, § 1206(a), 

Dec. 26, 2013. This provision requires the Secretary of Defense, in coordination with the 

Secretary of State, to develop a strategic framework for U.S. counterterrorism assistance 

and cooperation in the Sahel and Maghreb regions, including for TSCTP programs, and to 

report on that strategic framework to Congress. 

These working groups provide an opportunity for agency 

officials to discuss potential activities as well as activities that will be 

initiated, thereby facilitating activity coordination and helping agencies to 

avoid conflicting or duplicative efforts. Other interagency efforts include 

30GAO-06-15. 

31We recently reported on effective approaches to enhancing interagency collaboration 

through mechanisms such as interagency working groups. See GAO, Managing for 

Results: Implementation Approaches Used to Enhance Collaboration in Interagency 

Groups, GAO-14-220 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 14, 2014).

Agencies Have 

Established Ways to 

Leverage Resources and 

Operate across 

Boundaries but Can Do 

More to Integrate the 

Department of Justice
 

Page 25 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

the joint State and DOD process for selecting TSCTP security assistance 

activities to implement using PKO funds. To coordinate, State and DOD 

conduct regular meetings to jointly identify and prioritize which 

counterterrorism-focused security assistance activities to implement in 

Africa.

While the agency actions described can enhance interagency 

collaboration, Justice—a key agency for building law enforcement 

capacity, with expertise in combating transnational crime and building the 

capacity of foreign prosecutors, investigators, and judges—is not 

currently included in the quarterly deputy assistant secretary meetings on 

TSCTP. As a result, TSCTP may not be fully leveraging the resources 

and expertise of one of the U.S. government’s lead agencies for building 

partner nation law enforcement capacity in support of the TSCTP 

strategy. According to a State official, the quarterly senior-level meeting 

has traditionally involved higher-level strategic discussions among the 

three primary TSCTP agencies—State, USAID, and DOD—that would not 

have necessarily benefited from the participation of other agencies that 

play a supporting role in TSCTP. However, after we spoke with this 

official about the potential future participation of other agencies in the 

quarterly meetings, State invited DHS and Treasury officials to 

participate, and TSCTP program managers at State have expressed their 

willingness to invite Justice representatives in the future. Justice officials 

have also expressed an interest in participating in these meetings, given 

their involvement in counterterrorism activities in TSCTP countries and 

their potential growing role in assisting State with implementing some 

TSCTP assistance.
 

Page 26 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

In selecting TSCTP activities, and consistent with the presidential policy 

directive on security sector assistance, U.S. agencies conduct a variety of 

assessments and meetings to consider partner country needs and 

absorptive capacities.32 They also rely on bilateral and multilateral 

outreach to consider efforts undertaken by other donors, although some 

donor nations are reluctant to share information on their activities.

State, USAID, and DOD have all conducted assessments to identify the 

needs and absorptive capacities of TSCTP partner countries.33

• As noted earlier, State has conducted assessments in support of its 

NADR-funded Antiterrorism Assistance program, which include 

discussions of country needs and absorptive capacities. For example, 

regarding partner country needs, one assessment noted that the 

country assessed needed to become more capable in securing and 

managing land and sea ports of entry, while the assessment of 

another country called for strengthened communication and 

coordination among units that jointly patrol the country’s borders. With 

respect to absorptive capacity, an assessment of one country found it 

to be capable of absorbing additional training, whereas an 

assessment of another country identified infrastructural, personnel, 

and technological limitations to absorbing training.

• USAID has conducted country assessments that include 

consideration of partner country needs and absorptive capacities in 

 

32Presidential Policy Directive 23 on Security Sector Assistance, issued April 5, 2013, 

calls for assessments that identify partner country needs, highlights absorptive capacity as 

necessary to sustaining U.S. investments, and notes the importance of coordination with 

other donors.

33Officials in several countries noted the challenges of providing TSCTP assistance to 

partner countries because of the limited capacity of some members to absorb assistance.

For example, one implementing partner official noted that in order for some partner 

country officials to be able to operate the radio equipment provided (similar to that pictured 

in fig. 9 later in this report), U.S. officials first had to teach them how to type on the 

computer.

U.S. Agencies Take 

Steps to Consider 

Partner Country 

Needs, Absorptive 

Capacities, and Other 

Donor Efforts when 

Selecting TSCTP 

Activities

Agencies Conduct 

Assessments and 

Meetings to Identify 

Partner Country Needs 

and Absorptive 

Capacities
 

Page 27 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

support of its TSCTP activities. For example, its 2009 Niger Counter 

Extremism Assessment notes that it had previously identified Niger’s 

youth as the group most at risk for recruitment by violent extremists, 

and had accordingly recommended that TSCTP programming 

address the need for youth to find employment and participate in 

governance. A 2010 assessment entitled Strengthening Stability 

through Development in Burkina Faso comments on absorptive 

capacity, noting that vocational training programs must be 

appropriately tailored so that the local economy can absorb the 

graduates of these programs and provide them with sustainable 

economic opportunities.

• DOD has developed assessments of country needs and absorptive 

capacities as part of AFRICOM’s annual process for selecting 

counterterrorism activities in Africa, including those funded by State 

from the PKO account. Specifically, AFRICOM has created multiyear 

plans for developing the counterterrorism capabilities of several 

TSCTP countries. These plans identify various partner country needs. 

For example, the plan for one country states the need for airborne 

intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance to cover the country’s 

long borders and provide operational support. The plan for another 

country notes that enabling it to transport forces to threatened areas 

will necessitate enhancements to aviation assets and the 

development of usable airfields. AFRICOM’s plans also comment on 

absorptive capacity, as the plan for each country includes a military 

estimate of the maximum monetary amount of counterterrorism 

assistance the country can absorb per year. We discussed several of 

these plans during our November 2013 meetings with DOD and 

interagency officials at AFRICOM.

Some agency and implementing partner officials also reported using 

meetings with host nation officials to identify partner country needs and 

absorptive capacities. For instance, a DOD official in Mauritania noted 

that after DOD responds to the Mauritanian military’s requests for 

assistance with detailed proposals of what the United States can provide, 

she meets with Mauritanian military officials again to ensure that the 

detailed proposals are in line with their needs and capacity. Using this 

method, she said, has enabled her to identify opportunities for more 

targeted assistance. For example, meetings with the Mauritanian military 

led her and other DOD colleagues to modify a preexisting proposal to 

provide the Mauritanians with two technically sophisticated video cameras 

costing about $10,000 each and to instead purchase $1,100 cameras that 

were more rugged, easier to use, and better suited to the Mauritanians’ 

needs. In another case, she learned from her meetings that the 
 

Page 28 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Mauritanian military has limited access to the Internet, after which she 

developed a project proposal to instead use satellite communications to 

transmit real-time intelligence to the Mauritanian military’s national 

command center. In Niger, USAID and implementing partner officials 

stated that as part of the Peace through Development program, they meet 

regularly with community action committees—entities composed of 

representative members of the communities where the program is 

conducted.34 As USAID and implementing partner officials explained, the 

community action committees play a vital role in gauging the needs of the 

communities they represent, proposing activities to address the needs, 

and using firsthand knowledge of their communities to nominate 

participants for the activities who they believe to be at risk of becoming 

involved in violent extremism. A USAID official stated that the committees 

also assist in identifying absorptive capacity, as they help to ensure that 

the skills individuals learn through their participation in Peace through 

Development activities, such as vocational training, are ones for which a 

market exists in their home communities.

U.S. agencies rely on various forms of bilateral and multilateral outreach 

to identify and consider the counterterrorism efforts other donors are 

conducting in TSCTP countries. With respect to bilateral outreach, 

agency officials in all three TSCTP countries we visited reported using 

meetings to coordinate efforts. For example, the regional security officer 

in Algeria stated that through discussions with her French counterparts, 

she had gained an awareness of the types of law enforcement training 

the French were providing to Algeria. Similarly, a DOD official in 

Mauritania cited a briefing she received from her Spanish counterparts 

that provided her insight into the security assistance activities Spain is 

conducting in Mauritania. Additionally, the regional security officer in 

Niger stated that he has contacted security officers at several other donor 

nations’ embassies in Niger about their capacity-building efforts.

 

34For instance, a community action committee that we met with in Niamey included, 

among others, youth and religious leaders, a tribal elder, a representative of a women’s 

group, and a radio station media specialist. Its president was a former mayor of the district 

of Niamey represented by the committee. USAID and implementing partner officials stated 

that they established community action committees as part of the second Peace through 

Development program and that each committee is intended to represent the community as 

a whole.

Agencies Use Bilateral 

and Multilateral Outreach 

to Identify Other Donor 

Efforts, but Some Donors 

Are Reluctant to Share 

Information
 

Page 29 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

With respect to multilateral outreach, U.S. and other donor officials 

identified a variety of multilateral efforts that have facilitated donor 

coordination and informed U.S. assistance decisions. For instance, 

several officials named the Global Counterterrorism Forum and its Sahel 

Working Group as key multilateral venues for sharing information and 

insights on the counterterrorism activities of other donor nations. In July 

2013, for example, State officials noted that a recent meeting of the Sahel 

Working Group had been used to take inventory of the participant nations’ 

civilian assistance efforts in the Sahel to ensure that U.S. efforts are not 

duplicative. In addition, a European Union civilian mission in Niger has 

assisted with international coordination. For example, through the 

assistance of this mission, the U.S. embassy in Niger was able to 

coordinate with the French on efforts to provide Niger with radios.

These efforts notwithstanding, officials identified several donor nations 

that typically do not share information on their efforts with the United 

States. For example, the official who chairs the counterterrorism working 

group at the U.S. embassy in Niger stated that China does not participate 

in international donor coordination meetings. As a result, he said, neither 

the United States nor other donor countries have visibility into China’s 

activities in Niger. In addition, officials at the European Union’s civilian 

mission in Niger stated that Turkey and some of the wealthier TSCTP 

partner countries, including Algeria and Morocco, have provided 

counterterrorism aid to Niger but do not customarily share information on 

such activities with other donors.

Terrorist groups in northwest Africa continue to pose a national security 

threat to the United States. To address this threat, U.S. agencies have 

allocated nearly $290 million since 2009 to provide a wide range of 

diplomacy, development, and security assistance to partner countries 

through TSCTP. However, because TSCTP program managers at State 

and USAID do not routinely collect and assess data on the status of funds 

for TSCTP—including unobligated balances, unliquidated obligations, and 

disbursements—they may lack key information that could help inform 

current and future TSCTP program management decisions. Further, while 

State, USAID, and DOD are generally consistent with most key practices 

of interagency collaboration in their efforts to implement a whole-ofgovernment approach to TSCTP, the Department of Justice has not been 

fully integrated into TSCTP coordination efforts although it has expertise 

in building law enforcement capacity—one of TSCTP’s five lines of effort. 

We believe opportunities exist to enhance program management and 

interagency collaboration that would help program managers as well as 

Conclusions
 

Page 30 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

decision makers better plan future TSCTP activities and leverage the 

expertise of all relevant U.S. agencies.

To enhance TSCTP program management and interagency collaboration, 

we make the following two recommendations.

First, we recommend that the Secretary of State and the Administrator of 

USAID ensure that TSCTP program managers take steps to routinely 

collect and assess information that will better enable them to efficiently 

determine and report on the status of funds allocated for TSCTP.

Second, we recommend that the Secretary of State, in coordination with 

the Administrator of USAID and the Secretary of Defense, take steps to 

ensure that the Department of Justice is better integrated into TSCTP 

coordination efforts. This could include inviting Justice to quarterly 

meetings on TSCTP held at the deputy assistant secretary level.

We provided a draft of this report to State, USAID, DOD, DHS, Justice, 

Treasury, the Office of the Director of National Intelligence, and the 

Central Intelligence Agency for their review and comment. State and 

USAID provided written comments, which we have reprinted in 

appendixes V and VI, respectively. State, the Office of the Director of 

National Intelligence, and the Central Intelligence Agency also provided 

technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. DOD, DHS, 

Justice, and Treasury did not provide comments. 

State concurred with our recommendations to take steps to routinely 

collect and assess information on the status of funds allocated for TSCTP 

and to better integrate the Department of Justice into TSCTP coordination 

efforts. Specifically, State said it is seeking to identify better mechanisms 

and processes for collecting and maintaining financial data on TSCTP 

activities and will engage Justice to explore formalized participation in the 

TSCTP working group as well as higher-level policy coordination 

mechanisms. USAID also concurred with GAO’s recommendation to 

routinely collect and assess information on the status of funds allocated 

for TSCTP and stated that it is seeking to identify better processes for 

collecting and maintaining financial data on TSCTP.

We are sending copies of this report to the appropriate congressional 

committees, State, USAID, DOD, DHS, Justice, Treasury, the Office of 

Recommendations for 

Executive Action

Agency Comments 

and Our Evaluation
 

Page 31 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

the Director of National Intelligence, and the Central Intelligence Agency. 

In addition, the report is available at no charge on the GAO website at 

http://www.gao.gov. 

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact 

me at (202) 512-7331 or johnsoncm@gao.gov. Contact points for our 

Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on 

the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this

report are listed in appendix VII.

Charles Michael Johnson, Jr.

Director, International Affairs and Trade
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology

Page 32 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

To examine the status of Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

(TSCTP)–related funding and U.S. agencies’ ability to track such funding, 

we reviewed relevant laws and other funding documents and asked 

officials from the Department of State (State) and the U.S. Agency for 

International Development (USAID) to provide data on allocations, 

unobligated balances, unliquidated obligations, and disbursements for 

TSCTP by country and account for fiscal years 2009 through 2013. As 

neither State nor USAID routinely collects or maintains these funding 

elements in a central source, the agencies had to gather the data from 

various databases. The process of gathering the data took several 

months and, according to State and USAID officials, was very timeconsuming and labor-intensive. To determine the reliability of the funding 

data we received from State and USAID, we compared and corroborated 

information from the sources the agencies relied upon, requested 

information from State and USAID officials regarding the processes they 

use to collect and verify each data source, and checked the complete 

agency data sets for reasonableness and completeness. As we note 

throughout this report, the funding data we received from State are 

current as of November 2013, while the funding data we received from 

USAID are current as of December 2013. We did not conduct a financial 

audit of the funding data and are not expressing a financial opinion on 

them. Based on the checks we performed, we determined that the 

funding data we collected from State and USAID were sufficiently reliable 

for the purposes of this engagement.

To examine the extent to which U.S. agency implementation of TSCTP is 

consistent with key practices of interagency collaboration, we collected 

and reviewed U.S. government strategy documents, agency reports, and 

evaluations to identify and compare agency actions with key practices 

GAO has identified for enhancing interagency collaboration.1

 

1

GAO, Results-Oriented Government: Practices That Can Help Enhance and Sustain 

Collaboration among Federal Agencies, 

We 

reviewed the National Security Strategy, the National Strategy for 

Counterterrorism, State and USAID’s strategic plans for fiscal years 2007-

2012 and 2014-2017, the Department of Defense’s (DOD) 2014 

Quadrennial Defense Review, and the Guiding Strategy for TSCTP, 

approved in 2014. In addition, we reviewed State’s Foreign Operations 

Performance Reports, Mission Resource Requests, Bureau Resource 

Requests, Integrated Country Strategies, and Antiterrorism Assistance 

GAO-06-15 (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2005).

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology

Page 33 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

assessments. For DOD, we reviewed the Northwest Africa Campaign 

Plan and assessments of the Northwest Africa Campaign Plan, among 

other documents. For USAID, we reviewed the mid-term and final 

evaluations of the first phase of the Peace through Development

program; country assessments for Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, 

and Niger; and a report on factors contributing to violent extremism.

To identify whether U.S. agencies considered partner country needs, 

absorptive capacities, and other donor efforts when selecting TSCTP 

activities, we reviewed State and DOD guidance for agency officials 

proposing TSCTP activities. In addition, we reviewed agency 

assessments, to include several State Antiterrorism Assessments; USAID 

assessments for Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger; and 

the U.S. Africa Command’s (AFRICOM) multiyear plans for developing 

the counterterrorism capabilities of TSCTP countries. We also reviewed 

documentation from the Global Counterterrorism Forum and the 

European Union’s Common Security and Defence Policy civilian mission 

in Niger.

Additionally, we discussed our objectives with State, USAID, and DOD; 

the Departments of Justice, Homeland Security, and the Treasury; and 

intelligence community officials in the Washington, D.C., area. At State, 

we interviewed officials from the Bureaus of African Affairs, Near Eastern 

Affairs, Political-Military Affairs, Counterterrorism, and International 

Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. At USAID, we met with officials 

from the Bureau for Africa and the Bureau for Policy, Planning, and 

Learning. At DOD, we interviewed officials from the Office of the 

Secretary of Defense and the Joint Staff. Additionally, we met with 

participants of the 2013 annual TSCTP conference that USAID hosted in 

Washington, D.C., in October 2013, including U.S. embassy officials from 

Burkina Faso, Mali, and Senegal.

To obtain a more in-depth understanding of TSCTP, we conducted 

fieldwork in November 2013 at AFRICOM in Stuttgart, Germany, during 

which we met with DOD representatives as well as a State political 

adviser and a USAID adviser. Subsequently, in December 2013, we 

conducted fieldwork in Algiers, Algeria; Nouakchott, Mauritania; and 

Niamey, Niger, to observe TSCTP assistance and meet with U.S. 

embassy and partner country officials implementing TSCTP as well as 

international donors conducting similar counterterrorism activities, 

including officials from the Canadian Embassy and African Union in 

Algeria and officials from the European Union in Algeria and Niger. We

also interviewed U.S. implementing partners, including officials 
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and 

Methodology

Page 34 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

implementing USAID’s Peace through Development program in Niger and 

State-funded training and equipping efforts in Mauritania, as well as local 

participants in TSCTP activities, including a community action committee 

in Niamey, Niger. In addition, we visited a U.S.-funded military facility in 

Mauritania and met with Algerian, Mauritanian, and Nigerien government 

officials and Algerian and Mauritanian security forces officials. In selecting 

the countries to visit, we considered several criteria, including but not 

limited to the level of funding received by each country for TSCTP 

activities, geographic distribution, the number and duration of TSCTP 

activities in each country, and agency recommendations.

To identify terrorist events in TSCTP countries between 2009 and 2012, 

we used the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and 

Responses to Terrorism’s Global Terrorism Database. To determine the 

reliability of these data on terrorist events, we reviewed documentation 

outlining the database’s scope and methodology, checked the data for 

reasonableness, and interviewed a knowledgeable official at the 

consortium regarding the database. On the basis of these checks, we 

determined that the data were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this 

engagement. Regarding key terrorist groups in northwest Africa and their 

regions of operation, we received and incorporated input from officials in 

State’s Bureaus of African Affairs, Counterterrorism, and Intelligence and 

Research on how best to depict the geographic presence of groups that 

State identified as primary concerns to U.S. interests.

We conducted this performance audit from June 2013 to June 2014 in 

accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. 

Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain 

sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our 

findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that 

the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and 

conclusions based on our audit objectives.
Appendix II: Examples of Activities Conducted 

Using Funds Allocated for the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 35 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Between fiscal years 2009 and 2013, State, USAID, and DOD conducted 

a variety of activities using TSCTP-dedicated funding. As previously 

noted, State has conducted diplomacy and law enforcement activities, 

while USAID and DOD have focused on development and security 

assistance activities, respectively.

• State’s TSCTP activities include public diplomacy efforts as well as 

law enforcement training and equipping and criminal justice sector 

reform. Through its public diplomacy efforts, State provides 

messaging that is intended to represent an alternative to violent 

extremist propaganda, including support for mainstream media and 

other forums that promote interfaith dialogue and peaceful political 

participation. For example, figure 7 shows an imam training and 

interfaith dialogue workshop in Chad. State’s law enforcement training 

and equipping efforts focus on building partner nations’ capacity to 

prevent, respond to, investigate, and prosecute acts of terrorism. 

According to State, providing border security training and equipment 

to secure porous land, air, and maritime borders makes up a 

significant component of these activities. 

Figure 7: State TSCTP-Funded Imam Training and Interfaith Dialogue Workshop in 

Chad

• USAID’s TSCTP activities include efforts to support youth 

employment, strengthen local governance capacity, and improve 

access to education. USAID’s TSCTP activities are primarily 

conducted through the Peace through Development program in Niger, 

Chad, and Burkina Faso, which succeeds a prior Peace through 

Appendix II: Examples of Activities

Conducted Using Funds Allocated for the 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership
Appendix II: Examples of Activities Conducted 

Using Funds Allocated for the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 36 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Development program that mainly targeted Niger and Chad.1

Figure 8: USAID TSCTP-Funded Radio Studio in Niger

USAID 

envisions the current Peace through Development program as a 5-

year effort that, according to USAID officials, includes various “layers” 

of activities, such as support for messages of tolerance and 

moderation, livelihood support, and education, among others. Figure 8 

shows one example of USAID assistance efforts—a radio studio built 

in Niger to support messaging efforts as part of the Peace through 

Development program.

 

1

The $31.8 million first phase of the program, from 2008 to 2011, was designed to cover 

Mauritania, but USAID suspended its country program there following Mauritania’s August 

2008 coup. According to State and USAID officials, Mauritania was also invited to 

participate in the $62 million second phase of the program, from 2011 to 2016, but opted 

out because of its preference for bilateral assistance over participation in a multicountry 

program. 
Appendix II: Examples of Activities Conducted 

Using Funds Allocated for the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 37 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

• DOD’s TSCTP activities, funded from State’s Peacekeeping 

Operations account, include counterterrorism training and equipping.2

 

2

As noted earlier in this report, DOD does not directly fund TSCTP but implements some 

TSCTP assistance funded from State’s Peacekeeping Operations account. 

Examples of DOD’s activities include multicountry training in logistics, 

military intelligence, combat medical skills, and civil-military 

operations; bilateral training and equipping of counterterrorism and 

military intelligence units; and providing spare parts and maintenance 

for vehicles. Other Peacekeeping Operations–funded activities have 

been implemented directly by State contractors. For instance, figure 9 

shows radio equipment provided for the Mauritanian military’s national 

command center and body armor and night vision goggles for 

Mauritanian special forces.
Appendix II: Examples of Activities Conducted 

Using Funds Allocated for the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 38 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Figure 9: State TSCTP-Funded Radio Equipment for Mauritanian Military National 

Command Center and Body Armor and Night Vision Goggles for Mauritanian 

Special Forces
Appendix III: Examples of Accounts and 

Programs That Support Counterterrorism 

Activities outside of the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 39 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Examples of accounts used by State and USAID to support 

counterterrorism activities outside of TSCTP include the following:

• Foreign Military Financing—authorizes the President to finance the 

procurement of defense articles and services for foreign countries and 

international organizations. This assistance supports, among other 

things, building and sustaining military counterterrorism capabilities 

globally. In Africa, State created a Regional Africa Counterterrorism 

program specifically to help sustain activities built through 

counterterrorism capacity-building programs in Africa. These funds 

are approved by State and implemented by DOD. 

• International Military Education and Training—authorizes the 

President to furnish military education and training to military and 

related civilian personnel of foreign countries. This assistance 

supports the professionalization of militaries globally through training 

and education activities, primarily in the United States. Courses in 

Africa are not focused on counterterrorism but may include 

counterterrorism topics as part of efforts to professionalize and 

establish relationships with foreign militaries. These funds are Stateapproved and DOD-implemented.

• Peacekeeping Operations—authorizes the President to furnish 

assistance to friendly countries and international organizations for 

peacekeeping operations and other programs carried out in 

furtherance of the national security interests of the United States. 

Outside of funds dedicated for TSCTP programs, Peacekeeping 

Operations funds have been used to support security sector reform in 

the region, such as in Mali for fiscal year 2014. In fiscal year 2013, 

Peacekeeping Operations funds not dedicated for TSCTP were used 

to train and equip African troops deploying to the African Union 

mission in Mali, which has since transitioned into a United Nations 

mission.

• Development Assistance—authorizes the President to provide 

assistance for various purposes, including agricultural development, 

education and human resources development, grant assistance for 

microenterprises, and a development fund for Africa, among other 

purposes. Outside of funds dedicated for TSCTP programs, USAID 

has used Development Assistance funds to transfer financial 

resources to developing countries as well as to help countries solve 

development problems.

Appendix III: Examples of Accounts and 

Programs That Support Counterterrorism 

Activities outside of the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership
Appendix III: Examples of Accounts and 

Programs That Support Counterterrorism 

Activities outside of the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 40 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

• Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs—

authorizes the President to provide antiterrorism assistance, 

nonproliferation and export control assistance, and other assistance to 

foreign countries for various purposes. Outside of funds dedicated for 

TSCTP programs, State has provided Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, 

Demining, and Related Programs–funded assistance to support 

additional activities designed to enhance the antiterrorism skills of 

friendly countries by providing training and equipment and other 

programs run by State’s Bureau of Counterterrorism, including its 

Counterterrorism Engagement, Counterterrorism Finance, Countering 

Violent Extremism, and Regional Strategic Initiative programs. State 

has provided some funding from this account to the Department of 

Justice to implement activities, such as providing resident legal 

advisers and training in criminal investigative techniques to select 

TSCTP countries.

• Economic Support Fund—authorizes the President to assist countries 

and organizations in order to promote economic or political stability. 

Outside of funds dedicated for TSCTP programs, State has used the 

Economic Support Fund to support its Countering Violent Extremism 

Program and the interagency Center for Strategic Counterterrorism 

Communications, while USAID has used it for programs and activities 

to counter violent extremism in the Sahel region.

• International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement—authorizes the 

President to assist foreign countries and international organizations to 

control narcotics and other controlled substances, or for other 

anticrime purposes. Outside of funds dedicated for TSCTP programs, 

State has provided International Narcotics Control and Law 

Enforcement funds to assist foreign countries and international 

organizations in developing and implementing policies and programs 

that maintain the rule of law and strengthen institutional law 

enforcement and judicial capabilities, including combating 

transnational crime. State has provided some funding from this 

account to the Department of Justice to provide resident and 

intermittent legal advisers in TSCTP countries.

Examples of DOD accounts or programs supporting counterterrorism 

activities outside of TSCTP include the following:

• Section 1206 funds—These funds may be used by DOD to build the 

capacity of a foreign country’s military forces and security forces to (1) 

conduct counterterrorist operations and (2) enable foreign military 

forces to participate in or support military and stability operations with 
Appendix III: Examples of Accounts and 

Programs That Support Counterterrorism 

Activities outside of the Trans-Sahara 

Counterterrorism Partnership

Page 41 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

the U.S. armed forces. Programs funded with this assistance must be 

jointly formulated and implemented by the Secretaries of Defense and 

State, and the law authorizes DOD to provide the assistance with the 

Secretary of State’s concurrence.

• Various Title X programs—DOD’s primary source of funding to 

support activities conducted by the armed forces, including its 

counternarcotics program, Combating Terrorism Fellowship Program, 

and humanitarian assistance and disaster relief efforts.

• Operation Enduring Freedom–Trans-Sahara—DOD’s missionoriented regional program that supports personnel activities related to 

implementation of TSCTP and other related DOD counterterrorism 

efforts.
Appendix IV: Status of Funds Allocated for 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

Activities

Page 42 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Between fiscal years 2009 and 2013, State and USAID allocated about 

$288 million for TSCTP activities. Tables 4 through 10 show the status of 

funding for TSCTP activities between fiscal years 2009 and 2013 and the 

total by account. Specifically, the table for each account shows 

allocations, unobligated balances, unliquidated obligations, and 

disbursements.

Table 4: Status of Peacekeeping Operations Funding for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of 

November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 15,000 21,000 19,939 20,001 16,100 92,040 

Unobligated balance - - - - - - 

Unliquidated obligations 4,310 4,612 5,667 4,456 15,739 34,784

Disbursed 10,690 16,388 14,272 15,545 361 57,256

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518

Table 5: Status of Development Assistance Funding for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of 

December 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 10,700 27,450 22,750 12,825 12,689 86,414 

Unobligated balance - - - - 1,907a 1,907 

Unliquidated obligations - 6,699 20,198 11,284 10,782 48,963

Disbursed 10,700 20,751 2,552 1,541 - 35,544

Source: GAO analysis of USAID data. | GAO-14-518

a

The unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain available for obligation until 

September 30, 2014 and that USAID is in the process of obligating. 

Appendix IV: Status of Funds Allocated for 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

Activities
Appendix IV: Status of Funds Allocated for 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

Activities

Page 43 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Table 6: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs Antiterrorism Assistance Funding for 

TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 6,950 14,124 9,403 12,071 9,947 52,495

Unobligated balance 2,108 3,259 a 827 a 545 a 9,947 a 16,686 b

Unliquidated obligations 93 646 1,602 5,913 - 8,254

Disbursed 4,749 10,219 6,974 5,613 - 27,555

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518

a

The unobligated balances from fiscal years 2009 through 2012, totaling about $6.7 million, are funds 

that, according to State officials, were not obligated or were deobligated and may no longer be 

available to incur new obligations. Once the period of availability for obligation has expired, 

unobligated balances remain available for an additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting 

obligations properly chargeable to the appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds 

may remain available for contract modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.

b

The unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain available for obligation until 

September 30, 2014 and that State is in the process of obligating. 

Table 7: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs Counterterrorism Finance Funding for 

TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated - 1,500 - - - 1,500 

Unobligated balance - - - - - - 

Unliquidated obligations - 1,244 - - - 1,244 

Disbursed - 256 - - - 256 

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518
Appendix IV: Status of Funds Allocated for 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

Activities

Page 44 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Table 8: Status of Nonproliferation, Antiterrorism, Demining, and Related Programs Terrorist Interdiction Program Funding 

for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated - 530 500 850 1,636 3,516 

Unobligated balance - - - - 1,636a 1,636 

Unliquidated obligations - - - - - -

Disbursed - 530 500 850 - 1,880

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518

a

The unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain available for obligation until 

September 30, 2014 and that State is in the process of obligating. 

Table 9: Status of Economic Support Fund Funding for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year Appropriations (2009-2013), as of 

November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 4,000 11,000 3,500 5,500 5,305 29,305

Unobligated balance - 4 - a 31a 5,206b 5,241 

Unliquidated obligations 160 4,675 1,209 4,703 99 10,846 

Disbursed 3,840 6,321 2,291 766 - 13,218

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518

a

The unobligated balances in fiscal years 2010 and 2012, totaling about $35,000, are funds that, 

according to State officials, were not obligated or were deobligated and may no longer be available to 

incur new obligations. Once the period of availability for obligation has expired, unobligated balances 

remain available for an additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting obligations properly 

chargeable to the appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds may remain available 

for contract modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.

b

The unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain available for obligation until 

September 30, 2014 and that State and USAID are in the process of obligating. 
Appendix IV: Status of Funds Allocated for 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership 

Activities

Page 45 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Table 10: Status of International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement Funding for TSCTP Activities, by Fiscal Year 

Appropriations (2009-2013), as of November 2013

Dollars in thousands

Fiscal years

2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Total

Allocated 3,000 4,192 3,530 4,370 7,344 22,436 

Unobligated balance - 68 2 a a 11a 3,962 4,043 b 

Unliquidated obligations 2,475 2,532 2,709 4,218 3,382 15,316

Disbursed 525 1,592 819 141 - 3,077

Source: GAO analysis of State data. | GAO-14-518

a

The unobligated balances from fiscal years 2010 through 2012, totaling about $81,000, are funds 

that, according to State officials, were not obligated or were deobligated and may no longer be 

available to incur new obligations. Once the period of availability for obligation has expired,

unobligated balances remain available for an additional 5 fiscal years for recording and adjusting 

obligations properly chargeable to the appropriations period of availability. For example, these funds 

may remain available for contract modifications properly within the scope of the original contract.

b

The unobligated balance in fiscal year 2013 reflects funds that remain available for obligation until 

September 30, 2014 and that State is in the process of obligating. 
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of State

Page 46 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of State
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of State

Page 47 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism
Appendix V: Comments from the Department 

of State

Page 48 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism
Appendix VI: Comments from the U.S. Agency 

for International Development

Page 49 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Appendix VI: Comments from the U.S. 

Agency for International Development
Appendix VI: Comments from the U.S. Agency 

for International Development

Page 50 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism
Appendix VII: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

Page 51 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Charles Michael Johnson, Jr., (202) 512-7331, or johnsoncm@gao.gov

In addition to the contact named above, Godwin Agbara (Assistant 

Director), Aniruddha Dasgupta, Kendal Robinson, Ashley Alley, Martin de 

Alteriis, Karen Deans, and Etana Finkler made key contributions to this 

report. Cynthia Taylor and Sarah Veale provided technical assistance.

Appendix VII: GAO Contact and Staff 

Acknowledgments

GAO Contact

Staff 

Acknowledgments
Related GAO Products

Page 52 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Combating Terrorism: State Department Can Improve Management of 

East Africa Program. GAO-14-502. Washington, D.C.: June 17, 2014.

Afghanistan: Oversight and Accountability of U.S. Assistance. GAO-14-

680T. Washington, D.C.: June 10, 2014.

Countering Overseas Threats: DOD and State Need to Address Gaps in 

Monitoring of Security Equipment Transferred to Lebanon. GAO-14-161. 

Washington, D.C.: February 26, 2014.

Central America: U.S. Agencies Considered Various Factors in Funding 

Security Activities, but Need to Assess Progress in Achieving Interagency 

Objectives. GAO-13-771. Washington, D.C.: September 25, 2013. 

Combating Terrorism: DHS Should Take Action to Better Ensure 

Resources Abroad Align with Priorities. GAO-13-681. Washington, D.C.: 

September 25, 2013.

Building Partner Capacity: DOD is Meeting Most Targets for Colombia’s 

Regional Helicopter Training Center but Should Track Graduates. GAO13-674. Washington, D.C.: July 24, 2013.

Status of Funding, Equipment, and Training for the Caribbean Basin 

Security Initiative. GAO-13-367R. Washington, D.C.: March 20, 2013.

U.S. Assistance to Yemen: Actions Needed to Improve Oversight of 

Emergency Food Aid and Assess Security Assistance. GAO-13-310. 

Washington, D.C.: March 20, 2013.

Building Partner Capacity: Key Practices to Effectively Manage 

Department of Defense Efforts to Promote Security Cooperation. GAO13-335T. Washington, D.C.: February 14, 2013.

Afghanistan: Key Oversight Issues. GAO-13-218SP. Washington, D.C.: 

February 11, 2013.

Security Force Assistance: DOD's Consideration of Unintended 

Consequences, Perverse Incentives, and Moral Hazards. GAO-13-241R. 

Washington, D.C.: January 8, 2013.

Counternarcotics Assistance: U.S. Agencies Have Allotted Billions in 

Andean Countries, but DOD Should Improve Its Reporting of Results. 

GAO-12-824. Washington, D.C.: July 10, 2012.

Related GAO Products
Related GAO Products

Page 53 GAO-14-518 Combating Terrorism

Combating Terrorism: State Should Enhance Its Performance Measures 

for Assessing Efforts in Pakistan to Counter Improvised Explosive 

Devices. GAO-12-614. Washington, D.C.: May 15, 2012.

Foreign Police Assistance: Defined Roles and Improved Information 

Sharing Could Enhance Interagency Collaboration. GAO-12-534. 

Washington, D.C.: May 9, 2012.

Uncertain Political and Security Situation Challenges U.S. Efforts to 

Implement a Comprehensive Strategy in Yemen. GAO-12-432R. 

Washington, D.C.: February 29, 2012.

Combating Terrorism: Additional Steps Needed to Enhance Foreign 

Partners’ Capacity to Prevent Terrorist Travel. GAO-11-637. Washington, 

D.C.: June 30, 2011.

Combating Terrorism: U.S. Government Should Improve Its Reporting on 

Terrorist Safe Havens. GAO-11-561. Washington, D.C.: June 3, 2011.

Combating Terrorism: Planning and Documentation of U.S. Development 

Assistance in Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas Need to Be 

Improved. GAO-10-289. Washington, D.C.: April 15, 2010.

Combating Terrorism: U.S. Agencies Report Progress Countering 

Terrorism and Its Financing in Saudi Arabia, but Continued Focus on 

Counter Terrorism Financing Efforts Needed. GAO-09-883. Washington, 

D.C.: September 24, 2009.

Securing, Stabilizing, and Developing Pakistan’s Border Area with 

Afghanistan: Key Issues for Congressional Oversight. GAO-09-263SP. 

Washington, D.C.: February 23, 2009.

Combating Terrorism: Actions Needed to Enhance Implementation of 

Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership. GAO-08-860. Washington, 

D.C.: July 31, 2008.

Somalia: Several Challenges Limit U.S. and International Stabilization, 

Humanitarian, and Development Efforts. GAO-08-351. Washington, D.C.: 

February 19, 2008.

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