Surface and Subsurface Microgravity Data in the Vicinity 

of Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South 

Dakota

Open-File Report 2015–1043

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
COVER 

Photograph showing the Ross and Yates Headframes at the Sanford Undergound Research Facility, Lead, South 

Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey photograph by Jeffrey Kennedy.
Surface and Subsurface Microgravity Data in the Vicinity 

of Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South 

Dakota

By Jeffrey R. Kennedy, Karl R. Koth, and Robert L. Carruth

Open-File Report 2015–1043

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Department of the Interior

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

U.S. Geological Survey

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2015

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Suggested citation:

Kennedy, J.R., Koth, K.R., and Carruth, R.L., 2015, Surface and subsurface microgravity data in the vicinity of 

Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2015–

1043, 32 p., http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/ofr20151043.

ISBN 2331-1258 (online)
iii

Acknowledgments

We thank the staff at the Sanford Underground Research Facility, including Jaret Heise, Tom Trancynger, and Tom 

Regan, for ensuring that field work proceeded safely and efficiently. Planning support from Mark Anderson, Andrew 

Long, and Donald Pool is gratefully acknowledged. This project has been supported by the USGS Groundwater 

Research Program. 
iv

Contents

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction................................................................................................................................................................. 1

Hydrogeologic Setting............................................................................................................................................. 6

Microgravity Monitoring of Groundwater Storage Changes..................................................................................... 6

Purpose and Scope................................................................................................................................................. 7

Methods...................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Absolute Gravity Measurements ............................................................................................................................. 7

Determination of Station Position............................................................................................................................ 9

Results...................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Observed Gravity Values ...................................................................................................................................... 10

Status of the Gravity Network................................................................................................................................ 26

Local Hydrologic Data........................................................................................................................................... 26

Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................ 30

References Cited...................................................................................................................................................... 31

Figures

1. Map showing simplified geology in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South 

Dakota. .......................................................................................................................................................... 2

2. Map showing surface gravity stations at the Sanford Underground Research Facility and surrounding area, 

South Dakota................................................................................................................................................. 4

3. Three-dimensional view of the former Homestake Mine, South Dakota, showing selected subsurface and 

surface gravity stations.................................................................................................................................. 5

4. Photographs of selected gravity stations located in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research 

Facility, Lead, South Dakota. A, USGS hydrologist Robert Carruth checking the verticality of the A-10 

absolute gravimeter at the Ross-4850 station. B, Station Yates-4800 at the entrance to the Large 

Underground Xenon experiment. .................................................................................................................. 8

4. Photographs of selected gravity stations located in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research 

Facility, Lead, South Dakota. C, Gravity station Ross-300. D, Loading the A-10 absolute gravimeter onto 

the Yates shaft on the 4850 level.—Continued.............................................................................................. 9

5. Scatter plots showing temporal trends in gravity at each station, 2007–2017.............................................. 19

6. Line plot showing gravity change at all stations........................................................................................... 23

7. Map showing the spatial variation of gravity change from 2010 to 2014...................................................... 25

8. Graph showing Homestake Mine, South Dakota, water levels in the Ross shaft measured by the Sanford 

Underground Research Facility. .................................................................................................................. 26

9. Graphs showing streamflow at stations Deadwood Creek at Central City, South Dakota (06436165) and 

Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, South Dakota (06437020) during the period of microgravity 

measurements, 2007 to 2014. ..................................................................................................................... 28

10. Graph showing streamflow at station Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, South Dakota (06437020) from 

1990 to 2014................................................................................................................................................ 29

11. Graph showing monthly precipitation data from the Lead, South Dakota, station (394834) of the National 

Weather Service (NWS) Cooperative Network. Interpolated data are from the Parameter-elevation 

Relationships on Independent Slopes Model............................................................................................... 30
v

Tables

1. Position coordinates, gravity values, and error statistics for absolute gravity stations in the vicinity of the 

Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South Dakota. Reported values are at 100 cm above the 

station mark, calculated using the vertical gradient −3 microGal/cm........................................................... 11

2. Absolute-gravity values from 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014, arranged by year. Reported values 

are at 100 cm above the station mark, calculated using the vertical gradient −3 microGal/cm.................... 16

3. Surficial absolute-gravity station position coordinates from Global Positioning System (GPS) 

measurements made in 2007, 2012, 2013, and 2014.................................................................................. 18
vi

Conversion Factors

Inch/Pound to International System of Units

Multiply By To obtain

Length

inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm)

inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm)

foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m)

mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km)

Flow rate

cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s)

gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s)

Pressure

bar 100 kilopascal (kPa) 

Acceleration

microGal (μGal) 10 nanometer/second2 (nm/s2)

microGal (μGal) 0.328 x 10-9 ft/second2 (ft/s2)

Except where noted, vertical coordinates are ellipsoid heights referenced to the GRS80 ellipsoid.

Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83[2011] epoch 2010.00).
Surface and Subsurface Microgravity Data in the Vicinity 

of Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, South 

Dakota

By Jeffrey R. Kennedy, Karl R. Koth, and Robert L. Carruth

Abstract

Absolute gravity data were collected at 32 stations in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground 

Research Facility from 2007 through 2014 for the purpose of monitoring groundwater storage change 

during dewatering of the former Homestake gold mine in the Black Hills of South Dakota, the largest 

and deepest underground mine in North America. Eight underground stations are at depths from 300 

feet below land surface to 4,850 feet below land surface. Surface stations were located using Global 

Positioning System observations, and subsurface stations were located on the basis of maps constructed 

from survey measurements made while the mine was in operation. Gravity varies widely at many 

stations; however, no consistent temporal trends are present across all stations during the 7-year period 

of data collection.

Introduction

In 2007, the US. Geological Survey (USGS) established a time-lapse microgravity study to 

monitor dewatering of the Homestake Mine in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The mine, which began 

operation in the late 1800s and closed permanently in 2002, was the largest and deepest gold mine in 

North America and encompassed both underground workings and an 800-foot-deep open cut (Mitchell, 

2009). In 2003, pumping to dewater the mine stopped, and water levels rose from more than 8,000 feet 

(ft) below land surface (BLS) to about 4,500 ft BLS. During the 2000s, the mine became the preferred 

site for a Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory (DUSEL), with plans to resume 

pumping to lower water levels back to over 8,000 ft BLS. In 2007, the planned DUSEL facility was 

scaled back and renamed to the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF). As of summer 2014, 

water levels in the facility are maintained at approximately 5,750 ft BLS. Several geoscience and 

physics experiments are installed, the deepest of which are on the 4850 level (approximately 4,850 ft 

BLS). Current (2014) plans are for static water levels to be maintained at approximately 5,750 ft BLS 

(Heise, 2014). 

The Homestake Mine was developed in Precambrian metamorphic rocks and Tertiary rhyolitic

dikes (fig. 1; Caddey and others, 1991; Strobel and others, 1999). Groundwater in the regional 

groundwater system is stored primarily in secondary porosity from fractures, and inflow rates into the

mine workings are generally low (Rahn and Roggenthen, 2002; Murdoch and others, 2011). Despite the 

low inflow rates, continuous pumping was required to maintain dewatered conditions while the mine 

was operational. During operations, water levels in the mine declined at a nearly uniform rate of 85 

ft/year from about 1900 until 1975 (Murdoch and others, 2011) due to mine excavations at progressively 

greater depths. The total average annual inflow rate occurring on all levels of the mine during the latter 
2

part of mine operations was estimated as 733 gallons per minute (gpm), of which 109 gpm came directly 

from precipitation on the drainage area of the open cut (Zhan and Deux, 2010). Dewatering pumps were 

turned off in 2003, and pumping resumed in 2008 in preparation for the SURF facility.

 

Figure 1. Map showing simplified geology in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research Facility, Lead, 

South Dakota.
3

Few historic groundwater-level data are available that are representative of the regional 

groundwater-flow system (that is, from deep monitoring wells) other than the water level measured 

within the mine workings. The lack of data makes it difficult to evaluate the effect that dewatering has 

on surface water and, in particular, whether streamflow is being captured by the pumping to dewater the 

mine. Furthermore, the lack of groundwater-level data means little to no calibration data exist from 

which to develop a groundwater-flow model. Water pumped from the mine by the dewatering process is 

ultimately released to Whitewood Creek (fig. 2). Consequently, net infiltration of surface water to the 

groundwater-flow system over a large area may be minimal. Locally, however, groundwater pumping 

may dewater fractures in the aquifer and cause increased capture of surface water. 

A network of absolute gravity stations was established throughout the mine’s vicinity to provide 

information about change in groundwater storage (figs. 2 and 3). If groundwater pumping removes a 

significant amount of water from fractures in the region around the mine, and this water is replaced by 

air, then a measureable decrease in gravity may occur because of the overall density change of the 

subsurface. This change will be larger and occur over a longer time period than the relatively rapid 

density changes expected from dewatering of the mine excavations alone. Conversely, if fracture 

dewatering is insignificant, then little or no overall density change will occur in the aquifer, and the 

gravity data will indicate change caused only by dewatering of the mine excavations rather than longterm changes correlated with pumping. Gravity data are also sensitive to near-surface water-storage 

change in the unsaturated zone and perched or alluvial aquifers. 
4

 

Figure 2. Map showing surface gravity stations at the Sanford Underground Research Facility and surrounding 

area, South Dakota. 
5

Twenty-one surface gravity stations were established in 2007. Absolute gravity was measured at 

each station in 2007 and annually from 2010 through 2014. During this period, some stations were 

destroyed, and other stations were established as replacements or to augment the network (fig. 2). In 

2011, an underground profile was established along the Ross shaft of the Homestake Mine (fig. 3). The 

Ross and the Yates shafts provide the primary access from the surface to the 4850 level of the mine. The 

Ross profile includes stations on the 300 level, 800 level, 2000 level, 4100 level, and 4860 level (level 

numbers refer to approximate depth below land surface). Refurbishment activities on the Ross shaft 

began in 2012, and except for the 300 and 4850 level stations, these stations have not been revisited. In 

2012, three new underground stations were established: (1) near the Yates shaft on the 4100 level, (2) 

near the Yates shaft on the 4850 level, and (3) at the 4 Winze Wye on the 4850 level, midway between 

the Ross shaft and Yates shaft (fig. 3). As of 2014, the absolute gravity network includes 16 surface 

stations and 9 underground stations. 

 

Figure 3. Three-dimensional view of the former Homestake Mine, South Dakota, showing selected subsurface 

and surface gravity stations. Major mine levels are shown in color. Scale varies in this perspective.
6

Hydrogeologic Setting

The Black Hills are a structural dome with a core of Precambrian rocks and Paleozoic 

sedimentary formations dipping radially outward on the flanks of the dome. Tertiary igneous rocks 

intruded Precambrian rocks and deformed Paleozoic sedimentary rocks in the northern Black Hills 

between 58 and 50 million years ago (Lisenbee and DeWitt, 1993). Detailed geologic and 

hydrogeologic descriptions of the region can be found in DeWitt and others (1986), Strobel and others 

(1999), and Redden and DeWitt (2008). The primary focus of this study is the Precambrian 

metamorphic and igneous rocks and Tertiary igneous rocks in the region of the SURF. Precambrian 

units, primarily phyllite and schist, have very low primary porosity and are typically considered the 

lower confining unit for the overlying Paleozoic aquifer units (Carter and others, 2003). Nonetheless, 

localized aquifers occur in the enhanced secondary porosity that is a result of fracturing from the 

Laramide orogeny and weathering. These aquifers are usually unconfined, and groundwater flow is 

often heavily influenced by land-surface topography (Driscoll and Carter, 1998).

Paleozoic rocks in the SURF vicinity are dominantly limestone and constitute the majority of the 

total thickness of the units in the regional groundwater-flow system. The Madison and Minnelusa 

aquifers can be well over 1,000 ft in thickness (Carter and others, 2003). The underlying interbedded 

sedimentary Deadwood and Winnipeg Formations and Whitewood Limestone, all relatively thin with 

respect to the overlying limestone aquifers, contain locally important aquifers. Tertiary igneous rocks 

also occur in the SURF vicinity (Caddey and others, 1991). These rocks are not considered aquifers and 

likely have hydrogeologic characteristics similar to the Precambrian rocks (secondary porosity from 

fracturing after emplacement).

A detailed description of the hydrogeology of the mine and a numerical groundwater-flow model 

were presented by Murdoch and others (2011). The conceptual hydrologic model included a shallow 

groundwater-flow system from the surface to a depth of 330–460 ft that received recharge and 

supported base flow in streams, and a deeper regional groundwater-flow system which is hydrologically 

connected to the shallow system. The numerical model suggested the existence of a recharge capture 

zone extending up to 5 miles (8 km) horizontally from the mine and at depths up to 5,900 ft (1,800 m). 

Water below these depths was assumed to be derived from storage through upward flow of older water. 

Microgravity Monitoring of Groundwater Storage Changes

Microgravity refers to repeat measurements of small changes in Earth’s gravity field. The 

method has been demonstrated for a wide range of applications, including mapping aquifer storage 

change (Pool and Anderson, 2008), studying near-surface terrestrial water storage (Creutzfeldt and 

others, 2010), and tracking the movement of a wetting front through a thick unsaturated zone (Kennedy 

and others, 2014). As the amount of water stored in both the unsaturated and saturated zone changes, 

through processes such as recharge, base flow to streams, and pumping, the average density changes 

along with the water-mass change. In unconfined aquifers and the unsaturated zone, this change in 

density occurs when water is replaced by air. In confined aquifers, density change occurs when water is 

released from storage through the decompression of water and compaction of the aquifer; generally, the 

density and gravity change is much smaller than in unconfined aquifers.

Typically, the addition of mass in the subsurface causes an increase in the measured gravity 

value, and conversely, the subtraction of mass causes a decrease in the measured gravity. However, in 

areas with substantial topographic relief, such as the area around SURF, water-storage change at 

elevations above a station has the opposite effect of storage change below a station. That is, if a station 

is located in the bottom of a valley and water is added to the hillslopes above it (through rainfall, for 

example), this mass “pulls up” on the gravimeter and the measured gravity value decreases. Therefore, it 
7

is important to consider the local topography when interpreting results. The primary use of the gravity 

data presented here is to evaluate and calibrate a groundwater-flow model. To do so, predictions of the 

expected change in gravity are made using the model and are then compared to measured gravity 

change.

Purpose and Scope

This report describes absolute gravity data measured at 32 stations in the vicinity of the SURF 

from 2007 to 2014. Gravity data were collected for the purpose of monitoring subsurface water storage. 

Global Positioning System (GPS) locations are presented for each surface station where credible results

were obtained. Additional relevant hydrologic data are also presented: precipitation at Lead, S. Dak.; 

streamflow at Deadwood Creek at Central City, S. Dak., and Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, S. Dak.; 

and water levels within the mine workings.

Methods

Absolute Gravity Measurements

Absolute gravity data were collected at a total of 32 stations (figs. 2–4) using an A-10 absolute 

gravimeter (Micro-g LaCoste, Inc.). The A-10 absolute gravimeter measures the acceleration of a freefalling mass using a distance measurement obtained from a laser interferometer and a time scale 

determined by a rubidium oscillator. A spring mechanism isolates the interferometer from long-period 

seismic noise. Each measurement consists of between 720 and 1,200 drops of the free-falling mass, 

collected in sets of 120 drops, over a 15 to 30 minute time period. Measurement sets may be removed 

from final processing by visual inspection if they are not consistent with other sets. Although nominal 

accuracy for the A-10 absolute gravimeter reported by the manufacturer is ±10 microGal (1 microGal = 

1x10-8 m/s2), after several years of operation, the observational standard deviation for measurements 

using a single gravimeter at stable sites is estimated to be ±5 microGal, and this value is used in data 

processing (Schmerge and Francis, 2006; Kennedy and Winester, 2011). To ensure this accuracy is met, 

the instrument undergoes periodic calibration, maintenance, and comparison with other absolute 

gravimeters (Schmerge and Francis, 2006; Schmerge and others, 2012). Earth tide corrections for 

absolute gravity measurements are determined using the ETGTAB model with the default wave groups 

in the Micro-g Lacoste, Inc. software (http://www.microglacoste.com/). Ocean-loading corrections are 

determined using the finite element solution tide model FES2004, produced by Laboratoire d’Etudes en 

Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales (http://www.legos.obs-mip.fr/) and Collecte Localisation 

Satellites’ Space Oceanography Division and distributed by AVISO (Archiving, Validation and 

Interpretation of Satellite Oceanographic Data), with support from Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales

(http://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/). Polar motion corrections were determined using coordinates provided 

by the United States Naval Observatory. The barometric pressure correction is calculated using 

measured barometric pressure and an admittance factor of 0.3 microGal/mBar.
8

Figure 4. Photographs of selected gravity stations located in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research

Facility, Lead, South Dakota. A, USGS hydrologist Robert Carruth checking the verticality of the A-10 absolute 

gravimeter at the Ross-4850 station. B, Station Yates-4800 at the entrance to the Large Underground Xenon 

experiment.
9

Figure 4. Photographs of selected gravity stations located in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research 

Facility, Lead, South Dakota. C, Gravity station Ross-300. D, Loading the A-10 absolute gravimeter onto the Yates 

shaft on the 4850 level.—Continued

Determination of Station Position

Global Positioning System (GPS) data provide point longitude, latitude, and elevation, and 

where repeat data are available, an indication of elevation change at a station. In 2007 and 2011, GPS 
10

data were collected using standalone receivers. Data from 2007, collected at stand-alone receivers 

mounted on tripods, were post-processed using the Online Positioning User System (OPUS; National 

Geodetic Survey, 2014). At station HomestakeMansion, OPUS processing failed; consequently, 

baselines were manually post-processed using UNAVCO stations P043 and P054 and the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Earth System Research Laboratory station MRRN. The 

2011 GPS data, collected from a receiver mounted on top of the A-10 absolute gravimeter, could not be 

processed, owing to the relatively short occupation times (30–45 minutes) and long distances to the 

nearest reference stations. In order to improve the quality of GPS solutions, in 2012, 2013, and 2014, a 

GPS base station was deployed at station Opencut-GPS, and a second GPS antenna/receiver was 

deployed using the mount permanently installed on the top of the A-10 absolute gravimeter. Data were 

post-processed using OPUS to determine a position for Opencut-GPS, which in turn was used as a 

starting position for the post-processed GPS vectors between Opencut-GPS and each gravity station. 

The change in position at station Opencut-GPS was less than measurement error of about 0.8 in. (2 cm) 

in the horizontal and 1.2 in. (3 cm) in the vertical; therefore, a single average position was used for all 

years. As a result, published coordinates for most stations are tied to a single coordinate for OpencutGPS. Where observations were available in multiple years, an average position was calculated.

Many of the gravity stations are located in areas that are relatively poor for GPS reception 

because of nearby buildings, overhanging roofs, trees, and (or) topography. At five stations (Bullock, 

Mollman, RossWarehouse, RTentrance, and Yates; fig. 2), a precise location via GPS was not possible; 

instead, a position was digitized from aerial imagery retrieved from The National Map 

(http://thenationalmap.com/). In these instances, the imprecise position makes the gravity data 

unsuitable for modeling density heterogeneity in the subsurface (that is, traditional Bouguer gravity 

studies). However, the precision of the measured change in gravity over time is only affected by the 

ability to consistently set up the meter in the same location for each measurement. This was aided by 

permanent survey marks, photographs, and detailed site descriptions. Because GPS observations are 

impossible underground, subsurface stations were located using computer-aided design (CAD) files 

created when the Homestake Mine was in operation. As with surface stations without GPS positions, the 

precision of the measured change in gravity is minimal as long as the gravity meter is accurately 

repositioned for each measurement.

Results

Observed Gravity Values

The observed absolute gravity values, their position coordinates, and measurement uncertainty 

are presented in table 1. Uncertainty includes instrument accuracy (±5 microGal), setup error, and error 

associated with unmodeled environmental effects such as Earth tides, ocean loading, and barometric 

pressure changes. The same gravity values, rearranged to facilitate time-series analysis, are presented in 

table 2. GPS coordinates and processing results for those stations where acceptable GPS data were 

collected are presented in table 3. Gravity values for 2007–2014 vary considerably at most stations, and 

at many, two or more measurements have minimal or no overlap in their error bars (fig. 5). This 

indicates the differences in gravity values are likely due to change in groundwater storage or other mass 

and unlikely due to measurement error. A notable feature at most of the stations is the relatively low 

observed gravity in 2013 (fig. 6); these low gravity measurements may be related to relatively low 

precipitation in 2012 and 2013. 
11

Table 1. Position coordinates, gravity values, and error statistics for absolute gravity stations in the vicinity of the Sanford Underground Research 

Facility, Lead, South Dakota. Reported values are at 100 cm above the station mark, calculated using the vertical gradient −3 microGal/cm.

[cm, centimeters; μGal, microGal; NAD83, North American Datum of 1983(2011) epoch 2010.0]

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Setup 

height 

(cm)

Gradient 

(μGal/cm)

Gravity 

measurement 

date

Gravity (μGal)

Set 

scatter 

(μGal)

Precision 

(μGal)

Uncertainty 

(μGal)

Sets 

collected

Sets 

processed

4winzewye 44.3463 -103.7533 115 0 -3 8/27/12 980,267,820.1 2.10 0.67 6.04 10 10

4winzewye -- -- 115 0 -3 8/21/13 980,267,814.2 1.37 0.48 6.02 8 8

4winzewye -- -- 115 0 -3 8/27/14 980,267,816.8 2.14 0.68 6.04 10 10

Bernie 44.35502 -103.77912 1,584.65 0 -3 12/11/07 980,154,460.9 2.90 0.92 6.07 10 10

Bernie -- -- 1,584.65 0 -3 7/25/10 980,154,477.5 1.58 0.56 6.03 8 8

Bernie -- -- 1,584.65 0 -3 6/25/11 980,154,491.1 1.28 0.45 6.02 9 8

Bernie -- -- 1,584.65 0 -3 8/18/12 980,154,493.6 1.72 0.54 6.02 10 10

Bernie -- -- 1,584.65 0 -3 8/18/13 980,154,469.5 0.85 0.30 6.01 8 8

Bernie -- -- 1,584.65 0 -3 8/23/14 980,154,495.6 1.45 0.51 6.02 8 8

BHIreset 44.35451 -103.73794 1,436.17 0 -3 8/19/12 980,186,275.4 1.85 0.66 6.04 8 8

BHIreset -- -- 1,436.17 0 -3 8/18/13 980,186,254.0 2.04 0.83 6.06 8 6

BHIreset -- -- 1,436.17 0 -3 8/23/14 980,186,278.2 0.35 0.14 6.00 6 6

BlackHillsInn 44.35443 -103.73739 1,436.82 0 -3 12/13/07 980,185,497.4 3.34 1.06 6.09 10 10

BlackHillsInn -- -- 1,436.82 0 -3 7/25/10 980,185,473.9 2.48 0.88 6.07 8 8

BlackHillsInn -- -- 1,436.82 0 -3 6/24/11 980,185,498.0 0.66 0.27 6.00 8 6

BlackHillsInn -- -- 1,436.82 0 -3 8/19/12 980,185,508.0 1.13 0.40 6.01 8 8

BrokenBoot 44.37105 -103.74413 1,405.76 0 -3 12/11/07 980,195,104.1 0.46 0.16 6.00 9 8

BrokenBoot -- -- 1,405.76 0 -3 7/25/10 980,195,097.7 1.61 0.51 6.02 10 10

BrokenBoot -- -- 1,405.76 0 -3 6/25/11 980,195,094.4 1.11 0.39 6.01 8 8

BrokenBoot -- -- 1,405.76 0 -3 8/18/12 980,195,112.9 1.56 0.49 6.02 10 10

BrokenBoot -- -- 1,405.76 0 -3 8/17/13 980,195,076.1 0.71 0.25 6.01 8 8

BrokenBoot -- -- 1,405.76 0 -3 8/24/14 980,195,106.2 0.34 0.14 6.00 6 6

Bullock 44.3784 -103.7293 1,375 0 -3 12/12/07 980,205,800.7 1.30 0.41 6.01 10 10

Bullock -- -- 1,375 0 -3 7/25/10 980,205,808.1 1.12 0.40 6.02 8 8

Bullock -- -- 1,375 0 -3 6/25/11 980,205,798.5 1.42 0.50 6.02 8 8

Bullock -- -- 1,375 0 -3 8/19/12 980,205,811.0 1.05 0.33 6.01 10 10
12

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Setup 

height 

(cm)

Gradient 

(μGal/cm)

Gravity 

measurement 

date

Gravity (μGal)

Set 

scatter 

(μGal)

Precision 

(μGal)

Uncertainty 

(μGal)

Sets 

collected

Sets 

processed

Bullock -- -- 1,375 0 -3 8/17/13 980,205,784.3 2.92 0.92 6.07 10 10

Bullock -- -- 1,375 0 -3 8/28/14 980,205,812.3 1.54 0.63 6.03 6 6

BullockExpress 44.38864 -103.71269 1,372.51 0 -3 12/12/07 980,205,117.6 2.15 0.68 6.04 10 10

BullockExpress -- -- 1,372.51 0 -3 7/25/10 980,205,104.0 2.88 1.02 6.09 10 8

BullockExpress -- -- 1,372.51 0 -3 6/24/11 980,205,101.6 4.71 1.49 6.18 10 10

DeadwoodExpress 44.38803 -103.71323 1,367.90 0 -3 8/19/12 980,206,104.9 1.56 0.49 6.02 10 10

DeadwoodExpress -- -- 1,367.90 0 -3 8/17/13 980,206,076.3 2.37 0.75 6.05 10 10

DeadwoodExpress -- -- 1,367.90 0 -3 8/26/14 980,206,097.8 1.68 0.53 6.02 10 10

Flower 44.36871 -103.76676 1,467.38 0 -3 12/11/07 980,180,886.0 6.35 2.59 6.54 10 6

Flower -- -- 1,467.38 0 -3 7/24/10 980,180,874.2 2.94 0.93 6.08 10 10

Flower -- -- 1,467.38 0 -3 6/25/11 980,180,871.9 1.57 0.55 6.02 8 8

Flower -- -- 1,467.38 0 -3 8/18/12 980,180,884.1 1.08 0.34 6.01 10 10

Flower -- -- 1,467.38 0 -3 8/18/13 980,180,856.7 1.04 0.43 6.02 8 6

Flower -- -- 1,467.38 0 -3 8/23/14 980,180,882.8 0.27 0.11 6.00 6 6

Highwaydept 44.36913 -103.75538 1,433.35 0 -3 12/13/07 980,187,923.1 2.51 0.79 6.05 10 10

Highwaydept -- -- 1,433.35 0 -3 7/24/10 980,187,911.1 4.13 1.25 6.13 16 11

Highwaydept -- -- 1,433.35 0 -3 6/25/11 980,187,920.2 1.00 0.35 6.01 8 8

Highwaydept -- -- 1,433.35 0 -3 8/18/12 980,187,926.6 1.48 0.47 6.02 10 10

Highwaydept -- -- 1,433.35 0 -3 8/17/13 980,187,903.6 0.73 0.26 6.01 8 8

Highwaydept -- -- 1,433.35 0 -3 8/24/14 980,187,924.0 2.09 0.66 6.04 10 10

HMreset 44.34948 -103.77663 1,633.80 8.95 -3 8/23/12 980,144,511.2 3.41 1.08 6.06 10 10

HMreset -- -- 1,633.80 9.6 -3 8/18/13 980,144,500.3 2.17 0.69 6.01 10 10

HMreset -- -- 1,633.80 8.85 -3 8/24/14 980,144,515.4 3.01 0.95 6.04 10 10

HomestakeMansion 44.34971 -103.77718 1,637.10 0 -3 12/12/07 980,143,910.5 1.59 0.50 6.02 10 10

HomestakeMansion -- -- 1,637.10 3 -3 7/25/10 980,143,910.1 3.01 1.06 6.08 8 8

HomestakeMansion -- -- 1,637.10 3 -3 6/26/11 980,143,922.9 2.69 0.95 6.06 10 8

Mammenga 44.31704 -103.70199 1,707.39 0 -3 12/13/07 980,134,441.7 1.95 0.62 6.03 10 10

Mammenga -- -- 1,707.39 0 -3 7/25/10 980,134,418.7 2.85 0.90 6.07 10 10

Mammenga -- -- 1,707.39 0 -3 6/24/11 980,134,447.8 1.15 0.41 6.01 8 8

Mammenga -- -- 1,707.39 0 -3 8/19/12 980,134,437.2 0.66 0.23 6.00 8 8

Mammenga -- -- 1,707.39 0 -3 8/23/14 980,134,459.3 0.75 0.30 6.01 6 6
13

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Setup 

height 

(cm)

Gradient 

(μGal/cm)

Gravity 

measurement 

date

Gravity (μGal)

Set 

scatter 

(μGal)

Precision 

(μGal)

Uncertainty 

(μGal)

Sets 

collected

Sets 

processed

MiningPark 44.35460 -103.75520 1,520.54 0 -3 8/23/12 980,170,479.3 0.82 0.33 6.01 6 6

MiningPark -- -- 1,520.54 0 -3 8/18/13 980,170,457.7 1.55 0.55 6.02 8 8

MiningPark -- -- 1,520.54 0 -3 8/23/14 980,170,493.3 0.78 0.28 6.01 8 8

Mollman 44.3825 -103.7807 1,545 0 -3 12/13/07 980,166,967.3 1.67 0.53 6.02 10 10

Mollman -- -- 1,545 0 -3 7/24/10 980,166,937.6 0.88 0.36 6.01 6 6

Mollman -- -- 1,545 0 -3 6/25/11 980,166,955.1 1.21 0.43 6.01 8 8

No5 44.33538 -103.74378 1,553.25 0 -3 7/27/10 980,161,951.2 5.00 1.77 6.25 10 8

No5 -- -- 1,553.25 0 -3 6/27/11 980,161,946.4 1.41 0.45 6.02 10 10

No5 -- -- 1,553.25 0 -3 8/20/12 980,161,963.6 0.28 0.11 6.00 6 6

No5 -- -- 1,553.25 0 -3 8/20/13 980,161,936.1 1.08 0.38 6.01 8 8

No5 -- -- 1,553.25 0 -3 8/26/14 980,161,959.0 0.87 0.31 6.01 8 8

Opencut 44.35204 -103.76338 1,567.12 0 -3 12/14/07 980,157,898.8 1.02 0.32 6.01 10 10

Opencut -- -- 1,567.12 0 -3 7/24/10 980,157,902.7 1.53 0.54 6.03 10 8

Opencut -- -- 1,567.12 0 -3 6/25/11 980,157,908.1 1.64 0.52 6.02 10 10

Opencut -- -- 1,567.12 0 -3 6/28/11 980,157,907.9 1.63 0.58 6.03 10 8

Opencut -- -- 1,567.12 0 -3 8/18/12 980,157,908.4 1.58 0.50 6.02 10 10

Opencut -- -- 1,567.12 0 -3 8/17/13 980,157,888.1 1.51 0.53 6.02 8 8

OroHondo 44.34502 -103.75257 1,492.11 0 -3 7/27/10 980,173,549.2 3.09 1.09 6.10 8 8

OroHondo -- -- 1,492.11 0 -3 6/27/11 980,173,556.4 1.02 0.32 6.01 10 10

OroHondo -- -- 1,492.11 0 -3 8/20/12 980,173,553.8 0.46 0.19 6.00 6 6

OroHondo -- -- 1,492.11 0 -3 8/20/13 980,173,526.7 1.53 0.54 6.02 8 8

OroHondo -- -- 1,492.11 0 -3 8/26/14 980,173,555.0 1.02 0.36 6.01 8 8

Pronto 44.33830 -103.78558 1,595.81 0 -3 12/11/07 980,147,685.6 2.81 0.94 6.07 9 9

Pronto -- -- 1,595.81 0 -3 7/24/10 980,147,691.7 3.08 0.97 6.08 10 10

Pronto -- -- 1,595.81 0 -3 6/27/11 980,147,682.5 2.36 0.75 6.05 10 10

Pronto -- -- 1,595.81 0 -3 8/18/13 980,147,676.5 1.03 0.37 6.01 8 8

Pronto -- -- 1,595.81 0 -3 8/23/14 980,147,692.3 0.52 0.21 6.00 6 6

Pumphouse 44.37908 -103.77575 1,516.42 0 -3 8/19/12 980,172,346.3 4.19 1.32 6.14 10 10

Pumphouse -- -- 1,516.42 0 -3 8/18/13 980,172,321.0 1.67 0.59 6.03 8 8

Pumphouse -- -- 1,516.42 0 -3 8/24/14 980,172,336.4 1.69 0.53 6.02 10 10

RooRanch 44.38834 -103.68242 1,416.85 0 -3 12/14/07 980,192,913.0 0.56 0.23 6.00 10 6
14

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Setup 

height 

(cm)

Gradient 

(μGal/cm)

Gravity 

measurement 

date

Gravity (μGal)

Set 

scatter 

(μGal)

Precision 

(μGal)

Uncertainty 

(μGal)

Sets 

collected

Sets 

processed

RooRanch -- -- 1,416.85 0 -3 7/25/10 980,192,920.7 2.93 0.93 6.07 10 10

RooRanch -- -- 1,416.85 0 -3 6/24/11 980,192,925.7 1.16 0.41 6.01 8 8

RooRanch -- -- 1,416.85 0 -3 8/19/12 980,192,923.8 0.85 0.30 6.01 8 8

Ross-300 44.3464 -103.7574 1,500 0 -3 6/29/11 980,164,401.7 1.18 0.37 6.01 10 10

Ross-300 -- -- 1,500 0 -3 8/20/12 980,164,419.3 1.12 0.35 6.01 10 10

Ross-300 -- -- 1,500 0 -3 8/20/13 980,164,408.4 0.83 0.29 6.01 8 8

Ross-300 -- -- 1,500 0 -3 8/28/14 980,164,412.6 1.14 0.40 6.01 8 8

Ross-800 44.3463 -103.7582 1,350 0 -3 6/28/11 980,176,846.4 1.27 0.40 6.01 10 10

Ross-2000 44.3458 -103.7581 984 0 -3 6/28/11 980,203,973.4 1.20 0.35 6.01 12 12

Ross-4100 44.3461 -103.7581 343 0 -3 6/28/11 980,249,726.8 1.29 0.49 6.02 9 7

Ross-4850 44.3458 -103.7583 114 0 -3 6/28/11 980,265,522.8 0.67 0.27 6.00 10 6

Ross-4850 -- -- 114 0 -3 8/27/12 980,265,523.1 0.72 0.23 6.00 10 10

Ross-4850 -- -- 114 0 -3 8/21/13 980,265,510.4 0.99 0.35 6.01 8 8

Ross-4850 -- -- 114 0 -3 8/27/14 980,265,499.3 1.76 0.56 6.02 10 10

RT_entrance 44.3483 -103.7542 1,499 2.2 -3 6/29/11 980,172,691.6 1.00 0.35 6.00 8 8

RT_entrance -- -- 1,499 3.2 -3 8/20/12 980,172,679.2 2.43 0.86 6.05 8 8

RT_entrance -- -- 1,499 1.1 -3 8/20/13 980,172,654.0 1.97 0.70 6.03 8 8

RossWarehouse 44.3455 -103.7578 1,620 0 -3 7/27/10 980,147,375.0 1.37 0.49 6.02 8 8

RossWarehouse -- -- 1,620 0 -3 6/27/11 980,147,376.7 0.77 0.27 6.01 8 8

RossWarehouse -- -- 1,620 0 -3 8/20/12 980,147,378.5 1.49 0.53 6.02 8 8

RossWarehouse -- -- 1,620 0 -3 8/20/13 980,147,359.9 1.05 0.37 6.01 8 8

RossWarehouse -- -- 1,620 0 -3 8/26/14 980,147,388.2 1.97 0.62 6.03 10 10

Whitetail 44.32967 -103.79529 1,650.67 0 -3 12/12/07 980,137,169.8 1.23 0.43 6.01 9 8

Whitetail -- -- 1,650.67 0 -3 7/24/10 980,137,161.0 4.72 1.67 6.23 14 8

Whitetail -- -- 1,650.67 0 -3 6/26/11 980,137,166.9 0.92 0.33 6.01 8 8

Whitetail -- -- 1,650.67 0 -3 8/18/12 980,137,177.0 1.00 0.32 6.01 10 10

Whitetail -- -- 1,650.67 0 -3 8/18/13 980,137,153.6 2.04 0.64 6.03 10 10

Whitetail -- -- 1,650.67 0 -3 8/24/14 980,137,174.0 1.91 0.60 6.03 10 10

Yates 44.3522 -103.7511 1,606 0 -3 12/11/07 980,152,913.3 1.35 0.43 6.01 10 10

Yates -- -- 1,606 0 -3 7/23/10 980,152,914.0 1.78 0.56 6.03 10 10

Yates -- -- 1,606 0 -3 6/27/11 980,152,914.5 1.17 0.41 6.01 8 8
15

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Setup 

height 

(cm)

Gradient 

(μGal/cm)

Gravity 

measurement 

date

Gravity (μGal)

Set 

scatter 

(μGal)

Precision 

(μGal)

Uncertainty 

(μGal)

Sets 

collected

Sets 

processed

Yates -- -- 1,606 0 -3 8/20/12 980,152,900.7 1.15 0.43 6.02 8 7

Yates -- -- 1,606 0 -3 8/20/13 980,152,901.0 0.72 0.26 6.01 8 8

Yates -- -- 1,606 0 -3 8/26/14 980,152,921.9 1.28 0.45 6.02 8 8

Yates-4100 44.3520 -103.7513 343 5 -3 8/21/12 980,255,356.7 0.76 0.27 5.99 8 8

Yates-4100 -- -- 343 0 -3 8/21/13 980,255,342.4 0.68 0.21 6.00 10 10

Yates-4100 -- -- 343 0 -3 8/27/14 980,255,349.2 1.60 0.51 6.02 10 10

Yates-4850 44.3519 -103.7516 112 0 -3 8/21/12 980,270,595.1 1.16 0.41 6.01 8 8

Yates-4850 -- -- 112 0 -3 8/21/13 980,270,581.7 0.63 0.22 6.01 8 8

Yates-4850 -- -- 112 0 -3 8/27/14 980,270,592.6 1.61 0.51 6.02 10 10

1

Value for surface stations is from GPS data (table 3) or digitized from The National Map. Value for subsurface stations (4winzewye, Ross-300, Ross-2000, 

Ross-4100, Ross-4850, Yates-4100, Yates-4850) is elevation from the Homestake Coordinate System.
16

Table 2. Absolute-gravity values from 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, and 2014, arranged by year. Reported values are at 100 cm above the

station mark, calculated using the vertical gradient −3 microGal/cm.

[cm, centimeters; NAD83, North American Datum of 1983(2011) epoch 2010.0]

Observed gravity, in microGal

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Dec. 2007 Jul. 2010 Jun. 2011 Aug. 2012 Aug. 2013 Aug. 2014

4winzewye 44.3463 -103.7533 115 -- -- -- 980,267,820.1 980,267,814.2 980,267,816.8

Bernie 44.35502 -103.77912 1,584.65 980,154,460.9 980,154,477.5 980,154,491.1 980,154,493.6 980,154,469.5 980,154,495.6

BHIreset 44.35451 -103.73794 1,436.17 -- -- -- 980,186,275.4 980,186,254.0 980,186,278.2

BlackHillsInn 44.35443 -103.73739 1,436.82 980,185,497.4 980,185,473.9 980,185,498.0 980,185,508.0 -- --

BrokenBoot 44.37105 -103.74413 1,405.76 980,195,104.1 980,195,097.7 980,195,094.4 980,195,112.9 980,195,076.1 980,195,106.2

Bullock 44.3784 -103.7293 1,375 980,205,800.7 980,205,808.1 980,205,798.5 980,205,811.0 980,205,784.3 980,205,812.3

BullockExpress 44.38864 -103.71269 1,372.51 980,205,117.6 980,205,104.0 980,205,101.6 -- -- --

DeadwoodExpress 44.38803 -103.71323 1,367.90 -- -- -- 980,206,104.9 980,206,076.3 980,206,097.8

Flower 44.36871 -103.76676 1,467.38 980,180,886.0 980,180,874.2 980,180,871.9 980,180,884.1 980,180,856.7 980,180,882.8

Highwaydept 44.36913 -103.75538 1,433.35 980,187,923.1 980,187,911.1 980,187,920.2 980,187,926.6 980,187,903.6 980,187,924.0

HMreset 44.34948 -103.77663 1,633.80 -- -- -- 980,144,511.2 980,144,500.3 980,144,515.4

HomestakeMansion 44.34971 -103.77718 1,637.10 980,143,910.5 980,143,910.1 980,143,922.9 -- -- --

Mammenga 44.31704 -103.70199 1,707.39 980,134,441.7 980,134,418.7 980,134,447.8 980,134,437.2 -- 980,134,459.3

MiningPark 44.35460 -103.75520 1,520.54 -- -- -- 980,170,479.3 980,170,457.7 980,170,493.3

Mollman 44.3825 -103.7807 1,545 980,166,967.3 980,166,937.6 980,166,955.1 -- -- --

No5 44.33538 -103.74378 1,553.25 -- 980,161,951.2 980,161,946.4 980,161,963.6 980,161,936.1 980,161,959.0

Opencut 44.35204 -103.76338 1,567.12 980,157,898.8 980,157,902.7 980,157,908.1 980,157,908.4 980,157,888.1 --

OroHondo 44.34502 -103.75257 1,492.11 -- 980,173,549.2 980,173,556.4 980,173,553.8 980,173,526.7 980,173,555.0

Pronto 44.33830 -103.78558 1,595.81 980,147,685.6 980,147,691.7 980,147,682.5 -- 980,147,676.5 980,147,692.3

Pumphouse 44.37908 -103.77575 1,516.42 -- -- -- 980,172,346.3 980,172,321.0 980,172,336.4

RooRanch 44.38834 -103.68242 1,416.85 980,192,913.0 980,192,920.7 980,192,925.7 980,192,923.8 -- --

Ross-300 44.3464 -103.7574 1,500 -- -- 980,164,401.7 980,164,419.3 980,164,408.4 980,164,412.6

Ross-800 44.3463 -103.7582 1,350 -- -- 980,176,846.4 -- -- --

Ross-2000 44.3458 -103.7581 984 -- -- 980,203,973.4 -- -- --
17

Observed gravity, in microGal

Station name Latitude 

(NAD83)

Longitude 

(NAD83)

Height 

(meters 

above 

GRS80 

ellipsoid)1

Dec. 2007 Jul. 2010 Jun. 2011 Aug. 2012 Aug. 2013 Aug. 2014

Ross-4100 44.3461 -103.7581 343 -- -- 980,249,726.8 -- -- --

Ross-4850 44.3458 -103.7583 114 -- -- 980,265,522.8 980,265,523.1 980,265,510.4 980,265,499.3

RTentrance 44.3483 -103.7542 1,499 -- -- 980,172,691.6 980,172,679.2 980,172,654.0 --

RossWarehouse 44.3455 -103.7578 1,620 -- 980,147,375.0 980,147,376.7 980,147,378.5 980,147,359.9 980,147,388.2

Whitetail 44.32967 -103.79529 1,650.67 980,137,169.8 980,137,161.0 980,137,166.9 980,137,177.0 980,137,153.6 980,137,174.0

Yates 44.3522 -103.7511 1,606 980,152,913.3 980,152,914.0 980,152,914.5 980,152,900.7 980,152,901.0 980,152,921.9

Yates-4100 44.3520 -103.7513 343 -- -- -- 980,255,356.7 980,255,342.4 980,255,349.2

Yates-4850 44.3519 -103.7516 112 -- -- -- 980,270,595.1 980,270,581.7 980,270,592.6

1

Value for surface stations is from GPS data (table 3) or digitized from The National Map. Value for subsurface stations (4winzewye, Ross-300, Ross-2000, 

Ross-4100, Ross-4850, Yates-4100, Yates-4850) is elevation from the Homestake Coordinate System.
18

Table 3. Surficial absolute-gravity station position coordinates from Global Positioning System (GPS) 

measurements made in 2007, 2012, 2013, and 2014.

[--, no GPS observation collected; Method: A, average of 2 or more differential GPS observations; S, single-baseline 

differential GPS observation; NAD83, North American Datum of 1983(2011) epoch 2010.0]

Station name Method Latitude (NAD83) Longitude 

(NAD83)

2007–2014 

Average 

height (meters 

above GRS80 

ellipsoid)

Difference between observed height and 

average height (meters)1

2007 2012 2013 2014

Bernie2 A 44.3550151 -103.7791195 1,584.652 0.051 -0.075 0.023 --

BlackHillsInn2 A 44.3544342 -103.7373870 1,436.817 0.079 -0.080 -- --

BHIreset2 A 44.3545085 -103.7379404 1,436.173 -- 0.087 -- -0.087

BrokenBoot A 44.3710507 -103.7441287 1,405.759 -0.013 -0.002 0.000 0.015

BullockExpress S 44.388642 -103.712686 1,372.51 0 -- -- --

DeadwoodExpress A 44.3880312 -103.7132274 1,367.903 -- -0.005 0.011 -0.005

Flower2 S 44.368709 -103.766759 1,467.38 0 -- -- --

HighwayDept A 44.3691293 -103.7553760 1,433.352 -0.004 0.022 -0.006 -0.011

Hmreset A 44.3494782 -103.7766349 1,633.804 -- -- 0.007 -0.007

HomestakeMansion S 44.349711 -103.777180 1,637.10 0 -- -- --

Mammenga2 A 44.3170411 -103.7019871 1,707.393 -0.099 -0.145 -- 0.245

MiningPark A 44.3545950 -103.7551999 1,520.535 -- -- 0.006 -0.006

No5 A 44.3353787 -103.7437806 1,553.252 -- -- 0.006 -0.007

Opencut A 44.3520422 -103.7633779 1,567.119 -0.018 -0.002 0.021 --

Opencut-GPS A 44.3523297 -103.7625595 1,565.414 -- -0.007 -0.005 0.005

OroHondo A 44.3450197 -103.7525716 1,492.113 -- -- 0.009 -0.009

Pronto2 S 44.338304 -103.785580 1,595.81 -- -- 0 --

Pumphouse2 A 44.3790771 -103.7757547 1,516.416 -- 0.023 0.014 -0.037

RooRanch S 44.388344 -103.682419 1,416.85 -- -- 0 --

Ross S 44.345654 -103.758144 1,619.54 0 -- -- --

Whitetail A 44.3296700 -103.7952907 1,650.668 0.2823 0.016 0.003 -0.019

1

Table entry "0" indicates the solution that was used for single-baseline solutions.

2

Sky-view at the station is partly or completely obstructed.

3

Observation not used in the average station position.
19

Figure 5. Scatter plots showing temporal trends in gravity at each station, 2007–2017. 
20

Figure 5. Scatter plots showing temporal trends in gravity at each station, 2007–2017.—Continued 
21

Figure 5. Scatter plots showing temporal trends in gravity at each station, 2007–2017.—Continued 
22

Figure 5. Scatter plots showing temporal trends in gravity at each station, 2007–2017.—Continued 
23

 

Figure 6. Line plot showing gravity change at all stations.
24

An important influence on the measured change in gravity is water stored in the nearsurface as soil moisture and in perched aquifers. At the annual time scale, this reservoir of 

terrestrial water storage is largely independent of water stored in the regional groundwater-flow 

system, such that the long-term gravity change caused by changes in groundwater storage 

induced by dewatering could be obscured by higher-frequency gravity changes caused by 

changes in near-surface storage. As a result, the near-surface water-storage change must be 

carefully modeled, considering the detailed local topography at each station, and removed prior 

to evaluating the signal caused by dewatering. Another source of gravity change is changes in the 

gravity effect owing to water stored in the Grizzly Gulch Tailings Impoundment (fig. 2) as a 

result of water level changes; this has a potentially large influence at nearby stations, in 

particular station No5. Subsurface excavations made to house experiments may also have caused 

measurable gravity change. As with near-surface water storage, the gravitational effect of this 

variation can be modeled and removed. Such modeling is outside the scope of this report but will 

be required for future interpretation. 

The variation of gravity change from 2010 to 2014 does not appear to be spatially 

correlated with dewatering of the deeper mine levels (fig. 7). Gravity at all stations increases 

over the 4 years, from 0.6 microGal at Pronto to 40.6 microGal at Mammenga. The latter is at the 

highest elevation and is therefore more sensitive to a larger area than stations at lower elevations. 

Most of the remaining stations exhibit gravity increases between 6 and 18 microGal, with no 

distinct spatial pattern associated with the mine, local topography, or other factors.
25

 

Figure 7. Map showing the spatial variation of gravity change from 2010 to 2014.
26

Status of the Gravity Network

As of 2014, five stations in the original 2007 network have been destroyed 

(BullockExpress, HomestakeMansion, Mollman, Opencut, and RooRanch). The first three of 

these were replaced by nearby stations in subsequent years (fig. 2). One station established in 

2011 (RTentrance) that was destroyed has not been replaced. The vertical profile established 

along the Ross shaft in 2011 has not been revisited because the shaft is being refurbished and 

access is restricted. Expected completion is 2017, at which time stations Ross-800, Ross-2000, 

and Ross-4100 should be able to be reoccupied. All other subsurface gravity stations (Ross-300, 

Yates-4100, Yates-4850, and 4winzewye) are permanently marked and should be able to be 

reoccupied in future years. 

Local Hydrologic Data

The water level within the mine excavations has been monitored since pumps on the 8000 

level were turned off on June 10, 2003. Water levels rose continuously until mid-June 2008, at 

which time sustained pumping to dewater the mine resumed (fig. 8, data provided by the SURF). 

Between 2008 and 2012, water levels dropped from about 4,530 ft BLS to 5,900 ft BLS and have 

remained steady at between 5,900 and 5,700 ft BLS since then. Water levels are expected to be 

maintained at about this level unless future experiments are established at deeper mine levels.

 

Figure 8. Graph showing Homestake Mine, South Dakota, water levels in the Ross shaft measured by 

the Sanford Underground Research Facility. 

Variation in streamflow provides an indication of terrestrial water stored in the nearsurface; when storage is greater, base flow is generally higher. Although two streamgaging 

stations are located near the SURF, no stations with periods of record concurrent with the gravity 

measurements are located directly along Whitewood Creek or its tributaries Whitetail Creek and 
27

Yellow Creek, which pass directly over the deeper levels of the Homestake Mine. The two 

nearest stations with concurrent records are Deadwood Creek at Central City, SD (USGS station 

06436165) and Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, SD (USGS station 06437020); their 

watersheds are to the north and southeast, respectively, of the subsurface mine excavations (fig. 

1). During the period of microgravity measurements from 2007 until 2014, a notable feature of 

the streamflow record at these two stations is a low-streamflow period between the middle of 

2011 and early 2013 relative to other years; both the volume of discharge and the annual peak 

discharge are relatively low in 2012, and the volume of discharge is relatively low in 2013 (fig. 

9). Relatively wet winters and larger volumes of spring runoff are observed in 2010 and 2014. 

A longer record at station Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, SD exhibits a notable 

downward trend in streamflow between about 2000 and 2005 (fig. 10; discussion of trends is in a 

qualitative sense only, and formal trend analysis has not been performed). There is an increasing 

trend in streamflow before and after this period. Although this period of decreasing streamflow 

generally corresponds with the period when pumping in the Homestake Mine stopped, a nearly 

identical trend is seen in streamflow records throughout the region, including those from much 

larger watersheds and at distances of hundreds of miles (for example, station Little Missouri 

River at Camp Crook, SD, USGS station 06334500; data available at 

http://waterdata.usgs.gov/sd/nwis/dv?site_no=06334500). 
28

Figure 9. Graphs showing streamflow at stations Deadwood Creek at Central City, South Dakota 

(06436165) and Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, South Dakota (06437020) during the period of 

microgravity measurements, 2007 to 2014. 
29

Figure 10. Graph showing streamflow at station Bear Butte Creek near Deadwood, South Dakota 

(06437020) from 1990 to 2014. 

Precipitation data from the Lead, S. Dak., station (394834) of the National Weather 

Service Cooperative Network (Western Regional Climate Center, 2014) show little in the way of 

significant trends between 2000 and 2014 (fig. 11). Three months of missing data were 

interpolated from precipitation rasters provided by the Parameter-elevation Relationships on 

Independent Slopes Model (PRISM Climate Group, 2014). The period of relatively low 

precipitation in 2012 and 2013 evident in the streamflow records (fig. 9) is also present in the 

precipitation record, although similarly dry periods are also present in the early part of the 2000s; 

this earlier period corresponds with the decrease in streamflow observed between 2000 and 2005 

(fig. 11). The period of highest sustained rainfall occurred in 2008 and 2009, when monthly 

rainfall was 1.5 inches or greater for 23 consecutive months.
30

 Figure 11. Graph showing monthly precipitation data from the Lead, South Dakota, station (394834) of the 

National Weather Service (NWS) Cooperative Network. Interpolated data are from the Parameter-elevation 

Relationships on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM Climate Group, 2014).

Conclusion

Absolute gravity data were collected at 32 stations at and in the vicinity of the Sanford 

Underground Research Facility in Lead, South Dakota, from 2007 through 2014. Eight stations 

are located underground at depths from 300 to 4,850 ft BLS; the deepest are 112 to 115 meters 

above mean sea level. GPS data were used to position each surface station where reliable data 

could be collected. Subsurface stations were positioned using CAD files provided by the SURF. 

Each station has a permanent mark and should be able to be reoccupied in the future. During the 

period of data collection, the water-table elevation in the facility decreased about 1,200 ft, but a 

corresponding change in gravity was not clearly evident. Although streamflow trends mirror the 

changes in pumping—streamflow declined when dewatering stopped in 2002 and increased after 

the mid to late 2000s, around when dewatering resumed—similar trends occur across the region 

and are probably unrelated to, or a secondary effect of, dewatering. Because gravity is an 

integrated measurement of all subsurface storage change, including soil moisture, perched and 

(or) alluvial aquifers, and the regional groundwater-flow system, unwanted signals must be 

removed from the data. Therefore, in order to evaluate the change in gravity owing to dewatering 

of the regional groundwater-flow system, near-surface storage change at each station must be 

estimated. 

Data collected from gravity surveys such as these can be used for a variety of purposes. 

Most relevant to the Sanford Underground Research Facility might be the evaluation and 

calibration of storage parameters in a groundwater-flow model for the region. Specifically, the 

change in gravity from dewatering can be predicted by the model and then compared to actual 

gravity measurements, followed by recalibration of the model as necessary.
31

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