U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5037

Prepared in cooperation with the KANSAS DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected 

Nutrients, Other Chemical Constituents, and Cyanobacteria 

in Bottom Sediment, Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 

1977–2009
Front cover.

Clinton Lake dam looking along the west side of dam (photograph 

by Kyle E. Juracek, USGS).

Back cover.

Clinton Lake looking southwest (photograph by Kyle E. Juracek, 

USGS).
Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends 

of Selected Nutrients, Other Chemical 

Constituents, and Cyanobacteria in Bottom 

Sediment, Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 

1977–2009

By Kyle E. Juracek

Prepared in cooperation with the

KANSAS DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5037

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

KEN SALAZAR, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Marcia K. McNutt, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2011

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Suggested citation:

Juracek, K.E., 2011, Sedimentation and occurrence and trends of selected nutrients, other chemical constituents, 

and cyanobacteria in bottom sediment, Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 1977–2009: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific 

Investigations Report 2011–5037, 28 p.
iii

Contents

Abstract..............................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................1

Purpose and Scope.................................................................................................................2

Description of Clinton Lake Basin ........................................................................................4

Methods.............................................................................................................................................4

 Estimation of Bottom-Sediment Volume, Mass, Mean Annual Net Deposition, and 

Mean Annual Net Yield...........................................................................................................4

 Sediment-Core Collection and Processing.........................................................................4

 Physical Analyses ...................................................................................................................6

 Chemical Analyses, Quality Control, and Age Dating .......................................................6

 Estimation of Nutrient Loads and Yields............................................................................10

 Trend Analysis........................................................................................................................10

 Cyanobacteria Analysis .......................................................................................................10

Sediment-Quality Guidelines........................................................................................................10

Background Information for Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria............11

Nutrients and Total Organic Carbon...................................................................................11

Trace Elements ......................................................................................................................11

Cyanobacteria........................................................................................................................12

Sedimentation.................................................................................................................................12

Occurrence of, and Trends in, Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria.........13

Nutrients and Total Organic Carbon...................................................................................13

Trace Elements ......................................................................................................................16

Cyanobacteria........................................................................................................................17

Summary and Conclusions ...........................................................................................................18

References Cited............................................................................................................................19

Supplemental Information ............................................................................................................23

Figures

 1. Map showing location of Clinton Lake Basin, Clinton Lake, and land use (2005) in Clinton Lake Basin, northeast Kansas .............................................................................................3

2. Map showing location of bottom-sediment coring sites in Clinton Lake, northeast 

Kansas ............................................................................................................................................5

3. Graph showing variation in cesium-137 activity with depth of bottom-sediment samples 

collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 

April 2009........................................................................................................................................9

4. Graph showing variation in total nitrogen concentrations with depth of bottom-sediment samples collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, 

northeast Kansas, April 2009 ....................................................................................................14

5. Graph showing variation in total phosphorus concentrations with depth of bottomsediment samples collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, 

northeast Kansas, April 2009 ....................................................................................................15

6. Graph showing variation in cyanobacterial akinete abundance with depth of bottomsediment samples collected from coring site CLK-1 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 

April 2009......................................................................................................................................17
iv

Tables

1. Chemical analyses for bottom-sediment samples from Clinton Lake, northeast 

Kansas, 2009 ..................................................................................................................................7

2. Relative percentage differences for constituent concentrations in split-replicate 

samples from bottom sediment cores from Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas .....................8

3. Sediment-quality guidelines for selected trace elements and associated bioaccumulation index......................................................................................................................................11

4. Sediment yield, precipitation, and land use for selected reservoir basins in Kansas ....13

5. Results of trend tests on concentrations of selected chemical constituents in bottomsediment samples collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, 

northeast Kansas, April 2009 ....................................................................................................16

6. Chlorophyll-a concentrations in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 1979-2009...................18

Supplemental Information

A1. Latitude and longitude coordinates, water depth, estimated penetration depth, length 

of recovered core, and estimated recovery percentage for bottom-sediment coring 

sites at Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas..................................................................................24

A2. Estimated bulk density of bottom sediment at coring sites in Clinton Lake, northeast 

Kansas ..........................................................................................................................................25

A3. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment 

samples collected from coring site CLK-1 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 

April 2009......................................................................................................................................26

A4. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment 

samples collected from coring site CLK-4 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 

April 2009......................................................................................................................................27

A5. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment 

samples collected from coring site CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 

April 2009......................................................................................................................................28
v

Conversion Factors, Abbreviations, and Datum

Multiply By To obtain

Length

centimeter (cm) 0.3937 inch (in.)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

millimeter (mm) 0.03937 inch (in.)

Area

acre 4,047 square meter (m2)

acre 0.4047 hectare (ha)

acre 0.004047 square kilometer (km2)

square foot (ft2) 0.09290 square meter (m2)

square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare (ha)

square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) 

Volume

acre-foot (acre-ft) 1,233 cubic meter (m3)

cubic centimeter (cm3) 0.06102 cubic inch (in3)

cubic foot (ft3) 0.02832 cubic meter (m3) 

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

Mass

gram (g) 0.03527 ounce (oz)

milligram per kilogram (mg/kg) 1.0 part per million (ppm)

pound (lb) 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 

Density

gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) 62.43 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)

pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3) 16.02 kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows:

°F=(1.8×°C)+32

Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) may be converted to degrees Celsius (°C) as follows:

°C=(°F-32)/1.8

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). 

Elevation information is referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29).

Acknowledgments

This study was made possible, in part, by support from the Kansas Department of Health 

and Environment and the Kansas State Water Plan Fund. The author gratefully acknowledges 

topographic and bathymetric information provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and 

the Kansas Biological Survey as well as water-quality data provided by the Kansas Department 

of Health and Environment. 

Abstract

A combination of available bathymetric-survey information and bottom-sediment coring was used to investigate 

sedimentation and the occurrence of selected nutrients (total 

nitrogen and total phosphorus), organic and total carbon, 

25 trace elements, cyanobacterial akinetes, and the radionuclide cesium-137 in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake, 

northeast Kansas. The total estimated volume and mass of 

bottom sediment deposited from 1977 through 2009 in the 

conservation (multi-purpose) pool of the reservoir was 

438 million cubic feet and 18 billion pounds, respectively. 

The estimated sediment volume occupied about 8 percent of 

the conservation-pool, water-storage capacity of the reservoir. 

Sedimentation in the conservation pool has occurred about 

70 percent faster than originally projected at the time the reservoir was completed. Water-storage capacity in the conservation pool has been lost to sedimentation at a rate of about 

0.25 percent annually. Mean annual net sediment deposition since 1977 in the conservation pool of the reservoir was 

estimated to be 563 million pounds per year. Mean annual net 

sediment yield from the Clinton Lake Basin was estimated to 

be 1.5 million pounds per square mile per year. Typically, the 

bottom sediment sampled in Clinton Lake was at least 

99 percent silt and clay. 

The mean annual net loads of total nitrogen and total 

phosphorus deposited in the bottom sediment of Clinton 

Lake were estimated to be 1.29 million pounds per year and 

556,000 pounds per year, respectively. The estimated mean 

annual net yields of total nitrogen and total phosphorus from 

the Clinton Lake Basin were 3,510 pounds per square mile per 

year and 1,510 pounds per square mile per year, respectively. 

Throughout the history of Clinton Lake, total nitrogen concentrations in the deposited sediment generally were uniform 

and indicated consistent inputs to the reservoir over time. 

Likewise, total phosphorus concentrations in the deposited 

sediment generally were uniform. Although, for two of three 

coring sites, a possible positive trend in phosphorus deposition was indicated. The Wakarusa River possibly was a larger 

contributor of nitrogen and phosphorus to Clinton Lake than 

was Rock Creek. As a principal limiting factor for primary 

production in most freshwater environments, phosphorus is of 

particular importance because increased inputs can contribute 

to accelerated reservoir eutrophication and the production of 

algal toxins and taste-and-odor compounds. 

Trace-element concentrations in the bottom sediment of 

Clinton Lake generally were uniform over time. As is typical 

for eastern Kansas reservoirs, arsenic, chromium, and nickel 

concentrations typically exceeded the threshold-effects guidelines, which represent the concentrations above which toxic 

biological effects occasionally occur. Zinc concentrations 

frequently exceeded the threshold-effects guideline. Traceelement concentrations did not exceed the probable-effects 

guidelines (available for eight trace elements), which represent 

the concentrations above which toxic biological effects usually 

or frequently occur. 

Cyanobacterial akinetes (cyanobacteria resting stage) in 

the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake, combined with historical 

water-quality data on chlorophyll-a and total phosphorus concentrations, indicated that the reservoir likely has been eutrophic throughout most of its history. A statistically significant 

increase in cyanobacterial akinetes in the bottom sediment 

indicated that Clinton Lake may have become more eutrophic 

over the life of the reservoir. The increase in cyanobacterial 

akinetes may, in part, be related to a possible increase in total 

phosphorus concentrations. 

Introduction

Benefits provided by reservoirs include flood control, 

water supply, recreation, and habitat for fish and wildlife. 

Effective management of reservoirs requires several types of 

information including water quality, sedimentation, and sediment quality. 

Water-quality information is needed to determine the 

suitability of water in a reservoir for meeting various needs. 

Trends in water quality are useful for describing the overall 

Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of 

Selected Nutrients, Other Chemical Constituents, 

and Cyanobacteria in Bottom Sediment, Clinton Lake, 

Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

By Kyle E. Juracek
2 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

effect of human activity in a reservoir basin, for providing an 

indication of the effectiveness of implemented regulatory decisions and changes in land-management practices, and for providing a warning of potential future water-quality problems. 

Information on the volume and quality of sediment 

deposited in a reservoir also is important. Ongoing sedimentation reduces the water-storage capacity of, and negatively 

affects the benefits provided by, a reservoir. Sediment quality 

is an important environmental concern because sediment may 

act as a sink for water-quality constituents and, under certain 

conditions, as a source of constituents to the overlying water 

column and biota (Forstner and Wittmann, 1981; Baudo and 

others, 1990; Zoumis and others, 2001). Sediment-associated 

constituents of concern include nutrients (for example, 

phosphorus), trace elements, several pesticides, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Wetzel, 2001; Agency for Toxic 

Substances and Disease Registry, 2010). Once in the food 

chain, some sediment-derived constituents may pose an even 

greater concern because of bioaccumulation (Pais and Jones, 

1997; Smol, 2002). An analysis of reservoir bottom sediment 

can provide historical information on sediment deposition 

as well as the occurrence of sediment-bound constituents. 

Such information may be used to partly reconstruct historical 

sediment-quality and water-quality records and to determine a 

present-day baseline with which to evaluate long-term changes 

in reservoir sediment and water quality that may be related 

to changes in human activity in the basin (Charles and Hites, 

1987; Van Metre and Callender, 1996; Van Metre and Mahler, 

2004; Juracek and Ziegler, 2006). 

Clinton Lake is a Federal impoundment on the Wakarusa River in Douglas County, northeast Kansas (fig. 1). The 

reservoir officially was completed in 1977 by the U.S. Army 

Corps of Engineers (USACE) with an original design life of 

100 years (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1979). The reservoir is used for several purposes including flood control, 

water supply, recreation, water-quality control, and fish and 

wildlife (Susanna Gehrt, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, written commun., 2010). In 1977, Clinton Lake had an original 

surface area of about 7,010 acres and a water-storage capacity of about 129,200 acre-ft (acre-feet) at the conservationpool (multi-purpose) elevation of 875.5 ft (feet) above the 

National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29) (U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers, 1979). In 1991, the surface area 

and water-storage capacity at the conservation-pool elevation 

were about 7,120 acres and 125,300 acre-ft, respectively. The 

increase in surface area may be a result of erosion in the floodpool part of the reservoir and (or) inaccuracies in the reservoir 

surveys (Stephen Spaulding, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

written commun., 2007). Based on a bathymetric survey 

completed in 2009 by the Kansas Biological Survey (KBS), 

water-storage capacity at the conservation-pool elevation was 

about 119,100 acre-ft (Kansas Biological Survey, 2010). The 

decrease in storage capacity is the result of ongoing sedimentation. Since 1977, the reservoir has lost an estimated 8 percent of its conservation-pool storage capacity. The estimated 

sedimentation rate of 324 acre-ft per year is about 70 percent 

larger than the sedimentation rate (190 acre-ft per year) that 

originally was projected for the conservation pool by USACE 

at the time the reservoir was completed (Kansas Water Office, 

2010). Thus, the reservoir is filling with sediment faster than 

originally anticipated. As sedimentation continues, the ability 

of Clinton Lake to serve its various purposes will decline. 

Presently (2010), 81 percent of the conservation-pool storage is water-supply storage (Cheryl Buttenhoff, Kansas Water 

Office, oral commun., 2010). 

In 1998, Clinton Lake was listed under Section 303(d) of 

the Federal Clean Water Act of 1972 for eutrophication (Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 2010). A eutrophic lake contains nutrient-rich water and supports high biotic 

productivity (Cole, 1994). Typically, eutrophic lakes support 

algal growth that, if excessive, can cause taste-and-odor problems for water suppliers. Also, excessive algal growth may be 

detrimental to aquatic life and limit recreational use of a lake. 

The 303(d) list is a priority list that identifies water bodies that do not meet water-quality standards that are based on 

the use of the water bodies. For each impaired water body on 

the 303(d) list, a State is required by the Federal Clean Water 

Act to develop a total maximum daily load (TMDL), which is 

an estimate of the maximum pollutant load (material transported during a specified time period) from point and nonpoint 

sources that a receiving water can accept without exceeding water-quality standards (U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency, 1991). 

To provide information in support of the TMDL process, a 2-year study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 

in cooperation with the Kansas Department of Health and 

Environment (KDHE), was begun in 2008 to investigate 

sedimentation in Clinton Lake as well as the deposition of 

selected chemical constituents and cyanobacterial akinetes. 

The specific study objectives were to: 

1. Estimate the volume, mass, mean annual net deposition, 

and mean annual net yield of sediment for the reservoir;

2. Determine the occurrence and trends of selected waterquality constituents in the bottom sediment of the reservoir; 

3. Determine the mean annual net loads and yields of 

selected nutrients from the basin to the reservoir; 

4. Assess the quality of the bottom sediment with respect to 

available guidelines; and

5. Determine the occurrence of cyanobacterial akinetes in 

the bottom sediment as an indication of eutrophication 

over the life of the reservoir. 

Purpose and Scope

The purpose of this report is to present the results of 

the USGS study to estimate sedimentation and to determine 

the occurrence of, and temporal trends in, selected chemical 
Introduction 

3

Topeka

Lawrence

Scranton

Auburn

Carbondale

Burlingame Overbrook

Harveyville

Camp Creek

Sixmile Creek Lynn Creek

South Branch Wakarusa River

Burys Creek

Dry Creek

woT

aeh

C

d

er ek

Strowbr di ge Creek

North

Branch

Wakarusa River

Middle Branch Wakarus a Ri ver

Ro

kc Creek

Deer C reek

C

kl E

er ek

DOUGLAS

COUNTY

OSAGE

COUNTY

SHAWNEE

COUNTY

WABAUNSEE

COUNTY

Wakarusa River

CLINTON 

LAKE

96°05' 55'

39°00'

55'50'

38°45'

95°20' 96° 50' 45' 40' 35' 30' 25'

0 2 4 6 8 MILES0 2 4 6 8 KILOMETERS

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 1999, 1:100,000Universal Transverse Mercator projectionZone 15Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North AmericanDatum of 1983 (NAD 83)

Land-use data from Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program, 2009

Urban Cropland

Land use

EXPLANATION

GrasslandWoodland

WaterOther

KANSAS

NEBRASKA

OKLAHOMA

Clinton Lakedrainage basin

Perry Lake

John RedmondReservoir

Banner CreekReservoir

Lake Wabaunsee

Index map

COLORADO

MISSOURI

Atchison County Lake

Mission Lake

Figure 1. Location of Clinton Lake Basin, Clinton Lake, and land use (2005) in the Clinton Lake Basin, northeast Kansas (source of land-use data: Kansas Applied Remote Sensing Program, 2009).
4 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

constituents and cyanobacterial akinetes in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake for 1977 through 2009. Study objectives 

were accomplished by using available bathymetric information from USACE and KBS and by the collection and analysis 

of sediment cores in April and June 2009. Results presented in 

this report will assist KDHE in the evaluation, development, 

and implementation of TMDLs for constituents determined 

to contribute to water-quality impairment in the reservoir. 

From a national perspective, the methods and results presented 

provide guidance and perspective for future reservoir studies 

concerned with the issues of sedimentation and water quality. 

Description of Clinton Lake Basin

The Clinton Lake Basin is an area of about 367 mi2

(square miles) located in northeast Kansas (fig. 1). The majority of the Clinton Lake Basin is located in the Dissected Till 

Plains section of the Central Lowland physiographic province 

(Fenneman, 1946; Schoewe, 1949). This section is characterized by dissected deposits of glacial till that consist of clay, 

silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. The underlying bedrock 

is primarily limestone and shale (with some sandstone) of 

Pennsylvanian age (Schoewe, 1949; Jordan and Stamer, 

1995). Soils in the basin mostly are clay loam, silt loam, and 

silty clay loam. Slopes in the basin range from nearly level to 

gently sloping on the flood plains and from gently sloping to 

steep in the uplands. Generally, slopes are less than 10 percent 

but locally may be as steep as 25 percent (U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 1970, 1977, 1985, 

1991). In addition to the Wakarusa River, several small tributaries contribute flow directly to Clinton Lake (fig. 1). 

Long-term mean annual precipitation at Auburn, located 

in the upstream part of the Clinton Lake Basin (fig. 1), is 

about 36 in. (inches) (period of record 1960–2009) (High 

Plains Regional Climate Center, 2010). Most of the annual 

precipitation is received during the growing season (generally 

April–September). 

Land use (2005) in the Clinton Lake Basin is mostly agricultural with grassland and cropland accounting for about 59 

and 17 percent of the basin, respectively. Woodland accounts 

for about 18 percent of the basin. Urban land use occupies 

about 1 percent of the basin (fig. 1) (Kansas Applied Remote 

Sensing Program, 2009). 

Methods

The objectives of this study were accomplished using 

available and newly collected information. Available information included original and updated reservoir water-storage 

capacity data from USACE and KBS bathymetric surveys and 

historical water-quality data from KDHE. New information 

was obtained through the analysis of bottom-sediment cores 

collected at eight sites in the reservoir. 

Estimation of Bottom-Sediment Volume, Mass, 

Mean Annual Net Deposition, and Mean Annual 

Net Yield

The bottom-sediment volume (sediment plus pore water 

and gases) in the conservation pool of Clinton Lake was 

estimated by subtracting the updated water-storage capacity 

from the original water-storage capacity for the reservoir. The 

original water-storage capacity was estimated by USACE in 

1977 to be 129,171 acre-ft (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 

1979). An updated water-storage capacity was estimated by 

KBS in 2009 to be 119,106 acre-ft. Bottom-sediment volume 

was estimated as the 1977 water-storage capacity minus the 

2009 water-storage capacity. The mean annual volume of 

sediment deposited (1977–2009) was computed as the bottomsediment volume divided by the number of years of deposition 

(32 years). 

Bottom-sediment mass was estimated by multiplying the 

current (2009) bottom-sediment volume by the representative 

bulk density. The representative bulk density for the reservoir was computed as the average of the mean bulk densities 

that were determined from sediment cores (see discussion 

in “Physical Analyses” section later in this report). Because 

bulk density varies with location and the representative bulk 

density only accounts for eight sites in the reservoir, the estimated bottom-sediment mass has a potential error of unknown 

magnitude. 

The mean annual mass of sediment (dry weight) deposited was estimated as the bottom-sediment mass divided by 

the age of the reservoir. Mean annual sediment yield from the 

reservoir basin was estimated by dividing the mean annual 

mass of deposited sediment by the area of the basin. Because 

sediment losses are not accounted for (for example, as a result 

of reservoir outflow), the estimated mean annual sediment 

deposition and yield represent net, rather than total, values. 

However, given that sediment trap efficiencies for large reservoirs typically are greater than 90 percent (Brune, 1953; Williams and Wolman, 1984; Shotbolt and others, 2005; Vanoni, 

2006), sediment losses through the outflow likely are minimal. 

In a recent study, Lee and others (2008) estimated the trap 

efficiency for nearby John Redmond Reservoir (fig. 1) from 

February 21, 2007 to February 21, 2008 to be 91 percent. 

Sediment-Core Collection and Processing

Bottom-sediment cores were collected in April and June 

of 2009 at eight sites (fig. 2) within Clinton Lake. The coring sites were selected to provide representative information 

throughout the reservoir and to provide an indication of spatial 

variability. All cores were collected from the submerged 

channels of the Wakarusa River and Rock Creek. Two cores 

were collected at sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 to provide 

sufficient sediment mass for physical, chemical, and cyanobacteria analyses. Of the eight sites cored, three were used for 

chemical analyses (CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6), one was used 
Methods 5

for cyanobacteria analyses (CLK-1), and all eight were used 

for bulk-density determinations (fig. 2). 

The cores were collected from a pontoon boat using a 

gravity corer. The liner used for all cores was cellulose acetate 

butyrate transparent tubing with a 2.625-in. inside diameter. 

The latitude and longitude for each coring site, obtained using 

GPS technology, are provided in table A1 in the “Supplemental Information” section at the back of this report. 

When using a gravity corer, a phenomenon referred to as 

“core shortening” may occur that results in a recovered sediment core the length of which is less than the actual thickness 

of sediment penetrated (Emery and Hulsemann, 1964). Core 

shortening is caused by friction of the sediment against the 

inner wall of the core liner as the corer penetrates the sediment 

(Emery and Hulsemann, 1964; Hongve and Erlandsen, 1979; 

Blomqvist, 1985; Blomqvist and Bostrom, 1987). In “normal” 

Rock Creek

EXPLANATION

1023

6

1023

458 2

1029 1039

458

458

10

Lawrence

Coon Creek

Deer Creek

Dry Creek

Wakarusa River

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 MILES

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 KILOMETERS

38°57'

38°53'

54'

55'

56'

CLK-7

CLK-6

CLK-5

CLK-4

CLK-8

CLK-3

CLK-2

CLK-1

95°27' 26' 25' 24' 23' 22' 21' 95°20'

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digitized digital raster graphics, 1:24,000

Clinton, 1955, photorevised 1983

Lawrence West, 1991

Universal Transverse Mercator projection

Zone 15

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American

Datum of 1983 (NAD 83)

CLINTON LAKE

CLINTON STATE PARK

CLK-4

Clinton Lake public land

Lake bottom-sediment coring

 site and identifier

Figure 2. Location of bottom-sediment coring sites in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas.
6 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

lake-bottom sediment, which is characterized by uniform 

texture with decreasing water content at depth, core shortening 

results in a core that provides a thinned but complete representation of all of the sediment layers that were penetrated 

(Emery and Hulsemann, 1964; Hongve and Erlandsen, 1979). 

In this study, a comparison of the length of core recovered by 

gravity coring to the thickness of sediment penetrated indicated that core recovery ranged from 66 to 78 percent with 

an average of 72 percent. The thickness of sediment penetrated was computed as the total depth of corer penetration 

(as measured from the water surface) minus the water depth. 

Estimated penetration depth, length of core recovered, and 

estimated recovery percentage for the coring sites are provided 

in table A1 at the back of this report. 

Because of the substantial thickness of the bottom sediment at the locations cored in Clinton Lake, penetration of 

the entire sediment thickness was not achieved for all cores. 

Complete penetration through the bottom sediment (evidenced 

by penetration into the underlying pre-reservoir land-surface 

material) was achieved for the cores used for chemical and 

cyanobacteria analyses at sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6. 

Complete penetration also was achieved for the cores used 

for bulk-density determinations at sites CLK-2, CLK-4, and 

CLK-6. Complete penetration was not achieved for the cores 

used for bulk-density determinations at sites CLK-1, CLK3, CLK-5, CLK-7, and CLK-8. For these five cores, it was 

assumed that the sediment recovered provided representative 

bulk-density information for the entire sediment thickness at 

each site. 

The sediment cores were transported to the USGS laboratory in Lawrence, Kansas, where they were stored vertically 

and refrigerated (at 4–5 oC) until processed. The core liners 

were cut lengthwise in two places 180 degrees apart. The cuts 

were completed with a 4-in. hand-held circular saw with the 

blade set at a depth to minimize penetration of the sediment 

cores. The cores were split in half by pulling a tightly held 

nylon string through the length of the cores and allowing the 

halves to separate. Once split, the relatively undisturbed inner 

parts of the cores were exposed for examination and sampling. On the basis of differences in moisture content, texture, 

and organic matter content (for example, root hairs, sticks, 

seed pods, and leaves), the boundary between the sediment 

deposited in the reservoir and the underlying pre-reservoir 

land-surface material was determined. Typically, the bottom 

sediment was characterized by higher moisture content, finer 

texture, and little if any visible organic matter as compared to 

the pre-reservoir material. 

Physical Analyses

Physical analyses included bulk-density determinations 

and particle-size analyses. Bulk-density determinations were 

completed for a core from all eight coring sites. For this purpose, each core was divided into intervals of about one foot in 

length. The number of intervals was dependent on the length 

of each core. From each interval, a 1-in. thick cylindrical volume of sediment was removed using a putty knife, weighed to 

the nearest 0.10 gram, oven dried at about 40 oC for 96 hours, 

and reweighed. Oven drying of the sample continued as it was 

reweighed on a daily basis until no additional moisture loss 

was observed. Bulk density was computed as follows: 

Db = m/v, (1)

where Db is the bulk density (in grams per cubic centimeter), 

m is the mass (dry weight) of the sample (in grams), and v is 

the volume of the sample (in cubic centimeters). The volume 

for a cylindrical sample was computed as: 

v = h(πd2/4), (2)

where v is the volume of the sample (in cubic centimeters), h

is the height (length) of the sample (in centimeters), and d is 

the diameter of the sample (in centimeters) (Gordon and others, 1992). The bulk densities were converted to pounds per 

cubic foot for use in subsequent computations. In all, 55 bulkdensity determinations were completed at the USGS laboratory in Lawrence, Kansas (table A2 at the back of this report). 

Results for all sampled intervals were averaged to determine the mean bulk density for each core. The representative 

bulk density for bottom sediment in the reservoir was computed as the average of the mean bulk densities determined for 

the eight individual cores. 

Particle-size analysis was performed to determine the 

percentage of sand (that is, particles larger than 0.063 mm 

(millimeters) in diameter) and silt and (or) clay (that is, 

particles smaller than 0.063 mm in diameter) in the sediment 

cores. Particle-size analyses were completed for a 10-interval 

core from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6. The sediment samples used for particle-size analyses also were used 

for constituent analyses (that is, nutrients, carbon, and trace 

elements). The particle-size analyses were completed at the 

USGS Sediment Trace Element Partitioning Laboratory in 

Atlanta, Georgia, according to the methods presented in Guy 

(1969). 

Chemical Analyses, Quality Control, and Age 

Dating

A core collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and 

CLK-6 was used for chemical analyses and age dating. In all 

cases, care was taken to avoid sampling sediment that came 

into contact with the core liner and saw blade. Each core was 

divided into 10 intervals of equal length. An approximately 

equal volume of sediment (defined as the space occupied by 

the sediment particles, water, and gases as measured in cubic 

units) was removed lengthwise from both halves of each interval and combined. The combined sediment volume for each 

interval was homogenized and then sampled for subsequent 

chemical analyses. 
Methods 7

Each of the 10-interval cores was analyzed for nutrients 

(total nitrogen and total phosphorus), organic and total carbon, 

and 25 trace elements. A complete list of the analyzed constituents is provided in table 1. Constituent analyses of bottomsediment samples were performed at the USGS Sediment 

Trace Element Partitioning Laboratory in Atlanta, Georgia. 

Analyses of sediment samples for total nitrogen and carbon 

concentrations were performed using the methods described 

by Horowitz and others (2001). Analyses for total phosphorus and trace elements were performed using the methods 

described by Fishman and Friedman (1989), Arbogast (1996), 

and Briggs and Meier (1999). 

Quality control for the chemical analyses of sediment 

samples was provided by an evaluation of variability that 

involved an analysis of split-replicate samples collected from 

coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6. The split-replicate 

samples were obtained by removing a representative volume 

of sediment from each selected core interval, homogenizing 

it, and sampling it twice. Three split-replicate samples were 

analyzed for nutrients, carbon, and trace elements. The relative 

percentage difference between the replicate sample concentrations was computed as the absolute value of the difference in 

the replicate analyses divided by the mean and expressed as a 

percentage. 

Analytical variability was minimal with mean relative 

percentage differences less than 5 percent. The relative percentage differences computed for the constituents detected in 

the split-replicate samples are provided in table 2. 

Age dating of the bottom sediment was accomplished 

by determining the activity of cesium-137 (137Cs). 137Cs is 

a radioactive isotope that is a by-product of above-ground 

nuclear weapons testing. Measurable activity of this isotope 

first appeared in the atmosphere about 1952, peaked during 1963–64, and has since declined (Ritchie and McHenry, 

1990). Measurable activity in soils began about 1954 (Wise, 

1980). 137Cs is an effective marker for age dating bottom sediment in reservoirs constructed before 1963–64 (Van Metre 

and others, 1997). It also can be used to demonstrate that the 

sediment is relatively undisturbed if the 1963–64 peak is welldefined and a generally uniform, exponential decrease in 137Cs 

activity follows the peak. Age dating of sediment using 137Cs 

was attempted for Clinton Lake coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, 

and CLK-6 (fig. 2). Because Clinton Lake was completed in 

1977 (that is, after the 137Cs peak), it was anticipated that the 

use of 137Cs in this study would be limited to an assessment of 

postdepositional disturbance. Analysis of sediment samples for 

137Cs activity was performed at the USGS Florida Integrated 

Science Center in St. Petersburg, Florida, using gamma-ray 

spectrometry (Holmes and others, 2001). 

Given that Clinton Lake was completed after the 137Cs 

peak, the anticipated profile of 137Cs activity for a minimally 

disturbed site was one with a peak in 137Cs activity at the bottom of the core followed by a uniform, exponential decrease 

in activity to the top of the core. The anticipated profile was 

observed for the upper (most recently deposited) two-thirds of 

the core for coring site CLK-1 (fig. 3A). Lower 137Cs activity 

at the bottom of the core may be caused, in part, by analytical variability. However, the lower 137Cs activity also may be 

indicative of a change in sediment source. Typically, subsurface material, including channel banks, have substantially 

lower 137Cs activity compared to surface soils (He and Owens, 

1995; Walling and Woodard, 1995; Juracek and Ziegler, 2009). 

Thus, a possible explanation for the lower 137Cs activity at the 

bottom of the core is that the contribution of sediment from 

subsurface material was relatively greater during the early 

history of the reservoir. The increased contribution of sediment from subsurface sources may have originated within 

the reservoir (for example, from localized channel bank and 

Table 1. Chemical analyses for bottom-sediment samples from Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, 2009.

[Number in parentheses is the method reporting limit for each constituent. mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram; %, percent dry weight; dpm/g, 

disintegrations per minute per gram]

Nutrients

Total nitrogen (100 mg/kg) Total phosphorus (50 mg/kg)

Carbon

Carbon, total organic (0.1%) Carbon, total (0.1%)

Trace elements

Aluminum (0.1%) Cobalt (1.0 mg/kg) Nickel (1.0 mg/kg) Titanium (0.01%)

Antimony (0.1 mg/kg) Copper (1.0 mg/kg) Selenium (0.1 mg/kg) Uranium (50 mg/kg)

Arsenic (0.1 mg/kg) Iron (0.1%) Silver (0.5 mg/kg) Vanadium (1.0 mg/kg)

Barium (1.0 mg/kg) Lead (1.0 mg/kg) Strontium (1.0 mg/kg) Zinc (1.0 mg/kg)

Beryllium (0.1 mg/kg) Lithium (1.0 mg/kg) Sulfur (0.01%)

Cadmium (0.1 mg/kg) Manganese (10.0 mg/kg) Thallium (50 mg/kg)

Chromium (1.0 mg/kg) Molybdenum (1.0 mg/kg) Tin (1.0 mg/kg)

Radionuclide

Cesium-137 (0.05 dpm/g)
8 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

shoreline erosion). For coring site CLK-4, a profile of generally decreasing 137Cs activity to the top of the core was measured (fig. 3B). With the exception of the bottom core interval 

for which anomalously low 137Cs activity was measured, a 

profile of decreasing 137Cs activity to the top of the core was 

measured for coring site CLK-6 (fig. 3C). As at coring site 

CLK-1, the anomalously low 137Cs activity at the bottom of 

the CLK-6 core may be indicative of an increased contribution 

of sediment from local subsurface sources during the early 

history of the reservoir. Additional evidence in support of a 

change in sediment source at the bottom of the CLK-1 and 

CLK-6 cores was provided by the particle-size composition 

Table 2. Relative percentage differences for constituent concentrations in splitreplicate samples from bottom sediment cores from Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas. 

[Location of coring sites shown in figure 2. --, not calculated because constituent was not detected 

in one or more of the split-replicate samples]

Constituent

Relative percentage difference

Coring site 

CLK-1

Coring site 

CLK-4

Coring site 

CLK-6 Mean

Nutrients

Total nitrogen 0 0 0 0

Total phosphorus 0 1.2 3.0 1.4

Carbon

Carbon, total organic 0 0 0 0

Carbon, total 0 9.5 4.7 4.7

Trace elements

Aluminum 1.1 2.4 2.2 1.9

Antimony 8.7 0 0 2.9

Arsenic 0 0 0 0

Barium 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6

Beryllium 0 0 3.6 1.2

Cadmium 0 0 0 0

Chromium 1.0 2.3 0 1.1

Cobalt 0 0 0 0

Copper 3.4 0 3.4 2.3

Iron 0 2.4 2.2 1.5

Lead 3.8 0 3.6 2.5

Lithium 3.2 1.9 1.8 2.3

Manganese 0 0 1.0 .3

Molybdenum 0 -- -- --

Nickel 4.5 2.6 2.5 3.2

Selenium 0 0 11.8 3.9

Silver -- -- -- --

Strontium 0 0 0 0

Sulfur 0 0 0 0

Thallium -- -- -- --

Tin 0 0 0 0

Titanium 2.4 2.2 0 1.5

Uranium -- -- -- --

Vanadium 0 7.4 0 2.5

Zinc 0 0 0 0
Methods 9

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

1977

2009

1977

2009

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

1977

2009

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

SEDIMENT-CORE INTERVAL, DIMENSIONLESS

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

CESIUM-137 ACTIVITY, IN DISINTEGRATIONS PER MINUTE PER GRAM

A. Coring site CLK-1

B. Coring site CLK-4

C. Coring site CLK-6

Figure 3. Variation in cesium-137 activity with depth of bottom-sediment samples collected from coring sites (A) CLK-1, (B) CLK4, and (C) CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009.
10 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

of the sediment. At the bottom of both cores, a consistently 

lower percentage of silt and clay was measured (tables A3 and 

A5 at the back of this report). The lower percentage of silt and 

clay may be indicative of a local sediment source (that is, less 

time for coarser particles to settle out prior to deposition). If 

the proposed interpretation of the 137Cs profiles is correct, then 

the bottom sediment at these coring sites may be relatively 

undisturbed. Thus, any trends in constituent deposition at the 

three coring sites may be considered meaningful. 

Estimation of Nutrient Loads and Yields

The mean annual load and yield of total nitrogen (TN) 

and total phosphorus (TP) was estimated for Clinton Lake for 

the period 1977 to 2009. For each nutrient, mean annual load 

was estimated as the representative sediment concentration 

multiplied by the mean annual mass of sediment deposited in 

the reservoir. The representative sediment concentration was 

computed as the median of the sample intervals analyzed for 

cores CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6. 

The mean annual yield for each nutrient was estimated by 

dividing the mean annual load by the area of the Clinton Lake 

Basin. Because sediment losses are not accounted for (for 

example, as a result of reservoir outflow), the computed loads 

and yields represent net, rather than total, values. 

Trend Analysis

Temporal trends in nutrient, carbon, and trace-element 

concentrations (in relation to depth in the sediment profile) 

were examined for coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 

by computing a nonparametric Spearman’s rho correlation 

coefficient. An advantage of Spearman’s rho is that, because 

it is based on ranks, it is more resistant to outlier effects than 

the more commonly used Pearson’s r correlation coefficient 

(Helsel and Hirsch, 1992). Measures of correlation are dimensionless and scaled to be in the range of -1.0 to 1.0. A value of 

0 indicates no relation between two variables. Temporal trends 

were considered to be significantly positive (with a value 

between 0 and 1.0 indicating that the constituent concentration increased toward the top of the sediment core) or negative 

(with a value between 0 and -1.0 indicating that the constituent 

concentration decreased toward the top of the sediment core) 

if the probability (two-sided p-value) of rejecting a correct 

hypothesis (in this case, no trend) was less than or equal to 

0.05. A possible trend was only considered meaningful if the 

change in constituent concentration was beyond the variability 

that could be explained by analytical variance (defined here as 

the mean constituent concentration in the sediment core plus 

or minus 10 percent). The possibility must be recognized that 

constituent concentrations in the cores may have been affected 

by diagenesis (that is, postdepositional changes caused by 

processes such as remobilization and diffusion). 

For each coring site, the core intervals included in 

the trend analyses were selected based on the 137Cs and 

particle-size results. Only the top (most recently deposited) 

seven intervals were used for the core collected at site CLK-1. 

The bottom three intervals were excluded from trend analysis 

because anomalously low 137Cs activity and a lower percentage of silt and clay indicated that these intervals may consist 

partly or mostly of locally derived sediment (that is, originating within the reservoir), which may be chemically different 

from and not representative of sediment originating from the 

upstream basin. Likewise, for the core collected at site CLK-6, 

the bottom interval was excluded from the trend analyses. 

All 10 intervals were included for the core collected at site 

CLK-4. 

Cyanobacteria Analysis

Cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae) are indicative of eutrophic conditions in lakes and reservoirs (Wetzel, 

2001). To investigate the occurrence of eutrophic conditions 

throughout the history of Clinton Lake, the core collected at 

site CLK-1 was analyzed for cyanobacterial akinetes using the 

same 10 intervals that were analyzed for chemical constituents. Akinetes are thick-walled, resistant cells that represent 

the resting stage of cyanobacteria (Adams and Duggan, 1999; 

Wetzel, 2001). They provide an approximate estimate of past 

cyanobacterial abundance (Rasanen and others, 2006) and can 

be used to investigate the trophic history of a lake (van Geel 

and others, 1994; Kling, 1998). Akinetes preserve well in sediment as evidenced by past studies that documented preservation for periods ranging from decades (Livingstone and Jaworski, 1980; Kling, 1998; Rasanen and others, 2006) to centuries 

(Cronberg, 1986; van Geel and others, 1994). Analysis of the 

sediment samples for akinetes was performed by PhycoTech, 

Inc., St. Joseph, Michigan. 

Sediment-Quality Guidelines

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has 

adopted nonenforceable sediment-quality guidelines (SQGs) 

in the form of level-of-concern concentrations for several 

trace elements (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997). 

These level-of-concern concentrations were derived from 

biological-effects correlations made on the basis of paired 

onsite and laboratory data to relate incidence of adverse 

biological effects in aquatic organisms to dry-weight sediment 

concentrations. Two such level-of-concern guidelines adopted 

by USEPA are referred to as the threshold-effects level (TEL) 

and the probable-effects level (PEL). The TEL is assumed 

to represent the concentration below which toxic biological 

effects rarely occur. In the range of concentrations between the 

TEL and PEL, toxic effects occasionally occur. Toxic effects 

usually or frequently occur at concentrations above the PEL. 

USEPA cautions that the TEL and PEL guidelines are 

intended for use as screening tools for possible hazardous levels of chemicals and are not regulatory criteria. This 
Background Information for Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria 11

cautionary statement is made because, although biologicaleffects correlation identifies level-of-concern concentrations 

associated with the likelihood of adverse organism response, 

the comparison may not demonstrate that a particular chemical is solely responsible. In fact, biological-effects correlations 

may not indicate direct cause-and-effect relations because 

sediments may contain a mixture of chemicals that contribute 

to the adverse effects to some degree. Thus, for any given site, 

these guidelines may be over- or underprotective (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1997). 

MacDonald and others (2000) developed consensusbased SQGs for several trace elements that were computed as 

the geometric mean of several previously published SQGs. 

The consensus-based SQGs consist of a threshold-effect concentration (TEC) and a probable-effect concentration (PEC). 

The TEC represents the concentration below which adverse 

effects are not expected to occur, whereas the PEC represents 

the concentration above which adverse effects are expected 

to occur more often than not. An evaluation of the reliability 

of the SQGs indicated that most of the individual TECs and 

PECs provide an accurate basis for predicting the presence or 

absence of sediment toxicity (MacDonald and others, 2000). 

A comparison of the two sets of trace-element SQGs indicated some differences (table 3). The largest difference was for 

the zinc PEL and PEC. In this case, the PEC (459 mg/kg (milligrams per kilogram)) was about 69 percent larger than the 

PEL (271 mg/kg). For this study, the SQGs used were selected 

to provide a less-stringent assessment. Thus, for each trace 

element for which SQGs were available, the larger of the two 

options for threshold effects and probable effects was selected 

for the purpose of assessing sediment quality (see shaded values in table 3). The options used to assess sediment quality are 

hereafter referred to as the threshold-effects guidelines, which 

represent the concentrations above which toxic biological 

effects occasionally occur, and the probable-effects guidelines, 

which represent the concentrations above which toxic biological effects usually or frequently occur. 

Background Information for 

Selected Chemical Constituents and 

Cyanobacteria 

Nutrients and Total Organic Carbon

Nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are necessary for growth and reproduction of plants. In most freshwater 

environments, phosphorus is one of the principal limiting 

factors for primary production (Hakanson and Jansson, 1983; 

Wetzel, 2001). If phosphorus concentrations are too large, 

algal growth may become excessive and possibly result in 

the production of algal toxins and taste-and-odor compounds. 

Additionally, excessive algal growth may be detrimental to 

aquatic life and limit recreational use of a lake. Even small 

increases in phosphorus can cause increases in algal biomass 

provided that light limitation is not an issue (Dillon and Rigler, 

1974; Jones and Bachmann, 1976; Jones and others, 2008). 

Major human-related sources of nutrients include fertilizer 

application, livestock production, and sewage-treatment 

plants. 

Total organic carbon (TOC), an approximate determination of total organic material in a sediment sample, is important because various organic solutes can form complexes, 

which in turn affect trace-element solubilities (Hem, 1989). 

The organic carbon content of sediment also is important 

because many contaminants specifically sorb to the organic 

material in sediment (Karickhoff, 1984; Horowitz, 1991). 

Trace Elements

Trace elements are important determinants of sediment 

quality because of their potential toxicity to living organisms 

(Forstner and Wittmann, 1981; Smol, 2002; Luoma and Rainbow, 2008). Trace elements may be defined as elements that 

typically are present in the environment in relatively low (less 

than 0.1 percent) concentrations (Pais and Jones, 1997; Adriano, 2001). Using this definition, the majority of the elements 

analyzed in this study may be considered trace elements. 

Exceptions, which are some of the abundant rock-forming elements, include aluminum and iron (Adriano, 2001). 

Trace elements in sediment originate naturally from the 

rock and soil within a basin. Elevated concentrations of sediment-associated trace elements may be attributable to several 

human-related sources including fertilizers, liming materials, 

Table 3. Sediment-quality guidelines for selected trace 

elements and associated bioaccumulation index.

[Values in milligrams per kilogram. Shading represents guidelines to which 

sediment concentrations were compared in this report. USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; TEL, threshold-effects level; PEL, probableeffects level; TEC, threshold-effect concentration; PEC, probable-effect 

concentration; --, not available]

Trace 

element

USEPA (1997) MacDonald and 

others (2000)

Bioaccumulation 

index1 TEL PEL TEC PEC

Arsenic 7.24 41.6 9.79 33.0 moderate

Cadmium .676 4.21 .99 4.98 moderate

Chromium 52.3 160 43.4 111 moderate

Copper 18.7 108 31.6 149 high

Lead 30.2 112 35.8 128 moderate

Nickel 15.9 42.8 22.7 48.6 moderate

Silver .733 1.77 -- -- moderate

Zinc 124 271 121 459 high

1

Bioaccumulation index information for trace elements from Pais and 

Jones (1997).
12 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

pesticides, irrigation water, animal and human wastes, coal 

combustion residues, leaching from landfills, mining, metalsmelting industries, and automobile emissions (Forstner and 

Wittmann, 1981; Davies, 1983; Adriano, 2001; Luoma and 

Rainbow, 2008). 

The health of living organisms is dependent on a sufficient intake of various trace elements. Many elements, such 

as cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc, are essential for 

plants, animals, and humans. Other elements, such as arsenic 

and chromium, are required by animals and humans but are 

not essential for plants. Nonessential elements for plants, animals, and humans include cadmium, mercury, and lead (Lide, 

1993; Pais and Jones, 1997; Adriano, 2001; Marmiroli and 

Maestri, 2008). 

Toxicity is a function of several factors including the type 

of organism, availability of a trace element in the environment, 

and its potential to bioaccumulate once in the food chain. The 

daily intake of trace elements by animals and humans may be 

classified as deficient, optimal, or toxic. Most, if not all, trace 

elements may be toxic in animals and humans if the concentrations are sufficiently large (Pais and Jones, 1997; Smol, 

2002; Luoma and Rainbow, 2008). Information on the bioaccumulation index (Pais and Jones, 1997) for trace elements 

with available SQGs is provided in table 3. The bioaccumulation index indicates the relative potential of a trace element to 

bioaccumulate in organisms. 

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria are common in freshwater ecosystems 

(Chorus and Bartram, 1999; Wetzel, 2001) and often are associated with eutrophic conditions (Smol, 2002). A eutrophic 

lake is characterized by nutrient-rich water with high primary 

productivity (Horne and Goldman, 1994). Abundant growth of 

cyanobacteria is a concern because it can limit recreational use 

of a lake, cause taste-and-odor problems for water suppliers, 

and produce toxins (for example, microcystins) which are a 

concern for human health (Chorus and Bartram, 1999). 

Sedimentation

Based on the difference between the 1977 USACE and 

2009 KBS estimated water-storage capacities, the total volume 

of bottom sediment deposited in the conservation pool of 

Clinton Lake was estimated to be about 438 million ft3 (cubic 

feet) or about 10,065 acre-ft. The estimated sediment volume 

occupied about 8 percent of the conservation-pool, waterstorage capacity of the reservoir. Water-storage capacity in the 

conservation pool has been lost to sedimentation at a rate of 

about 0.25 percent annually. 

As part of the original 100-year design life for Clinton 

Lake, USACE allocated 19,000 acre-ft for sediment storage 

in the conservation pool of the reservoir (U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, 1979). Restated, it was projected that after 

100 years there would be 19,000 acre-ft of sediment deposited 

in the conservation pool. The original projected mean annual 

sedimentation rate was 190 acre-ft per year. Recently (2010), 

the Kansas Water Office estimated the mean annual sedimentation rate to be 324 acre-ft per year, which is about 70 percent 

larger than the original projection (Kansas Water Office, 

2010). At this rate, the allocated 19,000 acre-ft for sediment 

storage would be filled in about 60 years. 

Mean annual net sediment yield, computed as the total 

volume of deposited sediment (10,065 acre-ft) divided by 

basin size (367 mi2) and reservoir age (32 years), was estimated to be 0.86 acre-ft/mi2

/yr (acre-feet per square mile per 

year). A comparison of the volumetric sediment yield with 

other selected reservoir basins in Kansas is provided in 

table 4. Among the large reservoirs compared, the sediment 

yield for Clinton Lake was relatively high. In an analysis performed in 2004 that included 11 reservoirs listed in 

table 4 (Clinton and Fall River Lakes excluded), a statistically 

significant positive correlation (significant at the 0.001 level) 

between sediment yield and mean annual precipitation (Spearman’s rho = 0.86) was indicated (Juracek, 2004). Thus, for the 

11 reservoirs included in the analysis, mean annual precipitation was the best predictor of sediment yield. In the same 

analysis, no statistically significant correlation (at the 

0.05 level) was indicated for the relation between sediment yield and mean soil permeability, mean slope, or land 

use. Within and between basins, sediment yield is spatially 

and temporally variable as a result of the complex interaction among several factors including topography, soil types, 

precipitation, vegetation, human disturbance, and sediment 

storage (Morris and Fan, 1998). 

The total mass of bottom sediment in the conservation 

pool, computed as the total volume of bottom sediment multiplied by the representative bulk density of the sediment 

(41 lb/ft3 (pounds per cubic foot)), was estimated to be about 

18 billion lb. Mean annual net sediment deposition, computed as the total bottom-sediment mass divided by reservoir 

age, was estimated to be 563 million lb/yr. Mean annual net 

sediment yield, computed as the mean annual net deposition 

divided by basin area, was estimated to be 1.5 million 

(lb/mi2)/yr. In comparison, Juracek (2003) estimated the mean 

annual net sediment deposition and mean annual net sediment 

yield for nearby Perry Lake to be 3,040 million lb/yr and 

2.7 million (lb/mi2)/yr, respectively. 

The particle-size composition of the bottom sediment 

sampled in Clinton Lake was uniform. For the 30 sediment 

samples analyzed, the percentage of silt and clay was equal to 

or greater than 94 percent and typically was equal to or greater 

than 99 percent (tables A3, A4, and A5 at the back of this 

report). 
Occurrence of, and Trends in, Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria 13

Occurrence of, and Trends in, 

Selected Chemical Constituents and 

Cyanobacteria

This section describes the occurrence of, and trends in, 

selected chemical constituents and cyanobacterial akinetes 

in bottom-sediment samples collected from Clinton Lake in 

northeast Kansas. Chemical analyses were performed using 

sediment samples from cores CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 

(fig. 2). A total of 30 sediment samples were analyzed for 

nutrients, carbon, and trace elements. Only samples from core 

CLK-1 were analyzed for cyanobacterial akinetes. Sediment 

quality was assessed with reference to available SQGs for 

selected trace elements (table 3). 

Nutrients and Total Organic Carbon

TN concentrations in the bottom sediment of Clinton 

Lake generally were uniform over time (fig. 4) if the bottom 

three intervals of the core collected at site CLK-1 and the bottom interval of the core collected at site CLK-6 are excluded 

because they may not be representative of sediment originating from the upstream basin. The generally uniform TN concentrations in the sediment indicated consistent inputs to the 

reservoir over time. Excluding the bottom three intervals, TN 

concentrations in the CLK-1 core ranged from 2,500 to 

2,900 mg/kg with a median of 2,700 mg/kg (table A3 at the 

back of this report). TN concentrations in the CLK-4 core 

ranged from 2,000 to 2,200 mg/kg with a median of 

2,100 mg/kg (table A4 at the back of this report). Excluding 

the bottom interval, TN concentrations in the CLK-6 core 

ranged from 2,200 to 2,600 mg/kg with a median of 

2,300 mg/kg (table A5 at the back of this report). Excluding 

the same four core intervals noted above, the overall median 

TN concentration in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake was 

2,300 mg/kg. In comparison, the median TN concentration in 

the bottom sediment of nearby Perry Lake (fig. 1) was 

2,500 mg/kg (Juracek, 2003). 

The possible positive trend in TN concentrations for the 

top (most recently deposited) seven intervals of the CLK-1 

core (fig. 4) was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level 

(table 5). The possible negative trend in TN concentrations for 

the top (most recently deposited) nine intervals of the CLK-6 

core (fig. 4) was statistically significant (table 5). However, 

because most of the intervals had a TN concentration that was 

within 10 percent of the mean TN concentration for the core, 

the TN trend may not be representative of an actual trend 

because of analytical variability. 

The mean annual net load of TN deposited in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake, computed as the mean annual 

net sediment deposition multiplied by the representative TN 

concentration (2,300 mg/kg), was estimated to be 1.29 million 

Table 4. Sediment yield, precipitation, and land use for selected reservoir basins in Kansas.

[Reservoir basins are ordered from largest to smallest in sediment yield. Information for reservoirs other than Clinton Lake from Juracek, 2004, 2008. mi2, 

square miles]

Reservoir basin Approximate basin 

area (mi2)

Sediment yield 

(acre-feet per square 

mile per year)

Mean annual 

precipitation 

(inches)

Land use

Cropland 

(percent)

Grassland and 

woodland (percent)

Small reservoir basins

Mound City Lake 5.8 2.03 40 16.3 79.5

Crystal Lake .6 1.72 40 10.7 66.0

Mission Lake 8.6 1.42 35 69.9 26.4

Gardner City Lake 5.5 .85 39 30.8 46.4

Otis Creek Reservoir 14.0 .71 33 .1 96.5

Lake Afton 10.4 .66 30 81.0 15.2

Large reservoir basins

Perry Lake 1,117 1.59 37 40.0 57.0

Hillsdale Lake 144 .97 41 35.4 57.3

Clinton Lake 367 .86 36 17.0 77.0

Tuttle Creek Lake 9,628 .40 30 66.0 32.0

Fall River Lake 554 .34 38 4.0 93.0

Cheney Reservoir 933 .22 27 72.7 25.4

Webster Reservoir 1,150 .03 21 61.1 38.3
14 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

lb/yr. The mean annual net yield of TN from the Clinton Lake 

Basin, computed as the mean annual net load divided by basin 

area, was estimated to be 3,510 (lb/mi2)/yr. 

TP concentrations in the bottom sediment of Clinton 

Lake generally were uniform over time (fig. 5) if the same 

four core intervals previously noted are excluded. Thus, as for 

TN, the generally uniform TP concentrations in the sediment 

indicated consistent inputs to the reservoir over time. The TP 

depositional profiles parallel the TN depositional profiles 

(figs. 4 and 5). Excluding the bottom three intervals, TP concentrations in the CLK-1 core ranged from 980 to 1,200 mg/

kg with a median of 1,100 mg/kg (table A3). For the CLK-4 

core, TP concentrations ranged from 840 to 910 mg/kg with a 

median of 865 (table A4). Excluding the bottom interval, TP 

concentrations in the CLK-6 core ranged from 960 to 1,000 

mg/kg with a median of 1,000 mg/kg (table A5). Excluding 

the same four core intervals noted above, the overall median 

TP concentration in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake was 

990 mg/kg. In comparison, the median TP concentration in the 

bottom sediment of nearby Perry Lake (fig. 1) was 1,100 mg/

kg (Juracek, 2003). 

The possible positive trend in TP concentrations for the 

top seven intervals of the CLK-1 core (fig. 5) was statistically significant at the 0.05 level (table 5). However, because 

most of the intervals had a TP concentration that was within 

10 percent of the mean TP concentration for the core, the TP 

trend may not be representative of an actual trend because of 

analytical variability. A statistically significant positive trend 

in TP concentrations also was determined for the CLK-4 

core (table 5). However, because all of the intervals had a TP 

concentration that was well within 10 percent of the mean TP 

concentration for the core, this trend also may not be real. 

The mean annual net load of TP deposited in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake, computed as the mean annual 

net sediment deposition multiplied by the representative TP 

concentration (990 mg/kg), was estimated to be 556,000 lb/yr. 

The mean annual net yield of TP from the Clinton Lake Basin, 

computed as the mean annual net load divided by basin area, 

was estimated to be 1,510 (lb/mi2)/yr. 

A comparison of the nutrient concentrations for the three 

coring sites indicated that the largest TN and TP concentrations were measured for the CLK-1 core, which was the downstream most core analyzed (fig. 2, tables A3–A5). The downstream increase in nutrient concentrations may be related, in 

part, to changes in the particle-size composition of the bottom 

sediment. Within a reservoir, particle size typically decreases 

with distance downstream as progressively smaller particles 

settle out (Morris and Fan, 1998). Thus, the percentage of clay 

in the bottom sediment would be expected to increase with 

distance downstream in a reservoir. Downstream increases 

in TN and TP concentrations in sediment, with accompanying increases in the percentage of clay in the sediment, were 

reported for Atchison County Lake, Banner Creek Reservoir, 

Lake Wabaunsee, Mission Lake, and Perry Lake in northeast 

Kansas (Juracek and Ziegler, 2007) (fig. 1). 

Nutrient concentrations for the two upstream coring sites, 

CLK-4 (located in the Rock Creek arm of the reservoir) and 

CLK-6 (located in the Wakarusa River arm of the reservoir), 

Figure 4. Variation in total nitrogen concentrations with depth of bottom-sediment samples collected from 

coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009.

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

TOTAL NITROGEN, IN MILLIGRAMS PER KILOGRAM

CLK-1

CLK-4

CLK-6

2009

1977

Coring site

EXPLANATION

SEDIMENT-CORE INTERVAL, DIMENSIONLESS
Occurrence of, and Trends in, Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria 15

indicated that the Wakarusa River (larger basin, generally 

larger flows) possibly was a larger contributor of nitrogen and 

phosphorus to Clinton Lake than Rock Creek (fig. 2). Specifically, the median TN and TP concentrations for the core 

collected at site CLK-6 were 2,300 and 1,000 mg/kg, respectively. In comparison, median TN and TP concentrations for 

the core collected at site CLK-4 were 2,100 and 865 mg/kg, 

respectively. The possibility that the Wakarusa River delivers 

more nitrogen and phosphorus than Rock Creek was supported 

by water-column data from a study of Clinton Lake by Wang 

and others (2000). As part of their study, water-column samples were collected from the Wakarusa River, Deer Creek, and 

Rock Creek arms of Clinton Lake 17 times from May 1997 

to November 1998 and analyzed for TN and TP. Median TN 

concentrations were 0.87 mg/L (milligrams per liter) for the 

Wakarusa River arm, 0.76 mg/L for the Deer Creek arm, and 

0.68 mg/L for the Rock Creek arm of the reservoir. Median TP 

concentrations were 106 μg/L (micrograms per liter) for the 

Wakarusa River arm, 116 μg/L for the Deer Creek arm, and 

88 μg/L for the Rock Creek arm of the reservoir (Wang and 

others, 2000). Land use, in terms of the percentage of cropland, grassland, and woodland, was similar for the Wakarusa 

River, Deer Creek, and Rock Creek subbasins (fig. 1). 

Nutrient concentrations in sediment, as well as estimated 

nutrient yields, vary substantially throughout the State. For 

example, in a study of bottom sediments collected from 10 

small reservoirs in eastern Kansas (and analyzed using the 

same laboratory methods as in this study), median TN and TP 

concentrations ranged from 1,400 to 3,700 mg/kg and from 

550 to 1,300 mg/kg, respectively. Mean annual net TN and TP 

yields, estimated for five of the small reservoirs, had 

respective ranges of 2,210 to 6,800 (lb/mi2)/yr and 598 to 

2,420 (lb/mi2)/yr (Juracek, 2004). Statistical analysis, with a 

significance level of 0.05, indicated no significant correlations 

between median TN and TP concentrations in bottom sediment 

and land use. Likewise, a comparison of TN and TP yields 

with land use for the five small reservoirs for which nutrient 

yields were estimated also indicated no discernible relation 

(Juracek, 2004). In a national study of the effects of land use 

on sediment chemistry, Horowitz and Stephens (2008) determined that agricultural land use (cropland and pasture) had 

little or no effect on downstream sediment concentrations of 

several constituents including phosphorus and carbon. Several 

factors may, in part, explain why rural land use alone is not an 

effective predictor of nutrient concentrations in sediment. For 

example, a general land-use classification provides little or no 

information on such important factors as land-management 

practices (for example, tillage practices, grazing intensity), 

fertilizer application, and livestock and poultry production. 

The variability in nutrient concentrations in sediment 

may be caused, in part, by factors for which information is 

not readily available. Such information includes background 

nutrient contributions from soils and bedrock, historical 

land-management practices, historical application of fertilizers, historical livestock production, sediment sources, and 

in-reservoir processes. 

TOC concentrations generally were uniform within and 

between the three cores. With the exclusion of the same four 

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600

TOTAL PHOSPHORUS, IN MILLIGRAMS PER KILOGRAM

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

CLK-1

CLK-4

CLK-6

2009

1977

Coring site

EXPLANATION

SEDIMENT-CORE INTERVAL, DIMENSIONLESS

Figure 5. Variation in total phosphorus concentrations with depth of bottom-sediment samples collected from 

coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009.
16 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

core intervals previously noted, the respective ranges in TOC 

concentrations for the CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 cores were 

1.7 to 2.0 percent, 1.6 to 1.8 percent, and 1.8 to 2.0 percent 

(tables A3, A4, and A5). A statistically significant trend in 

TOC concentrations was not indicated for any of the three 

cores (table 5). 

Trace Elements

Generally, trace-element concentrations in the bottom 

sediment of Clinton Lake were uniform over time (tables 

A3, A4, and A5). A statistically significant positive trend was 

indicated for at least one coring site for several trace elements 

Table 5. Results of trend tests on concentrations of selected chemical constituents in 

bottom-sediment samples collected from coring sites CLK-1, CLK-4, and CLK-6 in Clinton 

Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009. 

[--, not determined]

Constituent Spearman’s rho (two-sided p-value)

CLK-11 CLK-4 CLK-62

Nutrients

Total nitrogen 0.61 (0.145) - 0.49 (0.146) - 0.83 (0.006)

Total phosphorus .81 (0.027) .70 (0.023) .03 (0.939)

Carbon

Carbon, total organic .39 (0.383) 0 (1.0) .18 (0.638)

Carbon, total .86 (0.013) 0 (1.0) -.24 (0.537)

Trace elements

Aluminum .14 (0.758) .75 (0.012) .52 (0.148)

Antimony .77 (0.044) - .52 (0.122) .55 (0.127)

Arsenic .91 (0.005) .66 (0.037) .74 (0.023)

Barium .15 (0.749) .38 (0.273) 0 (1.0)

Beryllium .18 (0.701) .68 (0.030) .66 (0.051)

Cadmium .66 (0.106) - .16 (0.668) .55 (0.127)

Chromium .18 (0.699) .77 (0.009) .50 (0.168)

Cobalt .90 (0.006) .82 (0.004) .91 (0.0006)

Copper -.17 (0.718) .74 (0.014) .61 (0.084)

Iron .36 (0.434) .86 (0.001) .83 (0.006)

Lead .80 (0.030) .43 (0.213) .06 (0.869)

Lithium .67 (0.102) .86 (0.001) .77 (0.016)

Manganese .96 (0.0005) .75 (0.013) .74 (0.023)

Molybdenum -- -- --

Nickel .72 (0.068) .89 (0.0005) .84 (0.004)

Selenium .47 (0.282) .06 (0.864) 0 (1.0)

Silver -- -- --

Strontium 0 (--) .85 (0.002) .64 (0.064)

Sulfur .33 (0.474) .18 (0.614) .28 (0.464)

Tin .13 (0.775) .27 (0.458) .26 (0.500)

Thallium -- -- --

Titanium -.61 (0.145) .08 (0.822) -.19 (0.618)

Uranium -- -- --

Vanadium -.06 (0.899) .57 (0.086) .46 (0.217)

Zinc .40 (0.373) .50 (0.143) .55 (0.127)

1

 Top (most recently deposited) seven intervals of core used for trend analyses.

2

 Top (most recently deposited) nine intervals of core used for trend analyses.
Occurrence of, and Trends in, Selected Chemical Constituents and Cyanobacteria 17

(table 5). However, because for each element all or most of the 

core intervals had concentrations that were within 10 percent 

of the mean concentration, the trends may be a result of analytical variance. 

Sediment quality was assessed for the eight trace elements for which SQGs were available (table 3). Silver was not 

detected in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake. Cadmium, 

copper, and lead concentrations were less than the respective threshold-effects guidelines. With one exception, arsenic 

concentrations exceeded the threshold-effects guideline. All 

chromium and nickel concentrations exceeded the respective 

threshold-effects guidelines. Zinc concentrations frequently 

exceeded the threshold-effects guideline. No trace-element 

concentrations exceeded the probable-effects guidelines 

(tables 3, A3, A4, and A5). 

Sediment concentrations of arsenic, chromium, and 

nickel greater than the respective threshold-effects guidelines 

are typical for reservoirs in eastern Kansas (Juracek, 2003, 

2004, 2008, 2010; Juracek and Mau, 2002). For these three 

trace elements, the measured concentrations may be indicative 

of natural contributions from soils and bedrock. 

Cyanobacteria

The core collected at site CLK-1 (fig. 2) was analyzed for 

cyanobacterial akinetes. The akinetes found were of the genus 

Anabaena, a cyanobacteria that is known to produce algal toxins and taste-and-odor compounds (Graham and others, 2008). 

Within the core, the occurrence of akinetes increased by more 

than an order of magnitude from about 24,300 per gram of 

sediment at the bottom of the core (oldest sediment) to about 

308,000 per gram of sediment at the top of the core (most 

recently deposited sediment) (fig. 6). A statistically significant 

positive trend in akinete abundance was indicated (Spearman’s 

rho = 0.92, two-sided p-value = 0.0002). 

The pronounced increase in akinete abundance indicated 

an increased presence of cyanobacteria in Clinton Lake that, 

in turn, provided possible evidence for increasingly eutrophic 

conditions in the reservoir. Because only certain taxa produce 

akinetes, an alternative possibility is that the increase in akinete abundance was indicative of a shift in the cyanobacteria 

population toward akinete producers (in this case, Anabaena). 

Several environmental factors affect cyanobacteria growth 

including light intensity (which is reduced by turbidity), nutrient availability, and temperature (Chorus and Bartram, 1999; 

Wetzel, 2001). Comprehensive historical data on these factors 

were not available to assess changes over the entire life of 

the reservoir. However, for two of the three sediment cores 

analyzed for nutrients (CLK-1 and CLK-4), a possible positive 

trend in TP deposition was indicated (fig. 5, table 5). Thus, 

the increase in akinete abundance may, in part, be related to 

increased phosphorus availability. It is noteworthy that cyanobacteria can out-compete other algal species in waters with 

nitrogen or phosphorus limitation or high turbidity (Chorus 

and Bartram, 1999). Clinton Lake tends to be nitrogen limited, 

which allows for cyanobacterial dominance in summer and fall 

(Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 2010). Given 

0 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000

CYANOBACTERIAL AKINETE ABUNDANCE PER GRAM OF SEDIMENT

(bottom) 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

(top) 10

SEDIMENT-CORE INTERVAL, DIMENSIONLESS

2009

1977

Figure 6. Variation in cyanobacterial akinete abundance with depth of bottom-sediment samples collected 

from coring site CLK-1 in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009.
18 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

the abundance of cyanobacterial akinetes, it is likely that algal 

blooms occur in the reservoir that may produce taste-andodor compounds and possibly algal toxins. This conclusion 

was substantiated by the fact that taste-and-odor compounds 

(typically geosmin produced by the cyanobacteria Anabaena) 

have been a periodic occurrence at Clinton Lake since at least 

the 1980s (Jeanette Klamm, city of Lawrence, oral commun., 

2010). 

Chlorophyll-a is used as a surrogate indicator of eutrophication (Wetzel, 2001; Wehr and Sheath, 2003). As part of 

its Lake and Wetland Monitoring Program, KDHE sampled 

the water in Clinton Lake one day during the late spring or 

summer approximately every 3 years from 1979 to 2009. 

During that 30-year period, chlorophyll-a concentrations at or 

near the water surface ranged from 4.5 to 33.6 ppb (parts per 

billion) and typically were larger than 10 ppb (table 6) (Tom 

Stiles, Kansas Department of Health and Environment, written 

commun., 2010). KDHE classifies the trophic condition of a 

lake using the following chlorophyll-a criteria: oligotrophic 

(0 to 2.4 ppb), mesotrophic (2.4 to 7.2 ppb), slightly eutrophic 

(7.2 to 12 ppb), eutrophic (12 to 20 ppb), very eutrophic (20 to 

30 ppb), and hypereutrophic (greater than 30 ppb) (Ed Carney, 

Kansas Department of Health and Environment, written commun., 2007). Based on these criteria, the trophic condition 

of Clinton Lake generally varied from mesotrophic to hypereutrophic from 1979 to 2009 (table 6). 

To provide some perspective on trends, the KDHE 

chlorophyll-a data for the surface or near-surface sampling 

depths were averaged to provide decadal means. In 1979, the 

chlorophyll-a concentration for a single surface sample was 

4.5 ppb. Subsequently, mean chlorophyll-a concentrations at 

or near the water surface for the 1980s (two sampling dates), 

1990s (five sampling dates), and 2000s (four sampling dates) 

were 15.0, 17.9, and 22.0 ppb, respectively (table 6). Though 

based on limited data, the decadal means indicated a shift from 

mesotrophic to very eutrophic conditions according to the 

KDHE classification. Together, the chlorophyll-a and cyanobacteria data indicated that Clinton Lake possibly has become 

more eutrophic over time. 

Clinton Lake also was classified as eutrophic throughout 

its history based on the total phosphorus content in the water 

(Wetzel, 2001). From 1979 to 2009, measurements made by 

KDHE during the late spring or summer about once every 

3 years indicated that total phosphorus concentrations at or 

near the water surface ranged from 0.01 to 0.15 mg/L (Tom 

Stiles, Kansas Department of Health and Environment, written 

commun., 2010). 

Summary and Conclusions

A 2-year study by the U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 

was begun in 2008 to investigate sedimentation in Clinton 

Lake and the deposition of selected chemical constituents and 

cyanobacterial akinetes (cyanobacteria resting stage) in the 

bottom sediment of the reservoir for 1977 through 2009. The 

study used a combination of available bathymetric-survey 

information and bottom-sediment coring completed in 2009. 

The major results of this study are listed below:

1. The total estimated volume and mass of bottom sediment 

in the conservation pool of Clinton Lake was 438 million 

ft3 and 18 billion lb, respectively. 

2. The estimated sediment volume occupied about 8 percent 

of the conservation-pool, water-storage capacity of Clinton Lake. Water-storage capacity in the conservation 

pool has been lost to sedimentation at a rate of about 

0.25 percent annually. 

3. The mean annual sedimentation rate in the conservation 

pool of Clinton Lake is about 70 percent larger than originally projected when the reservoir was completed. 

4. Mean annual net sediment deposition in the conservation 

pool of Clinton Lake was estimated to be 563 million lb/

yr.

5. Mean annual net sediment yield from the Clinton Lake 

Basin was estimated to be 1.5 million (lb/mi2)/yr. 

6. Total nitrogen in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake 

generally was uniform over time, with a median concenTable 6. Chlorophyll-a concentrations in Clinton Lake, 

northeast Kansas, 1979–2009. (Tom Stiles, Kansas 

Department of Health and Environment, written commun., 

2010). 

[ppb, parts per billion; m, meters]

Sample collection 

date (month/day/year)

Chlorophyll-a concentration1

 (ppb)

Sampling depth 

(m)

07/09/1979 4.5 0

07/14/1981 10.5 0

06/15/1988 19.4 0.5

1980s mean 15.0

06/10/1991 22.3 .5

05/17/1994 14.1 .5

08/07/1996 11.1 .5

07/16/1997 10.3 .5

06/16/1998 31.7 .5

1990s mean 17.9

08/09/2000 16.6 .5

07/15/2003 33.6 .5

06/19/2006 13.2 .5

08/10/2009 24.5 .5

2000s mean 22.0

1

Beginning in 1988, the chlorophyll-a concentration listed for each 

sampling date is the average of two replicate samples.
References Cited 19

tration of 2,300 mg/kg, and indicated consistent inputs to 

the reservoir. 

7. The mean annual net load and yield of total nitrogen 

deposited in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake was 

estimated to be 1.29 million lb/yr and 3,510 (lb/mi2)/yr, 

respectively. 

8. Total phosphorus in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake 

generally was uniform over time with a median concentration of 990 mg/kg; although, a possible increase 

in inputs to the reservoir was indicated. As a principal 

limiting factor for primary production in most freshwater 

environments, phosphorus is of particular importance 

because increased inputs can contribute to accelerated 

reservoir eutrophication and the production of algal toxins 

and taste-and-odor compounds. 

9. The mean annual net load and yield of total phosphorus deposited in the bottom sediment of Clinton Lake 

was estimated to be 556,000 lb/yr and 1,510 (lb/mi2)/yr, 

respectively. 

10. The Wakarusa River possibly was a larger contributor of 

nitrogen and phosphorus to Clinton Lake than was Rock 

Creek. 

11. Trace element concentrations in the bottom sediment of 

Clinton Lake generally were uniform over time. 

12. As is typical for eastern Kansas reservoirs, arsenic, chromium, and nickel concentrations in the bottom sediment 

of Clinton Lake typically exceeded the threshold-effects 

guidelines, which represent the concentrations above 

which toxic biological effects occasionally occur. 

13. Trace element concentrations did not exceed the probableeffects guidelines (available for eight trace elements), 

which represent the concentrations above which toxic 

biological effects usually or frequently occur. 

14. Occurrence of cyanobacterial akinetes in the bottom 

sediment of Clinton Lake, combined with historical 

water-quality data on chlorophyll-a and total phosphorus 

concentrations, indicated that the reservoir likely has been 

eutrophic throughout most of its history. 

15. A statistically significant increase in cyanobacterial akinetes in the bottom sediment indicated that Clinton Lake 

may have become more eutrophic over the life of the 

reservoir. The increase in cyanobacterial akinetes may, in 

part, be related to a possible increase in total phosphorus 

concentrations. 

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Supplemental Information
24 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009

Table A1. Latitude and longitude coordinates, water depth, estimated penetration depth, length of recovered core, and estimated 

recovery percentage for bottom-sediment coring sites at Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas.

Coring site 

number 

(fig. 2)

Date cored 

(month/day/

year)

Latitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Longitude 

(decimal 

degrees)

Water depth 

(feet)

Estimated 

penetration 

depth (feet)

Length of 

recovered core 

(feet)

Estimated 

recovery percentage

CLK-1 04/15/09 38.92472 95.34417 46.0 8.0 5.4 68

CLK-2 06/11/09 38.91014 95.34775 37.0 6.0 4.5 75

CLK-3 06/11/09 38.89847 95.36944 28.0 11.5 8.7 76

CLK-4 04/21/09 38.89617 95.37958 25.5 6.5 5.0 77

CLK-5 06/11/09 38.92528 95.38139 36.0 12.5 8.6 69

CLK-6 04/15/09 38.92250 95.41389 26.0 9.0 7.0 78

CLK-7 06/11/09 38.90653 95.42942 11.0 9.0 6.0 67

CLK-8 06/25/09 38.88694 95.40333 13.0 10.0 6.6 66
Supplemental Information 25

Table A2. Estimated bulk density of bottom sediment at 

coring sites in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas. 

[lb/ft3, pounds per cubic foot; --, not applicable]

Coring site 

number 

(fig. 2)

Depth 

interval 

(feet)

Estimated 

bulk density 

(lb/ft3)

Computed 

mean bulk 

density1

(lb/ft3)

CLK-1 0–0.87 21.0 --

0.87–1.74 23.1 --

1.74–2.61 24.4 --

2.61–3.48 24.6 --

3.48–4.35 29.8 --

4.35–5.22 31.7 --

5.22–6.09 30.2 --

6.09–6.96 36.2 --

6.96–7.83 36.1 --

7.83–8.70 44.6 --

30.2

CLK-2 0–0.93 23.9 --

0.93–1.86 35.2 --

1.86–2.79 58.3 --

39.1

CLK-3 0–0.92 28.2 --

0.92–1.84 31.6 --

1.84–2.76 33.0 --

2.76–3.68 35.4 --

3.68–4.60 40.1 --

4.60–5.52 42.1 --

5.52–6.44 37.7 --

6.44–7.36 42.7 --

7.36–8.28 44.2 --

37.2

CLK-4 0–0.93 31.3 --

0.93–1.86 33.4 --

1.86–2.79 39.1 --

2.79–3.72 42.9 --

3.72–4.65 45.8 --

4.65–5.58 46.0 --

39.8

Coring site 

number 

(fig. 2)

Depth 

interval 

(feet)

Estimated 

bulk density 

(lb/ft3)

Computed 

mean bulk 

density1

(lb/ft3)

CLK-5 0–1.02 26.0 --

1.02–2.04 28.0 --

2.04–3.06 29.4 --

3.06–4.08 33.1 --

4.08–5.10 34.2 --

5.10–6.12 39.1 --

6.12–7.14 38.9 --

7.14–8.16 43.3 --

34.0

CLK-6 0–1.03 28.8 --

1.03–2.06 31.0 --

2.06–3.09 33.0 --

3.09–4.12 35.8 --

4.12–5.15 39.8 --

5.15–6.18 43.0 --

6.18–7.20 48.1 --

37.1

CLK-7 0–0.97 45.2 --

0.97–1.94 52.6 --

1.94–2.91 60.5 --

2.91–3.88 52.4 --

3.88–4.85 59.5 --

4.85–5.82 59.1 --

54.9

CLK-8 0–1.02 38.9 --

1.02–2.04 50.6 --

2.04–3.06 49.7 --

3.06–4.08 51.7 --

4.08–5.10 55.8 --

5.10–6.12 65.4 --

52.0

1

Mean bulk density computed as the average of the bulk densities 

for the individual depth intervals for each core.
26 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009 Table A3. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment samples collected from coring site CLK-1 (fig. 2) in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009. [Shading indicates concentration greater than threshold-effects guideline listed in table 3. >, greater than; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram; %, percent dry weight; <, less than] Constituent and unit of measurement Constituent concentration Interval 1 (bottom of core) Interval 2 Interval 3 Interval 4 Interval 5 Interval 6 Interval 7 Interval 8 Interval 9 Interval 10 (top of core) Percentage of silt and clay 95 94 96 98 100 100 100 100 99 100 Nutrients Total nitrogen, mg/kg 2,000 2,100 2,200 2,500 2,700 2,700 2,700 2,600 2,700 2,900 Total phosphorus, mg/kg 800 810 910 980 1,100 1,100 1,200 1,100 1,200 1,200 Carbon Carbon (total organic), % 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 2.0 Carbon (total), % 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.6 Trace elements Aluminum, % 7.2 7.3 7.7 8.1 9.0 9.1 9.6 9.2 9.0 8.8 Antimony, mg/kg .9 .9 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.4 Arsenic, mg/kg 11 10 12 14 15 16 16 16 16 18 Barium, mg/kg 620 610 630 630 640 650 660 650 650 630 Beryllium, mg/kg 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 Cadmium, mg/kg .4 .5 .5 .5 .5 .6 .7 .7 .7 .6 Chromium, mg/kg 72 75 79 84 96 98 100 98 97 94 Cobalt, mg/kg 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 16 16 16 Copper, mg/kg 23 24 25 27 31 31 30 29 29 29 Iron, % 3.5 3.6 3.9 4.1 4.7 4.8 5.0 4.8 4.8 4.7 Lead, mg/kg 24 24 23 24 26 27 27 27 27 27 Lithium, mg/kg 43 44 47 51 58 60 67 64 62 62 Manganese, mg/kg 950 1,100 1,200 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,600 Molybdenum, mg/kg <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 Nickel, mg/kg 31 34 34 37 42 43 46 44 45 44 Selenium, mg/kg .7 .7 .7 .8 .9 .9 .8 .9 .9 .9 Silver, mg/kg <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 Strontium, mg/kg 130 130 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 140 Sulfur, % .07 .07 .08 .10 .09 .10 .07 .11 .09 .12 Thallium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 Tin, mg/kg 3 3 4 4 4 3 5 4 4 4 Titanium, % .43 .42 .44 .43 .43 .44 .43 .42 .43 .41 Uranium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50

Vanadium, mg/kg 110 110 120 130 150 150 150 150 140 140Zinc, mg/kg 95 98 100 110 130 130 140 130 130 130
Supplemental Information 27

Table A4. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment samples collected from coring site CLK-4 (fig. 2) in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009. [Shading indicates concentration greater than threshold-effects guideline listed in table 3. >, greater than; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram; %, percent dry weight; <, less than]

Constituent and unit of 

measurement

Constituent concentration

Interval 1 

(bottom of core) Interval 2 Interval 3 Interval 4 Interval 5 Interval 6 Interval 7 Interval 8 Interval 9 Interval 10 (top of core)

Percentage of silt and clay 98 100 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Nutrients

Total nitrogen, mg/kg 2,200 2,200 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,100 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,200Total phosphorus, mg/kg 840 850 870 850 880 860 900 860 870 910

Carbon

Carbon (total organic), % 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.8Carbon (total), % 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 2.1

Trace elements

Aluminum, % 8.1 8.4 8.3 8.3 8.8 8.5 8.9 8.9 8.8 8.7Antimony, mg/kg 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 .9 1.0 1.0 .9Arsenic, mg/kg 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 12 14Barium, mg/kg 650 650 640 630 650 630 660 650 660 650Beryllium, mg/kg 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7Cadmium, mg/kg .7 .6 .5 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6Chromium, mg/kg 87 89 89 88 93 90 95 94 94 92Cobalt, mg/kg 15 15 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 16Copper, mg/kg 27 27 27 27 29 28 29 29 29 28Iron, % 4.0 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.5 4.3 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.5Lead, mg/kg 25 25 24 23 25 25 26 26 25 25Lithium, mg/kg 51 54 55 54 58 56 59 59 60 58Manganese, mg/kg 920 1,100 970 1,000 990 1,000 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,200Molybdenum, mg/kg 1 1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 1 1 1Nickel, mg/kg 38 39 39 39 41 40 41 41 43 41Selenium, mg/kg .9 .8 .7 .7 .7 .8 .8 .8 .8 .8Silver, mg/kg <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5Strontium, mg/kg 130 130 130 130 130 130 140 140 140 140Sulfur, % .09 .08 .07 .08 .06 .07 .07 .08 .09 .09Thallium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50Tin, mg/kg 4 3 4 4 3 3 4 4 4 4Titanium, % .47 .47 .47 .47 .46 .45 .48 .47 .47 .47Uranium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50Vanadium, mg/kg 130 140 130 130 140 130 140 140 140 140Zinc, mg/kg 120 120 120 120 130 120 130 130 130 120
28 Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009 Table A5. Percentage of silt and clay and constituent concentrations for bottom-sediment samples collected from coring site CLK-6 (fig. 2) in Clinton Lake, northeast Kansas, April 2009. [Shading indicates concentration greater than threshold-effects guideline listed in table 3. >, greater than; mg/kg, milligrams per kilogram; %, percent dry weight; <, less than] Constituent and unit of measurement Constituent concentration Interval 1 (bottom of core) Interval 2 Interval 3 Interval 4 Interval 5 Interval 6 Interval 7 Interval 8 Interval 9 Interval 10 (top of core) Percentage of silt and clay 94 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Nutrients Total nitrogen, mg/kg 1,500 2,500 2,600 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,300 2,200 2,300 2,200 Total phosphorus, mg/kg 640 1,000 1,000 990 960 1,000 1,000 1,000 990 1,000 Carbon Carbon (total organic), % 1.1 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.8 2.0 Carbon (total), % 1.5 2.2 2.4 1.9 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.3 2.1 Trace elements Aluminum, % 6.6 8.4 9.0 8.9 8.8 9.0 9.4 9.1 9.1 8.9 Antimony, mg/kg .8 .9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Arsenic, mg/kg 8.0 12 13 12 12 13 14 14 13 14 Barium, mg/kg 620 660 670 670 680 670 680 670 670 660 Beryllium, mg/kg 2.1 2.6 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.8 Cadmium, mg/kg .3 .5 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 .6 Chromium, mg/kg 65 86 92 93 91 92 96 95 93 92 Cobalt, mg/kg 12 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 16 Copper, mg/kg 21 28 30 30 29 30 31 30 31 30 Iron, % 3.1 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.7 4.9 4.8 4.8 4.8 Lead, mg/kg 22 28 29 28 27 27 28 28 29 28 Lithium, mg/kg 38 52 56 55 55 56 60 58 58 57 Manganese, mg/kg 760 890 1,100 870 900 980 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,200 Molybdenum, mg/kg <1 <1 <1 1 1 <1 1 1 <1 <1 Nickel, mg/kg 27 37 39 41 41 41 41 41 41 42 Selenium, mg/kg .5 .8 .9 .8 .9 .9 .9 .8 .9 .8 Silver, mg/kg <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 <.5 Strontium, mg/kg 140 130 140 140 140 140 140 140 150 140 Sulfur, % .03 .06 .07 .09 .11 .10 .09 .08 .08 .09 Thallium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 Tin, mg/kg 3 3 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 Titanium, % .43 .46 .46 .46 .47 .45 .46 .47 .46 .45 Uranium, mg/kg <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50

Vanadium, mg/kg 95 130 140 140 140 140 150 140 140 140Zinc, mg/kg 83 120 130 130 130 130 130 130 130 130
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Kyle E. Juracek—Sedimentation and Occurrence and Trends of Selected Constituents in Clinton Lake, Northeast Kansas, 1977–2009—Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5037

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