Efforts to Improve the Quality of Vocational Education 

in Secondary Schools: Impact of Federal and State 

Policies 

Cathleen Stasz* 

Susan Bodilly* 

With the Assistance of 

Sarah Remes* 

Tammi Oyadomari-Chun* 

Daniel McCaffrey* 

Tessa Kaganoff* 

Dionne Barnes* 

*RAND Corporation 

June 2004 

Prepared for the National Assessment of Vocational Education, 

U.S. Department of Education 

ED-00-C0-0002

-iiiContents 

Tables ............................................................................................................................................. ix

Acronyms......................................................................................................................................xii

Preface..........................................................................................................................................xiii

Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................xiv

Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... xv

Study Questions...................................................................................................................xiv

Approach and Methods......................................................................................................xvi

Reactions to Perkins III Specifications.............................................................................xvii

The State Context for Efforts to Improve Vocational Education................................... xix

State and Local Efforts to Improve the Quality of Vocational Education.................... xxi

Impact of Tech-Prep and Related Federal Policies .......................................................xxiv

Conclusions and Implications .........................................................................................xxiv

General Conclusions .........................................................................................................xxvi

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1

The Changing Federal Role in Vocational Education........................................................ 1

Study Questions...................................................................................................................... 7

Methods ................................................................................................................................... 8

Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................................ 9

Roadmap for This Report...................................................................................................... 9

2. Study Approach and Methods ........................................................................................... 11

Case Studies .......................................................................................................................... 11

Sample Selection.............................................................................................................. 11

Development of Quality Indicators .............................................................................. 13

Instruments ...................................................................................................................... 16

Procedures........................................................................................................................ 16

Case-study Data Analysis .............................................................................................. 18

Analysis of High-Achieving and Low-Achieving Schools........................................ 19

Teacher Survey ..................................................................................................................... 20

Sampling Frame............................................................................................................... 20

Design and Development............................................................................................... 21

Survey Administration................................................................................................... 22

Survey Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 22

3. Reactions to Perkins III Specifications: Funding, Accountability and Special 

Populations............................................................................................................................ 25

Perkins Funding ................................................................................................................... 25

State Uses of Funds ......................................................................................................... 27

Local Uses of Funds ........................................................................................................ 29

Perkins Accountability Requirements ............................................................................... 32

Vocational Education for Special Populations ................................................................. 36

Impact of Changes in Set-Asides and Assessment ..................................................... 37

Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 46
-iv4. The State Context for Efforts to Improve Vocational Education.................................... 49

Philosophy and Vision......................................................................................................... 50

The Structures and Delivery Systems for Vocational Education ................................... 52

State Reforms ........................................................................................................................ 59

Standards.......................................................................................................................... 63

Increased Graduation Requirements............................................................................ 66

Assessments ..................................................................................................................... 68

Other Vocational Education Reforms........................................................................... 70

Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 71

5. State and Local Efforts to Implement Perkins Quality Improvements ......................... 75

Promote Academic and Technical Skill Attainment........................................................ 76

State Efforts ...................................................................................................................... 77

Local Efforts ..................................................................................................................... 85

Integration of Academic and Vocational Education........................................................ 88

State Efforts ...................................................................................................................... 90

Local Efforts ..................................................................................................................... 91

All Aspects of the Industry ................................................................................................. 94

Parent and Employer Involvement.................................................................................... 97

State Efforts ...................................................................................................................... 98

Local Efforts ..................................................................................................................... 98

Connections to Postsecondary............................................................................................ 99

State Efforts .................................................................................................................... 100

Local Efforts ................................................................................................................... 101

Technology .......................................................................................................................... 103

State Efforts .................................................................................................................... 103

Local Efforts ................................................................................................................... 104

Professional Development and Teacher Supply ............................................................ 105

State Efforts .................................................................................................................... 106

Local Efforts ................................................................................................................... 107

Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 108

6. Tech-Prep and Other Federal Policies ............................................................................. 113

Tech-Prep and Vocational Education .............................................................................. 113

Forms of Tech-Prep....................................................................................................... 114

Structured Programs: North Carolina and Florida.................................................. 115

Enhanced Vocational Programs: Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio and Texas...... 116

Loosely Structured Programs: California ................................................................. 119

School-to-Work Opportunities Act .................................................................................. 119

Workforce Investment Act ................................................................................................ 122

Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 123

7. Conclusions and Implications .......................................................................................... 125

Integration ........................................................................................................................... 128

Use of Challenging Standards .......................................................................................... 129

Build Links to Employers and Postsecondary Education............................................. 130

Develop, Expand and Improve the Use of Technology ................................................ 130

General Conclusions and Policy Implications................................................................ 133
-vAppendix A: Selection of States and Schools........................................................................ 137

State Selection ..................................................................................................................... 137

Selection Criteria ........................................................................................................... 137

Selection Procedures..................................................................................................... 138

School Selection .................................................................................................................. 139

Analysis of Achievement Data .................................................................................... 139

Screening for Vocational Intensity.............................................................................. 141

Consideration of School Characteristics..................................................................... 141

Replacing Schools.......................................................................................................... 143

Appendix B: Survey Sample Design...................................................................................... 144

The Sampling Frame of Schools and Teachers ............................................................... 144

Sampling Strata................................................................................................................... 146

Vocational Schools ........................................................................................................ 146

Comprehensive Schools ............................................................................................... 149

Teacher Strata...................................................................................................................... 150

Survey Response................................................................................................................. 151

Adjustments for Survey Non-response...................................................................... 153

Standard Error Estimation ........................................................................................... 156

Creation of the Overall Teacher Quality Scale ............................................................... 156

Q22. Use of Standards (q_22a_related–q22d_related, q22a_affect–q22d_affect). 156

Q20. Academic and Technical Quality (Academic Quality, q20a, q20b, q20d; 

Technical Quality, q20c, q20f) ................................................................................ 157

Q24. Assessed Competencies (q24b, q24c, q24e, q24h, q24j, q24f, q24g, 

q24i, q24k)................................................................................................................ 158

Q17. Teacher Quality (q17) ......................................................................................... 158

Q25. Amount of Homework (q25_hr q25_min) ....................................................... 159

Overall Teacher Scale......................................................................................................... 160

Appendix C: Efforts to Improve Quality — Summary Tables and Analysis of 

“High-Performing” and “Low-Performing” Schools.................................................... 169

Narrative Summary ........................................................................................................... 169

Integration Structure (Table C.1)................................................................................. 169

Integration Curriculum (Table C.2) ............................................................................ 170

Challenging Academic and Vocational Standards: Table C.3................................ 170

Connections to Employers and Community: Table C.4.......................................... 170

Connections to Postsecondary: Table C.5 ................................................................. 171

Counseling and Career Planning: Table C.6............................................................. 171

Technology Policy and Resources: Table C.7 ........................................................... 172

Teacher Supply and Professional Development: Table C.8.................................... 173

Appendix D: Teacher Survey Tables ..................................................................................... 175

References................................................................................................................................... 193

-viiTables 

2.1 Summary of Secondary School Sample...................................................................................15 

2.2 Study Topics by Sources of Data..............................................................................................24 

3.1 State Allocation of Basic Grant Funds to Secondary and Postsecondary Institutions......26 

3.2 Status of State Accountability Systems ...................................................................................34

4.1 Synopsis of State Governance Structure .................................................................................53 

4.2 Synopsis of Secondary Standards and Assessment...............................................................60 

5.1 State Policies to Promote Quality.............................................................................................76 

B.1 Numbers of Schools by Vocational and Comprehensive Strata........................................145 

B.2 Numbers of Schools by Vocational School Strata................................................................146 

C.1 Integration Structure ...............................................................................................................159 

C.2 Integration Curriculum ...........................................................................................................160 

C.3 Challenging Academic and Vocational Standards..............................................................161 

C.4 Connections to Employers and Community........................................................................162 

C.5 Connections to Postsecondary ...............................................................................................163

C.6 Counseling and Career Planning...........................................................................................164 

C.7 Technology Policy and Resources .........................................................................................165

C.8 Teacher Supply and Professional Development..................................................................166 

D.1 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any Professional 

Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months...........................................................173 

D.2 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any 

Professional Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months ....................................174 

D.3 Percentage of Vocational Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools 

Reporting Any Professional Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months .........175 

D.4 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report Team Teaching............176 

D.5 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Who Report 

Team Teaching .........................................................................................................................176

D.6 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any Participation 

with Postsecondary Faculty in Certain Activities ...............................................................177 

D.7 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any 

Participation with Postsecondary Faculty in Certain Activities........................................177 

D.8 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any Contact with 

Business Groups.......................................................................................................................178
-viiiD.9 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any 

Contact with Business Groups ...............................................................................................178 

D.10 Percentage of Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Requiring Career Plans ............179 

D.11 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report that Identified Class 

Has Particular Characteristics (Percentage of Classes).......................................................179 

D.12 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting “Above Average” 

Participation of Special Populations in Identified Classes .................................................180 

D.13 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting 

“Above Average” Participation of Special Populations in Identified Classes.................180 

D.14 Existence of Standards for Identified Classes Taught by Academic and 

Vocational Teachers (Percentage of Teachers Reporting) ..................................................181

D.15 Percentage of Teachers Reporting Standards Influence Class a “Moderate” or 

“Great” Extent ..........................................................................................................................181 

D.16 Academic and Vocational Teacher Reports of Frequency of Activities in Most 

Recent Identified Class (Percentage of Teachers) ................................................................182 

D.17 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Competency 

Contributes to a “Great Extent” to Students’ Grades in Identified Classes.....................183 

D.18 Reported Amount of Homework Assigned in Identified Classes by Academic 

 and Vocational Teachers (Mean Hours)...............................................................................184 

D.19 Reported Amount of Homework Assigned in Identified Classes by Teachers 

in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools (Mean Hours) ................................................184

D.20 Reported Preparation of Academic and Vocational Teachers to Teach 

Technology-Related Skills.......................................................................................................184 

D.21 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting “Moderate” or 

“Great” Input byBusiness Groups in Identified Career-Oriented or 

Vocational Classes....................................................................................................................185 

D.22 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting 

“Moderate” or “Great” Input by Business Groups in Identified Career-Oriented 

or Vocational Classes...............................................................................................................185 

D.23 Weighted Teacher Scales for Academic and Vocational Teachers and Classes 

(Mean Scores)............................................................................................................................186 

D.24 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report “Moderate” or 

“Serious” Problems with Technology ...................................................................................187

D.25 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Who Report 

“Moderate” or “Serious” Problems with Technology .......................................................187 

D.26 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Activity Occurs 

“Frequently” in Identified Class ............................................................................................188

D.27 Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Engaged in Collaboration 

(Percentage Reporting Engagement in Any Collaboration)...............................................189 
-ixD.28 Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Engaged in 

Collaboration (Percentage Reporting Engagement in Any Collaboration) .....................189

D.29Academic and Vocational Teacher Reports of Amount of Time School Provides 

for Teachers to Work Together (Percentage of Teachers) .....................................................190

D.30 Reports of Amount of Time school Provides for Teachers in Comprehensive and 

Vocational Schools to Work Together (Percentage of Teachers) .......................................191
-xAcronyms 

AAI All Aspects of the Industry 

ACE Assessment in Career Education 

AVS Area Vocational School 

CC Community college 

COS Course of study 

CPS Career Preparation System 

CTE Career and technical education 

CTSO Career and technical student organization 

FCAT Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test 

FTE Full-time equivalent 

GPA Grade point average 

HSTW High Schools that Work 

IEP Institutional Effectiveness Process 

ISD Intermediate school district 

ITAC Integrated Technical and Academic Competencies 

JVS Joint Vocational School 

LEA Local education agency 

MCAS Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System 

MCCTE Michigan Center for Career and Technical Education 

MDCD Michigan Department of Career Development 

MDR Market Data Retrieval 

NAVE National Assessment of Vocational Education 

OCAP Ohio Competency Assessment Profile 

OCP Occupational Completer Point 

OMB Office of Management and Budget 

RCR Respondent coverage rate 

ROP Regional occupational program 

ROP/C Regional occupational programs/centers 

SCANS Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills 

SREB Southern Regional Education Board 

SRG Survey Research Group (RAND) 

STAR Standardized Testing and Reporting 

STW School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 

T&I Trade and industry 

TEKS Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills 

VoCATS Vocational Competency Achievement Tracking System 

WBL Work-based learning 

WIA Workforce Investment Act 
-xiPreface 

The National Assessment of Vocational Education — a congressionally-mandated study 

— is charged with evaluating the impact of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical 

Education Act of 1998, known as Perkins III, and preparing a report to Congress by July 

2002. As part of that effort, the National Assessment of Vocational Education commissioned RAND to conduct a study to assess the quality of vocational education in the 

United States. The purpose of the study is twofold. It will provide evidence on the extent to which actual practice is consistent with legislative and other views of what constitutes “quality” practice in secondary vocational education. It also will provide 

evidence regarding how policies made at different levels of the education system enhance or impede implementation of quality practice. RAND’s findings as described in 

this report provide some of the information NAVE needs to evaluate the impact of the 

Perkins Act and prepare its report to Congress. The database for the study was developed in 2001 and included case-study analysis and analysis of a national teacher survey. 

The case-study sample included seven states — California, Florida, Massachusetts, 

Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas — and four districts and schools within each 

state. The survey was administered to vocational and academic teachers in a nationallyrepresentative sample of comprehensive high schools and vocational schools. 

While the targeted audience for any NAVE research is the U.S. Congress, this study 

should be of interest to any policymakers and administrators involved in improving vocational education and secondary education more generally. Because the report contains 

specific descriptions of different state and local approaches, it might also be useful to 

state and local educators intent on gaining ideas for improvement of their programs. 

This work was contracted by the U.S. Department of Education, Planning and Evaluation Services, and performed by RAND Education from November 2000 to August 2002. 

This report was prepared for the U.S. Department of Education under contract number 

ED-00-CO-0002, using the Department’s appropriated funds. The views expressed 

herein are those of the contractor. No official endorsement by the U.S. Department of 

Education is intended or should be inferred. 
-xiiAcknowledgments 

This study could not have been carried out without the cooperation of many individuals 

around the country. First, we thank the individuals at the state, district and school levels who helped schedule and organize the site visits, responded to our many queries and 

questions, and shared their views and insights on the issues that affect vocational education today. Because study respondents, as well as district and school sites, participated 

under conditions of confidentiality, we are unable to thank them all by name. 

We also acknowledge the assistance of the NAVE staff — Marsha Silverberg, David 

Goodwin and Betsy Warner — in the design of the study and teacher survey. Several 

other individuals also provided review and feedback or advice on specific aspects of the 

research: Karen Batchelor, Dominic Brewer, Beverly Campbell, Margaret Ellibee, Kimberly Green, Norton Grubb, Phyllis Hudecki, Jim Jacobs, Jack Jennings, Jo Kister, Mikala 

Rahn, Nancy Raynor, Scott Snelson, Carole Stacy, Don Richards and Peggi Zelinko. We 

thank them all for their contributions. 

The case studies were carried out by teams of researchers from RAND and MPR Associates. RAND staff included Cathy Stasz, Sue Bodilly, Tammi Oyodamari-Chun, Tessa 

Kaganoff, Sarah Remes and Dionne Barnes. MPR staff included Penni Hudis, Sarah 

Calderon, Ted Warburton, Jane Sanborn, David Singleton, Tawny Beal, Anna Sikora and 

Lois Lynn Deuel. The teacher survey was conducted by RAND’s Survey Research 

Group, under the direction of Beverly Weidmer. Dan McCaffrey designed the survey; 

Brian Stecher, Cassie Guarino and Jennifer Hawes-Dawson assisted in the design of the 

survey instrument. Dan McCaffrey, Brian Stecher, Delia Bugliari and Vi-Nhuan Le assisted in survey data analysis. Many other staff at RAND and MPR provided administrative and research assistance to the project, especially Donna White, Donna Boykin, 

Karen Ross and Abby Robyn at RAND, and Shierra Merto, Kelsey Blakely, Steve Klein, 

Bob Fitzgerald and Elliott Medrich at MPR. Christopher Dirks and Donna Boykin assisted in the production of this report. 

Finally, we thank Tora Bikson of RAND and David Stern of the University of California, 

Berkeley, who provided technical review and offered many useful comments and suggestions that greatly improved this report. 
-xiiiExecutive Summary 

The National Assessment of Vocational Education — a congressionally-mandated study 

— is charged with evaluating the impact of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical 

Education Act of 1998, known as Perkins III, and preparing a report to Congress by July 

2002. As part of that effort, the National Assessment of Vocational Education commissioned RAND to conduct a study to assess the quality of vocational education in the 

United States. The purpose of the study is twofold. It will provide evidence on the extent to which actual practice is consistent with legislative and other views of what constitutes “quality” practice in secondary vocational education. It also will provide 

evidence regarding how policies made at different levels of the education system enhance or impede implementation of quality practice. RAND’s findings as described in 

this report provide some of the information NAVE needs to evaluate the impact of the 

Perkins Act and prepare its report to Congress. They also yield lessons for the larger 

vocational education community by identifying strategies that can be adopted by 

schools, communities and states to improve the quality of vocational education programs. 

Vocational and technical education is defined in Public Law 105-332 as organized educational activities that individuals need to prepare for further education and for careers 

requiring less than a baccalaureate degree. The educational activities are to offer a sequence of courses that provide individuals the necessary academic and technical knowledge and skills and to include competency-based applied learning. Federal funding for 

vocational education commenced with the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, 

and since that time federal legislation has sought to shape vocational education in specific ways. Vocational education, like all education in the United States, has traditionally 

been the domain of states and local communities. The federal government plays an important role in education through its leadership and funding, but the vocational education “system” has no national standards or curriculum. 

Over time, federal legislation has attempted to expand influence over state vocational 

education programs. Perkins III offered specific guidance on the kinds of improvements 

that a program should incorporate to enhance its quality. These improvements included 

• integrating academics into vocational and technical studies; 

• adopting challenging academic, vocational and technical standards; 

• promoting understanding of “all aspects” of an industry; 

• encouraging parent and employer involvement; 

• building linkages to postsecondary education; 

• expanding use of technology; and 
-xiv-

• providing for professional development of teachers, counselors and administrators.

Importantly, Perkins III incorporated stronger accountability measures than previous 

legislation did. States now must develop and track four core performance indicators 

and meet specific performance targets. Federal funds can be withheld from states that 

fail to meet their targets. 

Perkins III was signed into law on Oct. 31, 1998 and took effect in program year 2000, 

from July 1, 1999 through Sept. 30, 2000. Thus, it was in effect for less than one year 

when this study began. States in this study opted to use the last state plan submitted 

under Perkins II as a transition plan with only minimal changes. New state plans were 

submitted during the course of the study, but most were not implemented until the second program year, July 1, 2000–Sept. 30, 2001, after Perkins III was enacted. 

The study noted three limitations at the outset: little time has passed to allow for full 

implementation of Perkins III or for its accountability measures to take effect; the reform 

emphasis in secondary schools is on higher academic standards and performance; and 

the federal resources are relatively small compared with state funding. Thus, the incentives to implement Perkins-related reforms are weak relative to reforms associated with 

other state or local policies. 

Within this context, the study aimed to understand the extent to which the quality improvements identified in Perkins were being implemented and whether the new provisions in Perkins III were encouraging stronger implementation of the federal vision for 

vocational education. 

Study Questions 

This study of secondary school vocational education assessed the status of Perkins III at 

an early stage of implementation and the current quality of vocational offerings through 

five broad questions: 

1. What are the purposes and philosophies of vocational education in secondary schools? Have these evolved in keeping with the Perkins legislation, 

and how do they differ among states? 

2. What other education reforms are occurring, and how have these affected 

vocational and technical education within states and localities? What is the 

influence of federal and state policies at the local level? 

3. What are the state and local efforts to improve the quality of vocational 

education, especially with respect to the quality improvements outlined in 

Perkins III? Does the implementation incorporate challenging academic and 

technical standards? How prevalent are the practices endorsed by Perkins, 

and do they differ for academic and vocational teachers and schools? 
-xv4. What is the impact of changes in Perkins III on special populations and 

other groups and the programs that serve them? Have changes at the state 

level affected service delivery at the local level? 

5. What are the characteristics of Tech-Prep programs? Are the states’ visions 

for Tech-Prep reflected in local practice? 

Approach and Methods 

The research proceeded along two strands: case studies of implementation on a selected 

sample of sites and a national probability survey of high school teachers. 

The case studies for the secondary school study included seven states and a purposive 

sample of four districts and schools within each. The seven states — California, Florida, 

Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas — were purposely selected 

for several reasons: each has a data system in place that provides accessible information 

about student achievement; for at least the school level; each had sufficient vocational 

program offerings; and overall the group balanced the need for geographic and demographic diversity. 

Four school sites were randomly selected from a pool within each state that had either 

high or low student achievement relative to other schools in the state, after adjusting for 

the demographics of the students. The two high-achieving and low-achieving schools in 

each state also had vocational education enrollment that exceeded the state’s median 

enrollment. As a whole, the schools balanced the need for geographic diversity, levels of 

population concentration/locale, and different types of vocational schools. The selection 

of schools that varied by student achievement was intended to shed light on the relationship between achievement and vocational education implementation — i.e., whether 

higher- and lower-achieving schools differed in their efforts to enhance the quality of 

vocational education. This selection method was imperfect, however, and this aspect of 

the analysis was not very informative. 

The case studies were carried out from February through June 2001 and gathered descriptive information about the quality of vocational programs in the states, districts and 

schools using multiple data-gathering methods, such as interviews, focus groups and 

document analysis. 

At the same time, RAND conducted a nationally-representative survey of teachers in 

comprehensive high schools and vocational schools. The survey was designed to examine whether the instructional, curricular and related activities in schools and classrooms 

correspond to quality practices as defined in the federal legislation. It also gathered information about teachers’ backgrounds and their school and teaching environments. 

This report includes selected findings from the teacher survey where they inform the 

main study questions. 

To assess the relative quality of vocational education programs at the study sites, the 

research team developed a set of quality indicators for selected program improvements 
-xvidiscussed in Perkins III. These indicators were based on scholarly and policy research 

and studies of practices and were used to develop the interview guidelines and teacher 

survey and to interpret the study data. 

In addition to the limitations in Perkins III noted above, the case-study findings are limited to the states and localities in the study sample. The teacher-survey findings reflect 

teacher reports on their schools, students, and teaching and curricular practices. Although the survey was designed to gather information on the prevalence of practices 

discussed in the legislation, it did not directly ask about Perkins III or its implementation. 

With these caveats in mind, the following sections present findings organized by chapter. 

Reactions to Perkins III Specifications 

Perkins III brought some policy changes intended to provide more flexibility to states 

and local grantees but also to hold them more accountable for their actions. Three specific types of changes concern Perkins funding, accountability and services to special 

populations and other groups. 

State and local education agencies directed funds in line with legislative intent. Perkins 

funds were crucial for supporting technology-related activities at the local level. 

Perkins III specified both allowable and required use of funds and also changed the allocation of funds so that a larger proportion went directly to local districts, from 75 percent to 85 percent of the total state allocation. 

State expenditure of leadership funds was directed primarily at three areas: curriculum 

development and dissemination, professional development of vocational education 

teachers, and development of standards and assessments. 

At the local level expenditures also appeared to be in line with legislative intent. Perkins 

funds were particularly crucial for supporting technology-related activities — equipment, software, Internet support and the like. However, the flexibility in Perkins also 

permitted states and local grantees latitude, which allowed for considerable variation in 

spending patterns across the study sites. 

Accountability mechanisms in Perkins III were not yet in place. 

The states in this study were in the first year of implementing their state plans and accountability systems at the time of the field study. They varied in their ability to comply 

with the reporting requirements of Perkins III. Most state data systems were still incomplete, although states that developed standards and measures in response to Perkins 

II were more prepared to comply than others were. 
-xviiFew local sites had changed their data collection as a result of Perkins, although many 

reported changes to comply with state data collection requirements. 

It is simply too soon to tell whether the accountability measures adopted in Perkins III 

will exert greater control over state and local expenditures and efforts. 

The elimination of set-asides to fund activities in support of students from certain 

groups reduced staff dedicated to these students. The full impact of changes is not yet 

known. 

Perkins III amended the definition of special populations but also eliminated the setasides to fund activities in support of students from certain groups. While the latter 

change was intended to provide greater flexibility at the local level, it also raised questions about how services might be affected. Perkins III also required states to provide 

separate reports on the performance of students from special populations and to report 

on participation in programs leading to nontraditional employment. 

Five of the seven states made reductions in state-level gender-equity staff — and sometimes other positions — as a result of the elimination of the set-aside. 

Although a few local sites seemed pleased with the flexibility afforded in Perkins III, 

most reported possible negative effects, including staff reductions. 

The study revealed a complex picture concerning participation and access. Four states 

had differentiated programs of study or alternative requirements for some students. In 

some cases, these requirements had improved services for students at the local level, but 

in others they isolated students or reduced their access to the highest-quality programs. 

Respondents in the case studies and teacher survey indicated that vocational education 

programs enrolled a disproportionate share of students from special population groups 

— a perception that the study is unable to verify with the data at hand. It is certainly the 

case that in some localities vocational education was still perceived as the educational 

alternative for the academically less able. 

The State Context for Efforts to Improve Vocational Education 

Perkins III is implemented in the context of existing state and local education systems. 

This study examined three aspects of state context that can shape efforts to reform vocational education: education philosophy or vision, the structure and delivery system for 

vocational education, and the current and ongoing state education reforms, including 

those that affect vocational education. 

States and localities embraced the broader vision of vocational education but faced significant challenges to achieving this vision. 

Since the 1990s, the Perkins legislation advanced a broader and more flexible vision of 

vocational education that expanded the content to include academic and industry stan-
-xviiidards to a level that would prepare students for postsecondary education or for highskill, high-wage careers. It also expanded the audience for vocational education to include students who might otherwise only follow a general or college-prep program of 

study. The study found that while many states and localities have adopted the spirit of 

this philosophy — and some have enacted specific policies to advance it — many barriers to reaching this vision were evident. 

Reported barriers include a negative perception of vocational education as the alternative for students who will not succeed in a more academically rigorous program; a perception by parents that it will not lead to college; a perception by employers that it will 

not lead to technically oriented jobs; the status of vocational education as an elective 

course of study in all states; and the continued separation of academic and vocational 

programs in high schools, where concerns over academic achievement take priority. 

The structure of state education systems varied. More centralized systems were more 

likely to be implementing significant reforms directed at vocational education. 

Unsurprisingly, states have different structures for the delivery of general and vocational education that might greatly influence their implementation strategies. In this 

study, we characterized states’ governance structures using two simple dimensions: the 

number and authority of agencies involved in decisionmaking and delivery of educational services and the extent to which decisionmaking and policy is decentralized. The 

relative uniformity or fragmentation of policy implementation can vary with a state’s 

structural makeup. 

State structures that are characterized by having fewer agencies to authorize and deliver 

services and a more centralized or uniform decision-making system tended to mandate 

policy changes that resulted in more coherent and uniform vocational programs. Clients 

tended to understand the system and to move easily within it. 

State structures with decentralized authority and overlapping delivery systems promoted vocational improvement through voluntary means. The result was often more 

variety in program offerings but less coherence. 

States emphasized reforms directed toward academic standards, assessment and accountability. Similar attention to vocational education was rare. 

The study examined academic and vocational reforms in three general areas: standards, 

increased graduation requirements and assessment. It also paid particular attention to 

specific state reforms directed at vocational education. 

All states had academic standards for general education. These were mandatory in five 

states. Only three states had mandatory vocational content standards. 

Four states had increased high school graduation requirements, but these requirements 

primarily concerned academic subjects. 
-xixAll but one of the states had adopted an accountability system with high-stakes academic tests that students must pass to graduate, although not all were in effect at the 

time of the study. Vocational assessments were in use in three states, but these were independent of the states’ accountability systems. 

By and large, local respondents’ reactions to academic testing regimes were somewhat 

negative, even in states where testing was voluntary. Respondents acknowledged that 

the tests had helped raise academic standards in vocational and technical programs but 

often at the cost of vocational learning. 

State and Local Efforts to Improve the Quality of Vocational Education 

Perkins III provided guidance to states to improve the quality of vocational education by 

outlining several program improvements — as listed above — to enhance vocational 

educational quality, requiring states to address these elements in their state plans, and 

permitting use of Perkins funds to develop them. 

Overall, the study found that states, districts and schools have made progress in implementing improvements defined by Perkins III but differ in the consistency and depth of 

their efforts. Because state and local policies might encourage similar improvements, it 

is difficult to gauge the precise influence of Perkins III. 

States made progress in implementing some structural changes to support vocational 

and academic integration, but these did not always influence local practice. Local sites 

had few examples of high-quality integrated curriculum. 

States and local districts and schools have made some improvements in implementing 

some of the structural features that support integration — for example, in adopting coherent sequences of courses in vertically aligned pathways or clusters. In some cases 

these changes represented true reform at the local level, while in others they are labels 

that have been adopted without much alteration to the status quo. 

Many state-level activities to support integration, such as curriculum development, professional development or adoption of whole-school reform models — for example, High 

Schools that Work — had not significantly or consistently influenced local practice in the 

sample of sites visited. 

The case studies provide little evidence of widespread adoption of integrated curriculum, although each local site could point to one or two programs that appeared to contain elements indicative of integration. Survey data indicated that vocational teachers’ 

classes incorporated more elements associated with integration than academic teachers’ 

classes. 

Vocational and academic teachers had few supports to accomplish integration. Few 

teachers engaged in team teaching or had common planning time to meet with other 
-xxteachers — activities associated with more successful implementation of an integrated 

curriculum. 

The emphasis on academic reforms had helped raise academic standards in vocational 

education — a core performance indicator in Perkins III — but often at the expense of 

vocational content. 

State academic standards and assessments reportedly had widespread influence over 

vocational courses and programs at the local level. In particular, teachers reported reduced vocational enrollments stemming from pressure to meet higher academic standards and increased course requirements; reduced time on vocational tasks arising from 

increased time on academic requirements and test preparation; and possible reduced 

quality of instruction, given the emphasis of some tests on simplistic understanding and 

answers. 

The case studies revealed several examples of state and local efforts to enhance the academic content of vocational courses so that these can receive academic credit. A fairly 

high proportion of vocational teachers — 41 percent — reported on the survey that at 

least one of their vocational classes received academic credit. 

All states and most local sites reported using national or industry certification programs 

or state licensure requirements as they develop vocational courses and programs, but 

these were not available in all areas. More than half of the local sites had courses that 

earned industry certification. 

Survey data indicated that academic teachers were more likely to report that state and 

district standards were relevant to their classes, while vocational teachers were more 

cognizant of industry standards. Most teachers reported that standards influenced their 

teaching. 

On a survey-derived measure of overall quality of academic and vocational teachers’ 

classes, academic teachers had the edge over vocational teachers. 

Perkins III did not appear to stimulate “All Aspects of the Industry” or parental involvement to any great extent. 

Perkins III had stimulated employer involvement. Vocational teachers had more involvement with employers than academic teachers did. 

All states, districts and schools were adopting strategies to involve employers in vocational programs in various ways, although some local sites were clearly more successful 

than others. 

Survey findings indicated that vocational teachers were significantly more likely to have 

contact with employers than were academic teachers, even those who taught careeroriented classes. 
-xxiStates promoted connections to postsecondary institutions in many ways, and some 

were apparent in the schools. Vocational teachers had more connections with postsecondary institutions than academic teachers did. 

State mechanisms to promote connections between secondary and postsecondary institutions included statewide articulation or dual-enrollment agreements, computer-based 

counseling programs available to all schools, adoption of reform models that emphasize 

such connections, policies to support career planning, or scholarships. Of these, articulation agreements, career-planning policies and scholarships appeared to have most influence locally. 

Career planning was fairly common in the case-study states and localities, but according 

to survey reports, infrequent nationwide. 

Vocational teachers reportedly had more varied and frequent connections to postsecondary faculty and institutions than academic teachers did. 

Perkins was important for funding technology-related improvements at the local level. 

Vocational teachers had more technology support and resources than academic teachers. 

Several states and schools promoted technology skill development or computer literacy 

for all students, including vocational students. 

About half of the local sites featured more high-tech programs to reflect new demands 

in the workplace, although few of these were cutting-edge. Instructional activities involving distance learning were rare. 

Academic teachers were more likely than vocational teachers to report problems with 

technology availability and quality and reported being less prepared to teach technology-related skills. 

All states supported professional development for teachers but had not provided the 

same level of support for counselors or administrators. 

All states in the study promoted teacher professional development, but local support 

varied considerably. 

Survey data indicated that academic teachers received more professional development 

on topics related to assessment, while vocational teachers received more on integrationrelated or vocational themes. About three-fourths of all teachers surveyed received professional development on academic standards, subject-matter content and technology. 

Some states had lateral entry policies to promote vocational teacher certification. Most 

states and some local sites were also concerned about vocational teacher shortages, but 

few had data to support their concerns. 
-xxiiImpact of Tech-Prep and Related Federal Policies 

Federal policy also intended to improve or support vocational education through TechPrep, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 and the Workforce Investment Act . 

Tech-Prep is incorporated into Perkins III as a separate title and provides funds to create 

programs that will lead to attainment of an associate’s degree at a community college 

and preparation for high-demand, technically-oriented occupations. 

Only two states had structured, comprehensive tech-prep programs. 

Only two states in this study had structured and comprehensive programs. In the other 

states, Tech-Prep programs had some identifiable characteristics, such as articulation 

agreements, but it was difficult to distinguish Tech-Prep courses or students from regular vocational education. 

Some states also had statewide articulation agreements or dual-enrollment policies between high schools and community colleges. These policies, however, did not always 

enhance or support Tech-Prep as defined in Perkins. 

School-to-Work has had some impact on vocational programs, but the Workforce Investment Act has had little influence. 

Four of the seven states used School-to-Work funds to advance certain aspects of their 

vocational education programs. Respondents at nearly all the local sites in these states 

reported that programs begun under STW had become institutionalized and were continuing with local or state funding. 

The Workforce Investment Act, on the other hand, has had minimal effect at the secondary school level in most states or local districts and schools. This is not very surprising 

because WIA is geared toward adult and postsecondary education. 

Conclusions and Implications 

These findings led to a number of conclusions related to the study questions and also to 

some broader implications about federal policy for vocational education. 

What are the purposes and philosophies of vocational education at the secondary level? 

Have these evolved in keeping with Perkins legislation? 

Many states and localities have adopted the spirit of the Perkins philosophy to broaden 

the content of and participation in vocational education in secondary schools, and some 

have enacted specific policies to advance it. However, many barriers to reaching this 

vision remain. 

Chief among these barriers is the continuing marginal position of vocational education 

in secondary education relative to academic or general education — a state of affairs that 

has been noted in many studies and for some years. The new vision has not convinced 
-xxiiiparents that vocational education will lead to college, which is the route that most favor. 

The Perkins legislation may contribute to this problem by continuing to define vocational education as education for work that requires less than a baccalaureate degree. 

What other education reforms are ongoing, and how have these affected vocational and 

technical offerings within states and localities? What is the influence of federal and 

state policies at the local level? 

All the states in this study have adopted reforms that emphasize higher academic standards and requirements, assessment of academic learning and greater accountability, 

but few have adopted similar reforms for vocational education. By and large, the state 

reforms are highly influential, and vocational education is caught up in the academic 

reform tide. Although these reforms may have helped raise academic content in many 

vocational courses, it often appears to be at the expense of vocational or technical skills 

and content. 

State reforms also affected local data-gathering practices. While few local sites knew 

about the Perkins reporting requirements, many had changed their data systems or procedures to comply with state accountability needs. 

What are the state and local efforts to improve the quality of vocational education, especially with respect to the quality attributes outlined in Perkins III? 

States and localities differ widely in the consistency and depth of their efforts to implement program improvements. At this early stage of implementation, Perkins appears to 

have had an impact on some of these efforts, but has not stimulated improvements in all 

areas. 

Most effort has been directed at improving integration, increasing standards in vocational courses, enhancing connections to employers and postsecondary institutions, and 

making technology-related improvements. 

Efforts at integration appeared more successful at the structural level than at the curricular level. The case studies provide little evidence of widespread adoption of integrated 

curriculum within a school. Teachers do not receive the support needed to implement 

curriculum integration, such as common planning time during the school day. The survey indicated that vocational teachers’ practices are much more in sync with the notion 

of integration than are academic teachers’ practices. 

In some localities, the state reforms directed much attention to improving academic 

rigor in vocational education. Similar efforts to improve technical rigor in vocational 

courses were less evident, although local use of industry standards was fairly commonplace in vocational programs and many programs attained industry certification. 

Connections to employers are fairly typical in vocational programs — the case studies 

provided many examples of employer involvement in local programs. Vocational 

teachers have much stronger connections to employers than academic teachers do, and 
-xxivthey also have stronger connections to postsecondary institutions. The latter may stem 

partly from Perkins’ support of Tech-Prep, which incorporates creation of articulation 

agreements between secondary schools and postsecondary institutions. 

Perkins appears to play a crucial role in supporting technology needs associated with 

vocational programs. At the local level in particular, Perkins funds make a significant 

contribution. Although teachers are not always satisfied with the amount and quality of 

technology at their disposal, vocational teachers are much more satisfied than academic 

teachers are and they also feel more prepared to teach technology-related skills. Instructional practices that involve technologies are more common in vocational teachers’ 

classes, but instruction through distance learning is infrequent. 

What is the impact of changes in Perkins III on other groups and the programs that 

serve them? Have changes at the state level affected service delivery at the local level? 

The full impact of the elimination of set-asides and other legislative changes on services 

to students is unknown at present. Staff devoted to serving special populations and 

other groups had been reduced in most of the sample states and in many localities. Although some respondents seemed pleased with the flexibility afforded in Perkins III, 

most reported negative effects. In addition to staffing reductions, some programs had 

been eliminated altogether. In a few instances, states have devoted resources to particular programs, which helped to maintain them locally. 

It may prove difficult to assess the impact of legislative changes in Perkins III, as most 

states in this study were not yet collecting the data that complies with reporting requirements that differentiate students from special populations. 

What are the characteristics of Tech-Prep programs? Are the states’ visions for TechPrep reflected in local practice? 

Data from this study suggest that Tech-Prep is conceptualized in different ways. TechPrep at the local level — where local consortia administer the program and act as fiscal 

agents — does not often reflect the state vision. Two states had structured and coherent 

programs, but the others varied considerably in how students and programs were defined. These findings are in keeping with prior national evaluations of Tech-Prep that 

noted similar issues in program implementation. 

General Conclusions 

The study noted at the outset that the timing of the research and some known limitations in the legislation would likely work against finding strong effects of Perkins III implementation. These initial hypotheses seemed to hold and, along with some other 

observations, lead to the overall conclusion that Perkins III remains a relatively weak 

policy instrument for implementing a strong federal vision for vocational education. 
-xxvPerkins III was at an early state of implementation in the states at the time the study was 

conducted. Nonetheless, the study found some progress toward implementation, but 

individual progress varied. 

As anticipated, state reforms appeared to have more influence over vocational education 

than did Perkins III. State policy emphasized academic achievement and accountability. 

Vocational education was not part of any accountability systems, even in states with vocational education standards and assessments. This influence was positive when it 

helped raise the academic standards in vocational education — one of the goals of Perkins III. But it also sometimes detracted from the core mission of vocational education to 

teach technical and career-related skills. 

As anticipated, the financial incentives in Perkins III and even the stronger threat of losing Perkins funds for poor performance may not be enough to counteract the greater influence of state general-education policies. The case studies provided evidence that 

some states have a long way to go to be able to comply with Perkins reporting requirements. 

Some implementation problems identified in the study can be attributed to state and local conditions — for example, the relative level of centralization and coherence of the 

state education system, the history of education reform within the state and related policies and practices already in place, and the relative importance of vocational education 

within the state education policy sphere. Implementation was less varied in states with 

more-centralized governance structures; these states also had more coherent policies directed specifically at vocational education. 

A second set of barriers to implementing the Perkins’ vision of an integrated academic 

and vocational education is the historical separation between academic and more occupationally-oriented education, which has been discussed in many studies. Vocational 

education and its teachers are marginalized and in the minority in most high schools, yet 

at the same time bear the biggest burden in making the kinds of changes required to 

achieve curriculum integration or other improvements. 

The Perkins legislation also has some weaknesses that help create implementation challenges, which also have been documented in earlier studies. These include its origin in 

vocational education, which isolates the reforms from other education programs, and 

poor definition of key concepts, such as curriculum integration. 

Like previous federal legislation for vocational education, Perkins III provided inducements to states in the expectation that states will deliver services to special groups, especially the economically disadvantaged. Like Perkins II, it incorporated capacity building 

mechanisms that directed funds toward specific program improvements. Perkins III 

added stronger mandates than prior legislation by holding states accountable for performance targets in four areas. These policy instruments were intended to reduce the 

slippage between policymakers’ expectations and local implementation, which is expected to vary by state and local government levels. 
-xxviThis study found that Perkins policies were being enacted consistent with state structure, policy and interests but not necessarily consistent with federal intentions. Perkins 

III and concerns about vocational education are overshadowed by state academic standards and assessments and by accountability systems that often ignore vocational and 

technical learning. While study sites were aware of and working toward most of the 

quality improvements described by Perkins II and III, these efforts were largely on the 

margins of other state reforms. 

On the positive side, Perkins funding undoubtedly plays a crucial role in state and local 

efforts to improve the quality of vocational education, especially in some areas. It is too 

soon to tell whether the stronger mandates in Perkins III accountability will have the desired effect, and some of the philosophical, structural and incentive barriers will not 

likely be overcome by time alone. 
-1-

1. Introduction 

The National Assessment of Vocational Education — a congressionally mandated study — is charged with evaluating the impact 

of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 

1998, known as Perkins III, and preparing a report to Congress by 

July 2002. As part of that effort, the National Assessment of Vocational Education commissioned RAND to conduct a study to assess the quality of vocational education in the United States. The 

purpose of the study is twofold. It will provide evidence on the 

extent to which actual practice is consistent with legislative and 

other views of what constitutes “quality” practice in secondary 

vocational education. It also will provide evidence regarding how 

policies made at different levels of the education system enhance 

or impede implementation of quality practice. RAND’s findings 

as described in this report provide some of the information the 

NAVE needs to evaluate the impact of the Perkins Act and prepare its report to Congress. They also yield lessons for the larger 

vocational education community by identifying strategies that can 

be adopted by schools, communities and states to improve the 

quality of vocational education programs. 

The Changing Federal Role in Vocational Education 

Vocational and technical education is defined in Public Law 105-

332 as organized educational activities that individuals need to 

prepare for further education and for careers requiring less than a 

baccalaureate degree. The educational activities are to offer a sequence of courses that provide individuals the necessary academic 

and technical knowledge and skills and to include competencybased applied learning. The federal role in vocational education 

was clarified with the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. 

Its purpose was to provide federal funding for vocational education in public secondary schools. Although vocational education 

programs were carried out in traditional secondary schools, the 

act separated them from other programs, thus contributing to the 

separation of the high school curriculum still present today (Hayward and Benson, 1993). 

In addition, vocational education, like all education in the United 

States, has traditionally been decentralized and remains the domain of states and local communities. The federal government 

plays a catalytic role in education through its leadership and 

____________________

The purpose of the study 

is twofold. It will provide

evidence on the extent to 

which actual practice is 

consistent with 

legislative and other 

views of what constitutes

“quality” practice in 

secondary vocational 

education. It also will 

provide evidence

regarding how policies 

made at different levels of 

the education system 

enhance or impede 

implementation of 

quality practice. 

____________________
-2-

funding, but the vocational education “system” has no uniform 

standards or curriculum. 

From 1917 to 1963 the basic elements of federal vocational education did not change. The Vocational Education Act of 1993 designated “set-asides,” or funds for special purposes, in an effort to 

expand influence over state programs. In particular, the act provided for experimental programs to meet the special vocational 

education needs of youth in economically-depressed areas or of 

those who had academic, socioeconomic or other handicaps that 

might prevent them from succeeding in regular vocational education programs. As Hayward and Benson (1993) noted, this was a 

significant policy shift: vocational education was now seen as the 

special refuge of downtrodden minorities and therefore less likely 

to compete effectively for state and local resources. 

After the 1963 act, federal fiscal controls increased and expanded. 

The 1968 act, for example, included provisions for exemplary programs, cooperative education and work-study. The 1976 legislation incorporated concerns for improved planning, program 

improvement and support to overcome gender bias. The first National Assessment of Vocational Education, authorized in 1976, 

was influential in the passage of the Carl D. Perkins Vocational 

Education Act of 1984. This act placed more emphasis than earlier 

legislation did on improving access to vocational education programs, particularly for special populations, and on modernizing 

and developing program quality. 

In 1990 Congress passed the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act, known as Perkins II, which contributed to another significant policy shift in federal funding for 

vocational education. Perkins II aimed to improve preparation for 

a competitive and highly-skilled workforce and sought to 

strengthen the academic and technical skills of students in vocational education by: 

• “requiring the development of statewide performance 

measures and standards; 

• integrating academic and vocational curricula; 

• promoting two-plus-two Tech-Prep programs that link 

high schools with postsecondary institutions; and 

• supporting work experience programs, such as apprenticeships and cooperative education” (NAVE, 1994a, p. 3). 
-3-

With the inclusion of integration and articulation between secondary and postsecondary levels, Perkins II attempted to bring academic and vocational education into a more equal relationship 

and to enable students to develop and achieve both academic and 

vocational competencies (Hayward and Benson, 1993). For the 

first time, the act was directed toward “all segments of the population.” 

To ensure that states used Perkins funding to attempt to achieve 

this vision, the states were required to submit plans that described 

and justified how the funds would be used. Congress did not 

clearly define how states were to achieve curriculum integration 

or other program improvements; therefore, states had some leeway in implementation (Grubb, 1995). However, states had little 

discretion over the allocation of funds to local education agencies; 

this was largely determined by federal formulas based on entitlements for specific categories of underserved students or for specific programs to serve those students. These provisions ensured 

that the states could withhold for their use no more than 25 percent of the funding with a minimum of 75 percent going to the 

local agencies. 

McDonnell and Grubb (1991) note that vocational educational legislation is more likely to be implemented if it is viewed as a fully 

funded mandate with strong incentives for compliance and strong 

capacity by implementers to actually do the work required. Others (for example, Mazmanian and Sabatier, 1989; McLaughlin, 

1990) argue that implementation is more likely absent competing 

agendas, legislation or mandates that direct the implementers attention elsewhere or that result in a confused set of priorities for 

action. These authors also note that interaction among competing 

agendas and actors can delay or slow the progress of implementation. 

Although Perkins II provides incentives for program improvement, as a policy instrument it is perhaps best described as a carrot without an accompanying stick. Given the small amount of 

resources allocated — about one-tenth of the total state expenditures in vocational education in 1994 — and the competing set of 

school reforms, it was not perceived as a mandate but as a set of 

guidelines. Had it been a mandate, it would have been sorely underfunded. Like previous vocational legislation that has been 

criticized for “trying to do too much with too little,” Perkins II 

funding levels were not enough of a lure to entice states to change 

long-standing behaviors (Hayward and Benson, 1993). Perhaps 
-4-

just as important, it was not clear if the local agencies, teachers, 

counselors, and administrators had the capacity to undertake such 

a significant and large-scale reform without much stronger incentives and much clearer implementation guidance. States were taking their own actions, which often focused on improving 

academic standards and assessments. Vocational education improvements were of lesser priority. Finally, the legislation lacked 

any kind of enforcement power on the part of the federal government. States were not denied funding based on weak plans, poor 

performance on indicators or lack of progress toward achieving 

the vision. 

While Perkins II stimulated much reform at the local level, it resulted in initiatives of widely varying quality. Schools also 

seemed to fit the reforms into already existing curricula rather 

than making broad curricular changes (NAVE, 1994b, Volume I). 

Unsurprisingly then, Congress attempted to put more “teeth” into 

Perkins III. It also gave states still more leeway in use of funds. 

The main characteristics of Perkins III are as follows: 

• The state plans have a stronger and more elaborate approval process. State must submit five-year plans, based 

on similar plans required by each locality that justified allocations, demonstrated measurement of the core performance indicators, and indicated how the state would 

attempt to improve on each indicator. Local plans must be 

driven by performance criteria set by states. Plans must 

address very specific issues, such as how the state would 

evaluate itself, how it would meet the needs of special 

populations, and so on. It also provided for specific allowable uses of funds, as discussed below. 

• The development of the state and local plans required a 

consultative and inclusive process that involved teachers, 

parents and employers. 

• The states are required to develop and track four core performance indicators and other indicators as proposed by 

each state. The states must negotiate with the federal government to establish benchmarks and targets for these indicators and to document improvements toward those 

targets. Each indicator included subindicators for special 

population groups. States must submit annual progress 

reports. If progress at the specified levels is not reached, 

then the local education agency must develop an improvement plan and the state must provide technical assis-
-5-

tance. Federal funds can be withheld from states and localities that fail to meet their targets after a one-year period 

of nonperformance of the “remediation improvement 

plan.” States exceeding targets are eligible for incentive 

bonuses. 

• Perkins III directed more funds to the localities by changing the maximum allowable withholding by the state to 15 

percent, with 85 percent going to the local agencies. 

• Funding set-asides for some specifically-defined groups 

were removed, and states were free to use the funds for 

other purposes, provided they met other targets. 

• Perkins III included a separate funding title for Tech-Prep 

to promote preparation for high-demand, technicallyoriented occupations. 

Perkins III also described several attributes or characteristics of 

“quality” programs that, if implemented, would support its vision 

and specified that funds be used to enhance programs accordingly. In this way, Congress hoped to improve the quality of vocational education at the secondary level. The act specified the 

following quality improvements: 

• Strengthen the academic, vocational and technical skills of 

students through the integration of academics in their vocational and technical programs of studies. 

• Promote student attainment through the development and 

use of challenging academic, technical and vocational 

standards. All states were required to develop such vocational and technical standards as a requisite for accepting 

Perkins funds. 

• Provide students with strong experiences in and understanding of “all aspects” of an industry to promote career 

preparation. Programs would not channel students into 

narrow preparation for a specific job. 

• Encourage parental involvement in their children’s career 

preparation decisions and employer involvement in providing guidance and support for school programs. 

• Build strong linkages between secondary and postsecondary education levels so that students graduating from high 

school would be fully prepared for jobs or further education and could make a smoother transition. 
-6-

• Develop, expand and improve the use of technology to 

better prepare students for the modern workforce. 

• Provide professional development for teachers, counselors 

and administrators. 

Perkins III followed the vision of Perkins II by focusing federal 

investment on improving the quality of programs, stressing certain attributes. The legislation presented similar guidance with 

respect to program improvements, required states to address 

these elements in their plans and permitted use of Perkins funds 

to develop them. In addition, Perkins III placed heavy emphasis 

on academic rigor and standards and supported the alignment of 

vocational education with state and local efforts to reform secondary schools and improve postsecondary education. It also held 

states and local education agencies more accountable than in the 

past for demonstrating results. 

Perkins III was signed into law on Oct. 31, 1998 and took effect in 

program year 2000 — July 1, 1999 through Sept. 30, 2000. Thus, it 

was in effect for less than one year when this study began. States 

in this study opted to use the last state plan submitted under Perkins II as a transition plan with only minimal changes. New state 

plans were submitted during the course of the study, but most 

were not implemented until the second program year — July 1, 

2000–Sept. 30, 2001 — after Perkins III was enacted. As discussed, 

some of the improvements were first introduced as part of Perkins 

II. Thus, we would expect to see more progress in implementation of integrated curricula, for example. 

The main questions facing this study are the extent to which quality improvements designated in Perkins III are being implemented 

and whether Perkins III is encouraging a stronger positive implementation of the vision of quality first invoked in Perkins II. 

Given the set of expectations provided by the literature, we observe the following at the outset. 

• Very little time has passed to allow for the full implementation of Perkins III or to allow for the accountability 

measures to take effect. 

• While Perkins III has more “teeth,” thus implying greater 

likelihood for implementation, it also is being enacted at a 

time of unprecedented emphasis on higher academic standards and performance that is taking up the time and energy of secondary school educators. 
-7-

• Again, despite the “teeth” in Perkins III, the federal program provides relatively few resources compared to other 

resource streams available to implementers. Thus, incentives solely to implement Perkins are slim, while incentives 

to implement well-funded state and local policies that may 

or may not mesh with Perkins are relatively plentiful. 

Study Questions 

This study of secondary-level vocational education1 assesses the 

initial impact of Perkins III on the implementation of the federal 

vision and the current quality of vocational offerings through five 

broad questions: 

• What are the purposes and philosophies of vocational education at the secondary level? Have these evolved in keeping with Perkins II and III and how do they differ among 

states? 

• What other education reforms are taking place and how 

have these affected vocational and technical offerings 

within states and localities? What is the influence of federal and state policies at the local level? 

• What are the state and local efforts to improve the quality 

of vocational education, especially with respect to the key 

attributes outlined in Perkins III? Is the implementation 

rigorous in that it incorporates challenging academic and 

technical standards? How prevalent are the practices endorsed by Perkins, and do they differ for academic and vocational teachers and schools? How does Perkins III 

contribute to these improvements? 

• What is the impact of changes in Perkins III on special 

populations and other groups and the programs that serve 

them? Have changes at the state level affected service delivery at the local level? 

______________ 

1 Vocational education at the “secondary” level — for young people who 

have not graduated from high school — is provided in a variety of settings including “comprehensive” high schools, which are schools that offer instruction 

in the full range of academic and nonacademic subjects, and vocational schools 

that emphasize education in vocational fields. “Postsecondary” vocational education presumes an older student and/or one who has completed high school or 

an equivalent educational program. 
-8-

• Is Tech-Prep distinct from regular vocational education or 

is it part of a strategy for improving quality? Are the 

states’ visions for Tech-Prep reflected in local practice? 

The study does not attempt to answer all of the questions of interest to Congress or the U.S. Department of Education. Other National Assessment of Vocational Education studies will address 

other questions and elaborate on the questions addressed here. 

This study intends to provide descriptive information about policymaking and practice, to describe indications of the variation in 

practice that exists and reasons this variance occurs, and to highlight examples of current practice and any effects of Perkins implementation on that practice. 

Methods 

The research proceeded along two strands: case-study analysis of 

implementation in a selected sample of sites and a national survey 

of teachers. 

The case studies include seven states and a purposive sample of 

four secondary schools and two community colleges in each. 

Again, the states are California, Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, 

North Carolina, Ohio and Texas — see Appendix A for more information about the selection of the states. The case studies, carried out from February through June 2001, gathered descriptive 

information about the quality of vocational programs in the states, 

districts and schools, using multiple data-gathering methods. The 

case-study design and analysis focuses on the implementation of 

program priorities outlined in Perkins III and how the broader 

context affects resulting practices. It enables RAND to examine 

whether or how state policies affect vocational education policy 

and practice in the sample of districts and schools visited in each 

state. This report discusses state and secondary school-level findings; a companion report covers the postsecondary case studies 

(Hudis, 2002). 

During the same period, RAND also conducted a nationallyrepresentative survey of teachers in comprehensive high schools 

and vocational schools. The survey was designed to examine the 

extent to which instructional, curricular and related activities in 

schools and classrooms correspond to quality practices as defined 

in the federal legislation. This report includes selected findings 

from the teacher survey when they inform the main study questions. 
-9-

Limitations of the Study 

It is important for readers of this report to consider some limitations of the study. The first concerns the timing of the study. It 

was conducted during the second year of the legislation’s enactment and as a result, it is possible that some anticipated effects of 

Perkins III may not have had time to materialize. Thus, this report 

should not be considered a final assessment of states’ responses to 

Perkins III. On the other hand, some aspects of Perkins III — in 

particular, the recommended program improvements — are similar to the Perkins II legislation enacted in 1990. To the extent that 

Perkins II foreshadowed Perkins III, we might expect states to be 

making progress along those lines. 

Second, although we purposely selected states according to a set 

of common criteria, they are not representative of the nation as a 

whole. Indeed, the contextual variation among the states is important for understanding whether and how federal policy is implemented. Thus, while the analysis will provide some insight 

into the latter, the findings cannot necessarily be generalized 

across the nation. 

Third, the study relies primarily on self-reports by respondents — 

through interviews or as survey responses — on documents provided to the research team, on information gathered from states’ 

Internet sites and on the most recent draft of each state’s Perkins 

Plan made available to the research team. These varied sources of 

information do not always agree and indeed often contradict one 

another. The data are also time-sensitive, which means that states 

may have made progress in some areas since the time of our site 

visits or as planning has developed. 

However, given these conditions, we have made every attempt to 

ensure accuracy and to resolve contradictions in our reporting and 

interpretation. 

Roadmap for This Report 

Following this introduction, Chapter Two of this report discusses 

the overall study approach and methods. Chapter Three discusses 

specific changes in Perkins III, including those that affect special 

populations and other groups. Chapter Four examines the state 

context for efforts to improve program quality, while Chapter Five 

describes state and local improvement efforts. Chapter Six examines Tech-Prep and other related federal policies. A final chapter 
-10-

discusses conclusions and implications. Appendix A provides 

additional information about the selection of the states and 

schools included in the case studies. Appendix B describes the 

sample design for the teacher survey. Appendix C provides site 

summary tables from the case studies. Appendix D includes selected data tables from the teacher survey. 
-11-

2. Study Approach and Methods 

A main focus of the study was to investigate how states, districts 

and schools are implementing Perkins III to enhance vocational 

education quality. The study used a two-prong approach: a set of 

case studies in a purposive sample of schools to gather descriptive 

information about attempts to improve the quality of vocational 

programs at several levels and a national teacher survey to gather 

information about the prevalence of vocational programs and 

classroom practices. The two approaches provide depth and 

breadth in understanding the manner of and extent to which 

schools have attempted to improve vocational education quality 

as promoted by Perkins. This chapter describes the study approach and methods, beginning with the case studies. 

Case Studies 

The study adopted a replicated case-study design of seven states 

in a purposive sample of schools — four secondary school sites 

within each case-study state. This design was most appropriate 

because our interest was in examining and interpreting processes 

in real-world contexts, where the processes studied, such as practices and policymaking, were not easily separable from the context 

and where variables of interest outnumbered the units of study 

(Yin, 1994). 

The case-study design and analysis focused on the implementation of program priorities outlined in Perkins III and how the 

broader context — state, district and school policies and reform 

initiatives — affects resulting practice. It addressed the five broad 

questions listed in Chapter One. 

Sample Selection 

The sample for the secondary school study consisted of seven 

case-study states and four “sites” within each state. A site consisted of a high school and its corresponding district office. The 

state selection was partly motivated by availability of student 

achievement data. 

Because academic achievement is a main focus of high school efforts, we wanted to understand more about the relationship be-

__________________ 

The study approach has 

two strands: a set of replicated case studies in 

seven states and 28 

schools and a national 

teacher survey. 

__________________ 
-12-

tween student achievement and vocational education implementation. A school with a strong emphasis on academics, for example, might help raise the overall quality of vocational programs, 

an important goal of Perkins III. In contrast, lower-achieving 

schools that may be struggling to raise student performance 

would perhaps have more difficulties implementing the components of high-quality programs as identified in the legislation. To 

investigate this relationship, the design called for a sample of 

school sites that varied in student achievement. An alternative 

approach would have been to sample districts and schools with 

higher and lower levels of vocational student performance, but 

few states have systematic measures of performance on vocational 

or technical subjects. 

To ensure sufficient vocational activity at sampled schools, the 

study design also restricted the sample to states that could provide a measure of the intensity of each school’s vocational program. Finally, states were selected to include a wide range of 

values for a number of secondary characteristics, including geographic location, demographics and the overall structure of vocational education in the states chosen: California, Florida, 

Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas. 

To identify schools within states, we developed models that adjusted student achievement to account for different background 

characteristics. This created a pool of higher and lower achieving 

schools where achievement was better or worse than expected, 

given the student body background.2 Candidate schools — two 

higher-achieving and two lower-achieving — were randomly selected from this pool. In each state, the initial selection of schools 

was reviewed with state officials to help verify vocational intensity and to identify any sites that had particular problems that 

might make them unsuitable for study. If a school declined to 

participate, another was randomly chosen from the sample pool. 

(See Appendix A for further details on sample selection.) 

All individuals and schools were promised anonymity as a condition of study participation. Throughout this report we adopt a 

convention of numbering the schools, using the state abbreviation 

(for example, CA, MA) followed by one or two for higher-

_____________ 

2 The middle level — schools performing as expected — was discarded because a contrast between high-performing and low-performing schools is more 

likely to reveal a relationship between implementation and achievement if one 

exists. 

__________________ 

In each state we randomly

selected four schools — 

two higher-achieving and 

two lower-achieving — 

for site visits. 

__________________ 
-13-

performing schools and three or four for lower-performing 

schools. Table 2.1 summarizes the school sample. 

Development of Quality Indicators 

To assess “high-quality” practices in vocational education first 

required the development of an operational definition of the characteristics of high-quality practice, coupled with a set of indicators 

or criteria for determining variations in quality. The study team 

developed indicators for several of the program improvements 

promoted in Perkins III: 

• promote the integration of academic and vocational education, 

• incorporate challenging academic and vocational standards, 

• promote understanding of “all aspects of the industry,” 

• involve parents and employers, 

• create links to postsecondary education, 

• promote access for students from special populations, 

• develop and expand uses of technology, and 

• provide professional development to carry out the program improvements. 

This list of improvements was determined in collaboration with 

the National Assessment of Vocational Education staff. While 

each state’s plan needs to include information on all these elements, they are not necessarily equally important. 

To create indicators, we reviewed the literature — including 

scholarly research, policy research and studies of practices — to 

identify characteristics associated with better outcomes. In most 

instances, the literature tends to be descriptive and does not quantify student learning or other outcomes. In creating indicators, 

some of the characteristics were emphasized more than others. 

For example, we paid more attention to gathering information on 

integration and technical and academic quality than to special 

populations or “all aspects.”3

 The indicators were sent to several 

______________ 

3 These decisions were based partly on the appropriateness of the case study 

and survey methods for gathering information and partly on the data already 

being gathered in other NAVE studies. 
-14-

outside experts with extensive experience in vocational education 

programming for critique and comment. 
-15-

Table 2.1 

Summary of Secondary School Sample 

Site 

ID 

Performance 

State 

Is all or part of the 

vocational program 

conducted off site? 

Vocational Intensity 

(% vocational) Enrollment 

% 

White 

% 

Free 

Lunch Locale 

CA1 High CA Yes 49 2,160 31 25 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

CA2 High CA Yes 55 2,609 47 76 Urban Fringe of 

Midsized City 

CA3 Low CA Yes 59 2,001 39 52 Midsized Central 

City 

CA4 Low CA Yes 59 1,649 92 21 Midsized Central 

City 

FL1 High FL Yes 18 663 69 27 Rural 

FL2 High FL No 15 1,738 44 36 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

FL3 Low FL No 22 907 84 19 Urban Fringe of 

Midsized City 

FL4 Low FL Yes 13 2,043 79 7 Midsized Central 

City 

MA1 High MA No 29 1,116 67 25 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

MA2 High MA No 12 1,112 45 40 Midsized Central 

City 

MA3 Low MI No 24 957 75 18 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

MA4 Low MA No 45 488 96 0 Small Town 

MI1 High MI Yes 71 1,464 44 40 Midsized Central 

City 

MI2 High MI Yes 44 1,828 92 0 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

MI3 Low MI Yes 41 1,461 95 9 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

MI4 Low MI Yes 11 1,154 97 8 Midsized Central 

City 

NC1 High NC No 31 567 87 8 Rural 

NC2 High NC No 29 1,496 59 18 Small Town 

NC3 Low NC Yes 22 1,022 85 7 Rural 

NC4 Low NC No 33 1,143 80 8 Urban Fringe of 

Large City 

OH1 High OH Yes 23 1,095 42 67 Midsized Central 

City 

OH2 High OH Yes 33 429 100 10 Urban Fringe of 

Midsized City 

OH3 Low OH Yes 26 672 100 5 Rural 

OH4 Low OH Yes 18 1,321 95 2 Large Central City 

TX1 High TX No 100 326 49 42 Rural 

TX2 High TX No 63 1,082 0 47 Large Central City 

TX3 Low TX No 68 1,650 19 34 Small Town 

TX4 Low TX No 63 1,028 16 55 Large Central City 

NOTE: The measure used for vocational intensity varies from state to state and is somewhat imprecise. For some states, the number represents 

the percentage of students enrolled in a sequence of vocational courses. In other states, the number represents the percentage of students enrolled 

in any vocational class. Where student enrollment information was not available (Florida and North Carolina), we used the percentage of vocational teachers in a school as a proxy. 
-16-

The revised indicators were then used in the development of casestudy data collection instruments and the teacher survey items. 

They also were used in data analysis especially in determining 

whether and to what extent the case-study states and local sites 

were implementing the quality improvements specified in Perkins. Overall, the indicators worked fairly well for these purposes, although some components, such as participation of 

parents and employers, were easier to evaluate than others, such 

as technical rigor of the curriculum. 

Instruments 

Semi-structured interview protocols were developed to ensure 

that comparable data were collected across sites. These protocols 

had two sections: a set of closed-ended questions to set the context, including the respondent’s background, experience, clarification of responsibilities; and a set of open-ended questions that 

could be tailored to the respondent’s role or area of expertise. 

Protocols were developed for each type of respondent at each 

level, as well as for different methods of data collection — telephone interviews to screen potential sites, interviews and focus 

groups. 

Procedures 

Field researchers from RAND and MPR and two Department of 

Education project officers participated in a two-day training session that included an overview of the Perkins legislation and review of case-study protocols and fieldwork procedures. 

Data collection began in February 2001 with two-day visits to state 

agencies. Prior to these visits, fieldworkers reviewed each state’s 

Perkins Plan. We requested interviews with state-level staff who 

had responsibility or expertise in the following specific areas, irrespective of job titles: 

• secondary and postsecondary directors of vocational education; 

• Perkins program administrators; 
-17-

• curriculum specialists in three target areas — health occupations, business, trade and industry;4

 

• administrators of Tech-Prep, STW or other career preparation programs; 

• administrators for programs serving special populations 

and other groups; and 

• administrators for economic development or with knowledge of the Workforce Investment Act . 

Senior staff from RAND and MPR conducted elite interviews of 

30–90 minutes using the interview protocols. In all, we interviewed 71 respondents at the state level. 

Between March and June 2001, a team of two researchers visited 

each site. Preceding this visit, a staffer at each identified site was 

interviewed by telephone to gather more information about the 

program offerings, to verify information that had already been 

obtained from the state, district or school Web site, and to secure 

the site’s participation in the study. In some cases, state officials 

elected to contact the sites to encourage them to participate. 

At the district level we requested interviews with the following 

individuals: 

• the superintendent, 

• the vocational or Perkins program administrator, and 

• the special populations and Tech-Prep coordinators. 

At the school level we requested interviews or focus groups with: 

• the school principal, 

• the Perkins coordinator, 

______________ 

4 Because technical quality may be disciplinary-specific, it was suggested 

that the school-level assessment be limited to a small number of fields. Thus, to 

the extent possible, the design and data collection concentrated on three fields: 

health occupations, business occupations, and trade and industry. Business and 

T&I include the largest proportion of vocational teachers at the secondary level 

— 33 and 20 percent, respectively. These fields also enroll a large number of 

students: 52 percent of 1992 graduates earned business credits, 34 percent of 

1992 graduates earned T&I credits (NAVE, 1994b). The health field is smaller, 

representing 3 percent of teachers and 14 percent of vocational concentrators in 

1992 (NAVE, 1994b). Teachers from these fields were identified first for study 

participation; others were substituted when these were not available at a site. 
-18-

• the vocational education department chair, 

• guidance and career counselors, 

• special populations administrator, 

• teachers, and 

• employers involved in vocational programs. 

If they were available at the school, we interviewed teachers in 

health occupations, business, and trade and industry. We also 

held focus groups with other teachers, including academic teachers, and with employers who were connected to the vocational 

programs. 

Each visit lasted from two to four days. In all, we conducted 97 

district and 159 school-level interviews, and conducted focus 

groups with 14 teacher groups and 22 employers groups. (At 

some sites, additional teachers and employers were interviewed 

instead of participating in focus groups.) Additionally, we collected curriculum materials, school catalogs, school improvement 

plans, program descriptions and other documents that provided 

information about vocational programs and students. 

The bulk of the school-level interviews occurred at the selected 

comprehensive high schools. However, in 12 cases, the comprehensive high school reported that some or indeed most of the vocational program offerings occurred at an associated school, 

usually an area vocational school. In these cases we interviewed 

staff from both the comprehensive high school and AVS because 

vocational students participated in programs at both sites. In four 

cases, most of the interviews were conducted at the associated 

AVS. 

Case-study Data Analysis 

Data analysis proceeded in stages. Information from state site visits was synthesized in a common format and distributed to fieldworkers prior to local site visits. As the school-level visits 

proceeded, fieldworkers synthesized information for each site, 

including documentary evidence, interviews and focus groups, 

for each of the main study questions. Separate reports were written for districts and schools except in smaller districts where administrators had responsibility for both administrative levels. 

Individual case reports were summarized for each of the quality 
-19-

indicators. These state- and local-level summary reports provided 

the basic data for the case-study analysis. 

A separate analysis was carried out on curriculum-related information. Although the original study design called for a curriculum assessment through review of lesson plans or similar detailed 

information gathered from teachers, very few teachers could produce detailed written curriculum documents. As a result we had 

to rely on other, more general information — course listings, 

school catalogs and program descriptions — or teacher interviews 

when time permitted. Although we did not have sufficient data to 

evaluate curriculum in depth, we reviewed all the curriculumrelated materials for each site, using the quality indicators as a 

guide. 

Analysis of High-Achieving and Low-Achieving Schools 

As discussed, the study design called for a comparison of highand low-performing schools to determine if they differed in their 

efforts to implement quality improvements in vocational programs. For example, to assess the extent of curriculum integration 

program improvements, we looked at whether or not a school was 

structured in ways that support integration — whether or not the 

school had stand-alone vocational courses, programs consisting of 

a sequence of courses, career pathways, career academies, preapprenticeship programs, or block scheduling. Details of this 

analysis are included in Appendix C. Overall, this analysis did 

not yield many clear patterns. A few trends appeared, which are 

discussed further in subsequent chapters. Our overall conclusion, 

however, is that high- and low-performing school are not implementing Perkins in significantly different fashion. 

Several reasons might contribute to this null result. One reason 

concerns the joint delivery of vocational education at some sites. 

For example, a school might qualify as a high performer according 

to the statistical model, but the bulk of its vocational education 

students attend an associated area vocational school. The associated AVS might have lower performing students on average than 

the “home” schools from which their students are drawn. Because student achievement data is aggregated at the home school 

— or otherwise not readily available — it is not possible to model 

performance at the AVS. Similarly, a lower-achieving school 

might be associated with a particularly high-quality AVS. As discussed earlier, in nearly half of the sampled schools vocational 
-20-

education was provided at a different nonsampled school in the 

district. This result stems partly from problems with the vocational intensity measure as seen in Table 2.1. 

Second, a high-achieving school might be located in a lowperforming district, which can affect its program implementation. 

Thus, choosing schools based on academic student achievement 

data did not always guarantee a higher- or lower-performing 

“site.” 

A third reason might be imprecision in measurement. While we 

could judge whether or not a school had a particular feature, it 

was not always possible to determine precisely the level of quality 

of that feature or indeed the extent to which it might contribute to 

student performance. 

Finally, many of the characteristics we were looking for are considered to be good practice. Therefore, it is possible to see traces 

of them in any school. 

Teacher Survey 

While the case studies provide details about the vocational programs, the implementation of Perkins III program improvements, 

the impact of other school reforms on vocational education, and 

other important issues, the findings extend only to the small sample of states and institutions visited. The teacher survey utilized a 

national probability sample of secondary-school teachers in comprehensive and vocational high schools and area vocational centers. The main purpose of the survey was to assess the prevalence 

or extent of Perkins-prompted implementation strategies and 

whether these differ for different types of teachers and schools. 

Sampling Frame 

The universe for the survey included all vocational and nonvocational teachers of selected subjects in public secondary 

schools in the United States. To be consistent with the previous 

National Assessment of Vocational Education, the design limited 

the population of schools to include public comprehensive high 

schools and vocational schools or area vocational centers with 

11th and 12th grade students. Our design was a two-stage stratified probability sample. The first-stage sample was a stratified 

random sample of schools. The second-stage sample was a stratified random sample of teachers from the selected schools. We 

__________________ 

The teacher survey utilized a national probability

sample of secondaryschool teachers in comprehensive and vocational

high schools and area 

vocational centers. 

__________________ 
-21-

stratified schools into comprehensive high schools and vocational 

schools using definitions similar to those used in the previous 

NAVE study. The sampling frame was designed to yield samples 

large enough to provide precise estimates of the prevalence of 

practices for all vocational teachers and to compare them with 

academic teachers and among school types — comprehensive 

high schools and vocational schools. 

The sampling frame of schools was based on a school list from 

Market Data Retrieval and confirmed with lists from the U.S. Department of Education’s Common Core of Data Public School Universe files. We sent the lists of teachers from MDR to the school 

principals for verification of the accuracy of the frame. When 

available, we used the verified frame from the principal to draw 

our sample. If principals did not verify the frame, we used the 

MDR lists augmented by data from an alternative vendor, QED, to 

correct omissions in the MDR lists. (Further details of the survey 

sample can be found in Appendix B.) 

The final school sample included 134 vocational and 264 comprehensive high schools. The teacher sample included 2,958 teachers: 

680 from vocational schools — 659 vocational, 21 academic — and 

2,278 from comprehensive schools — 1,118 vocational and 1,160 

academic. Of the sampled teachers, 54 percent completed the survey instrument and 5 percent reported they were ineligible for the 

study.5 The overall response rate was 59 percent. The final survey sample, on which the analysis was based, included 339 

schools and 1,572 teachers — 686 academic teachers and 886 vocational teachers. 

Design and Development 

In developing the survey, we relied primarily on the quality indicators and the previous NAVE teacher survey (Heaviside, Carey 

and Farris, 1994). The survey included questions about a range of 

school and classroom characteristics and practices and gathered 

background information on the teachers. Some items were re-

______________ 

5 The universe of teachers for the study includes all vocational and nonvocational teachers of selected subjects in public secondary schools in the United 

States. Secondary schools include comprehensive or regular schools as well as 

vocational schools and area vocational centers — only public schools. The universe excludes all itinerant teachers, unless their home base is the sampled 

school; substitute teachers; special-education teachers; and teachers teaching only 

physical education or music. 

__________________ 

The final survey sample included 339

schools and 1,572 

teachers.

__________________
-22-

peated from the previous NAVE survey to provide information 

about trends over time. Strict time constraints on the survey of 30 

minutes, specified in the request for proposal, limited the range 

and depth of questions that could be asked. 

A draft version of the survey was sent for review to several outside experts, including members of the NAVE Advisory Panel. A 

pretest and focus group was conducted with seven high school 

teachers who represented the groups of teachers in the sampling 

frame. Feedback from all of these individuals was incorporated 

into the final version. 

The survey items were organized into several sections to include 

questions about the school, the teaching environment, teaching in 

a specified class, vocational or career-oriented classes offered, and 

teacher background and experience. The final survey was submitted to the Office of Management and Budget for clearance. 

Survey Administration 

RAND’s Survey Research Group administered the teacher survey 

between March and June 2001. 

The research group contacted principals of each sampled school to 

inform him or her about the survey and to ask them to verify 

teacher lists and provide basic demographic information about the 

student population. Subsequently, surveys were mailed directly 

to sampled teachers at their school addresses. A gift coupon 

worth $10 was included. Multiple follow-ups were conducted 

and additional incentives offered to obtain completed surveys. 

Survey Data Analysis 

The basic analysis tabulated the data for the entire group of teachers and for subgroups of interest. The survey design supported 

the following types of analyses relating to the elements of quality 

practice that we defined and measured: a measure of the prevalence of such elements, estimates of prevalence across different 

types of teacher — academic versus vocational, experienced versus inexperienced — estimates of prevalence across types of vocational education disciplines, and estimates of prevalence in 

comprehensive high schools versus vocational schools. 

All comparisons across groups were tested for significance using 

chi-square tests or t-tests adjusted where appropriate. The lin-
-23-

earization method (Skinner, 1989a) as implemented in the 

SUDAAN software was used to estimate standard errors for all 

estimates of population characteristics.6 

In addition to the basic analysis, the survey data were analyzed 

with respect to school demographics, longitudinal comparison to 

the previous NAVE survey and policy-related questions of interest. The full survey analysis is reported separately. This report 

incorporates selected findings from the teacher survey where they 

inform the main case-study questions. 

Table 2.2 summarizes the different sources of data gathered for 

the main topics discussed in this report. 

______________ 

6 The linearization method approximates nonlinear statistics, such as ratios, 

proportions and regression coefficients, with a linear approximation so that tractable variance formula can be used for nonlinear estimates. The standard errors 

account for sampling weights and the clustered nature of the sample design. 
-24-

Table 2.2 

Study Topics by Sources of Data 

Data Source 

Study Topics 

Teacher Survey State Interviews District Interviews School Administration Interviews School Counselor Teacher Int./Focus Group Employer Int./Focus Group Documentation 

Philosophy/Purpose 

Structure/delivery system X X X X 

Funding/accountability X X X X X 

Educational Reforms X X X X X X X 

Integration of academic and vocational education 

School structure/organization X X X X 

Curriculum X X X X X X X 

Instruction X X X X 

Work-based learning X X X X X X 

Academic and vocational standards 

Presence and adoption of frameworks and standards X X X X X X 

Academic and technical quality X X X X X X 

All Aspects of the Industry X X X X X 

Involvement of parents and employers 

Extent and nature of parent involvement X X X X 

Extent and nature of employer involvement X X X X X X X X 

Linkages between secondary and postsecondary 

Extent and nature of postsecondary connections X X X X X X X 

Career planning and counseling services X X X X X X 

Technology 

Technology in vocational programs X X X X X X 

Technology quality and availability X X X X 

Professional development for teachers, counselors, administrators X X X X X X X 

Special Populations

Impact of Perkins III changes X X X X X 

Access/enrollment in programs X X X X X X 

Programs and services offered X X X X X X 

Tech-Prep X X X X X X X 
-25-

3. Reactions to Perkins III Specifications: Funding, 

Accountability and Special Populations 

As discussed in Chapter One, Perkins III brought some policy 

changes intended to provide more flexibility to states and local 

grantees but also intended to hold them more accountable for their 

actions. This chapter discusses three specific types of changes in 

Perkins III: funding, accountability and services to special populations and other groups. The main issue of interest is how state and 

local grantees have responded to these changes and with what result. 

This chapter examines two of the study questions outlined in 

Chapter One. With respect to funding and accountability, we are 

most interested in whether changes have supported the implementation of program improvements intended to improve vocational 

education quality — study question 3. With respect to special 

populations, we are interested in the impact of changes on students 

who are members of special populations or other defined groups 

and the programs that serve them — study question 4. 

The analyses in this chapter are based on the seven state case studies and use data from interviews with state, district and schoollevel representatives, state Perkins plans, and other documents. 

The discussion provides a qualitative perspective of the impact of 

policy changes at a point when states are just beginning to implement them. Two other NAVE studies are examining issues related 

to funding and accountability in greater depth. 

Perkins Funding 

The Perkins Act provides grants to states, which then distribute 

funds to local secondary and postsecondary institutions, or districts, for vocational education programs. Resource allocation to 

states is by formula, which is based on population. Of the total 

funds available, 15 percent can remain at the state and 85 percent is 

distributed. The distributed portion represents an increase from 

Perkins II, where 75 percent of funds passed to local education 

agencies. Further, up to 10 percent of the funds earmarked for 

LEAs may be targeted to programs with two of the following characteristics: rural areas, high percentage or numbers of vocational 
-26-

education students, or communities negatively affected by changes 

in the state secondary school formula, as further discussed below. 

Within state, secondary funding for the first year, FY 1999, followed the Perkins II formula and was based on Title I eligibility at 

70 percent, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act eligibility at 

20 percent, and the number of students in LEAs and adults in training programs at 10 percent. Thereafter, secondary funds were distributed based on the youth population — ages 15 through 19 — 

within the LEA at 30 percent, and the low-income youth population within the LEA at 70 percent. States may propose to allocate 

funds using an alternative formula that more effectively targets 

funds on the basis of poverty. 

The states have discretion in how funds are distributed between 

secondary and postsecondary and, to some extent, in the directives 

or guidance they give about spending. As can be seen in Table 3.1, 

with the exception of California, secondary institutions receive a 

greater proportion of Perkins funds than postsecondary institutions. 

Table 3.1 

State Allocation of Basic Grant Funds to Secondary 

and Postsecondary Institutions 

State Perkins Funding Percentage 

Secondary 

Percentage 

Postsecondary 

CA $113,226,995 41 59 

FL $50,037,449 53 47 

MA $17,323,922 75 25 

MI $36,920,789 60 40 

NC $29,143,015 67 33 

OH $43,458,582 80 20 

TX $82,285,930 58 42 

NOTE: Funding represents final allotments for FY 2000 (Program 

Memorandum OVAE/DVTE 2000-9, Sept. 27, 2000). 

In addition, the states make decisions about the allocation of state 

leadership funds — up to 10 percent or two-thirds of the 15 percent 

available to the state. But there are also limits to what states can 

do, as Perkins III requires that state leadership funds be used for 

services that prepare students for nontraditional employment, 

which is discussed further in the following section, and for activities that support: professional developmental programs that integrate academic and vocational education; partnerships of local 

education agencies, institutions of higher education and adult education providers; and programs for special populations [Section 
-27-

124 (b)].7 States also may use funds to support education and 

business partnerships, development of articulation agreements, 

vocational student organizations, technical assistance for local programs, guidance and counseling, and several other activities [Section 124 (c)]. The act requires the state plan to discuss how the 

funds will be used to enhance program quality — for example, 

how the state will use the funds to improve or develop new 

courses, improve the academic and technical skills of participating 

students, ensure that participating students are taught the same 

challenging academic proficiencies as other students, and link secondary and postsecondary education [Section 122 (c)]. 

The act has similar requirements for local funding and emphasizes 

use of funds to promote activities that improve program quality — 

integration, technical rigor, etc., as outlined in Chapter One — as 

well as to make provisions for serving students from special populations [Section 135 (b)].

Because Perkins funds make up a small proportion of total funding 

for vocational education and because activities may be funded 

from several sources, it is not always possible to tease out the precise contribution of Perkins. This study did not carry out an audit 

of expenditures, but relied on interviews and documentation to 

determine whether funds were directed in the manner intended by 

Congress. State and especially local-level respondents were not 

always sure themselves about the precise source of funds. In addition, at the time of the study, the distribution of funds was still in 

the planning stages and specific allocations may have changed. 

With these limitations, the next sections present findings on state 

and local uses of Perkins funds and provide specific examples to 

illustrate key findings. 

State Uses of Funds 

As discussed above, Perkins III specifies both required and allowable uses of state leadership funds. Data from interviews and state 

plans suggest the following general findings with respect to state 

uses of Perkins dollars: 

Funding curriculum development and dissemination activities was 

a high priority in most states — Ohio, Texas, North Carolina, 

Michigan and Massachusetts. 

______________ 

7 Throughout this document, specific references to Perkins III, PL-105-332, 

appear in brackets. 

__________________ 

Perkins funds make up a 

small percentage of funding for vocational education

__________________

__________________ 

Most states funded curriculum development and

dissemination activities

__________________
-28-

• Ohio is developing the Integrated Technical and Academic 

Competencies, which integrates technical with stateadopted academic standards. These replace older curriculum guidelines and tests that emphasize vocational content 

only. 

• Texas is using $1.4 million in Perkins funds to develop the 

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills8 in career and technology areas. Perkins II funds were used to develop the 

“essential knowledge and skills” for vocational courses, the 

precursors to Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills. 

• In Michigan, Perkins funds support curriculum development activities as well as the Michigan Center for Career 

and Technical Education, a clearinghouse for statedeveloped curriculum. 

• North Carolina is continuing to develop and update course 

“blueprints” and to align them with national standards. 

Materials for several vocational courses of study are developed and distributed in a CD-ROM format. 

The second most frequent use of Perkins funds in the states was 

for professional development activities. 

• Massachusetts requires local sites to use 15 percent of their 

Perkins funding for professional development activities for 

their vocational education teachers. 

• All the funding for Workforce Development Education professional development activities in North Carolina has 

come from Perkins. Conference topics include curriculum 

integration, accountability and addressing the needs of students from special populations. According to state officials, 

about 4,000 teachers have received staff development on the 

Vocational Competency Achievement Tracking System9

since 1996. 

_____________ 

8 The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills are a set of content standards in 

several academic subjects that districts must use in their foundation courses. TEKS 

in other areas, such as career and technical education, are voluntary and offered to 

districts as curriculum guidelines. 

9 The Vocational Competency Achievement Tracking System applies to all 

112 vocational programs of study in North Carolina and includes course blueprints, detailed curriculum guides and a computerized assessment bank of 600–

800 test items per course. It is used for developing course-related assessments, 

such as course pretests, quizzes and final exams. 

__________________ 

The second most frequent use of Perkins 

funds in the states was

for professional development activities.

__________________
-29-

• Texas’ state trade and industry conference will focus on 

teachers’ technical skills and include free automotive service excellence certification training for teachers. 

• Florida has run teacher seminars on integration and TechPrep and pays salaries of individuals to provide professional development in the different regions. 

Several states earmarked Perkins funds to develop standards and 

assessments in keeping with Perkins’s intent to improve the academic and technical quality in vocational education. 

• Funding for the Vocational Competency Achievement 

Tracking System in North Carolina has come from Perkins 

II and III. 

• Massachusetts is developing standards for vocational 

courses called Certificates of Occupational Proficiency. 

These will be awarded to students successfully completing 

a comprehensive education and training program in a particular trade or professional skill area. 

• California is developing standards for career and technical 

education with the goal of having them adopted by the 

state’s board of education. It is also using funds to expand 

participation in the voluntary Assessment in Career Education tests and to promote the infusion of career material into 

the state achievement tests. 

In some states, Perkins funds are considered a significant resource 

for development of underfunded vocational education programs. 

Massachusetts, for example, will use leadership dollars to hire 

someone to oversee collection and analysis of accountability data. 

At the time of our visit, this position was unfilled. Respondents in 

other states, such as Florida and Ohio, viewed Perkins funds more 

as an addition to what they were already doing. Many respondents in these states sensed that state policies for vocational education reform were well in hand and that the state was well ahead of 

Perkins III. 

Local Uses of Funds 

Interviews with local grantees and documents collected at districts 

and schools provided some information on how Perkins funds 

were being used locally. Within states, no evident funding patterns were associated with higher- or lower-achieving schools in 

the sample. Across states we found some general patterns, but also 

__________________ 

Several states earmarked Perkins funds 

for standards and assessments.

__________________
-30-

much variation in specific activities within each general funding 

category. The main findings, with some illustrative examples, are 

as follows. 

First, the most common use of funds was for technology-related 

purposes: all but four local sites — two each in Ohio and Michigan 

— reported using funds in this manner. 

• The types of activities funded varied. At two Texas sites, 

for example, funds were used to network computers to the 

Internet. Other sites purchased equipment or software. 

• Many local respondents expressed the view that Perkins 

funding was crucial for meeting their technology needs — 

for example, one respondent commented, “If it wasn’t for 

Perkins, we’d be dead.” 

• In one of the Ohio sites, Perkins funds were purposely not 

used for technology because the local compact had instituted a tax for each participating school that was used for 

this purpose. Teachers reported that they had all of the 

technology-related resources that they needed. 

Professional development activities also were highly supported: 

each site in California, Florida, Massachusetts and Ohio used funds 

in this manner. Michigan was the only state where none of the local sites supported professional development activities with Perkins monies. 

Local education agencies also targeted funds for curriculum integration and, to a lesser extent, toward enhancing academic and 

technical rigor of vocational education courses. 

• All the Massachusetts sites, for example, reported using 

Perkins funds to align their vocational curriculum with the 

state testing system. 

• A Florida site provided release time for math and vocational teachers to work together on integrated curricula. 

Overall, fewer LEAs directed funds toward activities to involve 

parent or employers or to create links to postsecondary institutions. The exception was Ohio, where all sites reported using 

funds for these purposes. 

In several sites, local Perkins funds were directed toward personnel costs. North Carolina did not report using any funds in this 

manner. 

__________________ 

At the local level, the

most common use of 

Perkins funds was for 

technology-related purposes.

__________________

__________________ 

Many local education 

agencies used Perkins 

funds to support personnel costs.

__________________

__________________ 

Local sites also devoted 

Perkins funds for professional development

activities.

__________________
-31-

• At least one site each in California, Massachusetts, Ohio 

and Florida used Perkins funds to hire personnel to work 

with special populations. All four Michigan sites used 

funds in this way. 

• Sites in Florida, California, Massachusetts, Texas and Ohio 

— one site in each — supported guidance staff. 

• Work experience or career and technical education coordinators were funded in California, Florida, Texas and Michigan — one LEA in each. 

• All four Ohio sites reported using Perkins funds to hire vocational education teachers. One Massachusetts LEA did 

likewise. 

All of the Ohio sites reported using Perkins funds to market their 

programs. As will be discussed further in the next chapter, respondents in some states thought that vocational education had a 

poor reputation and they faced an uphill battle to attract students 

into their programs. 

Overall, the pattern of funding activities at the local level appeared 

to be consistent with Perkins’s intentions: funds were directed at 

program improvements, such as technology and professional development. In addition, many LEAs used funds to support personnel. However, the local sites reported differences in the process 

of fund allocation from the state level and in the flexibility they had 

with respect to using funds. In some instances, funding to LEAs 

was contingent on state or local policies and directives. In Michigan, for example, the intermediate school districts controlled the 

funding; site MI2 reported that their ISD would not allocate any 

funds to schools that did not offer career pathways or the stateapproved educational development plans. Some schools might 

object to the rules and as a result not request any Perkins money.10

Other local sites appeared to have much more discretion. In some 

LEAs in California, for example, final funding decisions were made 

at the district level typically by the vocational education director or 

coordinator. Other sites had site-based management, so final funding decisions were made at the school. 

______________ 

10 We heard similar reports in Ohio about the rejection of Perkins funds because of its requirements or the effort involved to qualify relative to the amount of 

funds available. Although we were not able to do so in this study, it would be 

interesting to quantify the number of schools in the country that choose not to 

participate in the federal program. 

__________________ 

Local education agencies vary in the amount 

of discretion they have 

to make funding decisions.

__________________
-32-

In some cases the planning process was participatory and local 

grantees could discuss the process in detail. At other sites, notably 

those in North Carolina, the source of funds was described as “invisible”: local grantees were uncertain about whether their funds 

came from Perkins or other sources. 

Perkins Accountability Requirements 

Perkins III established a state accountability system to “assess the 

effectiveness of the state in achieving statewide progress in vocational and technical education and to optimize the return of investment of federal funds in vocational and technical education 

activities” [Section 113 (a)]. States are required to set performance 

standards, to gather data on performance and to report performance outcomes. States also must report data separately for certain 

special population groups. The intent not only is to demonstrate 

measurable improvement for vocational education students but 

also to provide information that would lead to program improvements. 

While Perkins II required states to describe their programs and justify their expenditures, Perkins III calls for sustained and demonstrable statewide progress toward improved student achievement 

in vocational and technical education. States must negotiate with 

the federal government to establish performance benchmarks and 

targets and document improvements toward those targets. If a 

state falls short, it must develop an improvement plan. Federal 

funds may be withheld from states that fail to make progress. 

States exceeding benchmarks may be eligible for incentive funds. 

At the time of this study, states were still in the planning stages. 

The specific reporting requirements center on four core indicators: 

• Student attainment of challenging state-established academic and vocational competencies. 

• Student attainment of high school diploma, equivalent, or 

postsecondary degree or credential. 

• Placement in, retention in and completion of postsecondary 

education or advanced training, employment, or the military. 

• Participation in and completion of vocational and technical 

education leading to nontraditional employment. 

____________________

While Perkins II required 

states to describe their 

programs and justify their 

expenditures, Perkins III 

calls for sustained and 

demonstrable statewide 

progress toward improved

student achievement in 

vocational and technical 

education. 

______________________
-33-

In addition to these core measures, states also can choose to gather 

and report on additional measures. 

States reported spending a good deal of time discussing the reporting and accountability changes in Perkins III with local grantees 

who need to gather the information. In some cases, intermediate 

districts or regions compiled information and reported to the state. 

In other cases, as in Texas, raw data are reported directly to the 

state for further analysis. 

Table 3.2 briefly summarizes the accountability systems in the 

seven states. Data from interviews and examination of relevant 

documents revealed several patterns. 

First, state respondents noted that Perkins II helped set the stage 

for accountability by requiring states to develop performance standards and measures. This requirement clearly influenced some 

state actors, but not all, to think carefully about their assessment 

and data-gathering systems. 

• Perkins II appeared to strongly influence development of 

data systems in Ohio and Florida. 

• States with more-developed systems tended to see more 

positive effects from Perkins III, such as encouraging improvements in data quality and forcing local providers to 

concentrate their efforts on raising student attainment. 

• In states lacking adequate data systems — for example, 

California and Massachusetts — respondents voiced a good 

deal of concern about their ability to meet reporting requirements. Some expressed frustration over the costs associated with implementing an accountability system and 

the lack of federal resources for implementation of accountability provisions. 

____________________

States that developed 

measures and standards 

under Perkins II tend to 

have a more positive view 

of Perkins III 

accountability measures. 

_____________________
-34-

Table 3.2 

Status of State Accountability Systems 

 Secondary Postsecondary Ability to Report on Secondary-Level Perkins 

III Core Indicators 

CA No statewide system for individual student data. 

Student-level information 

system that includes Social 

Security number as a unique 

identifier. 

Just beginning to collect data. Not yet developed a statewide database. 

FL Statewide system linking databases through Social Security 

numbers. 

Statewide system linking databases through Social Security 

numbers. 

Occupational Completer Point system is comparable to Perkins III, but unable to calculate 

measures of academic success. 

MA Student Information Management System under development, will merge MCAS and 

Career and Technical Education reports to meet requirements. 

Career and Technical Report 

and Community College 

Measurement System meet 

postsecondary reporting requirements. 

Unclear. Some state officials thought data 

already collected satisfied most of the requirements, others disagreed. Unable to disaggregate data to report on all special populations. 

MI Vocational Education Data 

System provides individual 

student data, including special 

populations. 

Postsecondary accountability 

uneven. Use Integrated Postsecondary Education Data 

System and various sources. 

Unable to calculate some 

measures. 

Secondary-level data system is nearly complete. Unable to disaggregate data to report on 

all special populations. 

NC ABCs of Public Education 

system evaluates school performance gain against an expected growth composite. 

VoCATS measures vocational 

achievement but is not included in the accountability 

system 

ASSET tests measure entrants’ 

academic skills used by 65 

percent of community colleges. 

Problems disaggregating academic and technical proficiencies. 

State’s internet-based Planning and Performance Management System supports detailed 

tracking of student participation and provides 

disaggregated data for each special population 

group. 

OH Electronic Management Information System provides individual student data for all 

secondary districts. 

Higher Education Information 

System incomplete. Unable to 

establish performance targets 

due to lack of data 

Unable to disaggregate data to report on all 

special populations. 

TX Public Education Information 

Management System, combined with Texas Assessment 

of Academic Skills, Academic 

Excellence Indicator System, 

and Automated Student and 

Adult Learner Follow-up System. 

Community and technical 

colleges’ Institutional Effectiveness Process set up continuous improvement process 

for institutions and programs. 

Ten of 60 effectiveness measures relate directly to Perkins. 

Some data not yet available. 
-35-

Second, the states vary a great deal in their ability to comply with 

the reporting requirements of Perkins III. 

• Several are unable to provide complete information disaggregated by special population groups — for example, 

Ohio, California, Michigan and Massachusetts. 

• With the exception of California and Florida, the data systems at the secondary level are more developed than at the 

postsecondary level, and therefore states are more likely to 

be able to provide better and more complete data on secondary outcomes. 

Third, at this point in time, no state reported using this vocational 

outcome information for program accountability improvement 

purposes at the local level.11

At the local level, very few sites explicitly reported knowing about 

Perkins III’s new accountability requirements. Sites in Ohio — a 

state that began changing their data systems with Perkins II — and 

Massachusetts had the most knowledge. 

Few local sites changed their data collection as a result of Perkins, 

although several sites in Michigan reported taking data collection 

more seriously. Local sites did report changing data systems to 

remain in compliance with state requirements. These state requirements may or may not be consistent with federal requirements under Perkins. 

All local sites report collecting performance data, but it is not necessarily for meeting Perkins requirements. 

• All sites in North Carolina collect data for the Vocational 

Competency Achievement Tracking System, not Perkins. 

Florida sites focus on the Occupational Completer Points 

and completion rate data. 

• Sites in California, Massachusetts and Texas reported problems gathering needed data. 

In five states, only one school site reported using data for program 

improvement purposes — two sites each in Texas and Michigan. 

• A few sites in Florida and Massachusetts reported a desire 

to use data for program improvement, but respondents said 

______________ 

11 In Florida, however, student performance affected funding at the postsecondary level. 

____________________

The states vary a great 

deal in their ability to 

comply with the 

reporting requirements of 

Perkins III. 

____________________

____________________

No state reported using 

vocational student 

outcome information for 

program improvement 

purposes at the local

level. 

____________________
-36-

they were not getting the needed feedback or data from the 

state to accomplish this. 

• Two North Carolina sites report using VoCATS scores for 

program improvement. 

Overall, the study findings indicate that Perkins III does not appear 

to have had a great effect on schools’ data collection processes. 

State requirements dominate local data collections. Sometimes, 

these are consistent with federal requirements. Data are not yet 

used widely for purposes of program improvement. 

Vocational Education for Special Populations 

One of the significant differences between Perkins II and Perkins III 

involves regulations associated with special populations. First, 

Perkins III expanded the definition of special populations to include single parents, displaced homemakers and single pregnant 

women, in addition to individuals with disabilities, economicallydisadvantaged students, individuals preparing for nontraditional 

employment, and individuals with limited English proficiency or 

other barriers to educational achievement. 

Second, Perkins III eliminated the “set-asides” — the requirement 

that the small percentage of money still controlled by the state 

must be spent in a certain way. Perkins II reserved 10.5 percent of 

state leadership funds for programs for single parents, displaced 

homemakers and single pregnant women and not less than 3 percent for gender-equity programs. A further 0.5 percent could be 

used for all these. States were required to have a full-time genderequity coordinator to administer programs for single parents, displaced homemakers and gender equity. There was a requirement 

for local recipients to give priority for funding to programs that 

served the largest numbers of special population members — individuals with disabilities, individuals preparing for nontraditional 

employment and individuals with limited English proficiency or 

other barriers to educational achievement. 

In Perkins III not more than 10 percent of the state administrative 

funds — 15 percent of total state funding — may be reserved for 

state leadership activities, of which not less than $60,000 or more 

than $150,000 shall be available for services that prepare individu-

____________________ 

Although there are some

exceptions, Perkins III does

not appear to have had a 

great effect on states’ or

schools’ data collection 

activities thus far. 

____________________
-37-

als for nontraditional employment.12 States must describe how the 

funds will be used to promote preparation for nontraditional training and employment [Section 122 (c)(17)]. The position of statelevel gender equity coordinator is no longer mandated. 

Technically, since the definition of special populations changed 

from Perkins II to III, the elimination of the set-aside in Perkins III 

refers only to the gender-equity program. The other set-asides in 

Perkins II did not apply to special populations so defined at the 

time. 

Perkins II also required states to designate or assign state employees who would take responsibility for reviewing state and local 

plans to ensure that the pertinent provisions under the Individuals 

with Disabilities Education Act and Title I were being implemented 

as well as to ensure that the needs of students with limited English 

proficiency were being met. Perkins III has no comparable requirements. 

In Perkins III certain accountability measures remain in place. Assessment of how the needs of special populations and other groups 

are being addressed and how programs are designed to enable 

members of special populations to meet state performance levels is 

a required state leadership activity. Participation in programs providing preparation for nontraditional employment is a core indicator in Perkins III. 

The analyses in this section primarily relied on data from state and 

local interviews as well as some limited information from the national teacher survey. 

Impact of Changes in Set-Asides and Assessment 

Staffing 

The elimination of the set-asides in Perkins III reduced the number 

of state-level staff assigned to issues concerning special populations — under the new definition — and the gender-equity program. Five of the seven states reported staff reductions: 

California, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina and Ohio. 

These states have eliminated positions or redesigned positions to 

include other responsibilities. 

______________ 

12 Nontraditional employment is defined as occupations or fields of work for 

which individuals from one gender constitute less than 25 percent of those employed in the occupation or field of work [Section 3 (17)]. 

____________________

Five of seven states 

reported reductions in 

state-level staff. 

____________________
-38-

• California maintained the position of gender-equity coordinator, although it has been reduced from a full-time position to part-time. Massachusetts uses state funds for a staff 

position that includes gender equity as one of several responsibilities. 

• Even before the elimination of the set-aside, Michigan began downsizing by not replacing retirees. What was once a 

seven-person unit now consists of one part-time genderequity staffer because of the need to track the related performance indicator. 

• North Carolina still has two individuals with statewide responsibility for special populations and gender equity, although these individuals have other responsibilities as well. 

• In Ohio, one person was phased out of the gender-equity 

job and has a new position in the department. Another 

could have moved to a new position within the department 

but took a new job elsewhere. Previously the state also employed vocational evaluators — now called career evaluation specialists — who visited districts to provide technical 

assistance and information concerning career and technical 

education curriculum and programs. These specialists 

acted as a resource to schools in the institutional effectiveness process. Lack of funding has reduced the number of 

individuals in the field who can perform this role. 

In some instances, changes in staffing at the state level were not 

always apparent to the local grantees or did not affect them in 

ways the state anticipated. In other instances, local grantees also 

experienced personnel losses. A few experienced gains. 

• All the sites in Michigan used Perkins funds to support 

staffing needs related to serving special populations. More 

than half of the Perkins funds at Site 1 and most of the district funds at Site 3 were used for this purpose. Even so, 

Site 2 had to eliminate some paraprofessional positions as a 

result of funding changes. A fourth site reported taking 

advantage of the greater flexibility to hire paraprofessionals 

to improve tutoring and guidance services. 
-39-

• Overall, local sites in three states reported that staff were 

eliminated or had their time reduced: Michigan (MI2), 

Ohio (OH1, OH4), and North Carolina (NC2).13

State-Level Perceptions of Impact of Changes 

State-level respondents had varying views of the changes in setasides. Few had data to support or refute their perceptions. 

Some reactions were mostly positive. The elimination of set-asides 

was perceived as positive because it enhanced states’ flexibility, as 

seen in California and Texas; gender equity was no longer needed 

in Ohio and Texas; and set-asides failed to institutionalize or promote services and only served to isolate students in California. 

We also heard a number of arguments about how programs would 

suffer: set-asides had failed to institutionalize programs, and 

without a set-aside, “it’s not going to happen” in California and 

Ohio; equity would be threatened in California and Ohio; and services will be eliminated or become too variable at the local level in 

Florida. 

Fears expressed at the state level were at least partly borne out. In 

Massachusetts, for example, state officials were worried about the 

demise of their gender-equity centers and two sites reported some 

reduction of activities to encourage nontraditional enrollment. 

Across most states, program administrators who dealt directly 

with gender equity or nontraditional employment issues were less 

sanguine than others. These administrators questioned whether 

gender-equity programs were established firmly enough before 

Perkins III and worried that the elimination of the set-aside will 

have a negative effect. However, we were unable to determine to 

what extent these views reflect the advocacy stance that these individuals are likely to take and to what extent their views are an accurate reflection of the status of gender equity. 

Participation and Access 

Although this study was not designed to gather systematic quantitative data on participation of students from special populations in 

______________ 

13 It is likely that staff reductions occurred in other sites as well. Several 

schools reported that special population staff were located at a district or regional 

level, and thus local-level respondents might not know about cuts or reallocation 

of responsibilities. 

____________________ 

State respondents had 

different views of the 

impact of changes. Few 

had data to support these 

views. 

____________________

____________________

High-level state 

administrators tended to 

support elimination of the 

set-aside in favor of greater

flexibility. Program

administrators were less 

sanguine. 

____________________
-40-

vocational education programs, the case studies and teacher survey 

provide some limited information. 

First, some states claimed that Perkins III had not greatly influenced participation. Only Texas had data to back up this claim. 

• Texas enrollment data in Tech-Prep — which the state feels 

are its highest-quality programs — indicate that for most 

special population groups, student representation is proportional to their representation among the total number of 

students, which in 1998–1999 was 8.7 percent). In that year, 

8.6 percent of economically-disadvantaged students, 8.3 

percent of academically-disadvantaged, at-risk students, 

and 7.1 percent of special education students were in the 

Tech-Prep category. Only among bilingual students was 

Tech-Prep participation substantially lower than for all 

other students at 2.9 percent. 

Second, several states and localities had vocational programs that 

were not open to all students or offered differentiated requirements. In some cases these requirements appeared to funnel students from special populations into less rigorous programs. 

• Sites in Florida reported that all students, depending on 

their level of ability, have access to vocational programs. 

All sites took advantage of a state law that allows school 

districts to modify basic courses that satisfy graduation requirements for a standard diploma as well as vocational 

courses of programs of study that lead to a special diploma 

for Exceptional Student Education pupils. Two sites reported that 40 percent of their Exceptional Student Education pupils were in the Special Diploma program. One site 

offered a diploma-based program for students at risk of 

dropping out. Selected students work for half of the day 

and attend school the other half. Most of the academic 

work is self-paced and computer-based. Successful students in this program can receive a regular diploma. At 

another site, however, the required skill level for some programs exceeded that of some special population students. 

• North Carolina offers four differentiated diplomas and 

courses of study. Three of these incorporate both academic 

and vocational studies — College Tech-Prep, Career Prep 

and Occupational Prep. The latter is specifically designed 

for students with disabilities as determined by institutional 

effectiveness process teams. Occupational Prep students 

are required to take four credits of vocational electives, not 

____________________

Some states offered 

differentiated requirements

for students with

disabilities. 

____________________
-41-

necessarily in a pathway or at a particular level. The principal at one site especially praised the new pathway, which 

he said had “given teeth” to the program for special populations. Prior to the development of this course of study, 

“students could just show up and graduate.” 

Third, in some localities, programs serving students from special 

populations were isolated from other programs and students. In 

other localities, students from special populations were mainstreamed into regular vocational classes. 

• All California sites indicated that special populations have 

equal access to all vocational programs, but some programs 

isolate these students. At one site, for example, many of the 

programs supporting special education students were not 

found at the high school but at a continuation school in the 

district. This continuation school served both pregnant 

teens and students with “behavioral problems.” The latter 

were being slowly integrated into the regular high school 

under a new pilot program. Another site’s programs for 

pregnant or parenting teens, however, were at the high 

school. 

• In one Michigan school, special populations had once been 

targeted for vocational education, but respondents reported 

that this practice was no longer followed. Nearly all students from special populations — 97 percent — were mainstreamed into regular vocational classes according to ability 

and encouraged to pursue a regular diploma. This school 

offered a separate Extended Vocational Alternative for severely handicapped students. Two other sites, however, 

were less successful in mainstreaming students. One site 

sent most of the special population students to the technical 

center. Another expressed concern about the elimination of 

some traditional vocational classes in an effort to increase 

the quality of vocational education because it limited the 

options available to students from special populations, 

about 22 percent of the student body. In an effort to address this concern, they offered several classes with a lower 

grade-point average requirement — and a cap at the high 

end — to allow special population students to enroll. 

• A site in Ohio offered different “strands” that allowed students of multiple levels to be served in one classroom. The 

special education director at this site stated that “the 

strands are good for kids because they can be part of gen-

____________________

Some programs isolate 

students from special 

populations. 

____________________
-42-

eral education classrooms.” The area vocational school at 

this site also reportedly had a higher concentration of special population students. 

• Two Texas sites reported mainstreaming students; one also 

offered some agricultural classes specifically for students 

from special populations. 

Fourth, in some states and localities the perception remains that 

students from special populations were purposely funneled 

into vocational programs. This perception seemed most acute 

in states with separate vocational schools, such as Ohio and 

Massachusetts. 

• The technical school in Massachusetts reported having 

double the number of special population students than 

the average comprehensive high school in the state — 

35–40 percent of students in the school. School staff 

were concerned that the new state testing system would 

increase the practice of sending special population students to the school as comprehensive schools were motivated to improve their test scores. 

• Ohio was the only state where local sites reported 

spending Perkins funds to market their programs. According to respondents, the poor reputation of vocational education necessitated active recruitment efforts. 

Respondents at one site — an area vocational school — 

felt that the feeder high school targeted special population students for their school; about one-third of the 

students had individual education plans. Respondents 

at other AVSs in Ohio also complained about the tendency of home schools to send less academically able 

students who were not bound for college. The AVSs 

were also worried that the preponderance of special 

population or lower-achieving students at their schools 

would lower their ranking on statewide assessments. 

This concern also was voiced at the state level. 

Finally, teacher survey data suggest a widespread perception that 

vocational education programs enroll a high proportion of students 

who are less academically able or who have other problems that 

negatively affect academic success. 

In the survey, teachers were asked to estimate, compared to the 

school-wide average, whether a particular class had a higher, average or lower proportion of the following types of students: stu-

____________________

Case-study and survey 

data indicate a widespread 

perception that students 

from special population

groups are purposely

funneled into vocational

education. 

____________________
-43-

dents with disabilities, limited English proficient students, pregnant or parenting students, economically-disadvantaged students 

such as those eligible for free or reduced lunch, gifted and talented 

students, and at-risk students such as students behind in credits for 

graduation. Vocational teachers reported having above-average 

participation for all the above categories of students, except for 

gifted and talented. Academic teachers reported above-average 

participation of the latter as seen in Table D.12, Appendix D. 

The same pattern was found when the data were analyzed by type 

of school: gifted and talented students had above-average participation at the comprehensive high schools; all other special categories of students had above average participation at the vocational 

schools. (All differences were statistically significant; see Table 

D.13.) These data suggest that students from special population 

groups are highly represented in courses taught by vocational 

teachers and in vocational schools. However, we were unable to 

verify whether these students are over- or under-represented in the 

high school population at large. 

Provision of Services 

With the elimination of the set-asides, one might expect some loss 

of programs and services. By and large, both the state and local 

respondents reported reduction in services. Very few reported that 

services were unaffected. 

Some states carried out programs or provisions that they hoped 

would partly offset the elimination of set-asides and help local 

grantees maintain their programs. In some cases, state efforts 

seemed to help but in other cases they did not. 

Many states reported deterioration of services. Sometimes other 

funding sources made up for the loss in funds and sites could keep 

their activities going. Some examples follow. 

• Most of the California schools did not perceive any decrease in services stemming from the elimination of the setasides. One site reported that one program was eliminated, 

but this program was later reinstated with federal Workforce Investment Act funds. In providing services, two sites 

reported working closely with local WIA agencies and with 

their state-funded regional occupational programs. 

• None of the Florida sites reported significant changes in 

services or reduction in programs even though the statelevel respondents had voiced concerns that the elimination 

____________________

Most sites reported some

loss in services to students

from special populations as

a result of Perkins III 

changes. 

____________________
-44-

of set-asides would lead to reduction in services. One site 

reported an increase in Perkins funding. Another used 

other funds to compensate for the loss of the set-aside, and 

the district retained its gender-equity coordinator. Several 

sites noted that the broader definition of special populations had doubled the number of students being served, 

and this often required districts to blend funds from several 

programs to continue to offer services. 

• Three of the Massachusetts sites reduced programs or services. Respondents at the single site that was an exception 

said their ability to retain services was maintained by the 

district’s hiring of a special population coordinator. This 

site maintained services for students with behavioral problems, at-risk students, limited English proficiency students 

and single parents as well as programs to encourage nontraditional employment. 

• Two North Carolina sites (NC2, NC3) were hurt by the 

elimination of set-asides. One reported a significant reduction of services. There were fewer funds for materials and 

books, and the district coordinator’s job changed to a parttime position. The coordinator and the counselors were 

spending more time on preparing students for state tests. 

The special population coordinator at this school reported, 

“We identify the students but don’t provide them with services.” Conversely, staff at another site said that Perkins 

funding is not large enough to have an impact on services. 

• Three schools in Ohio reported losses in programs or services. One of these was able to fill their funding gaps with 

money from the district. A representative from that school 

said that “monies were used differently once the set-asides 

were eliminated.” In another site, however, the School-toWork coordinator said, “If it’s not set aside, it’s not going to 

happen.” 

Programs geared to preparing students for employment in nontraditional occupations suffered in some states and localities. 

• Massachusetts had supported gender-equity centers — it 

had $2 million to support three centers and 18 programs to 

serve single parents — and state-level staff believed that 

services related to gender equity were already declining in 

both high schools and community colleges as a result of the 

elimination of the set-aside. Indeed two sites reported losing such programs. 

____________________

Programs geared to 

preparing students for

nontraditional occupations

suffered in some states and 

localities. 

____________________
-45-

• The California sites claimed that gender-equity efforts were 

continuing or being developed, but the study found evidence to the contrary. One site, for example, was planning 

to offer an all-female automotive class. However, this class 

will not emphasize automotive technology or prepare students for careers in the industry but will cover such topics 

as emergency car repair, licensing and basic engines. 

• In contrast, two Florida sites — one of which had retained 

its gender-equity coordinator — described some proactive 

efforts to increase the number of students in nontraditional 

programs. One had a robotics camp for girls as well as 

week-long workshops about nontraditional careers. Another had increased enrollment in its electronics academy to 

more than 50 percent of the class. 

Programs and services for pregnant or parenting teens fared a little 

better. These were specifically discussed in sites in Massachusetts, 

Michigan, Ohio and Texas. The higher incidence of these programs 

in the Texas sites may stem partly from a state-supported program 

in Texas — the Parenting Education Program — which state respondents said replaced Perkins funding. 

In Michigan, state-level respondents reported that 12 of 13 parent 

programs were still in operation even though their Perkins funding 

had been eliminated. 

Assessment and Accountability 

As discussed previously in the chapter, the ability of states to provide performance-related data for special populations, including 

information on nontraditional enrollments, is mixed. California, 

for example, had very little information about the impact of Perkins III on special populations because it did not collect enough 

data under Perkins II to allow for any kind of comparisons between the programs. Neither does the state have the resources to 

review, or follow up on, local Perkins plans that detail provision of 

services. 

At least two states expressed the view that the Perkins accountability measures have “taken up some of the slack” in attention to special population issues. Because states and local jurisdictions are 

required to report on participation in nontraditional programs, the 

states believe that local jurisdictions have an incentive to provide 

the needed services. In North Carolina, state officials believed that 

Perkins III has been instrumental in integrating the concerns about 

____________________

In three states, programs 

for pregnant and

parenting teens were 

continuing. 

____________________
-46-

students from special populations into other programs. They discussed legislation, known as “Closing the Gap”, requiring local 

education agencies to develop annual plans for closing gaps in student achievement based on race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status 

and gender. 

At the local level, very few sites seemed poised to gather the types 

of data needed. One site in every state reported some ability to 

meet data requirements, some well and some poorly. 

Conclusions 

This chapter looked at some specific changes in Perkins III and 

asked how these changes were affecting implementation of vocational education programs. Our conclusions are limited by the nature of the data we had at our disposal and by the fact that states 

are beginning implementation. With these limitations, the study 

points to several conclusions. 

First, with respect to funding, we find that states and localities appear to direct funds at Perkins-defined program improvements. 

At the local level, Perkins funds seem particularly crucial for supporting technology-related activities — equipment, software, Internet support and the like. 

Although the Perkins planning process was intended to direct 

states and localities to use funds in certain ways, it appears that 

much room for variation still exists both among and within state 

systems. Local decisionmaking about resource allocation can rest 

at the district level and sometimes at the school level. In some 

states, the districts appear to have a good deal of authority. By and 

large, most respondents at the local level are not knowledgeable 

about the sources of funding, so it is difficult to determine the precise contribution of Perkins resources. 

Our review of the status of state data systems and activities at the 

local level, however, suggests that the accountability mechanisms 

are not yet in place. Most state data systems in this study are incomplete in the sense that they cannot comply with all of Perkins 

III reporting requirements, although some are more prepared than 

others. It is simply too soon to tell whether the accountability 

measures taken in Perkins III will exert greater control over state 

and local expenditures and efforts than did Perkins II, thereby 

helping to improve quality. 
-47-

The changes in Perkins III concerning the elimination of set-asides 

to fund activities in support of students from special populations 

appear to have had some negative impact, although the full effects 

are still unfolding. 

The study revealed a complex picture concerning participation and 

access of students from special populations in vocational education. Florida, North Carolina, Ohio and Michigan have differentiated programs of study or alternative requirements for some 

students, primarily those with disabilities. In some cases, local respondents indicated that these programs of study have improved 

services for students from special populations, such as in North 

Carolina. But we also noted some instances where special population students do not have access to the highest-quality programs, 

although it is difficult to tell precisely which groups are affected. 

Other examples indicate that students from special population 

groups may be isolated from the general student body. 

Finally, respondents in the case studies and teacher survey indicated that vocational education programs may enroll a disproportionate share of students from special population groups, but this is 

a perception we are unable to verify with the data at hand. It is 

certainly the case that in some quarters vocational education is still 

perceived as a “dumping ground” for the less academically able.

-49-

4. The State Context for Efforts to Improve Vocational 

Education 

The implementation of Perkins provisions and strategies takes 

place within the broader context of state policy. This chapter examines state policies and addresses the following: 

• What are the purposes and philosophy of vocational education from the state’s perspective? Have these evolved in 

keeping with Perkins II and III? 

• What general-education reforms are ongoing? How have 

these affected local practices? 

• What are the major state-sponsored efforts to improve vocational education? 

While Perkins III embodies the federal vision for vocational education, each state and local education agency has a vision of vocational education that best meets its own educational goals and 

objectives. These may or may not align with the intentions of Perkins. 

A state’s strategy for implementing its vision may be greatly affected by its governance structure. This includes the organization 

of the state agencies that have legislative and administrative authority for education, relationships among key agencies and their 

level of coordination, the structure of the delivery system from 

state to local levels, and so on. The governance structure also incorporates important power arrangements, for example whether 

education policymaking and decisionmaking is centralized at the 

state level or whether it is allocated to lower levels, such as regions and districts. 

In addition, the past decade has seen a surge of state reform efforts devoted to improving the academic proficiency of students. 

Most states have become part of the “standards-based reform” 

movement, attempting to improve student achievement through 

developing content and performance standards for all students, 

instituting assessments to measure progress toward these standards, and enacting accountability systems tied to student performance. Because these reforms are being implemented in public 

high schools and include all students in the schools, they have had 

and will continue to have an impact on vocational education students and programs. 
-50-

This chapter discusses and summarizes findings in three general 

areas: changes in philosophy of the states toward vocational education, the structures and authorities the states use to enact their 

education agendas, and the types of state-sponsored general and 

vocational education reforms being enacted. It relies primarily on 

data from the case studies. 

Philosophy and Vision 

The traditional vision of vocational education emphasized a 

pathway that led from secondary school to work and was intended to help students prepare for a specific occupation. In this 

traditional view, the vocational education student was often considered to be less academically talented or more manually skilled 

than his or her peers. 

As discussed in Chapter One, Perkins II advanced a broader and 

more flexible vision of vocational education. In this vision, vocational education should ensure that students acquire the knowledge and skills needed to meet challenging state academic 

standards and industry-recognized skill standards, and it should 

prepare them for postsecondary education and opportunities in 

“high-skill, high-wage careers.” 

This study identified several broad themes concerning who is 

served by vocational education, who supports it and what its 

purposes are. 

First, each state’s vision for vocational education is consistent with 

Perkins’ philosophy to broaden vocational education in the ways 

previously discussed. Every state shows some movement in this 

direction although in some cases it is too soon to tell whether state 

policies to advance their vision will be effective. In some cases, 

we saw little evidence that local programs were in line with the 

state’s objectives. For example: 

• In 1999, North Carolina reorganized high school programs 

into four courses of study with differentiated diplomas. 

Three of these specifically incorporate career and technical 

education requirements. However, the sites we visited 

were only just beginning to implement these changes. 

• Florida reconfigured its vocational programs into a system 

of Occupational Completer Points wherein all courses are 

organized into pathways with sequences of classes identified for specific job exit points. Courses not leading to jobs 

____________________

States are adopting a 

broader view of 

vocational education and 

some have specific 

policies. 

____________________
-51-

do not receive state funding. The local sites in this study, 

however, seem most concerned about raising academic 

standards and overcoming vocational education’s poor 

image. 

• To encourage a wider range of students to take vocational 

education classes, Texas required all students to take a 

technology course to graduate. The state also established 

eight career and technology areas to focus vocational education more on careers. At the local level, however, only 

two sites had made any attempts at integration, and little 

evidence existed that programs were becoming more technological. 

Second, while all the states in this study say they support a broad 

vision of vocational and technical education, it remains an educational alternative that is not for all students. In all states, vocational and technical education course-taking is elective not 

required. Students can choose to take vocational classes, just as 

they choose music, drama, art or any number of electives. Program designs that organize courses around a course of study or 

career theme — such as career academies or career pathways — 

can create an opportunity for interested students to take a related 

set of vocational courses, thereby bringing some coherence in their 

elective studies, but it remains a choice in these sample states. 

Third, many states and localities struggle to overcome negative 

perceptions of vocational education. It is still seen by many as the 

educational alternative for students who will not attend college. 

• Recent state reforms in Ohio — for example, the creation of 

“career pathway specialists” who will develop programs 

to prepare students for work and college — are in keeping 

with Ohio’s goals to strengthen academic and technical 

content of vocational education. The state and some sites, 

however, continue to have problems in communicating 

changes to the community and attracting a broader student body. 

• Texas education officials also have struggled recently to 

change the general perception of vocational education, and 

the consensus is that its status has improved in the last five 

years. However in three of four Texas sites, few changes 

were evident and vocational education remains a “lesser” 

alternative to the college prep curriculum. 

____________________

States still view 

vocational education as 

an alternative that is not 

for all students. 

____________________
-52-

____________________

Vocational education 

remains separate from 

general education. 

____________________

Fourth, the broadening of vocational and technical education in 

both content and audience is not without its critics in each state of 

our sample. According to state respondents, many parents view 

college or university degrees as the main path to success and do 

not perceive that new vocational or career-oriented programs will 

lead to college. State respondents also noted some objections from 

employers, who may have specific needs for entry-level employees with basic technical skills. A broader vision of vocational education can lead to fewer high school courses that prepare students 

for technically-oriented jobs. Some employers at the local level 

expressed similar concerns. 

Fifth, vocational education also remains somewhat separate from 

general education. As reported in subsequent sections of this 

chapter, academic reform goals take precedence in state education 

reform policy. Thus, although the vision for vocational education 

might be changing, the climate is dominated by concerns about 

academic achievement. 

Overall, the states in this study adopted the spirit of Perkins III 

and have policies intended to make that vision into a reality. But 

barriers are evident — for example, the poor image of vocational 

education, the preference in policy for academic learning and 

achievement, and the inherent tension between the dual goals of 

preparing students for education and for work. 

The Structures and Delivery Systems for Vocational Education 

A major, if unsurprising, finding of the case studies is that the 

seven states each have a different structure for the delivery of 

general education and vocational education as shown in Table 4.1. 

____________________

Some states face 

objections from parents 

and employers who are 

critical of a broader 

vision of vocational 

education. 

____________________
-53-

Table 4.1 

Synopsis of State Governance Structure 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio GENERALEDUCATION STRUCTURE Secondary Governance 

State Board of Education governs CDE, headed by elected Superintendent of Public Instruction 

Under Commissioner of Education, in Department of Education 

State Board of Education governs Department of Education 

Michigan Department of Career Development administers, State Board of Education oversees policy 

State Board of Education oversees Department of Public Instruction 

State Board anOffice of Supetendent of PubInstruction 

Secondary Structure 

58 counties divided into 11 geographical regions, 1,000 school districts 72 Regional Occupational Programs/Centers, serving high school and adult students 

5 regions within the state aligned with county boundaries with state leads to serve each region; 28 districts and counties are coterminous; within each can be numerous comprehensive high schools and area vocational schools 

317 high schools including 26 regional vocational-technical schools 

53 secondary regions with 377 secondary agencies, 60 area career and tech ed centers, and 9 trade academies 53 Career Education Planning Districts , which mostly parallel intermediate school district boundaries; in 2001–2002 will reorganize to 25 Career Preparation Planning Areas 

State divided into regions with regional service support centers for professional development in each, located at colleges; districts and countries are coterminous; comprehensive high schools only 

Career and teceducation systhas 94 Career nical Planning tricts; CTE proin comprehenhigh school, JoVocational Schcareer centers, compacts 

Postsecondary Governance 

Separate boards and governance for CC, CSU, UC systems CC under Community College Chancellor’s Office 

All under Commissioner of Education, with separate board for community colleges and board for university system 

Governed by a Board for Higher Education with split for community colleges and four-year colleges 

Michigan Department of Career Development, but locally elected governing boards responsible for curriculum, operation, etc. 

Separate governance for 3 systems: State Board of Community Colleges; University of North Carolina; North Carolina State University system 

Ohio Board of gents 

Community College Structure 

107 community colleges with local boards 

28 community colleges serve district/county geographical areas 

15 community colleges 28 community col- leges, including 1 

tribal community college (3 four-year institutions also award AA degrees) 

58 community colleges 48 community 

leges (26 partiin Perkins funprocess) 
-54-

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

VOCATIONAL STRUCTURE Vocational Education, K–12 

Department of Education Standards and High School Development Division; Office of High School Initiatives and Career Technical Education, Office of Academic and Career Integration; Office for ROP/Cs 

Department of Education, Division of Educational Programs; Division of Workforce Development; oversees all K-16 vocational education courses 

Department of Education, Associate Commissioner for Career and Technical Education 

MDCD includes CTE, adult education, and postsecondary, separate from Department of Education 

Department of Public Instruction, Director of Instructional Services 

Career and TeEducation, paCenter for Curlum and Assesment, DepartmEducation 

School-to-Work Called School-to-Career 

in California; STC governed by an interagency partnership including EDD, CDE, and CC Chancellor’s Office; 59 partnerships 

STW office found in Department of Education, Division of Workforce Development; provides services through consortia led by CC in each of 28 counties 

41 partnerships with regional employment or workforce boards as leads 

Moved from MI Jobs Commission (now dissolved) to MDCD 

Administered by Department of Education and awarded to districts 

Attached to gonor’s office, sefrom DepartmEducation/CT

Tech-Prep Jointly administered by 

CDE and CC Chancellor’s Office 

State promoted through the 28 county CC and related districts 

12 consortia; each high school can have an articulation agreement with any CC 

30 consortia which align with the 25 regions 

Statewide articulation agreements mandated for all CCs and high schools 

26 consortia djointly adminiby ODE and Bof Regents 

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 

California Trade and Commerce Agency 

WorkforceFlorida.inc with governing board reporting to the governor 

Department of Labor Michigan Economic 

Development Department, Michigan Works! 

Economic Development Board (Department of Commerce, Commission on Workforce), Information Resource Management Commission 

Ohio DepartmDevelopment; Department oand Family Se

WORKFORCE INVESTMENT ACT STRUCTURE 

California Employment Development Department is a state agency for workforce development; interagency agreement between California Health and Human Services, CDE Standards, and HS Development Division, EDD, CCCO 

WorkforceFlorida.inc policies are implemented by 24 Agency for Workforce Innovation regional workforce boards 

Governed by steering committee including more than 20 members from different agencies 41 regional workforce boards 

MDCD administers Job Training Partnership Act/WIA 25 regions, with workforce development boards and associated Educational Advisory Groups 

Commission on Workforce Development serves as the Workforce Investment Board delivered through Workforce Boards 

Governor’s Wforce Policy BoSuperintendenPublic Instrucand ChancelloHigher Educaserve on boardadministers Tiprograms 55 regional woforce boards 
-55-

____________________ 

Structures characterized by 

centralized and consistent 

decisionmaking and delivery 

systems have a greater likelihood 

for coherent and uniform

vocational programs with clients

understanding the system and 

moving easily from place to place

within it. 

____________________

First, the states vary by the number of state agencies involved in 

decisionmaking and delivery of educational services and the relative authority of those agencies. Two states, Florida and North 

Carolina, have relatively more unified structures with decisionmaking power especially over vocational programs invested in 

one central agency and delivered or administered by a single or 

few central agencies in each county. The other states have more 

fragmented decisionmaking structures with little centralized or 

unified authority. They also tend to have multiple delivery structures with various local agencies involved in delivery. 

Second, the states vary dramatically in the extent to which the 

state’s educational system is centralized versus decentralized concerning decisions between local and state agencies, no matter the 

number of agencies. Again, two states, Florida and North Carolina, generally held greater relative power over their districts and 

had resorted to the use of mandated standards, curriculum, assessments and accountability systems for both academic and vocational programs. The other states provided greater power to their 

local districts or schools and tended toward voluntary standards 

and assessments, especially in the vocational areas. In Michigan 

and Texas, for example, the intermediate school districts were often the locus of policy and decisionmaking. 

Generally, we found state structures characterized by centralized 

and unified systems had mandated coherent and uniform vocational programs with clients understanding the system and moving easily from place to place within it. In contrast, the more 

decentralized systems with more fragmented agency authority 

and control and overlapping delivery systems often promoted vocational improvement through voluntary means. Florida and 

Massachusetts provide contrasting examples. 
-56-

Florida. The unified Florida system relies heavily on a countybased delivery system for most vocational functions, and significant power over vocational education at all grade levels is invested in the state-level Workforce Development Division of the 

Department of Education. 

• All educational activities report to and are governed by the 

commissioner of education, an elected official in Florida. 

This official oversees the secondary and postsecondary 

systems, allowing for shared policy on vocational standards and career pathways, for example. 

• Vocational education is largely governed from within the 

K–12 system in the Workforce Development Division. 

This division oversees all Perkins funding, provides standards for the K–16 system, and is responsible for the administration of Tech-Prep and School-to-Work within the 

state. 

• A single delivery system is used: the county. The K–12 

system is based on one district in each county. The community college system aligns with the same counties — 

one community college in each district and county. The 

Tech-Prep delivery system also is the same. Each community college is the lead institution for the Tech-Prep consortia in that county. The School-to-Work initiatives used the 

same delivery system. 

• The commissioner of education sits on the Board of WorkforceFlorida.inc, the newly created body in charge of economic development and the Workforce Investment Act. 

The director of the Workforce Development Division also 

serves on working committees of this board. 

Such a centralized policy and delivery structure has led to a coherent and consistent system of vocational standards, articulation 

agreements, curriculum and uniform delivery of services, although some variation still exists in implementation in local sites. 

Massachusetts. The structure of education in the state of Massachusetts contrasts significantly with that of Florida. The delivery 

system has comparatively little uniformity. The structure resembles a patchwork of overlapping initiatives or policy areas with 

their own delivery systems. The state is considerably more decen-

____________________

The delivery system in 

Massachusetts has

comparatively little 

uniformity and resembles a 

patchwork of overlapping

initiatives. 

____________________
-57-

tralized in terms of local power and authority over vocational 

education programs. 

• K–12, community college and higher education systems 

are separately governed, each with its own state board. 

This allows for and promotes separate decisionmaking 

from each component of the system. Respondents revealed a less-than-cordial relationship among these groups 

in the past but growing cooperation now. 

• Within the Department of Education, the associate commissioner of career and technical education oversees K–12 

vocational education. This division is treated somewhat 

separately from the other divisions, the major example being that the state has created mandatory academic standards and assessments but not vocational ones. 

• The K–12 delivery system varies dramatically within the 

state, as does the vocational education K–12 system. The 

different district structures and vocational school structures do not align with the structure of the community colleges. These colleges do not have formal geographical 

regions to serve. This K–12 delivery system was not used 

in the establishment of School-to-Work regions or TechPrep regions. Each has its own set of consortia and areas 

of service that have sprung up as much from local demand 

and convenience as from any coherent plan. 

• While the associate commissioner of education sits on a 

steering committee heading the Workforce Investment Act 

initiative in the state, so do representatives from at least 20 

other agencies. 

Other states appear to fall between these two contrasting cases in 

terms of centralization and consistency of their structures. 

North Carolina’s system does not have a structurally strong single 

line of authority between its different levels of education agencies. 

But under the leadership of former Governor James B. Hunt Jr., 

the state legislature set up a unified system of standards, curriculum, courses of study and assessments for K–12 academic and vocational programs and K–16 articulation and dual-enrollment 

agreements that obtain statewide. It provides for a very unified 

delivery system, such as Florida’s, although also with some variation in implementation. 
-58-

Ohio has some comparatively centralized structures. It has a single Office of the Superintendent of Public Education for the K–12 

levels and an Ohio Board of Regents for the postsecondary level. 

Career and technical training along with academic training are 

overseen within the department by the Center for Curriculum and 

Assessment. The postsecondary and secondary offices and the 

academic and vocational offices have worked closely to develop 

Ohio’s mandatory academic standards and assessments that include work competencies. The vocational standards are mandatory, but the vocational assessments are voluntary. School-toWork, Tech-Prep and Workforce Investment Act structures, however, are more fragmented and dispersed across many offices. 

California, Michigan and Texas have more decentralized structures similar to those of Massachusetts. 

Although California has a single elected superintendent of public 

instruction, it has an otherwise more fragmented structure for vocational education, compared with Florida or North Carolina. The 

state has separate governing boards and governance structures for 

the community college, state university and university systems. 

Several offices in the Department of Education handle vocational 

issues, including the Standards and High School Development 

Division, the Office of High School Initiatives and Career Technical Education, the Office of Academic and Career Integration, and 

the Office for Regional Occupational Programs/Centers. Schoolto-Work is governed by an interagency partnership, and TechPrep is administered by the Department of Education and the 

Community College Chancellor’s Office. The Employment and 

Development Department oversees the Workforce Investment 

Act. The state has voluntary academic and vocational standards. 

While its academic assessments are mandatory, its vocational assessments are voluntary. 

Michigan’s vocational structure mirrors Florida’s with one 

agency, the Michigan Department of Career Development, responsible for K–16 vocational education and adult education. In 

Michigan, however, the MDCD is completely separate from the 

Department of Education that has responsibility for general education. Furthermore, respondents describe Michigan as a localcontrol state. The state can “put it out and make a case for it,” but 

cannot mandate testing, use of standards and curriculum, and 

other activities. 
-59-

Like Michigan, Texas has a very decentralized delivery structure 

for general and vocational education, dictated by state law. The 

Texas state legislature revised the entire Texas Education Code in 

1995 to increase local control and support for school district initiatives. As a result, technical assistance functions previously performed by the Texas Education Agency were transferred to the 

state’s 20 regional education services centers. The state, however, 

did not give away all control. The state holds local agencies accountable to statewide academic standards through a mandatory 

testing and accountability system. 

Implications of these differences in structure and policy instruments will become evident as we further examine vocational education in the schools and districts. 

State Reforms 

The seven sample states vary in how and to what degree education reforms manifest themselves in their vocational education 

programs. Table 4.2 summarizes the major reforms impacting vocational education programs in the seven sample states. For each 

state, the table displays academic and vocational courses separately in three general areas: standards, increased graduation requirements, and assessment and specific vocational reforms. Note 

that this discussion does not include regular programs that can 

support vocational education, such as state professional development funds or conferences. Many of these are discussed in Chapter Five. 

In sum, the general trend across these states is for reforms to focus 

on improving academic achievement through standards and for 

holding teachers and students more accountable through assessments and incentive mechanisms. However, few have implemented similar policies for vocational education. Only three 

states have clearly put significant effort into standards-based reforms for vocational education: Florida, North Carolina and 

Ohio.Table 4.2 Synopsis of Secondary Standards and Assessment.
-60-

Key: M = mandatory; V = voluntary; BD = being developed; NA = not applicable; Acad = academic; Voc = vocational 

California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

Acad Voc Acad Voc Acad Voc Acad Voc Acad Voc Acad Vo

STANDARDS Content V, CA, K–

12 academic content standards, math, language arts, science, history-social science 

V, BD, Endorsed 10 “core area” standards developed by OVAE; creating crosswalks between acad and voc standards 

M, Sunshine State Standards 

M, Workforce Development Companion to Sunshine State Standards 

M, Common Core of Learning 

BD, Certificates of Occupational Proficiency will be mandatory in K–12 and voluntary in 13–16 

V by DoE, model content standards in academic areas plus technology 

BD by MDCD; V, model content standards for career pathways; employability skills by DoE 

M, standard course of study for academic subject areas plus technology 

M, vocational blueprints and workforce development standards in standard course of study 

M, standards being developed for 6 academic subject areas, plus technology 

M, OCBD IT

Performance BD BD M, grade level expectations 

for math, language arts, science, and social studies 

M in Sunshine State Standards 

M, Common Core of Learning 

BD Certificates of Occupational Proficiency 

V, BD by DoE 

V, BD by DoE 

M, grade level competencies in course of study 

M, in vocational blueprints 

None None 
-61-

INCREASED GRADUATION REQUIREMENTS 

Proposal to increase math and English requirements; districts may add additional requirements 

None Increased 

academic requirements; required minimum GPA 

Must have one credit in career exploratory or fine arts exploratory 

No change at state, but some districts adding requirements 

None No state 

graduation requirements except for course in civics 

None New 

course requirements associated with COS; district can add course requirements 

Same; keyboarding required by all students. 

SB 55 increased academics and decreased electives by two units; awards diplomas with honors 

None 

ASSESSMENT General Testing 

M, STAR Program, 

V, ACE; career content items for STAR, BD 

M, FCAT None M, 

MCAS 

None V, MEAP 

used for school accreditation 

None M, ABC, 

used for school accountability 

M, VoCATS M, 9th and 11th grade 

proficiency test 

M, OC

End-ofCourse Testing 

V, Golden State Exam, selected academic subjects 

None None None None None None None M, in 

selected academic subjects 

M, VoCATS required, not used in accountability 

None None 
-62-

High School Graduation Exam 

M, in 2004, pilot testing with 9th grade students this year 

M, vocational education students must pass academic exam 

M, competency test in grade 11 

M, vocational education students must pass academic exam 

M, competency test in grade 10 

M, vocational education students must pass academic exam 

V, proficiency test in grade 11 but not required for graduation 

V, vocational education students must pass academic exam 

M, includes skill areas 

M, vocational education students must pass academic exams; beginning with class of 2007 

M, proficiency test in grade 11 

M, votional educastudenmust acadeexam 
-63-

Standards 

All states have adopted academic standards for general education. 

In five states these standards are mandatory — Florida, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas. In California and 

Michigan — states that emphasize local control — they are voluntary. 

Only three states had mandatory vocational content standards — 

Florida, North Carolina and Ohio. Florida and North Carolina 

also have performance standards. Note these states have a more 

centralized and unified structure for vocational delivery. Some 

examples follow. 

Florida. Florida developed content standards for all academic courses — Sunshine State Standards — as well as 

content and performance standards for all vocational 

courses — the Workforce Development Companion to the 

Sunshine State Standards. Both sets of standards are mandatory. 

The discussion about state standards at the local level in 

Florida was quite mixed even within sites. For example, 

responses from teachers and administrators at one school 

ran the gamut from the standards being “reasonable and 

appropriate” and “cover common-sense material” to being 

“outdated” and criticized by industry partners. 

Several local Florida respondents discussed how they are 

aligning their curriculum with the state standards — both 

academic and vocational, according to state law and because the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test measures the academic standards. Some respondents suggested 

that aligning with academic standards increases the rigor 

of vocational classes. Others believed that if vocational 

education succeeds in meeting the state standards, it will 

more generally do well. Not everyone, however, was 

completely supportive of Florida standards. Some were 

concerned that higher standards may drive out some students who get discouraged, while others feared that standards may lower the profile of vocational education. 

Ohio. Early in the 1990s, Ohio began using the Ohio 

Competency Assessment Profiles, employer-identified 

____________________

All states have adopted

academic standards. Only 

three have mandatory 

vocational standards. 

____________________
-64-

competency lists that outline the knowledge and skills 

needed to enter and succeed in a given occupational area 

or an applied academics, dropout prevention, or work and 

family life program. OCAPs also include tests to assess 

those competencies. 

Changes in the Ohio economy partly led to the development of Integrated Technical and Academic Competencies 

later in the decade. There are two types of ITAC: generic 

“core” competencies — such as problem-solving, working 

responsibly and communicating effectively — and career 

cluster ITAC that add academic skills for specific career areas — such as arts and communication, business and management, and industrial engineering.14 During our site 

visits some commentary arose about the transition from 

OCAPs to ITAC, with respondents at one site emphasizing 

that it would require significant curriculum review and 

upgrades to switch. This school is supporting curriculumwriting sessions to implement ITAC. Teachers at one of 

the other sites discussed using both ITAC and OCAPs. At 

another, some teachers used OCAP curriculum but not 

OCAP assessments. Respondents at two sites supplemented the OCAPs with industry standards to better meet 

local industry needs. In short, sites were responding in 

various ways to the Ohio approach. 

Of the five states remaining that do not have mandatory course 

standards for vocational education, Texas has developed voluntary standards, and California, Massachusetts and Michigan are in 

the process of developing them. 

California. California has voluntary academic standards 

and is developing separate voluntary standards for vocational education. In the meantime, the state has endorsed 

10 “core” area standards that were developed by the U.S. 

_____________ 

14 Core Integrated and Technical Academic Competencies, for example, 

consist of 51 competencies organized into six strands, similar to the Secretary’s 

Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills framework. Career cluster ITAC for 

each of the six pathway areas included integrated academic and technical competencies, expectations of desired workforce behaviors, scenarios that show how 

competencies are applied, and objectives from Ohio’s competency-based education standards in grades 9–12 that relate to and reinforce the competencies. Rubrics for assessing career-focused instructional plans are also provided (From 

ITAC to Instruction: Resource Guides for Ohio’s Career-Focused Education System. 

Columbus, OH: Vocational Instructional Materials Laboratory, 2000). 
-65-

Department of Education’s Office of Vocational and Adult 

Education; these include leadership and teamwork, employability skills, and career development. Several districts or schools mentioned using the state academic 

content standards or Challenge Standards, an older set of 

standards. Only one site specifically mentioned statedeveloped vocational standards. This district was implementing new standards in business education. 

Some California sites made efforts to align vocational education curriculum with the state’s academic content standards. One district brought together teams of vocational 

teachers in different subject areas to align the vocational 

program curricula with core standards. At another site, 

district funding was used to support curriculum implementation teams to ensure that the district’s curriculum reflected state standards. 

The perceived impact of California state-level content 

standards on vocational education was mixed. Staff at one 

site felt that the state efforts promoted student attainment 

of challenging academic and vocational standards. At the 

other extreme, a respondent argued that by placing so 

much emphasis on academic standards, the state is squeezing out vocational education. 

Texas. In a slightly contrasting example, Texas legislation 

for the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills included 

mandatory academic standards and voluntary standards 

for nine vocational education areas. The vocational standards are not reflected in the assessment and accountability system. At some schools, the vocational TEKS were 

woven into the curriculum to varying degrees, while another did not incorporate them. 

The tone of the comments we heard from local sites in 

Texas ranged from complaints about TEKS covering too 

many topics to recognition that the breadth of the standards allows teachers flexibility to do just about anything. 

Thus, some teachers used the design of TEKS to their advantage while others seemed to ignore them altogether. 

One teacher who conducts classes in a building and trades 

program summed it up by saying that the TEKS are 

somewhat beneficial but overly detailed and cover too 

many topics. The teacher said, “They look good on paper, 
-66-

but kids have different interests and may want to specialize.” Teachers at other schools said the TEKS “underscore 

what I already know” and “we mostly use them as a 

guideline for what we already do.” 

In general, respondents across all states held very mixed views 

about the impact of standards. In Michigan, respondents indicated that the voluntary standards had little impact at all. In 

Texas and Ohio, local sites generally paid more attention to vocational standards than to academic standards. Schools in Florida 

and North Carolina gave very mixed reviews of the impact of the 

mandated standards. Massachusetts schools were generally positive about them. In a few cases, state standards were thought to 

help increase the rigor of vocational courses. Others worried that 

the emphasis on academic standards in many states only discouraged some students and further signaled that vocational education was less important. 

Increased Graduation Requirements 

Several states in the sample — Florida, North Carolina, Ohio and 

Texas — have increased high school graduation requirements. 

California has proposed but not yet enacted increased graduation 

requirements in math and English. For the most part, these new 

requirements tend to be in academic areas. Two exceptions are 

North Carolina, which now requires keyboarding courses or the 

passing of a keyboarding test for graduation, and Texas, which 

requires a technology credit to graduate. State officials expressed 

concern that these increased academic requirements might limit 

the amount of time students have to take elective vocational 

classes. 

North Carolina has created a unique system of graduation requirements that merits further discussion. In 1999, the state reorganized high school programs into four courses of study with 

differentiated diplomas. Beginning with the class of 2000–2001, all 

students had to choose one course of study, each with very specified course and graduation requirements: 

• College/University Prep readies students to enter a fouryear postsecondary institution. No specific career and 

technical education requirements exist. 

• College Tech-Prep is designed for students to transfer to a 

two-year technical or community college and requires four 

__________________

Respondents held very 

mixed views about the 

impact of standards. 

__________________

____________________

North Carolina has a 

unique system that requires secondary school 

students to choose one of 

four courses of study. 

____________________
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credits in CTE within a career pathway, one of which must 

be a second-level course. The students must also complete 

mid-level technical or integrated math in addition to Algebra I. 

• Career Prep aims to prepare students for immediate employment and requires four credits of CTE in a career pathway or an arts pathway, one of which must be a secondlevel or advanced class. 

• Occupational Prep, which is designed for students with 

disabilities, requires students to take four credits of vocational electives not necessarily in a pathway or a particular 

level. 

The course of study chosen by the student determines his or her 

graduation requirements. The reactions to the COS were generally positive and were considered to have raised the status of vocational education. Anecdotally, local respondents indicated that 

enrollments in the College Tech-Prep COS have increased because 

students are choosing to be well prepared for both college and job, 

but the state respondents could not provide clear evidence of this 

because the program was just being put into place. For the most 

part, the local districts and schools take the mandated system to 

mean that their vocational education programs should serve all 

students and should prepare students for high-skill, high-wage 

jobs in the local community and region 

In contrast, most sites in Texas and Ohio had negative reactions to 

state-level changes in graduation requirements. As foreshadowed 

by the state-level respondents, the most frequent cause for concern at the local level was the reduction in vocational class enrollments. State requirements in Texas that might be expected to 

increase vocational enrollments did not appear to have any significant affect at the local level. In Michigan, however, new district-level requirements to earn nontraditional credits had 

increased enrollments in business courses, but respondents still 

had concerns about possible enrollment reductions in other areas. 

A few positive reactions to changes in graduation requirements 

are worth noting. The North Carolina courses of study are 

viewed as a positive change, assuming students were well counseled in their choices. It was too early to tell what the full impact 

of this system would be. 
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In California, the proposed graduation requirements — and 

changes in college admission requirements — prompted some 

sites to seek academic credit for some vocational classes. Respondents at two sites, however, thought that increased high school 

graduation requirements were hurting vocational education because they result in fewer electives open for vocational classes. 

Staff at the other two sites, the higher-achieving schools, did not 

mention this problem. At two schools, concerns were expressed 

that changes in the University of California and California State 

University entrance requirements would likewise leave less room 

for electives, including vocational education. 

Assessments 

Six of the states, the exception is Michigan, have created accountability systems with high-stakes academic tests — students must 

pass them to graduate — and schools, teachers and students are 

somehow held responsible for the test results. All six have recently enacted mandatory graduation exit exams, although not all 

are in effect as yet 

For example, in 1999, California established a high school exit 

exam to improve the accountability of schools and students in the 

achievement of rigorous board-adopted content standards, especially in reading, writing and mathematics. Students in the 

graduating class of 2004 will be the first required to pass the test 

to receive a high school diploma. 

Only two states have mandatory assessments in vocational 

courses, North Carolina and Ohio. In Ohio, these assessments are 

only required for programs seeking Perkins funds. California has 

developed some voluntary vocational exams. 

North Carolina. North Carolina’s Vocational Competency 

Achievement Tracking System has been introduced to assess student learning in vocational subjects. VoCATS applies to all vocational programs of study and includes a 

computerized assessment bank of 600 to 800 items per 

course. Students must pass these end-of-course exams in 

their vocational subjects. 

We found a range of negative and positive comments 

about North Carolina’s testing requirements. Local respondents pointed out that the state had developed new 

____________________

Six states have accountability systems with academic tests. 

____________________

____________________

Only two states have 

mandatory assessments in

vocational areas, but these

are not part of the accountability system. 

____________________
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____________________

State-level respondents in 

all states were concerned 

about the emphasis on 

academic exams. 

____________________

Blueprints,15 but that the old curriculum guides had not 

yet been updated. In the past, teachers could access test 

questions via the test item databank, but the state has restricted the databank and teachers no longer have access to 

it. Without access to the questions, teachers cannot identify misalignments between the test and the curriculum 

and therefore cannot modify the curriculum to address 

these gaps. The lack of access made some teachers feel 

“disempowered.” 

We heard commentary at all of the sites about the alignment between the Blueprints and the VoCATS. Reactions 

seemed to be fairly evenly divided. Respondents at two 

sites claimed that the Blueprints are aligned with VoCATS, 

while those at the remaining sites said that they are not 

aligned. 

Even in North Carolina the vocational tests are not part of 

the accountability system. ABCs School Report Card is the 

state’s comprehensive plan for accountability. Currently, 

ABC tests only cover academic courses. Over the next two 

years, the state is gathering data to consider whether vocational course performance should be included in schoollevel accountability as well. 

State-level respondents in all study states were concerned about 

the overemphasis, from their point of view, on academic exams. 

They worried that schools would begin to push hard for students 

to excel at these academic exams, possibly taking time away from 

vocational learning. None said that the academic exams themselves were a poor policy; rather, most thought that all students 

would need higher levels of language arts and math skills to succeed as adults than in the past. The academic exams were thought 

to encourage that. Many, however, expressed a concern over the 

balance. California respondents, for example, noted that teachers 

might emphasize preparing students for the state assessments, 

especially the high school exit exam. While state respondents 

thought that tests tended to improve the academic learning re-

______________ 

15 In the Vocational Competency Achievement Tracking System, each course 

has a “Blueprint” that shows the integrated skill area — arts, communications, 

career development, information and computer skills, health and safety, math, 

science, and social studies — addressed, along with technical competencies and 

objectives. Review of these Blueprints shows fairly extensive inclusion of academic skill requirements in every WDE course. 
-70-

quired of students, this might be accomplished at the cost of vocational skill learning. 

By and large, the local sites’ reactions to academic testing regimes 

were overwhelmingly negative, even in states where testing is 

voluntary. The districts and schools had several types of complaints. Academic testing shifted attention away from vocational 

education and vocational programs. It reduced the time available 

for teaching vocational content because teachers had to teach 

more academics or spend class time on test preparation. In the 

view of several respondents, academic testing “forced” vocational 

teachers to align their curriculum with academic standards, while 

academic teachers did not make similar concessions. Testing increased the need for remedial courses, which in turn threatened 

enrollment in elective vocational courses. Schools had similar 

complaints about high-stakes tests, especially in California, where 

the test is not yet implemented, and in Massachusetts. 

In states where vocational assessments were available — North 

Carolina, Ohio and California — some acknowledged that the 

tests helped promote integration (North Carolina sites). But outside of North Carolina, the vocational tests were not always used 

at the sites and respondents voiced similar concerns to those held 

for academic tests. 

Districts and schools in four states — Massachusetts, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas — were concerned enough about testing to 

devote extra resources to academic and vocational test preparation, such as tutoring, special classes, or diagnostic and remedial 

software. 

Other Vocational Education Reforms 

Each of the states had enacted other reforms specific to vocational 

education, but few of these took on the significance of the standards, assessments and accountability reforms that emphasized 

academic areas. 

Florida. After a major debate several years ago, the goal of 

vocational education in Florida, for example, emerged as 

“to provide high-quality education leading to further education and/or a job”; education for its own sake is not a 

recognized goal. The most significant action taken by the 

state to advance this goal has been to reconfigure vocational programs into a system of Occupational Completer 

____________________

Local sites’ reactions to 

academic testing regimes 

were overwhelmingly 

negative. 

____________________
-71-

Points. All courses have been organized into pathways 

with sequences of classes identified for specific job exit 

points. Exit points can occur at secondary school or at the 

postsecondary level; thus, students can examine specific 

jobs and see a clearly defined pathway through high 

school and college. Courses not leading to jobs are not 

part of the system and do not receive state funding. In this 

way, Florida has defined vocational pathways that lead to 

jobs and further education. 

California. California’s policies emphasize career academies for which the state provides additional funding for 

programs that qualify and development of career pathways or clusters. California’s system also includes regional occupational programs/centers where high school 

students and adults can receive vocational and technical 

training. Planning time in career academies is supported 

with state Partnership Academy funds. Interviews and focus groups with teachers indicated that common planning 

time was significant for supporting curriculum integration 

within the academy. 

Conclusions 

This review of the state context for Perkins implementation shows 

several interesting commonalities across the states as well as some 

differences between states. 

All the states in this sample have embraced the standards-based 

reform movement within their borders that emphasizes the importance of academic standards, assessment and accountability. 

This movement is consonant with federal efforts to promote academic achievement in academic and vocational programs. 

The nature of those reforms and the instruments used varied 

across the states. Three states — Florida, North Carolina and 

Ohio — are attempting to integrate vocational standards and assessments into their reform packages. Others addressed academic 

standards first and only now are turning to vocational standards 

and assessments. Assessments of vocational performance have 

not been part of the accountability systems set up in any of the 

sample states. In general, then, we conclude that in this sample, 

vocational education has been affected by the enactment of academic reforms far more than vocational reforms have been affected or are likely to affect academic programs. 
-72-

The policy instruments used and the emphasis on vocational education appear to be dependent, at least in part, on the structure of 

education in those states, the political climate over the past decade, and the extent of changes in the state economy. For example, 

Florida and North Carolina both had strong centralized state 

structures, growing economies with new types of jobs being rapidly created, and a succession of governors and political appointees in favor of strong job preparation for the populace. These two 

states have emphasized vocational education in their standards 

reforms more than others states, except Ohio, and have had some 

success in creating integrated academic and vocational standards 

and assessments. 

All the states still treat vocational education as an elective. Even 

while some states created strong career-based courses of studies 

or pathways, these remain electives. In general, sites report continuing stakeholder disagreement about the need and place of vocational education in today’s high schools, including who will best 

benefit from it. In this sample, it remained the last resort for many 

students and not a viable option for the college-bound. 

Interviews at the state and local levels indicated some consensus 

of likely effects of the state reform context, even while the full impact remains to be felt. 

• Many respondents thought that the emphasis on academic 

achievement was important to improving both academic 

and vocational learning. They saw the state standards, assessments and accountability regimes as important building blocks of improved instruction for all students. 

• At the same time, they worried that vocational programs 

would not be held harmless. Depending on the specific 

state and local context, respondents reported negative effects on vocational programs and students in the form of 

reduced vocational enrollments because of pressure to 

meet higher academic standards and increased course requirements; reduced time on vocational tasks because of 

increased time on academic requirements and test preparation; and possible reduced quality of instruction, given the 

emphasis of some tests on simplistic understanding and 

answers. 

While the reforms discussed here are still being fully implemented, all sites could report some impact, some of it possibly 
-73-

detrimental to vocational programs. We now turn to state and 

local efforts to implement Perkins quality improvements. 

-75-

5. State and Local Efforts to Implement Perkins 

Quality Improvements

Perkins III provides guidance to states to improve the quality of 

vocational education. As discussed in Chapter One, it outlines 

several program improvements or elements that will enhance vocational education quality, requires states to address these elements in their state plans, and permits use of Perkins funds to 

develop them. The elements for program improvement addressed 

in this study are as follows: 

• Promote student attainment of challenging academic, 

technical and vocational standards. 

• Strengthen the academic and vocational and technical 

skills of students through the integration of academics 

with vocational and technical education programs. 

• Provide students with strong experiences in and understanding of all aspects of the industry. 

• Involve parents and employers. 

• Provide strong linkages between secondary and postsecondary education. 

• Develop, expand and improve the use of technology. 

• Provide professional development for teachers, counselors 

and administrators. 

In this chapter, we describe the efforts made by states, local districts and schools to develop and deliver vocational education 

programs that embody these elements or characteristics. Where 

applicable, we draw on results from the teacher survey to determine the prevalence of these characteristics nationwide. 

In the teacher survey we asked teachers to identify a specific class 

and report information about it. The class was defined as the first 

class in the teacher’s primary teaching assignment. Teachers 

wrote in the name of the class, which was later coded as vocational or academic.16 This is the class referred to in this section as 

______________ 

16 For the most part, vocational teachers taught vocational classes and academic teachers taught academic classes. The correlation between type of class 

identified and designation of teacher in the sample as academic or vocational 

was 0.96. 
-76-

“identified” or “selected.” The survey did not directly ask about 

Perkins or its implementation, but the questions were designed to 

gather information about the aforementioned program improvements. 

This chapter is organized by the above elements of quality improvement. Under each element we clarify what we sought in interpreting the case-study and survey data. We then provide statelevel activities in support of the elements. Finally, we provide local-level information about implementation, including information gathered from the teacher surveys. We use specific examples 

to highlight some promising practices or some dilemmas or issues 

faced in the sites. We also try to make comparisons between vocational and academic teachers and between comprehensive high 

schools and vocational schools. In addition, we noted when local 

respondents within a state were fairly uniform in their descriptions of activities concerning state policy. A final section presents 

conclusions. 

This chapter examines several questions: What policies and practices do states and localities adopt to improve the quality of vocational education, especially with respect to the quality features 

embodied in Perkins III? How widespread are these practices? 

Does vocational education incorporate challenging academic and 

vocational standards? How does Perkins III contribute to these 

improvements? 

Promote Academic and Technical Skill Attainment 

To improve vocational education outcomes, states and localities 

must ensure that the curriculum and learning activities offered 

meet high standards. Through Perkins accountability measures, 

states are responsible for demonstrating that vocational education 

students attain state-established academic and vocational skill 

competencies. To accomplish this, states must first establish standards for localities to adopt. 

Where states do not develop standards, localities must define their 

own. For vocational standards, schools can adopt standards defined by industry groups or national initiatives, such as the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills from 1991. 

Once standards are identified and adopted, states and localities 

can use them as guideposts for curriculum alignment and development. 
-77-

In addition to adopting and using standards, schools can take 

other actions that promote higher levels of skill attainment. For 

example, they can require academic math classes for vocational 

students, increase the level of academics within a course so it can 

receive academic credit, or design courses to achieve industry certification. Schools also can participate in career and technical student organizations that connect vocational education with 

industry and promote skill attainment through their various activities. 

State Efforts 

As discussed in the previous chapter, states have encouraged academic attainment through the adoption of mandatory academic 

standards — in Florida, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Ohio and 

Texas — or voluntary ones — California and Michigan — and 

through the assessment of students relative to those standards. 

The states in our sample have paid less attention to the development of standards for vocational programs. The two states that 

have developed mandatory vocational education course standards 

— Florida and North Carolina — also are relatively more centralized. Ohio also has mandatory standards, but only for programs 

that seek Perkins funding and state approval. The other four 

states are either in the process of developing vocational standards 

— California, Massachusetts and Michigan — or their standards 

are voluntary — Texas. 

Five states — California, Florida, Ohio, North Carolina and Texas 

— reported working on activities to better align vocational 

courses with the state’s academic standards and assessments. 

Meanwhile all states in the sample report encouraging the use of 

national or industry certification programs or state licensure requirements as they develop vocational programs and courses, as 

seen in Table 5.1. 

____________________

States have encouraged 

academic attainment 

through the adoption of 

standards and assessments

that apply to all students. 

 ___________________ 

____________________

States encourage use of 

industry standards, but 

only two have mandatory 

standards for vocational 

courses. 

 ___________________ 
-78-

Table 5.1 

State Policies to Promote Quality 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Te

INTEGRATION Adoption of Integrated Models 

State funded New American High Schools program; California Partnership Academies 

State funds SREB and supports voluntary adoption of HSTW and Career Academies (partially supported with STW funds) 

State funds SREB and supports adoption of HSTW through modest funding to schools ($2,500 each to 3 schools to act as visitation sites) 

Advanced career academy funding from state; Making Connections project incorporates integration 

State funds SREB and supports voluntary adoption of HSTW 

State supports HSTW through Goals 2000 funds and other state funds 

20 HSTW state encTech-Pretia to idesponsor tional HS

Integrated Curriculum Development Cross-walking health and busi- ness education 

with academic standards to develop integrated curriculum 

State offers limited number of demonstration grants for schools to develop integrated curriculum units 

HSTW intended to whet the appetite of schools to pursue their own development of units; clearinghouse for curriculum developed by teachers 

New curriculum development for each pathway; support for MCCTE state curriculum clearinghouse; funding CORD to develop integrated math for auto mechanics; used STW to support some of these integrated curriculum activities 

Explicitly promoted in Blueprints; state has developed several courses in business 

State developed integrated technical and academic competencies that are cluster-level courses with integrated curriculum 

Leadershsupportedevelopmunits in sareas; RFess to funriculum developmprojects 

Pathways/ Clusters 

Tech-Prep; career majors aligned with 15 industry sectors being developed. Demonstration site in place for each cluster; published implementation guides 

All vocational education courses including those at postsecondary level organized into OCPs with technical performance and skill standards 

Moving toward organizing offerings into 7 career clusters 

Curriculum organized around 6 pathways with 41 career programs; STW funds used to develop pathways 

Four courses of study with differentiated diplomas offered to all students; required 9th grade choice and plan; vocational education organized into 11 pathways 

6 career pathways developed by state; Tech-Prep 

District m3 of 8 cohsequencecourses; publisheploring CPathwaychoice 
-79-

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

Work-based Learning 

Encourages practices connected with Tech-Prep, partnership academies and school to career activities 

State established 17 youth apprenticeship programs serving 1,900 students 

State supports apprenticeship and internship programs by paying partial salaries of staff to develop programs and make connections; programs must be based on materials and guidelines developed by state STW coordinator 

No explicit policy Promoted through 

Tech-Prep; state has apprenticeship program, cooperative education program, and internship program; co-op program has detailed policies and procedures 

No explicit policy 

Generally Increase Academic Content of Vocational Courses 

Some courses meet academic requirements for UC/CSU; health science and business crosswalk with STAR; participate in U.S. DOE skill standards projects in health; establish Academic and Career Integration Office 

 Eliminate keyboarding as CTE 

class because of low quality 

Promoted through Blueprint, which includes academic skills 

Eliminate industrial arts, keyboarding, or general courses aCTE because of low quality; ITAC development to link vocational courses with state academic standards 
-80-

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

STANDARDS Vocational Course Standards 

Being developed by CDE to incorporate 10 core elements 

Standards included in the description of occupational completer points 

Moving toward certificates of occupational proficiency for the 7 new clusters 

All vocational standards are voluntary; career pathway leaders support use of any widely accepted skill standards; health pathway leaders involved in national skill standards project, now used in health programs; out-of-date business curriculum being entirely overhauled; T&I programs in process of restructuring to include SCANS and Goals 2000 

Used leadership funds to develop mandatory Blueprint curriculum frameworks for all vocational courses that include standards; leadership funds for development of bank of test items in VoCATS end-ofcourse exams 

ITAC for some areas; others being developed 

Industry Certification State is pushing for increased use 

of certification, but this remains voluntary and incomplete 

State including certificates for all vocational courses as they are available 

State will use in developing the certificate of occupational proficiency 

Being included in all 6 career pathways when available; health participated in national standards project 

State is pushing for use in all courses and inclusion in Blueprints 

Mandated for all automotive programs; being included for other programs as developed 
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 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

ALL ASPECTS OF INDUSTRY 

Reorganizing into 15 industry sectors that create structure for teaching AAI. 

No explicit policy Discussed as part of 

revisions to business pathway. 

No explicit policy No explicit policy Require local 

to specify budactivities relaAAI 

PARENTAL AND EMPLOYER INVOLVEMENT 

Promoting partnerships with industry. Will use employer group to develop performance standards 

Employers sit on state boards for determining needed improvements and new cluster or program offerings 

Employers provide input into program decisions through licensure boards; schools must have site-based councils and business advisory boards 

CPS legislation funds Council for Career Preparation Standards, made up of business, education and labor representatives 

Employers specifically not involved 

in development of Blueprints 

Require local to budget actrelated to coltion (links to ness and community) 

LINKS TO POST SECONDARY 

General Promoted through 

school to career; Tech-Prep; Partnership Academy initiative 

Promoted through use of OCPs for K–16 system and Tech-Prep; have encouraged links to community colleges STW 

Promoted through Tech-Prep program 

Through adoption of Tech-Prep and funds for advanced career academies 

 Through ado

of HSTW (acaics at a higher dard) and TePrep (state bueted additionfunds); requirplans to budgcollaboration postsecondar

Scholarships State provides 75 

percent funding for any postsecondary for all vocational education students with B average or better (Bright Futures) 

State offers limited number of scholarships to University of Massachusetts for high-performing vocational education students 

Michigan Merit Award program provides $7,500 to any student scoring well on MEAP or Work Keys 
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 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

Career Exploration State has funded computer-aided 

career exploration programs for school adoption 

 Career exploration 

courses required in middle schools 

Career planning required for all graders 

Counseling 4-year plan encouraged for all 

students 

State has funded computer aided counseling programs for school adoption 

 Students complete 

Educational Development Plan in middle school 

EDP to be developed by 9th grade and annually reviewed by student and counselor 

 

TECHNOLOGY CDE promotes use 

of technology with state leadership funds and through professional development 

 Education technology bond 

where state supplies matching funds to districts with approved technology plans; sponsors Tech Net Web site for professional development of teachers in technology 

Business/IT pathway replaces old business ed curriculum to incorporate IT; Department of Education developing technology content standards and benchmarks 

Keyboarding a required course for all students 

Creating ITAC curriculum matrials in technolo
-83-

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Teacher Certification 

Works with CSU system to enhance teacher recruitment and preparation, especially helping teachers use block scheduling to enhance contextual learning; encourages vocational teachers to acquire academic certification to help teach remedial math and English courses; collaborates with California Commission on Teacher Credentialing to ensure standards are reflected in professional development activities 

Extra pay for teachers in shortage areas; allows lateral entry, but district must develop own policies 

Encourages lateral entry; teachers must show relevant work experience, pass competency tests, and acquire 24 semesters of statemandated course work 

State reports teacher shortage in 14 CTE categories has relaxed management regulations to get retired teachers to return to the classroom 

Provides for lateral entry and has supported East Carolina University accelerated licensure program; provides incentives for national board certification 

Provides incentives for nationaboard certificatitraditional entry through teacher programs requipassing PRAXIS exam; lateral enrollment providprovisional licenand requires adtional educationcourse work oveseveral years; certifies qualifyivocational teachers in academic areas so some vocational classreceive academicredit 
-84-

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio 

Staff Development 

Supports professional development through sponsorship of integrated models; sponsors statewide conferences for partnership academies, Tech-Prep; supports California Mentor Teacher Program and beginning teacher support and assessment; uses leadership funds for professional development and technical assistance on standards-based curriculum, articulation, interdisciplinary career paths, and work-based connections; supports committees that identify professional development needs 

Supports professional development through sponsorship of HSTW; delivers professional development and technical assistance through regional area directors and area centers for educational enhancement; has Workforce Development Specialist in each center to support standards, HSTW, integrated learning, and other practices 

Leadership funds used to support curriculum resources center and summer institutes including yearly conferences on STW, Tech-Prep, HSTW, and Perkins; general state funds supply $125 per FTE to each district for professional development; state requires 15 percent of Perkins local funds be applied to professional development 

Sponsorship of career academy model and Making Connections (includes externship); 10 percent of state Perkins funds used for teacher education and professional development; Perkins funds used to support curriculum clearinghouse; sponsors spring/summer updates on progress for teachers, quarterly meeting of CTE administrators; supports oneday orientation for new teachers, twoday workshop on writing, and oneday workshop on writing objectives for each pathway 

State sponsors annual summer professional development conference for vocational teachers and externships for teachers; funds professional development on the VoCATs; supports professional development through sponsorship of HSTW 

Organizes prsional develothrough pathstructure; supprofessional dopment throusponsorship oHSTW 
-85-

However, not all vocational or occupational areas have widely 

accepted industry standards. In some states, such as Texas, adoption is voluntary; others, such as Ohio, mandate use of industry 

standards in some programs. 

Local Efforts 

At the local level, teachers have been affected by the states’ move 

toward academic standards and by the standards movement in 

general. For example, in the survey most teachers reported that 

some type of standards existed for their “specified” class: 92.4 

percent of academic teachers compared to 82.3 percent of vocational teachers (p < .001, see Table D.14). Academic teachers were 

significantly more likely to report that state and district standards 

were relevant to their class, while vocational teachers were more 

cognizant of industry standards. For teachers who reported existence of a standard related to the selected class, most teachers said 

that standards influenced their teaching to a “moderate” or 

“great” extent. The differences between academic and vocational 

teachers were not significant, as seen in Table D.15. Thus, when 

teachers have identified standards that apply to their class, they 

report that the standards influence their teaching. 

Respondents at most sites — 25 out of 28 — reported during our 

field visits that state academic standards had affected the vocational courses. The only sites not reporting this were in Michigan 

and Ohio, as seen in Table C.3. Respondents at 24 sites reported 

feeling under pressure to raise the academic content in vocational 

courses. Twenty-three out of 28 sites reported that the academic 

testing regime was influential in establishing content in vocational 

courses — only sites in California and Ohio did not report this. 

Oftentimes, this was through the inclusion of academic skill practice in vocational courses — for example, inclusion of high-level 

math or required writing. Fewer sites — 20 out of 28 — reported 

that state vocational exams influenced the content of vocational 

courses, in part because of the lack of such exams in several sample states or because of their voluntary nature. 

Most sites had moved or were moving toward the inclusion of industry standards in their vocational courses. Respondents at 26 

sites in the field sample noted the influence of these standards, 

while respondents at 16 said one or more vocational courses earn 

industry certification. This finding was confirmed in the survey 

analysis. In the survey, vocational teachers were significantly 

__________________ 

Academic teachers were

significantly more likely to 

report that state and 

district standards were 

relevant to their class, 

while vocational teachers 

were more cognizant of 

industry standards. 

__________________ 

__________________ 

Teachers at most case 

study schools reported 

that state academic 

standards and tests affect 

vocational courses.

__________________ 
-86-

more likely than academic teachers to report that their class led to 

a certificate of occupational skills — 37.7 and 4.1 percent for vocational and academic teachers, respectively, as seen in Table D.11. 

As indicated in the previous chapter, the increasing influence of 

academic achievement in vocational courses was seen as both a 

blessing and a curse. Local respondents were quite positive about 

the increased emphasis on academics, stating that all students 

needed greater than basic skills in reading, writing and math to 

successfully navigate in today’s world. On the other hand, some 

vocational teachers thought the emphasis on academics ate away 

time that previously had been dedicated to vocational skills. 

Given the increased emphasis by vocational teachers on industrybased standards, many vocational teachers reported being 

stretched to meet both academic and vocational standards given 

that the school day and year had not been increased. 

Higher standards have been incorporated in other ways, but these 

varied between academic and vocational teachers. In the survey, 

teachers reported on a set of specific features that are indicative of 

academic or technical quality, as seen in Table D.11. Academic 

teachers were more than twice as likely as vocational teachers to 

report that their “identified” class fulfilled an academic requirement — 84 and 42.1 percent, respectively, p < .001 — and to report 

that it was an “honors” class — 24.6 percent and 2.8 percent, respectively, p < .001. Vocational teachers were more likely to report that this class had an articulation agreement; was part of a 

Tech-Prep, pre-apprenticeship or academy program; and included 

a paid internship or job shadowing. The percentage of vocational 

teachers’ classes fulfilling a graduation requirement — 41.2 percent — is higher than any other reported feature. This suggests 

that vocational classes are at least aiming to meet some academic 

standards in addition to incorporating many of the features one 

expects to be associated with a quality career and technical education. 

Similarly, in our site visits, only 13 sites noted that they had one or 

more vocational courses that met academic standards for college 

acceptance. Meanwhile 17 noted that some vocational courses did 

receive college credit — sometimes through dual enrollment — 

for vocational career paths, as seen in Table C.3. Twenty-two sites 

reported that vocational classes had articulation agreements, as 

seen in Table C.5. 
-87-

A third indicator that teachers promote higher achievement is the 

amount of homework that teachers assign to students. Surveyed 

teachers reported the amount of homework — in hours and minutes — assigned to students in the identified class in the last five 

school days. Academic teachers assigned significantly more 

homework than vocational teachers — 2.9 and 1.4 hours per week, 

respectively, see Table D.18. Average hours of homework assigned did not significantly differ for teachers in comprehensive 

high schools compared to those in vocational schools, as seen in 

Table D.19. 

To further explore the differences between the quality of academic 

and vocational teachers’ classes, we developed a “quality index” 

consisting of some of the individual items just discussed. The index is comprised of six individual scales, and has a maximum 

value of nine points. The variables used to create the scales measure several characteristics of the selected class: the extent to 

which state, district, school or industry standards affect instruction; academic quality — fulfills academic requirement, is designated as honors, has an articulation agreement; technical quality 

— leads to a skills certificate, includes related paid internship; the 

extent to which certain academic and technical competencies contributed to students’ grades in the class; teacher quality — 

whether a teacher has a certificate in primary teaching area; and 

amount of homework. (Appendix A describes the derivation of 

the quality scale in more detail.) 

Using scale scores, we examined differences between academic 

and vocational teachers, as seen in Table D.23. Overall, classes 

taught by academic teachers score significantly higher than those 

taught by vocational teachers, although the absolute difference is 

not that large — 5.08 and 4.62, respectively, of a maximum of nine 

points. Academic teachers scored significantly higher than vocational teachers on several individual scales: influence of standards, academic quality and homework. Academic teachers were 

also more likely than vocational teachers to be certified in their 

primary teaching field, but most teachers were so certified — 97 

and 93 percent, respectively. Vocational teachers scored significantly higher than academic teachers on the two remaining individual scales: technical quality and contribution of competencies 

to students’ grades. 

This analysis of case-study and survey data leads to the following 

broad conclusions about efforts to raise standards. 

__________________

Academic teachers reported assigning significantly more homework 

than vocational teachers. 

__________________
-88-

• Academic and vocational teachers are being influenced by 

standards and assessments to improve the quality of their 

instruction across all states with little difference among respondents within states. 

• These attempts and influences differ somewhat between 

the two groups. 

• Academic teachers report being influenced by the academic standards, but few report being influenced by vocational ones. 

• While vocational teachers have attempted to increase the 

academic content of their courses, they also are guided by 

industry standards and expectations. 

Integration of Academic and Vocational Education 

The concept of integration is central to the program improvements 

in Perkins: indeed, many of the other improvements serve to enhance integration. States are required to describe how they will 

improve programs by strengthening the integration of academic 

with vocational and technical components through a coherent sequence of courses.17 In addition, many other features of integration have been defined that can help promote learning (e.g., 

Grubb et al., 1992). These fall into two broad categories: structure 

and curriculum. 

By structure we refer to the organization and sequencing of 

courses or experiences designed to aid the student to develop 

higher and deeper levels of understanding and career preparation. 

In addition, it refers to the opportunities provided by the course 

scheduling for teachers to work together to develop and present a 

more integrated curriculum. 

Schools can align academic and vocational courses either by ensuring that courses taken concurrently are related to one another 

in content — horizontal alignment, meaning courses taken at the 

same time — or that courses form a sequence overtime that reinforce each other — vertical alignment, meaning over the four-year 

high school period. The “coherent sequence” is often translated 

into a minimum number of vocational classes in order to define a 

vocational student or program. Ideally, this sequence would also 

incorporate horizontal or vertical alignment, or both. 

_____________ 

17 PL 105-332 Sec 134 (b) (3) (A). 
-89-

Schools can also organize single courses or programs more 

broadly, for example, by creating career pathways or majors. 

They can adopt reform models that explicitly support integration, 

through vertical and horizontal alignment, such as career academies or High Schools That Work . 

Schools can group students within pathways, clusters or academies so students focusing in a particular career area take their 

academic and vocational courses together. 

Structural support for teachers to develop integrated curriculum 

includes team teaching and common planning time for teachers. 

These provide the opportunities for teachers, especially vocational 

and academic teachers, to work together to create projects and experiences that seamlessly meld academic and vocational content 

and skills. Schools can adopt block scheduling to support planning or curriculum integration. 

Integration also refers to curricular innovations in which vocational and academic materials are more easily and naturally combined instead of the more traditional separation by course. 

Schools can adopt strategies to incorporate more academic content 

into vocational courses, modify academic courses to make them 

more relevant to vocational studies — such as through adoption 

of applied academics curriculum or through such integrated curriculum models as High Schools That Work — require projects 

that force students to integrate learning from different classes, and 

encourage project-based learning in which students demonstrate 

application of academic and vocational knowledge, such as designing a product or building a house. 

Note that simply increasing academic content in vocational 

courses does not constitute integration. This simply manifests an 

attempt to cover academic curriculum. Integration requires the 

skillful blending of academic and vocational content to help students understand the workings of the world and better learn 

needed job skills. 

Schools also can enhance integration by more directly connecting 

school learning to work, perhaps in a vertical sequence. This can 

be accomplished by providing different kinds of learning opportunities that take students to workplaces — such as job shadowing 

and paid or unpaid work-based learning — and by explicitly connecting school learning and work-based learning — such as in 

seminars that discuss students’ work experiences or in work-
-90-

based learning plans. As discussed below, strong connections to 

employers can enhance the quality of these school-to-work connections. 

State Efforts 

All state respondents were cognizant of integration concepts and 

fluent in the language of integration. They also seemed to be 

highly supportive of the integration approach first discussed in 

Perkins II. The sample states have adopted several policies, in 

addition to Tech-Prep, to enhance integration. 

Every state in the sample has begun, if not completed, the reorganization of vocational programs into career pathways or clusters to create more coherent and sequential courses of study. 

These tend to vary by state (see Table 5.1). For example, Michigan 

has developed six different pathways with 41 career programs 

while Massachusetts is in the process of developing seven career 

clusters. 

The systems in Florida and North Carolina stand out as providing 

the most coherent vocational pathway structures. Florida has 

done away with stand-alone vocational courses. The state established career pathways or ladders through its Occupational Completer Point system — discussed in Chapter Four — that organizes 

courses into industry-related clusters. In addition, this system 

provides coherent sequences of courses — vertical alignment — 

with specific sequences for each job or completer point — the 

point of exit from school and entrance into a job — for grades 9–

16. 

North Carolina’s mandated system of four courses of study, also 

discussed in Chapter Four, incorporates career clusters vertically 

aligned with a statewide articulation agreement and dualenrollment policy for all secondary and postsecondary institutions. As in Florida, this was possible because of the strong centralized character of the state educational system. The more 

recent changes in North Carolina were still being implemented at 

the time of the visits to local sites. 

Five states — Florida, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Ohio and 

Texas — have adopted the Southern Regional Education Board’s 

High Schools That Work whole-school reform model. Other 

states, including California, Florida, North Carolina and Michigan, support the Career Academy model. This model adopts a 

__________________

The systems in Florida 

and North Carolina 

stand out as providing 

the most coherent vocational pathway structures. 

__________________

__________________

Most states support reform models that can

enhance integration, but 

schools may or may not 

choose to adopt them. 

__________________ 
-91-

school-within-a-school structure that groups teachers and students in a vertically-integrated career cluster; students are 

grouped to take their academic and vocational courses together. 

All seven states reported sponsoring curriculum development and 

dissemination as another approach to getting integrated curriculum into classrooms. 

Integration also may be enhanced through work-based learning. 

Not every state had a set of explicit policies for work-based learning. Florida, Massachusetts and North Carolina emphasized this 

component more than other states. For example, Massachusetts 

supports both apprenticeship and internship programs for students. State employees work with employers to develop such 

programs at the local level and to connect students with work opportunities. The programs are based on materials developed by 

the state and include specific guidelines for work-based learning 

activities and experiences. 

Local Efforts 

The analyses of school-level data indicate that some forms of integrated structures were more readily adopted than others. For example, while 13 of the 28 sites reported still having vocational 

stand-alone courses not connected in any sequence, 25 of the 28 

reported having some vertical alignment of vocational courses 

and/or career pathways, as seen in Table C.1. 

In Florida and North Carolina, all sites reported using the statemandated, vertically-aligned sequences of courses and, along with 

Massachusetts, reported no stand-alone courses. In Florida, site 

respondents praised the system for making course-taking more 

coherent and understandable to students. All schools had pamphlets that clearly delineated the sequences and choices of pathways for students. All schools in these two states reported having 

vertically-aligned curriculum and de facto articulation agreements 

with local colleges in place stemming from the strong state support for K–16 course sequences. These clear pathways might have 

enabled the Florida schools to more readily adopt academies. 

Three of the four schools we visited had created career academies. 

In North Carolina, all schools had adopted the state courses of 

study — although not all were fully implemented — and were 

beginning to implement the counseling programs that supported 

the students’ choices. Respondents did not see the requirement to 

choose a course of study as limiting or tracking students: “Stu-

__________________

Most local case-study 

sites had vertical alignment of vocational 

courses and/or a career 

pathway structure. 

About half still offer

stand-alone vocational 

courses. 

__________________
-92-

dents will still have lots of choices upon graduation . . . this approach ensures that they are adequately prepared for their 

choices.” However, administrators also noted that it may be difficult for students to change after grade 10 because of prerequisite 

requirements, course load and scheduling issues. 

Ten of the local sites have adopted career academies, while 18 reported having adopted some type of curriculum model that includes vertical integration, such as HSTW or Accelerated Schools. 

Sixteen of the schools reported using block scheduling, which allows for longer class periods for project-based work. All the 

schools in North Carolina reported using block scheduling, in part 

because the courses of study encourage this approach and promote it through workshops and conferences. Block scheduling 

allows students to complete the increased requirements included 

in the courses of study. 

In contrast, the supports needed for teacher-to-teacher interactions 

and time for developing integrated curriculum were much less 

evident in the sample sites. Only seven schools in the sample reported any kind of team teaching and this was always among only 

a handful of teachers in the schools. In the national survey, only 

9.4 percent of academic teachers and 12.7 percent of vocational 

teachers reported jointly teaching a course with a teacher of another subject area during the past year, as seen in Table D.4. Vocational teachers and teachers in vocational schools are slightly 

more likely to report team teaching than are academic teachers 

and teachers in comprehensive high schools (Table D.5). 

Similarly, only six schools in the case-study sample reported having common planning time between vocational and academic 

teachers so that they could jointly plan and deliver integrated curriculum. In the survey, teachers reported little opportunity for 

joint planning, as seen in Tables D.29 and D.30. About 60 percent 

of academic and vocational teachers reported that the school offers no time for planning during the school day — 61.2 and 60.1 

percent, respectively, p < .07. Teachers in comprehensive schools 

were a little less likely to report time for joint planning than those 

in vocational schools — 61.6 and 50.8 percent, respectively. 

Although the schools did not provide planning time, teachers collaborated on their own for purposes of developing overall curriculum, discussing student progress, developing assessments, or 

planning field trips or other activities. More than half of the 

__________________

Team teaching is rare for 

both academic and 

vocational teachers. 

Teachers have little time 

for joint planning. 

__________________
-93-

teachers surveyed reported some type of collaboration during the 

current school year, as seen in Table D.29. Academic teachers reported that they are much more likely to work with other academic teachers than with vocational teachers, while vocational 

teachers seem to collaborate as frequently with both types of 

teachers. We found similar patterns in the local-level case-study 

data. 

Other forms of curricular integration that appeared to be adopted 

by many schools in at least some vocational programs included 

project-based learning (23 sites), better connections to work 

through opportunities to job shadow or have guest speakers (24 

sites), and the opportunity for work-based learning (27 sites, see 

Table C.2). Few sites, however, adopted senior projects (10 sites) 

or had school-based enterprises (10 sites). 

We note that while respondents at the school level said these 

types of activities or curricular opportunities existed in their 

schools, they were neither available to all students nor could respondents report that such practices as project-based learning 

were uniform across all classes. Here, it is important to distinguish between increasing the academic content of vocational 

courses and using an integrated curriculum. Many respondents, 

as noted in the previous chapter, reported using more vocational 

time to cover academic subjects in preparation for state assessments. We do not consider this in keeping with the notion of integrated curriculum, although it could be considered an attempt 

to provide more rigorous academic curriculum to all students. 

Here, we probed for attempts to merge academic and vocational 

content, often through real-life problem-solving or project-based 

activities, into a seamless curriculum. This latter idea did not 

seem to be adopted at many sites. 

Probing often revealed that teachers had only one or two integrated curriculum units lasting perhaps a day or so. As examples: 

• The agricultural sequence at one school in California — 

Agriculture Science I and II, Animal Anatomy and Physiology, and Environmental Agriculture Science — incorporated learning of communication skills, laboratory skills, 

specific scientific knowledge — for example, the metric 

system — and application of science knowledge in specific 

areas of agriculture. The teachers mapped the curriculum 

against the science standards, and the courses received science credit. 
-94-

• A health teacher and a math teacher in a North Carolina 

school worked together to develop a three-day or four-day 

unit during which students would assess their nutritional 

needs and their actual intake, using basic math concepts to 

keep accurate track of the student’s actual versus ideal intake. 

• A school in Florida had been designated a New Millennium school. Teachers were just beginning to get together 

to develop a more integrated curriculum. Academic and 

vocational teachers were only just receiving professional 

development on how to do this. 

• A school in North Carolina had sent all the vocational 

teachers to professional development on integrated curriculum writing, but none of the academic teachers had attended. Each vocational teacher was given an assignment 

to meet with an academic teacher and develop a unit of integrated curriculum. Because the school had no common 

planning time, vocational teachers chose whichever academic teacher was available to partner with, even if the 

pairing made little sense in terms of course content or purpose. 

• A Medical Preparation program in Ohio emphasized a 

“hands-on” approach in the anatomy and physiology 

course, as well as critical thinking exercises, where students were given a problem situation to think through and 

solve. The class was organized into teams, and students 

had to “apply” for the job of head nurse. The teacher 

“hired” a head for each team, who was responsible for the 

work of the whole team. Project work was common and 

students worked in teams for at least half of the daily class 

time. 

Even in Florida and North Carolina, which appeared able to get 

local sites to adopt the structural components of integration, the 

study found far fewer examples of curricular integration than one 

might hope to find. While states have supported integration with 

conferences; staff development; and, in the case of Massachusetts, 

Ohio and Michigan, clearinghouses of integrated curricular units, 

most teachers in our site visits could only describe very limited 

attempts at a truly integrated curriculum. 

Why is integration so difficult? Teachers often reported that lack 

of funding for professional development, lack of common plan-
-95-

ning time or lack of interest posed barriers to the demanding work 

of curricular integration at the teacher level. In some cases, the 

separation of academic and vocational programs in different 

schools — such as area vocational schools and regional occupational programs — worked against integration. Underlying all of 

this was the increased emphasis on standards-based academic 

curriculum and assessments and separately developed voluntary 

(in most cases) standards for vocational skills. The more clearly 

separate standards had been articulated in the academic or vocational disciplines and the more states had developed mandated 

curriculum in these subjects, the more teachers reported difficulty 

in even conceptualizing how to develop integrated curriculum. In 

other words, lack of jointly developed and integrated curriculum 

standards put most of the burden of integrated curriculum development on already overworked teachers. 

The teacher survey results echo the case studies in showing little 

evidence of integration. According to teacher reports, student activities most associated with integration are more prevalent in vocational classes than in academic classes.18 Survey data, as seen in 

Table D.26, indicated that academic teachers report more frequent 

use of the type of activities associated with more didactic instruction — listening to a lecture, writing a paragraph, receiving a 

homework assignment, or taking a test or quiz. Vocational teachers, on the other hand, report significantly more frequent use of 

hands-on or applied activities (work on extended projects, “applied academics” curriculum, application of academic skills to 

tasks that might be found in a job or career), technology-related 

activities (use computers, instruments, tools or equipment; use the 

Internet to conduct research; use technology in industry or postsecondary setting), career exploration activities, and activities involving distance learning. 

Similarly, teachers reported differences when asked to indicate to 

what extent certain competencies contribute to students’ grades in 

the identified class, as seen in Table D.17. For about a third of 

academic and vocational teachers, “basic math skills” contribute 

______________ 

18 We asked teachers to report how often, on average, their students engage 

in a number of activities in their “identified” class. Response categories included 

never, one to five times per semester/one to five times per year, one to two times 

per month/six to 30 times per year, one to two times per week/31 to 80 times per 

year, and almost daily/81 or more times per year. Table D.16 reports frequencies 

for never, “occasionally” (one to 30 times per year) and “frequently” (31 times to 

almost daily). 

__________________

Academic and vocational

teachers emphasize 

different kinds of 

knowledge and skill 

development in their 

classes. 

__________________
-96-

to students’ grades to “a great extent.” For all other academic 

competencies — advanced math, basic and advanced reading, 

writing skills — academic teachers were significantly more likely 

than vocational teachers to report that these competencies contributed “a great extent” to students’ grades. In contrast, vocational competencies — job specific skills, general employability 

skills and ability to apply academic concepts to occupation-related 

tasks — are significantly more important to vocational teachers. 

Following the previous National Assessment of Vocational Education (1994b), competencies on the list provided to teachers can be 

interpreted in the context of the Secretary’s Commission on 

Achieving Necessary Skills. With respect to SCANS-related competencies — teamwork skills, research or reference skills, and ability to use technology to solve problems — teachers do not differ in 

reporting the contribution of “research/reference skills”: vocational teachers are significantly more likely to report that teamwork and technology use contributed to grades to “a great 

extent.” With respect to SCANS-related foundation skills (oral 

communication, creative thinking and problem-solving), teachers 

do not differ in reporting the contribution of thinking and problem-solving. Vocational teachers are significantly more likely to 

report that oral communication skills contribute to grades to “a 

great extent.” Overall, these findings are consistent with what 

might be expected: academic and vocational teachers continue to 

emphasize different kinds of knowledge and skill development in 

their classes. 

In summary, state and local efforts appear to have focused heavily 

on structural components of integration and have successfully 

implemented some of these components at the local level. In 

some cases, these changes represent true reform, while in others, 

they are labels that have been adopted without much alteration to 

the status quo. Integration of curriculum has proven more fleeting even though states have supported it through professional development, curriculum development and adoption of model 

programs. Lack of common planning time, lack of block scheduling, different foci of professional development between academic 

and vocational teachers, and increased mandated standards and 

curriculum that appear on the surface to discourage integration 

might all contribute to this state of affairs. 
-97-

All Aspects of the Industry 

All Aspects of the Industry was first mentioned in Perkins II and 

called for students to have “strong experience in and an understanding of those aspects of the industry the students are preparing to enter.” This means that courses should include such topics 

as planning, management, finance, technical and production 

skills, underlying principals of technology, labor issues, community issues, and health, safety, and environmental issues. In practice, AAI is implemented in various ways but is primarily thought 

of as a way to organize curriculum (e.g., Finch et al., 1999). AAI is 

present to the extent that these types of topics are incorporated in 

a program’s learning activities. 

State and Local Efforts 

Interviews with state officials and document review did not uncover many direct policies to encourage an understanding of AAI. 

This does not necessarily mean it has fallen by the wayside. 

Rather, AAI appears to be addressed in the context of other policies. However, the term “all aspects” was rarely used at the state 

or local level, with a few exceptions, such as in Ohio. It appears 

that Perkins is not stimulating the adoption of this concept in vocational education curriculum to any great extent. 

Parent and Employer Involvement 

As described in Perkins, a quality vocational program is one that 

actively engages the identified stakeholders — including students, 

parents, teachers, employers and community members — in program development, implementation and evaluation. An effective 

program will include processes to inform stakeholders about the 

programs, to utilize their skills and interests to improve the program and broaden opportunities for students, and to build on relationships thus developed to promote program goals. Especially 

crucial is the extensive involvement of labor groups and businesses to provide information about changes in the workplace that 

affect education programs. The literature suggests that teachers, 

especially vocational teachers, may play a significant role in connecting with and involving employers (Rosenbaum and Jones, 

1995). Parent support also is known to play an important role in 

student attainment. 

__________________

Perkins III does not 

appear to stimulate the 

adoption of the concept of

AAI. 

__________________
-98-

State Efforts 

The Perkins legislation does not appear to be generating much 

attention to the issue of parental involvement. Few states have 

direct policies to involve parents, although this does not mean 

that parents are not involved. 

Queries regarding employer involvement were more fruitful. All 

states reported having implemented school-level and programlevel advisory committees in compliance with Perkins rules and 

regulations. Another way to involve employers and the community is through career and technical student organizations. A few 

states reported using state leadership funds to support these organizations. 

Local Efforts 

Data from the teacher survey indicate that vocational teachers — 

and teachers in vocational schools — had significantly greater 

contacts with representatives of business, industry or labor groups 

than academic teachers did. More than 40 percent of academic 

teachers had no contact at all, compared to only 8 percent of vocational teachers, as seen in Table D.8. More than half of vocational 

teachers worked with employers on advisory committees (57.5 

percent), had employers make class presentations (52.1 percent), 

discussed skill needs with employers (66.8 percent), visited a 

work site (57.7 percent) and referred students for placement (68.6 

percent). Comparable percentages for academic teachers were in 

the range 12.5 to 39 percent. Similarly, teachers in vocational 

schools had more contact overall for every type of activity than 

did teachers in comprehensive schools, as seen in Table D.9. 

This pattern repeated itself among the subset of academic and vocational teachers who taught a vocational or career-oriented class 

as part of their primary teaching assignment — 98 academic 

teachers and 827 vocational teachers. Vocational teachers reported significantly greater involvement than academic teachers 

of vocational or career-oriented classes; the most frequent types of 

involvement concerned input on skill requirements (28.6 percent), 

followed by review of overall curriculum (25.8 percent), and advice on the selection of instruments, tools or equipment (20.2 percent, see Table D.21). These findings indicate that academic 

teachers, even when they are teaching career-oriented classes, 

have more limited contact with employers than vocational teachers do. Similarly, teachers of career-oriented courses in vocational 

__________________

Vocational teachers were 

much more likely to 

report having contacts 

with representatives of 

business, industry or 

labor groups. 

__________________

__________________

Perkins III does not 

appear to be generating 

parental involvement in

vocational education 

programs. 

__________________

__________________

Even when academic 

teachers teach careeroriented classes, their 

classes have more 

limited contact with 

employers than do 

vocational teachers’ 

classes. 

__________________
-99-

schools — primarily vocational teachers — were much more likely 

to have all types of employer involvement in the identified class 

than would teachers in comprehensive schools, as seen in Table 

D.22. 

These survey findings are quite consistent with the case studies, 

where 22 schools reported having industry advisory groups. Specifically, these groups provided insights on curriculum (14 sites) 

or advised on industry skill needs (17 sites). Local practitioners 

reported extensive involvement with employers, particularly in 

Michigan and Ohio, through advisory groups or through the provision of work experiences (20 sites) or hiring of students (21 

sites). Respondents at 14 sites reported that businesses had made 

significant donations of equipment or materials or assisted with 

funding. 

In some states, involvement was either not as widespread or was 

stronger in some programs than others. For example, in California the career academy programs and regional occupational programs19 had more connections to employers than other types (see 

summary, Table C.4). 

Connections to Postsecondary 

Traditionally, vocational education in secondary schools was primarily geared to preparing students for work right after high 

school. Increasingly, it aims to prepare students for work and further education, and federal funds support activities that help 

make that connection. Perkins III directs states to link secondary 

vocational and technical education and postsecondary vocational 

and technical education. 

Formal connections to postsecondary institutions — primarily 

community colleges — are usually accomplished through articulation agreements that enable students to receive college credit for 

high school courses. More informal collaborations may involve 

local administrators and teachers from both institutions who meet 

to share information about college requirements or the labor market, develop curriculum for a vocational program or pathway, or 

______________ 

19 Regional occupational programs/centers provide vocational training to 

high school students and to adults in surrounding communities. In many cases, 

they have strong relationships with the high school vocational programs. Vocational students may take some or all of their courses through the ROP/C. 
-100-

share laboratory or other equipment. 

Another way that secondary schools link to postsecondary education is through guidance and counseling services. In this case the 

interest is not just college choice and matriculation — the usual 

function of high school guidance counselors — but career planning. A comprehensive career-planning program might begin 

prior to high school and include career exploration activities or an 

introduction to high school programs. High schools typically 

hold “career and college” nights during which parents and students can learn about postsecondary and career opportunities. 

Some may hold separate events. High schools may require career 

planning, regularly updated and involving parents of all students. 

Schools may offer more in-depth activities, such as special classes 

for work-readiness, career development or awareness, or a course 

where students learn about different career pathways before they 

choose which one to enter. The study investigated the extent and 

depth of these activities, as well as the availability of specialized 

or trained staff to conduct career counseling and guidance — for 

example, school-to-career coordinators, dedicated career counselors or staff development for counselors who engage in career 

planning. 

State Efforts 

States use multiple mechanisms to promote connections between 

secondary vocational programs and postsecondary institutions. 

By far the most structured means is through Tech-Prep programs 

and related policies, as discussed further in the next chapter. 

States have also adopted integrated curriculum models that specify links to postsecondary institutions as a component of the 

model — for example, career academies. In addition, Florida, 

Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas promote links to postsecondary through career counseling, career exploration courses, 

computer-based counseling programs available to all schools, or 

scholarships. 

Several states mandated or strongly emphasized career planning 

— California, Florida, North Carolina, Michigan and Ohio — and 

nearly all sites in these states reported that students developed 

career plans. Several states have invested in computer software to 

provide students with the counseling they need. Florida in particular has invested in this manner to support student’s understanding of the Occupational Completer Point system and the 

__________________

Several states in the 

study mandated or 

strongly encouraged 

career planning, sometimes before high school. 

__________________
-101-

vertical pathways available. The software even identifies the 

postsecondary institutions that offer the pathway of interest. All 

students are encouraged to use this system to develop their career 

plans in the eighth grade. 

Three states discussed scholarships with students as a way to encourage further education. Massachusetts and Michigan have 

scholarship programs that any student can apply for and thus 

they support vocational postsecondary attendance. 

Florida’s Bright Futures Program was unique in offering specific 

scholarships for vocational students. The program is a meritbased scholarship that encourages college attendance. Under the 

Gold Seal Vocational Scholars Awards, vocational students with a 

GPA of 3.0 or better and specific minimum test scores can get 75 

percent of their tuition and fees paid by the state in any public or 

private postsecondary institution in Florida. 

Before leaving this subject, we need to make a brief observation 

about the local impact of the Florida’s Bright Futures Program. 

Both state and local respondents reported that this program has 

had a profound effect on students’ and parents’ attitudes toward 

vocational education. The program has made clear that vocational 

education is valued and can lead to well-paying careers. All 

school districts and school respondents knew about this program 

and indicated it sent clear signals to students and parents that vocational education “counted for something.” While no one could 

provide specific evidence, many reported that this program enabled Florida to maintain high vocational program enrollments. 

Local Efforts 

To assess involvement between secondary schools and postsecondary institutions the survey asked how often — during the current school year — teachers participated in several coordinated 

activities with faculty or staff from postsecondary institutions. 

The responses varied significantly by academic and vocational 

teachers. 

More than half of the academic teachers — 52.3 percent — reported no coordination at all, compared to about one-fourth of 

vocational teachers — 25.7 percent, as seen in Table D.6. Compared with academic teachers, vocational teachers reported significantly more coordination of any type, for such purposes as 

curriculum and lesson planning, sharing technology or equip-

__________________

Compared with academic 

teachers, vocational 

teachers reported more 

coordination with faculty

or staff from postsecondary institutions. 

__________________

__________________

Florida’s Bright Futures 

program provides scholarships to vocational 

students to promote college attendance. 

__________________
-102-

ment, discussing student postsecondary preparation, working on 

articulation agreements and exchanging employer contacts. Except for planning specific lessons or units, all coordination activities occurred significantly more frequently among teachers in 

vocational schools than teachers in comprehensive high schools 

(see Table D.7). 

Overall, these survey results only partly correspond to the casestudy findings. Across the case-study sites, the most common and 

frequent connections — at 14 of the sites — between high schools 

and postsecondary schools were found in the development of articulation agreements through which high school courses would 

receive credit at community colleges or, in a few instances, fouryear institutions (see Table C.5). 

In a few states — notably Ohio — the local practitioners also reported a variety of connections with postsecondary institutions, 

including having faculty on advisory boards, sharing information 

on requirements, and joint curriculum or program planning. The 

case studies turned up far fewer of these types of activities than 

suggested by the survey. 

The frequency of connections for the purposes of developing articulation agreements found in both survey and case-study data 

suggests the influence of Tech-Prep. Articulation agreements are 

a distinguishing feature of Tech-Prep, and, because Tech-Prep is a 

vocational education reform, one might expect vocational teachers 

to be more involved in this activity than academic teachers. 

Another way that high schools connect with postsecondary institutions is through guidance and counseling and, in particular, career planning. However, according to the teacher survey, almost 

two-thirds of schools — 64.3 percent — did not require students to 

develop a career plan, although about 16 percent of schools required written career plans for some students. Planning was more 

frequent in vocational schools than in comprehensive high schools 

(see Table D.10). 

In contrast to this national picture, career planning was reportedly 

fairly common in the case-study sites and took different forms. 

Twenty-two sites reported requiring the students to complete a 

four-year plan for high school, as seen in Table C.6. Seventeen 

sites reported regular review of these plans. Nineteen schools reported providing career planning prior to high school — often a 

career exposure class or seminar in the eighth grade. Twenty sites 
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reported using career fairs, and 22 reported using career inventories to aid students in their choice of careers and relevant courses. 

Across the states, counseling services — including dedicated career counselors — seemed more widespread in “high”-performing 

schools, whereas “low”-performing schools tended to engage students in a career-planning process through activities embedded in 

coursework. 

Technology 

Perkins III emphasizes the more effective use of technology in 

classrooms to encourage better preparation of students for work 

and postsecondary education. It specifically encourages teacher 

training to use state-of-the-art technology, including distance 

learning, training in academic and technical skills to prepare vocational and technical education students to enter high-technology 

and communications fields, and program development in hightechnology fields. Not mentioned in Perkins, but found in other 

literature and the National Education Goals is the growing need 

for all students to become computer-literate. In this report, we 

focused on identifying policies to support the effective uses of 

technology in vocational programs, access to and quality of technology — as judged by teachers — teacher preparation, and, to a 

lesser extent, the uses of technology in instruction. 

State Efforts 

States have promoted the expansion, development and use of 

technology, but this does not seem to be a priority area specific to 

vocational education. Rather, where policies are in place, they 

tend to apply to all students and programs. For example, several 

states have technology education guidelines or goals for all students, and these apply to vocational programs. 

Two states specifically require students to take a technology credit 

for graduation, North Carolina and Texas. Other states endeavor 

to include student technology skill acquisition as part of the vocational course standards. For example, these are included in the 

North Carolina Blueprints. California, Michigan and Texas have 

specific programs to promote technology skills in teachers. 

__________________ 

State policies related to 

technology often apply to 

all students and programs, not only to vocational education. 

__________________
-104-

Local Efforts 

At the sample sites, 14 schools had a technology policy and 17 

schools had requirements for computer literacy for graduation, as 

seen in Table C.7. Thirteen sites reported having “high-tech” programs — such as Cisco and pre-engineering — or computer-based 

courses such as CAD/CAM. Twenty-two sites reported that they 

emphasize computer-based skills in the curriculum. 

The “high-tech” programs visited, however, were of varying quality. A few examples stood out as state-of-the-art — for example, a 

program in Michigan sponsored by General Motors — but teachers at many sites were not satisfied with the quality or amount of 

technology available to them. 

Three sites in California happened to be “Digital High Schools,” 

providing a glimpse of what could be done to encourage the use 

of technology. These schools had a schoolwide technology policy 

applied to all students, not just vocational students and programs. 

Extra funds were available to these schools to support technology, 

including funds for staff development for all teachers. This staff 

development was somewhat general and did not emphasize curriculum integration. 

Importantly, districts and schools in the field sample emphasized 

the criticality of Perkins funding for the acquisition of technology. 

This was a major source of technology funding for vocational 

courses at 25 of the 28 sites. At many of these sites, it was the major use of Perkins funds at the local level. 

As one California teacher explained, “Teachers are constantly 

fighting for equipment. Perkins saves our rear end. If it weren’t 

for Perkins, we’d be dead.” 

A few items on the teacher survey asked about technology-related 

issues in career-related or vocational classes only. Academic and 

vocational teachers who taught a career-related or vocational class 

reported on the availability and quality of technology — including 

computers, instruments, tools or equipment — in the class. Specifically, they reported on whether or not certain conditions posed 

a problem for using technology in the classroom. As can be seen 

in Table D.24, academic teachers were significantly more likely to 

report a “moderate” or “serious” problem with respect to availability of technology, availability in adequate numbers, appropriateness, alignment of technology with the curriculum and 

convenience of location. Almost half of academic and vocational 

__________________

Academic teachers were

more likely to report 

problems with technology

availability and quality. 

__________________
-105-

teachers reported problems with having “current or state-of-theart technology”; about 40 percent of each reported problems with 

“maintenance of technology.” None of these differences were significant for teachers in comprehensive schools compared with 

those in vocational schools (see Table D.25). 

Compared to academic teachers, vocational teachers were significantly more likely to feel prepared to teach the technology-related 

skills students need to learn in the identified class: 50.1 percent of 

academic teachers and 81.2 percent of vocational teachers felt 

“adequately” or “very well prepared,” as seen in Table D.20. This 

difference may stem from the greater non-teaching experience that 

vocational teachers have in their primary teaching field — compared with academic teachers — or it may indicate that Perkins 

funds are indeed being directed toward technology-related professional development. 

Finally, instruction through distance learning is not widespread. 

Distance learning was evident in very few of the case-study sites. 

Two schools in Ohio, for example, used Perkins funds to support 

online academic course-taking. On the survey, only about 8 percent of academic teachers and 16 percent of vocational teachers 

reported any classroom instruction involving distance learning in 

the previous year. Only 2 to 3 percent reported “frequent” instruction through distance learning. 

Professional Development and Teacher Supply 

Implementation of integration and other program improvements 

requires well-trained teachers and staff. Perkins III directly addresses this need in asking states to describe how comprehensive 

professional development — including initial teacher preparation 

— for vocational and technical, academic, guidance, and administrative personnel will be provided. The programs should, for example, help teachers and personnel assist students in meeting 

state levels of performance, provide in-service and pre-service 

training in education programs and techniques, or provide internships that involve business experience for teachers 

In addition to professional development, teacher quality can also 

affect program quality. The vocational teaching force has declined 

since the early 1980s, but it is not clear if this decline stems from 

declining vocational education enrollments, a decrease in the supply of teachers or other factors, for example, decline in university 

programs that train vocational teachers (Guarino, Brewer, and 

__________________

Instruction via distance 

learning is not widespread 

__________________
-106-

Hove, 2000). Whatever the cause of the decline, the National Assessment of Vocational Education’s interest in vocational teacher 

quality and potential shortage of high-quality teachers prompted 

some investigation. 

State Efforts 

Consistent with the legislation, states have developed specific 

policies to raise teacher quality in vocational schools and classrooms. One set of policies concerns hiring highly qualified vocational teachers into the profession through lateral entry. Florida, 

Massachusetts, North Carolina and Ohio allow lateral entry with 

the condition that the vocational teachers take additional coursework in teaching methods during a probationary or provisional 

period. As far as we could determine, none of the states in the 

sample required lateral entry teachers to qualify on the exams 

some of these states require academic teachers to pass. Florida 

also provides extra pay for teachers in shortage areas but has not 

put many of the vocational areas on the list. 

State respondents noted that lateral entry for vocational education 

teachers might become more important in the near future. Respondents in most states were concerned about teacher shortages, 

but none had hard data to support their claims. 

The states also promote professional development opportunities 

for teachers to ensure that existing teachers are proficient in delivering high-quality vocational programs and keep up with the latest developments in the field and to ensure that new teachers 

quickly come up to speed. Six of the seven states — all but Texas 

— provided professional development through sponsorship of 

different integration models, such as High Schools That Work and 

career academies. Five of the states sponsored statewide conferences in these models or on Tech-Prep, School-to-Work and curriculum integration. Florida, Massachusetts and North Carolina 

particularly favored this approach. 

While most of the states offered specific types of professional development or in-servicing opportunities, Massachusetts took a 

uniquely decentralized approach. As part of the local planning 

for Perkins funds, the state requires the local educational agencies 

to set aside 15 percent of the Perkins funds for professional development. Other state funds provide for $125 per full-time equivalent of professional development funds for each school. Together 

__________________ 

Respondents in most 

states were concerned 

about vocational teacher 

shortages, but their evidence was mainly anecdotal. 

__________________
-107-

these funds have allowed the Massachusetts schools a significant 

and stable resource for professional development. 

Several states also support the use of teacher externships. For example, California, Michigan and North Carolina support these 

activities. The states have paid little attention, however, to the 

professional development of school counselors or administrators. 

Local Efforts 

Nearly half of the local sites reported vocational teacher shortages 

— these reports were more common in California, Michigan and 

Ohio. Local respondents in California, Michigan and Florida 

partly blamed the shortage on the lack of vocational teacher training programs in the state universities. 

The field visits revealed that in 20 sites the teachers were cognizant of or had attended professional development activities provided by the state, as seen in Table C.8. Fewer were aware of or 

participated in professional development supported exclusively 

by the district or school. In this sample, the most commonly mentioned type of professional development dealt with understanding and using the state’s standards and assessments. Only eight 

schools reported professional development on vocational standards and in about half it involved curriculum integration. 

Teachers were not always satisfied with the amount and quality of 

professional development available to them. 

Consistent with this finding, the majority of teachers surveyed 

reported receiving professional development on one or more topics during the past 12 months, regardless of the type of school in 

which they taught or their teaching assignment, academic or vocational. Table D.1 shows the percentage of academic and vocational teachers who reported receiving professional development 

during the past year on each of 10 topics. The most common topics for professional development were academic standards, subject matter content and technology. Three-fourths or more of 

teachers received professional development on these topics. The 

average amount of training in each of these topics among teachers 

who received training was about 10 hours. 

Notable differences also occurred in participation in professional 

development between academic and vocational teachers. As Table D.1 shows, a higher percentage of vocational teachers than 

academic teachers report receiving professional development in 

__________________ 

The most common topics 

for professional development were academic 

standards, subject matter

content, and technology. 

Three-fourths of the 

teachers reported receiving professional development on these topics. 

__________________
-108-

vocational education standards, incorporating academic content 

into vocational subjects, incorporating vocational contents into 

academic subjects, applying concepts to the real world and incorporating workplace competencies into instruction. Perhaps not 

surprisingly, all these topics relate to vocational education and 

integration. Academic teachers were more likely to have received 

professional development in student assessment than vocational 

teachers.20 These findings suggest that vocational teachers indeed 

receive more technology-related professional development, which 

may partly account for their feeling more prepared than academic 

teachers feel. However, the study cannot determine to what extent Perkins III legislation or funding specifically supported these 

activities. 

The survey pointed to some differences in professional development between vocational teachers teaching in comprehensive high 

schools and those teaching in vocational schools. The professional 

development experience of vocational teachers in comprehensive 

high schools more resembles the training received by academic 

teachers than it does the training received by vocational teachers 

in vocational schools (see Table D.3). 

Finally, teachers at 14 sites had taken advantage of the state programs that offered “teacher externships.” Teachers who had attended were universally positive about the experience. Other 

teachers noted they had opportunities to participate in an externship but were unable to do so because of scheduling conflicts. 

Conclusions 

The above analytic descriptions indicate that state and local level 

actors have taken some steps consistent with the federal legislation’s view of improvements to vocational education. However, 

much work remains to be accomplished 

The states clearly differed in the consistency of their efforts. In the 

two states with more centralized control over education, Florida 

and North Carolina, we found more consistent applications by the 

school sites of the state policies. In other, more decentralized 

states, we found more latitude. Even in the two more centralized 

states, however, important local differences were revealed be-

_____________ 

20 Similar differences were observed when comparing professional development by school type (see Table D.2). 
-109-

tween individual schools and districts and their pursuit and use of 

state and federal resources. Thus, we conclude that, while states 

have made progress, it remains uneven. Furthermore, the initiative of local actors remains an important ingredient in any improvement effort. The federal government can expect school-byschool variation no matter the state context. However, some 

states likely will have more consistency in specific areas in local 

implementation than others. 

Perhaps prompted by general education reform, most states have 

made or intend to make improvements to increase the academic 

rigor of vocational courses. The case studies provide a number of 

examples where vocational courses attain academic credit as well 

as efforts to continue with that trend. 

In addition, the teacher survey indicates that a fairly high proportion of vocational teachers teach at least one class that receives 

academic credit. Many case-study respondents view the Perkins 

accountability measures to be consistent with state and local efforts to increase academic learning in vocational programs and 

thereby also supportive of states’ own accountability priorities. 

Although states and localities do focus on academic improvements, similar attention to enhancing vocational education standards lagged in most states. The two exceptions might be Florida 

and North Carolina, which have mandatory vocational standards, 

pathways, courses sequences, and, in North Carolina, assessments. Even in these states, accountability regimes favor academics over vocational learning. 

States and local districts have made some improvements in implementing some of the structural features that support integration. 

However, despite the apparent state support for integrated curriculum and model adoption, school-level adoption and implementation remained problematic at most sites. The case studies 

provided little evidence of widespread adoption of integrated curriculum. 

The survey results suggest that curriculum integration, when it 

occurred, primarily applied to vocational education. The curricular and instructional practices of academic and vocational teachers 

remained on separate tracks, and these teachers had different instructional goals for their students. 
-110-

Neither the case studies nor the teacher survey indicate that 

schools actively support opportunities for teacher collaboration or 

planning that might increase curriculum integration. Team teaching and regular joint planning time are rare. Teacher collaboration, when it does occur, most frequently happens within separate 

academic or vocational disciplines. 

All states, districts and schools were adopting strategies to involve 

employers in vocational programs in various ways, although 

some local sites were clearly more successful than others. The 

survey indicates that links to employers are overwhelmingly associated with vocational teachers’ classes. Academic teachers have 

few connections even when they are teaching career-oriented 

classes. Perkins does not, however, appear to be enhancing linkages to parents in any substantial way. 

Efforts to develop, expand and improve the use of technology are 

evident at many sites, and Perkins funds are essential in these efforts. By and large, teachers at the case-study sites were not satisfied with the technology available to them. Survey data suggest 

that academic teachers felt significantly less prepared than vocational teachers to teach technology-related skills, and they also 

reported more problems with respect to availability and quality of 

technology in their classes. 

Connections to postsecondary education also appear to be strong, 

especially for vocational teachers. The case studies clearly show 

that vocational teachers interact with community college faculty 

and staff, primarily for the development of articulation agreements. Similarly, the survey data indicate that such agreements 

were much more likely to be a feature of vocational teachers’ 

classes than of academic teachers’ classes. 

Guidance and counseling for purposes of career planning appears 

to be rare nationwide but was fairly common in the case-study 

sites. Several states in the sample mandate or highly recommend 

career planning and most districts and schools we visited comply. 

All of the states promote professional development of teachers, 

but local participation support varied considerably. The survey 

suggests that academic and vocational teachers’ professional development activities cover different topics. Academic teachers 

receive more professional development on assessment while vocational teachers receive more on integration-related or vocational 

themes. 
-111-

The case studies and teacher survey also identify specific barriers 

to improving vocational education along the lines encouraged by 

Perkins III. Several seem particularly important. First, all the 

case-study sites provided examples of the importance of funding 

to support their efforts at program improvement. Some examples 

were negative: lack of resources or professional development had 

hindered their efforts. Others were more positive: federal or state 

resources had propelled their efforts forward. 

Second, the focus on academic standards had enhanced the academic quality of many vocational courses but did little to improve 

vocational or technical quality. Many respondents from all the 

case-study sites, including employers, thought that vocational 

education might be suffering from the uneven emphasis of academics over vocational standards. 

Third, many respondents noted that vocational education continues to have a bad reputation among parents, who do not see this 

course of study as one leading to college. Several respondents 

cited this as a major barrier to improvement. So long as parents 

perceived vocational education as a less desirable alternative for 

their children, it would remain so. 

Finally, as mentioned above, teachers are not supported in ways 

that might enhance integration or other aspects of program improvement. Lack of common planning time and common professional development opportunities maintain the separation 

between academic and vocational teachers and create difficulties 

toward developing and implementing integrated curriculum. 

This separation is exacerbated when academic and vocational 

programs are delivered in separate schools. 

-113-

6. Tech-Prep and Other Federal Policies 

Thus far our discussion has concentrated on the impact of changes 

in Perkins III and on state and local efforts to implement the kinds 

of improvements that policymakers hope will enhance vocational 

program quality. This last chapter discusses three aspects of federal policy that are also intended to improve or support vocational 

education: the Tech-Prep Education Act, School-to-Work Opportunities Act and Workforce Investment Act. While Tech-Prep is 

incorporated into Perkins III as a separate funding title, the others 

are independent. Each in its own way intersects with the vocational education programs already discussed, and the picture of 

secondary-school vocational education would not be complete 

without reference to them. 

This chapter employs data from the case studies to examine the 

characteristics of Tech-Prep and whether states’ visions for TechPrep are reflected in local practice. The chapter also explores the 

influence of School-to-Work and the Workforce Investment Act on 

vocational education. 

Tech-Prep and Vocational Education 

The Tech-Prep Education Act was introduced as federal policy in 

Perkins II to respond to widespread concerns that many high 

school students were failing to develop the technical and academic skills they would need to succeed in the workplace. The 

goals of the program were to create in high schools a more coherent foundation for further education and employment, to introduce higher standards in academic and vocational courses, and to 

increase students’ motivation to pursue the further education they 

would likely need for career success, particularly in high-demand, 

technically-oriented occupations. States were apportioned funds 

to support local consortia of school districts and postsecondary 

institutions that are in turn responsible for implementing TechPrep. Tech-Prep remained a separate title and funding stream in 

Perkins III, although its goals certainly overlap with the Perkins 

goals to improve the quality of vocational education. Some states 

have chosen to implement the Tech-Prep authority within the larger Perkins III program, but other states operate these as two 

separate programs. Both approaches are authorized. 
-114-

This examination of Tech-Prep focused first on how states are defining Tech-Prep programs and students. We then determined 

whether each state’s vision was reflected in Tech-Prep programs 

at the local secondary school level.21

Forms of Tech-Prep 

The legislation defined several components that Tech-Prep programs should incorporate: a two-plus-two design — two years in 

secondary school and two years in postsecondary school — in a 

non-duplicative sequence of courses; articulation agreements between secondary and postsecondary institutions; a common core 

of required proficiency in mathematics, science, reading, writing, 

communications and technologies designed to lead to an associate’s degree or a postsecondary certificate in a specific career field; 

preparatory services, such as recruiting and counseling; and training for teachers and counselors [Section 204]. 

A recent national evaluation of Tech-Prep (Hershey et al., 1998) 

identified three main forms of Tech-Prep implementation by local 

consortia that emphasized and combined these individual elements of Tech-Prep in varying degrees. These forms are useful for 

illuminating variations in a state’s approach to implementing 

Tech-Prep. 

Tech-Prep may be described as a structured, comprehensive program 

of study that includes 

• a defined sequence of integrated classes; 

• a broadly-defined career focus; 

• grouping of students within academic classes; 

• an active enrollment and selective application process; and 

• courses aligned, rather than articulated, with community 

college classes — credit is not necessarily awarded. 

_____________ 

21 A companion report to this study (Hudis, 2002) examines Tech-Prep from 

the postsecondary side. That report discusses Tech-Prep programs at a sample of 

14 postsecondary institutions — two from each of the study states — state dual 

enrollment policies, and other activities that aim to smooth the transition from 

secondary to postsecondary schooling. The postsecondary report provides additional details about state Tech-Prep programs, so readers interested in this topic 

may want to consult that report as well. 
-115-

Tech-Prep may be an enhanced vocational program for students with 

at least moderate academic success. 

• Vocational students are encouraged to take applied academic classes, articulated classes or a defined sequence of 

classes within a broad career area — there is no clustering. 

• Consortia train teachers in applied academic approaches. 

• Students do not perceive that they are choosing Tech-Prep 

programs and would not identify themselves as Tech-Prep 

students. 

• Guidance counselors help students pick appropriate 

classes — no prescribed sequence of courses. 

Tech-Prep may simply emphasize articulation or applied academics 

with no target group. This approach advances one or two ingredients of Tech-Prep but does not really attempt to create a comprehensive program experience. 

In the next sections we use these forms to first classify and describe the Tech-Prep programs in the seven states. We then discuss the extent to which local programs follow the state’s vision. 

Structured Programs: North Carolina and Florida 

Of the states in this study, North Carolina’s program is the most 

structured and comprehensive. Florida’s program combines elements of a structured program with an emphasis on articulation 

requirements. 

North Carolina has the most prescriptive and differentiated definition of Tech-Prep as a particular course of study. Interested 

students must choose College Tech-Prep as one of four courses of 

study, which includes the core courses and academic requirements for a high school diploma; math, including Algebra I and 

geometry; a technology course; and locally set student achievement standards. In addition, all Tech-Prep students must take an 

applied science sequence with other students with the same technical focus. The course of study must explicitly lead to an associate of science degree or two-year certificate. North Carolina also 

has statewide articulation agreements and uniform dual enrollment between all high schools and community colleges. 

Tech-Prep in North Carolina varied widely from site to site on the 

local level. Although the College Tech-Prep option has been 

__________________

Of the states in this 

study, North Carolina’s 

program is the most

structured and comprehensive. 

__________________
-116-

available since the 2000–2001 school year, it was fully operating at 

only one site; in others few students enrolled or local articulation 

agreements were not yet in place. It appeared that the existence of 

statewide articulation agreements tended to decrease local connections between school districts and community colleges because 

there was less reason for representatives of these institutions to 

meet. 

Florida defined a Tech-Prep student as one enrolled in an articulated, sequential program of study — enrolled in level 2 or above 

courses — at grade level or above by grade 11 in mathematics, science and communications, including a technical component, 

which leads to a minimum of a two-year postsecondary certificate 

or degree or an apprenticeship program. 

Other requirements in Florida included work-based learning and 

meeting academic standards in math, science, reading, writing 

and communications. Thus, the program combined elements of a 

structured program — most notably, the requirement of a defined 

sequence of vocational and academic classes explicitly linked to 

community college — with an emphasis on articulation requirements. However, Tech-Prep classes and other vocational education classes have the same standards. The only difference is the 

articulation agreements. 

Florida’s statewide vision for Tech-Prep was, for the most part, 

carried out at the local level. All school-level programs provided 

guidance to students in choosing sequential classes, had articulation agreements and encouraged students to enroll in postsecondary education. The sites differed somewhat on the specific target 

group of student for Tech-Prep enrollment and in their application 

processes. 

Enhanced Vocational Programs: Massachusetts, Michigan, 

Ohio and Texas 

For most of the states in the study, Tech-Prep is perhaps best described as an enhanced vocational program. 

Tech-Prep in Massachusetts was a hybrid program with elements 

of all three forms. The state spent five years debating the definition of a Tech-Prep student and finally decided on the following: 

[A student who] has indicated an intent and is enrolled in 

courses within a recognized Tech-Prep education plan that 

__________________

Florida’s statewide 

vision for Tech-Prep — 

articulation agreements 

and a structured sequence of courses — was,

for the most part, carried

out at the local level. 

__________________

__________________

Tech-Prep in Massachusetts emphasized articulation agreements and 

student registration. 

__________________
-117-

consists of a minimum of two years secondary and two 

years postsecondary study; is carried out under a written 

articulation agreement; has completed a Tech-Prep student 

registration form; allows the student to earn a postsecondary credit while in secondary schools; and leads to a specific postsecondary two-year certificate, degree or 

apprenticeship program. 

The state plan included articulation agreements and student registration and targeted a broad group of students, but it did not define coherent course sequences. 

The state’s vision was carried out in two of the four schools. A 

third school offered a more structured program than the state 

program in clustering Tech-Prep student — regardless of the 

technical focus of their program — in the same English and math 

classes. The fourth site — a technical high school — had articulation agreements but no formal Tech-Prep program. 

Michigan’s Tech-Prep was a fairly open program. A Tech-Prep 

student must have an Educational Development Plan plus a selection of a series of courses and School-to-Work activities at high 

school and college levels. Initially, most consortia focused on 

guidance or work-based learning programs, but eventually the 

state decided to emphasize articulation agreements or other ways 

to foster connections between secondary and postsecondary 

schools. The consortia were in the process of realignment with the 

state’s 25 regional workforce development boards so that TechPrep will eventually be connected with the regional planning 

process that reviews all vocational education programs. 

The state’s view of Tech-Prep seemed far removed from local activities. Although all four sites in Michigan had some articulation 

agreements in their vocational programs, three did not have any 

program that they called Tech-Prep. A fourth site considered integrated classes to be the defining feature of Tech-Prep. 

From the state’s perspective, Ohio combined elements of a structured, comprehensive program with elements quite different from 

those of other states. Rather than encouraging articulation agreements and a “time-shortened model,” the state adopted an “advanced skill model.” Under this model, high school Tech-Prep 

classes allowed students to take more advanced courses in college 

and learn more skills rather than earn college credit and graduate 

from college early. At the same time, Tech-Prep appeared to be 

__________________

Michigan’s program

emphasized a career development plan and articulation. Most local 

sites did not have a defined program. 

__________________

__________________

Ohio’s program used an 

“advance skill model” with

Tech-Prep and vocational 

students in the same 

classes. Local programs 

varied substantially from 

this model. 

__________________
-118-

less flexible than in other states. It required students to continue 

in the same program of study in postsecondary if they are to remain in Tech-Prep. All Tech-Prep classes must lead to high-tech, 

high-wage jobs. It was specifically geared to “academically inclined kinds [of students] that don’t have a career focus.” There 

was no clustering; Tech-Prep and non-Tech-Prep students took 

the same classes. 

The Tech-Prep programs found at the local level varied tremendously, from separate programs with rigorous application procedures — one school described Tech-Prep as “its crowning glory” 

— to a loose program defined only by a list of recommended 

classes. 

Tech-Prep in Texas was considered at the state level as part of a 

strategy to encourage successful education transitions and as a 

higher-quality program than career and technical education 

(Hudis, 2002). At the time of our study, the characteristics of a 

Tech-Prep student included the intention to complete a coherent 

sequence of classes of content high enough to qualify for articulated postsecondary credit. 

Other parts of the Texas strategy included a Technical Course 

Alignment Manual that listed titles and course descriptions for 

high school courses approved for course credit, usually the final 

course in a coherent sequence. On the postsecondary side, the 

Workforce Education Course Manual provided an inventory of 

workforce education courses offered at community and technical 

colleges, including course descriptions and student learning outcomes. High school Tech-Prep programs could use these tools to 

align course content with entry-level community and technical 

college courses. Texas also was developing a statewide articulation agreement that will be fully implemented in 2002, and was 

providing training to Tech-Prep teachers, who will ultimately 

have more specialized training than other teachers. 

Little or no Tech-Prep activity occurred at the sites we visited. 

One had a defined program in criminal justice that attracted 

mostly low-achieving students who were unlikely to succeed in 

community college. Two schools had articulation agreements in 

some classes. There was no particular target group of students, 

and they did not appear to have to elect to participate. 

__________________

Tech-Prep in Texas included specific guidelines

for course articulation,

but the sites in this study

had few definable programs. 

__________________
-119-

Loosely Structured Programs: California 

California’s Tech-Prep program was the least structured of the 

states we visited. To be considered Tech-Prep, a program must 

have articulation agreement(s) based on a particular course of 

study, an integrated curriculum, workplace learning and industry 

partnership. Unlike regular vocational education, Tech-Prep prepared students for both further education and employment, according to the state plan. No statewide articulation agreements 

existed. Rather, each high school and community college developed its own articulation agreements. 

Two of the California sites had no Tech-Prep programs at all, although both had articulation agreements in some courses. TechPrep was considered “outdated” or “stigmatizing,” and these 

schools were not involved with the local consortia. At the other 

two sites, Tech-Prep amounted to a fairly unstructured program 

that mostly emphasized articulation agreements. 

School-to-Work Opportunities Act 

The STW provided funds to states and to local partnerships to develop a comprehensive STW system comprised of three components: 

• School-based learning that provides students with the information and skills they need to identify and prepare for 

promising careers. 

• Work-based learning that offers students workplace experiences linked to their school programs. 

• Connecting activities that help employers and schools link 

the school- and work-based components. 

Within states, local partnerships consisting of education agencies, 

postsecondary institutions, labor unions, employers and other organizations were to establish and implement the system. 

School-to-Work espoused similar goals to Perkins in promoting 

the integration of school-based and work-based learning, academic and vocational instruction, and secondary and postsecondary studies. Unlike Perkins, STW emphasized building a system 

__________________

California had the least 

structured program, and 

the local sites developed 

their own articulation 

agreements. 

__________________
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for all students.22 School-to-work activities were often built on 

preexisting partnerships and programs, including Tech-Prep, 

academies, and other career and technical education programs 

(Hershey et al., 1999). Because the funding provided by the act 

had ended, this study provided an opportunity to get a sense of 

STW’s legacy in the sample states.

While many schools had activities to facilitate the transition from 

school to work, our study considered only those activities that 

were specifically funded by federal STW funds or were begun under the auspices of that program. 

The study found, first, that in four states current vocational education policy has evolved from and was seen as a natural extension 

of STW. These states identified synergies between the very similar goals of STW and Perkins III and used STW to promote their 

own goals for vocational education. For example: 

• Florida received $57 million in stipends from the federal 

government to support a number of statewide initiatives, 

including annual STW conferences, support for career development academies and High Schools That Work, and 

awards to exemplary programs. Although their grant 

ended in 2000, the state and some districts were still 

spending funds. All the schools visited had STW activities, many of which were continuing even without STW 

funds. 

• In Massachusetts, 41 school-business partnerships around 

the state received STW grants. Three of the four school 

sites had STW funding at some point. At two sites, STW 

activities had become institutionalized, for example, the 

STW coordinator at one is now paid with general district 

funding. The third site reported that it was “losing 

ground” on all STW activities but that some were being 

picked up by WIA funds. 

• Michigan used STW funds to develop career pathways, 

and local programs submitted plans to receive funds. Despite concerns from the federal STW office that the decentralized Michigan system would provide too little 

oversight to local programs, the funds seem to have been 

_____________ 

22 This aspect of School-to-Work proved somewhat controversial, and, as a 

result, the Perkins III language specifically stated that federal vocational education funds could not be used for STW programs. 

____________________

Current vocational policy 

in four states has evolved 

from their STW programs. 

____________________
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invested wisely. Since the federal funding ended, the career pathways have evolved into a statewide, state-funded 

Career Preparation System that has replaced STW activities. All the local sites showed some STW-related activity, 

including some adoption of career pathways. 

• In North Carolina, the state’s primary goal with regard to 

STW was to coordinate work-based learning activities for 

vocational education students. Three local sites had workbased learning activities — primarily job shadowing for 

teachers and students — funded by STW; and one had 

work-based programs but did not receive STW funds. Except for one school, these activities seemed fairly institutionalized. 

According to state respondents in Ohio, the relationship between 

vocational education and STW has been controversial from the 

start and little synergy has been created with these two federal 

programs. The reasons for this seemed largely political. 

State officials described STW as a “disaster” and a “missed opportunity.” The offices of STW and career and technical education 

were originally separated on purpose because CTE was seen as 

inferior, and STW “would not work if connected to CTE.” Toward the end of the STW grant, however, an individual with CTE 

experience was placed in the STW office and the remaining funds 

were used to support CTE — for example, to develop ITAC and 

externships. Locally, teachers at one site had participated in 

externships; two sites had no involvement in STW at all; and the 

fourth site had participated early but with no lasting influence. 

Two states — California and Texas — had little STW activity. As 

late as 1997, they were still non-grantee states and had not received federal STW funds. 

• California was late in applying for funds and the only site 

that had a grant was using it to create linkages between 

elementary and junior high schools. 

• Texas officials reported that schools were not very involved with STW, and participation was strictly voluntary. 

Only one site had funds, which were used to provide career exploration in middle schools and job shadowing for 

high school and middle school teachers. 

__________________

In Ohio, STW was purposely separated from

vocational education 

__________________

__________________

California and Texas 

were late grantees and 

had little STW activity. 

__________________
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Workforce Investment Act 

The WIA was enacted in 1998 as an attempt to create a more efficient and coordinated workforce development system that also 

allowed states some flexibility. WIA permitted states to identify a 

variety of possible roles for secondary and postsecondary institutions but placed more emphasis on postsecondary involvement as 

traditional providers of training and vocational education or as 

the location of “One-Stop” centers that will provide an array of 

services. These institutional roles are still evolving. 

As most WIA activities are geared toward adult education and 

postsecondary students, most secondary school districts and 

schools reported little involvement with WIA. Florida, Michigan, 

North Carolina, Ohio and Texas had little or no activity, although 

a few localities reported some activity. 

• For example, two North Carolina sites reported high 

school participation in the WIA job-training program. One 

Ohio school had an active WIA youth council with many 

activities, but these were not coordinated with Perkinsfunded activities. 

Two states in the study — California and Massachusetts — had 

some WIA activity at the state level that impacted secondary 

schooling. 

In California, the regional occupational programs/centers will receive up to $4.6 million over two years to provide a variety of services to local workforce boards and youth councils. Because 

secondary school students enroll in ROP/Cs for vocational education, WIA will influence high school programs. 

• Two California sites were already affected by WIA. One 

district had two programs for special education students. 

At the other, WIA supported an ROP/C summer program 

that provided work experience to special education students — WIA funds paid their wages. The students continued their schooling at the ROP/C in the following year. 

The goal of the program was to place them in supported 

employment by graduation. 

The Department of Labor in Massachusetts sponsored STW “connecting activities” and provided $5 million per year through the 

regional workforce investment boards. A main thrust was to increase participation in work-based learning. The state developed 

the Massachusetts Work-Based Learning Plan, a standard for 

____________________

Most WIA activities are

geared toward adult education and postsecondary 

students, therefore most 

secondary districts and 

schools reported little 

involvement with WIA. 

____________________

____________________

The WIA programs in 

California and Massachusetts were involving secondary school vocational 

programs. 

____________________
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teachers and employers to evaluate students along a set of workplace competencies. Designated staff at the workforce investment 

boards worked with high schools to promote these plans and 

trained teachers and employers in their use. The state reported 

that internships grew eightfold from 1998 to 2001, with an estimated 24,000 students participating in 2001. Two sites reported 

WIA activities. 

• At one site, the local workforce investment board had two 

dedicated staff to work with teachers, students and employers to use the state work-based learning plans. WIA 

staff also helped identify student internships and job opportunities and assisted with career fairs. However, few 

students at the school reportedly took advantage of the 

WIA services. 

• Respondents at Site 3 reported a close, collaborative relationship between district officials and the workforce investment board. The WIB received funds to establish 

internships in certain industries and to develop a blueprint 

of critical and emerging industries to guide the school’s 

course offerings. 

Conclusions 

This chapter examined three federal programs that intersect with 

vocational education and were intended to support and enhance 

higher-quality vocational programs. 

With respect to Tech-Prep, only two states had structured and 

comprehensive programs. For other states, Tech-Prep was a loose 

assortment of articulation agreements between high schools and 

colleges such that high school courses receive college credit. Still 

other states fell somewhere in the middle — particular Tech-Prep 

classes or a suggested sequence of integrated classes existed, but 

they were open to all students and Tech-Prep students were not 

necessarily identified as such. 

The two states that had more-centralized structures and policies 

— North Carolina and Florida — also had the most-structured 

Tech-Prep programs at the state level. However, this was no 

guarantee that students would experience a similarly structured 

Tech-Prep program at their local schools. While programs at the 

Florida sites showed some consistency with the state, only one 

North Carolina site had fully implemented the College Tech-Prep 

course of study. 

___________________

A highly structured

Tech-Prep program at the

state level is no guarantee

that students will experience a structured TechPrep program at their 

local schools, as local 

consortia do not always 

provide the Tech-Prep 

experience envisioned by 

the state. 

___________________
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Although states may define Tech-Prep in particular ways or have 

specific goals for the Tech-Prep programs, these perspectives may 

or may not be visible at the school or district level where local 

consortia act as fiscal agents and administer the program. The 

study found few instances of local programs that emulate the 

state, let alone the federal, vision. 

A main characteristic of Tech-Prep that sets it apart from regular 

vocational programs — at least in federal legislation — is the articulation agreement. The presence of an articulation agreement 

was the common thread across all the states and local programs, 

suggesting that this aspect of Tech-Prep is the most salient. 

Some states — Michigan, North Carolina and Texas — also had 

statewide articulation agreements or dual enrollment policies between high schools and community colleges. These policies, however, did not always enhance or support Tech-Prep as defined in 

Perkins. In North Carolina, for example, these policies actually 

appeared to decrease links between local schools and districts and 

the community college sector. Michigan’s dual enrollment policies supported articulated course credit, but no other aspect of 

Tech-Prep.23

Of the two other federal reforms related to vocational education, 

School-to-Work has had a bigger impact when an early effort was 

undertaken at the state level. Four of the seven states used STW 

funds to advance certain aspects of their vocational education 

programs. Respondents at nearly all the local sites in these states 

reported that programs begun under STW have become institutionalized and continue with local and/or state funding. 

The Workforce Investment Act, on the other hand, has had minimal effect at the secondary level in most states or local districts 

and schools. This is not very surprising because WIA is geared 

toward adult and postsecondary education.24 As WIA is implemented, however, other states also might use it to promote secondary school programs. It is just too soon to tell. 

_____________ 

23 For further discussion of the impact of dual enrollment policies, see 

Hudis (2002). 

24 See Hudis (2002) for discussion of the impact of WIA on postsecondary 

institutions in this study. 
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7. Conclusions and Implications

The purposes of this report on vocational education in secondary 

schools were to provide evidence on the extent to which actual 

practice is consistent with federal legislation and other views of 

what constitutes “quality” practice and how policies made at different levels of the education system enhance or impede the implementation of quality practice. The report did not attempt to 

answer all the questions of interest to Congress or the National 

Assessment of Vocational Education. Rather, it investigated a 

subset of questions concerning the implementation of specific program improvements in Perkins III and other practices that aim to 

improve the quality of vocational education. 

In this chapter, we summarize the findings discussed in the previous chapters to provide answers to the five broad questions addressed in this study. We then discuss the policy implications of 

the study’s findings. 

1. What are the purposes and philosophies of vocational 

education at the secondary level? Have these evolved in 

keeping with Perkins legislation?

Many states and localities have adopted the spirit of the Perkins 

philosophy to broaden the content of and participation in vocational education, and some have specific policies to advance it. 

Several of the states in the sample had adopted new “mission 

statements” concerning vocational education and had changed the 

names of agencies that support vocational education. These 

changes tended to promote vocational education as a program of 

study that can lead to both higher education — at least to the 

community college level — as well as preparation for careers or 

immediate jobs. This shift from a more traditional view of vocational education as only preparation for work in a particular occupation immediately after high school is in keeping with Perkins. 

Both states and localities, however, faced challenges in promoting 

this vision. 

While respondents from all the states in this study said they support the broader vision of vocational and technical education, it 

remains an educational alternative that is not for all students. All 

the states still treat vocational education as an elective, even those 

states that created career-based courses of studies or pathways.
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In general, the case-study sites reported continuing stakeholder 

disagreement about the need for and place of vocational education in today’s high schools, including who will best benefit from 

it. The prevailing perception is that vocational education is the 

program of study for less academically able students. Data from 

the teacher survey, as reported in Chapter Three, indicate that 

vocational teachers share this perception; they report that their 

classes have higher proportions of students from special populations, compared with other classes in their school. 

A related perception is that vocational education in secondary 

school will not lead to college. Case-study data indicate that parents, students and some educators view a college diploma as the 

only ticket to future success — a perception that finds support in 

research (for example, Boesel and Fredland, 1999; Murnane, 

Willett, and Levy, 1995; Murnane and Levy, 1996). 

The Perkins legislation may even contribute to the problem by 

continuing to define vocational and technical education as education for work requiring less than a baccalaureate degree. While 

the language in Perkins encourages connections to postsecondary 

education through Tech-Prep or other activities, this connection 

rarely extends to four-year institutions. 

By and large, this study found that vocational education remains 

separate from academic or general education, as it has for many 

decades. The many efforts discussed in the report to broaden the 

content of vocational education and its appeal to students and 

parents have not overcome this isolation and perception. 

2. What other education reforms are ongoing and how have 

they affected vocational and technical offerings within 

states and localities? What is the influence of federal 

and state policies at the local level? 

As described in Chapter Four, all the states in this study have embraced reforms that emphasize the importance of academic standards, assessment of academic performance and accountability. 

These types of reforms are consistent with the standards-based 

reform movement across the nation and with federal legislation 

that promotes academic achievement in academic and vocational 

programs. 

Only three states had significant reforms to address vocational 

standards and assessments, but these were not part of the states’ 

accountability systems, which address academic learning only. 
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Four states increased high school graduation requirements, but 

these concern primarily academic subjects. These requirements 

have prompted some schools to upgrade the academic content of 

vocational courses to receive academic credit. 

Interviews at the state and local levels indicated some consensus 

on effects of the state reforms, although the full impact of some of 

these reforms has yet to be felt. First, local respondents generally 

reported that the emphasis on academic achievement was important to improving both academic and vocational learning. At the 

same time, however, they worried that vocational programs 

would not be held harmless. Second, depending on the particular 

state and local context, respondents reported negative effects on 

vocational programs and students in the form of reduced vocational enrollments because of pressure to meet higher academic 

standards and increased course requirements; reduced time on 

vocational tasks stemming from increased time on academic requirements and test preparation; and possible reduced quality of 

instruction given the emphasis of some tests on simplistic understanding and answers. Third, state academic reforms and accountability systems dominated educators’ concerns. 

3. What are the state and local efforts to improve the quality of vocational education, especially with respect to the 

key quality attributes outlined in Perkins III? 

The study found that state- and local-level actors have taken some 

steps consistent with the federal legislation’s view of improvements to vocational education. However, much work remains to 

be accomplished. 

The case-study sites clearly differed in the consistency and depth 

of their efforts to implement the program improvements — a finding that has been documented in previous studies (McDonnell 

and Grubb, 1991). This stemmed from many factors, including the 

structure of the education system, as discussed in Chapter Four, 

and the capacity and will of state and local actors. In this nation’s 

decentralized education system, variation among states and 

schools is to be expected. 

As discussed in Chapter Three, states and local education agencies 

followed the legislation in directing Perkins funds toward the 

kind of program improvements outlined in the law. That said, 

they also showed different priorities in funding. The most consistent use of Perkins funds at the local level was to support technology-related expenditures. Many local respondents noted that 
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Perkins funds were crucial in maintaining this aspect of their programs. It is also important to point out that states and LEAs have 

other funding sources to direct at program improvements, and 

this report could not isolate the precise influence of Perkins funds. 

Other NAVE studies that examined funding in more detail might 

shed more light on this report’s initial observation. 

Chapter Five described state and local efforts to implement Perkins program improvements. First, the study found that Perkins 

provided little stimulus for improvements in two areas — promoting understanding of “all aspects of the industry” and encouraging parental involvement in vocational education. Perkins also 

appeared to influence professional development for vocational 

teachers — at least at the state level — but not for administrators 

or counselors. 

Overall, the most significant efforts were directed at integration, 

raising the academic rigor of vocational courses and programs, 

building linkages to employers and postsecondary education, and 

implementing technology-related improvements. The following 

sections summarize the main findings. 

Integration 

Efforts to improve quality through the integration of academic 

and vocational education primarily emphasized new structural 

arrangements. In particular, the case-study data indicate that all 

states, districts and schools in the sample have made progress toward developing coherent sequences of courses in verticallyaligned clusters or pathways. Three examples are Florida’s Occupational Completer Point system, North Carolina’s courses of 

study and California’s state-funded career academies program. 

The reform in North Carolina is particularly noteworthy for 

clearly delineating different levels and aims for the three courses 

of study that involve career and technical education. The impacts 

of these changes in the longer term are uncertain. 

States also support the development of integrated curriculum and 

adoption of reform models that incorporate integration, for example, High Schools That Work. At the school level, however, adoption of structural and curricular reforms remained inconsistent at 

most sites. The case studies provide little evidence of widespread 

adoption of integrated curriculum within a school. Each site 

could point to one or two vocational programs that appeared to 

reflect the spirit of curriculum integration — for example, by in-
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cluding senior projects, project-based learning or opportunities to 

apply academic knowledge to vocational or work-related problems. By and large, programs seemed more successful at making 

connections to work through work-based learning or jobshadowing opportunities. 

The survey results suggest that curriculum integration, when it 

occurs, primarily applies to vocational education. According to 

their own reports, the curricular and instructional practices of 

academic and vocational teachers remain significantly different. 

Academic teachers’ instructional practices are more didactic and 

more focused on developing students’ academic competencies. In 

contrast, vocational teachers’ instructional practices are more applied, or “hands on”; involve greater use of computers and other 

tools; and make more specific reference to careers. Vocational 

teachers also place more emphasis than academic teachers do on 

developing students’ technical knowledge and skills and workrelated skills and competencies. 

Finally, the case studies and the teacher survey indicate that 

schools provide insufficient opportunities for teacher collaboration or planning — activities known to enhance integration (Benson, 1997; Ramsey et al., 1995). Team teaching and regular joint 

planning time is exceedingly rare. Teacher collaboration, when it 

does occur, most frequently occurs within academic or vocational 

disciplines, not between them. 

Use of Challenging Standards 

As discussed in Chapter Four, the states in this study were implementing general education reforms aimed at academic learning. Vocational education seems to be going along with this tide 

in the sense that it is being held accountable in many states for 

contributing to higher student achievement. The number and 

kinds of specific activities directed toward increasing the academic rigor of vocational courses is testimony to this effort. In 

addition, teacher survey data indicate that a fair proportion of vocational teachers reportedly teach at least one class that receives 

academic credit. 

Many case-study respondents view the Perkins accountability 

measures as consistent with state and local efforts to increase academic learning in vocational programs and thereby are supportive 

of states’ accountability priorities. Similar effort was not directed 

toward improving vocational standards. The exceptions are Flor-
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ida and North Carolina, which have mandatory vocational standards, pathways, courses sequences, and, in North Carolina, assessments. Even in these states, accountability regimes take no 

notice of achievement in vocational and technical subjects. 

All states are moving toward at least voluntary adoption of vocational standards, and many local sites seem anxious to implement 

these standards if they do not have them already. All states and 

most districts and schools were adopting industry standards as 

available and appropriate. The survey data indicate that when 

teachers have identified standards that are appropriate to their 

classes, they report being influenced by them. Not surprisingly, 

vocational teachers are more attuned to and influenced by industry standards than are academic teachers. 

Build Links to Employers and Postsecondary Education 

All states, districts and schools in the sample were adopting a variety of strategies to involve employers in vocational programs, 

although some local sites were clearly more successful than others. The teacher survey supports the conclusion that vocational 

teachers have significantly more connections with employers. 

Academic teachers report few connections even when they are 

teaching career-oriented classes. 

Vocational teachers in the survey and case studies also report 

stronger connections to postsecondary education than academic 

teachers do. A primary reason for linking to postsecondary institutions is to establish articulation agreements — Perkins appears 

to have applied a direct hand here, through Tech-Prep. Many 

states and local sites also support links to postsecondary education through career planning, although this activity appears to be 

less prevalent nationwide than it was in the study sample. 

Develop, Expand and Improve the Use of Technology 

One of the areas in which Perkins appears to have had some impact is in efforts to develop, expand and improve the use of technology. Several findings point to this conclusion. As discussed 

earlier, nearly all of the local sites relied on Perkins funds for 

technology-related purposes: respondents reported that they 

would be far worse off without Perkins funds. Even so, most 

teachers in the cases studies were not satisfied with the availability or quality of technology. Second, in the survey data, academic 

teachers report more problems with technology and feel less pre-
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pared than vocational teachers to teach technology-related skills 

in classes where such instruction is relevant. Third, the case studies noted a definite trend to create more high-tech programs that 

will better prepare students for technology-heavy fields, although 

many more of these programs are desirable. Fourth, in the survey 

data, vocational teachers were significantly more likely than academic teachers to report incorporating instructional activities in 

their classes that used computers and other tools. Fifth, several 

states and schools promote technology skill development or computer literacy for all students. Although Perkins funds are not 

necessarily involved here, these types of requirements and supporting activities, such as teacher staff development, also benefit 

vocational teachers, students and programs. 

Distance learning is one area that Perkins has not stimulated 

much activity. The study found few examples of instruction 

through distance learning in vocational education courses or programs. 

4. What is the impact of changes in Perkins III on special 

populations and other groups and the programs that 

serve them? Have changes at the state level affected service delivery at the local level? 

The changes in Perkins III concerning the elimination of set-asides 

to fund activities in support of students from certain groups appear to have resulted in reduced staffing for these specific purposes in five states and some localities. Gender-equity programs 

were most seriously affected. Although some respondents 

seemed pleased with the flexibility afforded in Perkins III, most 

reported negative effects. 

Apart from the impact of the elimination of set-asides, the study 

revealed a complex picture concerning participation and access of 

students from special populations in vocational education. Four 

states have differentiated programs of study or alternative requirements for some students, primarily those with disabilities. In 

some cases, local respondents indicated that these programs have 

improved services for students from special populations — for 

example, North Carolina. In other instances these students did 

not have access to the highest quality programs or were isolated 

from the regular student body, although it is difficult to tell precisely which groups were affected. 

Finally, respondents in the case studies and teacher survey indicated that vocational education programs might enroll a dispro-
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portionate share of students from special population groups, but 

this is a perception that the study is unable to verify. This finding 

does, however, confirm results from many prior studies (McDonnell and Grubb, 1991). 

5. What are the characteristics of Tech-Prep programs? Are 

the states’ visions for Tech-Prep reflected in local practice? 

Tech-Prep takes various forms in the states visited. Tech-Prep at 

the local level does not always reflect the state's vision. 

Only two states had structured and comprehensive programs, but 

these were not always realized at local sites. For other states, 

Tech-Prep does not exist at all or, if it does, only as a loose assortment of articulation agreements between high schools and colleges such that high school courses receive college credit. Still 

other states fall somewhere in the middle — there are particular 

Tech-Prep classes or a suggested sequence of integrated classes, 

but they are open to all students and Tech-Prep students are not 

necessarily identified as such. 

Although states might define Tech-Prep in particular ways or 

have specific goals for the Tech-Prep programs, these perspectives 

were not always visible at the school or district level where local 

consortia act as fiscal agents and administer the program. The 

study identified few instances of local programs that emulate the 

state, let alone the federal, vision. 

State policies for dual enrollment or statewide articulation agreements do not necessarily enhance or support Tech-Prep as defined 

in Perkins. 

There may be may be several reasons Tech-Prep is less effective 

than hoped. First, as with the rest of the Perkins Act, federal direction was limited. The legislation included a number of general 

requirements but did not specify the relative importance of the 

different elements or how they might be configured. Rather, it left 

states and localities to work out the details. As a result, Tech-Prep 

programs in this study were highly varied in their activities and 

student populations — a finding that concurs with previous studies (Hershey et al., 1998; Bragg, 2001). A second reason may be 

the association between Tech-Prep and vocational education. In 

several of the study sites, the poor reputation of vocational education did not help attract students and it sometimes created difficulties in creating connections with postsecondary institutions as 
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well. A final reason we have already discussed: states are focused on academic achievement. Although a Tech-Prep program 

designed as the legislation intended is arguably one specific strategy that could help raise academic achievement, it would only 

apply to some students. States have other policy options, such as 

increased graduation requirements or mandated testing, that can 

apply to all students and over which they have more control. 

General Conclusions and Policy Implications 

We set the tone for the report in Chapter One by reviewing the 

change in language between Perkins II and Perkins III and noting 

the stronger incentives provided in Perkins III for compliance 

with federal intent, and by providing a set of expectations with 

regard to state and local compliance or implementation distilled 

from a general literature on implementation of past federal education policy. We indicated that, given the evidence provided by 

the literature, one might expect to find significant variation from 

state to state and among localities within states in the adoption of 

the quality practices defined in the federal legislation for three 

reasons: insufficient time has passed since Perkins III enactment; 

other state-level reforms may interfere with Perkins implementation; and Perkins provides relatively weak incentives compared to 

other reforms. 

Given this introduction and the evidence described in the intervening chapters we arrive at the following general findings concerning Perkins implementation. 

Perkins III was at an early state of implementation in the states at 

the time the study was conducted. Nonetheless, the study found 

some progress toward implementation — for example, states and 

localities were directing Perkins funds appropriately; states were 

at least grappling with the implications of the accountability 

measures on their data-gathering systems; and states and localities 

were engaged in many efforts to improve vocational education 

quality. The Perkins legislation appeared to stimulate some program improvements more than others. Individual site progress, 

however, varied because of many factors. 

As anticipated, state reforms have more influence on vocational 

education than Perkins does. The study found that most states 

have adopted such education reforms as academic standards, 

mandatory academic assessments and accountability for academic 

performance — reforms consistent with the Perkins goal of raising 
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the academic standards in vocational classes and improving academic achievement of vocational education students. This emphasis, however, had the effect in many local sites of emphasizing 

strong academic achievement at the expense of strong technical 

proficiency. 

As anticipated, the financial incentives in Perkins and even the 

stronger threat of losing Perkins funds for poor performance are 

apparently not enough to counteract the greater influence of state 

general-education policies. The case studies provided ample evidence that the accountability mechanisms are not in place at this 

stage. Most state data systems in this study are unable to comply 

with all of the Perkins III reporting requirements, and datagathering at local sites reflects state reporting requirements, not 

Perkins requirements. It may be that the data systems will evolve 

and accountability measures eventually will operate as hoped, but 

in several states it will likely take quite some time. 

Some implementation problems identified in the study can be attributed to state and local conditions — for example, the relative 

level of centralization and coherence of the system, the history of 

education reform within the state, related policies and practices 

already in place, and the relative importance of vocational education within the state education policy sphere. Some conditions 

seemed more beneficial for implementation than others. The 

study found significant variation among localities within states 

with regard to the implementation of Perkins III–related practices, 

but this variation was minimized in the two states with more 

highly-centralized and more-coherent education systems. States 

with decentralized and fragmented systems tended to produce 

more local variation. These differences in state governance may 

affect implementation of any federal policy, not just Perkins.

A second set of barriers to implementing the Perkins vision of an 

integrated academic and vocational education is the historical 

separation between academic and more occupationally-oriented 

education, which has been discussed in many studies (Benson,

1997; Benson and Hayward, 1993; Grubb, 1995). In this study, the

teacher survey results illustrate this separation. The survey found 

significant variation in practice between academic and vocational 

teachers and between teachers in comprehensive high schools and 

vocational schools. Vocational teachers in general reported adopting more practices consistent with a vision of integrated academic 

and vocational education, while academic teachers emphasized 

more traditional roles and academic achievement. This suggests 
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that vocational teachers are indeed taking the lead in establishing 

integration, as the Perkins legislation implies. However, as Benson (1997) pointed out, vocational teachers are not honored in the 

education community and are a minority in most secondary 

schools. A minority, then, must gain the support of site and district administrators and other teachers to make major changes. 

The study also shows that most schools do not support activities 

that can encourage integration, such as team teaching, joint planning time for teachers and career planning. 

The Perkins legislation also has some weaknesses that help create 

implementation challenges, which have been documented in earlier studies. First, it is aimed at vocational education only and 

channeled through state and district offices of vocational education — yet the reforms must engage academic teachers and interests to be successful. Even when the Perkins reforms align with 

other reforms, their origin in vocational education isolates them 

from other reform efforts (Grubb, 1995). Second, some of the fundamental ideas in the Perkins view of reformed vocational education — such as curriculum integration — are poorly defined. As 

in Perkins II, this sets up a situation that is on the one hand potentially ripe for experimentation and innovation but that on the 

other may be so non-prescriptive that it fails to create recognizable 

changes (Stasz and Grubb, 1991). This lack of definition contributes to the variation in practice observed in this study and makes 

it difficult to communicate a coherent vision to others. 

In conclusion, the findings from this study of seven states indicate 

that Perkins III remains a relatively weak policy for implementing 

a strong federal vision for vocational education. As with previous 

vocational education legislation, Perkins III uses a combination of 

policy instruments. Federal policymakers have recognized the 

limits of mandates in vocational education programs, particularly 

in a federalist system where authority and power are shared 

among government levels and where local programs must meet 

the needs of different client groups and labor markets. Therefore, 

they provide inducements or fiscal resources to states in the expectation that states will deliver services to specific groups, especially the economically disadvantaged, as discussed in Chapter 

Three. However, the potential for slippage between policymakers’ expectations and local implementation is high because inducements encourage variation, especially when set in highlyvariable contexts. To temper this trade-off, policymakers have 

added secondary policy instruments. Perkins II and III included 
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capacity-building mechanisms that directed funds toward specific 

program improvements. Perkins III also added stronger mandates than previous vocational education legislation by holding 

states accountable for performance targets in four areas. This 

combination of inducements with secondary policy instruments is 

meant to direct lower levels of government to implement programs consistent with federal expectations and simultaneously 

send the signal that certain minimum standards must be met as a 

condition for funding (McDonnell and Grubb, 1991). 

Because states have greater leverage over local education agencies 

than the federal government has, their policies can carry more 

weight. In this study’s sample, Perkins policies were being enacted consistent with state structure, policy and interests but not 

necessarily completely consistent with federal intent. In an era of 

standards-based reform, Perkins III and concerns about vocational 

education are overshadowed by state academic standards and assessments and accountability systems that often ignore vocational 

and technical learning. While study sites were aware of and 

working toward most — but not all — of the quality practices described by Perkins II and III, these efforts were largely on the 

margins of important other state reforms. Significantly, vocational education policies were strongest and most consistently implemented — or had at least the most promise of implementation 

— in more centralized states that were able to use policy mandates to secure local compliance. But these states were not necessarily following federal policy. Rather, they were reforming 

vocational education to meet state conditions and needs. 

This report indicates that Perkins III has undoubtedly made some 

important contributions to improving the quality of vocational 

education — for example, in supporting technology-related improvements and encouraging greater attention to student outcomes, and it will likely continue to support vocational education 

in many ways. But it is too soon too tell whether the stronger 

mandates in Perkins III accountability will have the desired effect, 

and some of the philosophical, structural and incentive barriers 

will not likely be overcome by time alone. 
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Appendix A: Selection of States and Schools 

This appendix provides details on the procedures and criteria for 

selecting case-study sites. 

State Selection 

Seven states were included in the case studies: California, Florida, 

Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas. Each 

of the states shares the following characteristics: 

• They each have data systems in place that provide information about student achievement and vocational education participation. 

• They have significant academic and vocational education 

reforms under way that should lead to improved vocational offerings. 

• Experts recommended them based on knowledge of the 

state’s progress and innovation. Several of them have significant work under way to strengthen workforce development and to forge stronger links between secondary and 

postsecondary vocational programs. 

• As a whole, they balance the need for geographic diversity, 

population concentrations/locale, and different types of 

vocational schools. 

The states in the sample provide variation on demographic and 

programmatic dimensions that allow us to describe implementation of Perkins III. The states in the sample account for about 38 

percent of the nation’s K–12 student population. 

Selection Criteria 

To identify states for the case-study sample, two main criteria and 

several secondary criteria were used. To address questions about 

the relationship between school performance and implementation, 

the sample of schools needed to vary on some measure of student 

achievement. In addition, because we are interested in vocational 

education, the schools in the sample must include sufficient vocational program offerings. These two characteristics — achievement and vocational intensity — constitute the main selection 

criteria for choosing schools. Thus, they are the main criteria for 
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selecting states. Secondary characteristics — geography, demography, vocational education structure, presence of academic 

school reforms or workforce development initiatives, and linkages 

to postsecondary schools — were considered to ensure variation 

in the types of sites visited. Information about states was collected 

through a variety of sources, including document review, Web 

site review, interviews with state officials, expert opinions, and 

other studies and databases. 

Selection Procedures 

We reviewed the availability and accessibility of state data on 

academic achievement, vocational enrollment and student demographics. The primary source of information was state department of education Web sites. Additionally, we interviewed 

experts, asking them which states had undertaken significant academic, vocational or School-to-Work reforms and had attempted 

to build strong relationships between secondary and postsecondary institutions. Then, we further investigated availability of state 

data for states that received strong or multiple nominations from 

experts. To be included in the sample, states needed to provide 

school-level student achievement data, vocational enrollment data 

and a file that linked the state’s identifiers for schools to the National Center for Educational Statistics identifiers for schools in 

the Common Core of Data — to provide demographic information. 

For states with sufficient data available, we reviewed state reforms and the structure of vocational education. We looked for 

states that had undertaken reforms, such as new academic and 

vocational standards, identification of required occupational 

skills, increased graduation requirements, elimination of the general track, institution of statewide integration or Tech-Prep programs, or adoption of applied academics or certificates of mastery. 

We identified the types of vocational delivery systems in states, 

such as area vocational schools, comprehensive high schools and 

vocational schools. 

After compiling and examining data from different sources, we 

identified approximately 10 states that had reasonable, easily accessible — or available upon request — data and that had instituted some type of reform that might be expected to improve 

vocational education quality. We also considered geographic diversity and demography to ensure that the sample would repre-
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sent different regions of the country, a range of demographic 

characteristics — for example, high and low minority — and both 

urban and rural sites. In consultation with our project officers, we 

identified a list of seven states for study: California, Florida, 

Michigan, New York, North Carolina, Ohio and Texas. Massachusetts replaced New York in the sample when New York declined to participate. 

School Selection 

In selecting school sites, we strove to be objective and consistent 

and to identify sites that could provide meaningful data about vocational education in a range of settings. The sample was selected 

to balance various vocational programs and school characteristics. 

The process had three main components: analysis of achievement 

data, screening for vocational intensity and consideration of 

school characteristics to provide balance throughout the sample. 

Each of the schools shares the following characteristics: 

• Relative to other schools in the state, they have either high 

or low student achievement after adjusting for the demographic characteristics of their students. 

• They have significant vocational programs; the schools’ 

vocational enrollment exceeds the state’s median enrollment. 

• As a whole, they balance the need for geographic diversity, 

concentrations of population/locale and different types of 

vocational schools. 

Analysis of Achievement Data 

We analyzed student achievement data in each state and classified 

schools based on actual school performance compared with predicted performance. Some might argue that selected schools for a 

study of the quality of vocational education should be based on 

their vocational and technical performance. However, very few 

states assess students’ vocational and technical performance, and, 

where they do, it is not always available by school. This was the 

case even in states where the main vehicle for vocational education was in an area vocational school or in technical school. Thus, 

we used academic achievement data to stratify schools’ performance. Available state data systems did not test or track student 

performance to the area vocational school. Then, the selection 
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process concentrated on comprehensive high schools. Nevertheless, the study includes AVSs associated with the selected comprehensive high schools from which they draw their students. 

To stratify schools by performance, we conducted regression 

analyses using school-level data that adjusted school performance 

for school characteristics, including the demographics of the student population. We identified schools that seemed to be performing above or below expectations, given their characteristics. 

State assessments at the high-school level were used as measures 

of school performance. While the assessments were unique to 

each state, sufficient variation in each state’s results differentiated 

school performance. For each school, we created a single 

achievement measure by averaging standardized state test scores 

using multiple years of test results — where available. 

The model for predicting achievement included measures of racial 

and ethnic distribution of a school’s students, percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches, school locale, and 

school size. This information was drawn from state databases or 

the Common Core of Data. Regression models for each state differed slightly, depending on the type of data available and the distributions within the dataset. For example, in some states many 

schools had three or more sizeable ethnic groups, while in others, 

most schools had only one or two such groups. Where available, 

we also considered alternative models that included such variables as percentage eligible for public assistance, percentage gifted 

and percentage of students classified as limited English proficient. 

Results tended to be robust to the inclusion of the additional variables and given that such additional variables were not available 

in all states, we restricted predictors in the model to allow for consistency across states. 

The regression models provided adjusted achievement ranks for 

each school. On the basis of these ranks, we selected two samples 

from each state. The first sample — “low-performing schools” — 

included 15 schools chosen at random from the 10th to 30th percentile of schools, as determined by the adjusted ranks. The second sample — “high-performing schools” — included 15 schools 

chosen from the top quintile of schools, as determined by the adjusted ranks. 
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Screening for Vocational Intensity 

Selected schools were then screened for vocational intensity by 

identifying the percentage of students enrolled in a vocational 

class at each school. State departments of education provided 

their own internal data on vocational enrollment, with the exception of Florida. In Florida, we used commercially available data 

from Market Data Retrieval to determine the concentration of 

teachers classified as vocational in a school as a proxy for vocational enrollment of students. Using vocational enrollment data, 

we identified the 30 selected schools on each state’s list whose vocational enrollment exceeded median enrollment. Interpretation 

of vocational enrollment information across states was challenging because states, and often schools in the same state, have different definitions of vocational enrollment or vocational courses. 

Some state databases count every student taking a vocational 

course, while other states only consider students who are enrolled 

in a sequence of courses. Also, some states include all vocational 

classes in the database while others exclude classes that are commonly taken but not part of a vocational track, for example, keyboarding or computer literacy. Thus, the level of vocational 

intensity varied significantly across states with the median school 

in Texas having 62 percent of students enrolled in vocational 

courses and the median school in Michigan having 23 percent participation. We removed schools with vocational participation below the median, therefore ensuring that schools in the sample had 

high vocational participation relative to the entire state. Our assumption is that at least half of the schools in the state have meaningful participation. 

The exception to the process was Massachusetts, which entered 

the study as a replacement state. In Massachusetts, we ranked all 

schools on the basis of our standard achievement analysis, but, 

rather than selecting random samples for screening for vocational 

intensity, we screened all schools in the state — including only 

schools with five or more approved vocational programs. The 

state provided us with a list for this purpose. 

Consideration of School Characteristics 

Representatives from state departments of education reviewed the 

screened lists of about 30 schools. They were asked to identify 

schools without significant vocational enrollment and schools that 

should be excluded because of administrative problems or crises 
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that would preclude data collection. In a few cases, administrators provided additional vocational enrollment data, but none of 

the administrators identified schools that should be excluded on 

the grounds of administrative problems or crises. During the 

process, a few state administrators raised concerns that some lists 

contained many very small, rural school districts with limited vocational offerings. Some were concerned that the schools on the 

list did not receive (significant) Perkins funds because the funds 

were directed to districts with numerous special populations. In 

Florida, none of the schools selected receive Perkins funds because 

they are directed to a few urban districts. Additionally, we investigated some state administrators’ concerns — for example, the 

seeming paucity of urban schools on the list. In some cases, many 

urban schools did not meet the performance criteria, either being 

“average” or performing at an extremely low level. Other urban 

schools met performance criteria but did not make the candidate 

list because of the process of random selection. 

From the reviewed list, we also considered secondary criteria: 

geography, locale and accessibility. Within each state, we sought 

to represent regions as well as provide some urban and rural representation. A few schools were excluded from consideration because of their extreme remoteness that would make site visits 

impractical. Additionally, schools with competitive and selective 

admissions processes for all students were excluded from the 

study. In each state, two pairs of high- and low-performing 

schools with similar locale and representing the range of regions 

were selected. If more than one candidate existed for the selected 

pairs, schools were selected randomly within each performance 

group. 

Once four schools were identified in each state, we gave state administrators an opportunity to review the final selections. State 

administrators also advised us on local protocol for asking schools 

to participate in the study. In almost every case, state administrators provided a letter of introduction and support for the study, 

which was sent to the schools along with a letter from the research 

team. RAND and MPR then followed up with calls to the principals to describe the study and secure participation. At schools 

where the majority of vocational education occurred at an off-site 

facility, such as an area vocational school, we approached the AVS 

along with the selected school. 
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Replacing Schools 

Of the 28 schools selected initially, 21 agreed to participate. Seven 

schools — five high-performing and two low-performing — refused for a variety of reasons. At three sites, we had to replace 

candidate schools twice because the backup schools also refused. 

A common reason for refusing was the principal’s feeling that the 

school was overwhelmed with extraneous activities, such as state 

testing, other research studies, Office of Civil Rights visits and 

natural disasters. In one case, the district barred schools from participating in research. In a few schools, including a school where 

overcrowding resulted in an abrupt moratorium on all vocational 

education, not enough students were enrolled in vocational education to warrant participation in the National Assessment of Vocational Education. Replacements were randomly chosen from 

the same performance stratum as the original site and, when possible, from similar locale and geographic area of the state. When 

selecting replacements, we gave preference to other schools from 

the initial screening sample. If necessary, we extended the pool of 

possible replacements to any school in the state in the correct performance stratum with sufficient vocational enrollment and from 

a similar region and locale. 
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Appendix B: Survey Sample Design 

In this appendix we describe the sample design for the National 

Teacher Survey conducted as part of the National Assessment of 

Vocational Education. The main purpose of the survey was to assess the extent to which strategies promoted by the Perkins legislation have found their way into vocational education practices. 

The survey was designed to answer the following questions: 

• How prevalent are quality practices in vocational and 

technical education? 

• How do practices in comprehensive high schools compare 

with those in area vocational technical schools? 

• How do practices reported by vocational teachers compare 

with those of academic teachers? 

• Which practices are unique to vocational education and 

which to general reform? 

The universe for our study includes all vocational and nonvocational teachers of selected subjects in public secondary 

schools in the United States. Secondary schools include comprehensive or regular schools as well as vocational schools and area 

vocational centers. To be consistent with the previous NAVE, we 

limited our population of schools to include only public schools 

with 11th- and 12th-grade students. The universe excludes all itinerant teachers — unless their home base is the sampled school —, 

substitute teachers, special education teachers and teachers teaching only physical education or music. 

The Sampling Frame of Schools and Teachers 

The basis for the sampling frame of the universe was the Market 

Data Retrieval K–12 Public School Data Base, school types senior 

high schools and vocational technical schools, which excludes 

adult and continuing education programs. MDR guarantees that 

the list of schools is complete.25 The sampling frame excluded 

from this list schools without 11th- and 12th-grade students. The 

frame also excluded alternative and special education schools as 

defined by MDR. The frame included 16,945 schools. 

_____________ 

25 MDR’s list is a complete list of school buildings. 
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We compared this frame to the 1998 Common Core of Data maintained by the National Center for Education Statistics. For the 

comparison, the CCD list excluded schools classified by the CCD 

as alternative or special education. The MDR list contained almost all schools on the CCD, and MDR verified that to the best of 

their information schools not on the MDR list were not in operation. The comparison between the two lists revealed errors in the 

CCD. For example, the CCD maintained school names and addresses that were out of date — and in at least one case, many 

years out of date. Therefore, the frame for the teacher sample included only the schools on the MDR list. 

A teacher sampling frame was compiled at each sampled school 

by first creating a roster of teachers employed at the school and 

then identifying sample-eligible teachers on the roster. Rosters 

were obtained using a two-stage process. First, RAND purchased 

teacher lists for sampled schools from MDR. MDR maintained 

teacher lists for all but one of the sampled schools. For the next 

stage of roster building, RAND staff contacted the office personnel 

at every sampled school and requested that the staff verify the accuracy of the MDR list or provide an alternative. When available, 

the final roster was the corrected list of teachers provided by the 

school. Otherwise, the roster was the MDR list augmented by lists 

from QED, another vendor of school lists.26 

The rosters contained teacher names and teaching assignments. 

Teacher eligibility was determined on the basis of the assignments. RAND staff compiled a complete list of assignments and 

reviewed each assignment to determine eligibility. The sampling 

frame at each school is the roster of teachers with eligible teaching 

assignments. 

______________ 

26 For schools that relied on the MDR lists, we also purchased lists from 

QED to fill in any omissions from the MDR lists. A QED list replaced the MDR 

list for one school and for a small number of teachers at other schools. The job 

titles provided by QED were more specific than those provided by MDR, and the 

QED titles were used for determining eligibility and assigning the teachers to 

strata. We compared the MDR and school roster for a sample of schools. Among 

those schools, the rosters agreed 86.3 percent of the time for eligible teachers. 

The high rate of agreement between rosters for schools that responded to our 

requests might overstate the agreement for schools that did not. One might expect that schools that did not respond to our request were probably more likely 

to not provide data to MDR, which would lead MDR to use alternative sources 

for data and reduce the accuracy of the MDR roster. 
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Sampling Strata 

The sample design used for this study was a two-stage stratified 

sample. The first stage sample was a stratified random sample of 

schools. The second stage sample was a stratified random sample 

of teachers from the selected schools. We first describe the strata 

used for the first stage of sampling and then discuss the teacher 

strata. 

Schools were stratified by school type — for example, comprehensive or vocational — and size of the teaching staff. All schools in 

the frame were first classified as either comprehensive or vocational. We first describe the vocational strata and then discuss 

comprehensive schools. 

Vocational Schools 

To enhance comparisons between the current study and the previous NAVE, we planned to classify schools as vocational using 

the previous study definition of a vocational school. The previous 

NAVE study reported that vocational schools were defined as 

schools that provided “only vocational education,” (Muraskin, 

Hollinger, and Harvey, 1994, p. T-6). All other schools were classified as comprehensive or regular for that study. We could not 

locate a readily available source that identified the universe of 

schools offering only a vocational course of study. Using data 

from MDR, we were able to determine which schools had only 

vocational teachers. However, our school frame contained far 

fewer schools with only vocational teachers than the number of 

vocational schools reported by the previous NAVE study. Therefore, we contacted the researchers who conducted the previous 

NAVE to determine the data source they used for stratifying 

schools. Several of these researchers reported that they recalled 

using the QED list of vocational schools, and the published reports from the previous study state that QED provided the sampling frame (Muraskin et al., 1994). 

In 2000, the QED universe of vocational schools was similar in size 

to the MDR universe. In addition, the two data sources used similar definitions of vocational schools — QED did not define vocational schools as schools providing only a vocational course of 

study. Therefore, we determined that the MDR classification of 

schools was comparable to the QED and that using the MDR definition would produce estimates that are substantively interesting 
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and comparable to the previous NAVE.27 The following is MDR’s 

definition of a vocational school: 

A Vocational School is a school ... separately organized 

under the direction and management of an administrator 

(such as a principal) for the primary purpose of offering 

education and training in one or more of the skilled, semiskilled or technical occupations. In some cases students attend the school full-time and receive their academic 

courses as well as their vocational courses. In other cases, 

students attend a vocational school part-time, receiving 

only their vocational courses there, and attend a regular 

high school for their academics. Vocational schools can 

also be referred to as Voc-Tech Schools and Technical 

Schools. (Market Data Retrieval, 2000.) 

Schools were classified into either the vocational or comprehensive school stratum. The vocational school stratum contained all 

schools classified as vocational by MDR. The comprehensive 

school stratum contained all other schools. Table B.1 lists the 

number of schools in the population and the sample from each 

stratum. We sampled 134 schools from the vocational stratum 

and 234 schools from the comprehensive stratum. 

Table B.1 

Numbers of Schools by Vocational and Comprehensive Strata 

Strata Number of Schools in 

Population 

Number of Schools in 

Sample 

Vocational 1,216 134 

Comprehensive 15,729 234 

Total 16,945 368 

We stratified vocational schools into schools from vocational local 

education agencies — LEAs with only vocational schools — and 

schools from mixed vocational and comprehensive LEAs — LEAs 

with both comprehensive and vocational schools. Of the 1,216 

vocational schools, 356 (29.3 percent) were from vocational LEAs 

and 860 (70.7 percent) were from mixed LEAs. We further stratified schools from the mixed LEAs into area vocational schools or 

centers — AVS — and vocational high schools. 

______________ 

27 Teacher self-reports of school type agree with the MDR classification for 

more than 98 percent of teachers. 
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We classified a school as a vocational high school if it employed 

more than 15 teachers and less than 50 percent of these teachers 

were classified as vocational. Small schools or schools with a majority of vocational teachers were classified as AVS. Table B.2 

gives counts of schools in the population and sample by the three 

vocational school strata. 

Table B.2 

Numbers of Schools by Vocational School Strata 

Strata Number of Schools in 

Population 

Number of Schools in 

Sample 

Vocational LEA 

All schools 356 50 

Mixed LEA 

Vocational High 

Schools 

77 10 

AVS 783 74 

We further stratified schools on the basis of the number of vocational teachers. For every school, MDR provided a count of vocational and other teachers. Although MDR reported that the 

counts should be accurate for most schools, they could not make 

precise estimate of the overall accuracy or the distribution of errors in the lists. Therefore, we used Common Core of Data enrollment data to predict the MDR teacher count. On the basis of 

this model, we identified low outliers — schools where the model 

greatly exceeded the MDR count. We assumed that these were 

schools where MDR had an inaccurate list. To get the most accurate prediction model, we iteratively excluded the low outliers 

from the data and refit the prediction model. We repeated this 

process until the data contained no additional low outliers. For 

the low outliers, we used the model prediction as our estimate of 

size rather than the MDR list. Using the data without the outliers, 

we then fit models for predicting the proportion of vocational 

teachers at a school. We used this model to estimate the proportion of vocational teachers for schools where we estimated the 

number of teachers. The product of these two estimates provided 

an estimate of the number of vocational teachers. The estimate of 

the number of other or academic teachers is found by subtraction 

— the estimated total minus the estimated number of vocational 

teachers. 

The size strata and the number of schools per strata were determined to minimize the coefficient of variation in the teacher sampling weights for vocational teachers. The sampling weight is the 

inverse of the selection probability. The selection probability is 

the product of the probability that the school is selected and the 
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probability that a teacher is selected from a sampled school. 

School selection probabilities were determined by the sampling 

rate in each stratum. The teacher selection probability equals the 

number of teachers sampled divided by the number of teachers in 

the school. We sampled up to five vocational teachers from each 

vocational school. For schools with less than five teachers, we included all teachers. For other schools we chose a simple random 

sample of five teachers. Five teachers were chosen as a balance 

between the goal of limiting the design effects of the clustering of 

teachers within a school and the desire to limit the total sample of 

schools. We determined that a sample of 134 schools with (up to) 

five teachers from each would provide sufficiently precise estimates. Using these sampling rules, we determined the optimal 

size strata and strata allocations through Monte Carlo replications 

of the sampling procedure. Stratification by size — estimated 

number of vocational teachers at the school — and sampling 

roughly five teachers from every school resulted in a sample design that, across possible samples, produced stable sample sizes 

and within a sample variability of the weights that was small on 

average with a limited range. The final sample of vocational 

schools includes 134 schools and 659 vocational teachers. 

Academic teachers in vocational schools make up only a very 

small fraction of the teacher population. We decided not to oversample these teachers. These teachers were not the main focus of 

our study and oversampling would have resulted in a large reduction in the precision of our estimates for all academic teachers, 

pooling across vocational and other schools. Therefore, we selected a small sample of academic teachers from the vocational 

schools. For each school we randomly chose the number of academic teachers to include so that the sampling rate for academic 

teachers in the vocational schools equaled the sampling rate for 

academic teachers in other schools. The final sample included 21 

academic teachers from vocational schools. 

Comprehensive Schools 

We stratified comprehensive schools on the basis of the number of 

vocational and the number of academic (i.e., not vocational) 

teachers at the school. Using the same procedures described 

above we estimated the number of vocational and the number of 

academic teachers using the MDR counts and the CCD enrollment 

data. We then chose strata limits and allocations to minimize the 

expected coefficient of variation in the sampling weights for both 
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vocational and academic teachers. We again used Monte Carlo 

replications of the sampling procedure to determine the expected 

coefficient of variability. 

On the basis of power calculations, we determined that we would 

sample 234 schools and would select simple random samples of 

five academic teachers and five vocational teachers from each 

school. For schools with fewer than five teachers of either type, all 

would be included. We modified the preliminary sample design 

to include (up to) five academic teachers from each sampled 

school, five vocational teachers for schools with 10 or fewer vocational teachers, and six vocational teachers for schools with 11 or 

more vocational teachers. We modified the sample to reduce the 

variability in the sample size and to ensure a sufficiently large 

sample of vocational teachers. 

Teacher Strata 

Within each school, teachers on the frame were classified as vocational or academic. The strata were defined using the teaching 

assignments listed on the sampling frame provided by the principal or MDR. The one exception is health teachers. We classified 

all health teachers as vocational because we expected that in some 

schools the assignment for health professions teachers was 

“health” or “health teacher.” 

Within each school a simple random sample of teachers was selected from each stratum. The sample sizes were determined according to the rules described above. The goal was a sample with 

660 vocational teachers and about 20 academic teachers from vocational schools and 1,170 vocational and 1,170 academic teachers 

from comprehensive schools. The final sample as fielded included 

659 vocational teachers and 21 academic teachers from vocational 

schools and 1,118 vocational and 1,160 academic teachers from 

comprehensive schools. 

The teacher assignments used to stratify teachers for sampling 

were somewhat ambiguous for some teachers. For example, the 

assignment “computer teacher” might refer to a technology 

teacher in a vocational course of study or a mathematics teacher 

teaching academic courses. Therefore, we used teacher responses 

to survey items 16 (“What is your PRIMARY teaching assignment 

— that is, in what subject area do you teach the most classes this 

school year?”) and 18 (“What is the course title of the FIRST class in 

your PRIMARY teaching assignment that you taught today [or on 
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the most recent regular school day]?”) to determine if the sampling strata accurately reflected the teacher’s assignment as either 

a vocational or academic teacher. We reclassified 58 teachers 

sampled as vocational teachers, who on the basis of their survey 

responses appeared to be academic teachers. We also identified 

seven teachers sampled as academic, who on the basis of survey 

responses were reclassified as vocational for analyses.28

Survey Response 

We sampled 134 vocational and 264 comprehensive schools. Of 

these schools, one academic and one vocational school were found 

to be ineligible. Both ineligible schools were replaced by random 

sampling another school from the ineligible school’s sampling 

strata. The weights for schools from those two strata were increased to reflect a reduction in the size of the school population 

for the strata. 

Of the 368 eligible schools, six vocational and 16 comprehensive 

schools refused to participate in the study. For each of these 

schools, we selected a replacement school by randomly sampling 

another school from the refusing school’s sampling strata.29 Of 

this final sample of schools, 276 schools — 103 vocational and 173 

comprehensive — returned the teacher rosters. We used MDR 

rosters for 26 of the remaining vocational schools and 56 of the 

remaining comprehensive schools. We were unable to obtain 

teacher rosters or approval for sampling for the remaining 11 

schools — five vocational and six comprehensive.30 Because we 

______________ 

28 Although academic teachers tended to have larger sampling weights than 

vocational teachers because of oversampling of vocational teachers, estimates 

were not greatly influenced by the responses of the small number of teachers 

sampled as academic but then reclassified as vocational. 

29 The replacement schools received the same weight as the refusing school. 

Using the original weight is similar to adjusting the weights and then weighting 

for non-response within the sampling strata. Using replacements will introduce 

only minimal bias if refusals are similar to other schools in the strata. The primary reason for refusing to participate was time pressure on teachers stemming 

from other activities, such as state and district testing or other research. It is not 

obvious that such activities will be directly related to teaching practices. 

30 Five of the schools required that we receive district approval before sampling teachers, and we were unable to obtain that approval during the fielding of 

the study, even though we actively pursued it throughout the study period. For 

the remaining six schools, we delayed using the MDR rosters because we expected to obtain rosters from the schools, but we did not obtain rosters in sufficient time for surveying teachers. 
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could only sample teachers in schools for which we obtained a 

roster, the schools without rosters are non-responding schools, 

and they reduce the overall response rate for the survey. 

The teacher sample included 2,958 teachers (680 from vocational 

schools — 659 vocational, 21 academic; and 2,278 from comprehensive schools — 1,118 vocational and 1,160 academic). Of the 

2,958 sampled teachers, 1,595 (54 percent) completed the survey 

instrument and an additional 148 (5 percent) reported that they 

were ineligible to for the study. Thus, according to the definition 

disseminated by the Council of American Survey Organizations 

(Frankel, 1983) the response rate for this sample equals 100 ×

(1,595 + 148)/2,924 = 100 × 1,743/2,958 = 59 percent. Teachers 

who reported being ineligible tended not to teach high school students at the sampled school — some had left the school, others did 

not teach, others taught only adult or postsecondary education — 

or taught only special education. 

McCaffrey, Duan, and Morton (2000) define the respondent coverage rate, which estimates the response rate among eligible 

teachers and allows for differential eligibility rates among nonrespondents. To obtain this estimate we developed non-response 

weights — see details below — to weight up the responding 

teachers, both eligible and ineligible, to the entire sample. The 

product of the non-response and sampling weights equals the 

analysis weights — after trimming a few large weights.31 The 

sum of the analysis weights equals the sum of the sampling 

weights for the original sample of teachers. The RCR estimates 

the proportion of the population that would respond to the survey 

if sampled. For this study, the RCR equals the sum of the analysis 

sampling weights for responding eligible teachers divided by the 

sum of the analysis weights for the same teachers. The RCR 

equals 59 percent for the overall sample, 66 percent for vocational 

teachers in vocational schools, 60 percent for vocational teachers 

in comprehensive schools, and 58 percent for academic teachers in 

comprehensive schools.32

_____________ 

31 To control variability of the estimators, we trimmed roughly the three 

largest weights for each stratum. 

32 Of the 21 sampled academic teachers in vocational schools, 16 responded 

and 13 were eligible. Because the sample is so small, we do not report the RCR 

for this group. 
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Adjustments for Survey Non-response 

Response rates among the surveyed teachers differed across identifiable groups of teachers. For teachers, we had the following 

data for both respondents and non-respondents to uses for modeling response: 

• School type — area vocational schools in vocational district, AVS in joint district, vocational high school in joint 

district. 

• School size — estimated number of vocational and academic teachers. 

• Source of roster — school or MDR. 

• Teaching assignment — as listed on roster. 

• School locale — urban, suburban or rural. 

• Percentage of white, non-Hispanic students. 

Racial-ethnic data were unavailable for almost all schools not 

listed in the Common Core of Data. All the comprehensive 

schools in the sample were found in the CCD and had racialethnic data. However, many of the vocational schools were not 

found in the CCD, and MDR did not provide racial-ethnic data for 

most of these schools. Thus, data on the racial-ethnic distribution 

was substantially incomplete for vocational schools and could not 

be used to predict response. We did obtain racial-ethnic and socioeconomic data from schools, but this was not useful for modeling response because it was available only for a subset of the 

schools and teachers. 

We first discuss the response patterns for the vocational teachers 

from the vocational schools and then discuss vocational and academic teachers from comprehensive schools. 

Vocational Teachers in Vocational Schools. We found that teachers 

from schools in vocational districts were more likely to respond 

than their counterparts in joint districts — in particular, teachers 

in area vocational schools in joint districts were least likely to respond (57 percent), while 67 percent of teachers for vocational districts responded. We also found that teachers from very small 

schools — few vocational teachers — had a very low response rate 

(28 percent), but school size was not systematically related to the 

teacher response rate among larger schools. Occupational home 

economics teachers were the most likely to respond at 69 percent, 
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and trade and industrial and technology/technical communications teachers were the least likely — 57 percent and 64 percent, 

respectively. 

Teachers were more likely to respond when the school provided a 

roster than when we used the MDR roster. Several plausible reasons exist for the association between the source of the roster and 

the response rate. First, teachers from the MDR rosters were contacted later than most of the teachers on school-supplied rosters. 

To maintain the greatest accuracy in our frame, we wanted every 

school to verify the MDR roster. Therefore, we only used the 

MDR roster as a last resort after the school failed to provide a roster by the deadline required to allow us sufficient time to field the 

teacher surveys. Thus, samples from the MDR roster were fielded 

much later than the most of the samples from the school-supplied 

rosters, allowing less time for follow-up. The abbreviated followup could be a source of the lower response rates. Second, the 

MDR rosters could contain more ineligible teachers who did not 

report ineligibility than the school-supplied rosters. Third, almost 

all communications with the schools and teachers were through 

the school office and schools where the office did not provide a 

roster might have made less of an effort to ensure that teachers 

received the survey packets and understood the importance of 

completing the survey. Finally, schools with uncooperative offices might also be schools with uncooperative teachers — for example, schools that had teachers with very active schedules. 

We modeled teacher response using the variables listed above. 

We first created non-response weights for the five non-responding 

schools — schools without rosters or permission to survey. Using 

these non-response weights we created temporary analysis 

weights for all teachers. We fit a weighted logistic regression 

model to predict response using the temporary analysis weights. 

The final model for predicting response included an indicator for 

whether the principal returned the staff list, indicators for small 

schools — fewer than five vocational teachers — and medium 

schools — five to seven vocational teachers — and indicators for 

technology and trade and industrial teachers.33

We used the propensity method of Little and Rubin (1987) to poststratify teachers for estimating non-response weights. Teachers 

_____________ 

33 Academic teachers in vocational schools were treated as a separate poststrata for estimating non-response weights. 
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were stratified into five strata according to the size of the predicted probability of response from the logistic regression model. 

Within each stratum the response weight is the ratio of the sum of 

all teachers to the sum of the weights for the respondents.34

Vocational Teachers from Comprehensive Schools. Agriculture teachers had the lowest response rate (42 percent), followed by career 

education teachers (45 percent), and business teacher (54 percent). 

At the other extreme, health occupations teacher had the highest 

response rate (75 percent), followed by occupational home economics teachers (67 percent). Response rates were not systematically related to the number of academic teachers. However, 

teachers from schools with more than 20 vocational teachers had 

the relatively low response rate of 44 percent. Response rates increased with the percentage of white non-Hispanic students at the 

school. For schools where less than 25 percent of students are 

white non-Hispanic, the response rate was 46 percent, for schools 

with 25 percent to 75 percent white non-Hispanic students the response rate was 51 percent, and for schools with 75 percent or 

more white non-Hispanic students the response rate was 61 percent. Teachers were also much less likely to respond when the 

principal did not return a staff list than when he or she did (41 

percent versus 65 percent). 

The final model for predicting response included an indicator for 

whether or not the principal returned the staff list, an indicator for 

whether or not the school had 75 percent or more white nonHispanic students, and indicators for health occupations and occupational home economics teachers. The model also included 

indicators for schools with less than 40, with 40 to 59 academic 

teachers, and with 11 to 14 vocational teachers. The model also 

took into account interactions between the indicators for the numbers of academic and vocational teachers. The predicted probability of response was again used to assign teachers to post-strata for 

estimating non-response weights. 

Academic Teachers from Comprehensive Schools. Social studies teachers and teachers classified as other had the lowest response rates 

(51 percent and 47 percent, respectively). The response rates 

ranged from about 62 percent to 65 percent for teachers in all 

______________ 

34 Because health teachers sampled as vocational teachers had a high misclassification rate, they were treated as a separate poststratum for estimating 

non-response weights. 
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other disciplines. Response was not systematically related to the 

number of vocational or academic teachers in the school. Teachers 

from schools where less than 25 percent of students are white nonHispanic were less likely to respond than teachers in other schools 

— 46 percent versus 60 percent. Teachers also were much less 

likely to respond when the principal did not return a staff list than 

when he or she did — 44 percent versus 66 percent. 

The final model for predicting response included an indicator for 

whether or not the principal returned the staff list, an indicator for 

whether or not the school had 75 percent or more white nonHispanic students, and indicators for social studies teachers. The 

model also included indicators for schools with less than 30, with 

40 to 59, and with 60 to 89 academic teachers. The predicted 

probability of response was again used to assign teachers to poststrata for estimating non-response weights. 

Standard Error Estimation 

Linearization methods (Skinner, 1989) were used to estimate the 

standard errors for all parameter estimates. Replacement sampling was assumed for each stratum, even those with relatively 

large sampling fractions. A small simulation study supported the 

use of this estimator. 

Creation of the Overall Teacher Quality Scale 

The Overall Teacher Quality Scale is a maximum nine-point scale. 

It consists of six individual scales, which have been divided into 

two or three categories each. The variables used to create the scale 

are given in parentheses, and the name of the final scale is given 

in capitalized letters. 

Q22. Use of Standards (q_22a_related–q22d_related, 

q22a_affect–q22d_affect) 

Survey Item 22: Are there any curriculum standards or student 

performance standards related to the identified class? If so, to 

what extent do the standards affect your teaching in the identified 

class? 

(Check yes if standards exist; if yes, check 1 (not at all), 2 (a slight 

extent), 3 (a moderate extent), 4 (a great extent). Standards listed 
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are a) state-adopted, b) district-adopted, c) industry-adopted, d) 

school-adopted. 

For each of the four standards (state-adopted, district-adopted, 

industry-adopted or school-adopted), we created two variables. 

The first variable, q22_related, refers to whether the standards related to the identified class. The second variable, q22_affect, refers 

to what extent the standards affected teaching in the identified 

class. 

The scale takes the maximum value of q22a_affect through 

q22d_affect. We recoded q22a_affect through q22d_affect using 

information from items q22a_related through q22d_related. If the 

teacher indicated that a standard was not relevant to the class, the 

corresponding response regarding the extent to which the standard affected their teaching was recoded from legitimate skip 

(“S”) to 1 (for example, ”does not affect teaching at all.”). Then, 

the maximum value of q22a_affect through q22d_affect was 

found. Once the maximum value was found, two groups were 

created such that those who indicated moderate to great extent 

(for example, 3 or 4) constituted one group (recoded as 1) and 

those who indicated none or little extent (for example, 1 or 2) constituted another (recoded as 0). This final, dichotomized scale is 

called MAXAFF, and takes a maximum value of 1 point. 

Q20. Academic and Technical Quality (Academic Quality, 

q20a, q20b, q20d; Technical Quality, q20c, q20f) 

The Academic Quality Index consists of three items: q20a (class 

fulfills academic requirement), q20b (class is designated as honors) and q20d (class has articulation agreement). The Technical 

Quality Index consists of two items: q20c (class leads to certificate 

of occupational skills) and q20f (class includes paid related internship). Question 20 asked, “Do any of the following features apply 

to the identified class?” (Check yes or no). 

All these items were recoded so that 0 = ”no” and 1= “yes.” The 

relevant items were summed within a scale so that the Academic 

Quality Index ranged from 0 to 3 and the Technical Quality Index 

ranged from 0 to 2. The Academic Quality Index was then further 

divided into three groups so that teachers who received a score of 

0 constituted one group (recoded as 0), those who received a score 

of 1 constituted another (recoded as 1), and those who received a 

score of 2 or 3 constituted a third group (recoded as 2). This scale 

is called ACADEMIC_INDEX, and takes a maximum value of 2 
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points. The Technical Quality Index was dichotomized so that 

those who scored a 0 made up one group (recoded as 0) and those 

teachers with a score of 1 or 2 were the other group (recoded as 1). 

This scale is TECHNICAL_INDEX and takes a maximum value of 

1 point. 

Q24. Assessed Competencies (q24b, q24c, q24e, q24h, q24j, 

q24f, q24g, q24i, q24k) 

This item asked: “To what extent do each of the following competencies contribute to students’ grades in the identified class?” 

Check 1 (not at all), 2 (a slight extent), 3 (a moderate extent), 4 (a 

great extent). The list of competencies are b) advanced reading 

skills; c) writing skills; e) advanced mathematics skills; h) research/reference skills; j) creative thinking and problem-solving 

skills; f) oral communication skills; g) teamwork skills; i) ability to 

use technology to solve problems; and k) ability to apply academic concepts to occupation-related tasks that might be found in 

a job or career. 

Responses for items relating to the above competencies were 

summed, then divided into three groups. The first group was 

those whose competency score was 20 or less (recoded as 0), the 

second group was those whose competency score was between 21 

and 29 (recoded as 1), and the third group was those whose competency score was greater than 30 (recoded as 2). This scale, 

COMPETENCIES_OVERALL, takes a maximum value of 2 points. 

Q17. Teacher Quality (q17) 

Item 17 asked, “Do you have a teaching certificate in your state in 

the same subject as your primary teaching assignment?” Check 1 

(yes), 2 (no), or 3 (not applicable). 

“Not applicable” responses were recoded as “no.” A 2-point 

scale, CERTIFICATE, was created that takes on the value of 0 if 

the response is “no” and 1 if the response is “yes.” The maximum 

value of CERTIFICATE is 1 point. 

Q25. Amount of Homework (q25_hr q25_min) 

Item 25 asked, “For the identified class, how many hours of 

homework were assigned in the last five school days?” Respondent wrote in number of hours and minutes. 
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The amount of homework within the last five days was first converted to minutes. The number of minutes was then divided into 

three groups. The first group (recoded as 0) consisted of those 

who assigned between 0 and 50 minutes of homework, the second 

group (recoded as 1) consisted of those who assigned between 51 

and 150 minutes of homework, and the third group (recoded as 2) 

consisted of those who assigned more than 150 minutes of homework. This scale, HOMEWORK, takes a maximum value of 2 

points. 

Overall Teacher Scale 

The 9-point overall teacher scale (TEACHER_QUALITY) was created by summing up the dichotomized or trichotomized individual scales. 
-160-

Appendix C: Efforts to Improve Quality — 

Summary Tables and Analysis of “HighPerforming” and “Low-Performing” Schools 

This appendix first provides summary tables in support of the 

case-study analysis. The tables show, for each of the seven states, 

how high- and low-performing schools in each state were implementing the program improvements discussed in Perkins III. 

Each table lists different indicators used to assess local efforts to 

improve. Throughout, 1 or 2 designates a high-performing 

school; and 3 or 4 designates a low-performing school. In cases 

where a local site was represented by more than one school (for 

example, a high school and a regional occupational program or 

area vocational school), the identifying number is further qualified 

as applying to the high school only, the ROP or the AVS. 

As discussed in Chapter Two, the analysis of high- and lowperforming schools with respect to a number of quality indicators 

associated with the Perkins program improvements yielded few 

differences. This stemmed undoubtedly partly from the sampling 

problems discussed in that chapter and does not necessarily mean 

that vocational education does not or cannot affect academic 

achievement. 

Following the tables, further narrative describes the interpretation 

of these data that led us to the overall conclusion that high- and 

low-performing schools are not implementing Perkins differently. 

We used simple counts for this analysis. One count included all 

28 schools in the sample. A second count included only the 13 

“pure” schools — the schools sampled according to the original 

design and in which vocational education was provided. These 13 

schools — seven high-performing and six low-performing — constitute the subset of schools in which the analysis of high and low 

schools can be carried out as originally intended. These schools 

are found in four states — Florida, Massachusetts, North Carolina 

and Texas — as follows: 

High — FL2, MA1, MA2, NC1, NC2, TX1, TX2 

Low — FL3, MA3, MA4, NC4, TX3, TX4 
-161-

Table C.1 

Integration Structure 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Vocational as stand-alone courses 

1, 3 none none All sites none 1, 2, 3, and 4 AVS 

Vocational as sequence of courses (vertical align.) 

1, 4 3 ROP 

all 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3 all 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS 

Pre-apprenticeship none none 3 AVS (some) Career academies 1 (5), 3 (2) 1 (1), 2 (2), 3 (1), 4 (1) none 1 none 3 AVS Career pathways 1 ROP, 2 (7), 

3 (planned) 

all all 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS all 1, 2 AVS, 3 HS, 3 

AVS (planned) 

Other organization ROP at all sites 1 HSTW, 2 several, 3 HSTW AVS at all sites 3 HSTW AVS at all sites Grouping of career students in same academic classes 

1 and 3 academies only 1, 2 in academies none 1 none 2, 3 AVS 

Block scheduling 3 (1 ROP ) 1, 3 2, 3, 4 1 and 4 AVS all 1, 2–4 AVS Academic/ vocational team teaching 

none 3 in academy 3, sometimes 2 AVS 2 in computer class 2 HS, 4 AVS 

(some) 

Common planning time for teachers 

1 and 3 academies only none 2, 3 none none 
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Table C.2 

Integration Curriculum 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Increase academics in vocational 2, 3 all all 1 AVS, 2, 3 AVS all 2, 3 AVS, 4 AVS Increase vocational/careers in academics 

3 none none No evidence none No evidence 

Senior projects 1, 4 2 next year 3, 4 No evidence 1, 4 AVS at 1, 2, 3 Horizontal alignment 1, 3 (academy) 1 in academy 2, 3, 4 1 all 4 AVS (some) Vertical alignment 1, 2, 3 ROP all 2, 3, 4 1, 2 (some), 3 all 1, 2, 3 (some), 4 Project-based learning 

1 and 3 academy, 2 (some) all 2, 3, 4 3 (some) and 4 AVS all 2, 3 AVS (some) 

Connections to work (e.g., job shadow, speakers) 

1 (some programs), 2, 3, 4 all all 2 some, 1 and 4 AVS all 2, 3 AVS 

Work-based learning All sites for some programs all all 1 AVS, 2 (some), 3, 4 all 1 AVS, 2, 3 AVS, 4 Credit for WBL 1, 4, 3 ROP 1, 2 2, 3, 4 2, 3, 4 (some programs) all 2 AVS, 4 Class seminars to discuss WBL 

4 (one class) 1 3 4 (some) none 4 HS (some) 

School-based enterprise 2, 4 1 4 3, 4 AVS 2 AVS at 1, 2, 4 
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Table C.3 

Challenging Academic and Vocational Standards 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Vocational courses meet certain academic standard 

2 (eliminated applied English) 

all no Eliminate keyboarding for vocational credit Eliminated key- boarding for voca- tional credit 

Vocational courses earn academic credit 

1 and 3 academies, 2 (some programs) 

all no 1, 2 (some AVS), 3 

(some) 

no 2, 3, and 4 (some) 

Vocational courses earn college credit 

2 (some programs), 3 3, 4 1, 3 all 2 AVS (some); 3 and 4 AVS 

Vocational courses earn skill certification 

4 (some programs) 1 — offered at nearby CC, 2 all 2 AVS, 4 2, 3 1, 2, 3 and 4 AVS 

State academic standards influence vocational 

1 and 3 academies, 2, 4 all all 3, 4 all 1, 3 and 4 AVS 

State academic tests influence vocational 

 all all 1, 2, 4 (writing in 

all CTE classes) 

all All sites 

State vocational standards/tests influence vocational 

checking all none 2, 3 (district standards for 1, 4) all All sites 

College standards influence vocational 

1, 2, 3 no No evidence no AVS (some); 3, 4 

(Tech-Prep) 

Industry/SCANS standards influence vocational 

1 and 2 (some), 3 academies, 4 ROP 

all all all all 1, 2, 3 and 4 AVS 

Pressure to raise academics in vocational 

1, 2 all all all all 2, 4 
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Table C.4 

Connections to Employers and Community 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio EMPLOYERS Industry advisory groups in some programs 

1 and 3 academy 2, 4 ROP 

2, 3, 4 all 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS, 4 

HS (one program) 

1 1 (some), 2, 3 

AVS, 4 

Participate in schoolwide committee 

1 and 3 academy all 1, 2 2, 3, 4 all at district level 4 

Advise on curriculum 1 academy, 2 4 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS 2, 4 2, 3, 4 Advise on industry skill needs 1 and 3 acad- emy, 2 ROP 3, 4 1, 2, 4 AVS 1, 2, 3 All sites Review student work/portfolios 

1 academy, 4 2 ROP 

 4 1 2, 3, 4 

Provide jobshadowing or mentoring 

1 and 3 academy 2 ROP 

 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS 1 1, 2, 3 

Provide work experience 

1 and 3 academy 2 2, 3, 4 1, 3, 4 AVS all All sites 

Hire students 1, 2 2, 3 all All sites (some 

programs) 

all 1, 2, 3 

Provide feedback on student work performance 

1, 2 ROP, 3 academy 

 1, 3, 4 1, 3, 4 1, 2 1, 2, 4 

Donate materials/ assist funding 

1 and 3 academy 2, 3 3, 4 4 1, 2, 4 1, 2 

PARENT INVOLVEMENT 

1 and 3 academy 1, 2 All — for course of study choice 3 (Tech-Prep) 

CTSO INVOLVEMENT 

CA2 (Ag program) 3 (many) No evidence 2 1, 2, 3 
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Table C.5 

Connections to Postsecondary 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio CC faculty on advisory board 

1 academy, 4 3 1, 4 (one program) 2, 3 (AVS) 

CC provides PD for teachers 

3 1 2 HS 

CC shares info on requirements 

2 1, 2 and 3 AVS 

CC gives placement tests at HS 2 Some HS teachers teach at CC 

4 4 2 

Share info on job skill needs 

2 1 1, 4, 2 and 3 AVS 

Joint curriculum, program planning 

3 4 (one program) 1 and 4 (TechPrep), 2 and 3 

AVS 

Share technology or labs 

1 1 AVS (TechPrep) 

Articulation infrequent 3 Articulation: few courses/programs 

 1, 2, 3 3, 4 4 HS 1 AVS (some) 

Articulation: many courses/programs 

1, 4, 2 1, 3, AVS at 2, 4 all 2 AVS, 3, 4 

Articulation: 4-year institutions 

4, 2 ROP 1, 3, 4 (some programs) 

Program to assist college entry 

4 1 4 
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Table C.6 

Counseling and Career Planning 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Counseling focus on college 

1, 2 2, HS at 3, 4 1, 2 and 4 HS 

Counselors do college and career 

1, 2, 3 1, 2 all 1, 4 all 2, 4 

Dedicated career counselors 

1 academy, 2 2 none 1, 2 2, 3 2 AVS, 3, 4 

Counselor PD on careers 

 2, 3 (limited) 3 1, 2 

Students complete 4 year plan 

All sites 1, 2 2, 3, 4 1 AVS, 2, 3, 4 all, mandated 2, 3, 4 

Plan reviewed regularly 

4 1, 2 2, 3, 4 1 AVS, 2, 3, 4 all 3, 4 AVS 

Career fair/center All sites 1, 2 2, 3, 4 1, 2 all 2, 4 Planning activities or portfolios 

1 academy, 2 ROP, 3, 4 

2 3, 4 2, 4 

Career interest inventories 

3, 4 all 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 4 all 2, 3, 4 

Career planning units in courses 

All sites 4 3 4 (planning) 

Course on career planning 

 1, 2 3, 4 All in 8th grade 4 AVS 

Course/exposure to CTE options 

 1, 2 3, 4 1, 3, 2 AVS All in 8th grade 2, 3, and 4 AVS 

Career planning before HS 

2, 4 1, 2 2, 3, 4 All sites All in 8th grade 2, 3, 4 
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Table C.7 

Technology Policy and Resources 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio School has technology policy 2, 3 and 4 are “Digital HS” 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 4 all 4 AVS Computer literacy requirement 

1, 4 all 2 all, mandated keyboarding 2, 4 AVS 

Employers advise on technology 

1, 3 (some programs) 

all 2, 3, 4 1, 2 all 1, 2, 3 

School has hightech program, e.g., Cisco engineering 

3, 2 (planned) 2 2, 3, 4 2 AVS, 3 AVS and 

some at HS, 4 (some) 

 1 (some), 2 

3 AVS, 4 AVS 

Curriculum incorporates technology knowledge/skills 

4, 1 and 3 (some programs) 

all all 2, 3 AVS and 

some at HS, 4 

all 1 (some), 2, 4 AVS 

Teachers receive PD for technology 

2, 4 2 all 2 & 4 AVS 

Teachers satisfied with amount or quality of technology 

2 not satisfied 1, 2 not satisfied 1, 3, 4 not satisfied 4 varied, 

3 AVS yes, HS no 

4 2 yes 

1 & 3 varied 4 AVS yes, HS no 

Perkins funds used for technology 

All sites all all 1, 4 all 1, 3, 4 
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Table C.8 

Teacher Supply and Professional Development 

 California Florida Massachusetts Michigan North Carolina Ohio Vocational teacher shortage 

All sites 2 2, 3, 4 1, 2 

4 (anticipated) 

Shortage has affected programs 1, 2 2, 3 4 Shortage of teacher training programs 

1, 2 2 2, 3 

State provides PD No all all 2, 4 all 1, 2 District provides PD 1, 2, 3 all all 1, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4 AVS School provides PD 4, digital HS all all 4 1, 3 2, 4 AVS Teachers satisfied with PD time 

1 and 2 (not satisfied) 

 1 — not satisfied 4 2 

Teachers satisfied with PD quality 

 2 2, 3, 4 yes 4 1, 3 yes 1, 2 

PD includes acad and vocational teachers 

 2 3 all 2 sometimes 

PD on academic standards/tests 

1 all all 4 all 2 

PD on vocational standards 

 2 1, 2 4 AVS 

PD on general curric all 3, 4 1, 2 PD on integ. curric 2 3, 4 2, 3 1, 3 2, 3, 4 AVS PD on integrated CTE programs 

 2 2, 3 4 AVS 

PD on innovative teaching 

1, 2 2 4 3 (district PD) 

PD externships 3 all 2 all 1, 2 and 3 AVS, 4 
-169-

Narrative Summary 

The following sections summarize the previous tables. In discussing distinctions between schools, two numbers are provided: the 

number of schools in the full sample (28 schools), followed in parentheses by the number of schools in the “pure” sample (13 

schools). Since the number of “pure” schools is very small, the 

interpretations presented here must be taken as very tentative. 

Integration Structure (Table C.1) 

Data in this table indicate few differences. Most schools in the 

sample incorporate career pathways and vocational education as a 

sequence of courses. In the case of pathways, 14 (7) “high” 

schools and 11 (6) low schools have pathways, and data indicate 

that two additional low schools are in the planning stages. With 

respect to course sequencing, 12 (6) “high” schools and 13 (6) low 

schools sequence courses. Equal numbers of “high” and low 

schools have academy programs: 5 (2) high and 5 (2) low. Equal 

numbers of “high” and low schools have block scheduling — 8 

(4); equal numbers have common planning time: 3 (2). There is a 

tendency for “high” schools to group career students in academic 

classes: 6 (2) high, 3 (1) low. “High” schools more frequently reported on an indicator that is negatively associated with integration — providing vocational education as stand-alone courses: 7 

(2) high, 6 (1) low. 

Integration Curriculum (Table C.2) 

The schools in the sample incorporated a number of features associated with curriculum integration. Most prevalent were increasing academics in vocational courses, vertical alignment of courses, 

project-based learning, connections to work — for example, job 

shadowing, speakers in class — and work-based learning. Differences were small between high-performing and low-performing 

schools for all these categories (2 schools at most). 

“High” schools showed more attention to academics than low: 12 

(6) high, 10 (7) low (note the reversal for the “pure” sample); more 

connections to work: 13 (7) high, 12 (6) low; and more vertical 

alignment: 13 (6) high; 12 (6) low. 
-170-

More prevalent activities in low schools included senior projects: 

5 (2) high, 6 (4) low; project-based learning 10 (6) high and 12 (6) 

low; work-based learning: 13 (6) high, 14 (6) low; and obtaining 

credit for work-based learning: 9 (5) high and 11 (5) low. 

Equal numbers of schools had school-based enterprises: 5 (1). 

Only one low school reported efforts to increase vocational learning in academic subjects. 

Challenging Academic and Vocational Standards: Table C.3 

Data in Table C.3 illustrate the influence of academic standards 

and tests over vocational programs. Most sites felt pressure to 

raise standards: 13 (7) high, 11 (6) low and were influenced by 

state academic standards — 11 (7) high, 14 (6) low — or tests: 12 

(7) high, 11 (6) low. About equal numbers — 13 schools in each 

group — reported influence of industry standards in vocational 

programs. Vocational standards were less important — about 10 

schools in each group. In about half of the schools, 7 (1) high and 

6 (1) low, at least some vocational classes had to meet some academic standard or earned academic credit. In three states, meeting standards meant either that keyboarding was no longer 

acceptable for vocational course credit — Michigan and Ohio — or 

that some “applied academics” courses have been eliminated — 

site C2 in California. Vocational classes in “high” schools were a 

little more likely to earn skill certificates: 8 (5) high, 7 (2) low. 

Connections to Employers and Community: Table C.4 

Few sites were involved with parents (five of each type) — or career and technical student organizations, although in the complete 

sample, the “high” schools showed more CTSO connection than 

the low schools: 4 (1) high, 1 (1) low. In about equal numbers of 

“high” and low schools, employers participated in advisory 

groups (11 schools) or on schoolwide committees: 7 (4) high, 6 (3) 

low. Employers advised about the curriculum at about half of the 

schools: 7 (2) high, 7 (1) low. They also advised on industry skill 

needs: 9 (3) high, 8 (3) low. 

The “high” schools tended to report a little more employer involvement for provision of job-shadowing or mentoring: 8 (2) 

high, 5 (1) low. However, the low schools had more involvement 

for purposes of providing work experience, arguably the more 

significant kind of connection for vocational students: 9 (4) high, 
-171-

11 (5) low. Employers associated with “high” schools however, 

were a little more likely to hire students: 12 (6) high, 10 (5) low. 

Overall, these are not huge differences between “high” and low 

schools. 

Connections to Postsecondary: Table C.5 

Instances of postsecondary connections at the local level are 

somewhat sparse in Florida and North Carolina, partly reflecting 

the use of statewide articulation agreements, which reportedly 

tended to decrease local connections between high schools and 

institutions of higher education. Very few schools reported much 

collaboration with community colleges. The most frequent activities were having community college faculty on advisory boards: 3 

(0) high, 5 (2) low, and sharing information on requirements and 

job skills: 4 high, 2 low for each. Low schools showed more indication of joint curriculum or program planning with community 

colleges than high schools: 2 (0) high, 5 (1) low. 

Low schools tended to have more articulation agreements than 

“high” schools: 10 (3) high, 12 (6) low for articulation in “some” 

or “many” courses. Equal numbers of high and low sites (2 each) 

had articulation with four-year institutions. These occurred in 

California and Michigan only. 

With respect to postsecondary connections, then, some small differences exist between high- and low-performing schools, but 

these seem to favor “high” schools about half the time and low 

schools about half the time. Overall, the schools look fairly similar 

except perhaps for the higher instances of articulation agreements 

in the low schools. 

Counseling and Career Planning: Table C.6 

Counseling services seem more widespread in “high” schools. 

More of these schools had counselors that focused on college: 6 

(1), high, 4 (1) low; and counselors that advised on both college 

and career: 11 (6) high, 9 (5) low. “High” schools also were more 

likely to have dedicated career counselors: 7 (2) high, 4 (1) low. 

Only 5 sites (3 high, 2 low) reported professional development for 

counselors that focused on career planning or counseling. 

Completion of a four-year career plan, however, was a little more 

prevalent in the low-performing schools: 10 (4) high, 12 (5) low. 
-172-

Low schools tended to review these plans more regularly: 7 (3) 

high, 10 (4) low. Career planning occurred before high school in 

similar numbers of high and low sites: 9 (4) high; 10 (4) low. The 

schools also engaged in numerous kinds of activities in support of 

career planning, including career fairs: 11 (5) high, 9 (5) low; 

planning activities or portfolios: 4 (1) high, 5 (2) low; and career 

interest inventories: 9 (5) high, 13 (6) low. Low-performing 

schools tended to have more opportunities for career planning 

within courses — for example, as a unit in a course, as a dedicated 

course or by means of exposure within courses to career and technical education options: 14 (8) high, 22 (11) low. 

In general, these findings suggest that high-performing schools 

tend to provide more and more varied counseling services, while 

low-performing schools provide more specific activities to engage 

students in a career-planning process. 

Technology Policy and Resources: Table C.7 

Half the sites in the sample had some technology-related policy: 6 

(3) high, 8 (3) low. Computer literacy was required for all students in three states and this policy was carried out in all affected 

schools: 9 high sites (5), 8 (4) low across all states. Nearly all sites 

reported using Perkins funds for technology-related purposes: 12 

[7] high, 13 [6] low. 

High-tech programs — for example, pre-engineering and Cisco — 

were not very evident in the study sites and were distributed 

similarly over high- and low-performing schools: 7 (3) high, 7 (2) 

low. In about half the sites, the study found evidence that at least 

some vocational courses incorporated learning technology-related 

skills: 10 (5) high, 12 (5) low. Similar number of “high” and low 

schools received advice from employers about technology-related 

matters: 10 (4) high, 9 (5) low. Professional development directed 

at technology use was fairly uncommon — this type of activity 

was evident in only 9 sites: 5 (2) high, 4 (0) low. Teachers were 

not always satisfied with the amount or quality of technology 

available to them — reports were provided at about 12 sites — but 

the pattern of satisfaction or dissatisfaction appears unrelated to 

whether a school is high- or low-performing. 
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Teacher Supply and Professional Development: Table C.8 

Twelve sites in five states reported current or anticipated vocational teacher shortages: 7 (2) high, 5 (0) low. Five of these reported that shortages had affected programs: 3 (0) high, 2 (0) low. 

Sites in California, Michigan and Florida reported that lack of 

teacher training programs in the state contributed to these shortages. 

State, district or school-provided professional development was 

fairly common, with no clear pattern of differences between 

schools: 11 (7) high, 9 (6) low provided by the state; 9 (3) high, 9 

(3) low by the district; and 6 (4) high, 8 (3) low by the school. At 

11 sites, professional development included both academic and 

vocational teachers: 6 (5) high, 5 (4) low. 

The case studies have some limited data on topics covered in professional development courses — fewer than half the sites having 

any such details. These limited data suggest that professional development on academic and vocational standards is associated 

with “high” schools: 13 (8) high, 10 (6) low; whereas professional 

development on integrated curriculum or on integrated career 

and technical education programs is associated with low schools: 

6 (3) high, 10 (4) low. Professional development on general curriculum or innovative teaching is infrequent, but similar at “high” 

and low schools. Other than the limited reports on different topics at high- and low-performing schools, the data do not reveal 

any important patterns. 

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Appendix D: Teacher Survey Tables 

Table D.1 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any 

Professional Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers TOPIC n=685 n=881  PCT SE PCT SE test Training in academic standards 86.99 1.51 83.26 1.71 2.88 Training in vocational education standards 40.56 2.38 76.99 1.70 110.44 Training in your subject content 70.47 2.04 75.62 2.08 2.99 Training in academic incorporated into vocational education 33.58 2.33 70.78 2.00 127.68 Training in vocational education incorporated into academic 37.69 2.18 52.14 2.33 20.18 Training in technology/equipment 79.19 1.81 81.35 1.71 0.79 Training in special needs students 38.37 2.36 40.85 2.27 0.70 Training in student assessment 65.41 2.28 57.06 2.58 6.41 Training in concept application/real world 46.65 2.33 55.87 2.20 8.96 Training in incorporated workplace competencies 31.53 2.31 51.90 2.20 47.52 Training in other topics 24.81 3.48 16.17 2.31 4.13 
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Table D.2 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any 

Professional Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational HS TOPIC n=1,197 n=369  PCT SE PCT SE test Training in academic standards 86.94 1.31 72.35 5.32 7.22 Training in vocational education standards 47.02 2.03 71.09 5.14 21.24 Training in your subject content 71.77 1.72 67.24 4.95 0.72 Training in academic incorporated into vocational education 40.14 2.07 64.96 5.63 22.91 Training in vocational education incorporated into academic 39.87 1.87 57.03 4.99 8.82 Training in technology/equipment 80.27 1.54 68.07 5.29 4.12 Training in special needs students 38.44 2.09 47.33 4.93 2.85 Training in student assessment 64.06 2.01 55.84 5.05 2.13 Training in concept application/real world 48.19 2.04 56.12 4.76 2.30 Training in incorporate workplace competencies 34.84 2.08 54.80 4.69 14.45 Training in other topics 22.28 2.90 32.08 8.79 1.05 
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Table D.3 

Percentage of Vocational Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any 

Professional Development on Selected Topics in Last 12 Months 

 Vocational Teachers  Comprehensive HS Vocational HS TOPIC n=528 n=353  PCT SE PCT SE test Training in academic standards 84.81 1.98 75.18 2.88 8.11 Training in vocational education standards 75.50 2.00 84.75 2.13 9.30 Training in your subject content 75.62 2.42 75.58 2.74 0.00 Training in academic incorporated into vocational education 69.77 2.28 76.06 3.85 2.07 Training in vocational education incorporated into academic 51.28 2.69 56.58 3.76 1.35 Training in technology/equipment 82.32 1.90 76.31 3.75 1.93 Training in special needs students 39.12 2.60 49.80 3.78 5.56 Training in student assessment 56.05 2.98 62.33 3.91 1.67 Training in concept application/real world 55.27 2.52 58.97 3.90 0.64 Training in incorporated workplace competencies 50.11 2.55 61.17 3.53 6.80 Training in other topics 15.50 2.71 19.19 3.25 0.76 
-178-

Table D.4 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report Team Teaching 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=674 n=871  PCT SE PCT SE test p Yes 9.45 1.46 12.73 1.71 2.20 0.14 No 90.55 1.46 87.27 1.71 2.20 0.14 

Table D.5 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Who Report Team Teaching 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational HS  n=1,181 n=364  PCT SE PCT SE test p Yes 9.72 1.26 18.34 4.77 2.99 0.09 No 90.28 1.26 81.66 4.77 2.99 0.09 
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Table D.6 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any Participation with Postsecondary Faculty in Certain 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers TYPE OF COORDINATION n=675 n=873  PCT SE PCT SE test Plan overall curriculum 20.86 1.82 35.26 2.32 23.25 Plan specific lessons/units 21.07 2.17 28.90 1.88 9.20 Share tech/lab equipment 23.83 2.07 35.94 2.05 17.54 Attend joint professional development activities 30.09 2.37 47.29 2.39 27.46 Serve on joint advisory committees 15.40 1.86 33.56 2.32 32.73 Discuss student postsecondary preparation 23.36 1.98 45.61 2.41 53.76 Work on articulation agreements 14.52 1.58 41.28 2.40 82.49 Exchange employer contacts/networks 9.50 1.34 37.79 2.10 109.34 No coordination 52.29 2.43 25.69 1.96 67.08 

Table D.7 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any Participation 

with Postsecondary Faculty in Certain Activities 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational Schools TYPE OF COORDINATION n=1,179 n=369  PCT SE PCT SE test Plan overall curriculum 23.41 1.62 32.57 3.96 4.59 Plan specific lessons/units 22.61 1.92 24.65 2.72 0.39 Share tech/lab equipment 25.84 1.79 36.15 4.03 5.06 Attend joint professional development activities 32.86 2.05 48.95 4.57 8.39 Serve on joint advisory committees 18.30 1.60 36.17 4.51 11.75 Discuss student postsecondary preparation 27.09 1.78 45.08 4.60 14.21 Work on articulation agreements 19.27 1.53 35.81 3.71 19.53 Exchange employer contacts/networks 14.09 1.27 39.99 4.38 34.01 No coordination 47.70 2.12 28.53 4.66 14.56 
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Table D.8 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Any Contact with Business Groups 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=681 n=882  PCT SE PCT SE test Work on advisory committee 21.71 1.80 57.50 2.41 126.81 Have employers make presentations to students 39.03 2.24 75.49 2.12 137.76 Have employers review student work 9.58 1.37 34.39 2.06 105.21 Discuss curriculum/performance standards 16.75 1.68 49.62 2.47 111.09 Receive equip/material donations 27.72 2.17 51.57 2.49 47.74 Discuss labor market information 12.79 1.70 52.14 2.28 192.83 Discuss employee skill needs 21.92 1.89 66.82 2.19 202.78 Visit employer work site 12.50 1.50 57.68 2.11 206.39 Refer students to employers for placement 20.53 1.89 68.62 2.26 204.67 No coordination 41.88 2.37 8.11 1.28 122.17 

Table D.9 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting Any Contact with Business Gro

 Comprehensive HS Vocational High Schools  n=1,191 n=372  PCT SE PCT SE test Work on advisory committee 27.15 1.66 68.18 6.46 75.18 Have employers make presentations to students 45.81 2.06 63.17 5.67 12.26 Have employers review student work 13.17 1.25 45.22 4.78 59.66 Discuss curriculum/performance standards 21.20 1.52 69.64 5.05 67.70 Receive equip/material donations 31.82 1.90 49.73 4.54 19.46 Discuss labor market information 18.74 1.73 63.60 5.45 73.48 Discuss employee skill needs 29.08 1.78 74.20 6.02 73.00 Visit employer work site 19.93 1.48 60.43 5.62 81.30 Refer students to employers for placement 28.34 1.73 73.51 6.33 78.46 No coordination 35.88 2.03 14.49 4.93 20.08 
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Table D.10 

Percentage of Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Requiring Career Plans 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational HS All Schools  n=220 n=119  PCT SE PCT SE PCT SE tNo written career plan 65.20 3.90 51.19 5.52 64.26 3.66 6Career plan for all students 0.43 0.30 4.65 2.16 0.72 0.31 6Career plan for some students 15.21 2.80 20.53 5.19 15.57 2.63 6

 NOTE: School-level response determined by response given by 50 percent or more of teachers in the school. 

Table D.11 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report that Identified Class 

Has Particular Characteristics (Percentage of Classes) 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=682 n=860  PCT SE PCT SE test Class fulfills academic requirement 83.99 1.48 41.18 2.45 187.93 Class is designated as honors 24.57 2.02 2.80 0.65 92.47 Class leads to certificate of occupational skills 4.14 0.83 37.66 2.23 138.66 Class has articulation agreement 5.63 0.98 34.39 2.25 107.70 Class is in Tech-Prep/pre-apprent/academy 4.86 1.02 35.48 2.17 146.18 Class includes paid related internship 0.62 0.30 18.22 1.74 90.90 Class includes job-shadowing 3.90 0.76 38.13 2.27 146.76 
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Table D.12 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting “Above Average” Participation of 

Special Populations in Identified Classes 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=681 n=870  PCT SE PCT SE test Students with disabilities 11.63 1.39 20.54 1.73 56.87 Limited English proficiency students 8.76 1.23 9.28 1.40 35.86 Pregnant/parenting students 5.26 1.08 8.81 1.21 14.45 Economically disadvantaged 17.77 2.00 27.17 2.26 45.31 Gifted and talented 28.91 2.11 6.12 0.86 96.40 At-risk students 17.71 1.71 31.99 2.09 70.89 

Table D.13 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting “Above Average” 

Participation of Special Populations in Identified Classes 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational HS  n=1,188 n=363  PCT SE PCT SE test Students with disabilities 12.68 1.17 29.43 5.07 22.40 LEP students 8.85 1.10 9.20 2.40 8.46 Pregnant/parenting students 5.65 0.91 12.73 3.70 6.26 Economically disadvantaged 19.07 1.86 32.58 4.97 29.78 Gifted and talented 25.15 1.81 4.62 1.01 43.25 At-risk students 20.11 1.50 31.59 5.34 14.70 
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Table D.14 

Existence of Standards for Identified Classes Taught by Academic and Vocational Teachers (Percentage of Teachers 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=680 n=862  PCT SE PCT SE test State standards 82.18 1.82 68.09 2.28 23.40 District standards 71.05 2.41 50.91 2.39 33.76 Industry standards 3.54 0.89 24.21 1.82 107.70 School standards 51.55 2.31 48.80 2.45 0.72 Any standards 92.38 1.15 82.31 2.05 16.15 

Table D.15 

Percentage of Teachers Reporting Standards Influence Class a “Moderate” or “Great” Extent 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=548 n=603  PCT SE PCT SE test State standards 77.84 2.08 72.39 2.45 3.32 District standards 79.46 2.05 74.39 2.81 4.53 Industry standards 66.86 11.97 78.47 3.65 1.28 School standards 78.07 2.40 72.50 2.73 5.74 Any standards 80.02 1.98 76.28 1.86 1.82 
-184-

Table D.16 

Academic and Vocational Teacher Reports of Frequency of Activities in Most Recent Identified Class (Percentage of 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=671 n=863  Never Occasionally Frequently Never Occasionally Freque PCT SE PCT SE PCT SE PCT SE PCT SE PCT Listen to a lecture 4.63 0.87 25.82 2.06 69.55 2.18 3.05 0.87 39.17 1.98 57.78 Write a paragraph or more 6.11 1.17 40.34 2.38 53.56 2.43 5.21 0.87 56.17 2.07 38.62 Receive homework assignment 1.33 0.52 12.52 1.47 86.15 1.49 17.10 1.73 48.96 2.22 33.94 Take test or quiz 0.43 0.25 44.02 2.21 55.55 2.22 1.70 0.50 59.42 2.02 38.89 Use computers 19.57 2.07 60.95 2.49 19.48 1.85 8.20 1.29 37.26 2.54 54.53 Use instruments/tools/equipment 62.30 2.37 14.04 1.46 23.66 2.04 27.56 2.12 7.82 1.18 64.62 Work in groups 1.04 0.41 41.09 2.28 57.87 2.26 5.46 1.06 30.17 1.95 64.36 Work on extended projects 10.24 1.28 71.29 1.92 18.47 1.43 2.29 0.58 44.73 2.21 52.98 Use commercial curriculum materials 83.75 1.68 13.34 1.51 2.92 0.79 66.77 1.99 21.83 1.74 11.40 Discuss or explore careers 25.37 1.91 69.83 2.14 4.81 0.98 2.03 0.56 74.03 1.86 23.94 Apply academic skills to job tasks 19.22 1.72 59.33 2.44 21.46 1.80 1.52 0.45 34.25 2.32 64.23 Use the Internet for research 22.03 1.97 67.34 2.22 10.62 1.37 13.93 1.54 61.45 2.34 24.62 Receive instruction through distance learning 

92.58 1.08 5.82 0.91 1.60 0.54 85.67 1.47 11.70 1.35 2.62 

Use technology at local college 92.54 1.08 7.46 1.08 0.00 0.00 86.48 1.45 12.38 1.43 1.13 Use technology at local business 94.68 0.97 5.32 0.97 0.00 0.00 72.14 1.79 22.76 1.65 5.11 
-185-

Table D.17 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Competency 

Contributes to a “Great Extent” to Students’ Grades in Identified Classes 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=666 n=845 2001 PCT SE PCT SE test Academic skills  Basic math skills 30.84 1.90 32.27 2.02 0.25  Advanced math skills 15.25 1.65 6.80 1.03 15.48  Basic reading skills 58.14 2.02 44.76 2.35 17.79  Advanced reading skills 31.03 2.46 14.67 1.50 33.68  Writing skills 39.11 2.35 18.90 1.75 47.69 SCANS competencies  Teamwork skills 22.48 1.91 46.25 2.16 65.79  Research/reference skills 16.08 1.54 13.90 1.45 1.20  Ability to use technology 19.70 1.51 45.82 2.14 87.29 SCANS foundation  Oral communication skills 28.49 1.79 37.81 2.34 11.07  Creative thinking/problem solving 48.24 2.34 50.52 2.20 0.49 Vocational/integrated  Job-specific skills 1.94 0.60 44.08 2.27 236.36  General employability skills 10.73 1.29 44.57 2.12 155.28  Ability to apply academic concept 7.79 1.12 33.52 2.23 96.77 
-186-

Table D.18 

Reported Amount of Homework Assigned in Identified Classes by Academic and Vocational Teachers (Mean H

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=660 n=802  MEAN SE MEAN SE test Mean hours of homework in last 5 school days 2.88 0.09 1.43 0.08 –12.77 

Table D.19 

Reported Amount of Homework Assigned in Identified Classes by Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational HS  n=1,119 n=343  MEAN SE MEAN SE test Mean hours of homework in last 5 school days 2.63 0.08 2.10 0.26 –1.92 

Table D.20 

Reported Preparation of Academic and Vocational Teachers to Teach Technology-Related Skills 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=91 n=808  PCT SE PCT SE test Unprepared/somewhat prepared 50.23 6.32 18.54 1.65 16.78 Adequately or very well prepared 49.77 6.32 81.46 1.65 16.78 
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Table D.21 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting “Moderate” or “Great” Input by 

Business Groups in Identified Career-Oriented or Vocational Classes 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=98 n=827  PCT SE PCT SE test Review overall curriculum 4.16 1.88 25.76 2.18 55.94 Advise on curriculum materials 3.09 1.53 19.15 1.96 31.77 Advise on computer selection 5.73 2.20 10.29 1.24 6.71 Advise on instrument/equip selection 4.44 2.06 20.16 1.75 35.61 Help set class standards 4.66 2.11 19.98 1.79 35.66 Review student work 5.17 2.14 11.05 1.39 12.01 Advise on skill requirements 6.50 2.50 28.63 2.02 44.54 

Table D.22 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Reporting “Moderate” or “Great” Input b

Business Groups in Identified Career-Oriented or Vocational Classes 

 Comprehensive HS Vocational Schools  n=578 n=347  PCT SE PCT SE test Review overall curriculum 12.85 1.67 56.67 4.37 102.47 Advise on curriculum materials 9.66 1.48 41.25 3.81 101.83 Advise on computer selection 7.31 1.26 18.75 2.37 29.91 Advise on instrument/equip selection 10.08 1.44 47.89 4.10 81.37 Help set class standards 10.13 1.48 47.04 4.29 78.76 Review student work 7.26 1.29 21.52 2.63 50.53 Advise on skill requirements 15.42 1.79 60.23 4.48 95.95 
-188-

Table D.23 

Weighted Teacher Scales for Academic and Vocational Teachers and Classes (Mean Scores) 

Teacher Type Class Type 

Academic Vocational Academic Vocationa

Scale N Mean Std N Mean Std N Mean Std N Affect of standard 683 .73 .44 867 .62 .48 612 .75 .43 803 Academic index 678 1.11 .55 854 .77 .70 608 1.13 .55 790 Technical index 677 .04 .21 860 .45 .50 608 .05 .21 797 Competencies overall 657 .89 .54 841 1.07 .57 585 .90 .55 767 Certificate 683 .97 .18 873 .93 .26 607 .98 .14 799 Homework 659 1.35 .64 810 .76 .74 589 1.37 .62 740 Teacher quality 624 5.08 1.36 743 4.62 1.67 561 5.14 1.32 690 

NOTE: All differences between academic and vocational teachers and classes are significant at the .01 level. 
-189-

Table D.24 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Who Report “Moderate” or “Serious” Problems with Techno

Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers n=93 n=818 PCT SE PCT SE test p 

Availability of technology problem 42.33 5.75 28.21 2.02 6.22 0Availability of technology in adequate numbers 57.32 5.83 37.19 2.11 8.49 0Maintenance of technology problem 42.40 5.61 38.03 2.30 0.99 0Appropriateness of technology problem 44.12 5.83 29.54 2.28 6.69 0Currentness of technology problem 51.15 5.74 40.66 2.44 2.43 0Alignment of tech with curriculum problem 38.52 5.87 22.55 1.92 11.29 0Convenient location of technology problem 45.80 6.27 26.37 2.02 8.89 0

Table D.25 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Who Report “Moderate” 

 or “Serious” Problems with Technology 

Comprehensive HS Vocational HS n=564 n=347 

PCT SE PCT SE test p 

Availability of technology problem 33.61 2.56 30.41 4.49 0.85 0Availability of technology in adequate numbers 45.26 2.71 37.48 4.36 2.49 0Maintenance of technology problem 40.28 2.89 34.44 3.90 1.71 0Appropriateness of technology problem 35.19 2.64 30.73 4.39 0.87 0Currentness of technology problem 45.20 2.63 38.03 4.31 3.64 0Alignment of tech with curriculum problem 29.12 2.63 21.50 3.75 3.46 0Convenient location of technology problem 33.81 2.99 29.43 4.35 0.72 0
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Table D.26 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Reporting Activity Occurs “Frequently” in Identified Clas

Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers n=671 n=863 

PCT SE PCT SE test p 

Listen to a lecture 69.55 2.18 57.78 1.97 20.71 0Write a paragraph or more 53.56 2.43 38.62 2.09 25.85 0Receive homework assignment 86.15 1.49 33.94 2.06 246.82 0Take test or quiz 55.55 2.22 38.89 2.05 34.9 0Use computers 19.48 1.85 54.53 2.47 120.65 0Use instruments/tools/equipment 23.66 2.04 64.62 2.24 148.09 0Work in groups 57.87 2.26 64.36 2.02 23.69 0Work on extended projects 18.47 1.43 52.98 2.22 175.57 0Use commercial curriculum materials 2.92 0.79 11.40 1.24 48.23 0Discuss or explore careers 4.81 0.98 23.94 1.83 157.51 0Apply academic skills to job tasks 21.46 1.80 64.23 2.29 231.66 0Use the Internet for research 10.62 1.37 24.62 1.95 45.51 0Receive instruction through distance learning 1.60 0.54 2.62 0.71 15.37 0Use technology at local college 0.00 0.00 1.13 0.43 16.04 0Use technology at local business 0.00 0.00 5.11 1.05 113.61 0
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Table D.27 

Percentage of Academic and Vocational Teachers Engaged in Collaboration 

(Percentage Reporting Engagement in Any Collaboration) 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=689 n=888  PCT SE PCT SE test Develop overall curriculum 61.99 2.14 65.61 2.14 1.53 Plan specific lessons/units 65.32 2.11 67.47 2.21 0.55 Discuss individual student progress 84.39 1.46 85.34 1.63 0.18 Field trips/special activities 46.51 2.03 60.64 2.13 22.32 Develop student assessments 58.51 2.35 61.40 2.17 0.92 

Table D.28 

Percentage of Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools Engaged in Collaboration 

(Percentage Reporting Engagement in Any Collaboration) 

 Comprehensive HS Conventional HS  n=1,204 n=373  PCT SE PCT SE test Develop overall curriculum 62.55 1.86 66.47 5.17 0.52 Plan specific lessons/units 65.58 1.84 69.45 5.51 0.44 Discuss individual student progress 84.43 1.24 87.60 2.93 0.92 Field trips/special activities 48.43 1.72 69.15 4.80 16.43 Develop student assessments 58.78 2.06 65.50 4.75 1.59 
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Table D.29 

Academic and Vocational Teacher Reports of Amount of Time School Provides for Teachers to Work Togeth

(Percentage of Teachers) 

 Academic Teachers Vocational Teachers  n=673 n=870  PCT SE PCT SE test Not applicable 16.95 1.62 15.45 1.37 10.42 No time provided 61.16 2.21 60.66 2.25 About 30 minutes 7.08 1.46 4.76 0.77 One hour 5.04 0.89 9.79 1.36 Two hours 3.24 0.82 3.12 0.71 Three or more hours 6.53 1.07 6.22 1.09 

Table D.30 

Reports of Amount of Time school Provides for Teachers in Comprehensive and Vocational Schools to Work Together (Perce

 Comprehensive HS Conventional HS  n=1,176 N=367  PCT SE PCT SE test Not applicable 16.73 1.42 14.87 3.40 9.08 No time provided 61.64 1.98 50.08 4.79 About 30 minutes 6.26 1.21 12.95 3.18 One hour 5.97 0.81 7.13 1.42 Two hours 3.09 0.69 5.55 2.76 Three or more hours 6.31 0.95 9.43 2.96 
-193-

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