United States Court of Appeals,

Fifth Circuit.

No. 93-8661.

STEVE JACKSON GAMES, INCORPORATED, et al., Plaintiffs-Appellants,

v.

UNITED STATES SECRET SERVICE, et al., Defendants,

United States Secret Service and United States of America, Defendants-Appellees.

Oct. 31, 1994.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas.

Before HIGGINBOTHAM, JONES and BARKSDALE, Circuit Judges.

RHESA HAWKINS BARKSDALE, Circuit Judge:

The narrow issue before us is whether the seizure of a computer, used to operate an

electronic bulletin board system, and containing private electronicmailwhich had been sent to (stored

on) the bulletin board, but not read (retrieved) by the intended recipients, constitutes an unlawful

intercept under the Federal Wiretap Act, 18 U.S.C. § 2510, et seq., as amended by Title I of the

Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986, Pub.L. No. 99-508, Title I, 100 Stat. 1848 (1986).

We hold that it is not, and therefore AFFIRM.

I.

The district court's findings of fact are not in dispute. See Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v.

United States Secret Service, 816 F.Supp. 432 (W.D.Tex.1993). Appellant Steve Jackson Games,

Incorporated (SJG), publishes books, magazines, role-playing games, and related products. Starting

in the mid-1980s, SJG operated an electronic bulletin board system, called "Illuminati" (BBS), from

one of its computers. SJG used the BBS to post public information about its business, games,

publications, and the role-playing hobby; to facilitate play-testing of games being developed; and to

communicate with its customers and free-lance writers by electronic mail (E-mail).

Central to the issue before us, the BBS also offered customers the ability to send and receive

private E-mail. Private E-mail was stored on the BBS computer's hard disk drive temporarily, until
the addressees "called" the BBS (using their computers and modems) and read their mail. After

reading their E-mail, the recipients could choose to either store it on the BBS computer's hard drive

or delete it. In February 1990, there were 365 BBS users. Among other uses, appellants Steve

Jackson,ElizabethMcCoy,WilliamMilliken, and SteffanO'Sullivanused theBBS for communication

by private E-mail.

In October 1988, HenryKluepfel, Director of Network SecurityTechnology (an affiliate Bell

Company), began investigating the unauthorized duplication and distribution of a computerized text

file, containing information about Bell's emergency call system. In July 1989, Kluepfel informed

Secret Service Agent Foley and an Assistant United States Attorney in Chicago about the

unauthorized distribution. In early February 1990, Kluepfel learned that the document was available

on the "Phoenix Project" computer bulletin board, which was operated by Loyd Blankenship in

Austin, Texas; that Blankenship was an SJG employee; and that, as a co-systems operator of the

BBS, Blankenship had the ability to review and, perhaps, delete any data on the BBS.

On February 28, 1990, Agent Foley applied for a warrant to search SJG's premises and

Blankenship's residence for evidence of violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 1030 (proscribes interstate

transportation of computer access information) and 2314 (proscribes interstate transportation of

stolen property). A search warrant for SJG was issued that same day, authorizing the seizure of, inter

alia,

[c]omputer hardware ... and computer software ... and ... documentsrelating to the use ofthe

computer system ..., and financial documents and licensing documentation relative to the

computer programs and equipment at ... [SJG] ... which constitute evidence ... of federal

crimes.... This warrant is for the seizure of the above described computer and computer data

and for the authorization to read information stored and contained on the above described

computer and computer data.

The next day, March 1, the warrant was executed by the Secret Service, including Agents

Foley and Golden. Among the items seized was the computer which operated the BBS. At the time

ofthe seizure, 162 items of unread, private E-mailwere stored on theBBS, including items addressed

to the individual appellants. Despite the Secret Service's denial, the district court found that Secret

Service personnel or delegates read and deleted the private E-mail stored on the BBS.

Appellants filed suit in May 1991 against, among others, the Secret Service and the United
 

1Section 2000aa(a) provides that it is

unlawful for a government officer or employee, in connection with the

investigation ... of a criminal offense, to search for or seize any work product

materials possessed by a person reasonably believed to have a purpose to

disseminate to the public a newspaper, book, broadcast, or other similar form of

public communication....

Among the items seized was a draft of GURPS Cyberpunk, a book intended by SJG for

immediate publication. It was one of a series of fantasy role-playing game books SJG

published. "GURPS" is an acronym for SJG's "Generic Universal Roleplaying System". 

"Cyberpunk" refers to a science fiction literary genre which became popular in the 1980s,

which is characterized by the fictional interaction of humans with technology and the

fictional struggle for power between individuals, corporations, and government. 

 

2Kluepfel, the Assistant United States Attorney, and Agents Foley and Golden were also sued. 

In addition to the statutory claims, appellants also claimed violations of the First and Fourth

Amendments to the United States Constitution. And, in September 1992, they added state law

claims for conversion and invasion of privacy. Prior to trial, the claims against the individuals

were dismissed, and appellants withdrew their constitutional and state law claims. 

States, claiming, inter alia, violations of the Privacy Protection Act, 42 U.S.C. § 2000aa, et seq.1;

the Federal Wiret ap Act, as amended by Title I of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act

(ECPA), 18 U.S.C. §§ 2510-2521 (proscribes, inter alia, the intentional interception of electronic

communications); and Title II of the ECPA, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2701-2711 (proscribes, inter alia,

intentional access, without authorization, to stored electronic communications).2

The district court held that the Secret Service violated the Privacy Protection Act, and

awarded act ual damages of $51,040 to SJG; and that it violated Title II of the ECPA by seizing

stored electronic communications without complying with the statutory provisions, and awarded the

statutory damages of $1,000 to each of the individual appellants. And, it awarded appellants

$195,000 in attorneys' fees and approximately $57,000 in costs. But, it held that the Secret Service

did not "intercept" the E-mail in violation of Title I of the ECPA, 18 U.S.C. § 2511(1)(a), because

its acquisition of the contents of the electronic communications was not contemporaneous with the

transmission of those communications.

II.

As stated, the sole issue is a very narrow one: whether the seizure of a computer on which

isstored private E-mail that has been sent to an electronic bulletin board, but not yet read (retrieved)
 

3Appellants raised two other issues regarding damages, but later advised that they have been

settled. And, prior to briefing, the Secret Service dismissed its cross-appeal. 

 

4An "electronic communication" is defined as:

any transfer of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data, or intelligence of any

nature transmitted in whole or in part by a wire, radio, electromagnetic,

photoelectronic or photooptical system that affects interstate or foreign commerce,

but does not include—

(A) the radio portion of a cordless telephone communication that is

transmitted between the cordless telephone handset and the base unit;

(B) any wire or oral communication;

(C) any communication made through a tone-only paging device; or

(D) any communication from a tracking device (as defined in section 3117

of this title)....

18 U.S.C. § 2510(12). 

 

5Title I of the ECPA increased the statutory damages for unlawful interception from $1,000 to

$10,000. See Bess v. Bess, 929 F.2d 1332, 1334 (8th Cir.1991). On the other hand, as noted,

Title II authorizes an award of "the actual damages suffered by the plaintiff and any profits made

by the violator as a result of the violation, but in no case ... less than the sum of $1000". 18

U.S.C. § 2707(c). As discussed, the individual appellants each received Title II statutory damages

of $1,000. 

by the recipients, constitutes an "intercept" proscribed by 18 U.S.C. § 2511(1)(a).3

Section 2511 was enacted in 1968 as part of Title III of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe

Streets Act of 1968, often referred to as the Federal Wiretap Act. Prior to the 1986 amendment by

Title I of the ECPA, it covered only wire and oral communications. Title I of the ECPA extended

that coverage to electronic communications.4 In relevant part, § 2511(1)(a) proscribes "intentionally

intercept[ing] ... any wire, oral, or electronic communication", unless the intercept is authorized by

court order or by other exceptions not relevant here. Section 2520 authorizes, inter alia, persons

whose electronic communications are intercepted in violation of § 2511 to bring a civil action against

the interceptor for actual damages, or forstatutory damages of $10,000 per violation or $100 per day

of the violation, whichever is greater. 18 U.S.C. § 2520.5

The Act defines "intercept" as "the aural or other acquisition of the contents of any wire,

electronic, or oral communication through the use of any electronic, mechanical, or other device."
18 U.S.C. § 2510(4). The district court, relying on our court's interpretation of intercept in United

States v. Turk, 526 F.2d 654 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 429 U.S. 823, 97 S.Ct. 74, 50 L.Ed.2d 84

(1976), held that the Secret Service did not intercept the communications, because its acquisition of

the contents of those communications was not contemporaneous with their transmission. In Turk,

the government seized from a suspect's vehicle an audio tape of a prior conversation between the

suspect and Turk. (Restated, when the conversation took place, it was not recorded

contemporaneously by the government.) Our court held that replaying the previously recorded

conversationwas not an "intercept", because an intercept "require[s] participation bythe one charged

with an "interception' in the contemporaneous acquisition of the communication through the use of

the device". Id. at 658.

Appellants agree with Turk's holding, but contend that it is not applicable, because it "says

nothing about government action that both acquires the communication prior to its delivery, and

prevents that delivery." (Emphasis by appellants.) Along that line, appellants note correctly that

Turk's interpretation of "intercept" predates the ECPA, and assert, in essence, that the information

stored on the BBS could still be "intercepted" under the Act, even though it was not in transit. They

maintain that to hold otherwise does violence to Congress' purpose in enacting the ECPA, to include

providing protection for E-mail and bulletin boards. For the most part, appellants fail to even discuss

the pertinent provisions of the Act, much less address their application. Instead, they point simply

to Congress' intent in enacting the ECPA and appeal to logic (i.e., to seize something before it is

received is to intercept it).

But, obviously, the language of the Act controls. In that regard, appellees counter that "Title

II, not Title I, ... governs the seizure of stored electronic communications such as unread e-mail

messages", and note that appellants have recovered damages under Title II. Understanding the Act

requires understanding and applying its many technical terms as defined by the Act, as well as

engaging in painstaking, methodical analysis. As appellees note, the issue is not whether E-mail can

be "intercepted"; it can. Instead, at issue is what constitutes an "intercept".

Prior to the 1986 amendment by the ECPA, the Wiretap Act defined "intercept" asthe "aural
 

6Wire and electronic communications are subject to different treatment under the Wiretap Act. 

The Act's exclusionary rule, 18 U.S.C. § 2515, applies to the interception of wire

communications, including such communications in electronic storage, see 18 U.S.C. § 2510(1),

but not to the interception of electronic communications. See 18 U.S.C. § 2518(10)(a); United

States v. Meriwether, 917 F.2d 955, 960 (6th Cir.1990); S.Rep. No. 99-541, 99th Cong., 2d

Sess. 23 (1986), reprinted in 1986 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3555, 3577. And, the types of crimes that may

be investigated by means of surveillance directed at electronic communications, 18 U.S.C. §

2516(3) ("any federal felony"), are not as limited as those that may be investigated by means of

acquisition" of the contents of wire or oral communications through the use of a device. 18 U.S.C.

§ 2510(4) (1968). The ECPA amended this definition to include the "aural or other acquisition of

the contents of ... wire, electronic, or oral communications...." 18 U.S.C. § 2510(4) (1986)

(emphasis added for new terms). The significance of the addition of the words "or other" in the 1986

amendment to the definition of "intercept" becomes clear when the definitions of "aural" and

"electronic communication" are examined; electronic communications (which include the non-voice

portions of wire communications), as defined by the Act, cannot be acquired aurally.

Webster's Third NewInternational Dictionary (1986) defines "aural" as "of or relating to the

ear" or "of or relating to the sense of hearing". Id. at 144. And, the Act defines "aural transfer" as

"a transfer containing the human voice at any point between and including the point of origin and the

point of reception." 18 U.S.C. § 2510(18). This definition is extremely important for purposes of

understanding the definition of a "wire communication", which is defined by the Act as

any aural transfer made in whole or in part through the use of facilities for the transmission

of communications by the aid of wire, cable, or other like connection between the point of

origin and the point of reception (including the use ofsuch connection in a switching station)

... and such term includes any electronic storage of such communication.

18 U.S.C. § 2510(1) (emphasis added). In contrast, as noted, an "electronic communication" is

defined as "any transfer ofsigns, signals, writing, images, sounds, data, or intelligence of any nature

transmitted in whole or in part by a wire, radio, electromagnetic, photoelectronic or photooptical

system ... but does not include ... any wire or oral communication...." 18 U.S.C. § 2510(12)

(emphasis added).

Critical to the issue before us is the fact that, unlike the definition of "wire communication",

the definition of "electronic communication" does not include electronic storage of such

communications. See 18 U.S.C. § 2510(12). See note 4, supra.6 "Electronic storage" is defined as
surveillance directed at wire or oral communications. See 18 U.S.C. § 2516(1) (specifically listed

felonies). 

 

7Stored wire communications are subject to different treatment than stored electronic

communications. Generally, a search warrant, rather than a court order, is required to obtain

access to the contents of a stored electronic communication. See 18 U.S.C. § 2703(a). But,

compliance with the more stringent requirements of § 2518, including obtaining a court order, is

necessary to obtain access to a stored wire communication, because § 2703 expressly applies only

to stored electronic communications, not to stored wire communications. See James G. Carr, The

Law of Electronic Surveillance, § 4.10, at 4-126—4-127 (1994) (citing H.R.Rep. No. 99-647,

99th Cong., 2d Sess. 67-68 (1986)). 

(A) any temporary, intermediate storage of a wire or electronic communication

incidental to the electronic transmission thereof; and

(B) any storage of such communication by an electronic communication service for

purposes of backup protection of such communication....

18 U.S.C. § 2510(17) (emphasis added). The E-mail in issue was in "electronic storage". Congress'

use of the word "transfer" in the definition of "electronic communication", and its omission in that

definition of the phrase "any electronic storage of such communication" (part of the definition of

"wire communication") reflects that Congress did not intend for "intercept" to apply to "electronic

communications" when those communications are in "electronic storage".7

We could stop here, because "[i]ndisputably, the goal ofstatutory construction isto ascertain

legislative intent through the plain language of a statute—without looking to legislative history or

other extraneoussources". Stone v. Caplan (Matter of Stone), 10 F.3d 285, 289 (5thCir.1994). But,

when interpreting a statute as complex as the Wiretap Act, which is famous (if not infamous) for its

lack of clarity,see, e.g., Forsyth v. Barr, 19 F.3d 1527, 1542-43 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----,

--- S.Ct. ----, --- L.Ed.2d ---- (1994), we consider it appropriate to note the legislative history for

confirmation of our understanding of Congress' intent. See id. at 1544.

Asthe district court noted, the ECPA'slegislative historymakesit crystal clear that Congress

did not intend to change the definition of "intercept" as it existed at the time of the amendment. See

816 F.Supp. at 442 (citing S.Rep. No. 99-541, 99th Cong., 2d Sess. 13 (1986), reprinted in 1986

U.S.C.C.A.N. 3555, 3567). The Senate Report explains:

Section 101(a)(3) of the [ECPA] amends the definition of the term "intercept" in current

section 2510(4) of title 18 to cover electronic communications. The definition of "intercept"

under current law is retained with respect to wire and oral communications except that the
term "or other" isinserted after "aural." This amendment clarifies that it is illegal to intercept

the nonvoice portion of a wire communication. For example, it is illegal to intercept the data

or digitized portion of a voice communication.

1986 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 3567.

Our conclusion is reinforced further by consideration of the fact that Title II of the ECPA

clearly applies to the conduct of the Secret Service in this case. Needless to say, when construing

a statute, we do not confine our interpretation to the one portion at issue but, instead, consider the

statute as a whole. See, e.g., United States v. McCord, --- F.3d ----, ----, 1994 WL 523211, at *6

(5th Cir.1994) (citing N. Singer, 2A Sutherland Statutory Construction, § 46.05, at 103 (5th ed.

1992)).

Title II generallyproscribes unauthorized accessto storedwire or electronic communications.

Section 2701(a) provides:

Except as provided in subsection (c) of this section whoever—

(1) intentionally accesses without authorization a facility through which an

electronic communication service is provided; or

(2) intentionally exceeds an authorization to access that facility;

and thereby obtains, alters, or prevents authorized access to a wire or electronic

communication while it is in electronic storage in such system shall be punished....

18 U.S.C. § 2701(a) (emphasis added).

As stated, the district court found that the Secret Service violated § 2701 when it

intentionally accesse[d] without authorization a facility [the computer] through which an

electronic communication service [the BBS] is provided ... and thereby obtain[ed] [and]

prevent[ed] authorized access [by appellants] to a[n] ... electronic communication while it is

in electronic storage in such system.

18 U.S.C. § 2701(a). The Secret Service do es not challenge this ruling. We find no indication in

either the Act or its legislative history that Congress intended for conduct that is clearly prohibited

by Title II to furnish the basis for a civil remedy under Title I as well. Indeed, there are persuasive

indications that it had no such intention.

First, the substantive and procedural requirements for authorization to intercept electronic

communications are quite different from those for accessing stored electronic communications. For

example, a governmental entity may gain access to the contents of electronic communications that
have been in electronic storage for less than 180 days by obtaining a warrant. See 18 U.S.C. §

2703(a). But there are more stringent, complicated requirements for the interception of electronic

communications; a court order is required. See 18 U.S.C. § 2518.

Second, other requirements applicable to the interception of electronic communications,such

as those governing minimization, duration, and the types of crimes that may be investigated, are not

imposed when the communications at issue are not in the process of being transmitted at the moment

ofseizure, but instead are in electronic storage. For example, a court order authorizing interception

of electronic communications is required to include a directive that the order shall be executed "in

such a way asto minimize the interception of communications not otherwise subject to interception".

18 U.S.C. § 2518(5). Title II of the ECPA does not contain this requirement for warrants authorizing

access to stored electronic communications. The purpose of the minimization requirement is to

implement "the constitutional obligation of avoiding, to the greatest possible extent, seizure of

conversations which have no relationship to the crimes being investigated or the purpose for which

electronic surveillance has been authorized". James G. Carr, The Law of Electronic Surveillance, §

5.7(a) at 5-28 (1994).

Obviously, when intercepting electronic communications, law enforcement officers cannot

know in advance which, if any, of the intercepted communications will be relevant to the crime under

investigation, and often will have to obtain access to the contents of the communications in order to

make such a determination. Interception thus poses a significant risk that officers will obtain access

to communications which have no relevance to the investigation they are conducting. That risk is

present to a lesser degree, and can be controlled more easily, in the context of stored electronic

communications, because, asthe Secret Service advised the district court, technologyexists bywhich

relevant communications can be located without the necessity of reviewing the entire contents of all

of the stored communications. For example, the Secret Service claimed (although the district court

found otherwise) that it reviewed the private E-mail on the BBS by use of key word searches.

Next, as noted, court orders authorizing anintercept ofelectronic communications are subject

to strict requirements asto duration. An intercept may not be authorized "for any period longer than
 

8The ECPA legislative history's explanation of the prohibitions regarding disclosure also

persuades us of the soundness of Turk's interpretation of "intercept" and our understanding of the

distinctions Congress intended to draw between communications being transmitted and

communications in electronic storage. In describing Title II's prohibitions against disclosure of

the contents of stored communications, the Senate Report points out that § 2702(a) (part of Title

II) "generally prohibits the provider of a wire or electronic communication service to the public

from knowingly divulging the contents of any communication while in electronic storage by that

service to any person other than the addressee or intended recipient." S.Rep. No. 99-541, 97th

Cong. 2nd Sess. 37, 1986 U.S.C.C.A.N. 3555, 3591 (emphasis added). It then goes on to state

that § 2511(3) of the Wiretap Act, as amended by Title I of the ECPA, "prohibits such a provider

from divulging the contents of a communication while it is in transmission". Id. (emphasis

added). 

 

9

It goes without saying that we generally will not consider issues raised for the first time at oral

argument. For this rare exception, the parties, as ordered, filed supplemental briefs on this point. 

is necessary to achieve the objective of the authorization, nor in any event longer than thirty days".

18 U.S.C. § 2518(5). There is no such requirement for access to stored communications.

Finally, as also noted, the limitations as to the types of crimes that may be investigated

through an intercept, see 18 U.S.C. § 2516, have no counterpart in Title II of the ECPA. See, e.g.,

18 U.S.C. § 2703(d) (co urt may order a provider of electronic communication service or remote

computing service to disclose to a governmental entity the contents of a stored electronic

communication on a showing that the information sought is "relevant to a legitimate law enforcement

inquiry").

In light of the substantial differences between the statutory procedures and requirements for

obtaining authorization to intercept electronic communications, on the one hand, and to gain access

to the contents of stored electronic communications, on the other, it is most unlikely that Congress

intended to require law enforcement officers to satisfy the more stringent requirements for an

intercept in order to gain access to the contents of stored electronic communications.8

At oral argument, appellants contended (for the first time)that Title II'sreference in § 2701(c)

to § 2518 (which setsforth the proceduresfor the authorized interception of wire, oral, or electronic

communications) reflects that Congress intended considerable overlap between Titles I and II of the

ECPA.9 As stated, § 2701(a) prohibits unauthorized access to stored wire or electronic

communications. Subsection (c) of § 2701 sets forth the exceptions to liability under subsection (a),

which include conduct authorized:
 

10Section 2703 sets forth the requirements for governmental access to the contents of

electronic (but not wire) communications. For electronic communications that have been in

electronic storage for 180 days or less, the government can gain access to the contents pursuant

to a federal or state warrant. 18 U.S.C. § 2703(a). For communications that are maintained by a

remote computing service and that have been in storage for more than 180 days, the government

can gain access by obtaining a warrant, by administrative or grand jury subpoena, or by obtaining

a court order pursuant to § 2703(d). 18 U.S.C. § 2703(b).

Section 2704 also deals only with electronic communications; it provides, inter

alia, that a governmental entity may include in its subpoena or court order a requirement

that the service provider create and maintain a duplicate of the contents of the electronic

communications sought. 18 U.S.C. § 2704. 

(1) by the person or entity providing a wire or electronic communications service;

(2) by a user of that service with respect to a communication of or intended for that

user; or

(3) in section 2703, 2704 or 2518 of this title.

18 U.S.C. § 2701(c) (emphasis added).10

Appellants overemphasize the significance of this reference to § 2518. As discussed in notes

6-7,supra, it is clear that Congressintended to treat wire communications differently fromelectronic

communications. Access to stored electronic communications may be obtained pursuant to a search

warrant, 18 U.S.C. § 2703; but, access to stored wire communications requires a court order

pursuant to § 2518. Because § 2701 covers both stored wire and electronic communications, it was

necessary in subsection (c) to refer to the different provisions authorizing access to each.

III.

For the foregoing reasons, the judgment is

AFFIRMED.