Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold

Area of Interest

By Michael P. Chornack and Thomas J. Mack

8C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Katawas gold area of interest (AOI) in southeast 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007). The AOI is located in the Giro, Miri (Andar), and 

Dih Yah Districts of Ghazni Province, and the Sharan District in Paktika Province (fig. 8C–1a,b). The 

Katawas gold subarea occupies 143 km2 (square kilometers) of the 478-km2 area of the AOI. The AOI is 

bounded by the Ghazni and Jilga Rivers on the northwest, the Park and Naharah Rivers on the southeast, 

and the Pulta River on the east. The Sardeh (Sarde) Reservoir is in the northeast corner of the AOI. The 

cities of Ghazni and Gardez are both about 40 km (kilometers) from the AOI. The AOI is characterized 

by a prominent northeast-trending ridge that terminates to the northeast at the flood plains of the Pulta 

and Jilga Rivers.

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in well casings are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2010), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

8C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Katawas gold AOI is based on data generated for the Afghanistan 

agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 643

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

The Sharana Agromet station is located in Sharan Woluswali on the Pulta River, about 1 km 

upstream from the Sardeh Reservoir (fig. 8C–1b). Precipitation data are available for this station for the 

2009–2010 water year (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). The closest Agromet

station to the AOI for which both precipitation and temperature data, including long-term averages 

(LTAs), are available is in the city of Ghazni, about 40 km northwest of the AOI. The total precipitation 

recorded at the Sharana and Ghazni Agromet stations for the 2009–2010 water year was 339.5 and 

218.3 mm (millimeters), respectively; the LTA precipitation at Ghazni is 308 mm. No precipitation was 

recorded at either station during September and October 2009, but as the LTA monthly precipitation 

recorded at Ghazni for September and October is 0.2 and 1.3 mm, respectively, receiving no rain during 

these two months is not unusual. Rainfall was recorded in August 2010 at both stations (88 mm at 

Sharana and 22.8 mm at Ghazni), indicating that some monsoon precipitation fell in the AOI. The 

Ghazni Agromet station received 34 mm of precipitation in July 2010. The Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) states, 

“The southeast region experienced heavy rainfall during the (2009–2010) rainfall season especially 

during the monsoon season.” The LTA precipitation for the Ghazni Agromet station for July and August 

is 15.7 and 2.4 mm, respectively, indicating that the monsoon rains are not an annually recurring 

phenomenon in this part of Afghanistan. Precipitation and temperature data for the Ghazni Agromet

station are shown in table 8C–1. 

A total of 4 snow days was reported for the Sharana Agromet station—2 in December 2009 and 

1 each in January and February 2010. The depth of the snow that fell at the Sharana station was not 

reported. The snow-depth maps for January 2010 and September 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) show 2 to 10 cm (centimeters) of snow in the AOI in January. 

Temperature data are available for the Agromet station located at Ghazni. The average monthly 

temperatures for the 2009–2010 season range from -1.1°C (degrees Celsius) for February 2010 to 

23.5°C for July 2010. The LTA monthly low and high temperatures are -7.2°C for January and 23.3°C 

for July (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). 

The Map of Potential Natural Vegetation in Breckle (2007, fig. 2) depicts two vegetation zones 

in and around the AOI. The higher elevations (above 2,200 m (meters)) are classified as Amygdalus

woodlands and the lower elevations (valley bottoms and river flood plains) are Pistacia atlantica

woodlands. Aerial photographs of the AOI indicate that natural vegetation is sparse, especially in areas 

mapped as bedrock (Maldonado and Turner, 2005). 

Table 8C–1. Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation and 

temperature at the Ghazni Agrometeorological (Agromet) station 40 kilometers northwest of the Katawas gold area 

of interest, Afghanistan.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius]

Precipitation Temperature

Long-term average1 Long-term average1

Agromet Distance 2009–2010 Elevation 

station from AOI annual Monthly Monthly Minimum Monthly Maximum (m) Annual center (km) (mm) minimum (mm) maximum (mm) (°C) and mean (°C) and (mm) and month and month month (°C) month

Ghazni 40 3,200 218.3 308 0.2 September 63.8 April –7.2 January 7.3 23.3 July

1

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).
644 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 645

b 

Figure 8C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
646 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 8C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 647

8C.1.2 Demographics

The estimated population density in the Katawas gold AOI as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge 

National Laboratory, 2009) is shown in figure 8C–3. Population density in most areas in the AOI is less 

than 100/km2. The largest settlement in the AOI is Sharan Woluswali, located in the northeast part of the 

AOI (fig. 8C–1a,b). In a few areas in the vicinity of Sharan Woluswali the estimated maximum 

population density is 501 to 2,500/km2 (fig. 8C–3). The estimated population density in the 

southwestern part of the AOI is generally less than 25/ km2. Areas where population density is higher 

are generally near streams. A few villages are present on the alluvial deposits formed at the mouths of 

ephemeral streams that drain the bedrock outcrop areas. There is limited development at the eastern 

edges of the AOI. The presence or absence of development in the AOI is probably related to the 

availability of water for domestic consumption and irrigation (fig. 8C–2). The population density shown 

in figure 8C–3 has a pixel resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010). The roads 

within and around the AOI are mapped as “tracks” (Afghanistan Information Management Service, 

2004). A secondary road connects Sharan Woluswali with the provincial capital of Ghazni. 

The Ghazni and Jilga River valleys are located northwest of the AOI. These valleys exhibit 

considerable agricultural development as a result of the availability of water for irrigation (fig. 8C–2) 

(Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997). Irrigation water is supplied from the Sardeh 

Reservoir through irrigation canals (U.S. Agency for International Development, 2003). Canals divert 

water directly from the Jilga River downstream from the Sardeh Dam for irrigation.

8C.3 Topography and Geomorphology

The topography of the Katawas gold AOI consists of a series of linear, northeast-trending ridges 

located in the middle of the AOI (figs. 8C–1b, 8C–4) (Davis, 2006). The ridges have a combined length 

of slightly more than 90 km. The location of ridges and valleys in the AOI is controlled by the location 

of faults and fault zones. The elevation of the bedrock outcrops gradually decreases to the southeast 

toward the valley formed by the Naharah River (fig. 8C–2). The northeast areas of the AOI are relatively 

flat, with an average elevation of 2,150 m above sea level (asl). This section of the AOI is dominated by 

the flood plains formed by the Pulta and Jilga Rivers. The sedimentary bedrock outcrops in and adjacent 

to the AOI display a complex pattern of shallow, linear valleys. The valleys could be controlled by 

steeply dipping, northeast-striking beds. There are two ephemeral streams in the bedrock outcrop that 

have large drainage basins. The larger drainage basin is about 31 km2

 in size and is in the northeast part 

of the AOI. This stream drains to the northeast into a splay of the Pulta River. The smaller basin is about 

18 km2

 in size and is in the middle of the bedrock outcrop area. This stream drains to the southeast onto 

a large alluvial fan and then into the valley formed by the Naharah River.

8C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Katawas gold AOI is in the Katawas (Katawaz) Artesian Basin, located in the northeast part of the South 

Afghanistan Artesian Region. The Katawas Artesian Basin is a geosynclinal trough of the same name 

filled with a thick sequence, as much as 6,000 m, of sedimentary and volcanic rocks. The Katawas 

Artesian Basin is described by Safi (2007) as having potential for groundwater development but also 

having a range of thicknesses, hydraulic properties, and water qualities.
648 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 8C–3. Population density of the Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 649

Figure 8C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology in the Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern

Afghanistan.

The outcrops and near-surface rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and 

hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 8C–4 with the 

underlying topography to allow examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figure 8C–
650 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

5a,b shows the generalized geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the 

geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown in

figure 8C–5a,b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic coverage 

(Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups 

of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low

relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “river channel; sands, 

undifferentiated; loess and fine sediments; and conglomerate sediments and rocks; sedimentary rocks;

and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 8C–4 and 8C–5a). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps 

at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to 

generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic map that covers this AOI is 

provided by Maldonado and Turner (2005). Information about the hydraulic properties of the 

geohydrologic groups in the AOI is extremely limited. Additional field work including geologic 

mapping, geophysical surveys, and borehole drilling and testing would be needed to determine the 

groundwater potential of the geohydrologic groups in the AOI.

The unconsolidated units consist of the sands, undifferentiated and loess and fine sediments 

geohydrologic groups along the southeastern border of the AOI; the river channel, sands

undifferentiated, and loess and fine sediments geohydrologic groups in the Ghazni and Jilga River 

valleys; the river channel and sands, undifferentiated deposits in the Naharah River valley; and the 

sands, undifferentiated and loess and fine sediments around Sharan Woluswali in the northern part of the 

AOI (fig. 8C–4). The area covered by the sands, undifferentiated geohydrologic group is fairly extensive 

within and adjacent to the AOI. Depending on the thickness of this group, it is possible that this unit 

could be a groundwater resource in and adjacent to the AOI.

The conglomerate sediments and rocks geohydrologic group is present along the flanks of the 

northeast-trending ridge in the AOI (fig. 8C–4). These rocks appear to have been deposited on the 

intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group. There are no mapped wells in these rocks in the AOI,

and no information is available on the thickness of this group in the AOI. The limited areal extent and 

outcrop distribution of the conglomerate sediments and rocks group adjacent to the intrusive rocks and 

lavas geohydrologic group probably limits the amount of groundwater that is present in and can be 

extracted from the conglomerate sediments and rocks.

The outcrops of the intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group form the northeast-trending 

ridge in the AOI (fig. 8C–4). If these rocks are unfractured intrusive rocks, their hydraulic conductivity 

and storage capacity will be small and it is unlikely that appreciable quantities of groundwater are 

present. However, if the outcrops consist of fractured intrusive rocks or fractured lavas, some 

groundwater could be present; the amount would depend on the amount of primary and secondary 

fracturing and the geometry of the fracture network.

8C.2.1 Surface Water

The Katawas gold AOI is between the Ghazni and Jilga Rivers on the northwest and the Naharah 

and Pulta Rivers on the southeast and south (figs. 8C–1b, 8C–2). A network of major, mostly perennial 

streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 

(National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in figure 8C–2. A network representing likely 

ephemeral streams, generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 8C–2. 

Names of major streams and identification numbers for any streamgages and ungaged streamflow 

estimation sites in the AOI are shown in figure 8C–1b. The Sardeh Reservoir is in the northern corner of 

the AOI and is formed by a dam on the Jilga River. The Pulta River runs through the AOI and empties 

into the Sardeh Reservoir. The Park River, southeast of the AOI, is ephemeral with sustained flow only 

during the spring runoff. Two large, unnamed ephemeral streams drain the bedrock outcrops in the AOI; 

the longer of the two is about 16 km in length and drains to the northeast, whereas the shorter is about 8 

km long and drains to the south (fig. 8C–2). Both of these ephemeral streams have formed alluvial fans 

where settlements and agriculture have developed.
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 651

 a 
652 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 8C–5. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b)

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community supply wells in the Katawas gold area of 

interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 653

Historical streamflow data are available from one streamgage station in and two streamgage 

stations near the AOI (Williams-Sether, 2008) (fig. 8C–2). The station on the Pulta River, above the 

Sardeh Reservoir (Afghan identification number 3–4.L00–1A), has a drainage area of 805 km2 and is at 

an elevation of 2,115 m asl. The period of record is from 6 May, 1969, to 30 September, 1980. The 

annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0007 m3/s/km2 (cubic meters per second per 

square kilometer). Mean streamflow was highest (2.45 m3/s (cubic meters per second)) in April and 

lowest (0.0 m3/s) in October; mean streamflow in both September and November was 0.05 m3/s. The 

maximum monthly mean streamflow was 8.14 m3

/s during April 1976. With the exception of January, 

February, and March, no flow was recorded at this station during 1 or more years during the period of 

record. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (WilliamsSether, 2008) is shown in table 8C–2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available 

historical gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.

The streamgage station located on the Jilga River below Sardeh Reservoir (Afghan identification 

number 3–4.L00–2A, fig. 8C–2) has a drainage area of 4,340 km2, is at an elevation of 2,086 m asl, and 

has a period of record that extends from 8 April, 1969, to 30 September, 1979. Some historical 

streamgage stations were imprecisely located, and this gage is likely about 3 km north of its location in 

figure 8C–2. The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0002 m3

/s/km2. Mean 

streamflow for the period of record was highest (4.04 m3

/s) in April and lowest (0.21 m3/s) in 

November, December, and January. The maximum monthly mean streamflow was 21.9 m3

/s during 

April 1976 and the minimum monthly mean streamflow was 0.039 m3/s during October 1972. The 

streamflow from the Sardeh Reservoir is probably controlled to provide irrigation water to downstream 

settlements; this regulation could affect the flow at this streamgage station. A statistical summary of 

monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (Williams-Sether, 2008) is shown in table 8C–3.

Characteristics of streamflow (per square kilometer) in topographically high areas of the AOI 

may be similar to those at the streamgage station on the Park River near Park Dasht (Afghan 

identification number 3–4.1L0–5T, Williams-Sether, 2008), approximately 25 km southeast of the AOI 

(figs. 8C-1b, 8C–2). This streamgage station has a small drainage area (260 km2) at an elevation that is 

similar to the elevation of the AOI. The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0015 

m3/s/km2. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (WilliamsSether, 2008) is shown in table 8C–4.

The largest body of surface water near the AOI is the Sardeh Reservoir, created by the 

construction of the Sardeh Dam on the Jilga River. The Sardeh Dam was constructed by Soviet 

engineers and completed in 1967. The water in the Sardeh Reservoir is used to irrigate an area of about 

15,280 hectares downstream from the dam (U.S. Agency for International Development, 2003). The 

volume of water in the reservoir varies seasonally, with the maximum probably coinciding with the 

spring runoff in the Jilga and Pulta Rivers. The U.S. Agency for International Development (2003) states 

that “Silt and sediment during periods of peak runoff partially fill the reservoir which results in a 

decrease in its storage capacity.” Whether the silt and sediment are or were removed to restore the 

reservoir to pre-peak runoff capacity is unknown. The water-surface area of the Sardeh Reservoir is 

about 15 km2. The reservoir has a maximum capacity of 259 Mm3 (million cubic meters) and a normal 

capacity of 165 Mm3 (U.S. Agency for International Development, 2003). Water levels in the Sardeh 

Reservoir probably fluctuate considerably with the capture of meltwater in the spring and the release of 

water for irrigation during the drier months.
654 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Table 8C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Pulta River above Sardeh Reservoir streamgage station, Afghanistan 

(Williams-Sether, 2008). [m3

/s, cubic meters per second; m, more than 2 years of occurrence; ng, no data]

3–4.L00–1A Paltu River above Sardeh Reservoir

Maximum Minimum Mean

Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Standard deviation 3 (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) (m /s)

Coefficient of

variation

Percentage of

annual streamflow

October 0 m 0 m 0 0 ng 0

November 0.404 1978 0 m 0.05 0.12 2.63 0.72

December 0.167 1979 0 1972 0.06 0.06 0.95 1.03

January 0.271 1979 0.010 m 0.13 0.11 0.89 2.02

February 2.32 1973 0.010 1974, 1975 0.50 0.70 1.40 7.95

March 3.15 1980 0.091 1977 1.53 1.26 0.82 24.2

April 8.14 1976 0 1970, 1971 2.45 2.72 1.11 38.8

May 3.13 1976 0 m 0.67 1.14 1.70 10.6

June 0.219 1972 0 m 0.02 0.06 3.46 0.29

July 3.15 1978 0 m 0.39 0.91 2.37 6.11

August 2.54 1978 0 m 0.48 0.77 1.60 7.63

September 0.324 1976 0 m 0.05 0.11 2.38 0.73

Annual 1.33 1976 0.073 1970 0.53 0.41 0.77 100

Table 8C–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Jilga River below Sardeh Reservoir streamgage station.

[m3/s, cubic meters per second]

3–4.L00–2A Jilga River below Sarde Reservoir

Maximum Minimum Mean

Month Streamflow Water year of

(m3/s) occurrence Streamflow Water year of Streamflow (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s)

Standard deviation

3 (m /s)

Coefficient of

variation

Percentage of

annual streamflow

October 0.393 1977 0.039 1972 0.22 0.11 0.51 2.05

November 0.324 1977 0.070 1970 0.21 0.09 0.44 1.93

December 0.320 1977 0.067 1972 0.21 0.09 0.42 1.92

January 0.301 1979 0.050 1972 0.21 0.09 0.44 1.94

February 0.786 1973 0.074 1972 0.28 0.21 0.72 2.67

March 18.5 1973 0.191 1972 2.59 5.74 2.22 24.3

April 21.9 1976 0.210 1971 4.04 7.09 1.76 37.8

May 7.98 1972 0.104 1971 1.56 2.45 1.57 14.6

June 1.47 1972 0.108 1971 0.50 0.39 0.79 4.65

July 0.675 1973 0.108 1971 0.36 0.19 0.51 3.39

August 0.477 1974 0.052 1971 0.27 0.14 0.49 2.58

September 0.361 1976 0.100 1970 0.23 0.10 0.41 2.20

Annual 2.90 1973 0.115 1971 0.90 0.97 1.07 100
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 655

Table 8C–4. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Park River near Park Dasht streamgage 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

3–1.1L0–5T Park River near Park Dasht

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 0.091 1976 0.040 1978 0.06 0.02 0.32 1.12

station, Afghanistan. 

November 0.104 1979 0.048 1978 0.06 0.02 0.33 1.19

December 0.133 1969 0.043 1970 0.09 0.03 0.35 1.72

January 0.149 1977 0.041 1970 0.11 0.04 0.37 1.98

February 1.13 1976 0.070 1969 0.32 0.37 1.17 5.85

March 3.58 1968 0.144 1969 1.48 1.26 0.85 27.2

April 3.83 1979 0.552 1969 1.89 1.41 0.75 34.8

May 1.42 1976 0.088 1978 0.46 0.55 1.18 8.52

June 0.272 1976 0.057 1978 0.13 0.09 0.68 2.33

July 1.97 1978 0.042 1968 0.55 0.82 1.48 10.2

August 0.447 1976 0.039 1969 0.20 0.20 0.97 3.72

September 0.172 1976 0.030 1968 0.08 0.06 0.79 1.44

Annual 0.829 1976 0.136 1969 0.40 0.32 0.80 100
656 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

8C.2.2 Groundwater

The nature of groundwater resources in the Katawas gold AOI, particularly groundwater in 

deeper aquifers, is not well known. The presence of agricultural development in the northeastern part of 

the AOI indicates that shallow groundwater resources may be sufficient for domestic consumption and 

limited irrigation, especially around Sharan Woluswali, where the unconsolidated sediments are

probably recharged by infiltrating surface and irrigation water in areas near the Pulta and Jilga Rivers. 

Seasonal recharge from winter and spring precipitation events is likely; however, the shallow 

groundwater is vulnerable to contamination, especially in areas where population density is high and 

agricultural development is present, such as north of the AOI. 

Many shallow (about 30 m deep or less) community water-supply wells were installed in the 

Ghazni and Jilga River valleys northwest of the AOI (fig. 8C–5a) by NGOs (Danish Committee for Aid 

to Afghan Refugees, 2011). Several of the wells are within or immediately adjacent to the AOI. The

three NGO wells inside the northwest border of the AOI are from 32 to 56 m deep, with water levels 

from 24 to 38 m below ground surface (bgs). Most of the NGO wells are tube wells with hand pumps 

that are used to supply water for domestic consumption. This is the most common type of NGO well 

construction and completion in Afghanistan. The shallow wells are generally driven pipe that taps the 

first groundwater encountered and may only access the upper few meters of the aquifer. Figure 8C–5b

shows the height of static water in the water-supply-well casings (well depth minus static depth to 

water). This type of well is commonly affected by seasonal water-level fluctuations and is vulnerable to 

drying out for extended periods, or even permanently, in areas where groundwater use is increasing 

(Mack and others, 2010). Most wells appear to have sufficient static water (10 m or greater) for use; 

however, many wells, particularly those at high elevations (fig. 8C–4) or far from streams, contain little 

static water (less than 3 m) (fig. 8C–5b). Additionally, the potential for well-to-well interference is great, 

and any new withdrawals, whether shallow or deep, have the potential to lower water levels in the 

existing supply wells.. 

Three groundwater-monitoring wells (GWMs) operated by the Danish Committee for Aid to 

Afghan Refugees (DACAAR) are located about 30 km from the AOI (Danish Committee for Aid to 

Afghan Refugees, 2011). Hydrographs provided by DACAAR for these wells (Danish Committee for 

Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011) display water-level and specific-conductance data (app. 3). The 

hydrographs show the date in week number and year, groundwater specific conductance in 

microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius (μS/cm), and depth to water in meters below ground surface. 

GWMs 5 and 171 are located in the city of Ghazni about 40 km northwest of the AOI. GWM 7 is in the 

settlement of Walikay, 50 km west of the AOI. The hydrographs for these wells record the fluctuations 

in water level that result from the seasonal variability in recharge. Recharge to the shallow alluvial 

aquifers that supply water to these wells generally occurs during the spring and early summer, 

coinciding with the seasonal runoff. If long-term trends in water levels are present, they could reflect the 

effects of groundwater withdrawals or climatic variables. 

The geologic map of the area (Maldonado and Turner, 2005) indicates that GWM well 5 is

located in late Pleistocene loess, and the underlying unit is probably late Pleistocene alluvium composed 

of gravel and sand. This well is located between the Ghazni River, about 1 km west, and an ephemeral 

stream about 0.6 km to the east. The land surface slopes from east to west with a gradient of about 

0.01 m/m. The water-level hydrograph for this well has a period of record from 9 May, 2005, to

21 July, 2008. The hydrograph shows that the maximum water level (39.8 m bgs) occurred in August 

2005. This high water level most likely coincided with high surface-water flow in the Ghazni River and 

the ephemeral stream to the east, appears to have occurred later than the expected spring and early 

summer snowmelt and runoff, and may be the result of late summer rains. The typical pattern of the 

spring to early summer seasonal recharge events is shown on the hydrograph. The water level in this 

well generally declined from the 2005 maximum until the 2008 spring recharge event. The lowest water 
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 657

level recorded, 43 m bgs, occurred in September 2007. The water level rose substantially from 

September 2007 until the April 2008 high of 40 m bgs (app. 3).

GWM 171 is located in Holocene alluvium described as “gravel and sand, more abundant than 

silt and clay” (Maldonado and Turner, 2005). This well is described as being at the Qarabagh bus station 

and is 115 m west of the Ghazni River. The period of record for this well is from 26 January, 2009, to

22 November, 2010. The hydrograph has two distinct peaks, both during the spring and early summer. 

The minimum water levels occurred in November 2009 and November 2010, although the water-level 

hydrograph ends in November 2010 and the water level was still declining at that time. The proximity of 

this well to the Ghazni River and the type of alluvial material mapped at the surface indicates that the 

potential for surface-water recharge to the aquifer is good. 

GWM 7 is located in the settlement of Walikay on an alluvial fan approximately 350 m from the 

center of an ephemeral stream channel. The geologic map of the area (Maldonado and Turner, 2005) 

shows this area as being late Pleistocene loess that is probably underlain by late Pleistocene alluvium 

composed of gravel and sand. Aerial images of this area show several karezes (hand-dug water-supply 

tunnels commonly used in Afghanistan that are constructed in unconsolidated and semi-consolidated 

sediments) with irrigation canals located in the ephemeral stream near this well. The water-level 

hydrograph for this well shows distinct peaks and lows that represent annual water-level highs and lows.

The highs generally occur during the spring and summer, probably representing times of flow in the 

ephemeral stream. The maximum water level was 3.8 m bgs in June 2006. The water-level lows occur 

during the winter months. The minimum water level was about 6.6 m bgs in December 2007 and 

January 2009. There was a general water-level decline in the well during the period of record. 

The U.S. government drilled water-supply wells at two sites just outside the AOI (fig. 8C–5a). 

Site 123 is about 12 km southeast of the AOI and is located near the Pulta River. Site 123 consists of 

two wells (1 and 2) approximately 650 m apart; both wells are located in alluvium. Well 1 was drilled to 

123 m bgs and the static water level was 68 m bgs. The water-level elevation in well 1 was 2,152.8 m 

asl. Well 2 was drilled to 112 m bgs and the static water level was 56 m bgs. The water-level elevation 

in well 2 was 2,151.6 m asl. Both wells were constructed in unconsolidated materials variously 

described as breccia, clay, conglomerate, sand, quartz, and rock. In well 1, the “water-bearing zone” is 

described in drillers’ logs as a conglomerate that is either clast or matrix supported. The reported depth 

interval for the water-bearing zone is 96 to 113 m bgs. The static water level in the well was reported as 

68 m bgs. The water level in this well rose above the top of the aquifer to 68 m bgs, indicating that 

artesian conditions exist in the aquifer. 

The U.S. government also drilled a well at site 169 (fig. 8C–5a). This well is believed to be deep 

(deeper than 30 m), but no information other than a static water level of 9.45 m bgs is known. The 

lateral extent of the deep aquifer penetrated by well 1 is unknown, but it could underlie much of the 

alluvium-filled valley around Sharan Woluswali and possibly the valley formed by the Naharah River. 

In a preliminary analysis of historical and recent aeromagnetic data (Sweeney and others, 2006; 

Shenwary and others, 2011), Drenth (2009) estimated the thickness of sediments overlying basement 

rock in the sedimentary basin 10 km southeast of the AOI to be at least 1,000 m, and possibly more than 

2,000 m. It is possible that alluvial aquifers are present within this thick sequence of sediments; 

however, as a result of the low precipitation and high evaporation rates that characterize this region, 

deep groundwater could be recharged very slowly and may be as much as thousands to tens of thousands 

of years old (Mack and others, 2010). 

It is possible that properly located and constructed wells in the deeper alluvial aquifers may be 

able to supply water for mining activities without causing adverse effects on local water resources. Sitespecific hydrologic investigations would help to determine the properties, extent, and thickness of any 

aquifers, which would need to be known prior to extracting water. Siting wells so as to avoid 

interference with existing water-supply wells and other natural or manmade water sources, such as 

springs and karezes, would help to minimize any adverse effects of additional groundwater withdrawals. 
658 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

No information was available on the occurrence of groundwater in the sedimentary or volcanic 

rocks in the AOI; therefore, depth to groundwater in these rocks is unknown. No water wells appear to 

be constructed directly on the bedrock outcrops, likely because of the expense of drilling wells in 

bedrock. Vegetated areas are visible on aerial images of the bedrock outcrops in the AOI. The vegetated 

areas occur within incised stream valleys and could indicate that sediments in these valleys form alluvial 

aquifers of limited extent. The presence of vegetation near the heads of ephemeral streams in the 

bedrock outcrops indicates that groundwater may be discharged from bedrock at these locations. The 

amount of water being discharged probably depends on local recharge conditions and could fluctuate 

seasonally in response to changes in precipitation.

8C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Katawas gold AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011) were conducted 

using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 8C–6) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission 

and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 8C–7a, b). Lineament identification and 

analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in carbonate bedrock 

environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui 

and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of high relative well yields 

in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The 

lineaments shown in figure 8C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in figure 8C–7 were 

delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the multispectral characteristics of the land

surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). Water wells in bedrock 

aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of highly fractured bedrock. 

Areas where lineament density is high (figs. 8C–6 and 8C–7a, b) potentially are areas where bedrock 

fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an indication of areas 

that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. Lineaments may also 

indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a high density of 

lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including those presented in 

this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and additional data to confirm the 

nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones.

Analysis of lineaments in the AOI was limited because of the exposed bedrock. Northeasttrending features (figs. 8C–6 and 8C–7a) indicate a possible pervasive fracture pattern in the intrusive 

rocks (fig. 8C–4). Bedrock wells installed near or in line with such features may have greater yields than 

wells in other areas. Where these patterns intersect, there may be a potential for enhanced secondary 

porosity and transmissivity of the rock. 
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 659

Figure 8C–6. (on previous page) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model 

data and natural-color Landsat imagery in the Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
660 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 8C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Katawas Gold Area of Interest 661

b 

Figure 8C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the 

Katawas gold area of interest and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat 

imagery in the Katawas gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
662 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

8C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources are likely to be more available for mining and other uses in the Katawas gold

area of interest (AOI) and surrounding area than in other areas of Afghanistan because of the proximity 

of the Sardeh Reservoir. The reservoir is the most readily available source of water in or near the AOI.

The volume of water in the reservoir probably decreases during the summer and fall as water is used for 

irrigation and inflow from the rivers decreases. The reservoir has a maximum storage capacity of

259 Mm3 (million cubic meters) and a normal capacity of 165 Mm3. During periods of peak runoff, 

sediment is deposited in the reservoir, partially filling it and decreasing its storage capacity. Any use of 

water from the reservoir to support mining activities would need to be carefully balanced with water 

demands for irrigation, especially during times of decreased precipitation and flow in the rivers and 

streams.

Nongovernmental organizations have installed many shallow wells adjacent to the northwest 

border of the AOI. Most of these wells are probably tube wells with hand pumps that are used to supply 

water for domestic consumption. Information about deep groundwater in the AOI is very limited. Two 

deep water-supply wells just outside the AOI indicate that a deep alluvial aquifer is located in this area.

This aquifer may be a considerable resource. It is possible that properly located and constructed wells in 

the deep alluvial aquifer may supply water for mining activities; however, because precipitation rates in

the area are low, it is likely that deep groundwater is old water that is recharged very slowly. Siting

wells so as to avoid interference with existing water-supply wells and other natural or manmade water 

sources such as springs and karezes would help to minimize any adverse effects related to the increase in 

withdrawals.

The long-term sustainability of groundwater resources in the AOI remains to be determined.

Close monitoring by water managers to balance potential groundwater extraction with potential 

groundwater recharge would help to prevent dewatering of the aquifer and disruption of

local groundwater supplies. Careful evaluation and management of potential new surface-water or 

groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing supply for 

current local water uses. A program of field investigations, including geologic mapping, geophysical 

surveys, and hydraulic well testing, is needed to adequately characterize the availability and extent of 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

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