Edited by 

C S W. C, USAF, R

Foreword by Maj Gen Thomas H. Deale

Afterword by Maj Gen Bradley D. Spacy

VOLUME II

Defending

Air Bases

in an Age of

Insurgency

US Air Force

2019

“Year of the Defender”
Defending Air Bases 

in an Age of Insurgency

Volume II

Shannon W. Caudill, Editor 

Colonel, USAF, Retired

Air University Press 

Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education 

Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama
Chief of Staff , US Air Force

Gen David L. Goldfein

Commander, Air Education and Training 

Command 

Lt Gen Steven L. Kwast 

Commander and President, Air University

Lt Gen Anthony J. Cotton

Commander, Curtis E. LeMay Center for 

Doctrine Development and Education

Maj Gen Michael D. Rothstein 

Director, Air University Press 

Lt Col Darin M. Gregg

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Caudill, Shannon W.

Defending air bases in an age of insurgency / 

Shannon W. Caudill, Colonel, USAF.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-58566-241-8

1. Air bases—Security measures—United States.

2. United States. Air Force—Security measures.

3. Irregular warfare—United States. I. Title. 

UG634.49.C48 2014

358.4’14—dc23

 2014012026

Published by Air University Press in March 2019

Disclaimer

Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed 

or implied within are solely those of the authors and do 

not necessarily represent the official policy or position 

of the organizations with which they are associated or 

the views of the Air University Press, LeMay Center, 

Air University, United States Air Force, Department 

of Defense, or any other US government agency. This 

publication is cleared for public release and unlimited 

distribution.

This book and other Air University Press publications 

are available electronically at the AU Press website: 

https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/AUPress.

Project Editor

Jeanne K. Shamburger

Copy Editors

Tammi Dacus and Sandi Davis 

Cover Art, Book Design, and Illustrations 

Daniel Armstrong 

Composition and Prepress Production

Vivian D. O’Neal, Nedra O. Looney, and 

Jeanne K. Shamburger

Print Preparation and Distribution

Diane Clark and MSgt Ericka Gilliam

Air University Press 

600 Chennault Circle, Bldg 1405 

Maxwell AFB, AL 36112-6010 

https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/AUPress 

Facebook:

https://www.facebook.com/AirUnivPress

and

Twitter: https://twitter.com/aupress

Air University Press
Dedicated to Thomas and Nicholas . . . 

and the “Year of the Defender”

v

Contents

List of Illustrations ix

Foreword xiii

Thomas H. Deale

About the Authors xvii

Acknowledgments xxix

Introduction xxxv

Shannon W. Caudill

PART 1

GETTING IN . . . AND GETTING OUT: 

SECURING AIR BASES AT THE BEGINNING 

AND END OF CONFLICTS

 1 First In!: Expeditionary Air Base Seizure and Operations; 

Power Projection through Mobility Warriors 3

J. William DeMarco

 2 Getting Out: Securing Air Bases during a Withdrawal 87

Michael M. Wellock

PART 2

IRAQ AND AFGHANISTAN CASE STUDIES: 

THE BASE DEFENSE TASK FORCE AND AIR FORCE 

HISTORICAL RESEARCH AGENCY RESEARCH RESULTS

3 An Airman Reports: Task Force 455 and the 

Defense of Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan 113

Erik K. Rundquist and Raymond J. Fortner

4 Outside the Wire: Recollections of Operation 

Desert Safeside and TF 1041 139

Walter E. Buchanan III, Bradley D. Spacy, Chris Bargery, 

Glen E. Christensen, and Armand “Beaux” Lyons
CONTENTS

vi

 5 Three Enemies: Lessons from Enemy Air Base Attacks 

 in Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan 211

 Shannon W. Caudill

PART 3

AIR BASE DEFENSE ENABLERS: 

AIR-MINDEDNESS AND COUNTERINTELLIGENCE

6 Enabling a Three-Dimensional Integrated Defense 235

Colby B. Edwards

7 Dissipating the Fog of War: Improving Intelligence 

Support to Air Base Defense 253

Jason F. Baggett

PART 4

THE PIVOT TO THE PACIFIC: 

AIR BASE DEFENSE AND AIRSEA BATTLE

8 Airpower Projection in the Antiaccess/Area-Denial 

Environment: Dispersed Operations and Base Defense 269

Russell S. Badowski

9 AirSea Battle and the Air Base Defense Shortfall 285

Shannon W. Caudill, Troy A. Roberts, 

and Thomas G. Miner

PART 5

ORGANIZING FOR THE FUTURE

10 Target—Air Base: The Strategic Effects of Ground 

Attacks on Airpower 303

Scott P. Black

11 You Own It: The Commander’s Responsibility for 

Air Base Defense 317

Loren M. Coulter
CONTENTS

vii

12 US Air Force Expeditionary Security Operations 2040: 

A Technology Vision for Deployed Air Base 

Defense Capabilities 335

Christopher W. Allen

Afterword 355

Bradley D. Spacy

Abbreviations 361

Bibliography 371

Index 409

ix

Illustrations

Figures

 1.1 Antiaccess dilemma 4

 1.2 Joint Vision 2020 7

 1.3 Air base opening force model construct 17

 1.4 German invasion of Norway, 1940 19

 1.5 Soviet thrust into Afghanistan 29

 1.6 Iraqi airfields 39

 1.7 Air base opening timeline 50

 1.8 Melding of career fields 58

 1.9 EMTF/CRW organizational structure 65

 1.10 CRGs and the arc of instability 69

 1.11 CRG badges and tabs 74

 2.1 Joint Base Balad: The Road Ahead 95

 2.2 Indirect fire attacks 98

 3.1 Base boundary considerations 116

 3.2 Bagram’s defensive scheme 122

 4.1 Balad AB notional points of origin/impact map

prior to TF 1041 148

 4.2 Balad AB notional points of origins/impact map 

with proposed TAOR 152

 4.3 Ambush on AIFs at Tigris River logistics node 195
x

ILLUSTRATIONS

 4.4 Operation Baywatch enemy scheme of maneuver 196

 4.5 Balad AB notional POO-POI map 207

 5.1 Vietcong sapper attack configurations 217

5.2 Route and targets of Taliban insurgent teams 220

 5.3 Attacks and attack intervals on Joint Base Balad 223

 6.1 Balancing levels of command and control 244

10.1 Air base attacks and damaged/destroyed aircraft

 in Vietnam and Iraq 308

11.1 Integrated defense concept 320

11.2 Risk management process 321

Tables

 2.1 Military decision-making process 96

 2.2 Contractor personnel and troop level in Iraq 102

 5.1 Statistical comparison of fixed-wing aircraft 212

 5.2 Vietcong training schedule for May 1967 215

 9.1 SPPs in USPACOM area of responsibility 294

10.1 Aircraft total active inventory 310
As a land-based force, we fight the base first to project 

power and destroy the enemy. Doesn’t do any good 

to have the best crews and equipment on the planet if we 

let someone breach our defenses and wreak havoc. We 

must be the best in the world at integrated base defense.

—Gen David L. Goldfein

Air Force Chief of Staff

18 January 2019 

Responding to an advance copy of this book

xiii

Foreword

Defending air bases from attack remains a major operational challenge in every theater and every conflict. Airfields are strategic targets; they allow for the generation and projection of crucial military 

power and are usually a key joint and/or coalition command and 

control node. The growing problem of adversary antiaccess and areadenial strategies only adds to the necessity of studying integrated 

base defense, with special emphasis on ground-based threats. Since 

the Vietnam War, ground-based threats have been our biggest challenge as adversaries have sought to counter US airpower from the 

ground rather than in the air. Future conflicts will continue to see 

enemy strategies designed to inhibit air operations from a distance 

through not only growing missile technologies but also traditional 

methods like indirect fire, special operations, and sapper attacks. I 

am thankful that Air University (AU) Press has invested in a second 

volume of this anthology to further explore the contemporary challenges to airpower from ground-based threats and am especially 

pleased that most of the authors conducted their research and writing as students at Air University. As Airmen and joint leaders, we 

must reflect on and debate the important issues addressed in this 

volume. We owe it to the young men and women we lead to build on 

the lessons learned from recent conflicts so that we may lay a solid 

foundation for the security of future air operations and Airmen.

Since AU Press released Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency in May 2014, there has been a groundswell of support for a 

second project designed to add more depth and fill gaps in the literature. The first volume essentially bridged the gap in the literature that 

existed since the last publication on this subject in 1995. This second 

project examines more current topics like base defense in AirSea 

Battle (renamed the Joint Concept for Access and Maneuver in the 

Global Commons), modern air support for base defense, counterintelligence enablers, and commander responsibilities for air base 

defense. Further, it offers a more focused assessment of base defense 

in the Afghanistan theater of operation, projected technological advances in base defense, and unique air base defense challenges found 

in the beginning (getting in) and ending of conflicts (getting out). 

This volume also presents new research based on Colonel Caudill’s 

Air Command and Staff College base defense research elective, fea-
FOREWORD

xiv

turing a research partnership with the Air Force Historical Research 

Agency.

I had the unique privilege of leading base defense at two locations 

in Afghanistan and would like to offer some insights into the air base 

defense challenge. At the senior-leader level, base defense is all about 

developing effective and cooperative relationships with fellow commanders across the battlespace. To be effective at base defense, you 

have to have an accurate, detailed perspective of the threat and mission environment as well as the organizational dynamics of friendly 

forces and the resources that will interact to effectively provide for 

the defense. As the commander charged with base defense, you must 

integrate and synchronize your efforts with the surrounding battlespace commander. You’re not just on your own—you will need 

support and resources from across the joint force or coalition.

Airmen use an “air-minded” approach to air base defense; this 

mind-set is different than that of solely defending a large forward 

operating base. Airmen need to ensure that defense of an air base 

goes well beyond perimeter security. Doing so includes defending 

the mission by addressing the surface-to-air missile threat and approach corridors and integrating military deception and other innovative methods to assure continuity of air operations. Effective 

nonlethal countermeasures are essential because in many cases, kinetic responses are not appropriate given the context of the situation. 

In most environments, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

are critical enablers, but rarely are they dedicated to air base defense. 

As such, the air-minded defender will integrate and utilize residual 

capability and loiter time of air component assets as they return to 

base or get rerolled to different missions.

Finally, as a service, we are not optimally equipped for the counterinsurgency engagement and development mission. In Afghanistan we reached out to other organizations for human terrain expertise, linguists, and resources to support outside-the-wire development 

and community engagement. In a counterinsurgency, security forces 

and others involved in base defense need to ensure they expand their 

mind-sets from only providing security to proactive engagement. 

Defensive forces and commanders must foster relationships with the 

communities outside the wire to ensure the local population has a 

vested interest in the security and welfare of the base.

Colonel Caudill and his fellow authors have done a real service for 

the Air Force and joint community by tackling the thorny issues dis-
FOREWORD

xv

cussed in this book. They are adding a rich new volume to an important and often underappreciated part of airpower history and the 

operational art.

THOMAS H. DEALE

Major General, USAF

xvii

About the Authors

Lt Col Christopher W. Allen, USAF (BA, University of Louisville; 

JD, University of Louisville; MA, Naval Postgraduate School; MA, 

Air Command and Staff College; MPhil, School of Advanced Air and 

Space Studies), is chief, Cyberspace Policy Branch, Office of Information Dominance and Chief Information Officer, Office of the Secretary of the Air Force. As a special agent in the Air Force Office of 

Special Investigations (AFOSI), he held extensive experience in 

counterintelligence, counterthreat operations, and felony-level criminal investigations. He commanded five detachments stateside and 

deployed, including AFOSI Expeditionary Detachment 2405—the 

largest detachment in Afghanistan—and AFOSI Detachment 241, Al 

Udeid AB, Qatar. He also served as operations officer for the AFOSI’s 

24th Expeditionary Field Investigations Squadron, Al Udeid AB, 

where he traveled extensively to support AFOSI units in Iraq, Afghanistan, Jordan, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, and Kyrgyzstan. 

He is an honors graduate of the Arabic program at the Defense Language Institute, Presidio of Monterey, California, and a graduate of 

the Middle East Security Studies program at the Naval Postgraduate 

School, Monterey. He is a distinguished graduate of the US Air Force 

Special Investigations Academy, Glynco, Georgia, and the first-ever 

AFOSI graduate of the School of Advanced Air and Space Studies—

the Air Force’s premier graduate strategy school. Though nonpracticing, he remains a licensed attorney in the Commonwealth of Kentucky.

Lt Col Russell S. Badowski, USAF (BA, University of Chicago; 

MBA, Duke University; MA, Air Command and Staff College), is the 

director of operations at the 3rd Operations Support Squadron, Joint 

Base Elmendorf-Richardson, Alaska. He entered the Air Force in 

2002 upon graduation from the Air Force Reserve Officer Training 

Corps program at the University of Chicago. After completing primary flight training with the Navy at Whiting Field, he earned his 

wings from Vance AFB, Oklahoma. He remained in Air Education 

and Training Command and taught Joint Specialized Undergraduate 

Pilot Training in the T-38. Colonel Badowski has since flown the F15C, MC-12, and F-22. He has deployed to a variety of locations in 

support of US Indo-Pacific Command taskings and to Joint Base 

Balad, Iraq, in support of Operation New Dawn. He completed Air 

Command and Staff College in 2015 and spent two years on the Air 

Staff as the branch chief for Air Superiority Programs where he fo-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xviii

cused on strategic planning for the combat air forces. Colonel Badowski is a senior pilot with more than 2,200 flying hours in the T-38C, 

F-15C, MC-12W, and F-22. He has over 400 hours of combat time.

Lt Col Jason F. Baggett, USAF (BS, Troy University; MBA, Touro 

University International; MA, Air Command and Staff College), is 

the commander, 24th Expeditionary Field Investigations Squadron, 

Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI), Al Udeid AB, Qatar. In his current assignment, he serves as the commander for all 

AFOSI forces in Southwest Asia and as the director, AFOSI Special 

Staff, Headquarters Air Forces Central Command. He is responsible 

for executing AFOSI’s wartime counterthreat operations mission; directing counterintelligence collections, investigations, and operations; and orchestrating felony-level criminal investigations in a 

20-nation area of responsibility covering Central and Southwest Asia. 

Prior to his current assignment, he was assigned to the Office of the 

Secretary of the Air Force as the secretary’s personal security advisor 

and detail lead for the secretary’s security detail. As a special agent in 

the AFOSI, he has held a variety of command and staff positions including multiple detachment commands in Iraq and stateside. He has 

an extensive background in counterintelligence, having served as the 

counterintelligence support lead to Headquarters US Central Command, MacDill AFB, Florida, and as the counterintelligence subject 

matter expert for the US Air Force Special Investigations Academy, 

Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Glynco, Georgia. He 

completed multiple combat tours executing counterthreat operations 

as an intelligence collector, operations officer, and commander. He 

led various operations to find, fix, track, and neutralize terrorist and 

insurgent and hostile intelligence service threats to US forces. He 

served as the last commander for the AFOSI’s largest unit in Iraq, 

Expeditionary Detachment 2411.

Col Chris Bargery, USAF, retired (BA, University of Memphis; 

MS, Webster University; MSS, Air War College), is a member of the 

Senior Executive Service and director for law enforcement at the Pentagon Force Protection Agency. Prior to his current position, Colonel 

Bargery worked for two years as a subject matter expert in the private 

defense industry, evaluating protection of defense critical infrastructure and missions. In his final military assignment, he directed execution of the USAF security enterprise to organize, train, and equip 

38,000 USAF security forces as commander of the Air Force Security 

Forces Center. His previous commands include an air base wing, a 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xix

mission support group, and three USAF squadrons. In his staff assignments, Colonel Bargery served as the wartime force protection 

director for Air Force forces and operations throughout Afghanistan, 

Iraq, and the Middle East and later as the senior security officer protecting airpower in Europe, Africa, and the Levant. He served as the 

Joint Staff (Pentagon) interagency coordinator for antiterrorism and 

as a member of a White House counterterrorism security group task 

force for homeland defense. During Operations Enduring Freedom/

Iraqi Freedom, Colonel Bargery planned and commanded Task Force 

1041, an offensive ground combat operation to capture or kill insurgent forces in Iraq. He served on two Air Force major command 

staffs, the Air Force staff, and the staff of the chairman of the Joint 

Chiefs and as an exchange officer to the Royal Air Force Regiment. 

He is a graduate of the US Army Command and General Staff College 

and the Federal Bureau of Investigation National Academy.

Lt Col Scott P. Black, USAF (BS, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; MBA, Trident University International), is the Operations 

Division chief at the 353rd Combat Training Squadron for Red Flag–

Alaska. In his previous duty assignment he was the chief of operations for the air operations center at Ramstein AB, Germany. He has 

operational experience as an F-15E weapons systems officer, NATO 

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) electronic combat 

officer, and control and reporting center senior director. He completed both NATO AWACS Initial Qualification Training and Undergraduate Navigator Training as a distinguished graduate. As an air 

battle manager, he completed two operational assignments—flying 

over 1,200 hours on the NATO AWACS as an electronic combat officer and during two deployments in Balad, Iraq, while assigned to the 

726th Air Control Squadron.

Lt Gen Walter E. Buchanan III, USAF (BS, US Air Force Academy; MS, Troy State University), retired, is the former commander, 

Ninth Air Force and US Central Command Air Forces, Shaw AFB, 

South Carolina. The command comprises four wings in the eastern 

United States and four direct reporting units, with more than 350 

aircraft and 24,000 active-duty and civilian personnel. He is also responsible for the operational readiness of 18 Ninth Air Force–gained 

National Guard and Air Force Reserve units comprising the Air Reserve component. As the air component commander for US Central 

Command, he was charged with developing contingency plans and 

conducting air operations in a 27-nation area of responsibility cover-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xx

ing Central and Southwest Asia and the Horn of Africa. General Buchanan also served as deputy commander, combined force air component, US Central Command, and the commander of Joint Task 

Force Southwest Asia, Prince Sultan AB, Saudi Arabia. He conducted 

the day-to-day execution of air operations in support of the war in 

Afghanistan and enforcement of the southern no-fly zone over Iraq. 

As the deputy commander of Air Force Forces (DCOMAFFOR) in 

Southwest Asia, he was responsible for the beddown and provisioning of aircraft and Airmen in preparation for Operation Iraqi Freedom and remained the DCOMAFFOR throughout the major combat 

operations phase, playing a key role in the day-to-day planning and 

execution of airpower operations. During his two and a half years as 

the combined force air component commander and commander of 

Air Force Forces, USCENTCOM, he was responsible for planning 

and executing airpower operations in the USCENTCOM area of responsibility. He oversaw airlift; intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance; search and rescue; and close air support for operations 

Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom as well as Combined/Joint 

Task Force–Horn of Africa. General Buchanan is a command pilot 

with more than 3,800 flight hours. He is a graduate of Squadron Officer School, National War College, the Senior Executives in National 

and International Security course at Harvard University’s John F. 

Kennedy School of Government, and the National Security Leadership course at Syracuse University’s Maxwell School of Citizenship 

and Public Affairs.

Col Shannon W. Caudill, USAF, retired (BS, Norwich University; 

MSA, Central Michigan University; MMS, Marine Corps University: 

Marine Corp Command and Staff College; MSS, Air War College), is 

a doctoral student at the University of Charleston and an adjunct professor of leadership at Air Command and Staff College. As a career 

Air Force security forces officer, he has worked at the unit, major 

command, and Joint Staff levels; commanded three security forces 

squadrons; served in four overseas assignments; and accumulated 18 

months of combat experience in Iraq. From 2009 to 2010, he commanded the 532nd Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron, Joint 

Base Balad, Iraq, where he was responsible for counterinsurgency patrols and the installation’s entry control points. He has written numerous white papers and articles on terrorism, interagency leadership, base defense, and law enforcement that have been published in 

Air and Space Power Journal, Joint Force Quarterly, American Diplo-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxi

macy, and the Guardian—the Joint Staff ’s antiterrorism publication. 

Colonel Caudill served on the resident faculty of Air War College 

and Lake Region State College. 

Col Glen E. Christensen, USAF (BS, US Air Force Academy; 

MAS, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University; MMAS, Army Command and General Staff College; MMAS, Army School of Advanced 

Military Studies; MSS, Air War College) is the chief of Integrated Defense and Law and Order, Directorate of Security Forces, Headquarters Air Force. He is responsible for the oversight and development of 

security forces policy and doctrine in support of the 37,000 Airmen 

charged with defending and protecting the Air Force. Previously, 

Colonel Christensen was the Mission Assurance Division chief and a 

deployment and distribution operations center chief at United States 

Transportation Command. Prior to his combatant command assignment, he was the commander of the 455th Expeditionary Base Defense Group and Combined Joint Task Force 455, the Air Force’s first 

expeditionary base defense group, Air Force–led ground combat 

combined joint task force and group-level battlespace owner. Colonel 

Christensen was the first security forces officer and second support 

officer to attend the US Army’s School of Advanced Military Studies. 

He served as a squadron commander for one of three base defense 

squadrons and has deployed four times in support of Operations 

Iraqi and Enduring Freedom. Along with group command, Colonel 

Christensen deployed twice as a squadron commander and once as 

the Task Force 1041 operations officer during Operation Desert Safeside, the first offensive ground combat operation in Air Force history.

Lt Col Loren M. Coulter, USAF (BS, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical 

University; MA, Webster University), is the commander, 33rd Flying 

Training Squadron at Vance AFB, Oklahoma, flying the T-6A Texan 

II. He executes the mission of shaping Airmen into pilots who will 

deter and defeat our nation’s enemies. Prior to his current assignment, he was stationed at Osan AB, Republic of Korea, as the director 

of operations for the 51st Operations Support Squadron and flying 

the A-10C. His combat air forces experience is in the A-10 aircraft as 

an attack pilot and forward air controller (airborne). While in the 

75th Fighter Squadron, he deployed in 2010 to Kandahar Air Field, 

Afghanistan, where he flew close air support combat sorties supporting Operation Enduring Freedom. He has accumulated 334 combat 

hours over 78 missions. Colonel Coulter also instructed Introduction 

to Fighter Fundamentals in the T-38C. Prior to service as a pilot, he 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxii

served as a communications officer at the then Air Intelligence 

Agency and the Defense Information Systems Agency.

Col J. William “Bill” DeMarco, USAF, retired (BS, The Citadel, 

Military College of South Carolina; MA, American Military University; MMS, Air Command and Staff College; MMS, School of Advanced Air and Space Studies), serves as the chair and dean of the 

Education and Leadership Department, Professor of Leadership 

Studies, Air Command and Staff College (ACSC), Maxwell AFB, Alabama. His leadership and command experiences include the squadron, group, and regional levels, as well as serving as ACSC’s 44th 

commandant. He is an adjunct professor with Auburn University in 

leadership. He served as a National Security Affairs Fellow at Stanford University’s Hoover Institution and a visiting lecturer at Ross 

Business School, University of Michigan. He is a fellow at the Judge 

Business School, Cambridge University, England, as well as a senior 

consultant with GIANT Worldwide leadership consulting. He also 

contributes as a leadership consultant for the National World War II 

Museum’s Corporate Leadership Academy in New Orleans, Louisiana, and is the founder and CEO of the Mastermind Century Group, 

LLC. He is a command pilot and qualified in five weapon systems 

(C-23A, C-12F, C-141B, KC-10A, and the KC-135R).

Lt Col Colby B. Edwards, USAFR (BA, University of Iowa; MA, 

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University), is an operations test pilot in 

the Air Force Reserve at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and the deputy director 

of AFWERX-Vegas. He facilitates innovative solutions to Air Force 

challenges via collaboration with nontraditional sources such as 

small businesses, emerging technologies, and academia. Previously, 

he commanded the 59th Test and Evaluation Squadron where he 

oversaw the test management of all Air Combat Command fighters 

and combat search rescue platforms. He directed a $15 million budget and led 130 personnel at three different locations. Prior to this 

assignment, he was a student at Air Command and Staff College. At 

the 58th Fighter Squadron, 33rd Fighter Wing, Eglin AFB, he served 

as the chief instructor pilot and squadron weapons and tactics officer. 

He is an initial cadre instructor pilot for the F-35 program and an 

experienced F-35/F-16 weapons instructor and FAC-A. He is a distinguished graduate of Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training, F-16 

Fighter Training, and the F-16 Weapons Instructor Course. Colonel 

Edwards has served as the squadron and wing weapons officer at several units and has over 2,800 hours total flight time, including over 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxiii

1,300 hours of instructor time in the F-16 and F-35A and over 550 

combat hours in three theaters. He served as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing (AEW) standardization and evaluation officer at Balad 

AB, Iraq, while flying combat missions in support of Operation Iraqi 

Freedom. While at Aviano AB, Italy, Colonel Edwards was the chief 

instructor pilot and lead NATO mission pilot and won the Air Force’s 

General Claire Chennault Award as the top tactician for 2010. As 

Aviano’s wing weapons officer during the Operation Odyssey Dawn 

campaign in Libya, he planned all strike missions and flew over 40 

combat hours. Colonel Edwards deployed to Afghanistan in support 

of Operating Enduring Freedom as the 455AEW weapons officer at 

Bagram Air Base. There he employed over 60 weapons in support of 

ground operations including multiple troops-in-contact situations. 

Notable accomplishments include Twelfth Air Force instructor pilot 

of the year in 2007, the F-16 Robbie Risner Award for 2008, Air Education and Training Command’s (AETC) Anthony Shine Award 

nominee in 2011, and AETC’s top instructor pilot in 2013 as the Maj 

Gen Glenn A. Proffitt Award winner.

Lt Col Raymond “Jeff ” Fortner, USAF (BS, Texas A&M University–Commerce; MS, Texas A&M University–Commerce; MEd, 

Texas A&M University–Texarkana; MA, Air Command and Staff 

College), is a career security forces officer and former commander of 

the 741st Missile Security Forces Squadron, Malmstrom AFB, Montana. Prior to this assignment, he was the chief of Security Forces 

Inspections, Air Force Global Strike Command Office of the Inspector General. As a security forces officer, he has served in numerous 

positions at the squadron, group, wing, joint operations, and MAJCOM levels, with positions ranging from flight commander to antiterrorism officer, operations officer, and squadron commander executive officer. He has completed multiple deployments in support of 

Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom, to include commanding the 407th Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron at Ali 

AB, Iraq, and the 387th Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron,

Abdullah Al-Mubarak AB, Kuwait.

Col Thomas G. Miner Jr., USAF (BS, Southern Illinois University– Edwardsville; MMAS, Army Command and General Staff College; MSS, Air War College), is the chief of Security Forces, Directorate of Logistics, Engineering and Force Protection, Headquarters Air 

Education and Training Command, Joint Base San Antonio (JBSA)–

Randolph, Texas. He serves as the senior advisor to the commander 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxiv

of Air Education and Training Command on all issues relating to integrated defense, force protection, antiterrorism, and security risk 

management impacting 142,000 personnel assigned and $24.8 billion 

in command resources. Previously, Colonel Miner was the commander of the 502d Security and Readiness Group at JBSA where he 

provided integrated defense and total logistical support for all of 

JBSA—the largest joint base in the Department of Defense, supporting more than 452,000 active duty and civilian personnel at 11 operating locations across the greater San Antonio area. A career security 

forces officer with extensive experience in integrated defense, nuclear 

security, law enforcement, air base defense, antiterrorism, and force 

protection, Colonel Miner has also served as commander of the 

633rd Security Forces Squadron, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia; 

commander of the 2d Security Forces Squadron, Barksdale AFB, 

Louisiana; and commander of the 824th Base Defense Squadron, 

Moody AFB, Georgia. He served two years as exchange officer with 

the United Kingdom’s Royal Air Force Regiment at RAF Honington 

and during combat operations in Iraq. He later served as commander, 

Detachment 7, 332d Expeditionary Security Forces Group, Iraq, to 

stand up and lead the US Air Force’s first Police Transition and Training operation. He was the chief of Security Forces Operations and 

Plans and Programs at Headquarters Air Mobility Command, Scott 

AFB, Illinois. Colonel Miner attended the Federal Bureau of Investigation National Academy and later served in Iraq as executive police 

advisor to Iraq’s Minister of Interior.

Col Troy A. Roberts, USAF (BS, University of Idaho; MSC, Arizona State University; MMOAS, Air Command and Staff College; 

MSS, Air War College), is the commander of the 11th Security Forces 

Group, Joint Base Andrews–Naval Air Facility, Maryland. He leads 

three squadrons and a group staff of over 800 military and civilian 

personnel providing physical security, law enforcement, executive 

protection, antiterrorism, and investigative services to presidential 

assets valued at $6 billion and an installation of over 17,000 assigned 

personnel. His assignments in the security forces career field include 

flight commander, operations officer, and chief of security. His squadron command experience includes commanding the 341st Security 

Support Squadron and 741st Missile Security Forces Squadron at 

Malmstrom AFB; the 736th Security Forces Squadron, Andersen 

AFB, Guam; and the 72d Security Forces Squadron, Tinker AFB. He 

is a graduated squadron commander with three separate commands 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxv

in Air Force Space Command, Pacific Air Forces, and Air Force Materiel Command. He supported Operation Enduring Freedom on a 

combat advisor team embedded with the Afghanistan National Civil 

Order Police (Helmand District) and the S-3 operations officer in the 

455th Expeditionary Security Forces Group, the battlespace owner 

for Bagram Airfield.

Col Erik K. Rundquist, USAF (BS, USAFA; MMAS, Army Command and General Staff College; MSSC, Syracuse University; National Defense Fellow, Boston University), is commander, Detachment 8 Air Force Installation and Mission Support Center. He is 

responsible for supporting Air Combat Command’s security/antiterrorism risk management, engineering support operations, emergency services, and mission beddown activities for 1,200 aircraft, 24 

wings, 14 bases, and over 200 operating locations worldwide. He has 

served in various duty positions including group commander, MAJCOM chief of security forces, squadron commander, and joint staff 

officer where he managed the DOD antiterrorism program for Secretary of Defense Robert Gates. As the former commander, 455th Expeditionary Mission Support Group, and commander, Task Force 

1/455 at Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan, he led over 1,500 personnel—

operating and defending the DOD’s strategic air hub into Afghanistan—and was the battlespace owner for Parwan Province. His other 

contingency experiences include the United Nations Protection Force 

in the Balkans; Operations Allied Force and Shining Hope in Albania 

and Kosovo; Determined Response (USS Cole) in Yemen; Enduring 

Freedom in Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan; and Iraqi Freedom, where 

he led his squadron in an operational combat jump into Bashur, Iraq, 

while attached to the 173rd Airborne Brigade. He deployed again to 

Tallil, Iraq, as the defense force commander for the 407th Air Expeditionary Group and 22nd Corps Support Group and as the J-7 director to the Combined Joint Special Operations Air Component Command at Balad, Iraq, and Bagram, Afghanistan. Colonel Rundquist is 

a PhD candidate with King’s College London and an external fellow 

to Boston University’s International History Institute.

Lt Gen Norman R. Seip, USAF, retired (BA, US Air Force Academy; 

MS, Golden Gate University), is the former commander of Twelfth 

Air Force (Air Forces Southern), Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. He 

supervised and directed 400 aircraft and over 33,000 active-duty 

military and civilian personnel and was responsible for the operational readiness of Twelfth Air Force–gained wings of the Air Force 
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxvi

Reserve and Air National Guard, including an additional 18,800 personnel and more than 200 aircraft. As commander, Air Forces Southern—a component to the combatant commander, US Southern Command—he oversaw Air Force assets, five forward-operating locations, 

and civil and military engagements in Central and South America as 

well as the Caribbean. The general was an exchange officer with the 

US Navy, serving with VF-41 on board the USS Nimitz. He has also 

served in key positions during tours with Air Combat Command, the 

Air Staff, and the Joint Staff. General Seip was a command pilot with 

more than 4,500 flying hours, primarily in fighter aircraft. He flew the 

F-15E in support of Operations Southern Watch, Northern Watch, 

and Iraqi Freedom. As the deputy commander, combined force air 

component, US Central Command, General Seip had a direct impact 

in supporting combat operations in Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom, and Joint Task Force–Horn of Africa.

Maj Gen Bradley D. Spacy, USAF (BA, Fresno State University; 

MS, University of Southern Mississippi), is the commander, Air Force 

Installations and Mission Support Center (AFIMSC), Joint Base San 

Antonio–Lackland, Texas. AFIMSC is an Air Force Materiel Command center comprised of a cross-functional headquarters and six 

primary subordinate units; the Air Force Installation Contracting 

Agency, Air Force Civil Engineer Center, Air Force Security Forces 

Center, Air Force Services Activity, Air Force Financial Center of Expertise, and Air Force Financial Services Center. AFIMSC is responsible for providing installation and mission support capabilities to 77 

Air Force installations across nine major commands. General Spacy 

is a career security forces officer and former instructor of the Air Base 

Defense Command course at Lackland AFB. His previous command 

experience includes leading two squadrons, a mission support group, 

and two wings. In addition to command, General Spacy served multiple staff tours on the Air Staff and Joint Staff and as the USAF liaison 

to the US Senate. General Spacy was also the director of Force Protection for US Central Command Air Forces Forward in support of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom, during which time 

he created, planned, and participated in Operation Desert Safeside/

Task Force 1041 (an offensive ground combat operation to kill or capture insurgent forces attacking Balad AB, Iraq). His more recent assignments include director of Logistics, Installations, and Mission 

Support, Headquarters US Air Forces in Europe and Air Forces Africa, Ramstein AB, Germany, and the Director of Expeditionary Sup-
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

xxvii

port, Air Force Installation and Mission Support Center. General 

Spacy is a graduate of Squadron Officer School, Marine Corps Command and Staff College, and Joint Forces Staff College. He received a 

National Defense fellowship and is a senior executive fellow at Harvard University.

MAJ Michael M. Wellock, USA (BA, University of Tennessee–

Knoxville; MA, Air Command and Staff College), is the chief of Current Operations at the Army’s Human Resource Command in Fort 

Knox, Kentucky. Previously, he served in the Army’s First Infantry 

Division headquarters, Fort Riley, Kansas, as a plans officer; the 

1-16th Infantry Battalion as the battalion operations officer; and in 

the 1/1 Armored Brigade Combat Team as the operations officer. 

Prior to the Big Red One, he served at the National Training Center 

as a senior infantry company trainer and a battalion S3 trainer. As a 

career infantry officer, he has held a variety of leadership, command, 

and staff positions including platoon leader in a rifle and antiarmor 

company; executive officer in a rifle company; Ranger instructor at 

the 5th Ranger Training Battalion; company commander in a mechanized infantry company; and an observer, controller, and trainer at 

the National Training Center. He deployed in support of Operation 

Iraqi Freedom (OIF) V as an antitank platoon leader and a rifle company executive officer with the 82nd Airborne Division. He also deployed for OIF VII / Operation New Dawn as a combined arms battalion assistant operations officer and to the Republic of Korea as a 

battalion operations officer.

xxix

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I want to thank and salute the eight Air Command and Staff College students who participated in a yearlong research elective on base defense and insurgency, which I taught in 

Academic Year 2015. They produced eight of the chapters in this anthology. Accolades to Air Force officers Lt Col Russell “Big” Badowski, Lt Col Jason Baggett, Lt Col Scott “Shaggy” Black, Lt Col Loren “Nike” Coulter, Lt Col Colby “Thor” Edwards, Lt Col Ray Fortner, 

and Maj Stewart “PR” Parker and MAJ Mike Wellock, US Army. I was 

thrilled with the enthusiasm each student brought to our seminar 

discussions and research tasks and thankful for the broad backgrounds of the class. We are grateful for the support of the Air Force 

Historical Research Agency in our research project, specifically 

Thomas Lauria and Neil Franklin.

For three years I had the privilege of teaching American and international military officers and US government civilian leaders in my 

Air Command and Staff College and Air War College electives, 

named after my first book project—Defending Air Bases in an Age of 

Insurgency. These students brought their very best intellectual efforts 

to the seminar discussions and provided a wealth of case studies from 

their own base defense accounts. These electives benefited from senior leaders who gave of their time to talk about their experiences 

leading the base defense in combat. Specifically, I’d like to thank Lt 

Gen Steven Kwast; Maj Gen Brian Bishop, USAF, retired; Maj Gen 

Thomas Deale, USAF; and Brig Gen Robert Thomas, USAF, retired. 

Many thanks to General Deale for his long-standing support for this 

project and his writing of the foreword, as well as my appreciation to 

Maj Gen Bradley Spacy for his advocacy and contribution of the 

book’s afterword.

I’m indebted to Brig Gen Paul Guemmer and Col Patricia Hoffman, both USAF, retired, for their unwavering support of my writing, teaching, and research efforts while I was assigned to the Jeanne 

M. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development. 

Colonel Hoffman was nice enough to officiate my retirement ceremony at Turner Field on the Air Force’s birthday in 2016. The Braves 

named me as the Hometown Hero, which included time on the field, 

a video profile on the jumbotron, and a very generous standing ovation from the crowd. Needless to say, Colonel Hoffman’s thoughtful 

remarks at my private retirement ceremony in front of my extended 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxx

family provided a poignant send-off, especially since she used the 

language of baseball to explain my career in an incredibly artful and 

meaningful way. The Braves’ festivities left quite an impression on my 

boys, and it was a wonderful moment in time. Thank you also to Lt 

Col Steve Packard for acting as the master of ceremonies for my retirement and to the men and women of the Holm Center Support 

Directorate who amazed me with their professionalism, innovation, 

and sense of humor. It was a pleasure to serve with you all on my last 

tour of duty.

Thank you to Air University Press and its Publication Review Board 

members. The voting members treated the subject of air base defense 

with the seriousness and attention it deserves. AU Press has supported 

this work at every step and enthusiastically accepted a second and 

third volume. Special thanks go to Jeanne Shamburger, my AU Press 

editor, who brought out the best in me as a writer, editor, and book 

project manager. Jeanne did an amazing job, and I’m so proud of the 

results. I continue to be grateful to Daniel Armstrong, whose original 

and creative cover art design will grace all three volumes of this book 

series. Thanks also to Dr. Ernest Rockwell, who edited my first book 

and whose encouragement and support I greatly appreciate.

Many thanks to Dr. Alan Vick, by far the most established expert 

and advocate for base defense research. His two 1995 RAND reports were recently joined by his 2015 study. He continues to provide informative data points for senior leaders validating the necessity for base defense planning and resources. Dr. Vick has been a 

longtime inspiration for many in the security forces career field, 

and I was particularly pleased to contribute to his 2015 work as a 

reviewer and thrilled that portions of our AU Press volume were 

referenced in his work.

I also appreciate the support and encouragement of Dr. John “Jack” 

Cann who has published widely on insurgencies in Africa and inspired me as my thesis advisor while at Marine Corps Command and 

Staff College from 2003 to 2004. His 2015 book, Flight Plan Africa: 

Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974, details several 

insurgent base attacks using indirect fire and shoulder-launched missiles against the Portuguese in the 1960s and ’70s.1

I have truly been inspired by many of the great friends, mentors, 

and leaders in the security forces career field: Col Brian Greenroad, 

USAF; Maj Dan Massey, USAF; Col Russ Daisley, USAF, retired; 

Col Donald Collins, USAF, retired; Col Erik Rundquist, USAF; Col 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxxi

Scott Farrar, USAF, retired; Col Chris Bargery, USAF; Col Rich McComb, USAF; Col Joe Milner, USAF, retired; Brig Gen Tom Wilcox, 

USAF; Col Chris Frederiksen, USAF; Col Ken Ohlson, USAF; Lt Col 

Brad Wayland, USAF, retired; Lt Col John “Greg” Worley, USAF, retired; Lt Col Ben Jenkins, USAF, retired; Lt Col Thomas Morea, USAF, 

retired; Lt Col Paul Cairney, USAF, retired; CMSgt Rick Martinez, 

USAF, retired; CMSgt Brian Wilson, USAF, retired; CMSgt Bruce 

Spurling, USAF, retired; CMSgt Pat Poth, USAF, retired; CMSgt 

Larry Pinkham, USAF, retired; CMSgt Jim Tormasi, USAF, retired; 

CMSgt Mike Lintz, USAF retired; and so many others. I would like to 

thank Col Joe Milner for his care in officiating my colonel promotion 

ceremony in front of my extended Georgia family at the Southern 

Museum of Civil War and Locomotive History in 2013. It was a wonderful moment in a special place.

My profound thanks to all the men and women who served with me 

when I commanded the 85th Security Forces Squadron, Naval Air Station Keflavik, Iceland (1999–2001), the 100th Security Forces Squadron, Royal Air Force Mildenhall, England (2005–7), and the 532nd 

Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron, Joint Base Balad, Iraq (2009–

10). It was a privilege and an honor to serve alongside each of you.

I’m also grateful to the wonderful chaplains who have helped me 

and my Airmen grow spiritually and deal with the challenges of combat. For my Iraq tours, I would like to thank Capt Brandy Brown, 

USAF (now a lieutenant and chaplain in the US Navy); Capt Paul 

Amiliri, USAF; and Maj Paul Fitzpatrick, USAF. I’m also indebted to 

Father Ernest Berthelette who welcomed me into the faith at RAF 

Mildenhall, England, and Father Linn Harbour who shepherded my 

family and baptized my youngest son at Maxwell AFB, Alabama. 

Thank you also to the godparents of our two boys, Jack and Delores 

Stockman. We are blessed to have you in our lives and appreciate 

your encouragement and example of faith. We love you.

There are some who exemplify the concept of being a good “wingman”: Frank Kayter, my former first sergeant in Iceland; Troy Carpenter; David Stringer; Dave Cope; Bill Norton; and my brother, 

Matt Caudill—all of you made a difference in my life when I needed 

it most. I’m also blessed to have stayed in contact with good friends 

from my early years: CAPT Tony Bayungan, USN; Rick Brown; and 

Bob Williams, a fellow veteran and police officer. 

During a long military career with many moves, you appreciate 

the moment your family can plant their roots in one spot and be part 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxxii

of a community. I would like to thank some special people in our 

Georgia community who have made a real difference in my life and 

that of my boys. First, I extend my appreciation to the board members, coaches, players, and parents of the Kennesaw Baseball Association (KBA). Both of my boys have played baseball at Adams Park 

through KBA during the past three years (the same park Dansby 

Swanson played in his youth; he now plays for the Atlanta Braves). 

I’m thankful to Coach Dennis McCoy for recruiting my oldest son for 

the Adams Park All-Star Team right after we moved from Alabama 

and then took the team on to win the district championship. I’m 

grateful to Coach Rich Gross who then took the All-Star Team to a 

second district championship and onto a Georgia Training Legends 

World Series title. Rich is a special coach, and we are privileged to 

have an extraordinary group of boys and parents on our team. I’m 

excited to see what our newly converted travel ball team can do with 

these amazing players and coaches (Rich Gross, Troy Brooks, Bruce 

Bartlett, and me). Go Kennesaw Outlaws!

I would also like to thank the good people at Ralph’s Tavern in 

Kennesaw for catering my parents’ 50th wedding anniversary and 

being my dad’s favorite pub for over 25 years. I have spent some real 

quality time with Dad there, and I also did quite a bit of writing and 

editing at Ralph’s over a pint. Thank you Ross, Brandon, Justin, Amy, 

and the rest of the Ralph’s Tavern family. Many thanks to the Atlanta 

Area Norwich Alumni Club for the great welcome as I retired to 

Georgia. Doug Isbecque and the rest of the gang even honored me 

with the Hometown Hero honors at an Atlanta Gladiators hockey 

game, which my family greatly enjoyed. Norwich forever! Essayons! 

Our appreciation also goes to the Georgian Club, a special place with 

terrific people who have known my father over 20 years. 

I want to express my deep appreciation to my alma maters, Point 

Loma High School and Norwich University, for providing me a 

sound grounding in leadership and academics. Both Mrs. Smith’s 

journalism class at Point Loma and the Communications Department 

at Norwich were instrumental in shaping my writing and editing 

skills (and love for the craft). I’m also grateful for my Naval Junior 

Reserve Officer Corps experience and the encouragement and mentorship of CDR Gordon Wiram, USN, retired, and CPO Jack Quinlan, 

USN, retired—both were father figures to me and so many others.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxxiii

When I retired from the Air Force in the fall of 2016, I had an 

amazing experience working in the entertainment business. I got to 

meet celebrities like Jerry Seinfeld, Hillary Clinton, the cast of the 

Avengers, the Eagles of Death Metal, and so many other terrifically 

talented performers and artists. It was an interesting chapter in my 

life. The true blessing was I got to meet some truly amazing people 

who work in that industry: Betty, Helen, Bernice, Andy, Chico, 

Hunter, Edna, Ariel, Elliot, Andrew, Charles, Lester, Leigh, Julianne, 

Ashley, Jessie, Shelby, Nancy, Cindy, Tisha, William, Jamie, Janice, 

Shelly, Michael, Azie, Mike, Eric, Sue, Glen, Jimmy, Jon, Len, Paul, 

Zach, Mark, Alex, Edgar, Sean, Chris, Elmo, Laura, Greg, Jerome, 

Trevor, and Vanessa. To Mike Casey, I say thank you—my boys will 

always remember your kindness and your extraordinary talent entertaining patrons. Thanks also to Larry Green, a fellow Air Force security 

forces veteran and director of safety and security at the Cobb-Marietta 

Coliseum and Exhibit Hall Authority, for his support and mentorship 

on entertainment and venue security. I also want to thank Amanda 

Brookhuis and Kirby Smith for their excellent counsel and support.

I’ve since started my journey as a doctoral student at the University of Charleston in the Executive Leadership program. I appreciate 

the faculty, staff, and members of the cohort. In particular, I’d like to 

thank Dr. Ruth Wylie; Dr. John Barnette; Dr. Philip Shields; Dr. Kristen Dugan; and Nicole Byrum, a George Walker Fellow, for their encouragement and mentorship. I’m enjoying the journey, intellectual 

discovery, and rigor of the work.

Finally, I thank my family. Military life is not easy. My parents set 

a very good example of service and sacrifice. My father is a Vietnam 

veteran and served in the Navy for 26 years. My mother took great 

care of my brother and me while Dad was out to sea sometimes six to 

eight months out of the year. It was not easy, but my Mom did it with 

grace, kindness, and love. I will forever be indebted to my parents for 

their spirit and the many gifts of character they gave me. You will always have my love and respect.

Similarly, my wife endured a lot as an Air Force spouse, raising a 

son for the year I was in Iraq; dealing with a pregnancy while I was 

in combat on my second tour; and suffering the many inconveniences, moves, and uncertainties of military life. She sacrificed a 

promising and successful career as a defense analyst to be with me 

and share my military adventure. Thank you—I love you, Corinna. 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

xxxiv

I couldn’t ask for a greater blessing and ending to my Air Force career than to have you at my side and in my life.

Notes

1. Cann, Flight Plan Africa, 333–43.
xxxv

Introduction

Shannon W. Caudill

This book examines both the art and science of one of the most 

important aspects of Air Force military operations . . . defending air bases against counterinsurgency. The tenets cataloged 

in this body of work provide lessons learned and academic insights that further the education and advocacy that began in 

volume l. It clearly informs defenders and senior leaders on 

the perplexing ground defense challenges we must defeat in 

order to achieve vital US objectives in contested environments. 

Job well done!

—Brig Gen Richard A. Coleman, USAF, retired

Former Air Force director of security forces

Headquarters US Air Force

I’m gratified by the response to Air University Press’s Defending 

Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, published May 2014. The book was 

the AU Press number one download for 2014, highlighting the thirst 

for this material in meeting an operational and educational need. 

There has been a groundswell of support for a second volume to add 

more depth and fill gaps in the literature and historiography. I feel 

that the first book was just the opening salvo in an intellectual renaissance for this field of study and component of airpower and military 

operations. It has since been joined by new publications and media 

from the RAND Corporation’s Dr. Alan Vick; air base attack lessons 

learned videos from Air Combat Command’s Col Erik Rundquist; 

and the book Security Forces History 1947–2006 written by two retired Air Force colonels, James Conrad and Jerry Bullock. The reawakening for this field of study is driven by a deep desire by leaders 

to capture the experiences of recent conflicts, the challenges presented by the strategic pivot to the Asia-Pacific, lessons from ongoing 

operations in Afghanistan and Iraq (again), and the proliferation of 

new technology-driven threats to airpower.

Why a second volume? First, there was a thirst for more material. 

Volume 1 bridged much of the gap in the literature that existed since 

the last publication on this subject in 1995 by Dr. Alan Vick and 

RAND Corporation. I was thrilled to see the response from the field 
INTRODUCTION

xxxvi

as I had leaders of all ranks ask for time over lunch or an office call to 

discuss the material and my research. My favorite was the visit by a 

young captain who had read the book in its entirety within two 

months of its online release and brought notes on each chapter with 

follow-up questions for me. This is precisely the level of intellectual 

engagement we need to ensure we are thinking beyond our own personal experiences and parochial interests.

I’m also pleased that this book is being published in 2019, which 

Gen David Goldfein has declared the “Year of the Defender.”1

 This 

second volume provides another intellectual building block supporting the Air Force’s larger effort of revitalizing our ability to project 

airpower efficiently and safely abroad. As he stated, “We must take 

integrated and layered base defense to a new level by increasing investment in our defenders with new equipment, new training, new 

techniques, and procedures, and renewed focus at every echelon of 

command.”2

 As an organization, we can’t take base defense operations 

and preparedness to a new level without examining and learning lessons from past conflicts.

The authors in this volume examine lessons from Afghanistan, 

Iraq, Vietnam and other air base attacks and terrorist incidents affecting airpower. It includes an examination of base defense challenges at 

the beginning (getting in) and end of conflicts (getting out). Importantly, this volume features material collected through a research 

partnership with the Air Force Historical Research Agency, which 

assessed and categorized the effects of air base attacks during the Iraq 

Conflict (2003–12) using Air Force history reports. This effort is important because no one in the Air Force could answer the simple 

question, How many aircraft were destroyed or damaged during the 

Iraq conflict? This research answers that question, offering valuable 

insights into enemy attacks and base defense effectiveness and adding 

to the historiography in this field of study.

Air base attacks are not simply a clean story about numbers. These 

attacks have real effects on people, both operationally and psychologically. Stories and impacts of air base attacks surround us if we 

only listen. I attended a Catholic Mass at Maxwell AFB when my 

priest, Chaplain Linn Harbour, reflected in his homily on his time in 

Vietnam as a young Air Force captain serving as a personnelist. He 

spoke about rocket and mortar attacks, the stress of combat, and the 

resiliency he witnessed among fellow Airmen. I asked him later about 

his memories about the base attacks he experienced:
INTRODUCTION

xxxvii

I was at Phan Rang AB RVN Jun 70-71. We had three wings of aircraft there. 

During that period, we were the most attacked air base in country. Rockets 

flew in from the surrounding mountains until one day in November when a 

FAC [forward air controller] spotted the launching site and called for an air 

strike that came from Phu Cat. That was an awesome sight to watch from the 

front porch of wing headquarters as those planes tossed napalm and destroyed the launchers. We had no more rockets from then on. Earlier, mortars had also been lobbed over the fence toward the flight line and tore that 

up a few times.3

 Even Gen Merrill McPeak, former chief of staff, reflected on his 

Vietnam base defense experience in his memoir Hangar Flying:

It was our good fortune to be collocated with the ROK [Republic of Korea] 

Tiger Division. The Koreans gave us reasonably good security, being well 

known for not taking any snot off anybody. Nevertheless, we merited the occasional Vietcong [VC] assault. One particularly memorable foray occurred 

the night of 23 February 1969, when VC fighters attacked more than 100 targets across the country, including some in Saigon. Sappers penetrated Phu 

Cat’s perimeter defenses. Our security force captured a couple, along with a 

quantity of B-40 rockets, some hand grenades, and other explosives. We all 

kept a flak jacket and steel hat under our cots; this incident made me appreciate these, as well as the sand-filled blast walls bunkering my trailer. Still, the 

ROK presence made us rather safe at Phu Cat. We took nothing like the 

pounding they were getting at Bien Hoa or Da Nang.4

 The integrated defense of air bases is an ongoing challenge. The 

security of air bases is central to airpower itself. It needs to be a part of 

airpower studies, leadership training, and the preparation of group 

and wing commanders. We must ensure that future leaders have a better understanding of base defense fundamentals, the history of this 

threat, and its importance to airpower sortie generation. Exposure to 

enemy air base attacks leaves an impression about its importance.

The journey toward volume 2 has been a long one. I would like to 

thank the senior leaders who allowed me to choose my own course in 

the final years of my career. I could have pursued group command 

but asked to remain at Air University to finish volume 1, continue to 

write and teach, and coauthor volumes 2 and 3. This work is truly my 

and the other authors’ legacy to the Air Force, security forces career 

field, and our joint partners. I have been privileged to work with some 

truly great writers and thinkers who contributed to this three-volume 

series of books. I’m simply the organizer, advocate, and conduit for 

these great thoughts. My motivation has been simple—to document 

and evaluate the changing nature of base defense, elevate the thinking 
INTRODUCTION

xxxviii

and innovation in this field of study, provide fodder for the policy and 

resource debate, and influence future generations of Air Force and 

joint leaders on the criticality of this subject. Too often, the Air Force 

has treated the defense of its own bases as simply a parochial interest 

of security forces or a problem for the US Army to solve. The authors 

of both volumes have secured their own intellectual legacy in this 

field of study and contributed to the literature in this component of 

airpower. The question for the reader is, What will you do to build 

upon this work and make the “Year of the Defender” a success in 

modernizing and expanding our base defense capabilities to benefit 

American and coalition airpower projection?

Notes

(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see the appropriate entry in the 

bibliography.)

1. Goldfein, Remarks to Air Force Association Air, Space, and Cyber Conference, 18 September 2018, 9.

2. Ibid.

3. Harbour to Caudill, e-mail.

4. McPeak, Hangar Flying, 263–64.
PART 1

Getting In . . . and Getting Out

Securing Air Bases at the Beginning 

and End of Conflicts

Chapter 1

First In!: Expeditionary Air Base 

Seizure and Operations

Power Projection through Mobility Warriors

J. William DeMarco

The global strategic environment changed in a massive way when 

the Cold War ended. Gone is the moderating existence of two superpowers exerting suppressive influence on otherwise explosive regions. There was armed conflict during the Cold War, and it occurred 

with some regularity. Yet these superpower nations had an implicit 

understanding that nearly every encounter carried with it the potential to widen into a regional conflict or perhaps even nuclear war. 

Both knew that neither country would benefit from a global confrontation and the possibility of an Armageddon scenario. However, after 

the demise of the Soviet Union and the emergence of new states, the 

stabilizing influence of the superpowers dwindled, leaving the United 

States as the leading political force on the globe. 

The United States no longer finds itself in the arena with another 

heavyweight power in an all-or-nothing contest for supremacy. 

America must shed the pounds of that heavyweight boxer and transform into a ninja that lurks in the dark alleys of the world, attacking 

a myriad of foes. In the early 2000s, the goal of US military transformation became focused on building light, lean, and lethal forces.1

 Attempting to adjust to the new strategic realities, each branch of the 

US armed services is struggling to determine its relevance in this 

new setting. 

America has withdrawn forces from all over the world and has 

become a continental United States (CONUS)–based force. The ability 

to respond to a crisis overseas has led the Air Force to become more 

expeditionary. These expeditionary forces must be capable of rapid, 

small-footprint deployments into areas of strategic and operational imThis essay is an edited excerpt of an original research paper entitled “Courage in Adversity: 

Defending Austere Airfields with Air Force Contingency Response Groups” (research paper, 

US Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 2004).
4 │ DEMARCO

portance.2 This light and lethal deployment capability represents a significant transformation from the Cold War force and is a key enabler 

for the current expeditionary Air Force.3

The air and space expeditionary force (AEF) concept is to rapidly 

deploy, employ, and sustain aerospace power around the globe from 

a predominantly in-CONUS force structure. The AEF’s requirement 

to respond swiftly means that force and support packages must be 

quickly tailored to meet the operational needs of a specific contingency. The deployment and sustainment of resources must be coordinated to arrive at forward operating locations (FOL) so that initial 

and sustained operations can occur without interruption.4

 These 

operations have been a challenge for the USAF in permissive environments, but they will face even greater complications in a hostile, 

nonpermissive, antiaccess environment where a forced-entry seizure 

of an airfield is required (fig. 1.1).

End of the

Cold War

What will the US do to

counter the trend we are

already observing today?

Notions of the world start to balance

against the US power/hegemony and

acquire more anti-access capability

Lack of

Adversary

Difficulty

Today

Time

Figure 1.1. The antiaccess dilemma. (Reproduced from Col Thomas P. 

Ehrhard, PhD, USAF, briefing to the School of Advanced Air and Space 

Studies, Maxwell AFB, Alabama, 17 May 2004.) 

The Vision

As the United States emerges from two nearly simultaneous conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, global airpower trends have clearly 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 5

proven the strategic importance of the expeditionary concept and 

suggest that few opponents will be able to challenge the United States 

Air Force in the air. However, adversaries of the future are likely to 

look for alternative means to counter US airpower. One means of doing 

so is through antiaccess tactics. The United States faced natural, geographical antiaccess issues in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF)—

the war in Afghanistan. America faced an enemy in a landlocked 

country with no easy access. Through the initial use of US naval airpower and USAF long-range strike aircraft, combined with a heavy 

reliance on the tanker fleet, America was nonetheless able to strike 

the Taliban effectively. Eventually America secured air bases in permissive areas such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan.5

 US 

forces also seized airfields in hostile environments—at landing zone 

(LZ) Rhino and Kandahar International Airport in Afghanistan. The 

post-9/11 world will find the seizing and opening of airfields in distant 

and unusual places increasingly important. 

Significance

This concept of airfield seizure and secure lodgment is essential for 

the projection of American power. The doctrinal importance of airfield seizure and air base opening to US security strategy is supported 

by a continuum of key policy documents ranging from the White 

House to the Department of Defense (DOD), Joint Chiefs of Staff 

(JCS), US Air Force, and Air Mobility Command (AMC). The 2017 

National Security Strategy of the United States of America asserts, “We 

must enable forward-deployed field work beyond the confines of diplomatic facilities, including partnering with military colleagues in 

conflict-affected states.” Further, since “adversaries constantly evolve 

their methods to threaten the United States and our citizens” our response must be agility and adaptability.6

 Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) 

guidance in Joint Publication (JP) 3-18, Forcible Entry Operations, 

advocates forcible entry in situations where “securing the lodgment” 

is needed “to protect the force and ensure the continuous landing of 

personnel and materiel, . . . support the increasing flow of forces and 

logistic resource requirements, and . . . support the joint force in preparing for and executing follow-on operations.”7

 Air Force doctrine 

notes, “As the United States moves into a realm of uncertain adversaries, it is the capability of our mobility forces that will ensure the force 
6 │ DEMARCO

projection necessary to protect US national interests.”8 It further describes how “deployable air mobility support forces can expand the 

GAMSS [global air mobility support system] at existing locations or 

establish capabilities where none exists,” thus establishing an infrastructure for global air mobility operations.9 

According to retired USAF colonel John Cirafici’s research, “A 

war-fighting commander depends on the airhead to introduce combat forces in the shortest time possible and to sustain them during the 

initial and probably the most critical phases of the operations.” 

Further, Cirafici states that “where a threat of force is necessary, concerned parties must realize that the means to project force is as credible as the force itself.”10 In short, all US military services must contribute forces capable of rapid, decisive, forced entry operations in 

support of airfield seizure to enable follow-on forces.

The USAF—and more specifically Air Mobility Command with its 

vast array of air transports, aerial tankers, and air mobility specialists—

is critical to effective power projection. US Army (USA) Field 

Manual (FM) 3-99, Airborne and Air Assault Operations, lists airlift 

as the number one item the USAF must deliver for such operations.11

Air mobility capabilities are the key enablers for rapid force-projection 

forces. Therefore, the robustness of the air mobility system determines the speed at which America can generate forces for power projection. Future contingency operations will require a credible and 

versatile force tailored to each unique situation. Any force package 

will require a secure staging area to transition from deployment to 

employment. This is true whether that package is airpower or ground 

power. When a secure lodgment is not available, a forced entry into 

the objective area is required to seize and secure a forward base for 

the introduction of combat forces.12

A forced seizure of an airfield is a complex and difficult operation. 

The mission is normally performed by airborne troops, air assault 

forces, and/or ground special operations forces (SOF) and specially 

trained mobility crews either from Air Force Special Operations 

Command (AFSOC) or AMC. These units, both Army and Air Force, 

are lightly equipped and vulnerable to enemy maneuver and firepower. The operation is further complicated by the requirement for 

firepower via aircraft in a close air support (CAS) or interdiction role. 

Precision engagement is key in such an operation; destruction of the 

airfield and its facilities could render the inserted ground forces helpless as follow-on forces will be unable to proceed. 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 7

With extended-range air operations becoming increasingly important, is the USAF organizing, training, and equipping the force to handle the antiaccess issues of establishing forward air bases in a denied 

environment? An analysis of case studies will demonstrate the strategic 

importance of airfield seizure. We then examine whether the USAF is 

adequately preparing to execute this critical function in the future. 

Clearly, strategists find such operations increasingly critical: without 

airfields, force projection is close to impossible. For this reason, the history of some select operations is pertinent to future USAF operations. 

While the basic technique of airfield seizure has not changed markedly 

over the past 50 years, new information and sensor and weapon technologies offer opportunities for future conflicts.13

Each historical case study is examined through the lens of Joint Vision 

2020. It presents the application of four operational concepts that will 

result in full-spectrum dominance: dominant maneuver, precision engagement, full dimensional protection, and focused logistics (fig. 1.2).

DOMINANT MANEUVER

PRECISION ENGAGEMENT

FOCUSED LOGISTICS

FULL-DIMENSIONAL PROTECTION

TECHNOLOGICAL

INNOVATION

INFORMATION SUPERIORITY

FULL

SPECTRUM

DOMINANCE

Joint Forces

Coalition Partners

Advanced

Technologies

New Operational Concepts

and Doctrine

Organizational

Change

Joint Vision 2020

Figure 1.2. Joint Vision 2020. (Reproduced from Gen Henry H. Shelton, 

chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Vision 2020 [Washington, DC: 

Government Printing Office, June 2000], https://permanent.access.gpo

.gov/LPS5598/jv2020.pdf.)

This template provides a common direction for US military services 

in developing their unique capabilities within a joint framework of 
8 │ DEMARCO

doctrine and programs as they prepare to meet an uncertain and challenging future. Furthermore, one of the best analyses of the future is to 

understand the past. By applying Joint Vision 2020’s concepts to the 

case studies, we can gain a better understanding of how to shape our 

future capabilities. 

Historical Outlook

Airborne forces usually perform the seizure of an airfield when it 

is to be used as an airhead. Such forces have attacked airfields multiple 

times since 1940 to secure airfield facilities for the landing of troops, 

heavy equipment, and supplies.14 It is critical to review the theory and 

history of airfield seizure, follow-on air base opening, and the strategic significance of such operations. The Germans were the first to 

recognize the strategic value of an adversary’s airfields as insertion 

points for their own forces. We also examine the Luftwaffe’s operations in northern Europe, where German paratroopers captured airfields at Aalborg, Denmark, and at Sola, Oslo, and Stavanger, Norway. 

A month later, the Luftwaffe captured three airfields at The Hague 

and another at Rotterdam in Holland. A year later, in the largest German airborne operation of the war, German paratroopers assaulted 

the three Commonwealth airfields on Crete.15

This chapter also describes the Soviet view of airfield seizure and 

airhead operations. In 1979 Soviet airborne forces seized the Kabul 

airport and several other air bases for use by follow-on forces in the 

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.16 Another focus is American operations using the experience of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) to demonstrate the criticality of airfield seizure. However, airfield seizures 

have been a part of US military operations for some time. In 1983 

American forces conducted attacks in Grenada during Operation Urgent Fury, capturing the Salinas and Pearls airports.17 Again in 1989, 

during Operation Just Cause, US Army Rangers captured Rio Hato 

and Tocumen airfields in Panama.18

As the world emerges from the Cold War and the US armed forces 

become increasingly expeditionary in nature, such airfield seizure 

operations will be more frequent. The linear battlefield has disappeared in Afghanistan and Iraq. This change has placed an even 

greater requirement on the need for airfields to resupply ground 

forces or forward deploy air assets. LZ Rhino was secured as a foot-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 9

hold in Afghanistan during OEF, leading to the seizure of Kandahar 

International Airport.19 In OIF, airfield seizure operations were crucial pieces of the campaign. Iraqi airfields were turned into US operating bases at Tallil, Bashur, Bushmaster, H1, Kirkuk, K1, and Balad 

(discussed later in greater detail).20

In the future, the USAF will encounter scenarios where it must 

secure lodgment to project power. The United States must develop 

the forces and organizations now to prepare for such operations. We 

explore how the USAF is posturing forces today and in the near future 

to meet this threat. The future of conflict is uncertain, and we consider how best to organize, train, and equip the force of tomorrow to 

meet a wide spectrum of conflict. Air base seizure and opening are 

key to US power projection. 

Assumptions and Limitations

The USAF found that much of its post–Cold War thought regarding opening air bases did not withstand the reality test after 9/11. In 

the pre-9/11 world, the Air Force opened bases in locations with a 

robust infrastructure and a permissive environment. Strategies for 

those conditions have little to do with post-9/11 air base opening in 

austere locations with a modicum of or no infrastructure. The US 

mobility air forces (MAF) and US SOF have a myriad of lessons to 

study following OEF and OIF. 

The topic of base opening received attention at the chief of staff of 

the Air Force (CSAF) and AMC commander levels in 2003. The Air 

Force and AMC explored a variety of initiatives to better enable expeditionary base openings, including the expeditionary mobility task 

force (EMTF) and the contingency response wing (CRW). As CSAF, 

Gen John Jumper, USAF, retired, stated that base opening and CRW 

skills are critical to the “modern expeditionary Air Force.” He noted, 

“We will continue to grow these skills and get the people in these 

groups that we need to be able to do this [air base opening] in any 

condition, anywhere in the world. And it’s going to get people’s attention.”21 Since then, the Air Force has implemented initiatives to better 

enable expeditionary base openings, including the air mobility operations wing (AMOW) and the CRW.22 Both the 515 AMOW at Hickam 

AB, Hawaii, and the 521 AMOW at Ramstein AB, Germany, were 

stood up in 2008.23 The 621 CRW was activated in 2005 at Joint Base 
10 │ DEMARCO

McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey, and at Travis AFB, California. 

The goal of these organizations is maintaining a rapid air mobility 

capability to seize and open airfields.

An essential premise for implementing a truly effective airfield seizure and air base opening team, as history will show, is that it must be 

truly joint. US armed forces must transcend parochial interests to 

develop the most effective force. Without an airfield to operate from, 

in many cases, there will be no introduction of combat forces. If the 

American military is committed to creating an effective, light, and 

lethal fighting force, it must take action that reaches beyond bureaucratic entanglements and service rigidity. One must understand the 

Air Force role in airfield seizure and air base opening—how such operations have been performed in the past and whether those methods 

will translate well into the future of such operations. 

Airfield Seizure Case Studies

The practice of capturing airfields dates back to World War II and 

the Luftwaffe’s attacks in Norway. However, the concept of securing 

lodgment for friendly troops to ensure the capability of follow-on attack is centuries old. Evidence is found in the earliest recorded history, back to 416 BC with Thucydides and the Sicilian Campaign. The 

argument in favor of the expedition was that by subduing Sicily, 

which had a large number of Greek colonies, the Athenians would 

receive an increase in their forces with which to defeat the Peloponnesians. Athenian general Nicias debated fellow countryman and 

general Alcibiades on the merits of the campaign:

Against a power of this kind it will not do to have merely a weak naval armament, but we shall want also a large land army to sail with us, if we are to do 

anything worthy of our ambition, and are not to be shut out from the country 

by a numerous cavalry. . . . We must therefore start from home with a competent force, seeing that we are going to sail far from our country, and upon an 

expedition not like any which you may undertaken. . . . We are cutting ourselves off, and going to a land entirely strange.24

In 415 BC the Athenians sent out a great fleet and in 414 BC besieged 

Syracuse, the main Greek city in Sicily. The campaign proved to be a disaster for the Athenians and the beginning of the end for their empire. 

Fast-forward to an America that up until World War I had fought 

most all of its wars on the continent of North America. For two cen-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 11

turies the United States enjoyed near isolation behind two broad 

oceans. The country’s participation in World War I against the Central Powers was the first major break with these traditional isolationist 

policies. The United States fought in World War I as an associate 

power, not as an ally. Even after a world war, America attempted to 

return to being an isolationist country.

The first turning point for US isolationists occurred in 1940. German 

military triumphs in Europe and the Battle of Britain forced widespread American reconsideration of its relation to the war now raging 

in Europe. Many worried that if Germany and Italy triumphed in Europe 

and Africa, and Japan triumphed in East Asia, the Western Hemisphere 

would be the next target. Even if America withstood assaults, its democracy, freedom, and economy could be traumatized in the “fortress 

America” it might have to maintain to guard its security. Given that 

frightening worst-case scenario, by the autumn of 1940, most Americans believed in ensuring the defeat of the Axis—even at the risk of 

war. The ultimate turning point from isolationist to global power 

proved to be the December 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 

Hawaii. 

 As America emerged from isolation in World War II, force projection became increasingly important. In Europe, the projection was 

less of a challenge since US forces could secure lodgment in North 

Africa and England. In the Pacific, the Allies witnessed the birth of 

airfield seizure—an entire campaign based on acquiring new lodgment after new lodgment. 

Thousands of miles separated the United States from ultimate victory in the Pacific during World War II. Lt Col James H. “Jimmy” 

Doolittle led the famous raid on the Japanese home islands early in 

the war, but spanning the vast oceans with concentrated air power 

proved a daunting task. American naval and ground forces had to 

secure bases in China and wrest far-flung islands from the tenacious 

grip of the Japanese. From these bases, the United States Army Air 

Forces (USAAF) launched specially designed, very long range bombers 

against the home islands. The strategic bombing campaign, climaxed 

by the destruction of enemy cities with conventional and atomic 

bombs, helped force Japan to surrender and spared the United States 

a bloody invasion. The US air offensive against Japan is the central 

story of the Pacific war, a drama of island hopping, airfield seizures, 

and the truest sense of joint operations.25 Much of the WWII Pacific 
12 │ DEMARCO

experience in airfield seizure is pertinent to today’s expeditionary 

Air Force.

A RAND corporation study by Alan Vick notes that a broad range 

of objectives may be gained from attacking an air base. These range 

from simple harassment of the enemy and its operations to the focus 

of this paper, capturing an airfield for US operations. Vick further 

divides the capture of an airfield into two categories: (1) for use as an 

airhead or support base or (2) for offensive air operations or FOL.26

The capture of an airfield for offensive air operations, where attacking air forces sought to capture enemy bases to perform their 

own offensive air operations, was limited to World War II until recent 

operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.27 WWII had 23 FOL operations, 

and, in many of these, the attackers could mount offensive air operations within hours or days after ground forces had secured the airfield. These operations were akin to the conflicts in Afghanistan and 

Iraq. Ground forces captured airfields so that their own air forces 

could occupy the base and conduct offensive air operations from the 

airfield, extending the reach of the attacker’s air force.28

Fighting in the Pacific theater of WWII was noted for its jointness. 

In particular, the campaign plans of both sides were largely determined by the need to capture and defend air bases.29 As such, joint 

operations were launched to capture enemy airfields. Subsequent air 

operations from these new bases extended the offensive range of airpower, allowing for new naval and ground operations that, in turn, 

seized new airfields. 

Both the Allied and Axis powers had noteworthy FOL operations 

in World War II. Among these are the Japanese attack on Wake Island 

and Japanese landings at Singora and Patani, Thailand, and Kota 

Bharu, Malaya. Japan secured two Thai air bases and three Royal Air 

Force (RAF) fields, subsequently defeating the British in Malaya on 

15 February 1941. The Japanese also captured the RAF airfield at 

Palembang, Sumatra, in February 1942.30 The Japanese attack on 

Midway Island in 1942 was a failed attempt at airfield seizure—changing 

the tide of the war.31 Notable Allied efforts include the British assault 

on the Vichy French airfield at Souk-el-Arba, Algeria, in November 

1942 and the US landings on Tinian, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and le 

Shima in 1944 and 1945.32 These examples are a few of the operations 

in an entire campaign bent on the seizure of airfields to attack and 

counterattack the enemy.
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 13

The Soviet and American Cold War following World War II stifled 

such operations on a grand scale. Airfield seizures occurred in several 

conflicts but were limited. The Korean War witnessed the United 

States rapidly opening air bases as land was seized from the North. 

Operation Chromite (or Inchon) is an excellent historical example of 

the strategic importance of airfield seizure. The objectives of Operation Chromite were multifaceted: “(1) neutralize the fortified Wolmi 

Island, which controlled access to Inchon Harbor; (2) land and capture Inchon, 25 miles west of Seoul; (3) seize Kimpo Airfield just 

south of Seoul; and, finally, (4) capture the city of Seoul.”33 On 24 

September 1950, just days after the invasion, Kimpo Airfield opened 

for 24-hour operations. Cargo aircraft brought in much-needed 

supplies and air evacuated the wounded and sick back to hospitals 

in Japan. Nine C-119 transports emergency air-dropped ammunition and rations to the frontline troops as they pushed north out of 

the Inchon area. Eight C-54s landed at the newly captured airfield at 

Suwon on 24 September to bring in some 65 tons of ammunition and 

rations. The Combat Cargo Command lifted the 187th Airborne 

Regiment into Kimpo on 25 September to guard the offensive’s flank 

as the troops moved forward.34

As mentioned, from the end of Korea until the 1980s, the two superpowers had somewhat stabilized the global environment, and the 

United States faced the USSR along stagnated lines. The static “Iron 

Curtain” over Europe allowed for the building of forward bases and 

the deployment of permanently stationed troops in the theater of 

conflict. The ability and requirement to seize bases significantly decreased in strategic importance. The operations were relegated to a 

small force of special operations experts. 

These infrequent operations included Operation Eagle Claw—the 

failed rescue attempt of American hostages held in Iran. Eagle Claw 

planned on the seizure of Manzariyeh AB in Iran. This putative lodgment would have allowed for C-141 Starlifter transports to fly the 

hostages and rescue teams out of the country.35

Operation Urgent Fury—the rescue of American students in 

Grenada—required the seizure of Salinas and Pearls airports.36

During Operation Just Cause, US Rangers captured Rio Hato and 

Tocumen airfields in Panama for insertion of forces to remove dictator 

Manuel Noriega.37 These operations differ from those of WWII in 

that the objective of these seizures was never to sustain forces. The 
14 │ DEMARCO

operations were a bolt out of the blue—a surprise special operations 

effort for temporary effects.38

In essence, the Cold War was the driving factor in diminishing the 

US military’s need for airfield seizure and the requirement to open 

bases. Europe and the Pacific were fertile ground, littered with bases 

to support troops in combat with the USSR. If World War III were to 

occur, a nuclear exchange would end the war quickly. If nuclear 

weapons were not used, the conventional battle between the United 

States and USSR would be one of forces already deployed in Europe 

and fought from fixed bases, with follow-on forces deploying to forward NATO airfields and ports. These forces and forward bases were 

a requirement of the Cold War and integral to deterrence. 

Following the Cold War, America and its allies faced what President George H. W. Bush called a “new world order.” In his 11 September 1990 address to a joint session of Congress and the nation, he 

stated: 

A new world order—can emerge: a new era—freer from the threat of terror, 

stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace. An era 

in which the nations of the world, East and West, North and South, can prosper 

and live in harmony. A hundred generations have searched for this elusive path 

to peace, while a thousand wars raged across the span of human endeavor. Today that new world is struggling to be born, a world quite different from the one 

we’ve known. A world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle. A 

world in which nations recognize the shared responsibility for freedom and 

justice. A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak.39

Ironically, 11 years later, his son, President George W. Bush, would 

face a completely different world.

Instead, the “new world order” ushered in a new realm of conflict. 

America was forced to change from a Cold War force that was deployed 

forward to a force that was in garrison and home, based in the United 

States with the ability to deploy rapidly. The US approach to combat in 

Desert Storm was based on Cold War thought. The United States–led 

coalition built up forces in the Persian Gulf at allied bases and was 

afforded the time to meet the Iraqis with overwhelming force. 

Conflicts in Somalia and Rwanda stimulated discussion among US 

strategists regarding the notion of air base opening. The United States 

needed more open airfields in austere places at the very limit of its 

logistical reach. US military strategy increasingly stressed force projection and the strategic role of air mobility forces. The pre-9/11 

air base opening sequence proved a good start in thought, but a 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 15

leaner military structure required the USAF to develop doctrine 

for the optimum use of forces. The United States no longer enjoyed scores of airlifters and tankers flying to fixed bases. To 

strengthen and grow this budding expeditionary culture, new 

strategies would have to emerge. 

A regional combatant commander requires his forces to flow into 

the theater in a timely manner to where they are needed so that they 

can quickly prepare for employment. The linear battlefield made 

these objectives a challenge; today’s nonlinear battlefield makes them 

even more difficult. New units in-theater make vulnerable, lucrative 

targets for the enemy. Whether on an FOL or a support base, the airfield can be exposed and a bottleneck. Because of its critical importance for force insertion and sustainment, it is a likely center of gravity 

that a competent enemy would be expected to attack. No longer can 

air mobility alone open bases as we saw in the pre 9/11 world. Today, 

forces must be integrated. 

CONOPS Theory 

During the early 2000s the DOD focused its efforts on military 

transformation. Then secretary of defense (SecDef) Donald H. 

Rumsfeld defined the goal of transformation: “We need rapidly deployable, fully integrated forces, capable of reaching distant theaters 

quickly and working with our air and sea forces to strike adversaries 

swiftly, successfully and devastating effect.”40 Key to this effort was the 

creation and modernization of forcible entry capabilities. JP 3-18,

Joint Forcible Entry Operations, states that Army airborne and air assault forces are primary forces in such operations.41 Such forces cannot project themselves on a global scale and require the USAF to 

seize airfields. RAND’s study Lightning over Water cites research that 

questions whether airborne and air assault assets “have the survivability and killing power for future . . . contingencies.” The study indicates that light forces “will need to have much greater survivability 

and lethality to operate effectively.”42 The Air Force enhances this survivability and lethality of forced entry operations. Air Force forced 

entry capabilities like airlift, counterair, CAS, tactical air reconnaissance, 

air interdiction, special air warfare operations, electronic warfare, 

and suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) are central to the air 

component’s forced entry missions.43
16 │ DEMARCO

Air Mobility 

This forcible entry option of either airborne or air assault requires 

a delivery method. The preferred method for conveying these forces 

is via the USAF’s air mobility forces. Without the robust capability of 

the USAF, the airborne unit is a rider without a horse. With an effective and timely USAF response, however, seizure forces can be 

employed with the maximum probability of success.44 JP 3-17, Air 

Mobility Operations, states, “Air mobility operations are a rapid 

means to project and sustain power across the globe in support of US 

national interests and a critical enabler to the US National Military 

Strategy.”45

 Air mobility is a system of systems combining airlift, air refueling, 

and air mobility support assets, processes, and procedures into an 

integrated whole. Airlift and air refueling can operate independently 

of one another, but neither can operate without air mobility support.

Current forcible entry forces—airborne and air assault—lack survivability and lethality, especially in a high threat environment.46 The 

Air Force’s global strike CONOPS package of aircraft can establish air 

dominance, but troops on the ground are usually required to occupy 

terrain and secure lodgment. The solution is an integrated force using 

airborne forces, the USAF global strike CONOPS, and the global mobility (GM) CONOPS.

Lodgment and the Global Mobility CONOPS

A contingency mission requires a secure base of operations where 

combat power can be introduced, projected, and sustained to conduct joint operations. Seizure of an airfield is one means of securing 

such a base. Operations to support this goal can be conducted via 

ground, air, or sea. Once the field is attacked, it must be secured and 

defended, and subsequent air and/or ground operations must ensue. 

The projection and employment of US forces has almost inevitably 

required the establishment of bases near the area of operations.47 Today, 

air base opening is fulfilled in the following steps (fig. 1.3): (1) “Open 

the Airbase,” which first employs the base assessment team (C-BAT), 

(2) Create a synchronized “Command and Control [C2],” (3) “Establish the Airbase” to achieve initial operating capability and provide 

sufficient force protection, (4) “Generate the Mission,” and, finally, 

(5) “Operate the Airbase” to bring its full operating capability to bear 

to meet overarching military objectives.48
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 17

AIRFIELD

SEIZURE

OPEN THE

AIRBASE

OPERATE THE

AIRBASE

SUSTAINMENT

ESTABLISH THE

AIRBASE

COMMAND AND

CONTROL

GENERATE

THE MISSION

Figure 1.3. Air base opening force model construct. (Reproduced 

from Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education, 

“Airbase Opening,” in “Annex 3-17, Air Mobility Operations,” 65, 5 

April 2016, https://doctrine.af.mil/download.jsp?filename=3-17-AnnexMOBILITY-OPS.pdf.)

Implementing the GM CONOPS in a hostile environment requires 

direct, detailed coordination and integration between the GM 

CONOPS planners and airfield seizure forces. These forces usually 

consist of SOF or conventional Army or Marine Corps (USMC) 

forces combined with Air Force forces. Of these roles, the USAF’s 

part in “opening the air base” is the most imperative. 

History shows the strategic importance of airfield seizure, and we 

will examine such operations in context. Case studies start with German 

operations in Norway, continue with the Soviet concept of airfield 

seizure and its effects in Afghanistan, and conclude with the US operation in Iraq during OIF. These case studies are offered as reflection 

prior to further addressing the USAF’s concept for air base openings 

in the wake of OIF and OEF. Finally, future organization, training 

requirements, and doctrine are amplified as recommendations for 

future operations. 

The German Way: The Luftwaffe in Northern Europe

In World War II the Germans conducted major airfield seizure operations only twice—May 1940 in Holland and May 1941 involving 

the occupation of Crete. Thus, Germany’s experience with airborne 

operations in this war is derived primarily from these two engagements, “constitut[ing] the first large-scale airborne operations in the 

history of warfare.”49 Airborne operations during Operation Mercury, 

the seizure of Crete, were less than impressive. Despite taking the island, Adolph Hitler saw the battle as a fiasco and lost faith in the 

paratroopers under Gen Kurt Student. He never ordered another 
18 │ DEMARCO

major airborne attack for the remainder of the war. The focus here, 

however, is the campaign in Norway and the strategic effects caused 

by forcible entry and subsequent airfield seizures. 

Context

Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway and Denmark, was 

a campaign of many firsts.50 The operation demonstrated the first combat airborne operation and airfield seizure, the first campaign in which 

air superiority cancelled the opponent’s naval superiority, and the first 

major campaign in which aerial supply through seized airfields became 

a deciding factor.51 Hitler first envisioned the invasion of Scandinavia 

around Christmas 1939 and revisited the concept in early 1940. German 

motives for the invasion included not only the fear of the British forestalling Germany and seizing Nazi supplies of iron ore but also “a wish 

to push the British naval blockade as far away from the German coast 

as possible.”52 Germany also recognized that the Norwegian air bases 

offered the Luftwaffe the range to strike the northern portion of the 

British Isles. In turn, if the British were to occupy Norway, they could 

use the airfields as bases for the RAF and enable bombing missions 

against German cities at a much shorter range.53 With the commencement of operations in Scandinavia, Hitler stated that “this operation 

will prevent British encroachment in Scandinavia and the Baltic; further, 

it will guarantee our ore base in Sweden and give our navy and air force 

a wider start-line against Britain.”54

For Germany to attain its diplomatic, military, and economic objectives in Norway, the Norwegian military had to be defeated. The 

German military was, at the same time, preparing for the invasion of 

France and the Low Countries and had few forces to engage in an 

invasion to the north. Hitler’s concern was that the British would occupy Norway as soon as Nazi forces pushed west with their invasion 

of France, thereby limiting German options. The Germans faced a 

dilemma. With forces awaiting the campaign in the Low Countries, 

Hitler could not afford to divert an overwhelming force to a northern 

front. Yet a force that could strike rapidly, with surprise, and hit centers 

of gravity decisively could be employed. Any option required the 

ability to secure lodgments in Norway to support military long-range 

operations so far from Germany. Hitler chose to use stealth, speed, 

and precision in his forcible entry of Norway.55
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 19

Dominant Maneuver 

The German planning staff developed the concept of a surprise attack to simultaneously seize all of Norway’s major ports and airfields 

(fig. 1.4). According to Joint Vision 2020, forces adept at conducting 

sustained and synchronized operations from dispersed locations employ dominant maneuver.56 The Navy would land troops at Oslo, 

Kristiansand, Bergen, Trondheim, and Narvik.57 Paratroop followed 

by airlanded units would seize the Oslo and Stavanger airports.58 Just 

outside Stavanger, Sola was the “biggest and best airport in Norway 

with a perfect position to control the sea approaches to southern Norway.” 

Oslo Airport at Fornebu was still being built but was almost complete.59

Reinforcements 6

April 11—15 to Oslo (2nd Wave)

April 17 to Stavanger

Armor

Infantry

Parachute

Machine-gun

Anti-aircraft

Mountain

Division

Regiment

Battalion

Motorized

May 4 to Trondheim 361 307

69 163

181 40 x3

x3

196

214

2

2

1

3

4

5

Göring

SYBOLS

GROUP 2

GROUP 5

GROUP 5

GROUP 5

GROUP 3

GROUPS 1 & 2

GROUP 1

Renown engages the

Gneisenau and Scharnhorst

Namsos

Trondheim

Andalsnes

Borgen

Oslo

Arendal

Kristiansand

Norwegian units and British

minefields are shown in red. Miles

0 100 200

Egosund

Stavanger

Fornebu

Sofa

Bodö

Harstad

Narvik

Skage r rak

D enmark

S w e d e n

Ka t t e g a k

N

o

r

w

a

y

Figure 1.4. The German invasion of Norway, 1940. (Reproduced from 

“Blitzkrieg in Poland and Norway,” PowerPoint presentation, slide 14, UK 

teaching resources website, accessed 7 July 2017, http://schoolshistory

.org.uk/EuropeatWar/invasionofnorway.htm.)

German planners required the seizure and occupation of 

Denmark as well. The Luftwaffe required the two major airfields at 
20 │ DEMARCO

Aalborg in northern Denmark to conduct operations over Norway. 

The fields at Aalborg were strategically important as an advanced 

base with a land connection to Germany and a staging point en route 

to Norway.60 The German bomber and transport force had the range 

to fly from northern Germany and reach southern Norway. However, 

without a staging airfield within short range of home airfields in Germany, Luftwaffe fighters and short-range reconnaissance aircraft 

could not fly to Norway and protect the army and navy from British 

attack. The airfields at Aalborg were ideal for these purposes. German 

occupation there would extend the range of the Luftwaffe bombers 

well over the North Sea and central Norway.61

As noted, the Germans further anticipated that the British had 

plans to land troops in Norway to cut off German ore supplies. It was 

now a race to quickly maneuver forces to occupy Scandinavia first 

and meet the timing requirements for the planned offensive in the 

west. The campaign in Norway would require most of the Luftwaffe’s 

transport force—the same transports needed for paratroop operations in the Low Countries. Norway would therefore have to be secured within weeks before the attack in the west began.62

Precision Engagement 

Joint Vision 2020’s definition of precision engagement includes “the 

ability of joint forces to locate, surveil, discern, and track objectives 

or targets” as well as to “reengage with decisive speed and overwhelming operational tempo as required, throughout the full range of military operations.”63 Today, Air Force doctrine codifies this concept as 

a key enabler to the Air Force’s “global reach” mission. Global reach 

“is the ability to project military capability responsively—with unrivaled velocity and precision—to any point on or above the earth, and 

provide mobility to rapidly supply, position, or reposition joint 

forces” (emphasis added).64

 As with any engagement involving airborne forces and seizure operations, success of the invasion depended heavily on all of the above—

especially surprise and stealth. Planners in the Oberkommando der 

Wehrmacht (OKW), or Supreme Command of the Armed Forces, 

knew that the operation hinged on such theories, and the best way to 

actualize these two elements was by an overwhelming aerial assault on 

the first day. It was a visionary but realistic concept considering the 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 21

aviation assets that Germany had in 1940.65 Operations against Scandinavia enjoyed additional surprise as it was the first time that Germany 

had initiated an airborne operation. However, “once the existence of 

these special units and the methods of committing them had become 

known, surprise was possible only through careful selection of the time 

and place for the attack.66 For the first time in war, parachute soldiers 

and airlanded troops were to be used together—the paratroops to seize 

and subsequently operate airfields and airlanded units to then consolidate and spread out from the seized bases.67 These tactics were later 

used in both Holland and Crete.68

German High Command designated the 1 Parachute Battalion for 

the invasion. With the requirement to conduct major airborne operations in the Low Countries in support of the Spring Offensive, the 

Luftwaffe refused to consider providing two airborne divisions.69 Instead, it turned over a reinforced paratroop battalion to Weserübung.70

The full-scale invasion of two separate countries would be conducted 

with the support of only one battalion. The X Air Corps was tasked 

with air support for the operation, which would be reinforced with 

additional bombers and fighters. The Luftwaffe’s transport force of 

over 500 aircraft, consisting mostly of Ju 52s, would be required to 

airlift troops and vital supplies to Norway.71 Approximately 1,200 aircraft would support the invasion.72

The commanding officer was given four tasks to fulfill, two in 

Denmark and two in Norway. The first was to secure a road bridge 

prior to its destruction by Danish defenders. The second was to capture two airfields at Aalborg. In Norway, the battalion was to capture 

Sola airfield at Stavanger and the main Oslo airfield at Fornebu and 

hold and operate them while airland troops arrived and built a force 

large enough to occupy the city.73

Focused Logistics and Full-Dimension Protection

One of the main concepts driving the requirement to capture airfields in Denmark and Norway was a logistical one. The Luftwaffe 

paid close attention to the need for focused logistics. After the initial 

siege of the two major airfields in Norway by paratroop detachments, 

the Luftwaffe began flying troops in by air. The Germans would fly in 

specialist army, navy, and Luftwaffe headquarters and signal units 

along with their equipment. The Luftwaffe alone would deploy over 
22 │ DEMARCO

3,150 signal troops—the equivalent of nine signal battalions—to support 

communication requirements.74

When the airfields were seized, the Luftwaffe planned to fly in airfield engineers and maintenance units, their equipment, and flak 

units for airfield protection so that several of the German fighter and 

bomber units could deploy immediately to Norway. Once situated in 

Norway, the fighters and bombers would establish air superiority 

over the North Sea and North Atlantic and press attacks against the 

Royal Navy.75 The Luftwaffe placed over 1,000 aircraft under the control of X Air Corps for the Norway operation: four bomber wings, three 

fighter groups, a Stuka group, as well as two reconnaissance groups.76

The air mobility or air transport force was organized into nine 

wings under the leadership of Col Freiherr von Gablenz, a former 

senior manager of Lufthansa and one of the Luftwaffe’s best air transport specialists.77 The mobility plan was carefully crafted to ensure 

infantry reinforcements and support troops such as engineers, signal 

troops, and airfield support units were on the ground on day one of 

the operation.78 One dimension of the plan was the consolidation of 

the larger seaplanes and flying boats of the naval air arm into a naval 

air transport wing.79 These aircraft provided logistical support and 

reinforcements via direct delivery on the fjords of Narvik and Trondheim.80 The attention to detail shown by the Luftwaffe in the mobility 

CONOPS is one of the most impressive aspects of the Scandinavian 

campaign.

Operations

In Denmark the invasion and occupation were a complete success. 

On 9 April 1940 at Aalborg, a 30-man platoon dropped without incident; within half an hour, the two airfields were completely under 

German control. Within two hours, the Luftwaffe was operating from 

the runways and establishing a forward fighter base. At Sola the operation unfolded in a different manner: the Germans faced opposition. 

Bad weather combined with heavy defenses led to severe casualties. 

Just hours after the first wave of jumpers landed, airland troops arrived and secured the surrounding area.81

Oslo presented another challenge to the Germans. The Norwegian 

government refused to surrender and ordered a full mobilization of 

its forces. Deterioring weather conditions again plagued the mission 

as two Ju 52s collided, forcing a mission recall. The Junker carrying 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 23

the commander of the airland forces received the call just as the Norwegian mountains came in sight and recalled the aircraft. While 26 Ju 

52s turned around, three did not receive the recall and continued to 

Oslo.82 Eight Messerschmitt Me 110s were engaging ground targets as 

the Junkers made an approach to the airfield. Three AAA sites at the 

eastern edge of the field and two sites at the northern end defended 

the field. A few hundred meters west of the runways, a searchlight 

platoon of the Oslo air defense was positioned with two AAA guns.83

The transports sustained severe damage on the approach but managed to abort the approach as the Messerschmitts, low on fuel, landed 

at Fornebu. The fighters engaged targets while on the ground, clearing the opposition for the Junkers to land. It was at this point the 

Norwegians retreated to Oslo.84 The airport was then quickly seized 

and X Corps Headquarters notified, and several hundred German 

infantry were immediately flown into Oslo.85 Norway’s capital fell 

without further resistance to the few infantry who arrived due to the 

risks and quick decisions of some fighter pilots and a couple of transport crews.86 Seizure operations at Sola airfield at Stavanger almost 

failed as well due to poor weather. The Junkers’ crews managed to 

find a break in the clouds and quickly acquire the drop zone. The field 

was quickly seized, and southern Norway’s best and most strategically sited airfield was in German hands.87

Scandinavia was won with a great deal of luck. This, combined 

with the capability of airfield seizure and operations, greatly extended 

the range of the Luftwaffe. The terror of the airborne forces also 

struck fear into the defenders. The force was incredibly small—4,000 

troops by air and 9,000 by sea.88 Without the airfields seized by the 

Luftwaffe, operations in Norway would not have succeeded.89

Lessons Learned

The first and perhaps most prominent lesson in terms of airfield 

seizure and the “open the base” force module is that—from day one—

the Luftwaffe flew in highly capable airfield engineers, logistic units, 

and ground crews. Within days, the Luftwaffe had the ground organization to support a force of three bomber wings, one Me-110 group, 

one Me-109 group, a long-range reconnaissance squadron, and a naval 

air group.90 German air forces at Oslo flew air support for ground 

forces advancing into central Norway. By all accounts, the support 

was highly effective—not least because of the pure psychological ef-
24 │ DEMARCO

fect on not only the Norwegian troops but also the Allies as a whole. 

The Norwegian troops in central Norway suffered from a total lack of 

air support. 

The main contributions of the newly opened bases in Norway were 

the heavy bombardment of the ports at Namsos and Andalsnes and 

the shipping in both ports. The Luftwaffe’s bombing efforts devastated the ports and road and rail junctions behind Allied lines.91

According to the after action report of Gruppe XXI, the primary 

lesson for the Germans was that “in future operations the three 

Wehrmacht branches must have one commander with full authority 

and a joint personal staff organized toward a fully unified conduct of 

the campaign.” 92 The strategic advantages Germany gained through 

victory in Norway served the Third Reich in three areas. First, Germany secured its northern flank by rendering a British occupation of 

Norway impossible. Second, Germany secured the route of the 

Swedish iron ore so important to the German war effort. Third, 

Norway offered naval and air bases from which to strike Britain.93

The invasion of Norway ushered in new methods of operations to 

overcome the long distances from supporting German air bases to 

the theater of operations. In the air, exploitations of technological advances allowed the use of airborne troops and airfield seizure teams. 

Both of these enabled Germany to reinforce lodgments rapidly via 

airlift, making it unnecessary to maintain a ground or sea line of supply to selected airheads. Norway, however, would prove to be the high 

point for German joint operations. The Wehrmacht would never 

progress beyond the level of competence it displayed in April 1940.94

The follow-on airborne assault on the island of Crete was much 

less of a success. The Germans captured the island in 10 days but at 

heavy cost: 6,600 German soldiers, including one in four paratroopers, 

lay dead on the battlefield. Hitler was so shocked by German losses 

that he never approved a third large airborne operation scheduled 

against the British on Malta.95 The Allies learned much from Norway 

and would incorporate those lessons into future joint operations. 

Winston Churchill noted of Operation Weserübung that “the superiority of the Germans in design, management and energy [in the 1940 

Norwegian Campaign] [was] plain. They put into ruthless execution 

a carefully prepared plan of action. They comprehended perfectly the 

use of the air arm on a great scale in all its aspects. . . . We, who had 

command of the sea and could pounce anywhere on an undefended 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 25

coast, were outpaced by the enemy moving by land across very large 

distances in the face of every obstacle.”96

The Soviet Way: The Red Air Force in Afghanistan 

After World War I, the Soviets, along with the German General 

Staff, embraced the radical concept of airborne warfare. The Red 

Army developed thought on deep battle under the sponsorship of 

Marshal Mikhail Nikolaevich Tukhachevskii. His concepts called for 

aviation and airborne, mechanized, and motorized formations organized to cooperate with one another but to operate independently of 

the main force, penetrating to the enemy’s “operational depth.” This 

approach translated to infiltration through the line of the enemy’s operational reserves, airfields, and headquarters.97

Tukhachevskii’s concepts and much of the Soviet’s prewar thought 

were made irrelevant in the first hours of Operation Barbarossa in 

1941 when Nazi Germany invaded Russia. The Germans managed to 

destroy virtually all the Red Army’s transport aircraft, and the Soviet 

airborne operations were consequently limited to short-range assaults for the rest of the war.98 Postwar Soviet airborne forces were 

organized into three corps but were limited by inadequate air transport. Their principal goal was to achieve shock and surprise, but they 

were incapable of executing major power projection.99

The USSR continued to develop its airlift fleet, airborne corps, and 

supporting doctrine. This evolution culminated in two operations: 

the 1968 airborne operation in Czechoslovakia and the 1979 invasion of Afghanistan. In Czechoslovakia, Soviet transports—escorted by MiG-17s—landed at Prague and seized the airfield. Simultaneous airborne operations landed troops to take control of two 

other airfields in the area. Thus began a massive airlift of supplies and 

equipment through these airheads. The efficiency of the airlift and 

subsequent airhead operations were credited with having prevented a 

logistical debacle when the ground forces outdistanced their supply 

trains.100 Landings in Czechoslovakia were unopposed, but airborne 

forces were credited with a performance in the Czech invasion that 

was well executed and successful.101

The December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan marked the 

first time the USSR conducted a full-scale invasion of a country outside Eastern Europe since the assault on Manchuria in August 1945. 
26 │ DEMARCO

Although Afghanistan bordered the Soviet Union, it was a Third 

World, Muslim country with considerable geostrategic importance.102

A New York Times editorial noted that “the primary lesson for the 

United States . . . in the Soviet Union’s swift airborne movement into 

Afghanistan is that the Russians have the ability to move significant 

numbers of troops in a relatively short time into situations they consider critical to their policies.”103 As there is still debate on why Russia 

invaded, the thrust of our discussion is not the reason for the intrusion. Rather, we touch on some theories for the attack, discuss the 

invasion, and highlight the unique capabilities the Soviets developed 

in airborne operations and airfield seizure tactics. 

 Many political analysts suspect that the Soviet move was a first step 

motivated by a desire to secure warm-water ports and to control the 

immense oil wealth of the Gulf States and the sea lanes that transport it 

to the West. The invasion challenged US policy makers’ perceptions of 

Soviet intentions, calling into question the USSR’s interpretation of détente and Soviet strategic ends in the Third World, particularly the vital 

areas surrounding the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea.104

The Soviet military intervention in Afghanistan did aim to reverse 

a deteriorating political situation as evidenced by emboldened and 

aggressive popular resistance to the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) regime in Kabul. Having invested money and influence 

in Afghanistan for 25 years, the Soviet Union would not watch idly 

while a client state on its southern border collapsed. A 1956 accord 

provided for the USSR equipping the Afghan army, and with that, 

Russia had steadily insinuated its influence into Afghan politics. Afghanistan’s 1978 “April Revolution” brought the country’s relationship with the USSR to a critical stage. The proclamation of the DRA 

and signing of a friendship pact with Russia marked an advanced 

stage of assimilation into Moscow’s bloc of socialist states.105

The Soviet-Afghan war is divided into four phases. Phase one (December 1979 to February 1980) began with the entry of Soviet forces 

into Afghanistan, their stationing in garrisons, and their final organization for securing bases and various installations. Phase two (March 

1980 to April 1985) was characterized by active combat. The Soviets 

undertook combat on a wide scale. During phase three (April 1985 to 

January 1987), the Soviets transitioned from primary active combat 

to supporting loyal Afghan forces with aviation, artillery, and engineer subunits. Finally, in phase four (January 1987 to February 1989), 

the Soviets joined the Afghan government’s program of national 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 27

reconciliation. During this time, Soviet forces conducted virtually no 

offensive actions and fought only when attacked by the mujahideen or 

when supporting combat by Afghan forces.106 The following discussion 

focuses on phase one and the initial seizing of air bases and lodgment. 

The elements of the first phase of the Soviet invasion included the 

establishment of an in-country Soviet military and KGB element to 

support the invasion force. These units developed cover or deception 

operations to divert attention from any future invasion. Under some 

pretense, a General Staff group toured the country prior to the invasion to assess and fine-tune plans. When the operation began, the 

in-country Soviet military and KGB element disarmed or disabled 

the national military forces. Airborne and Spetsnaz units then spearheaded the invasion and seized critical airfields, transportation choke 

points, the capital city, key government buildings, and communications facilities.107 They apprehended or executed key government officials. Soviet ground forces then crossed into the country and captured major cities and road networks, suppressing any local military 

resistance. A new government was installed, and it was supported by 

the armed might of the Soviet forces.108

Dominant Maneuver

The Soviets understood the strategic importance of mobility via 

air, as noted in the previous New York Times quote. The Soviets displayed 

no sudden expansion of airlift capability. It was simply an incremental, 

sustained growth largely unnoticed by the West, as its attention had been 

distracted by the launch of the new Soviet fighters, bombers, and 

ICBMs. When considering the USSR’s power projection, most students of Soviet military affairs have generally treated air mobility and 

even airborne forces as an afterthought. The Russians had developed, 

prepared, trained, and equipped their airborne troops to perform as 

a capable intervention force at a considerable distance from the USSR 

and Warsaw Pact territory. The Soviet forces had developed the strategic 

ability to open and operate bases to enable strategic force projection. 

To many, the invasion of Afghanistan was a landmark shift in Soviet 

military tactics. The Russians departed from 50 years of slow prodding and smothering their enemies with raw power–type tactics to 

adopting a lightning strike strategy. Overnight, the USSR struck with 

speed and precision, capturing the Kabul airfield and surrounding 

the capital city with tanks.109
28 │ DEMARCO

Early in July 1979, the Soviets crossed a new threshold with the 

first known movement of a combat unit into Afghanistan—a battalion 

of airborne troops deployed to Bagram AB near Kabul. Bagram 

already had become the main Soviet operational base in Afghanistan, with Soviet air transports shuttling in and out with supplies of 

weapons and military equipment. At the time, US intelligence concluded that the combat troops were to provide security for the air 

transport units with no commitment to engage in combat operations.110

In late summer 1979, the 5th Guards Motorized Rifle Division 

(MRD) moved out of garrison. Some of its subunits included a battalion of tanks, an antiaircraft artillery battalion, a mortar battery, 

and several groups of trucks. Components of the 105th Guards Airborne Division (ABN DIV) were also detected in preparations for air 

movement. The airborne units’ activities seemed to involve training 

in specific techniques for loading equipment on a new and more advanced military transport aircraft (the IL-76). Indications were that 

the Soviets were preparing to commit airborne troops to Afghanistan. Assessments supposed such an operation would be to defend 

Kabul in the event of sudden, drastic deterioration in the Sovietsupported regime that threatened to overwhelm the Afghan capital.111

In late November, the Soviet 105 ABN DIV was placed on alert 

and remained at a heightened state of readiness. The Soviet motorized rifle divisions’ activities indicated possible deployment as well.112

On 29 November and continuing over the next few days, Soviet military transports flew into Kabul. Some remained parked at the Kabul 

airport, but reports from observers there suggested that a portion of 

the aircraft had discharged whatever cargo or personnel they were 

carrying and quickly departed. Whatever they brought was expeditiously moved into the city.113 US intelligence officers in Kabul described an apparent infiltration of special Soviet troops into the city, 

and numerous reports from the field also indicated that some covert 

operations appeared to be afoot. An assessment from senior US intelligence officers concluded that some Soviet military operation was 

being readied.114

Reports in mid-December indicated that a Soviet combat battalion was being discreetly stationed around the Afghan capital. This 

information confirmed the mysterious Soviet military air transport 

flights into Kabul at the end of November. The US presumption was 

that these troops were from the Spetsnaz.115
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 29

On 15 December 1979, intelligence disclosed that the Soviet 5th 

Guards and 108th MRDs had been brought to full strength and the 

108th was leaving its garrison. A buildup of transport and combat 

helicopters had been detected at Kokaty AB in southern Russia, and 

other military transport aircraft were being marshaled at air bases in 

this area. A substantial buildup of tactical combat aircraft, fighters, 

fighter-bombers, and light bombers was also detected at air bases in 

the region, including some fields that did not routinely serve as bases 

for such aircraft.116

Thus, the brilliantly orchestrated invasion of Afghanistan 

commenced (fig. 1.5). The nearly perfectly synchronized overland 

movement of heavy armor and the airland insertion of airborne 

forces characterized the initial invasion. The Soviet minister of 

defense gave the time to cross the international border at 1500 hours 

Moscow time (1630 Kabul time) on the 25th of December.117

Figure 1.5. The Soviet thrust into Afghanistan. (Reproduced from The 

Russian General Staff, The Soviet-Afghan War: How a Superpower 

Fought and Lost, translated and edited by Lester W. Grau and Michael 

A. Gress [Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002], 17. Used by 

permission of the publisher.)

Mary

Air

bridge

Taghac

Zaranj

Bost

Gereshk

Herat

Kushka

Robat-e

Sager

Farah

Delaram

Chaghcharn

Panjaw

Terin

Muqur

Ghazni

Khost Peshawar

Jalalabad

Sep MR Bde

Sep MR Bde

ADB HQ

Mahmud-e Eraqi

Puli-Khumri

Kala

Maymanah

Mazir-I Sharif One MRR

One MRR

Termez

Dushanbe

Kulyab

Kunduz

Taleqan

Falsabad

Kabul

Shindad

Two MRRs

MRD HQ

Kandahar

Soviet Union

Iran

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

LEGEND

Soviet Invasion

Routes

Territory controlled

by Soviet forces

during the War

in Afghanistan
30 │ DEMARCO

The crossing of the Amu Darya River commenced in the evening 

twilight. A BMP-mounted motorized rifle battalion began to cross 

pontoon bridges.118 The battalion crossed the river and moved deeper 

into Afghanistan. Behind it, the 108th MRD followed during the 

night. On the evening of the 27th, the division was issued new, unexpected orders—to change the direction of its drive and enter Kabul 

on the following day by 1700 hours.119

At the same time in Kabul, the main body of the 103rd Guards 

ABN DIV had landed at the airfield, and a smaller airborne regiment 

also landed at Bagram airfield.120 From the very start of the forcible 

entry into Afghanistan, the airborne forces had to successfully seize 

major airfields in the two cities. From 28 to 30 December 1979, paratroopers landed at Kabul and Bagram air bases while air assault forces 

landed at Kunduz airfield.121

Russian veterans of these operations recalled the planning for the 

first landings. At each of the targeted airfields, a reinforced airborne 

battalion would parachute onto the field to seize the control tower 

and runways, to neutralize the security forces (SF), and to support the 

landing of the main airborne force. However, it turned out that the 

Afghan forces guarding the airfields were neutralized well in advance. 

Their resistance did not hold up the operation, and the airborne 

forces merely disembarked from the aircraft as they landed.122

The first to disembark at the airfields were the groups that seized 

the fields and scouted the area. They occupied key points, conducted 

reconnaissance, and supported the air landing of the main forces. For 

several hours, dozens of IL-76, AN-12, and AN-22 transports landed 

the main body of an airborne division at Kabul and Bagram. At Kunduz, Mi-6 and Mi-8 helicopters arrived with subunits of an air assault 

brigade. At intervals of one and a half to three minutes, aircraft landed 

with their rear fuselage loading doors and ramps open and taxied to 

the end of the runway without shutting down their engines. Paratroopers disembarked from the aircraft quickly and moved to their 

planned objectives. The empty aircraft taxied for takeoff and departed, 

leaving the runway free for the next arrival. After the main force of the 

division was on the ground, subsequent flights brought in the division’s vehicles, necessary supplies, support units, and personnel.123

The operation further called for a very complex orchestration of 

air traffic through the Soviet air traffic control (ATC) units. Only a 

minimum number of aircraft and helicopters could be at the airfields 

at any one time. However, not all the aircrews worked together precisely. 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 31

Several aircraft had to make more than one approach to the field or 

had to circle the airfield while other aircraft on the ground were 

unloaded. Such exposure of large transport aircraft would have devastating effects in a high-threat combat scenario. In this case, the 

Soviets’ preparation and training, combined with the ineptitude of 

the Afghanis, mitigated the dangers. Landings at the three airports 

proceeded swiftly and successfully, mainly due to multiple training 

exercises the Soviets previously conducted at their home airfields.124

Precision Engagement

According to Lt Col Denny Nelson, “Soviet military doctrine 

stresses the primacy of offensive operations aimed at stunning and 

preventing organized resistance by opponents. In Afghanistan, as in 

Czechoslovakia in 1968, the Soviets used the surprise landing of airborne units at strategic centers, particularly around the capital, in 

conjunction with the speedy movement of ground units along strategic 

routes toward vital centers to gain the initiative.” The Soviets began 

their invasion on Christmas night, 1979, with “a massive, single-lift 

operation involving an estimated 280 transport aircraft packed with 

troops, munitions, and equipment.”125

The seizure of the airfields at Kabul, Bagram, Jalalabad, Kandahar, 

and Shindand enabled the Soviet operations that were to follow. After 

the parachute units were on the ground, they left part of their force to 

secure the airfield and their stockpiled material and set out on their 

assigned missions. It was a well-planned, well-executed operation—

one that involved precision engagement as well as several elements of 

sabotage and deception. Soviet doctrine, training, and capability gave 

the Russians options that further enabled the USSR to exploit the scenario on a myriad of levels. The airfield seizures were merely the “tip 

of the spear” in the truest metaphoric sense. As was the case with the 

Germans in Norway, the Soviets used their tactical ability to seize, 

open, and operate bases on a much grander strategic level.

The invasion of Afghanistan was launched on Christmas Eve—not 

a major Muslim holiday but a time when the Western governments 

were unprepared to react.126 The Afghan government’s central communications complex was occupied and its key officials killed by a 

Soviet commando team. Without communications, President Hafizullah 

Amin was initially unaware of the invasion. By the time he was, there 

was no longer time for effective resistance. Afghan officials believed 
32 │ DEMARCO

that the new troops were coming as a part of an authorized buildup, 

and there was no opposition. When the Soviet troops finally engaged 

the Afghans, Red Army numbers and firepower were overwhelming.127

H-hour was 1915 Kabul time on 27 December. Two regiments that 

landed in Kabul secured the Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Communications, television center, Soviet embassy, and microrayon—the 

modernized area of the city where Soviet specialists and advisors 

lived. They seized the army staff building, nearby depots, and President Amin’s palace.128 Paratroopers also established a post on dominant terrain overlooking the city and on bridges across the Kabul 

River. They established roadblocks on the main roads leading into 

Kabul. The parachute regiment that landed at Bagram conducted a 

swift march to Kabul and on the morning of 31 December concentrated in the city center, from there deploying its staff to the army 

corps headquarters building.129

On 27 December, late in the evening Kabul time, the Soviets engaged in another form of precision engagement—regime change. 

Soviet troops carried out an assault on Amin’s new residence that 

resulted in his death. Versions differ, even from Soviet and Afghan 

participants, of how Amin was killed—whether his Soviet attackers 

shot him, or if he shot himself as they burst into his palace. There was 

no doubt, however, that it was a Soviet operation to install a new 

regime of its choice. Spetsnaz troops attacking Amin’s presidential 

palace were outfitted in Afghan army uniforms and appeared to have 

been selected by ethnic origin to assist their disguise. It was quickly 

understood that the purpose of the airlift in the first week of December 

was the insertion of covert Soviet troops.130

Strategic Effects on the World Stage

A new combat zone had now emerged on the Cold War battleground. The world was aware that the Soviets had airlifted major 

combat forces into Afghanistan. These forces were used to seize control of airfields and eventually the capital, major cities, and transportation nodes throughout the country. They eliminated the existing 

government and installed a proxy regime used to provide cover for 

sending in the additional combat divisions.131 Robert F. Baumann 

provides an excellent summation of the initial view of Soviet operational effectiveness: 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 33

At first glance, the Soviets’ skillfully executed surprise incursion seemed to 

achieve its objectives: a change of regime, capture of Kabul, and control of the 

principal lines of communication. Forces inserted by air paralyzed the capital 

while a conventional column of about 15,000 approached the country along 

the main road from the Soviet frontier. The strike was complete within hours. 

In the view of the government of the General Secretary of the Communist 

Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev, this lightning success ought to 

have stabilized the situation in Afghanistan.132

For their part, the Soviet attackers lost several vehicles, with about 25 

killed and 225 wounded.133 By 1 January 1980, 50,000 Soviet troops 

were in Afghanistan, and more were on the way. 

Focused Logistics and Full Dimension Protection

The Soviet airborne forces engaged in seizing and operating air 

bases in Afghanistan were light, lethal, and highly mobile. The Soviets 

understood that military transport is, in a sense, the arm that swings 

the fist, and its Military Transport Aviation (VTA) branch had the 

benefit of constant attention from Soviet planners to create a balanced system of air transport. The system was fully capable of operating at the intratheater and possibly strategic ranges.134

The Soviets gained many strategically important air bases. Seven 

air bases were built or improved by the Soviets in Afghanistan: Herat, 

Farah, Kandahar, Kabul International Airport, Bagram, and Jalalabad. 

All fields were all-weather, jet-capable bases that operated 365 days a 

year. Each base was capable of handling large numbers of tactical aircraft, and a huge fleet could be operated in Afghanistan or against other 

southwest Asian countries from these seized and improved air bases.135

The two most important Soviet installations in Afghanistan were 

Bagram and Shindand. Bagram was the local supreme headquarters 

of the Soviet army in Afghanistan, where the most senior Soviet officers 

were stationed. Additionally, Bagram was home to the army’s satellite 

communications systems and other major facilities. At Shindand, no 

Afghans were permitted on the air base, as the Soviets had installation support and maintenance equipment for their naval aviation reconnaissance bombers. Soviet electronic warfare aircraft operated 

from this installation by the air command of the Soviet navy. Most of 

the aircraft were not stationed permanently in any one location, so 

the very sensitive technical support and maintenance capabilities 

needed for them were available at various forward bases.136
34 │ DEMARCO

The Soviets enjoyed a significant strategic advantage in Afghanistan through air base seizure. Having jet bases in the western and 

southwestern sections of Afghanistan also placed long-range MiG-27 

Flogger fighter-bombers and MiG-25 Foxbat reconnaissance aircraft 

200 miles closer to and within the range of the Strait of Hormuz—the 

strategic choke point at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. The new bases 

allowed Soviet electronic warfare aircraft more time to trail and monitor US naval activities in the Indian Ocean.137 The USSR’s ability to 

seize and operate air bases in Afghanistan had effects well beyond the 

theater. The results caused the United States, NATO, and other Gulf 

nations to ponder Soviet intentions.

In the initial phases of the USSR advance into Afghanistan, protection was a large concern. The Soviets devoted a large effort to ensure 

their forces were not hampered. To provide constant protection from 

guerilla attack, two Soviet air divisions, totaling more than 400 aircraft—

mainly MiG-21, MiG-23, and Su-17 fighters and Mi-24 helicopter 

gunships—thundered back and forth over the main invasion axes.138

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan achieved full-spectrum dominance during the initial thrust into the country. However, the course 

of conflict in Afghanistan would find the Soviets ousted in similar 

fashion to the British in 1881 almost 100 years earlier.139

The seemingly brilliant invasion of Afghanistan is eclipsed by 

other factors—why the Soviets invaded, political and world opinion 

and support, and the fact that the USSR left Afghanistan in disgrace. 

Nonetheless, the initial invasion met the doctrine of forcible entry. JP 

3-18 states that a joint force commander (JFC) may launch such operations “to seize and hold an airhead . . . to facilitate the continuous 

landing of troops and materiel and expand the maneuver space 

needed to conduct follow-on operations” (emphasis in original).140

The initial Soviet invasion demonstrated that the USSR was capable of rapid mobilization. It could perform major operations without 

severe logistical breakdown, had sufficient ground forces to mount a 

major conventional operation outside of the Warsaw Pact or Chinese 

border area (albeit still in a contiguous area), and was reliable in “political” operations, such as assassination and disarming unreliable 

“friendly” forces.141

Soviet military analysts wrote extensively on the lessons and knowledge gained from the Afghan fighting—the importance of rapid deployment, the advantages of surprise, and the need for flexibility to 

meet unforeseen developments. They stressed the coordination of 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 35

units and subunits and the particular advantages to be gained by the 

strategic use of new weapons systems and capabilities.142 Employing 

Marshal Tukhachevskii’s theories of deep battle, the Soviets did not allow the Afghans to deploy any defense. Airfield seizure and subsequent 

operations were, again, of strategic importance to the operation. 

As noted above, history (and the CIA) proved unkind to the USSR 

in Afghanistan. Despite the initial success of the invasion, it soon became apparent that Soviet equipment functioned inadequately and 

force structure was inappropriate for the task at hand.143 One Joint 

Forces Staff College research paper summarized the experience: “The 

operational change from invasion to occupation revealed glaring inadequacies in Soviet doctrine and command and control. . . . With so 

much momentum and early success, it is difficult to imagine the Soviet 

Army losing the initiative and forced into a war of attrition with the 

mujaheddin.”144 Thus was the fate of the Soviets.

A nation that possesses such a force—light, lethal, mobile, flexible, 

and well trained—can grant a strategic key to victory. Airfield seizure 

and operations did open Afghanistan up for the Soviets, and it enabled the initial successes. Such success must be followed up with a 

well-conceived strategy. The lesson of the Soviets, in a nutshell, is that 

strategy is not just about the first move. 

The American Way of War: A Comparison of 

World War II and the US Invasion of Iraq

Airfield seizure and operations are nothing new to the American 

way of war. Along with the Germans in World War II, the United 

States and the Allies understood the strategic importance of these operations. As was mentioned, in World War II alone, a myriad of such 

seizures spanned a vast spectrum of combat operations. In Europe, 

the Allies captured airfields as Operation Overlord was under way. 

Shortly after the D-Day landings and the furious expansion of the 

American lodgments behind the Utah and Omaha beaches, the USAAF’s 

Ninth Air Force tactical fighter groups began to deploy in Normandy. 

While the deployment’s primary objective was to protect and support 

the ground forces, it would also help to realize the obvious advantages of operating from airstrips on the continent versus in England. 

Fighters based in France were not only able to strike deeper into Germany but also could spend more time over targets, especially those in 
36 │ DEMARCO

the immediate area. Fighter sweeps were more effective, and more 

enemy materiel was destroyed. Interdiction missions became increasingly efficient since more planes could be directed to objectives and 

could spend more attack time on station owing to the proximity of 

the frontline airstrips.145

Other efforts include the forerunners of today’s special operators, 

the air commandos. The 1st Air Commando Group debut was in Operation Thursday, a disruptive action that successfully stopped the 

Japanese invasion of India. On the first night, 5 March 1944, the unit 

successfully delivered over 500 men and 15 tons of supplies behind 

Japanese lines to LZ Broadway using gliders and C-47 cargo aircraft. 

Broadway was an airfield seizure in classic SOF manner; air commandos seized a strip of land and quickly created an airfield where 

there was none. Two nights later, operations reached a high tempo 

when 92 plane loads—roughly one every four minutes—arrived in 

the small jungle clearing in a night. This airfield seizure went on to 

enable a British special operations unit, known as the Chindits, to 

raid and sabotage Japanese forces in-theater.146

Perhaps one of the best known of such operations occurred on the 

island of Iwo Jima. It is one of the volcanic islands to the east of Okinawa and roughly south of Japan itself. Hilly, rocky, and generally 

barren, the island did not figure in the grand strategy of the Pacific 

for the first several years of the war. Formosa was the longtime goal of 

the Americans’ Central Pacific drive once Gen Douglas MacArthur 

had recaptured the Philippines.147 Formosa, however, was huge, 

stoutly defended, and still a long stretch for bombing missions against 

the empire of Japan. Meanwhile, the Japanese built airstrips for their 

own bombers and fighters on previously unoccupied Iwo Jima. Planners on both sides could see the strategic importance and geographic 

reality of the island. Iwo Jima was almost exactly halfway between the 

Marianas and the Japanese home island of Honshu.148

Operational airfields represented valuable rungs on the strategic 

ladder leading to Tokyo. The American seizure of the Marianas in 

mid-1944 brought the main Japanese home islands within range of 

the newly developed Boeing B-29 Superfortress.149 B-29s based in 

Saipan and Tinian began striking targets in Japan in late 1944, but the 

strikes were not yet truly effective. The thorn in the side of US forces 

was Iwo Jima.150

American fighters did not have the range to escort the Superfortresses to and from Japan, and the B-29s were often at the mercy of 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 37

fighter interceptors launched from Iwo’s airstrips. Japanese bombers 

based on Iwo were an even graver threat. In fact, the Twentieth Air 

Force lost more B-29s to enemy bomber raids from Iwo Jima than it 

did on any of its long-range forays over the Japanese homeland.151

The absence of an emergency landing or refueling field for B-29s 

along the return route from Tokyo was yet another problem for strategic planners. In American hands, Iwo Jima would not only provide 

fighter escorts and a suitable divert base for the B-29s but also erase 

the threat from Japanese attack aircraft. All were compelling reasons 

to seize the island.152

The seizing of Iwo Jima achieved all the strategic goals desired by 

the Joint Chiefs of Staff. American B-29s could henceforth fly with 

less reserve fuel and a greater bomb payload with Iwo Jima available 

as an emergency field. Iwo-based fighters escorted the Superfortresses to and from Honshu. For the first time, all the Japanese islands 

were within bomber range, including Hokkaido. The 2,400 USAAF 

crew members forced to land at Iwo Jima between its capture and V-J 

Day had no doubt of its importance. Said one, “Whenever I land on 

this island, I thank God and the men who fought for it.”153

While these historical notes are probably of interest to the militaryminded, they offer stark lessons for military planners now. Contemporary American military thinking on forcible entry operations has 

been codified in joint guidance. JP 3-18 captures the lessons learned 

from historical analysis and updates the strategic framework for such 

operations. It defines joint forcible entry operations as those that “seize 

and hold lodgments against armed opposition.” It explains that a 

“lodgment is a designated area in a hostile or potentially hostile operational area that, when seized and held, makes the continuous 

landing of troops and materiel possible and provides maneuver space 

for subsequent operations (a lodgment may be an airhead, a beachhead, or a combination thereof).” The publication lays out three types 

of joint forcible entry operations—amphibious assault/raid, airborne 

assault, and air assault—and states that “any combination” of those 

types can be used to seize objectives depending on the nature of the 

lodgment target.154

Beyond the scope of the case studies discussed, many other historical events illustrate the operational art of forced entry. Examples 

that readers can study include the WWII operations Merkur (the 

German attack on Crete), Husky (in Sicily), Overlord, and Detachment (also known as Iwo Jima); the Bay of Pigs operation in Cuba; 
38 │ DEMARCO

Operation Thunderbolt in Entebbe; and Operation Eagle Claw in 

Iran.

Any forcible entry requires a contingency response group (CRG) 

or a group with similar capability to operate the air base. There are 

always exceptions, the most obvious being the third case presented 

above. In this case, a special operations unit or special tactics team 

(STT) might be used alone, but in others, a CRG or the like will deploy. Any of the above case studies could demonstrate the historical 

and strategic significance of the CRG. In examining them, a military 

planner would have to ask whether the USAF is prepared to provide 

the required support for such forcible entry operations. In an attempt 

to be as relevant as possible and to extract the most difficult scenario, 

it is important to examine the second case above—that of a forcible 

entry operation using multiple entry points to establish multiple 

lodgments. The case of OIF is the genesis for the CRG construct and 

the basis for current thought on the matter.

On 19 March 2003, at 0534 hours in Iraq, US stealth fighters and 

Tomahawk cruise missiles struck “leadership targets” in and around 

the Iraqi capital of Baghdad to begin the second major war between a 

United States–led coalition and Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. Soon thereafter, air attacks began against Iraqi targets in southern Iraq, followed 

by missile attacks from Iraq toward US military positions in the Kuwaiti desert. The stated goals of the coalition were the disarmament 

of Iraq and the overthrow of Saddam Hussein and his Baath political 

party.155 Three days later, on 22 March, coalition forces seized the H-2 

and H-3 airfields in western Iraq and controlled parts of Umm Qasr, 

Basra, and Nasiriyah (fig. 1.6). Elements of the 3rd Infantry Division 

(ID) charged 150 miles into Iraq, roughly half the distance from Kuwait to Baghdad. The 3rd Brigade captured the Tallil airfield after its 

artillery began shelling Iraqi military emplacements there. Meanwhile, the 1-30th Infantry protected its flanks, preventing intervention by forces in Nasiriyah.156

On 26 March 2003 and a week into the war, late in the evening, 

about 1,000 paratroops from the 173rd Airborne Brigade were 

dropped into a strategic airfield in Kurdish-controlled territory at 

Bashur. Approximately 160 special forces personnel were in the area 

around the airfield directing air strikes against Iraqi positions. Within 

days, Kurdish Peshmerga troops, along with US special forces units, 

assaulted the stronghold of the Ansar al-Islam group along the Iranian border.157
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 39

During the night of 3 April and into the early morning hours of 4 

April, elements of the 1st Brigade Combat Team (BCT), 3rd ID 

(Mechanized) completed the capture of Saddam International Airport. During clearance of the runways and facilities, a large Iraqi 

force was encountered at approximately 0430 local time. In one engagement, two companies of Task Force 3-69 Armor engaged Iraqi 

Special Republican Guard (SRG) forces on the east side of the airfield. 

Fighting continued for three hours, resulting in 250 SRG killed, three 

tanks destroyed, and other equipment destroyed or captured. Over 

the 12 hours of the battle for the airport, US forces suffered one killed 

and eight wounded.158

On the 26th day of combat operations, a US Marine Corps task 

force captured Tikrit, bringing the last major bastion of the Hussein 

regime under coalition control. Tikrit and the nearby village of Auja 

Figure 1.6. Iraqi airfields. (Reproduced from HQ AMC, briefing, “AMC 

Global Assessment Teams [GATs] Mission Summary,” November 2003.)
40 │ DEMARCO

(Saddam Hussein’s home village) were heavily fortified and defended 

by an estimated 2,500 regular and paramilitary fighters. However, air 

and ground attacks reduced the Iraqi positions, and the Iraqi troops 

were reportedly leaving their positions, weapons, and uniforms to 

flee the coalition advance. Four Iraqi tanks were confirmed destroyed 

in the skirmishes around Tikrit. Through April of 2004, the airhead at 

Bashur airfield in northern Iraq had received an estimated 3,200 

troops and 12 million pounds of supplies and equipment.159

OIF occurred at a faster pace than most ever anticipated, and in 

keeping with that pace, there is a deeper story. In Iraq, seven airfields 

were captured and opened throughout the initial conflict. Each airfield presented its own unique story and problems. Two of the larger 

fields with two very different stories were Tallil in the south and 

Bashur to the north.

Precision Engagement

In the interest of space and time, we focus only on these two airfields of many seized in OIF, which also included Kirkuk, H-1, Bushmaster, Balad Southeast, and Baghdad International. Tallil and 

Bashur have both become stories of success; each was seized differently and for distinct reasons. Logistics and protections are addressed 

in the following discussion. 

Planning

Prior to the first bombs falling in OIF, there was early planning on 

how air bases in Iraq would be seized and operated. On 28 February 

2003, United States Central Command (USCENTCOM)—the military headquarters charged with planning operations in Iraq—delivered the first planning order to identify airfields to be taken. Shortly 

thereafter, a multiservice group met at Prince Sultan AB in Saudi 

Arabia to discuss airfield seizure and air base operations for the 

war.160 An ad hoc group of 25 people formed an airfield coordination 

and planning team (ACPT). The group structured a CONOPS around 

seize, secure, assess, establish, and sustain. The group initially addressed joint forced entry capabilities and limitations in each phase 

of the conflict, the capacity of available assets, and how to hand off 

the air base during each phase. Early on, the group did not select air 

bases as its main impetus was simply to come up with a way to seize 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 41

and operate air bases in Iraq. Once hostilities commenced, the group 

was disbanded.161

The group identified shortfalls in airfield planning actions, and 

United States Central Command Air Forces (USCENTAF) further 

identified significant open issues in airfield preparation for the operational plan. The consensus from the group was that no doctrinal 

structure existed to integrate the requirements for base opening. In 

the absence of a coordinated airfield plan, CENTCOM requested 

three conventional air traffic controller teams to provide relief in 

place (RIP) for special tactics people at recently opened airfields. 

Planners engaged CENTCOM to ensure that the land and air component commanders synchronized their airfield requirements and 

plans. Subsequently, a message was released requesting all component airfield plans to deconflict requirements and avoid duplication 

of effort. At this time, the CFACC realized that “the airfield opening 

process [was] drifting from the CRG concept.” CENTCOM appointed 

Maj Gen Daniel P. Leaf to lead and oversee the airfield coordination 

effort.162 The issue at hand was that nothing was in place to develop 

and/or deploy units.

During the time leading up to OIF, AMC developed four assessment teams (AT), each led by an O-6 mobility leader with tanker 

airlift control element (TALCE) experience.163 Commanders and 

deputy commanders of the 615th and 621st Air Mobility Operations 

Groups (AMOG) were selected as AT commanders, and three AT 

teams were offered up by AMC for contingency operations. The 

fourth, led by Col Peter W. Gray, deputy commander, 615 AMOG, 

concentrated on experimentation of the AT concept at exercises in 

CONUS. In addition to the O-6, AMC designated seven to nine personnel from various backgrounds to be assigned to each team. These 

Airmen would supply the skills required to make initial field assessments to bring in Air Force assets.164

Assessment Team Myers and Tallil 

Col A. Ray Myers, deputy commander, 621 AMOG, McGuire 

AFB, New Jersey, led a group referred to as Assessment Team Three 

(also called AT Myers) into Iraq to prepare for the arrival of mobility 

and other aircraft at Tallil.165 Tallil was an Iraqi air force base located 

in the southern no-fly zone near An Nasiriyah. The base was nonoperational, but the runway was not cratered and appeared to be in 
42 │ DEMARCO

operational condition. The seizure of Tallil was indeed a joint operation, and the US Army’s 3rd ID would conduct the seizure and deployment to the airfield via Army convoy.166

Early in the planning for the seizure of Tallil, AT Myers was briefed 

on the operation. On 22 March 2003, the battle for Tallil AB began 

with the 1st BCT of the 3rd ID, and on the same day, AT Myers departed Kuwait in an Army convoy bound for Tallil. There was little in 

the way of organized resistance at the air base after US artillery shelled 

Iraqi placements in the area. The 1st BCT began clearing the area of 

unexploded ordnance and putting security patrols out around the perimeter. According to Army brigadier general Jack Stoltz, deputy 

commanding general of the 377th Theater Support Command, “Almost immediately, we started to get into some light skirmishes around 

the perimeter with small groups of paramilitary that were trying to 

get back into this area to get to the weapons that they had stored 

there. . . . But once we got our active [Army] patrols out and around 

the perimeter, they quickly realized they could not get in here, and 

they and fell back into the Nasiriyah area.”167

On the morning of 23 March, the airfield was under US control, and 

members from the 23rd Special Tactics Squadron (STS) arrived to 

assume ATC duties and conduct an LZ assessment.168 Tallil now transitioned from the seizure phase to the “open the air base” phase. Later 

that evening, the AT and 621 TALCE/CC arrived, and AT Myers was 

handed command of the airfield from the seizure force commander. 

The following day, the official assessment of Tallil was complete.169

Airfield security at Tallil was an extremely high priority, and on 25 

March the 1st BCT received orders relieving it of security duty so that 

it could move on; it was to be replaced by another unit. Air Force security teams were delayed due to airlift problems, border clearances, 

and C-5 maintenance. The handoff of duty was not clean, and questions as to who was responsible for security remained in the minds of 

many, including Colonel Myers, who realized conflicting orders had 

been issued. Colonel Myers intervened to ensure that the Army still 

had security duties at Tallil.170 Combat engineers started work on the 

runways and cleared obstructions from runway 30 right while the assessment team cleared obstructions from 30 left. The AT continued to 

prepare for the arrival and beddown of the 820th Security Forces 

Group (SFG) and TALCE. Tallil was now ready to handle inbound 

aircraft. A brutal sandstorm erupted on the 26th, however, delaying 

aircraft arrival until the following day.171
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 43

On 27 March 2003, Tallil began the “generate the mission” phase as 

the TALCE was on the first C-130 flown into the base; this was the 

beginning of what would be a busy day at the base. With the arrival of 

the TALCE, Tallil now had a robust C2 capability and the capacity to 

handle passengers and cargo as well as to maintain aircraft. Later that 

day, Tallil was able to officially begin aeromedical evacuation missions, enabling injured Soldiers to be flown out of the combat zone 

and receive required care. The 820 SFG’s advance team arrived by 

convoy and quickly assessed the base for security requirements.172

With the AT, TALCE, and security force advance team on base, 

the group established the initial air expeditionary group (AEG) organizational structure, along with C2 capability. Forces at Tallil further assessed and established initial communication infrastructure 

with reachback capability to the combined air operations center 

(CAOC) and AMC’s Tanker Airlift Control Center (TACC). The 

team also established the Tallil Air Force command post, ATC, fire, 

crash, rescue, medical, and other nodes on the base as well as provided the initial AEG staff.173 The evening of the 29th, the first combat 

aircraft arrived. USAF A-10s began to use Tallil as a fueling base for 

strikes in northern Iraq.174

The “establish the base/C2” phase began on 31 March 2003, and 

the speed of the transition was quite remarkable. On the 30th, Col 

John Dobbins of the 392 AEG arrived at Tallil, and the base was ready 

to accept the A-10s from the Whiteman AFB Reserves for beddown. 

The 820th Force Protection Team assumed security for Tallil. The AT 

officially transferred command of Tallil to the AEG and redeployed to 

Kuwait City to regenerate for another mission. Ten days later, Colonel 

Myers and his team were deployed to Baghdad International to begin 

the assessment at that field. On 11 April, the 23 STT redeployed, followed by the TALCE departing on 22 April.175

Due to the exceptional work of Colonel Myers and his assessment 

team, Tallil was now able to “provide lethal combat airpower from the 

coalition’s Air Force air component commander to other forces in the 

coalition. Secondary to that was also being able to provide combat 

search and rescue support from a forward location—that would extend the legs—and also being able to support the airlift mission for all 

forces that were in Iraq.” Colonel Dobbins stated, “We think we have 

done that well. . . . [We have] enabled especially A-10 aircraft to get up 

to an extra hour over most of the target areas.”176
44 │ DEMARCO

With the capture and subsequent rehabilitation of the Iraqi air 

force base at Tallil, the 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing and the RAF were 

able to create a forward arming and refueling point (FARP) for their 

Harriers 100 miles inside of Iraq. The USAF moved A-10s onto Tallil’s 

tarmac, allowing CAS to remain immediately responsive to the needs 

of ground forces. Further, the work of AT Myers allowed for refueling, taking pressure off the hard-pressed tanker fleet.177

Tallil became an air base of many firsts. It was the first to use an AT 

to open newly acquired airfields.178 It was also the first time a TALCE 

unit traveled via combat convoy to an airfield to begin operations by 

land route.179 Moreover, Tallil AB was the first forward air base that 

coalition forces were able to use for combat operations.180

Assessment Team Martin and the 86th CRG 

Col Fredrick Martin, commander of the 615th AMOG at Travis 

AFB, California, led Assessment Team One or AT Martin. Back in 

December 2002, AMC had received the first indication that it would 

be conducting airfield assessments in support of the 173rd Airborne 

Brigade. These assessments would be conducted from Vicenza, Italy. 

Even before access through Turkey was denied, the 173rd was selected to establish a stabilizing, conventional presence in northern 

Iraq. In February 2003, the 615 AMOG deployed TALCEs to Batman, 

Diyarbakir, and Oguzeli, Turkey, to support the northern front of 

OIF. The 615th also then deployed ATs to Ramstein AB, Germany, 

to stage and begin determining with United States Air Forces in 

Europe (USAFE), United States European Command (USEUCOM), 

CENTCOM, and SOF planners several possible northern Iraq bases 

of operation. 

Following the denial of Turkish basing rights and two planning 

conferences at Vicenza and Doha, it was determined that the 86 CRG 

at Ramstein would pair up with the 173rd to open Bashur Airfield in 

the first-ever combat C-17 personnel airdrop. The 86 CRG is a USAFE 

asset with robust security forces as well as a TALCE—the only AT 

with the unique ability to air-drop a 21-man assessment team with 

the 173rd into Iraq. The 86 AT consisted of C2 elements, medics, 

security forces, intelligence, civil engineers, and communications experts. AT Martin was unable to support the 173rd’s combat drop but 

could assist in the deployment from Italy. AT Martin conducted 

assessments at Pisa, Villa Franca, and Aviano AB for C-17 airdrop 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 45

operations. When the 173rd thought it was deploying to Turkey, it 

had sent all of its equipment forward to the port at Livorno in preparation for overwater shipment. Unfortunately, AT Martin found that 

nearby Pisa airport was unsuitable for upload operations and made 

the final recommendation to use Aviano AB as the initial staging base 

for the 173rd and the 86th.

Since AT Martin now had no mission in northern Iraq and did not 

have the required airborne qualifications, it redeployed to Kuwait to 

stage and await forward movement into Iraq from the south. Meanwhile, Col Steve Weart, commander of the 86 CRG and of Air Force 

forces at Bashur, began planning for what looked to be the largest 

airborne assault since D-Day. His AT of 20 Airmen would parachute 

into northern Iraq with the 173rd Airborne Brigade.181

The 86th “went to war on the dark and rainy early morning” of 26 

March with 1,000 Soldiers of the 173rd Airborne Brigade. A formation of 15 C-17 Globemaster IIIs, with fighter escort, ingressed into 

Iraq under the cover of darkness and bad weather. The crews flew 

with all external lights extinguished and used night vision goggles 

(NVG) for the airdrop. Colonel Weart and his team parachuted into 

Iraq in a historic jump. The group’s security forces commander, Maj 

Erik Rundquist, said that “the airmen were the first from a conventional Air Force unit to parachute into a combat zone.”182 Despite 

some issues with drop zone identification, the operation went as 

planned from the CRG’s point of view. However, 

troops jumped into a muddy quagmire. It had rained for days before the jump, 

and it was raining on jump day. The clay-like mud was knee-deep in places. But 

not one airman was hurt in the landing, apart from a few scrapes and sprains. 

They were also the first to assemble—though it took more than an hour.

On the ground, the soldiers became the coalition’s largest fighting force in 

northern Iraq. . . . To sustain the paratroops and other troops in the area 

would take a big airlift. They’d need millions of tons of food, water, supplies 

and equipment.183

Rundquist, who made the jump, recalled that “there was no other way 

[except airborne insertion] to get Air Force boots and eyes on the 

ground to assess the situation and prepare to receive aircraft.”184

After the drop, paratroopers shed their harnesses and secured the 

airfield and terrain from which they could defend the airfield. Artillery was set up, and howitzers were prepped to fire. Other Soldiers 

scrambled through bundles and began moving loads to the airfield. 
46 │ DEMARCO

Elements of the 10th Special Forces Group met the newly arrived Soldiers and Airmen and introduced them to the Peshmerga guerrillas.185

The rapid pace of the deployment and the nature of the mission 

required the teamwork of both Soldiers and Airmen. According to 

Colonel Weart, “It was important to insert the (group) with the airborne brigade so we could assess the airfield and operating environment as quickly as possible.”186 The 86 CRG immediately went into 

action, assessing the field and readying the runway for heavy aircraft. 

An hour after setting up, the group was ready to receive airplanes. 

The first airland mission, however, would not arrive until the following night. All C-17 operations would be conducted at night in 

“blacked-out” conditions, both in the air and on the ground.187 The 

next evening, C-17s were landing with heavy combat loads and reinforcements. Over five days, the 86th received 62 C-17A missions, 

2,000 troops, almost 400 vehicles, and more than 3,000 short tons of 

equipment.188 The 86th set up shop on a corner of the aircraft ramp to 

avoid the mud. The group’s 14 security forces troops controlled the 

runway and ramp. The 173rd secured the area around the airfield and 

was able to provide protection for the Kurds should the Iraqi army 

make a major move into northern Iraq.

As the Peshmerga applied pressure on the collapsing Iraqi military 

in the north, Bashur prepared to receive heavier forces. At the end of 

April, the field prepped to receive an armored task force from Germany to reinforce the 173rd. The force was small—only a tank and 

mechanized company of five Abrams battle tanks and five Bradley 

fighting vehicles, plus a command element. Additional combat forces 

followed, including an infantry company mounted in lighter M-113 

armored personnel carriers.189

In the end, Colonel Weart felt that “the group was doing everything it set out to do. And his initial worries that his people—and the 

group’s mission concept—wouldn’t meld with the Army and coalition forces disappeared soon after the group parachuted in. The group 

set up air operations and started receiving and unloading planes. In a 

few days, it had established a fully functioning forward airfield.”190

He stated, “Bashur was a total validation of the CRG operational 

concept. . . . From airborne insertion to conducting airfield and 

aerial-port operations in tactical blackout conditions, to full barebase expeditionary combat support, we (used) every mission-essential 

task resident in the CRG—and we did so with astounding success.191
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 47

The lessons of Iraqi Freedom have been felt throughout the Air 

Force. The CRG’s performance at Bashur has affected the accepted 

norms for expeditionary airfield operations, and it has not gone unnoticed. “We knew it was big, but we didn’t realize how big it would 

prove to be,” said Colonel Weart in describing the fallout from Bashur. 

“We have fundamentally (affected) the way the Air Force plans to 

conduct future expeditionary airfield operations.”192

In August 2002, General Jumper outlined a plan to overhaul the 

way the Air Force organizes trains and equips. Faced with the unique 

challenges presented in today’s security environment, he recognized 

that the processes in place were not responsive enough to enable “expeditionary operations.” General Jumper outlined task forces charged 

with developing separate CONOPS (as mentioned earlier) to define 

the objectives, effects, and capabilities required to accomplish the Air 

Force mission. Naturally, AMC was designated the lead for GM 

CONOPS.193

The ATs used in OIF were a success, but much of the effort was ad 

hoc. According to Lt Col Kevin Kreps, chief of the Mobile Command 

and Control Branch at Headquarters (HQ) AMC, air base openers 

were tasked at such a high rate that openers deployed as soon as the 

need was identified. He relayed that “the requirement came so quickly, 

the teams were out the door before the CONOPS were finalized, so 

we’re simultaneously fielding an operational capability while we are 

experimenting with the concept.”194

The 86 CRG was one unit that was rapidly deployable with minimal planning time. It was the only unit capable of meeting the Army’s 

requirements for airborne insertion. Some in the USAF may balk at 

the 86th’s airborne qualifications and figure that the AT could have 

landed with the C-17s on the second night of the operation. In a 

worst-case scenario, if the airfield were deemed unusable on night 

two, what would the fate of the operation be at that time? General 

Jumper, who developed the CRG at Ramstein during his tenure as the 

commander of USAFE observed that 

the CRG needs to be the thing that ensures the airfield is like an airfield. It has 

the ability to go in with whoever goes in first, whether it be special operators, 

or Rangers, or Army [and this is what demands special qualifications]. And 

then they need to go in there and hit the ground under any conditions and be 

able to set up and determine quickly what is going to make the airfield an 

airfield. It would be lighting, communications, NAVAIDS [navigational aids], 

obstacle assessments, runway [assessment]. They would be able to assess the 
48 │ DEMARCO

security needs, so we can take right over, especially if they are special forces 

that are going to want to get out of there quickly. We can take right over the 

security responsibilities from them with whatever size forces are needed to 

secure an airfield. 

Now, we are not going to be able to put 1,000 people around an airfield like 

the Army can, so we are going to have to do it high-tech. And once those guys 

get on the ground, they can make that assessment, and it is a callback—and 

the first airplane in on the ground has to have the stuff that it takes to do whatever is required. And that airplane has to be able to land in whatever conditions it finds. I think this leads to a bunch of requirements that we have to get 

squared away.195

The lessons of OIF and other case studies in this chapter should be 

examined as the Air Force takes steps in future force development 

enabling global reach for the United States. Enemy capabilities will 

continue to grow with a focus on denying American airpower from 

gaining theater air bases from which to launch combat sorties or act 

as an air bridge for force deployments. Planners must be thoughtful 

in the continuous analysis and assessment of expeditionary airfields 

and the capabilities of host-nation and friendly forces to protect them 

from ground and air attack. Having said this, the evolution of the 

CRG concept must continue to ensure the right sizing of needed capabilities, including security and force protection. The following outlines some possible configurations. 

Putting More Arrows in the Quiver: Developing More 

Capabilities within the CRG Construct

The operations of the past illustrate that those nations able to project power effectively have an advantage in the early phases of conflict. 

Granted, without a strong follow-on strategy, the projection of force 

is not effective—as the Germans and Soviets found out in their respective operations. A relatively small group with a unique ability, 

trained and equipped to seize and then operate out of foreign air 

bases, had immediate, strategic impact. As was noted earlier, the 

United States is increasingly reliant on its ability to project power 

from the CONUS. So how is the USAF preparing to do this today and 

into the immediate future? Senior leaders in the USAF understand 

the mission’s importance and are attempting to posture the force of 

tomorrow for success. The importance of the mission and of the individuals who perform that mission is clear; this chapter’s focus is on 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 49

the units and the people from the strategic doctrine level down to the 

tactical individual. 

“The time for air mobility is now. . . . It’s here, and it’s time to take 

it to the next level,” said General Jumper in his opening address to the 

annual Airlift Tanker Association in 2003.196 In examining the case 

studies presented thus far, it is evident that airfield seizure and subsequent airhead operations are major keys to force projection. History 

illustrates this fact—since the early days of airpower through events 

in Operations Enduring and Iraqi Freedom. The United States’ capability to open airfields, whether via seizure or a permissive environment, 

has long rested with USAF’s mobility forces. Today Air Mobility Command is designated as the lead command to “take it to the next 

level.”197

While the USAF currently has several air base opening organizations, they are not standardized in organization or capabilities. Thus, 

C2 relationships are strained. “Users” of air base opening services do 

not know what type of organization is working at a particular air 

base, and core elements of these groups are not the same. Some of 

these groups have inherent defensive capabilities or have unique employment qualifications, and others do not.198 All CRGs need to be 

trained to a high level, and users should be able to anticipate that a 

USAFE CRG is as capable as an AMC CRG.

CRG Overview

As noted in the historical case studies, the first people on the 

ground are significant. Participants in the initial air base opening 

module are security forces and a CRG assessment team, usually accompanied by USAF special tactics (ST) personnel, who will enter 

the airfield area and work with any seizure force as liaisons until the 

airfield is assessed and ready for follow-on forces. These security and 

AT forces may air-drop into the airfield or enter via another method 

and are small in number. Once the field is judged secure and capable 

of operations, forces will begin to flow in either via aircraft (airland) 

or ground convoy (overland). Both the initial security and AT forces 

as well as TALCE and other forces then begin to establish C2 capability and other airfield functions. These groups may be drawn from 

trained United States Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) 

forces or from theater CRGs if available in the region. The target time 

to reach the “operate the base” phase is 14 days (fig. 1.7). 
50 │ DEMARCO

Figure 1.7. Air base opening timeline. (Reproduced from HQ AMC/

A3CCE, “Base Opening: How it Works,” draft, 12 November 2003.) 

The CRG assessment team is a primary focus of this chapter. The 

Luftwaffe, the Soviet air force, the USAAF, and the US Air Force have 

all understood the importance of maintaining a light, lethal force capable 

of speed and surprise in seizing and operating forward air bases. 

Covering all aspects of the CRG, although worthwhile, is a venture 

for another work. The tip of the spear for CRG operations is the AT. 

It is the enabler allowing the USAF to open the base, which in turn 

will enable the follow-on air or ground forces. Consequently, the 

United States can project force and achieve national security objectives. The AT usually has eight members but may have up to 20 (as 

was the case with the 86th CRG for the air base opening at Bashur 

during OIF.) 

Capability

The CRG’s main mission is to provide seamless transition from 

airfield seizure to air base opening to force employment and sustainment in concert with follow-on force modules and theater-assigned 

mobility forces.199 The CRG concept will transform the legacy AMOG 

into a light, lean, quick-to-deploy (and employ) unit. The speed at 

which such a unit can deploy is strategically important. If the unit is 

able to get into a theater quickly and open an air base, the adversary 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 51

is caught off-balance. This compressed time is used to exploit the forward base, secure it, and establish operations for follow-on forces. A 

force capable of such rapid mobility enables the United States to operate inside the enemy’s decision-making cycle, thus inhibiting an 

immediate enemy response. This is the lesson learned from the lightning strikes of the Germans in Norway and, more specifically, the 

Soviets in Afghanistan. Amin, the Afghan president, did not even 

realize his country was under attack until it was too late.200 A force of 

this nature cannot be an ad hoc unit thrown together at the beginning of a conflict as the USAF was forced to do in OIF. It cannot be a 

smattering of people from around an Air Force base. This unit must 

live, work, and train together to enjoy the optimal speed and performance the Luftwaffe and Soviet air force ensured prior to operations 

in Norway and Afghanistan, respectively.

The CRG is composed of versatile personnel who are both war 

fighters and functional experts. Units must have state-of-the-art 

equipment to facilitate airfield assessment, C2, force protection, 

reachback communications, timely intelligence, combat engineering, 

rapid airfield repair assessment, and rapid redeployment. The CRG 

may provide the initial FOL leadership and thus be responsible for 

establishing the preliminary operations tempo until arrival of the 

designated regional mission leadership. The CRG assessment team 

must include a senior field grade officer (O-6) to assume this critical role.201

In a resource-constrained environment, CRG standby capabilities 

and configurations are continuously under review and debated.202

AMC commands the contingency response wing. USAFE commands 

the 435th Air Ground Operations Wing, a small but highly effective 

airborne-capable unit. Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) and Air Combat 

Command (ACC) have pieces and parts of CRGs that possess their 

own unique capabilities. The question of what these forces should 

look like has yet to be fully answered. Major commands (MAJCOM) 

from different theaters have unique visions of what capabilities a 

CRG should possess. The CSAF has suggested molding the CRGs on 

the Royal Air Force regiment design. USAFE has developed a capable 

unit with unique abilities, including airborne insertion and NVG operations. The CSAF’s suggested vision for all CRGs may incorporate 

C2 elements the current AMC AMOG offers, blended with the defensive capabilities of the RAF Regiment (similar to ACC’s 820 SFG). 

The envisioned CRG may also have some of the unique airborne insertion abilities of today’s AFSOC STS, as found in USAFE’s 86 CRG.203
52 │ DEMARCO

USAF Assessment Team

AT actions serve to validate and determine the suitability of a designated airfield for a future air mission. Assessment teams may obtain airfield information from means such as site surveys, satellite imagery, previous operations, the logistics capability assessment tool 

(LOGCAT), and GeoReach. An AT conducts a physical investigation 

by deploying to an airfield and validating preassessment information 

and/or prior surveys if available.204 The Soviets enjoyed the luxury of 

having troops on the ground in Kabul and also deployed Spetsnaz 

forces to survey and observe the fields to be assaulted. One of the 

biggest challenges facing the USAF is how the AT will get to a forward airfield, and much of this problem is situation dependent. The 

team should provide leadership with several options; airdrop, airland, 

and overland strategies have all been used and validated in the past, 

and a few are highlighted in this book. If airland or overland were 

the only options for the Luftwaffe, the Germans would have never 

taken Norway. While the AT is not part of the seizure or forced entry 

teams, its ability is a critical node to any air base opening. The sooner 

the AT can be inserted, the quicker operations can begin. 

Operations in Iraq illustrated several key events and issues that 

ATs must contend with to establish forward air bases. ATs must meet 

with representatives of the initial security airfield seizure and followon forces to understand the gaining commander’s vision for the airfield and proposed layout. AT Myers faced several of these issues at 

Tallil; security forces were in question as well as the type of aircraft 

that would be flown from the field. Once operations have commenced, 

an AT will deploy to rapidly verify pre-action information and evaluate or obtain any items not known theretofore and report back 

through secure, dependable, long-range communications.205 It is essential that these teams be equipped to be self-sufficient and have as 

minimal an impact as possible on the host forces they are operating 

with. In Bashur the 86 CRG operated with the 173 ABN DIV, but 

these forces could have been SOFs, Army, or Marines. Paramount in 

these operations is the ability to work alongside the ground security 

forces. These requirements further validate operations at Bashur and 

the necessity for having jump-qualified ATs. They also demand that 

ATs carry on their backs everything they need to accomplish their 

mission. This five- to seven-man team would, normally, not insert 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 53

with the kick-down-the-door or seizure forces but would come in 

with the first wave of follow-on forces. 

Team members must all be experts in their specialties and chosen 

as much for their experience as their specific skills. The team commander requires a rated mobility O-6 with TALCE commander or 

ops officer experience. The commander’s focus will primarily be on 

coordinating with the ground forces, host nation forces, and primary 

POC for reaching back to the AMC TACC or theater decision makers. 

The team leader is essentially the “ops officer” for this team. This officer is a highly experienced TALCE officer whose focus is the completion of the airfield assessment. The security forces’ member is a 

highly experienced midgrade captain or noncommissioned officer 

(NCO) whose focus is force protection. The communications element is comprised of two members who can complete two taskings. 

First and foremost, this midgrade captain and 7-Level NCO must 

provide secure and reliable communications reachback to the decision makers.206 They may also be called upon to assess the communications equipment at a larger hub-and-spoke airfield. The airfield 

manager requires a midgrade captain or senior NCO capable of 

assessing the ATC facilities and NAVAIDS and determining if the airfield 

meets minimum requirements for operations. The civil engineering 

element has at least one midgrade captain and one 7-level NCO and is 

responsible for assessing airfield pavements and airfield structures and 

evaluating any unexploded ordnance. Depending on the size and complexity of the airfield, the AT may need to be augmented by additional 

specialties. Augmentees may include a tactician, a logistics planner, a 

medical or public health specialist, a logistics and fuels specialist, and 

contracting and/or finance specialists.207

Once the AT is deployed into the area of responsibility (AOR) and 

arrives at the airfield, it is tasked to gather airfield data. The basic requirements include assessing the runway, taxiways, and ramps and 

gathering data on any obstacles that may obstruct aircraft operations 

during takeoff or landing. The team will further evaluate airfield 

lighting, runway markings, and the pavement on the field. The AT 

will also investigate airfield operations facilities for areas to deploy 

TALCEs, ATC, and weather stations. Additionally, the AT will assess 

aerial port requirements and help establish the maximum number of 

aircraft that can be on the field at any given time (MOG/maximum 

on ground). Fuel, power, and maintenance logistic requirements will 

also be examined, along with base support requirements such as bil-
54 │ DEMARCO

leting, messing, medical, and bioenvironmental. The AT security representative will further establish a threat assessment, examine airfield 

security, and set up force protection.208

RAF Regiment

The Air Force was “so pleased with the performance of 20 Airmen 

who parachuted with the Army’s 173rd Airborne Brigade into 

northern Iraq in 2003” that it considered patterning certain aspects 

of the CRG after the RAF Regiment’s model for such operations in 

the future.209 General Jumper stated at the time, “Those airmen were 

responsible for getting down there and making sure that airfield was 

ready to be used as soon as possible.” He added, “Within minutes, 

they were able to call on the radio and say what airfield lighting was 

needed, what navigation aids were needed to get that airfield up 

quickly and into active use.”210

The RAF Regiment is the Royal Air Force’s corps of ground-warfare 

specialists, often compared to the Royal Marines. The regiment includes approximately 3,000 officers and enlisted personnel organized 

into squadrons of 100 to 150 troops. One squadron is airborne 

qualified.211 The RAF Regiment was created during WWII to defend 

RAF airfields from attack. It operates surface-to-air missiles to defend against air attack and has infantry and light armored units to 

protect against ground attack. The unit’s mission “includes the ground 

defense of RAF aircraft and bases. Four of the squadrons—equipped 

with the Rapier surface-to-air missile system—provide anti-aircraft 

defenses for RAF facilities.”212

The idea of using the RAF’s Regiment as a roadmap for the future 

of the USAF CRGs was not a new thought for General Jumper in his 

role as CSAF. In 1999, as the USAFE/CC, his view was that 

the CRG needs to be able to operate in scenarios across the spectrum of conflict. . . . The Air Force needs to work with the other services to enable the 

CRG to rapidly assume control of a base captured or secured by ground forces. 

We must be capable of defending this freshly seized expeditionary air base 

from both ground- and air-based threats. This will be a large transition from 

our standard security infrastructure. To defend an air base in such a demanding environment requires that we reexamine the CRG to determine if it is 

properly organized and trained. The Royal Air Force’s Regiment provides us 

with a standard we should aim toward. The success of the CRG will rest upon 

its people—people who are as proficient at warrior skills as in their Air Force 

Specialty Codes [AFSC].213
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 55

Currently, only ACC’s 820th Base Defense Group (BDG) has the 

capability described by General Jumper. Several years ago, the 820th 

was tasked to develop the capability to air-drop a small, “first-in” force 

protection team. These teams can liaise with Army units conducting an 

airfield seizure and prepare to receive additional forces.214 USAFE’s 86 

CRG is the closest unit behind the 820th with such forces organic to its 

base opening units. All other units must reach across command lines 

to access the capabilities of the 820th. The dynamics of command lines 

are discussed later in the doctrine portion of this chapter.

Special Capabilities 

Getting an AT to the fight may require special capabilities not organic to most CRGs, such as airborne or air assault qualifications. In 

a hostile environment after opening an air base, additional force protection is likely to be one of the most critical additions to CRG forces. 

Other useful additions might include USAF civil engineers, RED 

HORSE (rapid engineer deployable heavy operational repair squadron 

engineer) troops, or Prime BEEF (prime base engineer emergency 

force) assets to conduct rapid runway repair or construction and facilitate 

the flow of additional “open the air base” forces and follow-on forces. 

In this role, RED HORSE directly supports combat airpower worldwide by providing air component commanders a “dedicated, flexible 

airfield and base heavy construction and repair capability, along with 

many special capabilities.” For instance, RED HORSE gives unified 

combatant commanders access to “approximately 2,200 short-tons 

[of vehicles and heavy construction and support equipment], which 

can be tailored to meet specific construction and repair requirements 

. . . for extended periods of time.” This capacity is in addition to the 

standard capability of 1,000 short-tons.215

Special tactics teams or squadrons are an essential part of the force 

module; they belong to AFSOC and are not organic to any CRG. For 

a hostile environment, they are highly likely to already be in place as 

a part of the seizure force, as witnessed at Bashur. The initial force 

package includes controllers to manage the initial air flow into the air 

base and ground-to-air radio communications equipment, AN/TRN-45 

mobile microwave landing system (MMLS), and the contingency airfield night lighting system (CANLS).216

At one time, AMC, and Military Airlift Command before that, 

owned the predecessors to STTs—the combat control teams (CCT)—
56 │ DEMARCO

but has since passed STTs on to AFSOC. The history of the STT is 

noteworthy when pondering why the need for such forces has been 

rediscovered. We have noted the significance of these units in WWII 

and how they became “specialized” and reduced during the Cold 

War. As the USAF becomes increasingly expeditionary, these forces 

are critical. Such units were required in the expeditionary operations 

of WWII and are a huge requirement again in today’s AEF. The Combat Control School Heritage Foundation (CCSHF) outlines the history of the CCTs:

After the establishment of the U.S. Air Force as a separate service on 18 September 1947, organizational changes resulted in tactical airlift and aerial port 

squadrons assuming responsibility for support of the U.S. Army ground 

forces. Air Force pathfinder teams, later called combat control teams, were 

activated in January of 1953 to provide navigational aids and air traffic control 

for the growing airlift forces. They were incorporated into aerial port squadrons and remained there until 1977, when they were assigned to the Director 

of Operations. In 1984 combat control was restructured into a system of 

squadrons and detachments reporting directly to numbered Air Forces, and 

in 1991 they were placed under the control of host wing commanders.217

In the mid-1990s, combat control moved under AFSOC, and AMC 

now must re-create an organization similar to the STS to meet its 

expeditionary mission.218

The CRG AT will never come close to the capability offered by 

AFSOC’s STS units but can serve as a unit to relieve the ever-increasing 

tasking level of the STS. While an STS has highly skilled warriors, it 

is a small force of fewer than 400 Airmen.219 These forces position 

NAVAIDS and target designation equipment and also control offensive 

fire systems in permissive and hostile environments. Teams are 

trained in the use of mission-unique skills involving various parachuting techniques and amphibious as well as aquatic employment 

methods. Special tactics personnel are skilled in demolitions, weapons, 

ATC, small unit tactics, trauma medical response, communications, 

and forward weather observation.220

The CRG would not need anything near the STS qualifications. 

Basic requirements include airborne, ATC, and possible air assault 

qualifications. A comparison of a special tactics squadron to a CRG 

AT is akin to that of the Army’s 82 ABN DIV to the Rangers.221 While 

the 82nd is a highly capable group of Soldiers, the US Rangers are a 

smaller group with unique training and more varied mission capabilities. 

The AT should train to be able to open bases in certain scenarios 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 57

without the assistance of an STS, but it will never replace STS capability. 

If the AT could jump into an air base with an STS, it could relieve the 

STS quickly. The squadron could move on to its other missions, such 

as directing CAS operations or integrating with other SOF teams. The 

AT’s inability to insert with special tactics delays the STS’s ability to 

move out of the airhead. This delay may hamper the element of surprise 

that such operations rely upon so heavily. Speed is of the essence, as 

noted in the Luftwaffe and Red Air Force experiences. The USAF may 

never fully realize the full potential of the CRG if it is unwilling to take 

steps to train these units beyond the usual AMOG legacy–type missions. 

Reflecting on OIF and OEF, it is clear that the 86th CRG’s ability to 

insert with the Army’s 173rd was indeed a force enhancement and 

should be the new level to which future CRG ATs are trained. General 

Jumper described his vision for the CRG-STS relationship: “Quite 

frankly, the STS guys are also going to be out in the field. They are 

going to be doing other sorts of combat control. . . . But just like with 

the CRG, if we do this right, you will be able to flow back and forth . . . 

between those kinds of career fields. . . . [They would have] transferable 

skills with all of the benefits of having the same equipment and everything else.”222

Posturing the CRG and the AT for future success requires defining 

the capability the AT must possess, the doctrine to enable the AT to 

integrate and function in a joint environment, and the vision for the 

CRG and the AT in the future. In examining the past, we see that the 

strategic effects of air base opening capabilities have served their owners well. It is evident that a country that can perform air base opening 

quickly and effectively will have a strategic advantage over an enemy.223

The USAF’s challenge remains the creation of units with streamlined command lines incorporating the outstanding RAF Regiment 

defense capabilities and the tactical mobility and insertion capability of 

the USAF STS. These tasks must be accomplished to complement the 

STS mission without duplicating it. The road map is not an easy one to 

follow and will entail constant communication with senior USAF leadership, integration with USAF and other services, and a willingness for 

all to examine recent conflicts and the global environment to define 

requirements for these teams. With this vision as a guide, the Air Force 

can begin to organize, train, and equip the USAFE CRG, PACAF CRG, 

ACC CRG, and AMC AMOGs to this standard (fig. 1.8). 
58 │ DEMARCO

Royal Air Force

Regiment

Air Mobility Operations

Group

Contingency

Response

Group

AT

Special Tactics

Teams

820th Security

Forces Group

(ACC)

15th/21st Expeditionary

Task Force (AMC)

86th Contingency

Response Group

(USAFE)

A small team of 8–20 Airmen

combining the basic capabilities

of these groups

Doctrine

Doctrine is never an easy subject to broach, especially when the 

USAF is attempting to develop concepts for a new organization with 

a distinctive capability. One of the biggest doctrinal issues for such 

units is that over the previous five years, Air Force MAJCOMs and 

numbered air forces have developed numerous disparate units. These 

new units were designed to increase the resolution of information at 

the forward edge of an operation and improve the USAF’s ability to 

establish and operate from forward airfields. Differing from existing 

AMC TALCEs, ACC combat communications airfield operations 

flights, and AFSOC STSs, these units are the 

• USAFE Air Ground Operations Wing,

• ACC Base Defense Group,

• Ninth Air Force Contingency Response Wing,

• ACC/ANG airborne RED HORSE squadrons,

• ANG air traffic control squadrons,

• AMC global airfield assessment teams, and

• expeditionary operations support squadrons.

Figure 1.8. The melding of career fields
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 59

The second large issue facing the USAF is that once the teams are 

sourced and command lines streamlined, seams remain between the 

seizure forces and the operating forces. The transition between these 

phases is crucial to the speed at which these air bases are fully operational and to the delivery of follow-on forces.

Command Lines

These activities suggest a requirement arising at the operational or 

tactical level that caused the development of a capability by the affected commands. Since these activities are geared toward support of 

an AEF, it is reasonable to think that the transition from a “forwardbased Air Force” to the AEF was the stimulus for this activity. However, command lines of such units remain blurred.224 What follows is 

a discussion of the proposed solution of doctrinal command issues. 

As noted above, matters are made even more difficult with the 

myriad of capabilities that cross MAJCOM and theater lines and 

serve to exacerbate doctrinal issues. While USTRANSCOM and 

AMC have a unique doctrinal foundation based on their global reach 

mission, USAFE and PACAF have totally different command relationships as theater-based assets. To date, much has been written on 

the subject of CRG doctrine and command relationships, but no 

agreements have been reached within the USAF or joint community. 

The capabilities of all the CRGs will probably require standardization. This standardization ensures that users will understand and be 

able to plan airfield seizures and air base operations on a global level, 

not just in a theater that might have a CRG available. Theater expertise will always be a plus, but to have a unit in Europe more capable 

than a unit in New Jersey (i.e., airborne or organic security forces) or 

a Pacific unit that needs augmentation from California for basic missions is not efficient. 

Many parallel efforts are under way to use legacy doctrine and organization to standardize this capability.225 Expeditionary operations 

are designed to rapidly respond to contingencies. They include opening and protecting airfields, performing initial airfield and air base 

operations, and smoothly transitioning to subsequent operations. 

These unique capabilities provide the foundation for CRGs and 

should be standardized.226 As noted, the primary functions for opening an air base are assigned to various units across the Air Force. The 
60 │ DEMARCO

Air Force must synchronize these individual efforts and ensure consistency with its GM CONOPS.227

AMC CRGs fall under USTRANSCOM in its role as DOD’s 

provider of air, land, and sea transportation during peace and war. 

USTRANSCOM has a standing support command obligation to 

provide air base opening functions (through the CRG) while 

maintaining operational control (OPCON) over its forces. That 

control enables USTRANSCOM to determine the forces, tactics, 

methods, procedures, and communications employed to satisfy 

the supported commander’s objectives. Thus, the AMC CRG will 

“work for” the theater commander, receiving direction via the director of mobility forces (DIRMOBFOR). However, OPCON of 

the CRG will not be transferred.228

Non-AMC CRGs fall within their respective AORs, and theater 

CRGs will remain under the combatant command (COCOM)/OPCON of their respective theater commanders. If CRGs deploy outside 

their theaters, SecDef approval is required. Currently, other commands 

do not have standing SecDef-approved support command relationships. They would either have to establish such a relationship or 

transfer OPCON of forces to the theater commander prior to deployment or employment. Either option would require SecDef approval.229

There are some roadblocks to overcome. The intent of the CRG 

OPCON is to outline a tasking process responsive to the war fighter’s 

needs, and the group is required to respond in 12 hours. The USAF 

must be able to task the CRG in minimum time. Notably, the US Air 

Force Air and Space Expeditionary Center is not a 24/7 operation. 

New processes need to be implemented to increase the responsiveness of the AEFC, or all CRGs must fall under one command to be 

tasked through the AMC’s 618th TACC. 

Under current standing agreements, the tasking process is somewhat different for each MAJCOM CRG. Command relationships play 

an important role. Ideally, the DIRMOBFOR, through the joint force 

air component commander (JFACC), will recommend a CRG source 

to the JFC. Doctrinally, the process works differently for AMC and 

non-AMC CRGs.

In AMC, the COCOM can request support directly from USTRANSCOM for CRG forces. While seemingly contrary to the normal 

process, this procedure is doctrinally correct. JP 0-2, Unified Action 

Armed Forces, discusses support command relationships. In short, 

depending on how the support command relationship is set up be-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 61

tween the war-fighting commanders, the supported commander has 

the authority to task the supporting commander to provide forces or 

support—with SecDef approval implicit in the standing support 

agreement.230 In AMC’s case, USTRANSCOM’s role as the “single 

manager for defense transportation” and responsibility to provide 

“global transportation management of common-user air, land and 

sea transportation for the Department of Defense by employing an 

integrated transportation system across the range of military operations” allows commanders the ability to bypass the request for forces 

(RFF) process and task USTRANSCOM (and thus AMC) directly.231

CRG commanders in USAFE and PACAF do not have a standing 

support agreement allowing them to request CRG forces through 

USTRANSCOM. Therefore, to be tasked outside of their assigned 

commander’s AOR, these CRGs would have to be tasked through the 

normal RFF process, requiring SecDef approval prior to deployment. 

This process requires an RFF message to the Joint Staff (J-3), which 

includes a description of the forces, mission, duration, and commander’s preference for the source of forces; the resulting SecDef deployment order (DEPORD) or execute order (EXORD) authorizes troops to 

deploy.232 This process may delay the deployment of a CRG.

In a structure where AMC possessed organic forces, to include SF, 

ATC, and jump-qualified ATs, there would be no need to reach across 

command lines. If the tasking process were streamlined and all CRGs 

were standardized, there would rarely be a situation that required 

tasking outside of a theater commander’s AOR, resulting in a quicker 

CRG response time. Europe and the Pacific could respond with organic 

resources, augmented as required by AMC. AMC could internally handle South America, the Middle East, and any other requirements. 

Operational Seams

Joint doctrine does not fully address the transition between initial 

airfield seizure forces and base opening forces. JP 3-18 addresses “stabilization of the lodgment” and acknowledges that “details concerning the introduction of follow-on forces must be prepared during the 

planning phase of the operation.”233 However, there is no discussion 

of the scenarios that frequently occur—airfield security or seizure 

followed by employment of air mobility forces to establish base operations and sustain the air flow. This gap was evident early on in the 

planning for OIF and had to be worked out in an ad hoc manner. 
62 │ DEMARCO

JP 3-17, Air Mobility Operations, addresses briefly the interrelationship between special operations and air mobility forces. While JP 

3-17 provides for some integration of airfield seizure and follow-on 

forces, it remains narrowly focused on initial airland operations for 

the purpose of ground combat power in lodgments or austere airfields. Multiservice TTPs, and ultimately joint doctrine, must reflect 

the Air Force’s requirements to expand base operations to accommodate high throughput or beddown of aircraft to project air and ground 

combat power.234 Again, lessons from Tallil highlight the need for 

such doctrine: the operation was a success in huge part due to the 

intelligence and foresight of leadership involved. 

Responsibilities of CRG forces should be specified during planning 

of seizure and base opening operations. The two transition periods or 

seams (when control of the airfield passes from one force to another) 

are vital. First is the transition from seizure force to the base opening 

force; second is the transition from the base opening force to the 

follow-on user (not necessarily USAF). AT Myers and its base opening 

at Tallil is an outstanding model for doctrine. The first transition 

should be made as soon as security and AT forces are satisfied that 

the airfield is secure enough for follow-on forces and the seizure force 

is ready to relinquish control. If AT forces are postured to rapidly 

employ, this assurance may happen only hours after initiation of seizure. Colonel Myers arrived at the base quickly and assumed command of the field. As the base opening force grows in capability and 

the follow-on user’s forces begin to arrive, a threshold will be reached 

where the follow-on user is ready to assume control from the base 

openers. This growth will be in stages, including ATC forces assuming control of air operations from the STS forces, the C2 element for 

a follow-on air expeditionary wing (AEW)/CC assuming reporting, 

and the TALCE commencing communications duties.235 We saw earlier the buildup of Tallil in exactly this manner. The speed of transition can be further expedited if the AT possesses ATC capability, 

hence allowing the STS to depart sooner for follow-on missions. 

Ideally, this transitional threshold would be detailed in the operation order (OPORD) or EXORD, as well as what portions of the airfield and its environment are under Air Force control. Advance 

agreements between USAF airfield operators and any remaining sister service security personnel on control issues on or near the airfield 

can preclude detrimental conflicts. They might include issues of storage of hazardous materials, proximity to aircraft operations, commu-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 63

nications usage, and security approaching the airfield in the air or on 

the ground. Shortly after the formal transfer to the follow-on user, the 

base opening force (including the TALCE) should redeploy and reconstitute for about 30 days. 

The key factor of this effort is the need to close the seam between 

seizure forces and the CRG. The Air Land Sea Application Center is 

beginning to develop a working group to address this shortfall and to 

develop multiservice tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP) for 

joint air lodgment operations. This parallel joint effort is important to 

employment and execution and is a critical step in the road ahead for 

CRGs and air base opening operations.236

Case studies of the Luftwaffe and Red Air Force illustrate the importance of rapid deployment and the element of surprise. Developing a force that combines the virtues of the CRW, RAF Regiment, and 

STSs will ensure that the USAF CRG can open an air base anyplace at 

any time. The United States Air Force in Iraq serves as a reminder of 

the necessity of strong doctrine and, in the absence of that, strong 

leadership. The USAF can do better; the key is to develop ideas and 

concepts of operations now. As General Jumper pointed out in discussing C-17 operations in OIF and OEF, AMC did a good job in 

adapting to the combat environment. However, most ideas came after 

OEF/OIF was under way and were developed after the war fighter 

had an immediate need for them. The CSAF’s desired end state was a 

combat culture that is out in front and on the leading edge, which 

pushes capabilities anticipating the war fighter’s needs.237 The same can 

be said of the CRG ATs in OIF. We should not rely on luck and wishful 

thinking; now is the time to develop the concepts to ensure that we 

have the capabilities required to confront the threats of the future.

The Future: Combat Structuring 

The United States has witnessed many contingency operations recently that were without deliberate plans or an infrastructure in place. 

The Air Force has responded with changes in organization and 

technology—the CRG was one example. In the past, Air Force units 

were committed into a combatant commander’s theater through stovepipes: engineers, communicators, medics, airfield managers, security 

forces, airlift control elements, and so forth. Many times these units outpaced the deployment of commanders and sister services.238 During such 

deployments, the units could not function effectively until senior leader-
64 │ DEMARCO

ship arrived. The CRG was an attempt to guarantee that this does not 

happen in the future. It is an effort to build a multidisciplinary, crossfunctional (and in some cases cross-cultural) team whose mission is to 

provide first-on-scene Air Force personnel to command, access, and prepare a base for expeditionary operations. To make such a guarantee, the 

USAF must be positive we are not just putting new wine into old bottles.

In examining the future of US military operations, a few assumptions must be made to adequately posture the CRG for future success. 

The first key premise is that the terrorism and regional instability, 

especially in the Middle East and Northern Africa, will continue for 

the long term. As demonstrated by recent operations in Iraq and 

Syria, expeditionary operations requiring CRG expertise will only increase in frequency and value.239 Further, we must assume that a future 

adversary will recognize that victory over the United States through 

force-on-force combat is unrealistic. The three case studies presented 

illustrate that taking that ability away can marginalize a nation projecting forces through air base seizure. If Norway were not taken, the 

Germans would have had a northern front to deal with. If Kabul and 

other airfields were not seized, the Soviets would have required more 

forces and allowed the Afghan leadership time to prepare for the 

initial assault. Finally, had the United States not been able to seize 

bases in Iraq, the coalition would have had major issues with power 

projection and logistical support to friendly forces. Adversaries are 

designing capabilities and doctrine to deny or limit US forces ability 

to gain access to a region. Most potential adversaries conclude that developing the ability to limit and/or interrupt access will enable reducing our 

military capability to manageable and sometimes vulnerable levels.240

Organize: Contingency Response Group Combat Culture

Organization of the CRG mission is receiving attention at the 

highest levels in the USAF (fig. 1.9). This construct will shore up 

AMC units but will not bring the structure and practices of ACC or 

overseas units any closer to those of AMC. Currently, AMC has the 

preponderance of CRGs and ATs, but not of capability. USAFE and 

ACC have special proficiencies that AMC is referring to as “playbook 

options.” These options include security forces from the 820 SFG, airborne capability from the 86 CRG in USAFE or possibly ACC, and 

RED HORSE civil engineers from ACC.241 Any air base opening op-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 65

eration other than an airland or overland insertion in a permissive 

environment will require forces from outside AMC. 

Figure 1.9. EMTF/CRW organizational structure. (Adapted from Brig

Gen Kip Self, HQ AMC, CRG conference brief, 2005.)

Organization of the personnel in the CRG is another issue. The 

group is unique in that it contains AFSCs or career fields from a myriad of Air Force organizations. Airmen from the intelligence, medical, fuels, communications, and operations fields—among many others—come together to work in the CRG. This diversity creates an 

environment where a cohesive combat culture is difficult to nurture. 

Airmen may identify more with the AFSC or career field they came 

from and not the organization to which they are assigned. One concept to alleviate some of these issues is to create an AFSC for the 

CRGs Air Force–wide. If USAF senior leadership is serious about 

CRG personnel being key to the future of the Air Force, they should 

be recognized. Having a CRG AFSC would not only give CRG personnel an organizational identify but also would facilitate their placement in future assignments and leadership positions. 

Furthermore, the CRG AT has already undergone numerous name 

changes in its short history. Names have ranged from the global moE nabling the “G lobal” in “G lobal V igilance, R each and Pow er!”

C R G STR U C TU R E

C ontingency R esponse G roup

Contingency

Support

Squadron

Contingency

Response

Squadron

A erial Port C om m and & Control

M aintenance

Intel SF

O SI M edical

Supply Fuels

Contracting C om m /Info

C om ptroller C E

A fld O ps A TC

N O TE: C RG s w ill have C RS w ith 2 

TA LC E equivalents; third C RG w ill have

C RS w ith one TA LC E equiv.

C om m /A G E
66 │ DEMARCO

bility assessment team (GMAT or GAT) and the contingency base 

assessment team (C-BAT) to today’s AT. The origins of the AT can be 

traced to the Army Pathfinders, first used to mark drop zones in Sicily during the Italian campaign of World War II. The Army currently 

has Pathfinders; such a name in the Air Force might find issue with 

the Army. As mentioned, the CRG is a unit benefiting all armed services. Armed forces must transcend parochial interests in the development of the most effective force. The Pathfinder history is easily 

traced to the USAF; the title USAF Pathfinders might serve the Air 

Force well in building a combat heritage. The Air Force might opt to 

build a new tradition in a name such as the USAF Forerunner Team. 

A forerunner is defined as “one that comes before and indicates the 

approach of another; a harbinger.”242 The name is seemingly perfect 

for a group designed to be the first into an airfield to assess its capabilities for follow-on forces.

Train: The Battlefield Airman

Training is a key issue for the CRG, but the Air Force must determine what capabilities it should possess before investing too many 

resources into this area. A USAF study on air mobility leaders identifies a need not only for just-in-time training supporting mobility deployments but also for a long-term developmental strategy to meet 

ongoing contingency leadership and mobility capabilities. The study 

observes that “the resources and emphasis that AMC places on the 

Phoenix Mobility program indicate how much the command values 

the EMTF mission in the post-9/11 environment. It also reveals that 

by deliberately trying to build a cadre of officers who have the contingency-response mission as a core competency, the command continues to develop future mobility leaders who are experts in all aspects 

of air mobility operations.”243

In addition to training courses, both physical and on-line, the Expeditionary Warfare Center developed Eagle Flag, an exercise held at 

Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (JBMDL), New Jersey. Eagle Flag 

is used as a predeployment workup for CRGs as they become aligned 

with the AEF rotations.244 As noted, lead CRGs will be pre-identified 

with each AEF pair. Those CRGs will be targeted for Eagle Flag just 

prior to assuming lead status in conjunction with their respective 

AEF pair.245
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 67

CRG forces must further exercise routinely with a variety of joint 

combat maneuver forces to effectively open air bases across the spectrum of operations. Exercising these CRG forces using a variety of 

existing training events would greatly facilitate developing joint TTPs 

and prevent the USAF from having to assemble ad hoc teams. Events 

that would serve CRGs well include combat training center rotations; 

joint / service / combatant commander exercises; bilateral training; 

or piggybacking on exercises AMC is already a part of, such as Large 

Package Week (LPW) with the 82 ABN DIV.246 Such training would 

integrate air base opening capabilities and address deficiencies in the 

areas of doctrine and force packaging. Today’s joint exercise objectives should be refined to include transition from airfield seizure to 

base opening forces. Improvement in these areas will highlight the 

changes required to ensure more effective operations.247

Such joint exercises also serve to build habitual relationships with 

sister services that pay dividends in combat operations. They will 

validate required training, which might include jump qualifications 

for ATs. A “special capabilities” AT of eight people would have strategic effects if a future conflict required its employment. This AT would 

be part of one of the CRGs at Travis AFB and one at JBMDL, giving 

that CRG the designation “special capabilities CRG.” AMC has organized flying units in similar ways at Charleston AFB, including the 

16th Airlift Squadron that was at one time a special operations lowlevel II (SOLL II) C-141B outfit. The cost is minimal to train 16 Airmen commandwide for airborne insertion.248 The concept has already 

been validated in Iraq (see chap. 5).249 The capability in such teams 

would yield increased options for the nation’s leaders. However, evaluating the ability such qualifications can offer is difficult until the 

CRG has the capability. 

General Jumper stated in 2003 that “contingency response group 

capabilities are also emerging within air mobility operations, providing nontraditional skills to base opening. Response group airmen attend Army Ranger School and are jump qualified.” His vision for the 

CRG was clear. “These are skills of the modern expeditionary Air 

Force,” he noted. “We will continue to grow these skills and get the 

people in these groups that we need to be able to do this in any condition, anywhere in the world. And it’s going to get people’s attention, 

because we’re going to have jump-qualified engineers, jump-qualified 

contracting officers, jump-qualified lawyers [and] jump-qualified 

doctors.250
68 │ DEMARCO

It may be shortsighted to dismiss the capability on the grounds 

that it may never be employed. If the 86 CRG did not have airborne 

qualification, who would have opened Bashur? Some would argue 

that the jump was not required and the CRG could have airlanded in 

on the first C-17 on the second night. If the field were not capable of 

handling a large flow of heavy C-17 aircraft, night two would have 

been a terrible time to find out with 1,000 airborne Soldiers then 

stranded in northern Iraq. 

There is another little-known possibility that never occurred during Operation Allied Force (OAF) because assessment of the field 

was deemed impossible. As General Jumper tells the story, this may 

have been the genesis for the 86 CRG airborne qualification. The 

USAF was unable to stand up a bare base in Kukas, Albania. No roads 

led to the base, and General Jumper, the USAFE commander, needed 

an airdrop to get an AT and RED HORSE team on the field to assess 

and possibly to repair it. He was briefed that insertion was not possible.251 Lt Gen Mike McDuffie, director of joint staff logistics, briefed 

reporters on 2 February 1999 that “there is a dirt strip up close at 

Kukas.” He added, “We don’t know the usability of that airfield, 

though, for C-130s. I mean everybody wants to say it’s C-130 capable 

because of the length, but we really don’t have that assessment. Our 

view, it probably is not.”252

As mentioned above, playbook options such as airborne insertion 

are farmed out to USAFE. The original Air Force Contingency Response Group Operational Concept, version 1.0, states: “Some situations may require airborne insertion of forces; therefore, several of 

these METs (Mission Essential Tasks) will also require airborne/airdrop capability. To address this intermittent requirement, the 86th 

CRG in USAFE, 613th CRG in PACAF, and the 820th BDG in ACC 

will be responsible for maintaining one Assessment Team each that is 

airborne/airdrop qualified” (emphasis added).253

Antiaccess will become more of an issue for the United States in 

future operations (as mentioned previously and in chap. 2). Issues 

with Turkey in OIF should alert America that our allies may not always provide us with basing rights in future conflicts. Thus, forced 

entry options should be examined now, before they are required. Furthermore, the DOD has shifted its collective focus toward the socalled “southern arc that will begin in the Balkans, pass through the 

Greater Middle East and Persian Gulf, cross South Asia, and continue 

along the Asian crescent from South East Asia to Taiwan.”254 Even a 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 69

quick glance illustrates the requirement for forces beyond USAFE to 

prepare for operations similar to those in Bashur. The “arc of instability” includes forces not only in the European theater but also in South 

America, the Middle East, and the Far East (fig. 1.10). Furthermore, 

the RAND study A Global Access Strategy for the US Air Force recommends that the USAF “plan, organize, equip and train itself according 

to a new set of principles suited to a world that demands frequent, 

short-notice deployments and employments across a spectrum of 

conflict that may occur virtually anywhere in the world.”255 Again, 

AMC has the bulk of CRG assets, and common sense dictates it 

should have the bulk of capability. The operational concept must be 

updated to include jump-coded billets for an assessment team at Travis and McGuire AFBs to respond to crisis anywhere on the globe in 

the 12-hour time frame laid out in the operational concept. 

Figure 1.10. CRGs and the arc of instability. (Adapted from US National Intelligence Council (NIC), GlobalTrends 2025: A Transformed 

World [Washington, DC: US NIC, November 2008], 61, https://www

.dni.gov/files/documents/Newsroom/Reports%20and%20Pubs/2025

_Global_Trends_Final_Report.pdf.)

Finally, President Bush observed in the 2002 National Security 

Strategy that “before the war in Afghanistan, that area was low on 

615 CRW

615 CRG

715 CRG

815 CRG

621 CRW

621 CRG

721 CRG

821 CRG

86 CRG

613 CRG

The Southern Arc (Arc of Instability)
70 │ DEMARCO

the list of major planning contingencies. Yet in a very short time, we 

had to operate across the length and breadth of that remote nation, 

using every branch of the armed forces. We must prepare for such 

deployments.”256

No one in the world challenges the USAF in air-to-air combat, yet 

F-15 units continue to thrive. The 82nd ABN DIV has not made a 

combat jump in years, yet it is the Army’s pride. Both the USAF’s 

F-15 Eagle squadrons and the Army’s 82nd ABN DIV have a known 

capability that offers this country’s leaders options and a deterrent to 

potential adversaries. Airborne qualifications for the AT may be the 

first such capability the USAF requires in the group. Ranger, air assault, and other options should be examined as required.

Another training opportunity for CRGs may be to leverage against 

the battlefield Airman concept. At the Air Force Association’s Symposium in Orlando, Florida, in February 2004, James G. Roche, secretary of the Air Force, “directed special attention to what he termed 

‘battlefield Airmen’—USAF personnel on the ground who work directly with land forces.”257 The Air Force plans to pull together all 

battlefield Airmen—including combat controllers, pararescuemen, 

combat weather specialists, enlisted terminal attack controllers, and 

tactical air control party (TACP) Airmen—under a common organizational and training structure. Dr. Roche said that will “strengthen 

the combat power they bring to the battlefield, whether they bring it 

as part of ACC or part of AFSOC.”258 Now is an excellent time for 

AMC to bring forward the CRG as an essential capability on the 

ground for working with land forces. Without the CRG, forces will 

have a difficult time getting on the ground through newly opened air 

bases. The CRG could use this opportunity to integrate and train with 

other USAF battlefield Airmen and build those habitual relationships 

for the future.

ATC in the CRG is still an item of intense discussion. As far back 

as Joint Endeavor (December 1995), a lesson learned was that having 

ATC capability early in the flow when opening a new air base is critical. However, the capability continues to exist primarily with AFSOC 

STT forces. Although AMC has developed a concept for rapid deployment to provide the required capability, these personnel are not 

yet in the open-the-air-base force module and thus are not in the 

proposed CRG.259

Training is critical to the future success of these units, and it is all 

the more tough to accomplish in a unit such as a CRG that has a high 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 71

deployment rate. Yet with the predictability of the AEF cycle, the opportunities can be realized to great effect. The learning curve will be 

steep, especially when the USAF is setting out to create a new organization with new capabilities. As the units are trained, however, this 

curve will diminish. Leveraging CRG training against training already scheduled will foster the development of working relationships 

with sister services. Examples include airborne training with LPW at 

Fort Bragg and working with the Joint Readiness Training Center 

(JRTC) at Fort Polk and the National Training Center at Fort Irwin.

Channels of communication must be developed with the Europebased CRG and CONUS-based STS units.260 Creative thinking might 

suggest partnering with the RAF Regiment or using capable contractors that provide robust military training. The Air Force has several 

options at its disposal to mentor these newer AMC CRGs and to have 

an eminently capable force for the future. 

Equip: For Tomorrow’s Conflict

Equipping a CRG for its mission is somewhat intuitive; providing 

the unit with personnel might require some deeper thought. For the 

mission, a CRG by its very nature must be light. Everything the AT 

needs initially should be carried on the individuals’ backs. Once the 

base is open and airlift starts to flow, more equipment can be brought 

in. In building the habitual relationships with STSs and sister services, the USAF will have the opportunity to examine best practices 

of other units and adapt its requirements. 

Former PACAF commander Gen Patrick K. Gamble noted that 

“the CRS [contingency response squadron] was born from lessons 

learned in the Balkans. . . . In Kosovo they found when they had to go 

into an airfield, a small field never seen before, they didn’t know what 

they were getting into until they looked at it. The lesson is we’ve got 

to get eyes on the target. The squadron is the command’s eyes. Its job 

is to fly into contingency operations first and evaluate the situation, 

surroundings and terrain.” Gamble’s only direction to the planners 

was that the team had to fit in one C-130. “Build me one C-130’s 

worth of capability,” Gamble said. “Tell me what you need, what the 

team ought to look like, and what kind of communications and assessment equipment it’ll need. You’ll get it.”261

Critical thinking is required as well. Any member involved in creating this future force must reflect beyond the last war to bring out 
72 │ DEMARCO

any combat capability the war fighter might need now, before the 

next fight. As General Jumper pointed as CSAF, it will not be the 

command that figures out how best to employ a weapons system. It 

will be the line captain who lives and breathes combat operations 

who comes up with innovative ideas. The command’s job is to foster 

and embrace this process, providing an avenue for that “smart” captain’s ideas to come to fruition.262 With today’s technology, many 

available items may be adapted to the mission of the AT. For example, 

a potential idea worth borrowing is the bomber community’s adaptation of a helicopter “smart kneeboard.” This smart kneeboard incorporates a GPS data link. A CRG Airman could use this device on the 

ground and circle the unit position with a stylus. The smart kneeboard simultaneously displays the information entered by the ground 

personnel to others on the ground or to inbound aircraft.263 The same 

kneeboard could display inbound aircraft landing times and parking 

positions to the CRG, decreasing aircraft turn times and expediting 

the buildup of forces at the airhead. 

Devices such as the backpack remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) 

should find great use in the CRG. RPAs can be employed by either the 

AT or security forces, with the CRG manned with the necessary people and equipment to monitor threats in aircraft approach and departure corridors. The information gathered provides the CRG and aircrew with data on threats from shoulder-fired antiaircraft missiles or 

small arms fire. This capability is available now and is being used by 

some military units. The RPAs are equipped with miniature cameras 

that beam video streams to a laptop computer being operated by a SF 

team overseeing airfield security.264 General Jumper noted, “Now we 

are not going to be able to put 1,000 people around an airfield like the 

Army can, so we are going to have to do it with hi-tech.”265 The backpack RPA is just one example of innovations enabling a small group 

to provide force protection on a large scale. 

While the possibilities for adapting technology for the CRGs are 

limited only by imagination and funds, equipping the CRG with the 

appropriate personnel is a more challenging premise. The key is to get 

the word to people in the Air Force that the CRG is an exciting place 

to work and a growth industry. When people understand that they 

can make a difference in a unit, they flock to it. Therefore, AMC must 

continue to improve its ability to recruit officers into the CRG using 

programs like Phoenix Horizon. Horizon’s goal is to create a large 

pool of highly competitive mobility officers through leadership de-
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 73

velopment programs, increased visibility for the CRG, and increased 

opportunities for selected officers.266 One aspect of the program, 

Phoenix Horizon–Mobility, assigns 11M (mobility pilots), 12M (mobility combat systems officers), 21A (maintenance officers), and 21R 

(logistics readiness officers) “to CRW and en-route locations to gain 

extensive experience in mobility leadership and mission planning.” 

The two-year Phoenix Horizon–Torch program pairs “company 

grade officers with a general office counterpart at HQ AMC, USTRANCOM, or 18th Air Force . . . to expand their leadership abilities 

and understanding of the global mobility mission.”267

CRGs need to market themselves at the Airman Leadership School, 

NCO Academy, and the Senior NCO Academy. Senior leadership in 

the EMTF should travel to the wings under their purview and deliver 

“spread the word” briefings on the changes, challenges, and opportunities at the CRG. 

Taking care of people in the CRG is key as well. Identifying with 

the unit and developing culture are integral to any organization. The 

CRG, as a career field, should have a way to be identified (fig. 1.11). 

Most career fields in the USAF have career badges that associate individuals with their specialties. The CRG must do the same to build 

community in the career field. AT uniform “tabs” similar to what 

AMC Phoenix Ravens wear on their shoulders would identify the AT 

to sister services.268 Further, all organizations that identify themselves 

as battlefield Airmen—the security forces and STTs present during 

the initial phases of air base opening—wear a beret. Another way for 

CRG members to identify with their heritage and community is to 

issue them berets. The color is not important—it could be Air Force 

blue or dark gray—but the beret would distinguish those responsible 

for base opening.269 In an environment where helmets are not required, a distinctive beret would enable both the USAF and sister 

services to immediately identify those responsible for the expeditionary base, be it the STS, BDG, or CRG.

The Way Forward

There are several areas that need to find closure in the CRG operational concept. The total number of CRGs required across the Air 

Force has not yet been definitively established. This requirement will 

drive some overarching organizational changes, such as the CRW, as-
74 │ DEMARCO

well as manpower and equipment needs for the various CRGs. The 

current assumption is that nine CRGs will be formed—six for AMC 

and one each for ACC, USAFE, and PACAF.270

Figure 1.11. CRG badges and tabs

The Air Mobility Warfare Center is working on developing a syllabus to stand up a CRG FTU. Joint training is critical to the success 

of air base opening / CRG operations. Eagle Flag is but one of the 

many opportunities to exercise this capability; we must also take advantage of those offered by the JRTC, LPW, “Flag” exercises, and others. 

These venues will help ensure that CRGs maintain a high level of proficiency not only in their respective AFSC skills but also in expeditionary skills required for air base opening operations.

What must be done now? All of the items listed above must be 

worked through, but the concept will still take time to initiate. Changing physical artifacts—such as equipment, physical symbols, organizational charts, and AFSCs—as soon as possible is a high priority. 

Doing so will illustrate to Airmen in the field that the CRG is indeed 

the way of the future and that senior leadership is serious about its 

importance. First, the names for units—the CRG, the AT, and CRW—

must all be agreed upon quickly. Training must be examined and a 

course determined. The USAF should send leaders to advanced 

schools like Air Assault and/or Airborne to improve expeditionary 

and joint warfare capabilities needed to support the future vision of a 

CRG Badge

CRG Special Capabilities

Badge

Assessment Team

(special capability)

Uniform Tab
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 75

robust CRG capability. It should also schedule exercises with sister 

services and set up a cross-tell program between CRGs and other 

organizations, to include STSs. Finally, any of the above suggestions—headgear, uniform tabs, CRG badges—create a sense of community and evidence of CRG membership. Any or all of these actions 

are low in cost for the USAF yet high in payoff to a new career field. 

They further illustrate that the new CRG is not just a renaming of an 

old, stovepiped system. 

Conclusion

The United States is standing on the verge of incredible capability 

on a strategic scale. The USAF is undergoing changes that will impact 

the organization for years to come: it needs to get this transformation 

right. As the Air Force contemplates changes to its structure, organizations, and weapons systems, it must remember the basics—how it 

deploys and supports global reach, including a more dynamic and 

flexible concept for securing austere and dispersed airfields. 

The case studies presented illustrate that speed and surprise are 

key to enabling successful air base seizures and follow-on air base 

opening. The Germans, Soviets, and the United States have historically spent much time and thought developing these capabilities. US 

capability flourished in World War II. Importantly, the case studies 

underline how vulnerable air bases can be to ground and air assault. 

However, the United States has struggled after the Cold War in developing and sustaining the capability of units that can rapidly deploy, organize, and open an air base in a hostile or semipermissive environment.

Harkening back to the past, we have seen that the Luftwaffe used a 

CRG-like organization to enable the seizure of airfields in Norway. 

The strategic effect of the operation prevented the Allies from developing a northern front, pushed the British naval blockade as far from 

the German coast as possible, and allowed the Germans the iron ore 

required for its war effort. The newly seized air bases in Norway allowed the Germans to strike northern portions of the British Isles. 

The Soviet Air Force used its special forces in a CRG role in Kabul 

and other cities in Afghanistan to strike quickly and keep the Afghans off balance during the initial phases of their invasion. The 

United States deployed units in Iraq that were highly successful in 

rapidly opening bases, but it can do better. Against a smart adversary, 
76 │ DEMARCO

the USAF might not have enjoyed the success it did in OIF. We must 

organize, train, and equip today for the future. 

Air Mobility Command must be ready to transform its legacy 

CRWs into the light, lean, and lethal organization that future conflicts 

will demand. Doing so is not an easy feat. The training will be tough, 

the doctrine will be nontraditional, and leaders will have to think creatively. But those in the CRG will be able to make a difference in future 

operations. The CRG concept is too important to permit failure; the 

impact will be felt not only in the way the USAF deploys and how effective it is in combat but also in how personnel perceive their contribution to the fight. The CRG concept is on the leading edge of a service culture change and influencing a new career field mind-set and 

developmental path. The time for change is now, and the rewards from 

the change will be felt quickly. Future conflict will depend on how fast 

the USAF can deploy and employ our air assets to theaters in which 

the enemy will invest mightily in denying our access. It is incumbent 

upon today’s planners and leaders to ensure investments in capabilities like the CRW and CRG are made to ensure airpower has the 

needed theater footing to bring its full capability to bear on the enemy. 

Notes 

(All notes appear in shortened form. For full details, see the appropriate entry in the 

bibliography.)

1. Tripp et al., Sense and Respond Logistics 3. 

2. Per Joint Publication (JP) 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary, a footprint

is the “amount of personnel, spares, resources, and capabilities physically present 

and occupying space at a deployed location,” 90.

3. Weaver and Cain, “Task Force Concepts of Operations,” 51. 

4. Tripp et al., Supporting Expeditionary Aerospace Forces. 

5. Dzyubenko, “Coalition Seeks Use of Kyrgyz.”

6. Trump, National Security Strategy, 8, 33.

7. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, xii. 

8. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-17, Air Mobility Operations,” 3. 

9. Ibid., 63.

10. Cirafici, Airhead Operations, xvi, 1. JP 3-17, Air Mobility Operations, defines 

airhead as “a designated area in a hostile or potentially hostile operational area that, 

when seized and held, ensures the continuous air landing of troops and materiel and 

provides the maneuver space necessary for projected operations. [It is] also called a 

lodgment area.” A second definition is “a designated location in an operational area 

used as a base for supply and evacuation by air.” Ibid., GL-6. 

11. FM 3-99, Airborne and Air Assault Operations. 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 77

12. Bonham, “Airfield Seizure,” 4. 

13. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 2.

14. Ibid, 9.

15. Griess, Second World War, 29. 

16. Middleton, “Soviet Display of Flexibility,” A1, A13.

17. Adkin, Urgent Fury, 200–214.

18. McConnell, Just Cause, 73, 99.

19. Maj (now Brig Gen) Robert A. Armfield (director of operations, 24th Special 

Tactics Squadron, Pope AFB, NC), interview by the author, 1 December 2003. 

20. Headquarters (HQ) AMC, briefing.

21. Bauer, “CSAF.” 

22. Wilkes et al., “Expeditionary Mobility Task Force.”

23. Bowyer, “Consolidating AMC’s Contingency Response,” iii.

24. Thucydides, Peloponnesian War, The Sixth Book, chap. XVIII.

25. Haulman, U.S. Army Air Forces, 5.

26. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 11–12.

27. Ibid., 13.

28. Ibid.

29. Ibid.

30. Royal Air Force, “RAF Timeline 1942.”

31. US aircraft discovered the Japanese fleet and sank four carriers, turning back 

the invasion force before it could land. RAND analyst David Shlapak has observed 

that this may be the most significant airfield attack in history. The resulting battle, 

and the destruction of the Japanese attack force, was a turning point in the war. 

Noted in Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 13.

32. Ibid.; and Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 81.

33. “Operation Chromite,” fact sheet. 

34. Davis, “Combat Cargo Command,” in Air War over Korea, 161.

35. Valliere, “Disaster at Desert One,” 70.

36. Adkin, Urgent Fury, 200–214.

37. McConnell, Just Cause, 73, 99.

38. Ibid.

39. Bush, “Persian Gulf Crisis.” 

40. Rumsfeld, “21st Century Transformation.”

41. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, A-4. 

42. Matsumura et al., Lightning over Water, 6. 

43. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, A-2, B-1–B-2, I-3, I-7, II-4, IV-5.

44. White, “Airborne Forces,” 7.

45. JP 3-17, Air Mobility Operations, vii.

46. RAND, Lightning over Water, 6.

47. HQ AMC/A35, “Airbase Opening Operational Concept,” 1.

48. Ibid., 2–3.

49. US Army, Center of Military History Publication 104-13, Airborne Operations, 1.

50. Hooker and Coglianese, “Operation Weserübung,” 100–111. 

51. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 50. 

52. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 18.
78 │ DEMARCO

53. Knauss, “Der Feldzug im Norwegen 1940” [“The Campaign in Norway in 

1940”], 8. General der Flieger Knauss was one of the senior planners for Norway who 

wrote a detailed memoir of the event.

54. Derry, Campaign in Norway, 18. 

55. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 19.

56. Shelton, Joint Vision 2020, 20. 

57. Ottmer, “Das Unternehmen Weserübung” [“Weserübung Land Invasion”], 

translated by Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 57. Hereafter page number 

cited refers to Corum.

58. Ibid., 58.

59. Mårtensson, “German Assault on Fornebu.” Mårtensson’s website notes that 

“the text relies heavily on the splendid Norwegian book Fornebu 9.April by Cato 

Guhnfeldt.” 

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 60. 

63. Shelton, Joint Vision 2020, 22.

64. LeMay Center, Volume I, Basic Doctrine, 4.

65. Knauss, “Der Feldzug im Norwegen 1940,” 60.

66. US Army, Airborne Operations, 3.

67. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 19.

68. US Army, Airborne Operations, 5. 

69. Of note, airborne troops are organic to the Luftwaffe as opposed to Army 

ownership of airborne assets in the United States.

70. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 61. 

71. According to the National Museum of the US Air Force,

The Ju 52 trimotor was first built in the 1930s and remained in service 

for more than a quarter century. This transport made its maiden flight in 

April 1931, and three years later a heavy bomber version appeared. The 

latter aircraft formed the nucleus of the Luftwaffe’s infant bomber force in 

the mid-1930s and was used during the Spanish Civil War.

The Ju 52 was obsolete as a bomber by 1939, but because of its durability, simplicity of design, and handling characteristics, it continued to serve 

throughout WWII as a versatile workhorse of the German transport fleet. Ju 

52s delivered the attacking forces and their supplies during the German invasions of Norway, Denmark, France, and the Low Countries in 1940. Almost 500 Ju 52s participated in the historic airborne assault on the island of 

Crete in May 1941, and Junkers later supplied Rommel’s armored forces in 

North Africa. 

72. Ibid. Comparison of Ju 52 capability with current-day C-17 capability: 

Characteristic Ju 52 C-17

Weight empty 12,610 lbs 277,000 lbs

Max takeoff 24,250 lbs 585,000 lbs

Speed 178 mph 517 mph

Ceiling (mean sea level [msl] 19,360 msl 45,000 msl

Range 810 miles w/ 

auxiliary tanks

unlimited w/ 

air refueling
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 79

National Museum of the US Air Force, “Junkers Ju 52”; and US Air Force, “C-17 

Globemaster III.” 

73. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 20.

74. Durr, “Luftnachrichten-Truppe” [Signals Troops], 76. 

75. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 64. 

76. Ottmer, “Das Unternehmen Weserübung,” 49.

77. Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe, Führungsstab 1.c. (Office of the Supreme 

Commander, Luftwaffe), “Einstaz der Fallschirm und Lufttransportverbande” [“Use 

of Parachute and Air Transport Associations”], in Corum, “German Campaign in 

Norway,” 65.

78. Ottmer, “Das Unternehmen Weserübung,” 96.

79. Ibid.

80. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 65.

81. Ibid.

82. Mårtensson, “German Assault on Fornebu,” 1.

83. Ibid., 2.

84. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 22.

85. For a full account of the airdrop and airland mission, see Mårtensson, “German Assault on Fornebu.” 

86. Vasco and Cornwell, Zerstörer [Destroyer]: 11–15.

87. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 66. 

88. Ibid., 63.

89. Weeks, Assault from the Sky, 23.

90. General Speidel, ed., “Der Feldzug in Norwegen,” in AFHRA file K113.305, 2, 

in Corum, “German Campaign in Norway.” 

91. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 71.

92. Gruppe XXI, Erfahrungsbericht (7 Oct 1940), in BA/MA 24-21/50, 4, in Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 75.

93. Richardson, “Forcible Entry,” 2. 

94. Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 74.

95. Blau, German Campaigns in the Balkans, pt. 1, “The Seizure of Crete.”

96. Churchill, Gathering Storm, 648–49.

97. Simpkin with Erickson, Deep Battle, 40.

98. Allard, “Soviet Airborne Forces, 42. 

99. Ibid., 43.

100. Ibid.

101. Heiman, “Soviet Invasion Weaknesses,” 39. 

102. Aspaturian, Dallin, and Valenta, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 1. 

103. Middleton, “Soviet Display of Flexibility,” A1.

104. Ibid.

105. Public Broadcasting Service, “Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan.” 

106. Russian General Staff, Soviet-Afghan War, 12–13.

107. Spetsnaz Soviet military units are roughly comparable to US special forces.

108. Grau, “Artillery and Counterinsurgency,” 36–41. 

109. Luttwak, Block, and Carus, Grand Strategy of the Soviet Union, 6.

110. Central Intelligence Agency, interagency intelligence memorandum, 7. 
80 │ DEMARCO

111. Aspaturian, Dallin, and Valenta, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 18, 21, 

quoting National Intelligence Daily, 7 September 1979. 

112. Ibid., 23–24, 29, 47.

113. Bradsher, Afghanistan and the Soviet Union, 176. Bradsher is referring to the 

flights into Afghanistan beginning on 29 November 1979, although he describes 

them as going into Bagram. He may have drawn this conclusion, quite logically, from 

the fact that newly arrived Soviet units were discovered at Bagram a few days later, 

indicating that some flights had indeed gone there. But there is no question that 

there also were flights into Kabul. Defense attachés at the US Embassy saw the aircraft there. 

114. Ibid.

115. The fact that the embassy reported these sightings is described in Bradsher’s 

book (ibid.). Bradsher notes that this was reported in the Washington Star on 13 

December 1979, A10. 

116. Aspaturian, Dallin, and Valenta, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 29, 33.

117. Russian General Staff, Soviet-Afghan War, 17.

118. A BMP is an amphibious infantry combat vehicle.

119. Russian General Staff, Soviet-Afghan War, 17.

120. Ibid.

121. Ibid., 197.

122. Ibid.

123. Ibid., 198.

124. Ibid.

125. Nelson, “Soviet Air Power.” 

126. Grau, “Artillery and Counterinsurgency.”

127. Arnold, Afghanistan, 94.

128. The presidential palace was guarded by Afghan troops and “the Muslim 

Battalion”—a Soviet Spetsnaz battalion of central Asian soldiers in DRA uniforms. 

When the paratroops arrived, the Spetsnaz and airborne forces accidentally became 

engaged in a firefight that killed half a battalion of Soviets. Russian General Staff, 

Soviet-Afghan War, 339.

129. Ibid., 199.

130. Aspaturian, Dallin, and Valenta, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 16. 

131. Ibid.

132. Baumann, “Compound War Case Study,” 288–89. 

133. Noorani, “Afghanistan and the Rule of Law,” 43. 

134. Allard, “Soviet Airborne Forces,” 46.

135. Bodansky, “Bear on the Chessboard,” 291.

136. Ibid.

137. Ibid., 280.

138. Girardet, Afghanistan, 17.

139. In a replay of 1841, the British managed to have their Kabul garrison annihilated. By 1881 the British had had enough; despite the victorious slaughter at the 

Battle of Maiwand in July 1880, they left. The British gained some territory and retained a little influence. Encyclopedia: The Free Dictionary, s.v. “European Influence 

in Afghanistan,” accessed 23 February 2016, http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.

com/Dost%20Mohammad%20and%20the%20British%20in%20Afghanistan.
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 81

140. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, I-8.

141. Collins, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, 81. 

142. Bodansky, “Bear on the Chessboard,” 282–83.

143. Nawroz and Grau, “Soviet War in Afghanistan?”

144. Lyons, McDuffie, and Webb, “Soviet Campaign in Afghanistan,” 11. 

145. Belmont, “USAAF Airfields in the ETO.” 

146. Kelly, From a Dark Sky, 23.

147. Levine, Pacific War, 124. 

148. Haulman, U.S. Army Air Forces, 17. 

149. Levine, Pacific War, 150.

150. Haulman, U.S. Army Air Forces, 17.

151. Ibid.

152. Ibid.

153. Ibid.

154. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, vii–viii.

155. Lee, “Third Persian Gulf War.”

156. Perry et al., Operation IRAQI FREEDOM, 5. 

157. “Operation Iraqi Freedom—March 26.” 

158. “Operation Iraqi Freedom—April 4.” 

159. Ibid.

160. Schuldheiss, briefing, subject: Airfield Planning and Coordination.

161. Ibid.

162. Ibid. General Leaf was the JFACC’s representative to the land component 

commander. He worked with the coalition forces’ air component commander to develop the air and space strategy and coordinated CAS missions with the Army. General Leaf acted as the coordinating authority between the land and air commanders. 

163. The CRG operational concept suggested that this O-6 (colonel) be a rated 

officer, which would require him/her to be a pilot or navigator. HQ AMC/A3A, 

“Contingency Response Group Operational Concept.” 

164. Tomczak et al., briefing, subject: Global Mobility CONOPS in Action.

165. Ibid.

166. Ibid.

167. Stoltz and Dobbins, briefing.

168. Cichowski, Perraut, and Self, briefing, subject: AMC’s Transformation, 4.

169. Briefing, subject: Air Base Opening—Lessons Learned.

170. Ibid.

171. Cichowski, Perraut, and Self, briefing, subject: AMC’s Transformation.

172. Briefing, subject: Air Base Opening—Lessons Learned. 

173. Cichowski, Perraut, and Self, briefing, subject: AMC’s Transformation. 

174. Briefing, subject: Air Base Opening—Lessons Learned.

175. Ibid.

176. Stoltz and Dobbins, briefing.

177. Murray and Scales, Iraq War, 193–94.

178. US Central Air Forces (CENTAF), “Operation Iraqi Freedom,” 15.

179. Ibid.

180. Stoltz and Dobbins, briefing. 

181. Ulmer, “Airmen Jump In.” 
82 │ DEMARCO

182. Arana-Barradas, “Bashur or Bust,” 31–32. 

183. Ibid., 32.

184. Ibid. 

185. Murray and Scales, Iraq War, 193–94.

186. Ulmer, “Airmen Jump In.”

187. Allardice, briefing.

188. Bauer, “Commander Recounts Historic C-17 Airdrop.”

189. Murray and Scales, Iraq War, 193–94.

190. Arana-Barradas, “Bashur or Bust,” 35.

191. Lowe, “Group Reflects on OIF Mission.” 

192. Ibid.

193. Cichowski, Perraut, and Self, briefing, subject: AMC’s Transformation.

194. Lt Col Kevin Kreps (chief, Mobile Command and Control Branch, Headquarters (HQ) AMC, Scott AFB, IL), telecon with the author, 15 April 2004.

195. Gen John P. Jumper (CSAF), interview by the author, Atlanta, GA, 19 April 2004.

196. Quoted in Bauer, “CSAF.”

197. Ibid.

198. Air Staff/XOOS, “USAF Ground Warriors,” 2.

199. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 3. 

200. Public Broadcasting Service, “Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan.” 

201. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 4.

202. Bowyer, “Consolidating AMC’s Contingency Response,” iii. 

203. The 820th Base Defense Group provides force protection and contingency 

response for expeditionary air forces. The unit specializes in bare-base, semi-/nonpermissive, airland-denied scenarios. 

204. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 5.

205. Ibid.

206. A 7-level NCO is a craftsman, a professional whose work is consistently of 

high quality and who is technically proficient and trained to perform duties in a 

chosen career field. Civilian craftsman are highly skilled technicians whether they 

are workers performing hands-on tasks such as plumbing, road construction, or 

building construction; IT professionals maintaining computer networks; or human 

resource (HR) managers running an HR division in a medium-sized company of 200 

to 1,000 employees. White to DeMarco, e-mail.

207. HQ AMC, briefing, subject: AMC Global Assessment Team.

208. Ibid.

209. Kennedy, “Jumper Eyeing New Unit.”

210. Ibid.

211. Ibid.

212. Ibid.

213. Jumper, “Rapidly Deploying Aerospace Power,” 10.

214. Volcheff and DeCuir, briefing, subject: Air Base Opening. 

215. Air Force Instruction (AFI) 10-209, Red Horse Program, 10. 

216. AFI 13-217, Space, Missile, Command, and Control, 46.

217. ShadowSpear Special Operations, “Combat Control Team.” 

218. A CCT history notes that AFSOC “was established [in 1990] at Hurlburt 

Field as the Air Force component of US Special Operations Command. In 1992 the 
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 83

USAF reorganized, and combat control forces were split among seven separate commands creating severe challenges. Training, tactics and equipment began to vary 

widely. Manning suffered, with seven separate staff functions draining experienced 

controllers from the field. In 1996 all operational combat controllers were realigned 

under AFSOC.” “If You Ain’t First . . . You’re Last,” Facebook. 

219. Callander, “Controllers,” 52–56. 

220. 720th Special Tactics Group, “First There.”

221. The 82 ABN DIV mission is to “within 18 hours of notification, strategically 

deploy, conduct forcible entry parachute assault and secure key objectives for followon military operations in support of U.S. national interests.” US Army, Fort Bragg, 

“82nd Airborne Division.” Also a rapidly deployable force, the 75th Ranger Regiment 

“plan[s] and conduct[s] special missions in support of U.S. policy and objectives,” with 

a primary mission “to conduct large-scale joint forcible entry operations . . . across the 

globe.” “Army Rangers,” Military.com; and US Army, “75th Ranger Regiment.” 

222. Jumper, interview.

223. HQ AMC/DOX, “Air Force Operational Concept,” 10.

224. Air Staff/XOO, “Airfield Seizure to Airfield Opening,” 3–4. 

225. Air Staff/XOOS, “USAF Ground Warriors,” 2.

226. HQ AMC/DOX, “Air Force Operational Concept,” 7–8. 

227. Ibid.

228. Volcheff and DeCuir, briefing, subject: Air Base Opening. 

229. Ibid.

230. JP 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces, III-8–III-10.

231. Ibid., II-15; and Detwiler, Bullet Background Paper.

232. Volcheff and DeCuir, briefing, subject: Air Base Opening. 

233. JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations, IV-7.

234. JP 3-17, Air Mobility Operations. 

235. HQ AMC/A3CCE, “Base Opening,” 1.

236. Volcheff and DeCuir, briefing, subject: Air Base Opening. 

237. Cook, “USAF After Action Report for CSAF.”

238. Jumper, “Rapidly Deploying Aerospace Power,” 4–10. 

239. Bush, “435th AGOW [Air Ground Operations Wing] Deploys Team.”

240. Ibid.

241. There is some debate as to when or if ACC will have the organic ability to 

open air bases; the 820 SFG can provide security forces to enhance the “open the 

base.” HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 3; Brig 

Gen Kip Self (AMC/A3, HQ AMC, Scott AFB, IL), interview by the author, 30 January 2004; and Maj Ted Detwiler, interview by the author, 10 January 2004. 

242. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 5th ed., s.v. “forerunner,” https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=forerunner.

243. Lenderman, Rise of Air Mobility, 51. 

244. Schanz, “Eagle Flag,” 69. 

245. Ibid., 15.

246. “Large Package Week,” GlobalSecurity.org. LPW is a “joint Army and Air 

Force preparation exercise for the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg, NC. The 

exercise culminates the 82nd Airborne’s intensive training cycle, which prepares one 

brigade, designated the division-ready brigade, to go on 24-hour standby for deploy-
84 │ DEMARCO

ment.” LPW is “held several times a year to practice large-scale airdrop missions for 

personnel and equipment” and is “designed to build cohesiveness between the 82nd 

Airborne and Air Mobility Command units.” Ibid.

247. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 14.

248. Sending a service member to the Basic Airborne Course at the US Army 

Airborne School requires paying only travel and per diem costs (per discussion with 

Mr. Steve Crumley [Training and Integration Branch, XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort 

Bragg, NC], 2004). Recurring training costs should be minimal as AMC owns all 

assets that participate in LPW, National Training Center, Joint Readiness Training 

Center, and other airborne training events. LPW alone trains thousands of jumpers 

at a rate of one week every 90 days; AMC would require just 16–20 of those training 

slots. Thus, an increased strategic capability would come at a small price. Basic jump 

currency requires one jump every 90 days.

249. Along with the Luftwaffe in Norway and Soviets in Afghanistan, airborne 

insertion was planned but not utilized.

250. Bauer, “CSAF.” 

251. Cook, “After Action Report.” 

252. General McDuffie stated that 

the report out of Kukas, which is the tough area there in Albania, was that 

we had about ten days of food. . . . When people come across the border, 

they usually are eating something and clothed. The one issue that we’re 

working on right now is the health issue. The initial refugees as they 

came across were actually pretty healthy. But if you remember, they 

weren’t moving too far because they were in the southern part of Kosovo. 

Now, the refugees that are starting to come across the border have come 

from quite a ways. And we’re starting to see a little bit more of a deterioration in health. (DOD, News Brief, 2 April 1999) 

253. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Response Group Operational Concept,” 8.

254. Bennendij et al., Strategic Assessment 1999, xvii.

255. Shlapak et al., Global Access Strategy, xiv–xv.

256. Bush, National Security Strategy, 29.

257. Tirpak and Herbert, “Battlefield Airmen,” 26–32.

258. Ibid., 28.

259. Volcheff and DeCuir, briefing, subject: Airbase Opening. 

260. Bowyer, “Consolidating AMC’s Contingency Response,” 18.

261. Greeley, “Wave of Change,” 40–43. 

262. Cook, “After Action Report.”

263. Ibid.

264. Lunsford, “Bird-Size Spy Planes.” 

265. Jumper, interview.

266. Knight to DeMarco, e-mail. See also Clements, “AMC Pushes Boundaries.” 

267. Clements, “AMC Pushes Boundaries.” 

268. Phoenix Ravens are specially trained security force teams that travel with 

AMC aircrews and protect the aircraft while the crew is in crew rest. These teams are 

used when an AMC asset is forced to remain overnight at a field where security is in 

question.
FIRST IN!: EXPEDITIONARY AIR BASE SEIZURE AND OPERATIONS │ 85

269. Wear of the beret in the Air Force began in 1979, when

enlisted personnel in the TACP AFSC were authorized to wear the 

black beret. In 1984, two Airmen from Pope Air Force Base . . . submitted a design for the flash and crest design, which was approved for all 

TACP Airmen in 1985. Air liaison officers (ALO) were also authorized 

to wear the black beret after they graduated from the Joint Firepower 

Control Course . . . at Nellis AFB, Nevada. Instead of the crest, they wear 

their rank insignia on the beret. Air mobility liaison officers (AMLO) 

were authorized to wear the black beret in the Air Force as well.

In addition to the black beret worn by the TACP/ALOs/AMLOs, colored berets 

in the Air Force are worn in the pararescue, combat controller, security forces, and 

combat weather AFSCs. Powers, “Beret.” 

270. HQ AMC/A3A, “Contingency Group Operational Concept,” 12. 

Chapter 2

Getting Out

Securing Air Bases during a Withdrawal

Michael M. Wellock

Former defense secretary Robert Gates observed that “if Iraq and 

Afghanistan have taught us anything in recent history, it is the unpredictability of war and that these things are easier to get into than to get 

out of ” (emphasis added).1

 Extracting a country from a war is a difficult and dangerous enterprise. Regardless of the political reasons 

behind the transition out of a war zone, the most important and practical concern is maintaining security of air bases while the logistical 

withdrawal takes place. Indeed, air bases are the strategic hubs from 

which force redeployments succeed or fail. 

American leaders and military planners must consider several 

key issues when forces exit an area. They include (1) managing expectations for host-nation security capabilities, (2) avoiding ceding 

ground and initiative to the enemy during the withdrawal, (3) developing more explicit doctrine and training for the withdrawal process, and (4) maintaining a unity of effort between coalition and 

host-nation forces in the security of the air base defense battlespace. 

Unfortunately, these factors seem to be forgotten and relearned with 

each conflict.

Three case studies deserve examination to distill lessons for airfield security transitions: (1) the USAF transition of air bases to Vietnamese forces; (2) the British military withdrawal from Basra, Iraq; 

and (3) the American military’s responsible drawdown of forces in 

Iraq and transition of Joint Base Balad (JBB) to the government of 

Iraq. Each case offers a unique experience through the lens of different generations and countries, as well as many lessons learned. Lessons will show that tactical-level planners, given strategic-level guidance, can and will successfully withdraw or transition an air base. 

Doing so requires that they manage their expectations regarding 

host-nation forces, remain flexible in planning and executing the 

withdrawal and/or transition, and recognize that tactical missteps 

can produce negative strategic effects. 
88 │ WELLOCK

However, in the case of the British withdrawal from Basra, the 

lack of a coherent, organized, and synchronized security drawdown 

plan caused negative second- and third-order effects and jeopardized 

local, regional, and theater operations. In other words, tactical missteps during the redeployment can generate negative strategic effects, namely, the perception that the withdrawing nation lost the 

conflict and departed in disgrace. Poor or improper tactical security 

measures, inadequate employment of counterinsurgency (COIN), 

and a premature drawdown of security personnel can create unforeseen vulnerabilities that lead to increased attacks and a reduction of 

sortie generation. 

Vietnam: The American Experience 

in Southeast Asia

The first case study examines the USAF’s transition of air bases to 

the Republic of Vietnam (RVN) Air Force (RNAF or VNAF) and 

Army of RVN (ARVN) forces in Vietnam. Partnership and trust are 

the bedrock of a successful transition, just as Vietnamization was 

crucial for the transition of US forces in Vietnam. 

Vietnamization

Vietnamization was the policy of the Richard Nixon administration that was developed by defense secretary Melvin Laird to end the 

US involvement in the war. In fact, a cornerstone of Nixon’s presidential campaign was his Vietnam policy. Vietnamization was defined as “the process by which the U.S. assists the Government of 

Vietnam to assume increasing responsibility for all aspects of the 

war and all functions inherent in self-government.”2

 Nixon’s vision of 

Vietnamization was addressed at the Republican National Convention in 1968.3

 Once elected, he was expected to bring an end to US 

involvement in Vietnam through his Vietnamization policy of an organized, systematic withdrawal enabled by a competent and capable 

host-nation force.4

Key to the successful implementation of Vietnamization was the 

transition of security to the host nation. In the case of the USAF, it 

shared six joint-use air bases with the VNAF and ARVN. A 1969 

base defense policy cosigned by US and RVN commanders “called 

for [the] VNAF to publish the minimum training requirements for 
GETTING OUT │ 89

its air police [security forces] and air base defense units. The aim was 

an early turnover of all air base defense to VNAF and a speedup in 

the withdrawal of U.S. forces.”5

 USAF advisory teams decided to expedite training by having security force (SF) teams of one USAF officer and NCO each train VNAF supervisors and instructors, who 

would subsequently train VNAF SF.6

 However, the VNAF did not 

share a sense of urgency in taking over security responsibilities for 

air bases and had to be prodded by USAF leaders to move forward.7

In 1970 the Air Force Directorate of Security Police published the 

“Air Base Defense Supervisors Guide” that finally established how to 

“plan, organize, conduct, and evaluate base defense and security operations.”8

 This guidance helped to offset the lack of a VNAF concept 

of operations in tactics, procedures, and general security operations.9

Despite the increased and concerted efforts to prepare the host nation to assume security and transition the six air bases, USAF leaders 

were not pleased with the results. 

Chronic manpower, equipment, and logistical shortfalls plagued 

the RVN forces. They suffered from a lack of leadership and an inability to make timely staff-level and operational decisions. The inherent factors within the politics of the Vietnamese armed forces crippled 

any effort for unified command, based largely on personal political 

rivalries and a complete distrust between the military and civilian 

politicians.10 US commanders made several observations on the reliability and effectiveness of the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces 

(RVNAF). In one interview, the commander of the 377th Combat 

Support Group (CSG) suggested that the “RVNAF responsible for external defense have not yet attained a reliable capability to detect hostile forces moving against the air base nor can the RVNAF responsible 

for perimeter defense be relied upon. Hence, effective defense of Tan 

Son Nhut necessarily rests with US Forces.”11 Similarly, the commander of the 3 CSG stated that during perimeter checks, American 

forces “repeatedly found [RVNAF] troops sleeping on post.”12

Formal Transition

That said, the USAF continued its training mission, and by 1971, 

the VNAF took formal control over perimeter defense at remaining 

joint-use bases. However, American base commanders still did not 

have faith in the VNAF and continued to play an active role in monitoring and repairing base perimeter fences, controlling vegetation, 
90 │ WELLOCK

and maintaining security lighting systems. Air Force security police 

(SP) operations continued to shrink to those base cantonment areas 

with USAF personnel, resources, and facilities. Based on the concerns from commanders and fast-dwindling SP forces, the emergency temporary deployment of 100 SPs from CONUS to South 

Vietnam was required to meet the VNAF’s perceived air base security shortfalls.13 Air Staff visitors to bases that the Vietnamese had 

taken over found that “because VNAF air base defense groups were 

undermanned, owned too few vehicles, and had paltry maintenance, 

they continued to rely on USAF security police for reaction teams.”14

Lessons Learned

The takeaway lesson from the Vietnam base transition was the 

maintenance of appropriate levels of security. Managing expectations 

of the local or host-nation forces is key. A host-nation force is unlikely to replicate the standard of US forces. In this case specifically, 

the VNAF and RVNAF neither lived up to the expectations of commanders nor met the standards of the SP. 

Iraq: The British Experience in Basra

The British military invaded Iraq along with the US-led coalition 

in 2003. Its main area of responsibility (AOR) was southern Iraq, 

with Basra as its basing point. 

British Peacekeeping Model

After the 2003 Iraq invasion, British troops quickly settled into a 

peacekeeping model they developed in Northern Ireland and Bosnia, 

which contrasted with methods used by their American counterparts. Instead of helmets, they wore regimental berets, and instead of 

driving armored vehicles, they opted for unprotected 4x4 vehicles. 

Many observers in the press, British military leaders, and politicians 

lauded the initial British COIN strategy in southern Iraq as a potential template for the rest of the country. 

To put it simply, the British military commanders did not understand their operational environment and resorted to their more recent experiences and operational templates from Northern Ireland 

and the Balkans. They employed passive peacekeeping principles toward the population instead of a COIN approach that emphasized 
GETTING OUT │ 91

presence and a firm monopoly on the use of force as prerequisites for 

influencing hearts and minds.15 This well-intentioned approach 

proved insufficient, contributed to a downward stability spiral in the 

local area, and led to “looting and lawlessness.”16 As a result, what was 

praised widely as the model for coalition COIN operations quickly 

disintegrated into a military disaster and was viewed as strategic defeat. As Shiite criminal and Mahdi militia groups organized, British 

casualties began to cascade. 

Political Pressure to Withdraw

During 2006–7 as much as 80 percent of recorded attacks in Iraq 

targeted British forces in Basra, causing the British government and 

military command to argue that “withdrawing those forces would reduce the levels of violence.”17 This recommendation conveniently 

sidestepped the political motivation; an October 2006 poll showed 

that 61 percent of British voters wanted British troops out of Iraq by 

the end of that year.18 Political pressure mounted on the British government due to the casualties, causing it to expedite the transfer of 

security control to the Iraqi security forces (ISF) and local police. Additionally, the accelerated withdrawal ceded the region to criminal 

and insurgent elements, and the “rushed process” made the fragile 

Iraqi police force “susceptible to infiltration by various militias.”19

Repercussions

The UK government did not supply enough personnel or resources to enable COIN in the Basra region, undercutting the British 

and coalition efforts to promote long-term infrastructure improvement and economic stability.20 The military attempted to implement 

quick-fix projects to fill the void, but infrastructure and service problems coupled with looting and chaos turned the population against 

the British.21 Over the course of a year, Britain’s presence in Basra 

spiraled down as its forces were withdrawn from six main bases and 

transferred to Basra Air Station. The net effect was to abandon the 

battlespace to the enemy, isolate and barricade the remaining British 

forces at one base, and give the insurgents a consolidated and lucrative mortar and rocket target.22

Mistakes by the military were compounded by political judgments 

in London. The UK government reduced its forces from 46,000 to 

just 9,000 in the span of a few months in 2003, a move that was ill-
92 │ WELLOCK

conceived and poorly timed.23 The military was unable to perform its 

duties or transfer forces to appropriate host-nation institutions, creating capability gaps that other factions such as the Supreme Council 

for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq and the Badr Brigade would fill.24

The most glaring failing of the UK’s first transition was “the inability to establish a legitimate and functioning provincial apparatus 

capable of redistributing resources, imposing respect for the rule of 

law, and ensuring a peaceful transition at the local level.”25 Additionally, the rapid, premature drawdown of British troops—similar to 

the ill-timed removal of too many USAF security forces in Vietnam—caused a security void filled by insurgent factions. That said, 

following the major operation Charge of the Knights, the UK experienced better results in its AOR due to several important adaptions: 

a renewed, heavy focus on advising the ISF; the establishment of 

joint security stations that linked Iraqi police with army, military, and 

police transition teams; and an improved encouragement toward infrastructure development and economic recovery.26 This victory 

proved to be fleeting.

One report by a nongovernmental group that seeks to avert conflict observed that “relentless attacks against British forces in effect 

[have] driven them off the streets [of Basra] and into increasingly secluded compounds” and that “Basra’s residents and militiamen view 

this not as an orderly withdrawal but rather as an ignominious defeat.”27 Britain’s mismanagement of its redeployment and subsequent 

impacts to its remaining air base illustrates the strategic effects failure 

can have, namely, empowerment of insurgents, highly critical and 

negative media attention, and loss of public support. The British newspaper Telegraph highlighted the perceived initial failed withdrawal 

from the operating environment in its article “Iraq: British ‘Abandoned 

Basra to Terror.’ ” In the article, Gen Jack Keane, US Army, retired, said 

that “it was a huge mistake to pull out” while Col Peter Mansoor, US 

Army, retired, stated, “I don’t know that you could see the British withdrawal from Basra in 2007 in any light other than a defeat.”28

Lessons Learned

Much can be learned from the British experience in Basra. First 

and foremost, the chief lesson for US and coalition forces defending 

air bases is to stay engaged in the battlespace to maintain accurate 

intelligence, gain support of the populace, and leverage local authori-
GETTING OUT │ 93

ties for the security of the installation. Basra is a cautionary example 

of how air base defense forces should maintain the initiative, constantly adapt to a changing enemy, and connect the strategic framework to the local redeployment objectives. David Kilcullen’s seminal 

paper “Twenty-Eight Articles of Counterinsurgency” offers wisdom 

for success in COIN operations, and all of the articles apply to the 

defense of air bases. In the 28th point—“Whatever else you do, keep 

the initiative”—he says,

In counterinsurgency, the initiative is everything. If the enemy is reacting to 

you, you control the environment. Provided you mobilize the population, you 

will win. If you are reacting to the enemy—even if you are killing or capturing 

him in large numbers—then he is controlling the environment and you will 

eventually lose. In counterinsurgency, the enemy initiates most attacks, targets you unexpectedly and withdraws too fast for you to react. Do not be 

drawn into purely reactive operations: focus on the population, build your 

own solution, further your game plan and fight the enemy only when he gets 

in the way. This gains and keeps the initiative.29

Ultimately, four factors were identified that prevented the British 

from conducting a successful counterinsurgency: “the armed forces’ 

misinterpretation of their own legacy, the absence of civilian support, 

lack of strategic guidance, and ceding control and initiative to the 

enemy.”30 Initial success can quickly succumb to a poorly thought-out 

force redeployment and a rush to hand over security responsibility to 

a nascent and unproven host-nation force. The British failure to manage the security of their air base and the operational environment 

surrounding it allowed the perception of strategic defeat to sow the 

enemy narrative about the nation’s redeployment. 

Iraq: Joint Base Balad

Strategic guidance was developed, written, and published on 17 

November 2008 in the form of an agreement between the United 

States and the government of Iraq on the withdrawal of US forces 

from Iraq no later than 31 December 2011. Additionally, no later 

than 30 June 2009, the ISF would assume full security responsibility 

in Iraq.31

Monumental Task

Iraq transition planners had a monumental task facing them 

square in the face. United States Forces–Iraq (USF-I) began prepara-
94 │ WELLOCK

tions for the withdrawal in July 2011, and in October 2011, military 

forces began the movement out of Iraq.32 JBB represented the largest 

airfield and logistics hub in-theater. As Operation New Dawn (OND) 

unfolded, leaders attempted to distill some of the lessons from previous conflicts, but there was little written material to base historic assumptions upon.33

The 332d Expeditionary Security Forces Group (ESFG) analyzed 

the Vietnam experience as related to securing air bases and transitioning security to the host nation. In a 2010 briefing on the topic, 

Lt Col Shannon Caudill, USAF, commander of the 532d Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron (a unit under the 332 ESFG) 

stated, “Just as in examples from Vietnam, we still see personality, 

tribal, and religious differences between various entities in Iraq.” He 

noted that the enemy knows the withdrawal timeline and that the 

Iraqi army (IA) “may not be able to provide adequate resources/personnel for effective joint base defense operations.” Additionally, in an 

environment reminiscent of that of the South Vietnamese defense 

forces, Colonel Caudill warned of the Iraqi army’s “potential lack of 

commitment” to air base defense and counter-indirect-fire (C-IDF) 

missions (fig. 2.1).34

The planners at JBB received little guidance regarding the way 

ahead for JBB. In fact, Col Carolyn Patrick, USAF, deputy commander, 332d Expeditionary Mission Support Group (EMSG) and 

JBB base transition officer, stated that the majority of US leadership 

did not believe that JBB would actually transition to the Iraqis.35

Col Gerald P. Szybist, USAF, director of security forces operations at 

the 332 ESFG during the JBB transition, said that the uncertainty 

about departure and closure was one of the biggest challenges they 

faced.36 Ultimately, the 332d relied heavily on several methods and 

products. Colonel Patrick acknowledged that the “USF-I Base Transition Smartbook” presented a sound logistical transfer concept, and 

leadership adopted the recommended teams.37

JBB planners drew on lessons from other base closures but recognized that no base closure doctrinal products existed or were used. 

One leader stated that they simply viewed the transition as an operation and applied the Army’s military decision-making process model 

to the problem (table 2.1). To ensure unity in the planning process, 

Air Force and Army leaders worked closely together and held base 

closure working group meetings often. The frequency increased as 

the transition date grew closer.
GETTING OUT │ 95

Figure 2.1. Joint Base Balad: The Road Ahead. (Lt Col Shannon Caudill, 

USAF, and 2d Lt Ryan Bradley, USAF, briefing, subject: Drawdown Lessons from Vietnam: Integrating Host-Nation Forces into Base Defense, 

532d Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron, Joint Base Balad, Iraq, 

June 2010, slide 12.)

Responding to congressional inquiries, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that “the drawdown from Iraq demonstrated the importance of early planning.”38 Doing so is critical not 

only to sustaining the logistical enterprise but also to maintaining 

adequate force protection and operational security. Developing a 

military deception plan can moderate the risk of personnel and 

equipment casualties during an air base transition. The goal of deception operations is “to deter hostile actions, increase the success of 

friendly defensive actions, or to improve the success of any potential 

friendly offensive action.”39 For instance, to ensure force protection, 

“USF-I considered it unwise to share its closure schedule with the 

Iraqi government until the planned transfer was imminent.”40 A 

RAND study of Operation New Dawn—the withdrawal from Iraq—

found that “the threat of improvised rocket-assisted mortar attacks 

persisted until the end of the operation, forcing USF-I to take more 

aggressive unilateral action to ensure force protection.” Planners recognized that because “extremists remained capable of attacking U.S. 

forces with rocket, mortar, IED, and direct-fire attacks, the opera-
96 │ WELLOCK

tional maneuver involved significant risk” and that the redeployment 

of forces from Iraq “required a comprehensive security plan to minimize casualties.”41 

Table 2.1. Military decision-making process

Key inputs Steps Key outputs

• Higher headquarters’ plan or 

order or a new mission anticipated by the commander

Step 1:

Receipt of Mission

• Commander’s 

initial guidance

•Initial allocation of time

• Commander’s initial 

guidance

• Higher headquarters’ plan 

or order

• Higher headquarters’ 

knowledge and 

intelligence products

• Knowledge products from 

other organizations

• Army design 

methodology products

Step 2:

Mission Analysis

• Problem statement

• Mission statement

•Initial commander’s 

intent

•Initial planning 

guidance

•Initial CCIRsa and EEFIsb

• Updated IPBc and running estimates

• Assumptions

• Evaluation criteria for 

COAsd

• Mission statement

• Initial commander’s intent, 

planning guidance, CCIRs, 

and EEFIs

• Updated IPB and running 

estimates

• Assumptions

• Evaluation criteria for COAs

Step 3:

Course-of-Action 

Development

• COA statements and 

sketches

Ŝ Tentative task organization

Ŝ Broad concept of operations

• Revised planning guidance

• Updated assumptions

• Updated running estimates

• Revised planning guidance

• COA statements and 

sketches

• Updated assumptions

Step 4:

COA Analysis

(War Game)

• Refined COAs

• Potential decision points

• War-game results

•Initial assessment measures

• Updated assumptions

• Updated running estimates

• Refined COAs

• Evaluation criteria

• War-game results

• Updated assumptions

Step 5:

COA Comparison

• Evaluated COAs

• Recommended COAs

• Updated running estimates

• Updated assumptions

Warning Order

Warning Order
GETTING OUT │ 97

Table 2.1 (continued)

Key inputs Steps Key outputs

• Updated running estimates

• Evaluated COAs

• Recommended COAs

• Updated assumptions

Step 6:

COA Approval

• Commander-approved 

COA and any modifications

• Refined commander’s 

intent, CCIRs, and EEFIs

• Updated assumptions

• Commander-approved COA 

and any modifications

• Refined commander’s intent, 

CCIRs, and EEFIs

• Updated assumptions

Step 7:

Orders Production, 

Dissemination, 

and Transition

• Approved operation plan 

or order

• Subordinates understand 

the plan or order

Source: Field Manual 6-0, Commander and Staff Organization and Operations, 5 May 2014, Change 2, 22 

April 2016, 9-3, http://www.milsci.ucsb.edu/sites/secure.lsit.ucsb.edu.mili.d7/files/sitefiles/fm6_0.pdf.

a

commander’s critical information requirement

b

essential element of friendly information

c

intelligence preparation of the battlefield

d

course of action

Threats to JBB

Mortar and rocket attacks presented the largest threat against 

JBB and directly affected American planning, which focused a great 

deal of effort in addressing the enemy threat and redeployment security posture. These attacks also drove military planners toward 

the employment of deception operations.42 While indirect fire (IDF) 

attacks posed a threat to sortie generation, facilities, and personnel, 

they never materialized into a strategic victory for the enemy as 

they were sporadic and harassing in nature (fig. 2.2).43 However, senior leaders understood the strategic impact of losing an aircraft to 

attack during the redeployment and continued to commit resources 

to counter the IDF threat, including USAF security force terraindenial efforts and a counter-rocket, artillery, and mortar (C-RAM) 

system.

In addition to the continual IDF attacks, JBB experienced an increase in perimeter breaches during the redeployment.44 These 

breaches were not coordinated, direct attacks against JBB but local 

Iraqis attempting to steal material that they could use or sell. One 

reason for the increase in breaches and attempts was that the United 

States was leaving. All the Iraqis knew this, and the employment offered at JBB to an estimated 1,150 Iraqis was evaporating as the tranWarning Order
98 │ WELLOCK

sition quickened. Further, a pervasive concern among senior leaders 

was the strategic effects of a successful attack that destroyed aircraft, 

especially those loaded with redeploying personnel.

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 

2010 

2009 

2008 

2007 

2006 

2005 

2004

Number of Attacks

Year

Number of rounds fired per attack

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11+ 

Figure 2.2. Indirect fire attacks (frequency vs. number of rounds per 

attack) against JBB, Iraq. (Reproduced from Joseph A. Milner, Integrated Defense: Lessons Learned from Joint Base Balad, Air Force Research Institute Paper 2012-3 [Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 

2013], 31.)

Security a Transition Priority

Security was the number one priority for the transition of JBB. 

Joint partnership was a crucial component since the US Army 

owned the battlespace exterior to the base and the Air Force owned 

the base perimeter and interior security. Close coordination between the base commander and the battlespace owner (BSO) is 

critical to providing appropriate protection for aircraft using approach and departure corridors and to defending the sortie generation from IDF attacks.45 Both Army and Air Force leadership at JBB 

said that while friction existed initially, they worked well together as 

they built trust and synchronized operations. As OND proceeded, 

the Army BSO—who changed several times leading up to and during the operation—moved from a distant forward operating base to 

collocating next to the Air Force ESFG at JBB with adjacent tactical 

operations centers. Additionally, the BSO commander conducted 

joint operations and synchronization meetings to ensure synergy 
GETTING OUT │ 99

between the organizations. In particular, he held joint patrol synchronization meetings weekly to ensure that all had a common operating picture and that their efforts to continue to project combat 

power into the operational environment remained unified until the 

transfer was complete.46

Another major issue for managing security around the airfield 

was the deconfliction of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) and fire support affecting flying operations (e.g., Rapid 

Aerostat Initial Deployment [RAID] balloons, Scan Eagle remotely 

piloted aircraft, C-RAM fires, M-109 Paladin fires) in the base security zone (BSZ). Both JBB Air Force and Army leaders went to great 

lengths to coordinate these efforts to ensure that proper C-IDF operations were effective and to prevent any fratricide. Further, Air 

Force exterior patrolling focused on IDF threat rings and the 

shoulder-launched-missile threat in the flight corridors. The Air 

Force commitment of resources to exterior security was important 

because it allowed the Army BSO to continue to concentrate on 

COIN efforts with the local population.47

It is clear that the Air Force SF integrated defense of the air base 

was well coordinated and synchronized with its Army counterparts. 

Air Force security forces at JBB “provided the equivalent of more than 

one infantry company’s worth of combat power that [the commander] 

could use to attain specific desired effects outside the wire.”48 Col Joseph Milner, USAF, argues that “the JBB defense model has proven 

that the USAF can ensure its place on the battlefield as a true joint and 

combined partner by defending not only its own air assets and war 

fighters but also those of the joint team.” He adds, “Air Force leaders 

at all levels embraced the [integrated defense] concept and searched 

for ways to support the BSO’s COIN campaign plan because it paid 

dividends to the installation’s defense, ensuring the conduct of air operations in a more secure and stable environment.”49 Col Nathan E. 

Cook II, US Army, commander, 3d Battalion, 82d Field Artillery (FA) 

Regiment (3-82), 1st and 2d Calvary (CAV) Divisions (the Army BSO 

during OND), observed that Air Force SF were well equipped—in 

some cases better than Army units—and proved very capable in the 

execution of their exterior and interior security missions.50

Planners at JBB balanced security considerations with the logistical 

drawdown, prioritizing the systems that would remain and the sequencing of defense capability withdrawal. Since the threat of IDF was 

so prevalent, the C-RAM system was high on the list for remaining 
100 │ WELLOCK

until near the end of JBB US operations. In fact, C-RAM was not removed until seven days before JBB’s closure.51 Next, planners had to 

manage property transfer, contractor drawdown, and essential service 

breakdown and determine how to collapse security and transfer it to 

the host nation. An operational timeline was developed to ensure 

close coordination, planning prioritization, and synchronization 

throughout the withdrawal.52

Overcoming Transition Obstacles

Counteracting internal conflict. Partnerships and relationships 

are key when transitioning operational control of an air base to a 

host nation. The USAF executed the transition with the Iraqi Air 

Force (IAF), the IAF relied on the Iraqi army for security, and the US 

Army was transitioning the battlespace to the IA. The largest friction 

was between the IA and the IAF. The IAF was not well respected, 

resourced, or prepared to assume control of JBB.53 To complicate 

matters, the IA was trained and integrated into the base defense 

while the IAF was not. According to Col Martin L. Rothrock, commander, 65th Air Base Wing (ABW), Lajes Field, “We completely 

excluded the Iraqi army from any planning. We mostly excluded the 

IAF from planning, except to try to get them to commit to receive 

facilities. We saw Iraqi involvement in drawdown as an OPSEC [operations security] issue.”54

Senior Air Force planners decided to isolate the IA on an internal 

compound within JBB given a recent increase in green-on-blue insider attacks in Afghanistan and a loss of confidence in the IA due to 

an incident at the front gate with the IA commander. Several restrictions were placed on IA soldiers during the planning and execution 

of the transition. First, they were not allowed freedom of movement 

on JBB and had to be escorted anytime they left their compound. 

Second, they were not authorized to carry weapons, and, finally, they 

were allowed entry and exit at only one installation entry control 

point.55 These constraints allowed development of an operational deception plan that facilitated the successful withdrawal of all US forces 

from JBB with a mitigated security threat.56 Key leader interviews 

with BSO members responsible for the transition of three large bases 

revealed that they used input from the entire unit to devise their 

deception plans.57
GETTING OUT │ 101

The 332 ESFG conducted joint and coordinated deception operations that proved crucial to a successful transfer of facilities and security responsibilities to the Iraqi government.58 The Army BSO closely 

coordinated with the Air Force ESFG, Air Force mission support 

group, and other Army units handling the passage of line operations to 

Kuwait. As units left JBB for Kuwait, all vehicles were loaded as if they 

were going on a regular patrol. The unit would patrol through local 

IDF hotspots, then continue on to Kuwait. This method kept any potential adversaries guessing the strength of JBB, projected a commitment to external security throughout, and allowed the BSO to maintain operational security in the IDF threat rings around the installation.59

Joint leaders made a point to continue area saturation with as 

many operational units as possible up to the very last opportunity; 

within the final 72 to 96 hours, the remaining units surged exterior 

patrol operations to project an even larger force. Meanwhile, JBB 

leaders continued to engage local leaders with a business-as-usual 

mind-set and gave no indication they were leaving earlier than the 

Iraqis expected. The measure of success is that the Army BSO continued to receive phone calls from local leaders asking for assistance up 

to three and four days following the departure of the last US forces 

from JBB.60 The cumulative effect of this effort was keeping the enemy 

off-balance, maintaining counterinsurgency relationships, and ceding no ground to the enemy during the transition—the central error 

made by the British in Basra. 

Reliance on contractors and local workers. American forces in 

Iraq—air bases in particular—relied heavily on contractor support 

from both the United States and third-country nationals (TCN) (table 

2.2). In fact, according to the Congressional Research Service, in 2008 

contractors comprised approximately 50 percent of the Department of 

Defense (DOD) workforce in Iraq.61 Of the total contractors, 18 percent augmented security at bases and the international zone, safeguarded logistical convoys, or provided security for coalition officials.62

Lessons Learned

The US GAO released a study in September 2011 outlining several theater-level recommendations for achieving an orderly and efficient drawdown of contracted services.63 JBB leadership did not 

receive them in time to implement them into its planning. As essential services shut down and some 4,000–5,000 contractors departed 
102 │ WELLOCK

JBB, Air Force and Army personnel had to assume those support 

functions and duties.64 Additionally, since JBB was the main hub for 

Army personnel transitioning out of the country, services such as the 

dining facilities had to remain open until the last possible moment.

Table 2.2. Contractor personnel and troop level in Iraq, September 

2007–March 2012

US

Nationals

Third

Country 

Nationals

Local 

Nationals

Total

 Contractors Troop Levels

Sept. 2007 26,869 45,422 82,534 154,825 169,000

Dec. 2007 31,325 56,368 75,898 163,591 165,700

Mar. 2008 29,351 57,270 62,757 149,378 160,500

June 2008 26,611 62,650 70,167 159,428 153,300

Sept. 2008 28,045 72,109 63,292 163,446 146,800

Dec. 2008 39,262 70,875 37,913 148,050 148,500

Mar. 2009 36,061 60,244 36,305 132,610 141,300

June 2009 31,541 56,125 32,040 119,706 134,571

Sept. 2009 29,944 53,780 30,007 113,731 130,000

Dec. 2009 27,843 51,990 20,202 100,035 114,300

Mar. 2010 24,719 53,549 17,193 95,461 95,900

Jun. 2010 22,761 46,148 10,712 79,621 88,320

Sept. 2010 20,981 42,457 10,668 74,106 48,410

Dec. 2010 19,943 40,776 10,423 71,142 47,305

Mar. 2011 18,393 36,523 9,337 64,253 45,660

June 2011 18,900 34,974 8,815 62,689 46,010

Sept. 2011 16,054 29,213 7,370 52,637 44,755

Dec. 2011* 11,237 9,445 3,204 23,886 11,445

Mar. 2012* 3,260 5,539 2,168 10,967 -

Source: CENTCOM Quarterly Census Reports and “Boots on the Ground” monthly reports to Congress.

Notes: The DOD did not begin releasing data on contractors in CENTCOM until the second half of 2007. The 

military mission in Iraq ended in December 2011.

*Includes DOD contractors supporting US Mission Iraq and the Office of Security Cooperation–Iraq.

Reproduced from Moshe Schwartz and Jennifer Church, Congressional Research Service (CRS), Department 

of Defense’s Use of Contractors to Support Military Operations: Background, Analysis, and Issues for Congress

(Washington, DC: CRS, 17 May 2013), 25, http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a590715.pdf.
GETTING OUT │ 103

Colonel Patrick authored a case study on the JBB closure and recommended a theaterwide effort of hiring local Iraqi contractors 

temporarily six months prior to the departure date.65 She argued 

that this proposal should have been captured in the “USF-I Base 

Transition Smartbook” to ensure theaterwide unity of effort. Doing 

so would have assisted a smoother transition and better enabled additional population-centric COIN tactics to enhance long-term security and partnership with the local, governmental, and security 

elements of Iraq.66

As the United States drew down, more pressure was placed on the 

Army BSO. As USF-I focused on transition and resources evaporated, the BSO’s bargaining power and influence diminished. For 

example, money and resources for construction projects began to 

decline, and the need for locals to operate the JBB bazaar was significantly reduced because there were fewer American customers 

left to buy goods. These financial opportunities were traditional 

tools of leverage used by the BSO to influence local government and 

tribal behavior. Colonel Cook, the Army BSO during the JBB closure, agrees with Colonel Patrick’s recommendation in that hiring 

local contractors would have offered him leverage up to the completion of the transition and mitigated the need for American forces to 

fill the support services gap.67

Further, doing so would have provided a continued spark for the 

local economy, maintained trust and positive relations with the local 

community leaders, and assisted the IAF with personnel who could 

operate the infrastructure upon the departure of US forces. The GAO 

reinforces this concept in stating that American forces need to “evaluate the risk of having too few qualified contract oversight personnel 

in light of the planned proportional increase in the number of Iraqi 

contractors during the drawdown and take steps to rectify [that situation], if needed.”68

Recommendations for Transfer of Security

Expectation management. Leaders and planners (to the lowest 

level) must manage their expectations for transition to a host-nation 

security force. It may not be as proficient or committed to force protection as are US forces, share the same initiative, or embody a 

Western-style “results based” leadership culture. However, all US personnel must make a concerted effort to understand the host-nation’s 
104 │ WELLOCK

culture and accept its differences. Building and maintaining working 

relationships with host-nation security are within our national interest and strategic guidance. Planners must also manage expectations 

with contractor support. They can use local contractors to execute 

base functions instead of overly relying on US contractors or TCNs. 

As T. E. Lawrence once said, “Do not try to do too much with your 

own hands. Better the Arabs do it tolerably than that you do it perfectly. It is their war, and you are to help them, not to win it for them. 

Actually, also, under the very odd conditions of Arabia, your practical work will not be as good as, perhaps, you think it is.”69

Do not cede ground. The British experience at Basra demonstrates 

tactical missteps such as applying a COIN approach that does not 

adapt to changing circumstances and enemy tactics. While the British 

were initially successful, they employed a flawed COIN strategy that 

collapsed into a singular stand at a walled-off air base. The net effect 

was the ceding of ground to the enemy, the loss of influence and intelligence in the operational environment, and, eventually, the strategic 

perception of defeat during a redeployment of forces. 

The American experience at JBB demonstrates several notable 

techniques that enable redeployment at an air base. Surging base defense patrols, employing all available forces in an external patrol and 

deception plan, and using force protection assets such as M-109 Paladins (if available) and C-RAM until near the end of the redeployment 

proved to be vital, synchronized lines of effort. Additionally, air bases 

should continue flying until the last possible moment to reinforce the 

sense of normalcy to operations and act as a deterrent to attacks 

through shows of force. Such displays of force from aircraft, counterfire from friendly artillery, and patrol saturation in the BSZ are critical to keeping the enemy and criminal elements off-balance.

Doctrine and training. Joint and service doctrine should be developed based on these recent lessons that suggest guidelines for air 

base closure. The “USF-I Base Transition Smartbook” and numerous RAND studies are useful beginning points, but their lessons 

need to be expanded, developed, and distributed. Drawdown and 

transition teams should be identified well before a deployment to 

the contested area, and they should receive standardized guidance.70

Plans personnel on expeditionary wing and battalion combat teams 

need predeployment training to prepare them for planning and executing an installation, air base, or expeditionary base closure. Several key points transcend each of the case studies. Planners did not 
GETTING OUT │ 105

have Air Force or joint doctrine to guide them through the closure 

and transition process. “Smartbooks”—resident knowledge of recent lessons learned and best practices—were the primary method 

guiding the planning and execution process. Going forward, intellectual capital needs to be committed to writing while doctrine and 

training must be codified. Such documentation can help ameliorate 

the historic shortfalls in guidance and literature about the redeployment phase of combat operations.

Unity of effort. Unity of effort among the commanders on the 

ground is essential. The Army or other land-owning unit cannot 

transition security of the battlespace to the host nation in a vacuum. 

The same can be said for the Air Force in its transition of the perimeter and inner ring of security. Commanders must prioritize the synchronization of the transition plan for their respective staffs with an 

emphasis on the shared interest in dominating the IDF threat rings 

surrounding an air base.71 It is imperative for leaders at all levels and 

in all services to understand the strategic implications and constraints 

faced by senior leaders during a drawdown—including budgetary restrictions, force caps, and the political nature of redeployment timelines. These factors impact military deception planning and can affect 

relationships with the host-nation’s forces. In the end, it is critical for 

the remaining and dwindling forces to increase their synchronization, communications, and joint planning efforts to create a unified 

front to the enemy that eliminates unnecessary gaps and seams.

Conclusion

Wars do end, but few contemplate this fact when they start. As 

forces redeploy, air bases and their supporting mobility aircraft play a 

pivotal and strategic role in a successful withdrawal strategy. However, 

the services and academia have not focused much effort on capturing 

this phase of the military operation. Doctrine and other literature 

must be developed to sufficiently document historical case studies, 

lessons learned, and recommendations that address large redeployments of forces and the changing security situation affecting retrograding and closing air bases.72 Failure to do so will leave future leaders 

unprepared for their transition responsibilities and may well contribute to the perception of strategic defeat as casualties mount during a 

force redeployment from a future American or coalition air base.
106 │ WELLOCK

Notes

1. Fishel, “Israel Months from Striking.” 

2. Fox, Air Base Defense, 122.

3. Prentice, “Getting Out,” 82. Nixon stated that “we need far greater and more 

urgent attention to training the South Vietnamese themselves, and equipping them 

with the best of modern weapons. As they are phased in, American troops can and 

should be phased out” (ibid.).

4. For an extensive review of the background and origins of Vietnamization, see 

ibid., as this chapter cannot present the desired in-depth view on the subject. 

5. Fox, Air Base Defense, 122.

6. Ibid., 123.

7. Ibid., 122–23.

8. Ibid., 123.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid., 120.

11. Ibid., 122.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid., 124.

14. Ibid.

15. Ucko, “Lessons from Basra,” 134–35.

16. Ibid., 136.

17. Ibid., 143.

18. Glover, Norton-Taylor, and Wintour, “Iraq.”

19. Ucko, “Lessons from Basra,” 136.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid., 137.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Ibid., 137–38.

25. Ibid., 147.

26. Ibid., 149.

27. Fidler, “British Army Lost Basra.”

28. Harding, “British ‘Abandoned Basra.’ ” 

29. Kilcullen, “Twenty-Eight Articles,” 35.

30. Ucko, “Lessons from Basra,” 134. 

31. Agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of Iraq on 

the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq (also known as the U.S.-Iraq Status 

of Forces Agreement). This agreement gave US planners two important dates regarding the withdrawal of troops and transfer of equipment, bases, etc. Article 24 

“recogniz[es] the performance and increasing capacity of the Iraqi Security Forces . . . 

[and] the assumption of full security responsibility by those Forces” and therefore 

calls for the withdrawal of all US forces “from all Iraqi territory no later than December 31, 2011.” Article 24 also directs all US combat forces “to withdraw from Iraqi 

cities, villages, and localities no later than the time at which Iraqi Security Forces assume full responsibility for security in an Iraqi province, provided that such withdrawal is completed no later than June 30, 2009” (ibid.).
GETTING OUT │ 107

32. Brennan et al., Smooth Transitions?, 3. The report provides a by-the-number 

breakdown of the drawdown. The multiyear effort included many agencies, commands, and locations encompassing seven large bases and logistical hubs: more than 

50 bases were closed. USF-I had to haul 1,800,000 pieces of equipment out of Iraq 

over long distances through Kuwait, Jordan, and Turkey. In 2011 the transition affected 50,000 military members and over 56,000 American civilians stationed in Iraq, 

as well as hundreds working elsewhere in the region and in the United States (ibid.).

33. Jaffe, “War in Iraq.” 

34. Caudill and Bradley, briefing, subject: Drawdown Lessons from Vietnam, 

slide 7.

35. Col Carolyn Patrick (deputy commander, 332 EMSG, and JBB transition

officer), interview and e-mail correspondence with MAJ Michael M. Wellock,

19 January 2015.

36. Col Gerald P. Szybist (director of security forces operations, 332 ESFG, during JBB transition), interview and e-mail correspondence with MAJ Michael M. 

Wellock, 13 November 2014.

37. Patrick, interview. Teams that Colonel Patrick assisted in establishing for the 

purposes of the base transition included the Base Advisory and Assistance Team 

(BAAT), Container Assistance and Assessment Team (CAAT), Material Redistribution Team (MRT), Expeditionary Disposal Remediation Team (EDRT), and the Environmental Response and Cleanup Team (ERCT).

38. GAO, Afghanistan Drawdown Preparations, 2.

39. JP 3-13.4, Military Deception, vi.

40. Brennan et al., Ending the U.S. War in Iraq, 94.

41. Ibid., 132n30, 282.

42. JP 3-13.4, Military Deception. 

43. Milner, Integrated Defense, 32.

44. Cook and Wilson, interviews.

45. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, IV-16–IV-17.

46. Cook, interview.

47. Lt Col Sean P. Tiernan (deputy commander, 332 ESFG, during JBB transition), interview and e-mail correspondence with MAJ Michael M. Wellock, 11–12 

February 2015.

48. Lt Col Eric R. Timmerman (commander, 1st Battalion, 28th Infantry Regiment “Black Lions,” 4th Infantry Brigade Combat Team, the BSO), interview by Lt 

Col Shannon W. Caudill, 17 July 2010.

49. Milner, Integrated Defense, 47.

50. Cook and Wilson, interviews.

51. Tiernan, interview.

52. Ibid.

53. Col Martin L. Rothrock (commander, 65 ABW, Lajes Field, Azores, Portugal), interview and e-mail correspondence with MAJ Michael M. Wellock, 3 November 2014.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.
108 │ WELLOCK

57. Ibid. BSOs executed deception planning and operations to mask the actual 

brigade departure and used several methods to include “fake aerostats launched at 

night with lights indicating continued night operations. Decoy personnel and weapons were used at night in the towers. False dates were disseminated to Iraqi security 

forces, police, and civilian activities. Real events were scheduled for after the actual 

final departure date and supporting planning events conducted with Iraqi agencies” 

(ibid.).

58. Rothrock, interview and e-mail correspondence.

59. Cook and Wilson, interviews. 

60. Ibid.

61. Schwartz and Church, Use of Contractors, 2 (see fig. 1).

62. Dunigan, “Lesson from Iraq War.” 

63. GAO, Iraq Drawdown, 47. GAO recommendations included the following: 

(1) assess the risk of providing all contractors, including their subcontractors, with the information—such as base transition dates—required 

to descope services and demobilize their workforces against the risk of 

contractors’ inability to meet milestones without it and take the appropriate actions based on this assessment; (2) take appropriate measures, 

such as enforcement of guidance laid out in the template to be developed 

by the office of the Senior Contracting Official–Iraq, to ensure robust 

contractor planning associated with demobilization; and (3) engage contractors to ensure that total personnel headcounts accurately reflect all 

personnel, including those working under subcontracts (ibid.). 

64. Col Brent D. Bigger (commander, Mission Support Group, 332 AEW, during 

JBB’s transition), interview and e-mail correspondence with MAJ Michael M. Wellock, 12 February 2015.

65. Patrick, “Military Partnership Lessons Learned,” 16. 

66. Ibid., 18.

67. Cook and Wilson, interviews.

68. GAO, Operation Iraqi Freedom, 36–37.

69. Lawrence, “Twenty-Seven Articles,” art. 15.

70. Rothrock, interview.

71. Ibid.

72. Research on the topic of ending war and air base withdrawal is limited by the 

scant information available. However, information and training resources for opening and operating air bases are abundant. Among existing doctrine, instructions, 

guidance, and lessons learned is JP 3-18, Joint Forcible Entry Operations. It describes 

the “planning, executing, and assessing” of joint military operations to “seize and 

hold lodgments against armed opposition” to conduct one or more operations (i, 

I-1). Much of the available literature on drawdown and transition—such as policy 

documents from the DOD, DOD inspector general, Congress, US GAO, Center for 

Army Lessons Learned, and US Department of the Air Force—offer broad guidance 

and mostly focus on the logistics, resource, and material cost of getting out. As such, 

the Air Force develops drawdown and transition security plans on an impromptu 

basis. For example, USF-I did not publish a transition smartbook until March 2011—

just a few months before all forces were expected to be out of Iraq. Also, the smartbook focused on transition of property—not security—to the Iraqi government.
GETTING OUT │ 109

Historical documentation of the planning and execution of JBB’s transition was 

severely hindered due to several factors. These included the rapid closure of the digital infrastructure and data storage limitations. Colonel Szybist stated, “We had a lot 

of base defense history that was lost, to include all of the supporting documents that 

led to the final 2011 base defense transition plan. I conducted my base defense plan 

out-brief in our CAOC [combined air operations center] (Al Udeid AB, Qatar) from 

memory. We lost a lot of great data. A lot of things are stuck inside the heads of the 

thousands that served there” (Szybist, interview).

PART 2

Iraq and Afghanistan Case Studies

The Base Defense Task Force and Air Force Historical 

Research Agency Research Results

Chapter 3

An Airman Reports

Task Force 455 and the Defense 

of Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan

Erik K. Rundquist 

Raymond J. Fortner

In late summer of 2011, a two-person USAF security forces (SF) 

sniper team assigned to the 455th Expeditionary Security Forces 

Squadron (ESFS) observed a rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) launch 

at an outbound C-130 aircraft. Perched in their overwatch tower and 

armed with M-24s, the Airmen—after reporting the incident—immediately fired two well-aimed shots at the point of origin several 

hundred meters north of Bagram’s perimeter. This action represented 

the initial steps of the 455th Air Expeditionary Wing’s (AEW) effort 

to influence and conduct active base defense operations, ultimately 

ending with an Air Force–led task force (TF) planning and executing 

operations throughout Parwan Province.

On 21 May 2012, Regional Command (RC)–East activated TF 1/455 

at Bagram to integrate all force-protection (FP) activities from the

1st Infantry Division (1ID) and the 455 AEW under a single group/

brigade-level commander. From the wing’s partnership with the US 

Army in the fall of 2011 to the deactivation of the task force nearly two 

years later, the 455 AEW was responsible for the largest outside-thewire combat mission in the history of the USAF.1

 Additionally, this 

event marked the first time in the service’s history of an Airman being 

the responsible battlespace owner (BSO) at the brigade level in a combat zone. This chapter reviews the rationale for creating the task force, 

examines its organization and operational tasks, and considers its effectiveness—with an eye toward future expeditionary environments.

Fundamental Truths of Air Base Defense

In 1921 Italian airpower theorist Giulio Douhet observed that “it 

is easier and more effective to destroy the enemy’s aerial power by 

destroying his nests and eggs on the ground than to hunt his flying 
114 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

birds in the air.”2 While Douhet’s centerpiece for attacking airfields 

was the strategic bomber, modern counterinsurgencies have pitted 

ground-based attackers against defense forces in attempts to degrade 

airfields, destroy parked aircraft, and disrupt air operations. Taking 

Douhet’s position to heart, the USAF’s foundational doctrine, Volume 1, Basic Doctrine, notes that “aircraft are most vulnerable on the 

ground. Thus, force protection is an integral part of airpower employment.”3

 Once this tenet is understood, certain truisms appear. 

First, air base defense [ABD] is inherently an airpower problem and 

central to sortie generation. No air force can project power if it does 

not possess secure platforms (either on land or sea) from which to 

launch and recover. Security is essential to the projection of airpower 

and critical to the freedom of maneuver for air component commanders and planners. Opening and operating airfields are central to 

maintaining and supporting lines of communication during combat 

operations. The ability to secure forward airstrips or main operating 

bases directly supports the combatant commander. While primarily 

occurring on the ground, air base defense is a function that the USAF 

must either control or directly influence.

Second, there is a unique perspective to defending airfields that an 

Airman is often best suited to understand. Airfield security planning 

considerations cover a myriad of topics ranging from aircraft approach and departure profiles and ground taxiing plans to pavement 

analysis, navigational aids, power production, and fuel hydrant systems. Any airfield—whether a seized assault strip in Iraq, a forward 

operating location for unmanned aerial systems in Africa, a major 

command and control (C2) hub in Qatar, or an aerial port of debarkation in the United States—poses strategic considerations for combatant commanders. While understanding the effects of air operations is crucial, recognizing the impact of airfield (or aircraft) loss or 

degradation is arguably just as important. Fifth-generation fighters, 

stealth bombers, and remotely piloted aircraft are unmatched in the 

air. However, these systems lose their asymmetric advantages when 

parked and require specialized enablers such as engineering support, 

logistical resupply, maintenance, and dedicated protection as they lie 

dormant “in the nest.”

On the surface, ceding security operations to US or coalition 

ground combat forces may appear efficient; in fact, history has demonstrated that this practice may expose gaps and seams. Just as Airmen are trained to be “air-minded,” their joint counterparts often 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 115

possess institutional perspectives, cultural biases, and different levels 

of risk tolerance. Given the complex nature of counterinsurgency 

(COIN) operations, it is understandable that other services have 

competing priorities and may not necessarily value securing an air 

base at the expense of another mission. For example, during the Vietnam War, Gen William Westmoreland pulled the US Army battalions 

away from their ABD mission (their original raison d’être for being in 

country) to attack Vietcong sanctuaries. He was more concerned 

about the strategic “deep fight” than the close-in tactical fight to secure allied air bases throughout South Vietnam. Much to the chagrin 

of the Air Force, General Westmoreland sent a directive to his commanders: “I desire that all service units and all forces of whatever 

service . . . [that] find themselves operating without infantry protection . . . will be organized, trained and exercised to perform the defensive and security functions.”4

 In Vietnam, as in Iraq and Afghanistan almost two generations later, Air Force security forces were 

leading and executing missions beyond garrison policing and point 

defense operations. The emphasis remained the same: ensure a secure 

operating environment at expeditionary air bases, where the relative 

safety of the Cold War’s linear battlefield rear area was nonexistent.

Third, owing to the unique Airman’s perspective, air and space 

power should have an active role in air base defense operations. Just as 

air planners exploit the advantage of operating and fighting in the 

third dimension against enemy air and ground forces, commanders 

should leverage these capabilities to ensure that their air bases are appropriately defended. Critical enablers in a COIN environment are 

operational capabilities such as airborne quick reaction forces (QRF); 

tactical mobility to rapidly insert forces throughout the base security 

zone (BSZ); aeromedical evacuation; air and space intelligence; intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR); and dedicated or residual close air support (CAS). When commanders are faced with 

manning and resource constraints, ground and air forces can mutually support each other.

Per JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, “Threats to an 

active airfield may extend far beyond the surface area designated as a 

base boundary. To address these threats, the air component uses the 

planning construct of the base security zone.”5

 Figure 3.1 illustrates 

that addressing threats to air bases and airpower beyond the fence 

line is paramount. Airfields are often located in and around urban 

areas that offer a ready supply of laborers and access to materials, 
116 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

fuel, power, information, and civic leaders. All of these resources are 

crucial to commanders in a COIN environment. Conversely, airfields 

represent a magnet for organized crime and an obviously easy target 

for terrorist and insurgent activity. COIN forces operating within the 

BSZ must balance their actions to ensure smooth operation of the 

airfield while simultaneously denying the effectiveness of insurgents 

in the local area.

In addition to the competing priorities of dedicated ground combat forces, the central argument for Airmen to conduct lightairfield

boundary

division

boundary line

perimeter

XX shoulder-launched surface-to-air 

missile launch footprint

built up area

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Legend

Base Boundary Considerations

Base boundary closely follows installation 

perimeter: Host nation, urban terrain, and 

other factors may constrain size.

Notional base cluster that includes three 

bases: One commander responsible for 

entire cluster.

Boundary negotiated between base and 

area commanders: Base commander owns 

key terrain inside boundary for base 

defense purposes.

Notional base boundary taking shoulderlaunched surface-to-air missile footprint into 

account: Base boundary is beyond perimeter 

of facilities.

Figure 3.1. Base boundary considerations. (Reproduced from JP 3-10, 

Joint Security Operations in Theater, 13 November 2014, IV-3, http://dtic

.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp3_10.pdf.)
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 117

infantry-style operations to secure airfields hinges on the theme of 

air-mindedness. Dr. Dale Hayden provides a broad, operationally 

centered definition in which air-mindedness is “the lens through 

which Airmen perceive warfare and view the battlespace.”6

 In essence, all Airmen possess a unique air-to-ground (and arguably 

ground-to-air) perspective that shapes their way of thinking, fighting, and applying resources. The Royal Air Force’s (RAF) doctrine is 

more specific. Air-mindedness to the RAF is “an approach which 

shapes the conduct of operations and training to maximize the effectiveness of air operations, based on a thorough understanding of 

how air power effects are delivered and results in the natural tailoring of actions to best support it.”7

 These two perspectives are critical 

as they form the basic argument for the establishment of the task 

force at Bagram.

The Defense of Bagram Airfield

Specific roles for security at Bagram changed several times between 2001, when coalition special forces seized the airfield, and 

2012, when TF 1/455 was formally activated. Before the stand-up of 

the task force, the airfield could be best described as a fragmented 

puzzle with a disparate number of organizations owning certain 

parts of force protection without an overall integrator. The USAF 

secured the flight line and adjacent areas, while the US Army provided a garrison military police (MP) element force.8

 Several joint 

and coalition partners secured individual compounds with a patchwork defense force comprising coalition military and contracted 

guards manning perimeter towers. In the truest form, it resembled a 

“defended locale” scheme with each agency ultimately responsible 

for its respective area. The US Army was tasked with battlespace 

ownership surrounding Bagram and throughout Parwan Province. 

The decision to activate an Air Force–led task force evolved over several years and can be seen in distinct operational phases.

Phase 1: Perimeter Defense

In late 2008 the US Army and US Air Force began discussions to 

enhance Bagram’s security. By July 2009 the 455 AEW took its first 

major steps off the flight line with a focus on perimeter defense and 

installation entry control points (ECP).9

 Both of these tasks were extremely compatible with standard ABD activities at other expedi-
118 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

tionary airfields throughout southwest Asia and around the world. 

The foundation for these initial steps had been developed between 

2008 and 2009 when Col Chris Bargery was assigned as the director 

of force protection for United States Air Forces Central Command 

(USAFCENT). During his tenure, Bargery noted that the USAFCENT commander, Lt Gen Gary North, was going to shift the focus 

of the air operation’s main effort from Iraq to Afghanistan—and with 

it, a corresponding heavier emphasis would be placed at both Bagram and Kandahar airfields in Afghanistan. In Bagram’s case, this 

emphasis would move the Air Force’s security operations beyond the 

senior airfield authority (SAA) effort on the flight line and would 

expand the roles to include enhanced C2, a QRF, USAF-led installation entry control points, and some dismounted operations with the 

Army. However, the USAF did not have enough security forces for 

both Bagram and Balad, with the Iraq base being given the priority 

effort at the time.10 Demonstrating the importance of the perimeter 

defense mission, during this phase Bagram troops from multiple services (largely Airmen from the 455 ESFS) successfully defended the 

airfield during a major assault in May 2010.11

Phase 2: The Close Fight

In late 2010 the 455 ESFS commander, Lt Col Craig Allton, negotiated limited maneuver operations outside of the base perimeter to 

500 meters, or approximately small arms range. This change increased 

coordination for the perimeter defense, with the towers and close-in 

forces reporting to the same commander. The effort was initially 

started as a remedy to fill the void as the US Army presence throughout the BSZ was drastically reduced. The focus of these first patrol 

teams (dubbed “Reapers”), according to Allton, was to “strengthen 

the perimeter and perimeter response to make sure it wasn’t like an 

eggshell if cracked.”12 Hazards such as undocumented minefields, unobserved areas from perimeter tower overwatch, and difficult maneuver terrain (both by foot and vehicle) were in abundance. These 

dangerous conditions were highlighted in 2011 when an Airman and 

his military working dog were seriously injured as their off-base perimeter patrol ventured into a mined area. Likewise, in this phase 

Airmen perfected their internal response capabilities in that manpower, tactics, and technology were effectively merged. The USAF 

internal perimeter response teams were arrayed within the base to 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 119

reinforce towers and respond to sensor alarms along Bagram’s entire 

perimeter. The USAF further reinforced the perimeter with a QRF 

to counterattack any perimeter breaches and respond to emergencies. While these tactical tasks appear routine in nature, processes 

were built so that Airmen “knew their beat” and responded to perimeter incidents in a matter of seconds. These quick responses were 

founded largely on technology fused with USAF SF sensor operators and controllers operating at Bagram’s joint defense operations 

center (JDOC).

Phase 3: Expansion 

From July 2011 to February 2012, the USAF continued to expand 

its role, moving further from the base perimeter. This enlarged focus 

was born of necessity as the Army maneuver forces continued their 

withdrawal from the BSZ. Analysis of significant activity in the BSZ 

began to show a rise in reported surface-to-air fire incidents, indirect 

fire (IDF) attacks (primarily 122 mm unguided rockets) against Bagram, and improvised explosive device (IED) attacks targeting supply 

lines leading to Bagram. To the casual observer, the situation seemed 

to demonstrate gaps in patrol coverage from the airfield to approximately 10 miles out. The initial SF patrols focused almost exclusively 

on observation of aircraft approach and departure profiles. However, 

the mission quickly expanded to include countering the emplacement of IEDs along the roadways surrounding Bagram and countertunneling in and around the base perimeter.

The most critical part of 

this phase occurred in August 

2011 when the Army’s lack of 

manpower forced it to essentially discontinue its dedicated 

exterior patrols for Bagram. 

The approach of the new fighting season made it clear to all 

parties that the lack of patrols 

needed to be addressed. Col 

Kevin Cullen, the former 455 

ESFS commander, summed 

up the situation: “In our assessment, the perimeter and 

Covering all approaches. USAF SF troop 

entering part of a karez tunnel system 

outside of Bagram, circa 2011. (Courtesy of CMSgt Cody H. Pemberton, former 455 SFS patrol leader, personal 

photograph.)
120 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

airfield were hard targets, but there were holes in the defense outside 

the wire and gaps in combating the insider threat on base.”13

Col Erik Rundquist, the 455th Expeditionary Mission Support 

Group (EMSG) commander, relayed, “We had been hit repeatedly, to 

include some shots within 70 to 800 meters of the perimeter. In my 

estimate, we had lost the initiative as the Army shifted its focus in 

different areas. The Army element did not appear to synchronize its 

efforts in the BSZ based on air operations nor did there appear to be 

a concerted effort to share information. The Army seemed to be disengaged in what was taking place in the biosphere around Bagram.”14

These gaps manifested themselves during three key events and set the 

stage for the final move to change the defensive scheme.

The first event was the previously discussed RPG attack on an outbound C-130 from just outside the fence. While the insurgent shooter 

was effectively engaged, the attack highlighted the fact that the enemy 

maintained complete freedom of action in and around Bagram airfield. The incident resulted in expanded dialogue between the 455 

ESFS and its Army counterparts to examine activities within three to 

five miles of the installation. In a second event, two 122 mm rockets 

slammed into Bagram airfield and skipped along the parking ramp, 

slightly damaging two MC-12 aircraft and an aircraft maintenance 

hangar. The 455 AEW immediately enhanced FP engineering on the 

flight line, including erecting concrete T-wall revetments throughout 

the aircraft parking ramp. The third event was a rocket attack in September 2011 that, along with the subsequent fire, destroyed most of 

the United Arab Emirates living compound and nearly overwhelmed 

Bagram’s ability to combat the 

flames.15 These incidents, combined with several minor ones, 

provided a compelling case for 

the 455 AEW to confront the 

concept of Airmen operating 

out to five miles from Bagram 

to regain the initiative within 

the BSZ.

A key priority was to obtain 

a clear force-protection picture 

of the BSZ. For instance, in 2011 

the US Army’s 1st Cavalry Division (1CAV) conducted patrols 

A response to IDF activity. “T-Walls” 

emplaced to protect C-130s at 

Bagram. (Reproduced by permission 

from John A. Tirpak, “The Aerial Lifeline,” Air Force Magazine 95, no. 8 

[August 2012], http://www.airforce

mag.com/MagazineArchive/Pages

/2012/August%202012/0812life

line.aspx.)
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 121

in Parwan Province, but few directly supported Bagram’s security. 

In fact, little information was shared between Bagram’s defense 

forces and patrols operating in the BSZ. Moreover, the patrols focused on strategic issues as they attempted to interdict weapons, 

supplies, and insurgents flowing across the border from Pakistan. 

When the 1ID replaced the 1CAV, BSZ patrols were reduced even 

further with combat service support Soldiers replacing combat 

arms (infantry) and combat support (MP) Soldiers.16 The Army had 

simultaneously changed the calculus of friendly forces operating in 

the BSZ—where both the number and capability of Soldiers were 

diminished.

Phase 4: Activation

By early 2012 the 1ID had completed its relief in place with the 

1CAV, and as a result, the commanding general of RC-East (Maj Gen 

William Mayville) directed a meeting with representatives from the 

US Army Garrison Command, Combined Joint Task Force (CJTF-1) 

Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion (DHHB), and the 

455 AEW. During this meeting, each organization identified force capabilities and expertise for leading an integrated defense effort. Just 

as Bagram’s perimeter defense appeared to be a patchwork during 

Phase I, the concentric circles representing multiple layers around 

Bagram followed a similar pattern (fig. 3.2).

By applying Bagram’s situation to a notional airfield threat template, as depicted in figure 3.2, one sees that the 1ID’s DHHB was the 

responsible battlespace owner. It had only a small force (one to two 

maneuver elements) operating throughout Parwan Province, with a 

primary focus of supporting several combat outposts throughout the 

region and performing area security operations. The DHHB’s limited 

COIN focus was mainly directed toward supporting the battalion 

commander’s key leader engagements. The 455 ESFS conducted independent patrols closer to the installation—most of the effort was 

out to five miles from Bagram’s perimeter and linked to protecting air 

operations and counter-IDF activities. The 455 ESFS defended the 

bulk of the perimeter, with soldiers from the Republic of Korea and 

contractors assigned to the 455 ESFS manning significant portions.17

Bagram’s installation entry operations were executed by the 455 ESFS; 

however, since base policies and entry criteria were managed by a 

separate office in the US Army Garrison Command under 1ID, the 
122 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

effort was considered joint. The base QRF contained elements from 

both the 455 ESFS perimeter response teams and the DHHB. While 

Bagram’s MP function fell under the direction of RC-East, its police 

also maintained a small QRF responsibility. At the heart of the installation, the flight line entry control and aircraft security response activities came under the purview of the 455 ESFS, with the JDOC 

comprised of elements from all parties.

455 455 1ID 1ID

1ID 1ID

455

455

455

Aircraft Security/QRF

JDOC

MP Perimeter

ECP

IDF Footprint

COIN/Air Support Operations

Figure 3.2. Bagram’s defensive scheme prior to the stand-up of TF 

1/455. (Developed by Col Erik Rundquist, USAF.)

At the completion of the meeting, the RC-East senior staff felt that 

the lack of a single commander was problematic for Bagram’s defense. 

After quick deliberation and consultation among the 455 AEW and 

RC-East leaders, the 1ID’s DHHB was placed under the operational 

control of the 455 EMSG, and TF 1/455 was created.18 While the task 

force was formally activated on 21 May 2012, a coordinated FP effort 

had been under way for nearly three months under the name Operation Danger Shield. This operation focused on strengthening Bagram’s multiple entry control points and synchronizing FP activities. 

There was an increase in command post exercises, tactical and procedural reviews, and information sharing (to include a USAF SF liaison 

officer placed in the RC-East command center).

The 455 EMSG commander took on the task force responsibilities 

without relinquishing any of his previous roles and responsibilities. In 

addition to the SF squadron, the EMSG was responsible for five other 

squadrons: aerial port, civil engineering, communications, force support, and logistics readiness. These units were focused on keeping one 

of the world’s busiest military airfields operational. Since the EMSG 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 123

commander was now dual-hatted, he leveraged the other five squadrons to support the base defense effort.

With nearly 1,000 military and civilian personnel assigned, the 

455 ESFS was by far the group’s largest squadron. The ESFS was already task organized into sectors and flights, so this aspect remained 

relatively unchanged. The addition of the 1ID’s DHHB gave the task 

force a total of six maneuver formations—five USAF and one Army—

dedicated for use throughout the battlespace. More importantly, the 

DHHB afforded TF 1/455 an organic capability focused on intelligence and significantly enhanced its tactical communications. The 

task force thus had an enhanced flow of information on threats occurring outside Parwan Province that could impact Bagram. Moreover, TF 1/455 gained full access to RC-East logistical support services, received increased support for airborne ISR assets, and got 

greater attention within the Army structure for force-protection projects such as barriers and guard towers.

The 455 EMSG staff increased from five administrative personnel 

to a full brigade staff of almost 50 Airmen and Soldiers focused on 

intelligence, operations, logistics, plans, communications, vehicle 

maintenance, and some engineering capabilities. To ensure mission 

success, the commander added a second deputy, enabling one to focus on the defense functions and the other to cover the mission support areas required to operate and maintain the airfield. Colonel Cullen noted, “Relationships at Bagram were confusing at best. The 

EMSG commander was able to refocus the different squadrons to get 

us a lot of the things we needed.”19

Phase 5: Employment and Evolution

As of this writing, US air base operations continue in Afghanistan; 

therefore, technical data (numbers/locations of forces, weapon configurations, range of operations, capabilities, etc.) are not fully discussed. However, a broad-based narrative on how the task force was 

initially employed should still prove beneficial.20

Command and control. Owing to RC-East’s primary concern on 

the lack of unity of command, the obvious focal point for Bagram’s 

TF 1/455 was the JDOC. The JDOC was comprised of USAF SF controllers, task force soldiers, and contracted specialists. The team, led 

by a battle captain (generally a USAF SF officer, but occasionally a 

senior noncommissioned officer [NCO]) monitored the overall sta-
124 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

tus of the installation and activities within the province. As the processes matured, an Army office was often teamed with a USAF senior 

NCO and vice versa.21 The installation’s counter-rocket, artillery, and 

mortar (C-RAM) notification system alerted Bagram to incoming 

IDF rounds and was capable of basewide or localized warnings of 

impending rocket impact. C-RAM was operated and maintained by a 

civilian contracted force (most former military), which easily blended 

into the task force’s military structure. In addition, the JDOC was the 

central hub of Bagram’s sensor systems. The tactical automated security system (TASS) covered the perimeter to identify incursions onto 

the base and helped alert the perimeter response teams to quickly 

assess and react to local alarms and potential breaches. In addition, 

the TASS camera systems (day, night, and thermal) monitored key 

areas such as entry control points, mass gathering areas, avenues of 

approach to the airfield, the flight line, and others the mission commander deemed important.

Feeding the base defense system was a wide array of information 

sources—including tactical radio base stations, data-link feeds from 

ISR platforms, secure computers, local human networks, and open 

source news channels. This information was correlated with locations on local and regional maps throughout the center. The Army’s 

Command Post of the Future system ensured that brigade commanders throughout RC-East could instantaneously communicate 

and pass along information on standardized maps and graphics. The 

Blue Force Tracker system gave the S-3 patrol master real-time information on team locations plus an ability to text information to 

minimize radio chatter. Liaison officers from various agencies populated the JDOC during specific times or events, to include an on-call 

joint terminal attack controller to effectively integrate CAS and 

other air activities. Intelligence staff, future and current operations 

staff, translators, MPs, and occasionally leadership from the 455 

AEW’s crisis action team or joint emergency operations center 

(JEOC) would report to the JDOC based on the nature of the emergency or complexity of the tactical task.22

The 455 ESFS had subordinate sector command posts that were 

led by a SF officer and senior NCO, allowing for specialization and a 

full understanding of their respective areas. Sectors were roughly 

aligned to the pedestrian entry control area, vehicle entry operations 

area, built-up western portion of the base, and larger but more 

sparsely populated area in the eastern expanse. A sector dedicated to 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 125

the interior portions of the base focused on the flight line. Despite the 

attempt to decentralize operations, daily security operations involving nearly 400 posted base defenders ensured that the JDOC was a 

constant beehive of activity.

Air and ground interface. Securing an expeditionary airfield with 

over 30,000 inhabitants in an active insurgency presented obvious 

challenges. The sheer volume of air traffic (with long periods where 

an aircraft was either launched or recovered every 90 seconds)—

making Bagram one of the busiest airfields in the world—only compounded the task force’s situation.23 Planning with the 455th Expeditionary Operations Group (455 EOG), in particular the 455th 

Expeditionary Operations Support Squadron (EOSS), initially centered on two major areas. The first was how TF 1/455 could better 

secure the airfield—including aircraft operating in the pattern—and 

the second was how leveraging airpower could support the ground 

defense force operating throughout the BSZ.24

In fall 2011, three of the 455 EMSG squadrons (security forces, 

aerial port, and communications) and the 455 EOSS began to construct an “air estimate of the situation.”25 The effort initially focused 

on gathering information on insurgent ground-to-air weapons capabilities. However, the most important parts of building the estimate 

were to fully understand the types of aircraft operating in and around 

Bagram and to educate the SF mission planners on the approach, departure, and local air traffic pattern templates to prioritize combat 

patrols. The 455 EOSS gathered operators from all of Bagram’s airframes to verify aircraft vulnerabilities and determine the time and 

distance from takeoff where these aircraft were especially susceptible 

to ground fire. The aerial port representatives presented daily air 

tasking orders (ATO) for the heavier transient aircraft, giving special 

emphasis to passenger aircraft, which if shot down would represent a 

strategic event. Once the picture of the air traffic patterns and their 

vulnerabilities was defined, the communications squadron planners 

identified dead spots in the BSZ, determined maximum ranges for SF 

patrols, and engineered solutions to boost their operational ranges 

where possible. With all of these inputs, the 455 ESFS determined 

patrol times, locations, and a variety of activities involving overt occupation or covert observation.

Just as the BSZ patrols supported air operations from the ground, 

there was an obvious role for the defense force to have access to air 

assets. The 455 EMSG worked closely with the 455 EOG to establish 
126 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

an “operations box” where the SF organic RQ-11 Raven small, unmanned aerial system was able to operate. However, this capability 

was more tactical in nature and confined to only a certain section of 

the BSZ with limited loiter and observation capabilities. The most 

important organic ISR capability was Aerosonde’s ScanEagle. Operated by contractors at the JDOC, it had greater range and speed, longer loitering time, and better optics than the RQ-11. Moreover, it 

was able to transmit real-time data to both the JDOC staff and SF 

combat patrols operating in the area. Other ISR mechanisms such as 

the large, tethered aerostat-based Persistent Threat Detection System and the smaller, tactically mobile Rapid Elevated Aerostat Platform (REAP) gave JDOC leaders a continuous bird’s-eye view of 

large portions of the BSZ. Establishing these systems on an airfield 

as busy as Bagram took tremendous levels of coordination; the importance of the relationship between the 455 EOSS and the task 

force cannot be overstated.

Dedicated airborne ISR for TF 1/455. (Left) REAP airship and (right) ScanEagle. 

(Courtesy of Lt Col Matt Pignataro, former 455 SFS operations officer, personal photographs.)

Outside of the readily available ISR, Bagram’s aircraft also supported TF 1/455 through other means. The US Army maintained Bell 

OH-58 Kiowa armed reconnaissance helicopters at Bagram that 

quickly launched and established direct communications with BSZ 

security patrols. In 2012 Bagram’s fixed-wing fighter aircraft (F-16, 

F-15E, and A-10) returning to Bagram offered base defense forces a 

“residual base defense capability” where these aircraft operating in 

the traffic pattern would make contact with SF patrols.26 Bagram’s assigned MC-12 Liberty ISR aircraft proved itself to be a superior platform that regularly relayed communications between the Reaper pa-
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 127

trols and the JDOC.27 In addition, opportune “aerial force protection” 

support such as B-1B Lancers transiting at higher altitudes regularly 

contacted the SF patrols.28 Finally, the task force planned and coordinated support from the US Army UH-60 Blackhawk squadrons and 

conducted several missions where rotary-wing assets inserted USAF 

SF patrols throughout the province.

Area security operations. As noted earlier, TF 1/455’s main emphasis in the BSZ was to control and influence key terrain in direct 

support of air operations. A secondary mission was to analyze the 

points of origin of improvised rocket attacks and begin to observe and 

deny this terrain to insurgent activity. To set the conditions for these 

two active defense missions, the 455 ESFS initially tasked one Reaper 

team to start reconnoitering the area and confirm routes where the 

heavier Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles could 

safely operate. More importantly, it was tasked with mapping the “human terrain” and gauging the climate of the BSZ. This team (Reaper-1) 

paid particular attention to key/street leader engagements. The results 

were surprising—despite Bagram’s massive population and the hundreds of logistical convoys transiting through Parwan, the SF determined that several of these smaller village leaders had not spoken 

directly to a coalition member in years. Reaper-1 engagements matured into a synchronized effort with the US Army’s Civil Affairs 

branch, to which the TF 1/455 commander leveraged considerable 

support from RC-East. The task force generated contract projects, 

prioritized trash removal, and executed simple road repair. It also employed a SF female engagement team (FET) (led by then-captain Melissa Hull and CMSgt Jennifer Kersey) to increase trust from and access to more of the population within Bagram’s biosphere.29 More 

traditional “soft power” focus areas included clothing, firewood, and 

toy distribution and tactical care when medics accompanied patrols. 

In addition, “venting sessions” were employed in which senior village 

leaders could talk to SF leaders to voice concerns with coalition (and 

ultimately Afghan) leaders. As the teams became acclimated to the 

BSZ, the number of key leader engagements (shuras) increased, as did 

the patrol coverage. On several occasions, USAF patrols received 

phone calls from village leaders alerting them to the presence of outsiders who had dropped off weapons or supplies in their respective 

villages. This information netted captured supplies and demonstrated 

the trusting relationship with the SF patrols operating within the 

BSZ.30 The increased inclusion of Afghan National Security Forces 
128 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

(police and army) ensured that an Afghan “face” was at the forefront 

of dealing with the local populace. Such collaboration was especially 

important during law-enforcement-type missions. These included assisting locals involved in vehicle accidents and employing tactical operations like snap traffic control points, where TF 1/455 randomly 

controlled civilian vehicle movement around Bagram.

Base security operations. Despite the complex nature of the area 

security mission, TF 1/455 committed the bulk of its manpower and 

effort to Bagram’s perimeter defense and close-in protection. Installation entry control operations consisted of a combined team of Afghan security, third-country contracted members, and USAF security forces searching and screening up to 5,000 local workers daily. 

Some ECPs were primarily dedicated to admitting local national day 

laborers and others to specific needs, such as hospital patients, coalition forces, or vehicle deliveries. In fact, hundreds of trucks were 

searched every day using a combination of military working dogs, 

physical checks, and advanced scanning technologies targeting all 

sorts of contraband. A similar process was used for outbound vehicles 

to combat criminal activity such as theft or intelligence gathering.

All of the installation ECPs were heavily defended with armed 

overwatch positions. Manned towers covered the urbanized areas to 

the south and west and the rural areas surrounding Bagram to the 

north and east. Bagram’s perimeter TASS alarm sensors were reinforced by mobile response teams that immediately reacted to the 

alarms to assess the situation; in turn, the teams were backed up by 

sector QRFs if needed. One of the biggest challenges for the perimeter towers involved responding to the constant harassment and criminal activity of the local population. The 455 ESFS commander had 

negotiated with local leaders for a clear zone around the perimeter

to ensure the safety of all involved. Everything from grazing animals 

that damaged fiber-optic cables to local criminals who approached 

the perimeter unobserved to steal metal or sensor components (like 

solar panels) demanded constant vigilance from the SF Airmen. 

While all the towers were armed with standard light and heavy automatic weapons, the defense force also possessed a wide variety of 

nonlethal options, including sting-ball grenades, acoustic devices, 

optic laser dazzlers, and several types of projectiles launched from 

shotguns to enforce the clear zone.31

To highlight the complexity of base security operations, in February 2012, a strategic event occurred with the inadvertent burning 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 129

of Qurans at the theater internment facility. The result was a massive protest in excess of 2,000 Afghan nationals who, over a threeday period, severely damaged the pedestrian ECP infrastructure 

and wounded several members of the 455 ESFS. However, the defenders—with known insurgents present—held the mob at bay, leveraged relations with senior leaders to calm the situation (gained 

through Reaper teams operating within the BSZ), and ultimately 

enabled air operations to continue. It must be noted that in this 

case, installation security was the main effort. Area security operations were temporarily halted until the situation was deemed more 

favorable for patrol operations.

In the confines of Bagram’s perimeter, countering the insider 

threat was a critical concern for the 455 AEW commander. First, the 

455 ESFS teamed with organizations across the installation to form 

Task Force Colonist. It included force-protection-focused agencies 

like the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, MPs, and US Army 

Criminal Investigations Division. More importantly, the bulk of support was from off-duty military volunteers who had a clear interest 

in maintaining a secure environment and wanted to actively support 

the base’s defense. The task force performed no-notice inspections 

throughout the housing areas of third-country nationals who permanently lived on Bagram. TF Colonist raids seized contraband 

items such as cameras, computers, weapons, and others stipulated

by installation policies.32

Another aspect of combating insider threats centered on combat 

readiness training for the 455 AEW’s personnel. The 455 ESFS and 

antiterrorism staff held unit exercises and battle drills to respond to 

large-scale ground assaults, single active shooters, and IDF attacks. 

Of note, the 455 ESFS led live weapons training for all Airmen that 

covered a variety of scenarios: shooting with combat equipment, 

night firing, executing immediate/emergency action drills, and firing 

from seated positions (to simulate an attack in an office or dining facility). Overall, this training was well received by the Airmen and 

increased competency and confidence within the wing.

The final part of installation security operations was protecting key 

resources. The defense force manned ECPs leading to the aircraft 

parking areas. Security forces conducted flight-line mobile patrols and 

responded to security incidents, established cordons during ground 

emergencies, or controlled ground movements during aeromedical 

evacuations in support of the Bagram theater hospital. The 455 ESFS 
130 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

also provided specially trained and task-organized Airmen who focused solely on aircraft security operations away from Bagram. As the 

455 AEW’s C-130 Hercules accomplished intratheater airlift, armed 

SF often accompanied the transport aircraft and provided close-in security at austere airfields or airborne flight-deck denial missions if detainees were on board. These flyaway security teams were tactically 

controlled by the aircraft commander and considered part of the aircrew in performance of their duties. Just like their Air Force counterparts, TF 1/455 Soldiers manned entry points leading into key headquarters and living facilities. The Army MPs assigned to the task force 

handled law and order operations, including traffic management, 

criminal investigations, emergency response, and postattack reconnaissance in coordination with the JDOC. They also maintained a 

small confinement facility for unruly coalition members.

The end game: what’s in a name? Once TF 1/455 was operational, 

the first step in the evolution occurred when the 455 AEW removed 

the 455 ESFS from the EMSG and activated the 455th Expeditionary 

Security Forces Group and the 755 ESFS. This group, with its two 

squadrons, formed the structure of the task force. The 455 ESFS was 

responsible for base security operations (interior security, entry control, perimeter) and out to one kilometer from the perimeter. The 

755 ESFS was responsible for all activities outside of one kilometer 

throughout the BSZ. Owing to the changeover with a new RC-East 

supporting division, the group was redesignated as TF 455. By June 

2013, the task force was operating at full USAF capacity and was notified that Army Field Artillery Regiment 3-82 would support the 

base defense mission to provide additional combat power for the remainder of the fighting season. After much discussion on the command relationship, the 455 ESFG eventually received tactical control 

of the Army maneuver unit, leading to another name change—Joint 

Task Force (JTF) 455.

The final phase of the evolution was twofold. First, JTF 455’s name 

changed again to CJTF-455 as a result of an infusion of coalition 

forces. As noted earlier, the base defense force already partnered with 

a detachment of Republic of Korea soldiers securing one of Bagram’s 

internal sectors. The international presence became more pronounced with the addition of soldiers from the Kingdom of Jordan 

and the Czech Republic. The Jordanians augmented 455 ESFS base 

security operations. The Czechs augmented the CJTF staff and expanded their mission by dedicating another maneuver element (now 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 131

a total of seven teams) to the BSZ. The Czech forces performed so 

well that, once the order was given to inactivate the task force, they 

replaced the 755 ESFS.

The second change was the unit designator. As the ESFG comprised 11 different specialties, the 455 ESFG represented much more 

than just a SF capability. As such, the ESFG sought, and on 27 September 2013 received, an organizational change request redesignating the 455 ESFG as the 455th Expeditionary Base Defense Group 

(EBDG) and the 455 ESFS as the 455th Expeditionary Base Defense 

Squadron (EBDS). The new names linked the 455th’s mission to the 

820 BDG and the chief of staff of the Air Force’s 2009 “Base Defense 

Group Enabling Concept.”33

Fourteen months after its official activation, CJTF-455 was deactivated on 1 January 2014 and passed BSO responsibilities to the 3-82d 

Field Artillery Regiment. At the time of inactivation, the 455 EBDG 

had approximately 680 Airmen. They combined with US Soldiers, 

civilians, and contractors as well as soldiers from the Kingdom of 

Jordan, Republic of Korea, and Czech Republic to form a 1,700-

person-strong CJTF. The 455 EBDG subsequently inactivated three 

weeks later on 23 January 2014. Following the dissolution of the task 

force, the 455 AEW turned its base defense and FP focus to the airfield, Air Force lodgment areas, and operational support facilities. In 

addition, the USAF temporarily retained responsibility of Bagram’s 

installation ECPs as RC-East believed that the Airmen did a superior 

job and were better suited to the task. This situation continued for a 

few months until deployed Airmen were redeployed back to their 

home stations. The installation entry control task was then passed on 

to the US Army.

The Air Force–led task force was considered to be a success, appeared to accomplish its primary mission to secure Bagram Airfield 

and the surrounding areas, and was sustainable for the SF community. However, the political objectives had changed regarding the 

overall mission and role of US forces in Afghanistan. In his State of 

the Union address on 12 February 2013, President Obama announced his intention to withdraw 34,000 troops from Afghanistan 

by February 2014.34 This reduction required US forces to decrease 

their strength by half. One of the first cutbacks at Bagram included 

USAF mission support personnel—with the bulk of these coming 

from the base defense force.
132 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

Final Observations

One of the frustrating components of operating in a COIN environment is the considerable amount of time required (strategic patience) to generate positive movement and set the conditions that 

favor COIN forces. From the body counts of the Vietnam War, to 

“clear and hold” operations in Iraq, to the number of Afghan police 

forces trained, statistics do not always tell the full story of the situation on the ground. Metrics and measures of merit in a COIN campaign are often highly elusive, and those of security and base defense 

often mirror the same challenges; Bagram was no exception. Commanders are forced to ask themselves this question: the base was not 

attacked last night—is it something I did (or did not) accomplish or 

something the enemy did (or did not) attempt? Of course, the base 

being attacked might not be a negative indicator when one examines 

how the defense force responded and whether the insurgents attacked 

out of frustration as the BSZ became more uncomfortable for them to 

freely move in. The final observations on an Air Force–led JTF that 

lasted just 14 months can be examined from multiple perspectives. 

Did the task force hold fast to the proposed fundamental truths of 

defending air bases? More importantly, was the task force combat effective, and if so, what were the results of its actions? Finally, did TF 

actions prove relevant, with the potential to have a lasting impact on 

the Air Force and future operations? 

Examining the Fundamental Truths 

At the beginning of this chapter, the authors proposed three fundamental truths concerning ABD operations. To what extent did the 

task force’s actions reflect these principles? Recall that TF 1/455’s primary reason for patrolling outside Bagram’s perimeter was to protect 

the airfield and the aircraft approach and departure threat envelope. 

The damage to two MC-12 aircraft and a maintenance hangar forced 

the hand of 455 AEW’s leadership to scrutinize incidents in the BSZ 

due to their direct bearing on air operations. In other words, because 

the 455th’s mission was affected, the Air Force should have had a vote 

in what was going on inside and outside of the installation’s perimeter. With the 455 AEW comprising only about 10 percent of the base’s 

total population, defending Bagram was more than just an airpower 

problem. Bagram was home to multiple headquarters, C2 facilities, 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 133

hospitals, logistical staging areas, special operations compounds, and 

Afghan military activities (to name a few). However, by not defending Bagram properly, the 455 AEW’s mission had potentially the most

to lose—with critical infrastructure, delicate communications nodes, 

fragile aircraft, and stretched logistical supply lines supporting air 

operations, all in an inhospitable environment.

Additionally, the task force executed operations with an airminded perspective and was able to leverage airpower to play a more 

active role in the defense of Bagram Airfield. The unique mind-set of 

the task force helped shape patrol priorities, determine snap traffic 

control point locations, and accelerate defense project timelines. Just 

as USAF flight operations are based on an ATO, TF 1/455’s patrols 

operated from a ground tasking order. Some SF missions focused 

entirely on countering surface-to-air firing locations, while others 

attempted to control or influence historical points of origin for IDF 

attacks against Bagram. Operations from airborne residual base defense support to aerostat deployment on a busy airfield demonstrated that air operations and the base defense missions were inextricably linked.

Combat Effectiveness 

Mark Twain wrote, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, 

and statistics.”35 In the case of determining the effectiveness of TF 

1/455, statistics prove useful. The first potential measures of merit for 

TF 1/455 are the number and locations of IDFs against Bagram. As 

stated earlier, one of the major reasons for the stand-up of the task 

force was to regain initiative in the BSZ—with the intent to create a 

more difficult environment for the insurgents to attack Bagram. Data 

shows a marked reduction of IDF activity against Bagram as the task 

force conducted its campaign.36 Impeding the enemy’s freedom of 

movement in the BSZ reduced the number of IDF attacks and lowered the number of rounds fired per attack. The Reaper patrols operated overtly as a deterrent for would-be insurgents, forcing the enemy to launch attacks against Bagram from greater distances. This 

increased range affected the accuracy of the rounds and, more importantly, added flight time for the improvised rocket (and in some 

cases, increased the apogee of a normally flat rocket trajectory). The 

longer flight time had a corresponding positive effect on the C-RAM’s 

ability to track and warn Bagram’s inhabitants of an impending im-
134 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

pact. Finally, SF patrols operating in the area facilitated not only 

quicker assessment of the attacker’s points of origin but also exploitation of accumulated data/evidence.

Another measure of effectiveness is to compare enemy activity at 

Bagram with that at other coalition airfields or to examine the status 

of Bagram after the task force was deactivated. As forward operating 

bases collapsed and consolidated their activities at Bagram, the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization’s largest base became an even more lucrative target. However, the sheer numbers applied to protecting Bagram during the existence of TF 1/455 outpaced those for all other 

military installations. A poignant reminder of the serious threats to 

coalition airfields during this time manifested itself at Camp Bastion, 

Afghanistan. In September 2012, an attack resulted in the destruction 

of six USMC AV-8B Harriers and the killing and wounding of several 

US members. Further, 10 months after the task force’s deactivation, 

Bagram suffered two personnel killed by a rocket attack in November 

2014—demonstrating that the threat was present during the operational life of TF 1/455 and continued well after it concluded.37 The 

most compelling evidence of success is the relative quiet during the 

task force period, with a reduction of significant enemy activity and 

the absence of insider attacks at Bagram—despite spikes in these areas 

elsewhere in the region. It is possible that the active posture and resources committed by TF 1/455 dissuaded insurgent attacks and encouraged the attackers to go elsewhere. It is also just as likely that the 

task force’s area security patrols forced local insurgents to remain inactive or change their tactics.

Implications for the Future

The final set of observations relates to the future of the USAF. At 

the time of this writing, concepts like the Joint Concept for Access 

and Maneuver in the Global Commons—formerly known as AirSea 

Battle—and the supporting dispersal concept of “Rapid Raptor” are 

being developed to change how the United States deploys and presents its operational combat forces. Both frameworks require the 

USAF to use diverse security tools in some situations, and many assumptions in the security arena remain largely unchanged. The USAF 

has become accustomed to operating close to enemy insurgents. Neither of these emerging concepts will change these risk factors. In all 

likelihood, plans to disperse aircraft to areas where they do not typi-
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 135

cally operate from will require more, not less, defense capability in 

ways beyond simply posting an Airman on a fence line. Thus, the Air 

Force will require forces that are better trained and equipped, have a 

higher degree of flexibility, and are more capable of approaching 

challenges creatively.

The USAF has learned some categorical lessons through this process. Because security is an inherent function of airpower, the USAF 

can and should institutionalize the mission of operating and owning 

battlespace in the ABD environment. The threat to air bases will 

continue to exist and to evolve in new and dangerous ways. Therefore, to fly, fight, and win, the USAF must ensure that bases are properly defended.

The lesson from Bagram is clear: all Airmen (not just security forces) 

must understand that with the abrogation of Joint Service Agreement 

8, the Army cannot always provide air base ground defense, nor is it 

obligated to do so.38 However, someone will always influence the BSZ; 

the question is whether it will be the USAF or the enemy.

Notes

1. The phrase “outside the wire” is not doctrinally based; however, it commonly 

refers to a delineation denoting operations inside or outside the confines of a defended or undefended/administrative perimeter of an installation. The combat and 

combat support tasks regarding base defense fall under “area security operations” as 

highlighted in JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, III-14.

2. Douhet, Command of the Air, 53–54.

3. LeMay Center, Volume 1, Basic Doctrine, 57.

4. Fox, Air Base Defense, 27–28.

5. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, III-18.

6. Hayden, “Air-Mindedness,” 44.

7. RAF, Air Pamphlet 3241, RAF Force Protection Doctrine, LEX-1.

8. The USAF often deployed Airmen to fulfill the role of the MPs under the guise 

of “in lieu of ” or “joint expeditionary task” forces.

9. Christensen, “Lessons Learned,” 9.

10. Col Chris Bargery (commander, Air Force Security Forces Center, Lackland 

AFB, TX), interview by Col Erik Rundquist, 15 January 2016.

11. Levine and Hancocks, “Nearly a Dozen Militants Dead.” 

12. Christensen, “Battle Space Ownership Lessons,” 9.

13. Cullen to Fortner, e-mails.

14. Col Erik Rundquist (chief of security forces, Air Combat Command, Langley 

AFB, VA), interview by Maj Raymond Fortner, 14 January 2015.

15. Ibid.

16. Christensen, “Battle Space Ownership Lessons,” 4.
136 │ RUNDQUIST & FORTNER

17. The Republic of Korea (ROK) was the lead sponsor for a hospital on the western side of Bagram, as well as a stand-alone facility in Charikar, Afghanistan. As 

such, the Koreans integrated a highly trained and extremely competent special operations force into Bravo Sector’s command post and took on the responsibility for 

manning several western towers. As TF 1/455 was activated and increased its focus 

throughout Parwan province, US and ROK patrols regularly linked up and coordinated activities and shared threat information.

18. The nomenclature of TF 1/455 emphasized the joint partnership of the 1ID 

and the 455th Air Expeditionary Wing. It is not to be confused with “1st Brigade/455,” 

as Colonel Rundquist often witnessed in joint meetings.

19. Cullen to Fortner, e-mails.

20. Personal observations by Colonel Rundquist, TF 1/455 commander, July 

2011–June 2012.

21. SMSgt Ken Broughman (former 455 ESFS patrol member, Bagram Airfield, 

Afghanistan), interview by Col Erik Rundquist, 3 March 2016.

22. The JEOC played a critical role in activities that ensured base operations and 

a coequal role in air base defense operations. The JEOC coordinated fire response, 

directed postattack assessments, ensured personnel accountability, and prioritized 

resources for longer duration emergencies, as evidenced during the 2012 Bagram 

riots, aircraft crashes, and major fuel spills.

23. Lt Col Dan Lemon (former commander, 455th Expeditionary Aerial Port 

Squadron, Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan), interview by Col Erik Rundquist, 

3 March 2016.

24. The 455 EOSS possessed capabilities such as intelligence, air traffic control, 

and airfield management, which proved essential in providing TF 1/455 an aircentric approach to defending Bagram Airfield.

25. Colonel Rundquist coined this term to designate a tilt toward airpower as 

an adaptation from the term “estimate of the situation,” wherein a commander considers all circumstances to arrive at a course of action to accomplish a mission/task.

26. While residual base defense is a concept perfected during Operation Iraqi 

Freedom in the defense of Joint Base Balad, it was not the first time USAF aircraft 

were employed to defend their own airfields. For instance, in April 1967, AC-47 gunships “began flying nightly airborne alerts at in the Bien Hoa-Ton Nhut areas.” 

Berger, Air Force in Southeast Asia, 263.

27. Broughman, interview.

28. During a rare daytime IDF attack against Bagram in 2012, Colonel Rundquist 

witnessed a coordinated FP support mission to an SF patrol (Reaper 1) involving two 

OH-58Ds, two F-15Es, and a ScanEagle ISR platform.

29. FETs were used by joint forces (USMC and USA) in Iraq. SF Airmen operating throughout Iraq in 2004–5 observed this activity as they indirectly supported 

FET operations. The 455 ESFS FET members were task organized and trained to 

operate outside the wire at Bagram. The FET enabled the defense force access to a 

large portion of the population that otherwise remained in the shadows from standard SF Reaper team activities. FET teams gained information about and better understood the priorities of the local population. The result allowed TF 1/455 planners 

to prioritize soft-power projects (i.e., medical support, school, family activities) 
AN AIRMAN REPORTS │ 137

within the BSZ. CMSgt Jennifer Kersey (former 455 ESFS security forces manager), 

interview by Colonel Rundquist, 16 March 2016.

30. Broughman, interview.

31. USAF SF core capabilities for security operations and law enforcement 

gave commanders a highly flexible, light-infantry-like capability in conducting 

static and mobile defense. Security forces were fully trained on escalation of force, 

use of nonlethal weapons, etc., often associated with MPs.

32. Additional items usually seized included alcohol, pornography, and stolen 

items. At the completion of the raids, the appropriate agencies would take charge of 

their specific specialties (e.g., counterintelligence or criminal).

33. Department of the Air Force, Expeditionary Airbase Defense.

34. White House, “State of the Union Address.” 

35. Twain, Chapters from My Autobiography, chap. 23.

36. Since at the time of this writing, data indicating points of origin and points of 

impact were classified, and operations in Afghanistan are ongoing, Colonel 

Rundquist’s comments are based on personal observations.

37. Fitzgerald, “Rocket Attack.” 

38. Jumper and Schoomaker, memorandum for record.

Chapter 4

Outside the Wire

Recollections of Operation Desert Safeside and TF 1041

Walter E. Buchanan III 

Bradley D. Spacy

Chris Bargery 

Glen E. Christensen 

Armand “Beaux” Lyons

In the early morning hours of Jan. 1, 2005, the first combat 

patrols of Operation Desert Safeside left the northern perimeter 

of Balad Air Base, Iraq, and began an aggressive 60-day combat 

operation to kill or capture insurgents attacking the air base.

This was a historic mission for Air Force security forces. It 

was bold, put Airmen at risk, and the stakes were high. We 

knew the results of Operation Desert Safeside would have farreaching implications on the future of Air Force security forces 

as a credible ground combat force.

 —Col Bradley D. Spacy, 5 September 2006

In 2004, shortly after the Iraq War began, USAF and Army leaders 

terminated Joint Service Agreement (JSA) 8 assigning the exterior security of an air base to the US Army. The tremendous manning stress of 

counterinsurgency campaigns in two conflicts—Iraq and Afghanistan—proved this long-standing agreement to be hollow. It was clear 

that the Air Force would have to take on a larger role in the defense of 

its own air bases. Lt Gen Walter E. Buchanan III, US Central Command’s (USCENTCOM) coalition forces air component commander, 

“lobbied for and received permission to organize, train and equip the 

USAF’s first ever offensive ground combat Task Force,” designed to conduct a 60-day operation focused on reducing standoff attacks against 

Logistics Support Area (LSA) Anaconda—the Army’s logistics base 

near Balad, Iraq, and location of the USAF’s busiest airfield.1

 Known as 

Task Force (TF) 1041, the unit quickly established its capability: “In just 

60 days [it] captured 17 high value targets, eight major weapons caches, 
140 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

98 other insurgents and reduced enemy attacks from [its] area of operations to nearly zero.”2 Operation Desert Safeside (ODS) was the first 

time since Vietnam that USAF security forces (SF) were given the mission of deliberately fighting “outside the wire” (OTW) in defense of an 

air base; it remains the first of only two times the Air Force has ever 

been intentionally given an “offensive” ground combat mission.

This chapter is a monograph of firsthand accounts and reflections 

of the key leaders involved in the stand-up and operation of TF 1041. 

There are three main parts to this story, and each was critical to mission success. The first part of the story revolves around the strategic 

context at the time ODS was approved. Specifically, it deals with the 

maturation and approval of the TF concept leading to USAF Airmen 

fighting offensively in ground combat and convincing both USAF 

and Army senior leaders to allow it to happen. The second part centers on building the task force itself—putting the operation together 

and then assembling the personnel and equipment the task force 

would need. The third part of the story is the execution of the operation itself—innovative tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP); 

new methods of developing and using intelligence; and individual 

courage under fire. Prior to proceeding, it is important to highlight a 

fourth part of the story. Although not critical to the actual execution, 

it illustrates considerations reflected in the final section on key ODS 

lessons learned. It is significant that this operation happened 

quickly—just six months from conception to mission completion. 

And although it laid the groundwork for changes across doctrine, organization, training, materiel, leadership and education, personnel, 

and facilities, little is written about the details of the operation—with 

only a few unclassified sources to cite.

This is the story of ODS/TF 1041 as told by the people who created, planned, and led it. It is difficult to capture the scope of the challenge and impact of the success without sounding self-promoting, 

but that truly is not the intent. It was an exciting and challenging 

time, and all those involved in ODS were passionate about their 

roles—hopefully that is how it comes through.

Strategic Context

Lt Gen Walter E. Buchanan III, USAF, retired, combined force air 

component commander/Ninth Air Force commander, August 2003–
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 141

April 2006: Picture air base defense (ABD) as it was in Iraq in 2004. 

We had invaded in March of 2003 and by May began to move operations into Iraq. Our first air base was Tallil in the south, now known 

as Ali Base. It was situated along the main line of communication 

between Kuwait and our forces in Iraq. Tallil AB was used early in 

Operation Iraqi Freedom, first to stage air rescue forces and later to 

rearm and quick-turn A-10 fighter aircraft providing close air support. Soon after, the air component, United States Air Forces Central 

Command or USCENTAF, moved to begin airlift operations at Baghdad International Airport (BIAP) and fighter operations out of 

Kirkuk AB in the northern Kurdish region. With the insurgent threat, 

coalition air forces had to operate off of a different playbook. No longer was this the envisioned Cold War scenario where air bases were 

situated in a relatively secure rear area. Our bases were now right in 

the middle of the insurgent’s backyard. Thus, securing the approach 

and departure corridors as well as the immediate surrounding areas 

was a challenge. Iraq is a big country, and our forces found themselves stretched thin. Doctrinally, we were still operating off guidance 

based on Joint Service Agreement (JSA) 8 signed by the Air Force 

and Army chiefs of staff on 25 April 1985. It gave the Air Force responsibility for air base ground defense (ABGD) inside the base perimeter and the Army that tasking outside the wire.3

 As I talked to my 

Army counterparts, they admitted that the best they could do was 

secure such a wide area by occasional presence. They just did not 

have the troop manning to “own” the ground surrounding all of our 

bases, much less comply with the 1984 memorandum that went further to state that Army forces tasked with the ABGD mission would 

be under the operational control of the base commander. While service doctrine had evolved over time and been refined, this agreement 

was the basic framework that drove service Title 10 activities (organize, train, and equip) for the ABGD mission prior to OIF.

Following the 9/11 attacks, the Air Force conducted a formal review of the entire force to ensure that we were postured to address 

this new and emerging threat. Among its many findings and recommendations, the review identified the need to add approximately 

1,500 security force billets to the force. The review further determined that SF were not adequately manned for the new security environment that emerged post 9/11. To help fill the gap in capability 

and also to free up SF Airmen to deploy overseas, the USAF began by 
142 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

first using support from the Army National Guard and then contractors to guard stateside bases.

Prior to 9/11, the Air Force used the construct of the air and space 

expeditionary force (AEF) to support overseas contingencies. The 

concept’s basic premise was that forces were organized into 10 AEF 

rotations or “buckets” that would be deployed and employed in 90-

day increments. By following this model, CENTAF was trading out 

forces every 90 days. New troops spent the first few days getting acclimated and doing a handover with the departing unit. After that it 

was business as usual for most units, especially those whose jobs kept 

them on base. For those who departed the base—aircrew and others—it meant a steep learning curve to grasp the operational environment and establish relationships with supported and supporting 

units. All of this took time. As a result, CENTAF forces were always 

in a churn with troops coming and going.

Every deployable SF Airman was scheduled to deploy as part of 

one of the 10 AEF buckets, and each bucket was sized to fit the air 

component’s mission and little more. Part of this mission was ABGD 

inside—not outside—the wire as that was doctrinally the Army’s mission. The bottom line was that the Air Force did not have enough SF 

Airmen to expand the mission OTW. Additionally, even though SF 

were trained in ground combat skills, it was thought that most were 

not trained to a high enough level to operate effectively OTW.

This constant turnover also meant that we lost not only our institutional knowledge of the mission and threats every 90 days but also 

any operational relationships we had developed with associated 

Army and Marine units that were deployed for 12–15 months. This 

climate made the idea of a sustained OTW presence even more difficult. It should be noted that eventually CENTAF was able to make 

the case for extended rotations; the Air Force went to 120-day rotations, with many critical specialties deploying for six months to a 

year. This change helped tremendously and clearly increased our 

combat effectiveness.

When US Central Command decided to make Balad AB its major 

logistics hub (LSA Anaconda) and directed CENTAF to move major 

airlift operations to Balad from Kirkuk (late 2003), I held a meeting in 

the tower at Balad AB with the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing commander, then-colonel “Hoot” Gibson, and his Army counterpart, Brig 

Gen Vinnie Boles, 3rd Corps Support Command (COSCOM) commander. As we overlooked the base from the tower, I told them that I 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 143

expected us to be there for some time and wanted us to “do it right” so 

the operation would be a case study for future war college classes.

At the time, the Army had taken over the base as a major logistics 

hub along with a large number of helicopters. However, the security 

for the base was set up somewhat haphazardly—divided into slices 

with individual units responsible for their own portion of the perimeter—and was not well coordinated. The airfield was also not treated 

like an airfield; a wide variety of ground units had set up shop and 

were using many of the hardened aircraft shelters (HAS) and other 

airfield facilities for purposes other than supporting the air mission. 

If left in place, this arrangement would have impeded efforts to expand airfield operations as the mission grew. Additionally, the airfield 

complex itself had no coordinated security.

Leaving that meeting, I asked Hoot and Vinnie to come up with a 

long-range plan that identified the airfield and supporting facilities 

and areas for future expansion (ramps, etc., which we eventually 

built). The plan would then move current “squatters” out of the airfield facilities and transition them all to their intended purpose. The 

plan was accomplished as units rotated so as to not impede ongoing 

activities as much as possible. Hoot was also directed to establish and 

maintain airfield security in accordance with USAF doctrine. Doing 

so meant that SF would take ownership and secure the flight line and 

other adjacent areas. I asked the senior Army commander to look at 

better coordinating outer perimeter security since the Army owned 

everything but the airfield.

As we established operations, Balad AB was attacked frequently by 

insurgents using unguided rockets and mortars. Many times these 

rockets were launched using simple timers. Finding and stopping the 

insurgents were therefore nearly impossible. Because of this threat, 

we established procedures to protect our airlift assets and their valuable cargo. Approaches to the airfield were random, with most C-130s 

approaching the airfield from a low level and then quickly pitching up 

into a modified overhead pattern that kept them close to the airfield. 

Once they landed, most flights conducted engine-running offloads to 

minimize the aircraft’s time on the ground. This practice was partly 

done because the ramp was small, and we could not park more than a 

few aircraft. Also, they were a huge target mostly because of the rocket 

attacks. We had good intelligence that insurgents were actively targeting that part of the ramp, so we kept it clear as best we could.
144 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Balad AB was also home to the major medical hospital in Iraq. Just 

about all serious combat casualties came through Balad. Consequently, we also had the casualty airlift staging facility (CASF) adjacent to the flight line. Each evening, those wounded who were to be 

evacuated to Landstuhl Army Hospital in Germany were moved to 

the CASF and prepped for air transport. Then, during the night, they 

were transloaded onto a C-17 and flown out. Whenever I remained 

overnight at Balad, my nightly ritual was to visit the CASF as my last 

duty before calling it a day. These wounded had given their all, and we 

were sending them on, sometimes in pieces.

I routinely briefed CENTCOM and my fellow component commanders that my recurring nightmare was a rocket hitting a C-17 

loaded with medevac patients at Balad because they would not be 

able to evacuate a burning aircraft on their own. It was a vision I 

could not get out of my head: wounded Soldiers strapped down on 

gurneys—some conscious, some not—as the aircraft burned around 

them, unable to get up and out to save themselves.

CENTCOM, and particularly Army general John Abizaid, ran a 

tight ship. He took the time to know all of his component commanders well and ensure that we knew each other. He recognized that in 

the heat of battle, relationships would trump doctrine every time—

and he was right. He called us together about once every two months 

when we would brief him, our fellow components, and the CENTCOM staff on our current operations and concerns. General Abizaid 

would then brief us on his commander’s intent and vision for the future. I remember a particular “commander’s huddle” where I used a 

slide of a burned-out C-141 that had been on the ramp at Fort Bragg 

ready to load Army paratroopers when the terrible C-130/F-16 midair crash occurred. It was a way to underline my concern about the 

threat surrounding Balad AB and the need for a more robust ABGD. 

Everyone acknowledged the threat against Balad but saw little else 

that could be done to lessen it. Every component had its challenges, 

and the ground components just didn’t have the forces to provide the 

kind of ABGD needed to minimize the threat.

Despite the lack of resources, CENTAF was not short of motivated 

Airmen ready to get the job done. During one of my first visits to 

Kirkuk AB, I discovered that SF Airmen there were covering the sector north of the airfield OTW because they had offered to help the 

Army. While the effort was admirable, I directed them to pull it back 

in as they were really only sized and manned to maintain airfield se-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 145

curity, and Kirkuk AB was right up against the city of Kirkuk itself. 

With the urban terrain on the east and south sides of the air base, 

insurgents could get dangerously close before being detected. I 

needed our SF Airmen inside the base perimeter ready to respond 

when and if an attack occurred. I also knew that once we relieved the 

Army of that mission, it would be ours forever—and we were not 

sized to take it on full time. It was not a popular decision.

DOD photo by Marcus Castro, Aviation Safety Network

Green Ramp disaster

Kirkuk and Balad ABs were not unique. CENTAF had challenges 

across the area of operations when it came to ABGD. There had to be 

a better way.4

Maj Gen Bradley D. Spacy, USAF, director, Force Protection Air 

Forces Central (Forward), July 2004–June 2005: I always believed that 

security forces should fight OTW in air base defense operations. It 

was at the core of how we were trained: take the initiative, dominate 

key terrain, hit the enemy before he can hit you. These were things I 

was taught throughout my career and things I taught students as an 

air base defense instructor. SF had all the skills and equipment required to fight OTW; however, they had not had the mission since 

Operation Safeside in Vietnam. Over time, confusing agreements 

and vague doctrine relegated this very capable combat force to guard-
146 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

ing perimeter fences, entry control points (ECP), and tent cities. This 

situation was all extremely frustrating and central to my thinking as I 

arrived at Al Udeid AB, Qatar, and my job as the director of force 

protection for CENTAF Forward. I intended to get SF into the fight.

I was well aware of SF worldwide manning concerns, the status of 

doctrine, and the apprehensions about the capability of SF to fight 

OTW. Nevertheless, Iraq and Afghanistan were a new type of war for 

the USAF with a new type of enemy—a new way of thinking would 

be needed. As General Buchanan highlighted above, air bases were 

no longer tucked “safely” in the rear. They were in the middle of the 

combat zone, and the enemy was all around. There was only one way 

to stop determined enemies in this environment: you had to find 

them, kill or capture them, and take their weapons. Security forces 

could do this mission, but to become a credible ground combat force 

they would have to fight OTW.

I arrived at Al Udeid on 13 July 2004. General Buchanan was the 

combined force air component commander and my direct boss. In 

our first meeting he made one point clear to me—SF would not go 

outside the wire. I told him I disagreed. I said that fighting OTW was 

a core mission for SF and that they would have to fight there if we 

were to successfully defend air bases. He simply said, “Well, then, 

you’re going to have to prove that to me.” I did not know at the time 

why he didn’t want SF outside the wire, and he didn’t explain it to me. 

But his statement succinctly captured the challenge for SF in defending air bases in Iraq and Afghanistan—we would have to prove ourselves capable.

I spent most of August and part of September traveling with a 

small team of Airmen throughout Iraq learning about the insurgents 

and what was or was not working to combat them. There were four 

of us, including Capt John Grimm, MSgt Joe Pritchard, and TSgt 

Dennis Karner. Captain Grimm and Sergeant Pritchard were SF; 

Sergeant Karner was an administrative NCO. We visited dozens of 

Army and air bases, forward operating bases (FOB) and locations, 

and remote sites. We participated in numerous combat patrols and 

got a good picture of operations OTW. We paid special attention to 

operations around our major air bases at Kirkuk, Tallil, Baghdad, 

and Balad. We also examined what TTPs were being employed to 

combat the insurgents.

We came back to Al Udeid with some clear observations about 

defending air bases in Iraq: first, the joint forces had no common 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 147

understanding of exactly what ABD meant. To some units, ABD 

meant frequent patrolling in the areas surrounding the air base, while 

to others it simply meant manning guard posts on the perimeter. Second, responsibility for ABD was not precisely defined; this ambiguity 

left gaps in the defense. Third, ABD operations were primarily focused on the base perimeter, and SF were mostly confined to guarding flight lines, ECPs, and tent cities. Fourth, the Army did not necessarily use military police or infantry to conduct base defense 

operations; it used Soldiers from all specialties and levels of training. 

Fifth, although the Army gave SF permission to patrol outside the 

base perimeter at several bases, we found that these patrols were designed to show a presence versus being intelligence driven and deliberately focused on finding and eliminating the enemy.

During this time, insurgents continued to attack air bases with 

impunity, and Balad AB was by far the target of the most attacks. 

Between 1 January and 30 December 2004, Balad was attacked by 

indirect fire 359 times. These attacks killed 14 US troops, wounded 

another 25, damaged or destroyed four helicopters, and damaged 

an F-16 fighter aircraft. Mortar fire also damaged numerous ground 

vehicles, sleeping areas, and dining facilities.5

 General Buchanan’s 

fears of a mortar hitting a C-17 medevac were well founded. It was 

only a matter of time before one of these attacks killed a large number of troops or destroyed airlift aircraft on the ramp. General Buchanan was not satisfied with the Army’s efforts to stem these attacks (see fig. 4.1).

It was not that the Army wasn’t concerned about the insurgent attacks on Balad; it was. However, Balad AB was only one of many important sites in a huge AO owned by the First Infantry Division, Second Brigade Combat Team. The 2 BCT AO stretched from Tikrit to 

Baghdad, and it was taking casualties regularly. It did not have the 

manpower to focus operations specifically on defeating the standoff 

threat around any base or site including Balad AB. TF Tacoma attached to the 2 BCT as the defense force for Balad. TF Tacoma was 

made up of elements from the 81st Brigade Combat Team (81 BCT) 

of the Washington State National Guard. The 81st was also stretched 

thin and had other tasks besides base defense, such as manning guard 

towers and monitoring traffic. TF Tacoma was not focused on stopping “Rocket Man” to the level expected by General Buchanan. Part 

of this outlook was due to a lack of what is now referred to as “airmindedness” or an Airman’s unique appreciation for the total capa-
148 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

bility of the air base as a weapons system. We found this to be true 

around other bases too; some sister service units just didn’t appreciate the impact a burning C-17 would have on the mission or the information war. It was clear that if we wanted the air base “weapons 

system” defended to the standard the USAF expected, we would have 

to bring something more to the fight.

Figure 4.1. Balad AB notional points of origin / points of impact map 

prior to TF 1041. (Courtesy of Maj Gen Brad Spacy, USAF.)

Concepts of the Task Force

Concept of the Plan

General Spacy: In September 2004, I began developing a plan to 

use SF as an offensive ground element to fight OTW at Balad AB. 

Balad was chosen primarily because of the high number of enemy 

attacks; we wanted to help stop them. Another key factor in choosing 

Balad was the need to show impact. The best place to show impact 

was in an area with a lot of activity, and Balad was the center of a high 

level of insurgent activity. Showing impact was essential because this 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 149

strategy was going to be a first for SF, and we couldn’t allow our Airmen to simply be added to an existing ground force. If SF were going 

to prove themselves to be a capable ground combat force, they would 

need to have their own ground, develop their own plans, and succeed 

or fail based on their actions; we needed SF to be accountable.

I wasn’t interested in debating doctrine. There were dozens of papers analyzing doctrine—what it said, what it should say, and how it 

could be interpreted. That was a debate for the academics and 

staffs—we could do that later. I knew that if we got dragged into a 

doctrine debate, we’d never get anything done. Besides, the Army 

and Air Force commanders we talked to on the ground didn’t care 

what doctrine said; they would take help from anyone willing to 

fight the insurgents.6

Col Glen E. Christensen, USAF, S-3, TF 1041, November 2004–

March 2005: My participation in TF 1041 started at a picnic table in 

the chaplain’s morale area of Camp Sather, BIAP. Colonel Spacy had 

just returned from travelling around Iraq trying to figure out how to 

stop Rocket Man. During our conversation, Colonel Spacy laid a 

small map on the table and outlined what would eventually become 

tactical area of responsibility (TAOR) Mitchell. He asked what I 

thought about the idea of actually “owning ground” for the express 

purpose of fighting insurgents outside of Balad AB. I told Colonel 

Spacy that I fully supported the idea as my previous deployment to 

Tallil and current deployment to BIAP had highlighted a notable lack 

of forces dedicated to fighting OTW in defense of the air base. Further, I told him that I concurred with his idea to use a squadron from 

the 820th Security Forces Group (SFG) as the foundation for the task 

force. Admittedly, as the commander of the 824th Security Forces 

Squadron (SFS), I was a bit biased. I would argue, however, that putting some “science” behind my position were two factors: 820th 

squadrons were self-sustaining (i.e., the multi–specialty code [AFSC] 

nature of their organization) and—unlike AEF security forces—focused solely on ABD training while in garrison. The conversation 

ended on that note. My deployment with the 824th to BIAP also 

ended a short month and a half later. The next time I would see Colonel Spacy would be at Al Udeid as I waited with the rest of the 824th 

for our air transport back to Moody AFB, Georgia. Little did I know 

at the time, I would be back in about two months to join TF 1041.7

General Spacy: As we started building the plan, we immediately 

discovered significant shortfalls in available secure communications 
150 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

and armored vehicles. Before we went any further, we ordered 70 sets 

of PRC-177 secure radios with vehicle mount options. These radios 

facilitated communication with the Army and subsequently would be 

critical in any ground operation. We also ordered armor kits for 

about 40 soft-skinned high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicles 

or HMMWVs. There was a worldwide shortage of up-armored 

HMMWVs (UAHMMWV), and we hoped to use the kits on our 

soft-skinned HMMWVs in-theater. We knew that the kits weren’t 

ideal for combat patrolling as they left the underside of the HMMWV 

vulnerable, but there were no other options. We weren’t sure how we 

would use the kits, but we wanted to have some capability moving 

our way. Even if we never got to conduct any new missions, the armor 

kits could be used to at least reduce risk somewhat at bases throughout the theater.

Courtesy of MSgt Joseph Pritchard, USAF

Captain Grimm and Colonel Spacy reviewing the original ODS draft plan, September 2004

I took a basic outline of the plan to Brig Gen “Stormin’ ” Norman 

Seip, USAF, the deputy CFACC. The “plan” was barely a sketch, and I 

briefed him from pen drawings in a steno notebook that Captain 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 151

Grimm and I put together. It was an aggressive approach that called 

for developing a task-force-style organization, deploying it to Balad 

AB, securing a TAOR from the Army, and conducting a 60-day combat operation starting on 1 January 2005—just a little over three 

months away.8

Lt Gen Norman Seip, USAF, retired, deputy CFACC, May 2004–

June 2005: Despite the minimal information and basic presentation, I 

liked Brad’s concept. I was also tired of the mortar and rocket attacks 

and wanted the USAF to help out. It was an aggressive timeline, and 

I didn’t know how we would pull this off—but I knew it was the right 

thing to do. I wanted the boss to see the plan and promised to help 

wherever I could. I told Brad to add some details and be ready to brief 

General Buchanan when he returned.9

General Spacy: In the following days we evolved our sketches into 

basic PowerPoint slides, but there wasn’t much information—the 

plan was still little more than an idea. There were just a few slides; one 

slide outlined the basic mission to kill or capture insurgents attacking 

Balad. Another showed a map of Balad and the surrounding areas 

with the number of indirect fire attacks marked on it and TAOR 

Mitchell superimposed (fig. 4.2). This map was important because it 

visually captured the number of attacks and highlighted General Buchanan’s fear about a soft target hit like a C-17 air evac. The TAOR we 

wanted to own outside the base perimeter of Balad was named TAOR 

Mitchell after Brig Gen Billy Mitchell because his historically bold, 

innovative approach to war fighting was inspirational to us.

The proposed TAOR was approximately 6 kilometers (km) deep 

and 10 km wide, extending from Balad AB to the Tigris River. TAOR 

Mitchell encompassed the majority of enemy activity in the area. 

The last slide pitched it as a 60-day operation using a squadron of the 

820 SFG as the basis for a task force to execute the mission. I would 

have liked the operation to be longer than 60 days, but I knew that 

SF would have to prove they were capable before we would be given 

a permanent OTW mission. I didn’t like this, but it was a reality at 

the time.

The plan was thin on details. We didn’t know if we could get the 

820th, if we could get enough heavy weapons, where we were going 

to get the required armor capability, and if the PRC-117s would arrive in time. We didn’t even know how much other equipment we 

might need. Virtually every aspect of this proposal involved a lot of 
152 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

guesswork and risk, and I was worried we’d never get the support. 

Then another tragedy struck.

Figure 4.2. Balad AB notional points of origin/points of impact map 

with proposed TAOR. (Courtesy of Maj Gen Brad Spacy, USAF.)

On 11 September 2004, SrA Brian Kolfage from SF was severely 

injured when a 107 millimeter (mm) rocket exploded in the Balad 

AB tent city. He lost his right arm and both legs. When General Buchanan returned to the combined air operations center (CAOC) 

shortly afterward, he called the staff together. I had not seen him 

since late July. He barely sat down when he looked directly at me and 

said, “What are you going to do to stop the attacks on Balad?” The 

Airman Kolfage tragedy seemed to be a driving force to his comments, and he clearly wanted solutions. Before I had time to respond, 

General Seip grabbed his arm and said, “Boss, he’s got a plan to brief 

you on after the meeting.”10 General Buchanan just glared, but it 

seemed to be a turning point.11

General Buchanan: CENTAF had experienced casualties before, 

but most had occurred OTW and typically while in contact with the 

enemy or his weapon of choice, improvised explosive devices. The 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 153

attack on Airman Kolfage highlighted the fact that our air bases were 

no longer (if they ever were) safe havens. The attack proved that just 

being “inside the wire” did not mean we were any safer than being 

outside. It had a profound impact on base personnel. That evening we 

found more than a few personnel who had moved into a hardened 

aircraft shelter to await the next attack. We couldn’t let that stand. We 

were American Airmen, and we were there to fight an ugly enemy 

who knew no rules or bounds. We weren’t going to defeat him by hiding in a HAS. We had to recognize that this was war, risks are inherent in war, and we would only defeat the enemy by taking the fight to 

him. Brig Gen Blair Hansen, USAF, the 332 AEW commander, ordered everyone back to our normal billeting area, and we reset the 

force. In many ways it was a turning point for those stationed at 

Balad.

Colonel Spacy had always advocated having SF Airmen OTW. I 

understood his view and loved his warrior spirit but was rightfully 

concerned that the USAF did not have the force size to cover both the 

inside and outside the wire missions. Additionally, our Air Force had 

just come off 12 years of fighting Operation Southern Watch on the 

heels of Operation Desert Storm. At the highest levels of our Air 

Force, there were those who were adamant that such a long-term 

commitment would not happen again and remained against any increase in mission or force size for just about any reason. While I believed in Colonel Spacy’s concept and wanted to see him succeed, I 

knew there were many who did not.12

General Spacy: General Buchanan really wanted to do something 

to stop the insurgent attacks on air bases. Despite the lack of detail, he 

agreed to the idea of a short-term SF OTW operation but wanted Air 

Staff buy-in. He directed me to go to the Pentagon to brief the Headquarters Air Force (HAF) SF staff; he wanted to know what SF thought 

about our plan. I resisted going because I knew that the SF staff 

wouldn’t like it. I really just wanted to build our plan in secret and not 

tell anyone until it was too late for them to intervene. This plan was 

full of risk, and the SF staff at the time was a risk-averse group. I knew 

if they found out about the plan, they would try and stop it.

General Buchanan still thought HAF input was needed, so he told 

me to go ahead and brief the staff and report back. I briefed the senior 

HAF SF staff on the ODS concept in mid-September; as expected, 

they were quick to nonconcur. The staff pressed me for details we 

didn’t have yet, challenged the ability of SF to fight OTW, and even 
154 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

called the proposal reckless. They used every unknown detail as rationale against an OTW mission. They seemed to be focused on 

maintaining “traditional” base security and establishing supportable 

routine deployment schedules with as little disruption to home station activity as possible.

I had another mission on my trip to the Pentagon: finding a potential commander for the operation. I knew that only a couple of SF 

officers were capable of leading this effort, and the best one was Lt 

Col Chris Bargery. Colonel Bargery was on the Joint Staff, and it was 

going to be tough to get him released for this. The Joint Staff is demanding, and it doesn’t often release officers for duty not directly related to their job on the staff. I went to see Chris’s boss and good 

friend, Col Daryl Roberson, USAF. Colonel Roberson was a war 

fighter and immediately supportive, but he recognized that it would 

take general officer involvement to make the request happen. He told 

me that he would take it up his chain and see what he could do. When 

he came back, he said that it would take a personal phone call from 

General Buchanan to Lt Gen James Conway, USMC, Joint Staff director of operations (J-3), to get Colonel Bargery released. For all the 

above reasons, I was worried the whole thing would fall apart before 

it got going.13

General Buchanan: I was not surprised with his findings when 

Colonel Spacy reported back after his visit to the HAF SF staff. That 

said, the HAF SF staff would not be making the final decision. Regardless, we needed them to be aware of the plan so we knew their 

objections. With regard to obtaining Colonel Bargery’s release, calling General Conway was easy. He had commanded the Marines who 

invaded north into Iraq as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom, so we 

knew each other from our time in-theater. Even better, General Conway understood the environment and the tactical problem we were 

trying to solve.14

General Spacy: We were excited that General Buchanan gave us 

approval to continue the planning, but we still had a huge mountain 

to climb. General Buchanan approved the plan on 7 October 2004 

with a start date of 1 January 2005. We hadn’t moved a single Airman 

or piece of equipment, so this gave us just over two months to put it 

all together. Although this timeline was extremely aggressive, we 

chose the 1 January start date for good reason; first, we wanted to 

help reduce the attacks on Balad AB as soon as possible. The enemy 

was getting better at targeting, and Airman Kolfage was still fresh in 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 155

our minds. Additionally, there were plans to expand the airlift ramp 

at Balad to accommodate more aircraft. An expanded ramp would 

make an even more lucrative target. Second, we knew that if we didn’t 

move fast, naysayers in the Pentagon would have too much time to 

marshal resistance. By starting in January, we benefited from the US 

holiday season since many of those opposed to the plan would be on 

leave. Third, we decided to use a squadron from the 820 SFG based 

out of Moody as the core of the task force, and the timing worked best 

for a rotation.

The above notwithstanding, there was an added wrinkle. General 

Buchanan approved the plan with the caveat that we keep it low key. 

The Air Combat Command staff did not support the plan. General 

Buchanan was working the issues at his level but didn’t know when he 

would get formal buy-in, so we had to do all of our planning without 

“going public” until after he gave us the go-ahead. That meant we 

couldn’t move anything before then; this was a challenge.15

General Buchanan: With the memory of 12 years of Operation 

Southern Watch deployments still fresh, ACC and in particular Gen 

Hal Hornburg, USAF—our primary force provider and my stateside 

boss—were adamant that we minimize our force size and redeploy 

assets as soon as they were not needed. General Hornburg was not 

open to any expanded mission and was quick to remind me that following Desert Storm, the Air Force was left behind in-theater for 12 

years. He did not want a repeat and made my job tough as the mission in Iraq evolved and expanded. It was a constant fight to maintain 

our force levels, much less build them up when requirements changed. 

As it was, to accommodate mission requirements, CENTAF routinely 

had to work within the system to plus up combat assets in support of 

planned operations. We did this by extending overlap periods as 

units swapped out, thereby giving us twice the combat power for a 

short period of time. I knew that General Hornburg would never 

support the plus-up needed to execute ODS. As it turned out, General Hornburg retired before we executed TF 1041.16

Concept of the Organization

General Spacy: We literally built the operation on the fly as quietly 

as we could. We’d figured the mission called for a squadron-sized unit 

of about 200–250 organized as a cross-functional TF. We quickly discarded using SF from the AEF rotation. First, as mentioned above, 
156 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

worldwide SF manning was at critical levels, and it would be tough to 

get additional forces allocated for this operation–especially since 

HAF SF would not support it. The second main reason was the level 

of training. It wasn’t that regular SF didn’t have the equipment and 

basic combat skills; they certainly did. All SF Airmen receive quality 

combat skills training in their initial qualification schools and during 

spin-up for deployment. However, SF normally don’t deploy as 

squadron-sized units; they deploy in smaller unit type code (UTC) 

packages such as squad-sized (13-person) elements, headquarters 

teams, heavy-weapons teams, or even as individuals. These teams 

weren’t trained together and normally didn’t even meet each other 

before arriving at the deployed location. This approach worked okay 

for routine base security operations inside the wire at most bases but 

wouldn’t work for the high level of combat we anticipated.

The reasons highlighted above outline why we decided to use a 

squadron from the 820 SFG as the core of the task force. Additionally, 

the group was specifically designed for this kind of operation. The 

820 SFG was made up of three SF squadrons organized, trained, and 

equipped for ABD operations: the 822 SFS, the 823 SFS, and the 824

SFS. These squadrons trained and deployed together continuously. 

They did not have a home station mission other than training and 

preparing for the next deployment. They also came as a composite 

force with many inherent capabilities like combat arms training and 

maintenance specialists, intelligence NCOs and officers, Air Force 

Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) special agents, military 

working dog (MWD) teams, vehicle maintenance, ground/satellite 

communications, supply specialists, physician’s assistant, and independent duty medical technicians. An added benefit of using the 

820th vice AEF SF was that the 820th reported to the Ninth Air Force 

commander, General Buchanan, dual-hatted as the CFACC; in short, 

we could use those forces without HAF approval.

The next key decision was which of the squadrons from the 820 

SFG to use for the mission; they would all want it. There were actually 

only two options available: use either the 823 or 822 SFS. We couldn’t 

use the 824th as it had just returned from Baghdad and was in reconstitution mode. The 823rd was already at Kirkuk providing base security. It had arrived in September for a 120-day rotation and was due 

to rotate home on or about 1 January. The 822nd was back at Moody 

in training mode preparing to replace it. We ultimately chose the 

823rd mainly to capitalize on its experience in-theater. It also had an 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 157

innovative intelligence officer named Capt Armand “Beaux” Lyons 

who really understood the insurgent fight; he would become critical 

to this effort.

To augment the 823rd, we added a bunch of extra capability: six 

50-caliber machine gun teams, five MK-19 automatic grenade 

launcher teams, five close precision engagement teams (brand new 

capability for SF), additional MWD teams, and additional headquarters personnel. There was still a lot of guesswork involved, and we 

weren’t sure how all these components would fit together—but the 

teams would bring 72 additional Airmen to the fight. It wasn’t the 

best situation, but we felt the extra firepower and capability would be 

required.

As we planned through October and November, it became clear 

we would need to name the operation. After much discussion, we 

settled on the operation name Desert Safeside and TF 1041 as the 

name for the task force itself. Both were designed to attach the effort 

to the Vietnam security police legacy. As a sidenote, though the TF is 

named 1041, we were never able to get Air Force administrators to 

buy off on it. They argued that the Air Force had no organizational 

structure called a “task force.” Moreover, USAF instructions are specific about how units with support specialty codes are named and 

numbered. Subsequently, although most commonly referred to as TF 

1041, history recorded the official unit designator as Detachment 1, 

332nd Air Expeditionary Wing.17

Lt Col Armand “Beaux” Lyons, USAF, S-2, TF 1041, November 

2004–March 2005: Intelligence is about presenting opportunities for 

a commander to gain advantage over an adversary. While it includes 

boilerplate elements of the operational environment—terrain, enemy 

forces, weather, and human factors—the critical element to identify 

advantage is accurate appraisal of enemy force behavior in that environment. Templating that behavior provides a spatial context to identify weak points and decisions for friendly advantage. As the senior 

intelligence officer for ODS, my challenge was to identify opportunities for friendly advantage.

In fall 2004, my home unit, the 823 SFS, deployed en masse in a 

force rotation to northern Iraq, providing a headquarters and the 

bulk of USAF SF to become the 556th Expeditionary Security Forces 

Squadron defending Kirkuk AB, just west of the city of Kirkuk. We 

joined a top-notch crew of USAF personnel from various locations, 

harnessing the total force (active duty, reserves, and Air National 
158 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Guard) to assume a robust defense along the perimeter extending 

into rural areas approximately 10 km north and west of the airfield. 

Organized in three perimeter defense sectors with a quick reaction 

mobile defense, the structure was not unlike other locations in-theater. Kirkuk, however, also used an aggressive, constant Air Force 

ground presence beyond the perimeter to mitigate threats to friendly 

aircraft.

The 823rd trained in many disciplines that could specifically be 

used for offensive operations to defend against ground threats against 

friendly air operations; however, the unit did not know how to orchestrate those capabilities into a cohesive plan. Training comprised 

basic ground combat skills such as patrolling and conducting military operations in urban terrain, paired with more advanced skills for 

select personnel including designated marksman, airborne, air assault, pathfinder, and US Army Ranger training. Threat training detailing enemy operations and countertactics development augmented 

the 823rd Airman’s skill set to achieve what could be described as a 

bachelor’s-degree-level capacity for ground operations in Iraq. Despite prowess at the individual level, the headquarters was severely 

inexperienced in combat operations—comparable to a junior-high 

level at best. The crux of the headquarters problem was a failure to 

adopt a ground combat mind-set shifting from a reactive, law enforcement approach to a more offensive ground combat C2 focus. 

The 823rd commander attempted to reorient the staff toward ground 

combat but not without considerable friction, both inside and outside his organization.

While unrelated to this situation, both the operations officer and 

the operations superintendent were relieved the initial week of the 

deployment, severely exacerbating problems. Leaders in the 823rd, 

particularly senior noncommissioned officers, were highly motivated and firmly attached to the law enforcement paradigm and saw 

no advantage to total force integration. They lacked capacity to visualize the command and control necessary to plan and execute 

ground combat operations. In fact, with an honest sense of pride, 

some actively refused and even undermined the necessary paradigm 

shift. Thus, despite well-trained and well-equipped troops, the headquarters was in chaos.

The saving grace at Kirkuk was total force integration and resilient 

Airmen from across the Air Force, including the 823rd. Total force 

experience ranged from the practicality of recent high school gradu-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 159

ates to the wisdom of former Marine infantry NCOs who had transferred to the Air Force. The difference in capacity between the 823rd 

and total force troops was striking. Even a cursory look by an experienced eye could see that the definitive, multitiered mobile defense 

implemented by the total force Airmen sharply contrasted with the 

static and vulnerable defense implemented by inexperienced 823rd 

leadership. While the total force element was ready for ground combat, the 823 SFS members were positioned as well-armed night 

watchmen—which was ironic as the roles should have been reversed.

The 556 ESFS maneuver element was far better organized and led, 

the product of an outstanding staff NCO who deployed with the 

823rd advance team. Although notably junior to others, he was perhaps the most combat minded on the operations staff. He became 

familiar with the cooperation and coordination necessary to conduct 

operations outside the air base, alongside Army units. His capacity 

for skillful cooperation was second only to his ability to perceive the 

battlefield in a larger context, including the realization that the lives 

of his Airmen relied on his ability to employ them to best effect. He 

harnessed every element of the staff, implementing additional standards for training, communication, mission planning, execution, and 

postmission recovery. He also displayed wisdom in deliberately integrating the total force in patrol operations in contrast to—and against 

the advice of—those senior to him. Perhaps a unique element of destiny, his efforts laid the groundwork for what would become the baseline for the tactical implementation of ODS.18

The Concepts in Motion

General Spacy: General Buchanan got approval to proceed with 

ODS on 15 November, and things finally started moving. Colonel 

Bargery arrived at Al Udeid on 16 November, and after he got a quick 

in-brief, we headed up to Balad. We had Thanksgiving dinner together in the Balad dining facility as we went over the mission requirements. We were just over a month from combat operations, and 

Colonel Bargery hadn’t even met his troops. The 823rd was still at 

Kirkuk, and its replacements were still in the States just beginning to 

move. Colonel Bargery stayed only a couple of days before he headed 

to Kirkuk to build Task Force 1041.

Command and control for ODS was a sensitive subject. The 2 BCT 

was the formal battlespace owner for all the ground around Balad 
160 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

AB. We’d secured TAOR Mitchell from Army colonel Randy Dragon, 

the 2 BCT commander, but doing so came with a caveat. The TAOR 

would belong to TF 1041, but Colonel Dragon wanted to retain tactical control (TACON) over the task force. This proviso almost ended 

the operation before it started.

TACON meant that Colonel Dragon could do just about anything 

he wanted with TF 1041—move it or even reassign it to other duties 

with little coordination; he all but “owned” the unit. General Buchanan was adamant that the USAF retain TACON for just this reason; he didn’t want the Army moving TF 1041 or giving it some 

other less critical duties. Colonel Dragon held almost all of the cards, 

and he had a valid point. He was responsible for the entire AO surrounding TAOR Mitchell, and even though TF 1041 was using the 

ground, Colonel Dragon was still responsible for TAOR Mitchell itself. If something happened there, he was the accountable commander and therefore insisted he have TACON over TF 1041. Both 

sides were intransigent.

Once again I was concerned that this impasse would derail the 

operation. I went to General Buchanan and argued that we could 

hammer out some kind of agreement clearly defining the TACON 

relationship. Colonel Dragon didn’t really have any other intentions 

for TF 1041; it was a simple command relationship to him. General 

Buchanan grudgingly allowed Colonel Dragon to retain TACON of 

the TF with literally a handshake deal not to move or reassign it. 

Fortunately, General Buchanan’s concern for protecting Balad AB 

overruled his concern about the TACON agreement. No one was 

really happy with this relationship, but it was the best we were going 

to get. As it was, the handshake agreement almost fell apart at the 

eleventh hour.19

Colonel Christensen: While Colonel Spacy and the CENTAF FP 

team were working hard on putting the TF together, I was at home on 

my Baghdad postdeployment leave in Minnesota. During my leave, I 

received a call from the deputy group commander, Maj Mike Ross. He 

said that he’d received word from CENTAF, and he needed me to return to Moody. Not long after I returned, I was back on an airplane 

headed to Al Udeid; the order had been given to build TF 1041, and I 

would be a part of it. The original plan was for me to serve as the 

CFACC’s liaison to TF 1041 once ODS commenced. In the meantime, 

I was directed to forward deploy to Balad to accept vehicles/equipment and to establish the TF’s tactical operations center (TOC). Prior 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 161

to forward deploying, however, I worked with the CENTAF staff to 

identify the equipment from across the AOR that the TF would need 

to conduct operations. There were many challenges with first identifying and then finding the requisite equipment; the most notable 

challenge was obtaining vehicles. During mission analysis, we quickly 

identified two critical factors. First, we would need about 36 vehicles. 

Second, UAHMMWVs were our only real option as the aftermarket 

armor was not holding up well in Iraq. Given the level of intensity in 

Iraq, we simply had to find a way to obtain them. As we looked across 

the AOR, we quickly realized that UAHMMWVs were at a premium 

such that shipping them to Balad—originally identified as our biggest 

limiting factor—paled in comparison to actually finding them. I vividly remember walking around the war reserve materiel yard with 

Colonel Spacy late one night as we tried to find UAHMMWVs that 

perhaps the logistics folks had overlooked. I think the plan was to 

“borrow” some if we could find them—literally drive them away into 

the night. It was during this little adventure that I fully realized not 

only how much Colonel Spacy believed in the TF concept but also 

how much he refused to be deterred. Having been told that there 

was no way we would be able to come up with the number of 

UAHMMWVs locally, we expanded our search to the entire AOR.

At first, our search seemed an impossible task. It just didn’t look 

like we were going to be able to find the vehicles we needed to successfully execute the mission. I couldn’t believe it; after all this work, 

the operation might not happen due to a lack of armored vehicles. It 

was at this point that Colonel Spacy made it very clear that we’d come 

too far to give up now. I must admit that despite his determination, I 

remained skeptical. Fortunately, I was wrong; we just had to get creative. The CENTAF FP staff had ordered 40-plus armor kits for softskinned HMMWVs back in August. We got on the phones, in airplanes, and on e-mail looking for any combat units with “extra” 

UAHMMWVs we could trade for our armor-kitted HMMWVs. We 

ended up finding explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) and SOF units 

with some backup UAHMMWVs they were willing to trade. These 

war fighters understood combat requirements and really saved the 

day. Between the UAHMMWVs we already had in the theater and 

the ones we were able to trade, we came up with exactly 36 vehicles—

just enough!

After serving with the CENTAF staff for about a week, I forward 

deployed to Balad AB the Monday before Thanksgiving and quickly 
162 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

set about finding a suitable TOC location. After reviewing a number 

of options, I finally settled on an unoccupied hardened aircraft shelter. While the shelter itself lacked the facilities to serve as a TOC, it 

provided protection against indirect fire. Further, it had more than 

enough room for the tents and generators inherent to an 820th 

squadron logistics detail designed for use in more austere locations. 

My next order of business after establishing a TOC location was to 

acquire temporary working space so the TF commander and advanced echelon could begin planning operations prior to the arrival 

of the 823rd. With the TOC location and temporary workspace identified, I prepared for Colonel Spacy’s arrival. In addition to checking 

on my progress, he had chosen to also personally escort the TF commander to Balad. Both were scheduled to arrive Thanksgiving Day.20

Colonel Lyons: In November 2004, Colonel Spacy called select 

members of the 823rd to CENTAF Headquarters Forward at Al 

Udeid AB outside Doha, Qatar. We arrived via C-130 from Kirkuk 

with limited knowledge of the plan that we would help shape over the 

coming days. The plan was more a rough sketch, less than a skeleton, 

seeking scope and scale for the Air Force to assume offensive ground 

operations against enemy elements attacking Balad. The concept was 

well beyond the perceived Air Force role in joint operations. Air 

Force security forces were generally believed to be organized and 

equipped for provost and internal security. In fact, excepting bases in 

Korea, true ground combat skills were not widely perceived as core 

tasks for SF personnel. Many in the SF community were keen to keep 

it this way, and the few experienced individuals (e.g., counterinsurgency operations in the Philippines, ground-launched cruise missile 

security operations in Europe) were a fading alumni.21

Col Chris Bargery, USAF, commander, TF 1041, November 2004–

March 2005: I was working at the Pentagon in the Joint Staff, J-3, 

when I got a call from Colonel Spacy asking if I was a volunteer for a 

temporary duty (TDY) command in Iraq. Years earlier when we were 

both lieutenants, we attended the Ground Combat Leaders Course 

together at Fort Dix, New Jersey, and had kept loosely in touch over 

the years. He didn’t discuss any details of the operation but explained 

that it would be personally and professionally risky for me. He also 

said that the Air Force’s reputation would be on the line and that 

there would be dangerous work for the Airmen involved. I had returned from Iraq in March of that year after having served with a 

small joint team designed to keep the coalition sound through work-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 163

ing directly with the coalition forces. That job had taken me to seven 

different FOBs, where I lived, worked, and sometimes saw action 

alongside Bulgarian, Thai, Polish, Mongolian, Spanish, El Salvadoran, Honduran, and Dominican Republican forces at their respective camps. I was not looking for a trip back to Iraq, but I felt a sense 

of duty toward the involved Airmen and the Air Force and wanted to 

do my part.

General Buchanan gained my release from the J-3, General Conway, but before I could go, he met with me privately to discuss the 

mission. General Conway said that he needed to look me in the eye to 

be sure I wasn’t being forced into the TDY. He could not imagine an 

Air Force officer leading such an endeavor on the ground. He even 

offered to leave the TF intact but to provide a US Marine Corps officer to lead it. I assured him that many of the Air Force’s “all-weather 

fighters” really do operate on the ground. I always respected General 

Conway and appreciated his concern. He became the 34th commandant of the Marine Corps.

I met Colonel Spacy at Al Udeid AB, where I spent three days becoming intimate with the CAOC capabilities, refining an initial operational plan, drafting the operational orders Headquarters CENTAF would eventually send to me at Balad AB, and meeting with 

General Buchanan and General Seip. The most memorable conversation occurred when General Buchanan asked what help I needed 

from him. I told him I would need his trust and support when TF 

1041 Airmen were wounded, injured, or killed in action because we 

were going to Balad seeking to engage the enemy, and though we 

would work hard to avoid any casualties, we had to prepare for the 

worst. General Buchanan, General Seip, and Colonel Spacy were with 

us every step of the way. After the meeting, I left Al Udeid AB in Qatar for Kirkuk to meet the Airmen.22

General Spacy: After Colonel Bargery finished explaining how he 

would handle casualties, we all sat there quietly for a few seconds 

before General Buchanan said, “Okay, let’s do it. . . . We’re going to 

call this Operation Brad Spacy’s Career.” I said, “I’m good with that.” 

It had been a short, tough road, but security forces were going to be 

in the fight—at last!23

Colonel Christensen: Late in the evening on Thanksgiving Day, I 

stood on the flight line and awaited the arrival of both Colonel Spacy 

and the TF commander who, by this point, had been identified as Lt 

Col Chris Bargery.
164 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

The moment I met Colonel Spacy and Colonel Bargery at the aircraft serves to this day to be a highlight in my Air Force career. From 

the moment I shook his hand, I could feel how much Colonel Bargery 

cared about his Airmen. I mean, who was I? I was just the guy selected to do some behind-the-scenes work, and yet Colonel Bargery 

made me feel like what I’d done to that point was critical to the success of the task force. After our initial introduction, Colonel Spacy, 

Colonel Bargery, and I made our way to one of Balad’s many dining 

facilities for a late Thanksgiving dinner. During the dinner we discussed the status of preparations as well as initial thoughts with regard to the actual execution of the mission. Again, unbeknownst to 

me at the time, that dinner turned out to be an interview of sorts as 

after dinner Colonel Bargery asked Colonel Spacy to modify my role 

in the task force. As a result of their conversation, my role was subsequently changed such that I was no longer the CFACC’s liaison officer (LNO) but instead the Task Force LNO to 2 BCT/1ID. What 

Colonel Bargery knew based on previous deployment experience, 

and I would eventually learn during TF 1041, was the vital role of an 

LNO in not only relaying information but also (and more importantly) representing a subordinate unit’s plans to its higher headquarters (HHQ). That said, with my role as LNO not yet necessary, Colonel Bargery first tasked me with both developing the TF’s organization 

and beginning the development of what would eventually become 

the TF’s scheme of maneuver.

Organizationally, the 823rd’s basic multifunctional USAF specialty 

code S-function (support) makeup served as the near-perfect model 

for TF 1041’s unit structure. With this in mind, Colonel Bargery directed me to focus on flight-level organization. In a nutshell, he had 

envisioned a concept of execution, and he wanted me to focus on 

structuring the three 823rd flights to fit that concept. The result was 

two maneuver flights with a third assault flight. The idea was that the 

maneuver flights would serve to fix the enemy during engagements 

while the assault flight would then be used to engage and destroy 

enemy formations. We would eventually have to adjust this organizational methodology because while it was sound in theory, as in any 

situation, the enemy gets a vote; the enemy we would face simply 

didn’t mass like we had anticipated. Subsequently, we had to reorganize into slightly smaller tactical units. These units would prove to be 

capable of engaging in day-to-day smaller scale squad-level operations while retaining the ability to merge together, with inherent of-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 165

ficer and senior NCO leadership, to also conduct flight-level operations when required. This experience would serve as the first of many 

lessons to prove the Air Force adage that flexibility is the key to airpower. With our initial organizational efforts completed, we next 

turned our attention to developing the initial scheme of maneuver.

From a scheme of maneuver perspective, Colonel Bargery’s initial 

guidance was to develop a concept in which TAOR Mitchell would be 

split into two subsectors. The idea was that the two maneuver flights 

would occupy the subsectors and operate to identify enemy operating locations. Once identified, the assault flight would then also engage to assist with defeating the enemy in detail. Again, while this 

plan was sound in theory, the enemy had a vote, and its vote did not 

end up supporting our initial concept of operation. Much like the 

organizational modifications, we would also adapt our unit-level tactics based on intelligence and associated enemy activity. For the time 

being, however, we felt we had laid the basic foundation for operations such that it was now time to focus on preparing for the arrival 

of the TF main body (e.g., the 823rd, augmentation forces from the 

820th Group staff as well as the 824 SFS and those AEF forces needed 

to round out the task force).

The 823rd and augmentation forces arrived in the middle of December 2004. At about the same time, the TF’s vehicles and equipment also arrived. The first order of business was to establish the 

various squadron areas. Inside the hardened aircraft shelters were the 

S-1 (Personnel and Administration), S-2 (Intelligence), and S-3 (Operations—the ops and TOC tents), the armory/weapons cleaning 

area, and the command section. The remaining S-functions (e.g., the 

S-4 [Logistics], S-6 [Communications], and Medical Division) were 

established immediately outside the HAS. The idea was to try and put 

as many of the high personnel traffic areas inside the HAS as possible. 

The S-4 and S-6 were placed outside the HAS to position them as 

close as possible to their assets/resources.

While able to handle any and all communications issues, the S-6’s 

focus was vehicle communication. Unfortunately, while we received 

all the UAHMMWVs we requested, none of them came with communications equipment. Eventually the equipment arrived, but installing the kits inside the vehicles turned out to be no easy task. 

Thankfully, as with all 820th squadrons, the 823rd brought its own 

ground communications expertise. These squadron communications 

personnel were further augmented by the 820th Group’s chief of 
166 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

communications and the ranking ground communications senior 

NCO. The rather robust nature of our communications capability 

turned out to be a huge blessing. It became clear pretty early on that 

while our inherent capability was more than equal to the task of 

maintaining the vehicle communications equipment, given the complex nature of installation coupled with the relatively short timeline 

we had to get the vehicles fully mission capable (FMC), outside assistance would most certainly be necessary. USAF captain Sean Kern 

adeptly directed the installation, and when it became clear he’d outstripped his own capability, he reached out to an Army communications unit. Together, the Airmen and Soldiers were able to achieve 

communications FMC in relatively short order. While the combined 

team made it look easy, the keen observer could see the task was actually quite complicated.

At the same time the TF staff focused on setup and achieving FMC, 

the maneuver flights focused on training, rehearsing, and practicing 

precombat checks/inspections. The training phase brought to light a 

fundamental flaw that not only struck me in the moment but also 

would be something I would never forget. Specifically, it was obvious 

pretty early on that while flight personnel demonstrated a certain 

level of expertise, they were not yet ready for the robust nature inherent to offensive ground combat operations—especially at the flight 

level. This revelation was striking because the 823rd had been conducting outside-the-wire operations at the squad level during its previous four months at Kirkuk. Training performance highlighted the 

fact that we as security forces had not encountered the level of ground 

combat intensity we expected to experience during TF 1041. We also 

had to face the reality that despite war stories to the contrary, as a 

community, we’d never really trained for operations above the squad 

level. To confront these shortfalls, it became clear we’d have to train as 

extensively as time would permit on concepts such as fire and maneuver, team tactics, and team integration if we were going to meet 

Colonel Bargery’s training intent as well as his intent as outlined in 

the initial CONOPS. Fortunately, we were able to effectively articulate our concerns to the Airmen so that they fully embraced the fact 

that they had work to do, despite their experiences at Kirkuk. As a 

direct result of their understanding, motivation, and dedication, we 

were able to take squads and flights that had performed admirably at 

the squad level in a lower intensity environment and turn them into 

an effective combat fighting force. It would eventually be ready to 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 167

tackle the challenges inherent in being the Air Force’s first squadronlevel battlespace-owning unit since at least Vietnam, if not ever.

Despite the short timeline, as the 1 January 2005 mission start date 

approached, the flight personnel made the transformation. During 

this training period, my role as the TF LNO to the brigade headquarters was again modified. Instead of serving as the liaison between the 

TF and the brigade, I was again reassigned but this time to serve as 

the TF S-3. Given that I had been a squadron commander for over a 

year at this point with two deployments under my belt, I thought I 

could easily make the transition. What I found as I evolved into the 

S-3 role, however, was that much like the SF I was serving with, I had 

never before faced the challenges I would face as an S-3 in charge of 

offensive ground-combat operations. Thankfully, with the support of 

tremendous flight and squad leadership; the help of a talented S-3 

team; and the leadership, mentorship, and guidance of the most tactically proficient ground-combat commander I’d ever served with, I 

was able to adequately fill the role. Looking back, I’m somewhat 

amazed I pulled it off given where I was in my career from a training, 

education, and experience point of view. But somehow I did, and as 

ODS’s D-Day approached, I did my best to ensure that the S-3 staff 

was as ready from a plans point of view as the flight-level Airmen 

were from a tactics point of view.24

Eleventh-Hour Change of Mission

General Spacy: It was 2200L (local time) on 30 December 2004, 

less than two days before the start of Operation Desert Safeside. We 

had done all we could from the staff; it was now up to Colonel Bargery 

and the men and women of TF 1041. I was in my trailer in the CAOC 

compound at Al Udeid AB getting ready for bed when Brig Gen Blair 

Hansen, the 332 AEW commander at Balad AB, called. I was surprised to hear from him at this hour. He said, “Brad, you need to get 

up here right away. Randy is breaking the deal.” Randy was Army 

colonel Randy Dragon, and the “deal” was the handshake deal about 

executing the TACON relationship he had made earlier with General 

Buchanan. Events on the ground in Mosul drove Colonel Dragon to 

consider moving TF 1041 from Balad to Mosul to help bolster the 

brigade’s defenses there. This news was alarming, to say the least. We 

had worked so hard and overcome so many obstacles just to make 
168 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

this operation happen, and now it might all go away just two days 

before it started—I was in shock, and I was mad.

I told General Hansen I would try and get on a C-130 in the morning but that I couldn’t get to Balad that night. He told me to stand by, 

and then he hung up on me. I sat there on my bed trying to think of 

what I could do. After about 10 minutes, General Hansen called back 

and said that a C-17 was on the ramp with engines running—he told 

me to get on it. I couldn’t believe it. I tried to call Sergeant Pritchard; 

we always travelled together for security, but I couldn’t find him. So I 

grabbed my rucksack and headed to the flight line. Sure enough, a 

C-17 was parked in front of Base Operations with its engines running. I ran straight out to the plane and got on; I was the only passenger, and there was no cargo. The loadmaster took me up to the 

cockpit as the engines spooled up, and we started to move. The aircraft commander looked over his shoulder and said, “You must be 

someone important!” I didn’t say anything back—I just let him think 

I was special.

I arrived at Balad at about 0200. General Hansen and Colonel 

Bargery met me at the plane. We all went over to General Hansen’s 

office to get our argument together; Colonel Dragon was coming over 

at 0600. We discussed Colonel Bargery’s plan, our agreement, and 

other details, but really it came down to a handshake. I was pretty 

fired up by the time Colonel Dragon showed up and was ready for a 

fight. He rolled into the conference room with four of his Soldiers. 

They were dirty and had full combat gear on—they were an impressive looking group. I said, “Randy, this is BS—we had an agreement!” 

He looked back and simply said, “Yea, you’re right, I don’t know what 

I was thinking. I won’t mess with your guys.” That was it. After a night 

of flurried activity prepping for a fight, Colonel Dragon didn’t even 

argue. He just consented to stick with the agreement. It was anticlimactic; we almost wanted more of a fight. We talked for a few minutes, and then Colonel Dragon and his team left as suddenly as they 

had appeared. We were stunned. General Hansen had decided he 

wanted a photo of the task force before the operation began, so we all 

went over to the TF 1041 area and posed for the photo below. General 

Hansen and I left immediately after the photo and let Colonel Bargery 

focus on his troops—they had a combat operation to execute in less 

than 24 hours.
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 169

Courtesy of 332 AEW Public Affairs

Task Force 1041, 31 December 2004

I wanted to stay at Balad and be there for the next day’s first combat patrols but knew I would just be in the way, so I went back over to 

the flight line and caught a C-130 back to Al Udeid. I found my guys, 

and we spent New Year’s Eve under the “Bra” at Al Udeid. We drank 

our two beers, and I told them what had happened. We said a quiet 

prayer for TF 1041. We were exhausted. It had been a wild five 

months, and we couldn’t wait for ODS to begin.

Concept of Intelligence Support for TF 1041

General Spacy: Prior to transitioning to the execution phase of TF 

1041, there is one last critical part of the concept phase that merits 

consideration. Specifically, we knew that intelligence was going to be 

critical for ODS. To be successful at stopping attacks on Balad AB, TF 

1041 would have to get inside the insurgent planning and decision 

cycle. I wanted to somehow use the intelligence collection and analytical power of the CAOC Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance Division (ISRD) to support ODS. We were using some of the 

ISRD products for basic intelligence preparation of the battlespace 

(IPB), but we needed a more deliberate effort. We called this new 

look at intelligence “force protection intelligence” (FPI) and planned 

to use it throughout the theater to support base defense. Fortunately, 

Lt Col Roger “Ajax” Trueblood landed on my doorstep in November 

with no warning but ready to work. Ajax was an experienced intel 

officer with the creativity and innovation we needed—I assigned him 

to developing the ISRD capabilities. Ajax would upset a few applecarts in the process, but his work establishing an operational FPI network would be invaluable.25
170 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Lt Col Roger “Ajax” Trueblood, USAF, retired, FPI, Air Forces Central (Forward), November 2004–May 2005: By 2004 the insurgency in 

Iraq had grown into a lethal threat with many tentacles. Violence in 

most of the country was on the rise, and extremists were becoming 

adept at using a range of weapons and tactics, including IEDs, snipers, ambushes, assassinations, and kidnappings. One of their methods was to launch mortar and rocket attacks on coalition bases and 

installations. These indirect fire attacks were normally inaccurate and 

at first were little more than a nuisance. However, as their frequency 

mounted and assailants began using heavier and more accurate 

weapons, the IDF threat became more serious.

To the US Army, with Soldiers outside the wire every day dealing 

with IEDs and other threats, IDF seemed like a relatively minor problem. From the USAF perspective, however, IDF attacks on forward 

air bases in Iraq were a dangerous force-protection issue. At Balad 

AB, incoming rounds had become so common (with several attacks 

each day) that the base became known as “Mortaritaville.”

By mid-2004 there were some coordinated efforts to deter and disrupt the IDF threat at Anaconda/Balad, with surveillance assets scanning likely launch sites and counterbattery fire quickly directed 

against points of origin (POO) when an attack was detected. Points of 

impact (POI) were photographed and analyzed to determine the 

round fired and direction of attack. Still, rounds continued to fall 

daily on the base. Most worrisome were the impacts of 120 mm mortar shells and 122 mm rockets.

Setting Up FPI and Analyzing a “Wicked Problem”

In November of 2004 I arrived at Al Udeid AB in Qatar, assigned 

to the CENTAF director of force protection to be his chief of FPI. 

This job certainly wasn’t normal for a lieutenant colonel Air Force 

Reserve intelligence officer, but it turned out that much of my past 

experience (tracking guerrilla forces in Central America early in my 

USAF career and later analyzing weapons smuggling and arms trade 

for a national agency) was directly applicable.

The first time I met Colonel Spacy, he launched right in to brief me 

in-depth on the plan for ODS and talked about how important intelligence would be for its success. He wanted me to leverage as much 

“intel power” as possible to support TF 1041 and to help figure out 

how to reduce the IDF threat against Balad AB. He was passionate 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 171

about the mission, and it was clear he understood how intelligence 

could drive successful operations.

The other charter he gave me was to work with the SF squadron 

intelligence sections, or S-2s, deployed to all the forward air bases 

across the CENTCOM AO. Filling most of those positions were 

young security force NCOs or Airmen—completely new to the world 

of intel—with just a few trained USAF intelligence personnel augmenting them.

Beyond gearing up the intel system to support the operation at 

Balad, we were working hard to forge a first-ever FPI network across 

the theater. Both were groundbreaking initiatives, and both necessarily ran into bureaucratic roadblocks and ruffled some feathers.

Early on, I decided to embed on the main floor of the CAOC’s 

ISRD rather than work in the FP trailer or a separate office. This positioning allowed the best access to information, communications, 

and people whom I could turn to for help—which turned out to be 

highly valuable. But it also emphasized a “square peg in a round hole” 

problem.

My orders assigned me to the special staff reporting to Colonel 

Spacy—not to the A-2 or ISRD chief—causing significant friction. 

Moreover, my role in advancing the FPI cause was not readily understood or appreciated by ISRD leadership. Frequently, I had to overcome resistance to get access to necessary data or wrangle my way 

into key meetings. My efforts necessarily put me into heated debates 

with the A-2, ISRD chief, OSI, and others, and some of that heat 

transmitted up to Colonel Spacy. But it was clear to me that the troops 

of TF 1041 needed all the intel support they could get to succeed in 

their mission and survive in a dangerous place.

Almost immediately after checking in, I began trying to understand the “wicked problem” of the IDF attacks. From an analytic perspective, it posed many tough intel questions. Who were the perpetrators of the attacks? Were there specific insurgent cells dedicated to 

firing mortars and rockets? Were they trying to hit certain targets? 

What was their objective? Did they have operational patterns we 

could exploit? Although there was much reporting on the daily attacks on Balad AB and other installations across Iraq, not much real 

analysis had been done to answer the deeper questions.
172 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Fighting for Collection Priority and Platforms

Working the CAOC system to submit collection requirements and 

arrange for ISR coverage was a distinct challenge. As per doctrine, the 

ISRD’s collection management function was set up to prioritize and 

arbitrate among multiple requests for ISR support from across the 

CENTCOM AOR, normally coming in from corps level or higher. It 

was completely nonstandard for a tactical-level conventional unit to 

submit collection requests directly to the ISRD, so I had to pull some 

bureaucratic jujitsu to submit ISR requirements for TF 1041.

Given the high interest in the operation from the CENTAF commander and USAF leadership, I argued strongly that ISR requirements for TF 1041 should be bumped up a few notches in priority. 

That request met with mixed success. The ISRD collection manager 

was an RAF major who was very thorough and knew I was pushing 

at the edges of standard operating procedures. He was sympathetic 

with the mission and understood the importance of protecting vulnerable air assets, so he gave a little—but only so far. In one collection 

priorities meeting, I pressed for bumping TF 1041 requirements up a 

level by calling it a counterterrorism mission. The ISRD deputy shot 

back, “You’re just playing semantics,” but I persisted, and in the end, 

the collection manager gave the task force a higher priority on his 

requirements matrix.

Sometime in November I caught a C-130 to Balad AB, mainly to 

see what kinds of intel support I could arrange with organizations 

there on the ground. I found many promising possibilities and gathered contact information. But I was struck that there was really no 

central coordinating intel hub at Balad, and most organizations had 

priorities other than countering the IDF threat. The Army’s intel 

structure at Balad was highly fragmented.

We did make an encouraging connection with the officer in charge 

of the USAF Predator launch and recovery unit. He was enthusiastic 

about providing ad hoc full-motion video (FMV) coverage for TF 

1041 as Predators returned to Balad from missions and had “playtime” remaining. Having Balad-based Predators support on a noninterference basis would have provided around a dozen FMV missions 

each week. Apparently, though, USAF higher-ups back in CONUS 

quashed the initiative just before the operation began.

Just at that point, I got wind of a contractor-operated test program using several smaller Mako RPVs flying out of Balad. They 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 173

would have been a perfect platform to support TF 1041, and the program managers were trying to find an operational customer before 

they had to pack up their aircraft and leave Iraq. Unfortunately, the 

strings that needed pulling to keep the Makos flying for a couple 

more months reached all the way to DC and couldn’t be yanked fast 

enough.

Project Angelfire

I was able to wrangle up concrete support in two areas. The small 

National Geospatial Agency (NGA) geospatial cell embedded in the 

ISRD was eager to help. Through it, we ordered several special imagery products—including a custom-made 3-D terrain map of the 

AO—that were provided to the TF. More importantly, I was able to 

establish a great working relationship with Mr. Joe DeAngelo, the 

NGA data scientist on TDY rotation. As I explained the TF mission 

and the challenge of analyzing the IDF threat around Balad, he proposed using ArcGIS to create a geospatial information system (GIS) 

to portray all the mortar/rocket POOs and POIs. Doing so would 

enable high-fidelity pattern analysis of the problem.

I made sure that he got the IDF incidents as far back as the data 

was reported and then worked closely with him to clarify information on weapons and enemy activity. Then, after the IDF data was 

entered, we began to add data layers for IEDs, weapons caches, direct 

fire attacks, and other incidents. What resulted was a multidimensional, multisource, geospatial picture of insurgent activity around 

Balad AB that could be sliced and diced chronologically and in various ways to better understand what the enemy was doing.

We called it Project Angelfire, and once word spread, it became a 

high-interest project. For several weeks, general officers and their civilian equivalents dropped by to see Angelfire’s multilayered, animated display and get briefed on its implications. In 2004 the art of 

using geospatial intelligence in a counterinsurgency environment 

was still being developed by the NGA and others. While Angelfire 

was not entirely unique (special mission units were already using 

these methods for pattern analysis), it was new to the CAOC and was 

certainly the first purpose-built GIS to support USAF SF or to analyze IDF patterns.

A few weeks before ODS began, we managed to deliver an NGAbuilt computer, with Project Angelfire installed, to Balad for the use 
174 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

of TF 1041. The original GIS stayed in the ISRD, where the NGA cell 

and I continued to use it to reveal interesting patterns. For example, 

using Angelfire, it became obvious that many of the IDF attacks on 

Balad were originating along the irrigation canals that stemmed 

from the river and crisscrossed the fields around the villages in 

TAOR Mitchell. This data indicated that insurgents were using the 

thick foliage to conceal caches and launch points and possibly to 

move in weapons and munitions by small boat. Later, that theory 

proved to be correct.26

Additional Considerations

Colonel Lyons: From an intelligence perspective, one key aspect of 

TAOR Mitchell that has not yet been discussed is that the area became uncharacteristically hostile in early 2004 when the villages were 

“PUCked” en masse. The practice of processing potential hostiles as 

“persons under control” was awkward and inaccurate. It essentially 

involved processing a large group of people to discern which persons 

might be enemy operatives. Usually, a PUC event took place in a 

building, perhaps a street, or a small section of a neighborhood. This 

particular PUCking was atypically large—a collection of three or four 

villages in an area greater than 20 square km. Specifically, friendly 

troops surrounded the area with concertina wire and established 

roadblocks, and all males 16 and over were PUCked. They were then 

collectively processed as prisoners, though most were allowed to return home within 48 hours. This approach proved to be anything but 

productive. It not only failed to result in the capture of perpetrators 

but also undercut the mandate of the area sheikh to implement civil 

order and emasculated the local farmers.

The experience was enough to inspire a few hot-blooded and unemployed villagers, with the support and at the direction of the local 

sheikh, to initiate an area-denial campaign with IEDs. The coalition 

response was swift and unforgiving as houses near bomb emplacements were torched and surrounding farms burned. Villagers in 

nearby residences who were both unaware and uninterested in the 

bombings, including women at home alone, were also PUCked. The 

tactic failed to catch the perpetrators and instead incited further violence. Villagers reached out to enemy forces for support, offering 

them safe passage and logistical support in return for enhanced security against the coalition threat. IDF attacks against the air base in-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 175

creased with villager support. From mid to late 2004, Army units in 

the battlespace directly north of Balad incurred heavy losses—as high 

as 30 percent—primarily from IEDs.

It is also important to understand that since 2003, tribal leaders in 

area farming villages were pressured to implement anticoalition action for political and humanitarian reasons. Their only interaction 

with the coalition was hostile, forging their resolve to support and 

participate in anticoalition activities. The villagers perceived coalition forces as irrational and unjustifiably hostile because tactical implementation was not centered on effective communication. Civil affairs operations were limited and awkward. As one example, a 

coalition civil affairs team built a school far from the villages on government land without the knowledge or buy-in of the villagers. 

Though almost a year had passed since breaking ground, the “school” 

was an empty shell of concrete, wholly unoccupied. The villagers referred it as the “American building,” and they believed that since it 

was on government land, it was for tactical military use. They naturally avoided the premises for fear of arrest or worse.

The chasm of misunderstanding between the coalition and the villagers was immense. The mechanism to correct this gap—Arabicand English-speaking interpreters—was rare. Coalition units operating in the villages north of the base selected a local interpreter, young 

and inexperienced with little understanding or interest in coalition 

objectives. A small and weasel-like figure with little local importance, 

the interpreter saw working with the coalition as an opportunity to 

enhance his personal prestige. Locals viewed coalition troops as 

overly aggressive against what they perceived as innocents; the interpreter, by association, could not provide an explanation and put his 

life at risk. The interpreter was not particularly well treated and, finding that he could not defend or explain coalition action, began to alter translation to vent his hostility and gain local prestige. Soon he 

was spouting themes about pork eaters and infidels, eventually including standard rhetoric that coalition forces were actually Israeli 

troops forcing him to work.

For their part, the villagers were perhaps more tolerant by Western 

standards. They easily forgave what they saw as accidental, such as 

stray rounds that killed children, car accidents, and wrongful arrest. 

They did not forgive, however, aggressive violations of what they perceived as rights of privacy and independence. In their view, violations 

were willful and preventable—continuing despite protest.27
176 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Execution

In war, the only sure defense is offense, and the efficiency of the 

offense depends on the warlike souls of those conducting it.

—Gen George S. Patton Jr.

Colonel Bargery: To this point in its history, the United States Air 

Force had never formed and fought an offensive ground campaign. 

On 1 January 2005, ODS officially commenced offensive groundcombat actions to enable safe air and ground operations in the joint 

operating area and on Balad AB/Logistics Support Area Anaconda.

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

TF 1041 mounted patrol on mission

Over the course of the deployment, TF 1041 quickly grew and matured into an extremely savvy hunter force: culturally aware, intelligence focused, and unpredictably effective. Brig Gen Blair Hansen 

described its impact over 60 days as “greater than similar six-month 

efforts.” At the end of 65 days of offensive actions, TF 1041 Airmen 

conducted over 500 combat patrols, to include 56 clandestinely inserted close precision engagement teams or armed reconnaissance 

missions, 26 direct action raids, and 131 time-sensitive hasty raids 

against anti-Iraqi forces (AIF). In addition, numerous other intelligence gathering, information operations, and relationship building 

patrols were executed. TF 1041’s operations resulted in the destruction of many organized AIF cells and the capture of 17 confirmed 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 177

enemy operatives, to include 10 HVTs. Additionally, regional logistics nodes and funding systems were uncovered along with eight 

large weapons caches.

From a command relationship perspective, the Army interpreted 

our TACON relationship in the true sense of the word. However, the 

USAF expected TF 1041 to safely integrate with 2 BCT forces yet be 

free to conduct its mission on the ground in the manner necessary to 

achieve the greatest impact for Balad AB. The TF 1041 staff presented 

its plan to the 332 AEW commander, HQ USCENTAF/FP, and 

CFACC. They accepted the plan. It was significantly different from 

the 2 BCT focus.

To have maximum impact in its allotted time, the TF sought to 

match its existing and available USAF capabilities to the problem at 

hand. Its aim was a system of intelligence-driven, targeted operations 

designed to eliminate hostile insurgent activity against the air base 

and influence the villages in the surrounding area to accept the base 

as an enduring fixture and regional asset. The USAF version of the TF 

1041 mission was to capture or kill AIFs to ensure successful air operations and eliminate threats to forces on Balad AB. In the TF’s capture/kill mission, primary importance was given to identifying local 

insurgents, foreign fighters, terrorist cells, bomb makers, AIF financiers, and organizers. A secondary mission was to identify, locate, 

and seize unauthorized weapons and ammunition caches to reduce 

AIF war-fighting capability. Finally, the TF sought to engage the local 

populace—both to dissuade those considering hostile action against 

the base and as a FP measure for TF forces. In all cases, predictive 

analysis and targeting would be extremely critical.28

Comprehensive, Integrated Collection Plan

Colonel Lyons: TF 1041 designed an integrated collection strategy 

and tailored named areas of interest (NAI) to specific platforms with 

intent to maximize results. Each collection platform was tasked to 

provide specific information according to its capabilities, thus feeding 

the greater intelligence picture while developing actionable targets. 

Collector platforms included seven traditional platforms, human intelligence teams, nontraditional ISR, combat patrols, and organic 

sniper/observation/reconnaissance teams. Collection NAIs were 

overlaid on enemy templates for logistics and operations, generating 

ideal locations to observe, monitor, and collect against enemy activity.
178 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Once NAIs were determined, these were matched with the commander’s priority intelligence requirements (PIR) to determine the 

best collection opportunities. PIRs were subdivided into specific information requirements and essential elements of information for 

specific tasking. Assembled in a collection matrix, adjustments could 

be facilitated to ensure collection opportunities were met.

NAIs tailored to the platform and collection capabilities integrated 

with analysis of enemy templates produced positive results. Many enemy templates are available through conventional AOR intelligence 

sources, but local enemy templating derived through the IPB process 

and course of action (COA) analysis allowed for accurate predictive 

analysis.

IPB was centered on digital construction of the modified combined obstacle overlay (MCOO), including terrain, mobility, enemy 

profile, vegetation, canals, roads, and urban areas. In constructing 

the MCOO, the ArcGIS program was used with extensive support 

from the NGA representative at the ISRD. Digital construction allowed manipulation and modeling to include time and space, threedimensional terrain, event frequencies, data types, and route selection. Local AIF historical and proven capabilities were factored in. 

Planners developed a doctrinal fighting template for the enemy—

amending it with situational data, terrain, weather, most likely and 

dangerous AIF COAs, and so forth—and then analyzed it with a 

view toward constructing the TF planning cycle. The planning cycle 

included decision points and offered branches and sequels so alternative options were readily available for A-3/commander consideration. The commander’s critical intelligence requirements for decision points were woven into patrol requirements and collections 

matrices, allowing tactical agility for ground leaders.

Regarding the intelligence cycle, TF 1041 followed each step—focusing most on the final two phases based on robust attention to the 

first two.

• Planning and direction: Incorporated commander’s intent; included planning of data collection, conducting initial IPB (terrain, population, known targets, historic data), and determining centers of gravity.

• Collection: Used all available sources, tailored to the source capability targeted against the best collection vantage points for 

that source. Consistently debriefing patrols also constituted a 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 179

large portion of this effort—information reentered the cycle via 

these debriefs as patrol after action reports were analyzed and 

relevant information was redistributed into subsequent patrol 

intelligence prebriefs.

• Processing and exploitation: Built IPB data, assembled various 

intelligence disciplines into exploitable information, and coordinated with agencies for enemy TTP data.

• Analysis and production: Determined targets, modeled IPB, 

built charts and target packages, determined and built link analysis, developed blacklists, and built C2/ops/logistics networks.

• Dissemination: Shared information through target packages 

and mission folders, GIS products, “be on the lookout” (BOLO) 

books, blacklists, gridded reference graphics (GRG), link analysis, patrol briefs, and current intelligence and threat briefs.29

From an intelligence perspective, information sharing was critical 

to mission success—as it is for any operation. Transparency between 

HHQs (Army and Air Force) and among lateral agencies was attempted via e-mail, chat, frequent meetings, telephone conversations, 

and web publishing. Most area agencies and counterintelligence (CI) 

entities were cooperative and forthright when sharing information. 

While TF 1041 tried to disclose intelligence to neighboring task 

forces, no official forum existed for the melding of linked analysis of 

insurgent cells. As well, those TFs did not share our TF’s focus on 

targeting and eliminating the AIF cellular structure. Task forces even 

had differing opinions as to the level of affiliation many locals had 

with the AIFs. HVT lists were not synchronized across TFs, with TF 

1041 enjoying the most robust and comprehensive list by far.

Sharing of intelligence between TF 1041 and Headquarters CENTAF was hampered by TF 1041 A-2 staff deltas but improved steadily 

over the course of the mission. As the TF 1041 mission processes 

matured, a weekly intel report was forwarded to the headquarters. 

Cultural differences, struggles for primacy, and divergent priorities 

also hampered intelligence sharing between the TF 1041 A-2 and 

AFOSI CI nodes. It should be noted that with the relief in place of 2 

BCT by 1 BCT, the new Army HHQ sponsored three seminars in 

which TF 1041 A-2 personnel trained other TFs to adopt its link analysis and targeting models.30
180 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

The Operational Approach

Colonel Bargery: In analyzing the area’s AIF forces, conclusions 

were drawn about how they might present themselves. They were 

expected to use hit-and-run techniques. As well, they would watch 

the TF and continuously change and adapt to its TTPs. Ambushes 

and traps would be set for first responders. To counter this patient, 

adaptive enemy, a “red-team” approach was woven into the fabric of 

TF 1041 planning, with the intent to maintain the initiative and dictate the tempo of operations.31 Great pains were taken not to set consistent patterns as the insurgents would surely seek to adapt to the TF 

TTPs. Instead, the TF hunter Airmen sought to change their TTPs 

before exhausting the TTPs’ usefulness, even when they proved successful. The operations and intelligence fusion cell developed decision points for shifting to a new set of tactics, designed to keep the 

enemy off balance, and made recommendations as to which tactics 

to employ. TF 1041 briefs described the concept as “changing offenses in a football game from run to pass and changing offensive 

formations to disguise the intent.” This concept was instilled not only 

to achieve a greater degree of operational success but also as a FP 

measure. AIF interrogations confirmed that these planning techniques were working.

Air-mindedness was also woven throughout the TF operational 

offensive scheme for protecting the expeditionary air base. RAF Regiment tactical doctrine defines it as “an approach, which shapes the 

conduct of operations and training to maximize the effectiveness of 

Air operations (and minimize fratricide and accidents).” Further, “it 

is based on a thorough understanding of how Air Power effects are 

delivered and results in the natural tailoring of actions to best support Air operations. It is therefore important that FP for Air operations is delivered by Air Minded force elements and individuals with 

doctrine, structures, and equipment to meet the task, supported by 

thorough training and experience in focusing on the delivery of Air 

Power” (emphasis in original).32 Through implementation of this 

concept, the task force maintained a focus on air operations and the 

needs of the USAF at the forefront of the ground campaign.

Another offensive strategy often employed was the double-tasking 

of patrol missions. In studying enemy COAs, the USAF made the assumption that all attacks—IED, IDF, ambush, or other—on friendly 

forces were designed to disrupt patrol activities, divert attention from 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 181

AIF activities such as arms movements, or provoke an overreaction 

in the local populace. As such, missions were often dual-tasked between stay-behind, quick reaction force elements and the nominated 

maneuver flight. If the originally tasked element was attacked en 

route to its mission, the QRF element could be dispatched to execute 

the previously tasked mission—an unexpected planning factor for 

the insurgents.

As mentioned, AIF movement was targeted, and USAF security 

forces are adept at mobile intercept operations. The following excerpt 

is from an early TF 1041 planning document addressing possible employment formulas for anticipated attacks:

Enemy (AIF):

IDF – buried mortars – mobile mortars – rockets on timer

Proactive Efforts—Use technology and covert patrols (ambush, sniper) to set up/monitor likely points for emplacement. 

Use all-source intel to determine perpetrators and detain them 

prior to acting.

Reactive Efforts—Must be able to react to detection of incoming rounds. [This] requires numerous patrols available in 

the sector. Move to cut off likely escape routes from [POOs] and 

capture or kill. Use technology (JLENS [Joint Land Attack 

Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor], Predator, 

FPASS [Force Protection Airborne Surveillance System], SIGINT [signals intelligence]) to assist with real-time information feeds. Use air support when available, but enemy usually 

does not act when air coverage is up.

Organizers/financiers and supporters – low profile – trained 

and connected – on the move

Proactive Efforts—Use all-source intel to determine identities/locations for these persons. Plan and execute directed patrols to capture or kill them. Anticipate conducting raids, snap 

vehicle checkpoints, cordon, and search.

Reactive Efforts—Be prepared to conduct all the above in a 

hasty fashion, when necessary, upon acquisition of actionable 

intel.

IED teams – work at night – remote detonated with lookouts 

– pressure plates
182 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Address the same as IDF.

Small arms fire, ambush, and sniping

Primarily react to contact. Employ good security techniques 

to prevent losses. If engaged, look to move to contact and kill 

the attackers.

Criminals – kidnappers – extortionists

Address same as organizers, above.

Key to this illustration is that in responding to IDF, the teams plan 

to move not to investigate the point of origin but to key roadway 

choke points in an attempt to capture fleeing AIFs. Also of note is the 

emphasis on being ready to alter planned missions and redirect efforts to conduct hasty raids or other missions based on actionable 

intelligence. Such responsiveness would prove to be one of the most 

effective techniques for TF 1041.33

Colonel Lyons: All task force planning was driven by intelligence, 

whether reconnaissance, combat patrols, or direct action missions. 

Intelligence input for mission planning was primarily derived from 

predictive analysis based on the MCOO and IPB modeling. When 

specific, credible intelligence was available, direct action missions 

were assembled.

TF 1041 A-2 personnel also routinely took part in operations, contributing greatly to the level of awareness and involvement of the 

headquarters staff. Furthermore, the A-2 personnel, well trained in 

tactics, were major contributors to operations on the ground. Consequently, communication and information cross flow between A-2 elements and operational flights/squads were very good. The case was 

not the same for communication between the A-2 and A-3 functions, 

critical to and hindering mission planning. As the TF was breaking 

new ground for Air Force operations, the internal TF organizational 

structure and familiar methodologies did not adequately support 

mission planning efforts for this new type of operation. Effective 

leaders in each section worked tirelessly to overcome this problem.34

Colonel Christensen: Aside from the stark realization that—while 

prepared for lower-intensity ground-combat operations at the squad 

level—we were neither organized nor trained to perform higherintensity operations above the squad level, I took away three basic S-3 

lessons from TF 1041. The first of these was the concept of true 

intelligence-driven operational planning. We were extremely fortu-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 183

nate in that we had a talented intelligence division. With the initial 

assistance of OSI agents and analysts, Captain Lyons and his staff 

identified the key terrain in TAOR Mitchell and pieced together a 

detailed link diagram tying together the key insurgents and their 

cells. As a direct result of their efforts, we were able to specifically 

target the personnel and resources critical to the insurgent’s efforts 

against Balad.

The second lesson I learned centers on planning methods and processes. I’ve said many times since TF 1041 that I wish I knew then 

what I know now. As a graduate of the Command and General Staff 

College and School of Advanced Military Studies—both of which 

happened immediately after my time in TF 1041—I have a much better understanding and appreciation of concepts like the military 

decision-making process, the 96-hour planning cycle, and others. At 

the time, however, I didn’t fully understand them. Fortunately, Colonel Bargery knew what he wanted from a commander’s intent perspective and, more importantly, understood how to meet that intent 

through the plans process. In short, he explained three concepts that 

would prove critical to the task force’s overall success: current operations (CuOps), future operations (FuOps) (and the relationship of 

the two), and the concept of named operations as well as its role in 

the planning process.

From a CuOps/FuOps perspective, I quickly learned that we 

needed not only to provide the maneuver flights with daily plans in 

the form of operation orders but also to have a forward-looking view 

with an eye to the future. In short, based on the commander’s intent, 

FuOps focused on where were we going operationally while CuOps 

focused on what were we going to do today to get there. Again, Colonel Bargery knew what he wanted and how to explain it such that 

despite my lack of experience, he could guide me there. In essence, he 

described to me, in layman’s terms, the concept of the 96-hour planning cycle. At the risk of oversimplifying it, FuOps planners approached their task by “walking the process backwards” and basically 

doing two things. First, they articulated the commander’s intent into 

an end state of sorts. I say “of sorts” because it was a fluid target that 

would adjust based on what the S-2 was telling us about the impact of 

our efforts. Moreover, the end state was a rolling target in that it always stayed approximately 96 hours out.

Besides establishing a rolling end state, FuOps planners identified 

and initially planned “named operations.” I must again admit, at first 
184 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

I had no idea what that term meant. More importantly, I didn’t understand the relevance of the concept to our Army leadership. What 

I soon learned was that a named operation served as a focal point for 

planning and resource allocation (e.g., intelligence collection, fire 

and logistics support, etc.). It also conferred a formal structure for 

presenting higher-headquarters commanders with a clear picture of 

our focus and level of effort. Together with the rolling end state, 

named operations afforded a formal, institutionalized process to ensure that as a division, we in the S-3 didn’t become singularly focused 

on the immediate threat and/or crisis. That task was left to the CuOps 

planners.

Regarding CuOps, I learned two critical lessons. The first of these 

is that detail matters. Specifically, it is not enough to simply state that 

a certain maneuver unit (who) is going to a certain location (where) 

for a certain period of time (when). What must also be identified is 

the how (e.g., movement to contact) and why (e.g., to disrupt insurgent resupply efforts). Without these last two pieces of information, a 

combat patrol turns into nothing more than a ride through the countryside. As trite as that may sound, it has been my experience as a 

TF/S-3, base defense squadron (BDS) commander, and EBDG commander that such instances happen way too often—limiting our ability to be truly effective in the combat environment.

The second CuOps lesson learned was the need for flexibility. A 

single story best captures this lesson. Exactly four days after the national elections in January of 2005, we experienced TF 1041’s most 

violent day from an IED perspective. Given the combat intensity in 

the days leading up to and on Election Day and our relative effectiveness during the entire period, to say we were surprised by the insurgents’ ability to conduct such aggressive operations would be an understatement. I can’t remember the exact number of IEDs coalition 

forces endured in our TAOR, but I do know the mounting losses were 

absolutely unacceptable. Greatly concerned with what was happening, Colonel Bargery approached me and asked what I planned to do 

about it. I responded by telling him that I didn’t plan to adjust at all 

from the strategy in place. My exact words to him (and it makes me 

shudder even now to think about them) were, “We need to hold 

course with our current scheme of maneuver and not let the enemy 

inside our decision cycle.” Colonel Bargery’s response was direct. He 

simply stated, “Screw the decision cycle. I cannot and will not accept 

these kinds of losses among this task force or any other coalition 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 185

forces. I’m going to the brigade to explain to Colonel Dragon that we 

are doing everything we can to fix the problem. When I get back, you 

better be doing everything you can to fix the problem.” Colonel 

Bargery was not only passionate about the fact that we could not allow the situation to continue—he was also right. Operational necessity must always preempt a doctrinally correct planning process.35

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

TF 1041 Airmen conducting house-clearing operations

Colonel Bargery: Great effort was placed on profiling the seven villages north of Balad AB, each having a distinct character. Personalities in the villages were profiled with equal determination and in 

great detail. Criminal elements—to include hijackers and extortionists—were classified as hostile, along with AIFs, as the entities were 

often in league or indistinguishable. Link analysis, using Analyst’s 

Notebook software, would serve to indicate alliances and cooperation among individual operational cells. A comprehensive HVT list 

of wanted persons was established, and over 180 detailed target packages were constructed.

In an effort much analogous to behavioral influences analysis 

(BIA), actor classifications in the seven-village region outside Balad 

AB were examined in-depth. We wanted to understand who the adversaries were in terms of motivations and behavioral history, why

they would choose to oppose us, and finally, how likely they were to 
186 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

select a particular hostile COA against the air base. Though this effort 

was accomplished at a very tactical level, the BIA themes translate 

across several stratified echelons. Additionally, personalities were targeted not only for elimination or a hard kill but also for soft kills for 

intelligence gathering and, still others, for influence operations to 

gain accessibility for information operations and collection.

A predictive analysis methodology was used to build insurgent 

target data. For the capture/kill mission, the enemy’s center of gravity 

was determined to be his movement, with local civil support playing 

the role of a critical decisive point to enable enemy actions. Intensive 

terrain analysis and historical insurgent activity—to include attacks, 

IDF points of origin, IED attacks, temporal analysis of attacks, and 

known insurgent residences and villages—were layered to create 

probable movement corridors, launch sites, and weapons cache sites. 

This data provided patterns for study, contributing to predictive analysis. While historical and trend information are helpful, the TF kept 

its attention on the predictive dimension of analysis to better facilitate offensive operations. Types of intelligence and platforms used in 

intelligence collection efforts included but were not limited to imagery intelligence (IMINT), signals intelligence (SIGINT), measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT), human intelligence 

(HUMINT), Predators, Global Hawks, the Joint Surveillance Target 

Attack Radar System (JSTARS), U-2s, and Makos. Conscious effort 

was made to ensure that collection platforms were chosen to fit the 

situation and that situations were not shaped to fit collectors. In addition, nontraditional collection methods included rotary-wing attack 

aviation; fighter aircraft; and sniper, reconnaissance, and combat foot 

patrols. Crews and patrols were debriefed upon return to base, and 

that information was incorporated into future planning.

Targeting

Colonel Bargery: TF 1041 used deliberate and time-sensitive targeting (TST). With a large number of potential insurgent residences and/

or compounds identified in the AO, deliberate targeting focused on 

the “manhunt” and tailored direct action raids. TST was initially a 

complementary effort to interdict enemy operatives and operations 

through the well-engrained rapid maneuver or intercept ability of 

USAF SF, but TST eventually proved to be the most lucrative method 

for eliminating AIFs and their cells. TF 1041 staff and operational 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 187

squads gained an instinctive understanding of the enemy/friendly 

situation and operational concepts for striking targets through the 

numerous, extensive deliberate planning sessions. The residual from 

these sessions was an uncanny ability to deliver quick orders to tasked 

squads, enabling them to effectively strike TSTs in keeping with the 

overall TF 1041 offensive CONOPS—most often based on actionable 

intelligence. TF 1041 Airmen proved extremely adept at quickly gaining a high degree of situational awareness for their areas of responsibility and focusing already honed human instincts to achieve decisive 

results in capturing AIFs through individual and team initiative. 

Squad leaders memorized every inch of their assigned sectors, every 

face in every village, and every bump in every road. Like “cops on the 

beat,” they developed relationships and source networks, which, along 

with studying HVT packages, allowed them to capture human targets 

on their own. Good squad leaders were key to TF 1041’s success.36

Colonel Lyons: The TF 1041 target list was assembled borrowing 

from other organizations’ lists and then further developed through 

our own networks with specific restrictive criteria: sufficient data for 

conviction and geolocational data in TF 1041’s AO. This list was compiled in the TF 1041 A-2 operations center during a weeklong targeting board including a broad array of invited units and agency guests, 

as well as other personnel. The resulting list was prioritized by the 

board, with a view toward impacting AIF operations while enabling 

exploitation through interview/interrogation of detained targets to 

dismantle enemy cell structure. With this prioritized list as a guide, a 

synchronization matrix was built to strategize the effort in the AO.

A target package was produced for each identified target. Packages 

were assembled in six-part folders:

Part one: First, a target profile covering biographical and 

identification data (e.g., photograph and physical description) 

as well as activity and offenses. The profile clearly indicated reasons to detain and process the individual.

Part two: Cell structure identification and related linkages. 

This section could include several diagrams (Analyst’s Notebook software).

Part three: Charts showing individual’s known residence, operating locations, and other associated locations such as place of 

worship or other known associates.
188 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Part four: Imagery of primary target areas, including a controlled image base or GRG overview as well as handheld photos.

Part five: Intelligence gaps and PIRs on this specific target.

Part six: Miscellaneous.37

Colonel Bargery: Despite a comprehensive, deliberate targeting effort, the inability to effectively consistently conduct prestrike surveillance hampered the success of most of these missions. Associated 

work, however, was critical for TST operations and assisted with detainee interviewing. As in most cases, the planning versus the plan 

was key to the success achieved by both deliberate targeting and TST.

Time-sensitive targeting vignette. In September 2005, 1st Lt 

Doug Whitehead led two squads of Defenders in a nighttime area 

ambush along some of the predicted enemy movement corridors 

when USMC fighter jets spotted hostile fighters digging along one of 

the Balad area roadways. The USMC fighters relayed the information 

to the Balad ALO in the Balad TOC. Simultaneously, the TF 1041 

TOC liaison plotted the location and notified the TF operations center, which instructed the ambush squads to move back to an objective 

rally point and prepare to receive new orders.

Meanwhile, still tracked by the USMC fighters, the hostile IED 

team departed the scene in a vehicle and drove to a village, dropping 

fighters at two separate resident locations in the village. Given new 

assault orders for two separate grid coordinates, Lieutenant Whitehead gave quick battle orders and moved his squads to the village. He 

deployed the squads, approaching on foot, to simultaneously strike 

the two residences located in different areas within the village. The 

Marine jets continued to watch from above and, using the US Army 

TOC as a communications link, guided the USAF Defenders onto the 

targets. The Marines eventually designated the specific buildings with 

lasers from their aircraft, which could be seen through the Defenders’ 

infrared-capable night vision goggles. Lieutenant Whitehead’s Defenders struck the houses simultaneously and captured the IED cell, 

confiscating weapons and bomb-making materials and collecting 

evidence of their crime, to include taking residue samples from their 

bodies. Our S-2 intelligence capability would gain a great deal of information from these detainees, which would prove useful in future 

operations as we systematically unraveled the criminal, terrorist, AIF 

network within the Balad AB security zone. A USMC aviation element e-mail excerpt sums up the success of the mission:
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 189

We got the positive feedback on last week’s flight/mission. Profane 51&52 

were a section of Marine two-seat F/A-18D Hornet aircraft.

Capt . . . initially noticed the suspicious activity on his Litening Pod and 

started tracking on the suspect vehicle. We all piled on from there. We think 

Firebird 27 deserves the credit for being proactive and alerting the appropriate personnel. He had the KC-135 tanker come to meet our aircraft to maximize our time on station. Additionally he passed word to your security forces 

to bring NVGs so we could illuminate the target house with our Litening Pod’s 

IR [infrared] marker. The patrol had the fastest response I have seen for a 

quick reaction force—well done!

Glad we were able to help capture HVT 9 & 13. Good teamwork all around.

I look forward to working with you all in the future.

Semper Fidelis,

VMFA(AW)-242

Courtesy of Col Chris Bargery, USAF

Left, TF 1041 tactical operations center; right, night operations

Named operation vignette: Operation Desert Patriot. The first 

free elections in Iraq occurred on 30 January 2005. News and intelligence sources predicted poor voter turnout, especially in the Sunnidominated tribal areas like Balad. Reflecting back, many of us recall 

the news reports highlighting resolute, smiling Iraqis who voted—

proudly displaying their purple-inked fingers for the world to see. 

Purple ink was to prevent people from voting twice, and it was a sign 

of pride. The Iraq reality, however, was such that the purple ink also 

marked you as a target for those sworn to disrupt the elections and 

create a “river of blood” among those who had voted. In our AO, 

hostile forces were posting flyers on houses and leaving red handprints on cars and homes, warning local residents not to participate 

in the elections or their families would be killed.

As mentioned, the TF 1041 battlespace contained seven villages, 

four of which had voting stations. Though we were not specifically 

detailed to support the elections, we knew they would escalate violence in our area. We also knew that a successful vote in our area 

would signal a new level of security and serve as a sign to hostiles that 
190 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

the environment was changing in the Balad BSZ. We could clearly see 

the link between securing the locals and achieving not only a successful voting day but also uninterrupted air operations for Balad AB—

our ultimate goal. We redoubled our efforts within the AO and surged 

to disrupt enemy plans, focusing on the most likely high-casualty, 

high-effect enemy tactics: vehicle-borne IEDs, potential suicide 

bombers, and bomb factories. US forces were not allowed near the 

voting stations to avoid the appearance of election tampering or 

forced voting, so Iraqi National Guard and Iraqi police provided protection inside the villages near the voting stations. Due to the likelihood of violent contact and the day’s political sensitivities, I personally led the predawn and daylight security operations. Meanwhile, my 

S-3, Major Christensen, coordinated support and fires from inside 

our operations center at Balad AB. I handed off to him to take the 

afternoon and night cleanup actions.

Albu Hishma village was our largest village and the source of most 

of the trouble around Balad. On Election Day the mayor assembled 

the village’s voters on one end of town, waiting for the voting station 

to open and planning a freedom march through town to the voting 

station. We controlled the roads leading to and from the village and 

remained positioned along the town’s perimeter. The TF senior enlisted leader, CMSgt Dennis Vannorsdall, and I were out in the sectors early. We checked a .50-caliber machine-gun team on a vehicle 

checkpoint outside Albu Hishma and proceeded into the village. The 

voting station opened, but it was found to contain a large IED made 

from howitzer shells. We held back the anxious voters, cordoned the 

area, and called for EOD personnel. As the EOD team arrived to disable the IEDs, we were attacked by enemy mortars from the east, beyond the town near the Tigris River. Coordinating with the TOC at 

Balad, we were able to triangulate the mortar POO and coordinate 

counterfire from US Army artillery on Camp Paliwoda, 12 miles 

from Balad. The sound of the 155 mm howitzer shells sailing overhead probably should have been unnerving, but in this case, it was a 

welcome sound and eventually silenced the enemy mortars. As the 

mortars went quiet, one of our .50-caliber machine-gun teams 

opened up just outside the village. It was the same team Chief Vannorsdall and I had checked earlier that morning, led by SrA Nick 

“Maji” Megyesi. Maji’s team included A1C Sumner Cowan and featured Senior Airman William Ponder manning the .50 caliber. Ponder was a Citadel graduate and extremely respected in his flight.
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 191

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

Blocking position outside Albu Hishma village

Maji’s team used effective fire to stop an onrushing vehicle—heading straight for their position—that refused to heed the warning signs 

and negotiated the road obstacles. It was hard to believe that anyone 

in the car survived, but the passengers were wounded and detained 

by the team. The rules of engagement for the shoot were clear, especially since across all of Iraq, no civilian vehicles were allowed on the 

roads on Election Day.

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

Moving into position
192 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Back in Albu Hishma village, the EOD team completed its task 

disabling the bomb and departed to address another IED in a different village. Iraqi villagers began their walk through town to the voting station only to find the road leading to the voting station blocked 

by a large dead animal with wires protruding from its body—another 

IED. This would not be an easy day. Across the sector, other teams 

were beginning to have contact.

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

Airman renders first aid to injured Iraqi on Iraqi election morning. TF 1041 

secured Albu Hishma village, which was under mortar attack.

Eventually all the IEDs were eliminated, and the Iraqis voted in 

Albu Hishma and throughout other villages across our battlespace 

and others. One voting station in our AO was destroyed by a bomb 

just before Election Day. The TF 1041 Defenders participated in eight 

separate engagements on that day alone, some occurring in the late 

afternoon and into the evening. Several of these encounters included 

maneuvering to secure Iraqi army / National Guard positions and 

patrols during multiple attacks as the AIFs attempted to convince locals that the Iraqi army could not protect them. For actions in one 

engagement, Major Christensen was awarded the Bronze Star with 

Valor. Nearly equally impressive was the valor displayed by the Iraqi 

voters who had exercised their freedom to choose but whose purple 

fingers now made them targets for local terrorists and AIFs in the 

Balad AB BSZ. They did not back down, and with them, our Airmen 

helped make history.
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 193

Courtesy of Col Chris Bargery, USAF

Iraqis showing the “purple finger”—the overt sign they had voted

The commander wrote the following open letter to TF 1041 Defenders at midnight on Election Day’s end:

In this and previous weeks, you have been amazing. You were particularly 

exceptional today.

Throughout our brief American history, a small number of people have 

enjoyed the honor of standing strong for freedom. Today you stood bravely in 

harm’s way to allow all the people, men and women, young and old, of this 

foreign land to democratically elect their government; and the Iraqi people 

rewarded your efforts with a massive voter turnout, far beyond the expectations of those who would say your sacrifice in this war is for naught [emphasis 

in original]. It is not.

Your actions demonstrate perhaps the noblest of all of man’s inclinations—the fortitude to heed a higher calling and place a just cause above all 

else—above fear of futile effort, or scorn, or even death. Today is a truly historic day. Do not underestimate your part in it. Etch this day’s memories into 

your brain and burn its purpose into your soul, for you earned its glory. You 

are truly the heart and soul of what is best about your Air Force and America 

. . . each of you.

Tonight/this morning, as you pry the boots off your tired feet, as you 

wrench the body armor off your aching back, as you scrub the dirt and oil 

from your cracked hands, pause to think of the example you set today to the 

Iraqi people—its children, to America, and to the world. Think of all that may 

be possible, borne from your bravery, sacrifice, and effort. Think of it and 

know you have great reason to be proud of all you are doing here.
194 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

TF 1041 . . . know that this team, in this place, in this moment in time is no 

mistake. It is not luck or chance but the result of a predestined higher purpose. 

Today look your brothers and sisters in the eye and know that you are special. 

Briefly relish today, then lace up your boots, and continue your good fight . . . 

because that’s just what we do.

CHARLIE MIKE—“Continue the Mission”

Named operation vignette: Operation Baywatch. Following the 

intense enemy activity surrounding the Iraqi elections, our analysis 

concluded that the AIFs would need to resupply their rocket and 

mortar caches near and inside the Balad BSZ. For some time, Captain 

Lyons had been refining our intelligence preparation of the operating 

environment. The Tigris River served as the 2 BCT boundary with 

another Army BCT whose main effort was focused further eastward, 

which meant it had little interest in patrolling near the Tigris. Thus, 

the Balad AB BSZ was left exposed and with an open seam running 

along its north and east flanks. Captain Lyons believed that the enemy was exploiting this seam by operating against Balad from the 

other side of the river and by moving fighters, weapons, and supplies 

up and down the river within a few miles of the base. Having mastered the area’s movement patterns, he brilliantly focused his collections efforts and refined his analysis to provide Major Christensen’s 

S-3 team targeted operational corridors. Together, they built Operation Baywatch, designed to interdict enemy transportation and supply efforts in and around the Balad BSZ.

Success with most of TF 1041’s operations rested with young officers and NCOs leading in the field. Equipped with good intelligence 

analysis, operational planning, and extensive rehearsals, they made 

decisions and carried out actions on the objectives that proved to be 

very good. The patrols supporting Operation Baywatch would be no 

different.

On one particular patrol, the young technical sergeant leading the 

patrol asked for a personal meeting with me. He was only recently 

assigned to the 820th Security Force Group and confessed that he had 

absolutely no air base defense experience. He had spent most of his 

career performing law enforcement duties, most recently having 

served as an investigator stationed at Bolling AFB. Now in an environment starkly different from Bolling, he worried he would fail as a 

squad leader. I assured him that success would result from sound 

NCO leadership with proper task delegation and decision making 

and that his police instincts would serve him well.
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 195

Approximately two nights after our conversation, the same NCO 

squad leader led his squad into the target box established by the intelligence fusion and targeting cell. Patrolling in darkness along the 

Tigris River, he established an ambush on what appeared to be a 

likely location for boats to slip into shore. Remaining undetected as 

they observed the nighttime traffic moving on the river, one small 

boat seemed suspicious as it killed its engines and silently moved 

directly towards their position (fig. 4.3). With NVGs and PAC-4 

night fighting aids, the squad had the advantage on the enemy fighters—targeting and watching them all the way to shore, directly into 

their ambush where they captured the AIF weapons smugglers without firing a shot.

Figure 4.3. Ambush on AIFs at Tigris River logistics node. The boat 

was used to transport and launch mortars. Three insurgents, captured 

during TF 1041 logistics interdiction ops, routinely used this small boat 

to transport weapons and equipment. Note the red rocket-propelled 

grenade launcher, painted to blend with the boat’s red bottom, in photo 

inset. Courtesy of Col Chris Bargery, USAF.

The successful mission was reason to celebrate, but more importantly—using information obtained through subject interviews— 

Captain Lyons’s team constructed a major portion of the AIF’s supply, logistics, and weapons staging network. It included financiers 
196 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

and support personnel, most of whom became targets on the TF 

1041 HVT list as well as on lists shared by other agencies. In addition, the weapons cache and warehousing network provided ample 

terrestrial targets on which to focus, leading to other AIF captures 

(fig. 4.4).38

Figure 4.4. Operation Baywatch enemy scheme of maneuver. (Courtesy of Col Chris Bargery, USAF.)

Engagement Techniques

Colonel Lyons: To target local civil support, insurgent activity patterns were analyzed alongside known insurgent residences. Overt 

and covert reconnaissance patrols, cordon/search, cordon/knock, 

full-motion videotaping, and CI force protection source operations 

were targeted at specific areas with intent to engage and determine 

sentiment. Analysis of these events indicated focus areas for engagement activity.

Colonel Bargery: From the start, TF 1041 engaged the local village 

inhabitants. The overarching strategy consisted of four elements: 

demonstrated military competence, precision targeting, fair exercise 

of power, and respect for human dignity. The TF would prove proficient and precise at eliminating bad actors. Success in this area dem-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 197

onstrated the TF’s military prowess and proficiency in eliminating 

threats. It would also inspire faith in its abilities and promote the 

hope of security from AIF influence. In keeping with this theme, Airmen took care to ensure they presented a professional, ready image in 

dress, appearance, and action. Assuming constant observation, the 

unit would strive to demonstrate a high level of discipline in its TTPs, 

advertising its professionalism.

Precision targeting of hostile elements attempted to minimize disruption to village harmony and avoid detainment of innocents. 

Large, wholesale roundups of AIF-age males and indiscriminate 

searches of domiciles, not uncommon in the area, were avoided. 

Though risking the nondiscovery of possible AIF schemes, this strategy paid off through avoidance of spoiling relationships and resulted 

in valuable information flow to enable precision targeting of insurgents. In keeping with this theme, power was fairly exercised by 

young ground leaders coming in contact with locals. The TF Airmen 

were adept at understanding the routines of the villages and making 

good decisions on the ground that impacted them. For example, 

damage to homes, power lines, and walls was common in the villages. 

Squad leaders went to great pains to avoid this damage but when it 

occurred made efforts to correct the problem. This effort was noticed 

by the locals.

As well, the TF medical staff was put to good use treating children. 

One such case was a small girl wounded during a firefight. Sustained 

treatment over the course of weeks served to prove the TF’s respect 

for humanity. Squad leaders and CI personnel built extensive relationships and source networks that proved invaluable. Finally, the TF 

demonstrated its general respect for human dignity by maintaining 

consistent, polite contact with the populace and presenting the 

American human face to them. It cultivated this relationship primarily by not remaining in vehicles but instead relying on foot patrols in 

urban settings. The practice of speeding recklessly through villages 

and endangering women and children was abandoned. While commonly seen as a FP measure to avoid IEDs or ambush, it served more 

to provoke the local inhabitants considering IED emplacement as an 

option. Perhaps the most effective engagement piece was accomplished through one mature and savvy linguist/interpreter. Having 

spent time in both Iraq and the United States, this person actively 

sought out misinformation about US forces that AIFs distributed and 

often became accepted as truth. In doing so, he was able to paint a 
198 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

more accurate human picture of the TF personnel as well as the intentions of the United States and the air base to the local populace.

The combination of all these actions proved extremely successful 

in building relationships around Balad AB, increasing information 

flow to enable targeting and protecting USAF forces. Proof was realized in TF 1041’s ability to build an extensive source network in a 

short period of time, its amazing record of HVT captures, and its 

seemingly purposeful exclusion from IED targeting. Though the TF 

was attacked five times by IEDs, these attacks were disproportionate 

when contrasted with those against other service forces in the area. 

While this difference may have been attributed to the unpredictable 

nature of the TF operational scheme, TF Airmen instinctively believed they were being targeted less.

Courtesy of TSgt Michael Buytas, USAF

Airmen render aid to an injured Iraqi child

TF 1041 Final Thoughts

Our warriors are no longer limited to people who fly the 

airplanes. . . . Our entire force is a warrior force. Being a warrior is not an AFSC. . . . It’s a condition of the heart.

—Gen John P. Jumper

USAF Chief of Staff, 2004
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 199

Leadership Challenges

Colonel Bargery: Forging the team and keeping it together was no 

easy task. Most of the individual Airmen were motivated and proud 

to be on the team, but among the various mission support and operational communities, “tribalism” was definitely present. To keep individual Airmen mission focused, I issued five combat imperatives that 

I believed appropriate for the groundbreaking mission.

1. Nobody gets left outside the wire. As the number one imperative, 

troops would likely read it most often. TF 1041’s innovative offensive mission, the extent to which it would be exposed to 

hostilities, the potential severity of the clashes, and the untested 

nature of many of its formal and informal leaders all begged the 

question, How would a maneuver element respond when desperately engaged? The obvious and pragmatic element of the 

imperative answers this question for TF leaders. When chaos 

reigns on the battlefield, leaving a TF member behind is not a 

consideration. The leader’s decision cycle is narrowed, and all 

TF members are assured that their comrades will never leave 

them alone. Finally, this rule focuses the TF on the nature of 

the mission. It clearly relates, “You will be operating in a hostile 

area. You will likely engage the enemy and may be hurt or isolated, but you will not be abandoned. We are in this as a team.” 

During several chaotic moments reacting to contact, and even 

when US Army ground personnel required assistance, TF personnel were diligent to bring every person home.

2. Every combat-trained Airman fights. This imperative was designed to build cohesion and ownership of the mission among 

TASK FORCE 1041 COMMANDER’S

COMBAT IMPERATIVES

(THE BIG FIVE)

NOBODY GETS LEFT OUTSIDE THE WIRE

EVERY COMBAT-TRAINED AIRMAN FIGHTS

ALWAYS EXPECT TO BE ATTACKED

KNOW THE MISSION AND YOUR ROLE

FINAL INSPECTIONS & REHEARSALS ARE MANDATORY
200 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

all AFSCs. As we embarked on our new mission, we were modifying the staff functions and incorporating some new and varied functional experts not normally associated with combat 

patrolling in the Air Force. Basic skills were enhanced with field 

training in place. In the end, only one of the 227 Airmen assigned did not go on a patrol. Most went routinely, even as they 

were pulled from their headquarters staff or C2 function. This 

policy built an innate understanding between functional experts and security operators and enhanced the awareness of the 

staff, planning, and support functions. An irreplaceable trust 

and brotherhood were also achieved in most areas. AFSCs included intelligence, medical, communications, administration, 

personnel, first sergeant, supply, OSI, logistics, combat arms 

training and maintenance, and security forces. For several large, 

direct action raids, intelligence specialists were able to match 

overhead imagery and Predator feeds with ground they had already patrolled. Medics on patrol routinely capitalized on opportunities to initiate civic actions and engagement tactics by 

treating injured indigenous personnel, resulting in source networks and the development of a FP buffer with locals. Troops 

were seen as war fighters, protectors, and humanitarians.

3. Always expect to be attacked. Airmen on Balad AB were prone 

to attack inside and outside the wire. As we assumed our role, I 

expected the insurgent enemy to test us in one of two ways: (1) 

The enemy would immediately strike the TF in an attempt to 

dictate tempo, impose shock, and/or derail our strategy; or (2) 

The enemy would patiently watch/study our TTPs and attempt 

to strike us once we became predictable or complacent. The insurgent enemy chose the second option, but our sustained momentum and the unpredictable nature of our operations kept 

him off balance.

4. Know the mission and your role. As we pieced together our 

headquarters staff, many of the planners, analysts, and support 

personnel were ready to be on the manhunt or engage in security operations and ignore their less exciting duties. This imperative was designed to focus all members of the TF on their 

roles within the unit and their contribution to the mission. The 

overarching mission brief/order was given to the entire TF 

body en masse to promote understanding. Entities joining the 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 201

TF and those in Tier 1 support could also be referred to this 

rule to better achieve unity of effort. It was important for all to 

understand this operation’s unique mission and its theoretical 

boundaries so capabilities would be modified to fit the mission 

and not vice versa. The TF 1041 deputy of operations used this 

imperative to get better planning efforts from multiple functional experts and to bring JTACs, Predator operators, US 

Army attack aviation ground liaison elements, and other entities into specific operations with much success.

5. Final inspections and rehearsals are mandatory. We go to war 

with the tools and training we have, not those we would like to 

have. We could add onto but not completely reshape our junior 

leaders’ abilities to plan, order, and execute the offensive missions. In final rehearsals, mission problems can be noted, roles 

verified, and questions asked. In the absence of remarkable orders, a thorough, noisy rehearsal can prevent mission failure, 

loss of life, or both. In the insurgent combat environment, inoperable personal equipment or vehicle items can result in mission failure, death, or the annihilation of an entire maneuver 

element. Final inspections are designed to catch such problems. 

They require a dogmatic discipline among all personnel and the 

development of a responsible culture. The TF grade for final 

rehearsals and inspections was mediocre. Much of the vehicle 

damage was born out of negligence in vehicle inspections. At 

almost any time, leaders could conduct a no-notice final inspection on a patrol about to depart and discover troops without eye/hearing protection, body armor attachments, knee 

pads, and so forth. Even so, troops survived enemy fire, five 

IED attacks, and two vehicle rollovers, with survival credited in 

large part to battle drills and rehearsals.

Still, not only did unhealthy rivalries exist among the squadrons 

within the 820 SFG but also its leaders didn’t trust outsiders to play 

key roles within their ranks. Some functional communities were reluctant to participate from the beginning while others literally 

knocked on the door asking to be included. Some watched to see if the 

endeavor would be successful, then gave full effort. Halfway through 

the operation one functional community performed an unscheduled 

change of its personnel, all of whom had performed extremely well 

and been consummate team players. On the second day of the new 
202 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

team’s arrival, the team chief came into my office demanding that 50 

percent of the patrols be executed under his direction, or his team 

would no longer support the task force. Some functional communities worried too much about who would get the credit for successes 

while others attempted to ignore lessons learned and called the operation’s successes “anomalies.” As the commander, I believed that many 

functional communities or Air Force “tribes” were concerned that 

ODS’s operational success would set a precedent that would cost them 

money or manpower; create new organization, training, or equipping 

demands; or change the culture of their functional stovepipes. To that 

end, some made support difficult or refused to embrace its lessons. 

Stovepiped USAF functional communities aren’t accustomed to being 

task-organized for the mission but are instead fiercely comfortable 

operating within singular functional skill lanes. I spent a tremendous 

amount of energy just keeping the team unified when I should have 

been allowed to focus solely on defeating our enemy.40

Lessons Learned

Colonel Trueblood: Ultimately, valuable intelligence-specific lessons were learned from ODS and the whole ISRD/FP intel effort in 

2004–5. In terms of TF 1041, two things stood out for me:

• The insurgents firing mortars and rockets at Balad AB from 

TAOR Mitchell were part and parcel of the wider Sunni/jihadi 

network. The same bad actors who were setting up mortars 

were also kidnapping people, launching suicide bombers, and 

bringing in foreign fighters from Syria and beyond. We weren’t 

fighting a strictly local enemy but engaging one of the tentacles 

of the wider jihadi network.

• This scenario meant that the IDF problem was just one dimension of the insurgency. Consequently, the TF mission to disrupt 

and destroy IDF cells had to be widened in scope. Once ground 

operations began, TF 1041 was quickly involved in classic counterinsurgency activities, such as engaging with locals, securing 

the populace, and protecting polling stations. Countering the 

IDF meant countering the insurgency across the sector.

From the wider FPI perspective, these are the takeaways:

• The nature of force protection intelligence in a combat theater 

will necessarily be ad hoc. From a USAF perspective, the re-
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 203

quirement to collect, coordinate, analyze, and disseminate intelligence specifically relevant to protecting air bases from insurgent-type threats is a doctrinal gap unlikely to be filled. The 

FPI function will always have to be build-as-you-go and will 

require much flexibility and initiative—as well as a willingness 

to ruffle a few bureaucratic feathers. In that regard, the unique 

experience of TF 1041 should be closely studied by those facing 

a similar challenge in the future.

• This provisional environment also means that USAF security 

forces (or any forces dedicated to air base defense) will have to 

establish their own organic intelligence function at some level. 

Whether that means growing S-2s out of the SF career field or 

assigning professional intel personnel as is done in the 820th, 

air base defenders have to figure out how to integrate intelligence. Unfortunately, mission priorities and budget constraints 

mean that they cannot expect Air Force intelligence or the 

wider intel world to provide full and enthusiastic support.41

Colonel Christensen: In the final analysis, I would argue that while 

as a division we in the S-3 weren’t as effective as we could have been, 

all in all, we got the job done. In the process, as outlined above, I was 

privileged to learn a number of valuable lessons. Chief among these 

was the fact that while we—as security forces—have indeed engaged 

in limited OTW operations, before Task Force 1041 we had never 

engaged in the level of intensity and effort required in true battlespace 

ownership (and all that it entails). We learned concepts like the control and deconfliction of fires and the authorization of combat operations both inside and—in the case of a few special operations activities—outside the task force. Most importantly, I learned that while we 

in security forces definitely had the capacity to conduct true battlespace ownership, it was not something we were inherently or institutionally organized, trained, or equipped to do. As we closed up operations in the TF, I told Colonel Bargery that—in a perfect world—we 

would take the TF back to the States lock, stock, and barrel and use 

what had been built to formally establish a battlespace-owning 

ground-combat capability for the Air Force. Unfortunately, it was not 

to be. In fact, we wouldn’t again have the opportunity to execute formal battlespace ownership until Col Erik Rundquist and Col Kevin 

Cullen advocated for and officially received the mission to do so at 

Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan, in the spring of 2012.
204 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Perhaps the best way I can think of to describe what it felt like to 

have the opportunity to execute battlespace-owning ground-combat 

responsibilities is summed up in a comment I made to General Buchanan when he came to see the end result of what he had authorized 

when he approved the TF 1041 concept. During his visit to the S-3 

tent, I had the opportunity to brief the general on our concept of operations, scheme of maneuver, and even lessons learned. Seeing I was 

losing his interest in the briefing and having a bit of sympathy for the 

fact that he must have received dozens of briefings on Air Force operations of varying types in his time as CFACC, I abruptly stopped 

and summed up everything I was trying to get across by one simple 

assertion. I told him that of all the things TF 1041 represented to the 

Air Force in the form of ground combat capability, the most satisfying element, by far, was the fact that for the first time in my Air Force 

career, when an adversary took a shot at an air base, we, as Airmen, 

got to truly shoot back. More definitively stated, every time an enemy 

of the United States got the bright idea to attempt to destroy superior 

American airpower at its most vulnerable point, we, as Airmen, were 

allowed to find, fix, and then destroy in detail.42

Colonel Bargery: TF 1041’s brief but intense experience operating 

around Balad AB contributed numerous lessons to the USAF and 

proved concepts that now exist in USAF ABD doctrine and guidance. 

Upon touring the TF 1041 operation, Brig Gen Robert Holmes, 

USAF director of force protection and a career special operations 

force operator, declared it “a classic guns and roses campaign, using 

conventional troops in an unconventional manner to achieve a conventional effect—security of the air base.” Attacked by five IEDs and 

four IDF events (outside the base) and engaging in five firefights, the 

TF incurred only minor injuries. The TF’s impact is still being considered, but interim studies indicate that it inflicted severe damage to 

the local AIF operational cell structure—resulting in drastic reductions in IDF events, hijackings, and IED attacks. More difficult to 

quantify is the intelligence residual gained through interrogations 

and analysis of the area operations, some of which linked Balad’s local AIF cells to national actors. Finally, no metrics were available to 

measure the “security quotient” gained in local villages through demonstrated TF competence and engagement strategies; however, positive social environmental changes were evident. Villagers initially 

reluctant to communicate with US forces became more trusting and 

willing to exchange information. In addition, the hostile, primarily 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 205

Sunni area had a much stronger than expected voter turnout on the 

historic January 2005 Election Day in Iraq. While these elements 

stand as possible testaments to impact in this area, one TF officer 

noted that locals had begun to refer to US Army personnel as “the 

enemy” and TF Airmen as “the police.” Key elements to the success of 

TF 1041 were a keen intelligence focus tempered with cultural and 

behavioral analysis; an effective and precise offensive capability coupled with populace engagement strategies; and for the operation, a 

force-protection hedge built more on relationships and interaction 

than on speed and contact avoidance. These capabilities were made 

possible by the focused cohesion of a multifunctional team of ground 

enablers. My commander’s lessons learned are formed from significant common themes running through the TF 1041 story, and many 

hold lessons for the USAF’s future ground warriors:

• A small, highly trained, mobile fighting force with heavy firepower, good ISR, and strong leadership can get the job done.

• Airpower is best protected by Airmen who shape the operating 

environment and nurture and grow a secure ops environment 

for enduring air operations.

• Conventional forces can perform in an unconventional manner 

to achieve conventional results. They can

Ŝ prove/demonstrate military effectiveness and power to the 

local populace;

Ŝ promote civil security to minimize criminal and hostile activity; and

Ŝ target people, groups, and organizations deliberately, forcefully, and accurately.

• Engagement strategies can be used to sway the populace.

Ŝ Use dismounted operations to connect with diverse groups.

Ŝ Develop tailored tactical information operations.

• Focused all-source intelligence fusion is critical.

Ŝ HUMINT is important, but other collection platforms complete the threat mosaic.

Ŝ Focus on predictive analysis, not telling yesterday’s news.
206 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

• Source operations must be active and network-focused in law 

enforcement ops.

• In counter-IED initiatives, targeting bomb makers is more effective than targeting IED emplacement. Financing and logistics are also highly targetable.

• Demonstrating fair and intelligent military and policing effectiveness leads to successful operations and likely contributes to FP.

• USAF FP forces are uniquely well suited to countering threats 

in an insurgent environment due to their rare combination of 

tactical, behavioral/human skills, and intelligence focus.

• In engagement strategies, show the human face of America 

through dismounted operations, and employ trusted, infoindoctrinated, on-message linguists at the most tactical level.

• For FP, technology advances play a secondary role to increased 

cultural intelligence, behavioral analysis, intelligence preparation of the battlespace training, and engagement strategies. Invest in the human weapon system.

• Use a red-teaming approach to planning that anticipates adversary adaptation in order to adjust the friendly maneuver 

scheme/playbook and TTPs.

• For FP, speed and contact avoidance when moving in vehicles 

are less effective than are mastered area, situational awareness, 

and engagement strategy buffers.

• Develop the “strategic sergeant” and junior and midlevel officer. 

Train Airmen in close combat operations, joint war fighting, 

and cultural intelligence.

• In planning, develop the cultural battlespace with a view toward 

targeting personnel, groups, or organizational nodes for influence, security, or elimination.43

General Spacy: As ODS progressed, TF 1041’s success made continuing major OTW operations around Balad AB a real possibility. 

The task force was not only having a significant impact on the ground 

but also gaining great credibility with the joint forces as a capable 

combat force. Around 1 February, roughly the halfway point of the 

operation, General Buchanan asked how we could continue TF 1041. 

He wanted to know if we could deploy another similar unit to replace 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 207

TF 1041 in TAOR Mitchell. Although we very much wanted to continue ODS, I told him we should plan more strategically. Rather than 

replacing TF 1041 in TAOR Mitchell, I wanted SF to assume responsibility for all security and base defense for Balad AB—and eventually at every air base in the AOR. Captain Grimm led the study and 

predicted that to provide all security and base defense at Balad AB 

would require around 1,200 security forces with associated equipment (fig. 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Balad AB notional POO-POI map with proposed total AB AOR

The reality of SF manning still loomed large for the Air Force. Despite TF 1041’s success, a worldwide shortage of SF personnel existed. 

This shortage made any plan to expand base defense at Balad difficult 

to support. It is important to remember that we also began detainee 

operations at this same time—a requirement that would soon demand 1,200-plus SF Airmen on six-month rotations. Recognizing 

this reality, we developed a plan to work with the Army and “exchange” all USAF detainee operations requirements for all base defense and security operations at Balad. This deal would give the USAF 

the approximately 1,200 SF we needed to take on base defense at 
208 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

Balad and would return roughly a BCT-sized organization to the 

Army for retasking. General Buchanan liked the idea and told me to 

pursue it.

Even if the numbers worked out, the challenge still remained of 

getting 1,200 security forces and their leadership up to the performance level of TF 1041. As Colonel Bargery discovered, SF have all 

the basic combat skills but lacked training and experience in combat 

organization/leadership above the squad level. If we were going to 

expand OTW operations to roughly a base defense group level, we 

would have to systematically prepare SF for this level of responsibility. Once again our plan centered on building a cross-functional, 

task-force-style organization for the 820th Security Forces Group. 

We intended to use the entire 820 SFG—all squadrons and support 

personnel—as the basis for the organization. Doing so would give us 

roughly 600–700 of the 1,200 required SF. We then planned to round 

out the numbers by creating additional BDSs from AEF security 

forces. This entire new 1,200-person BDG would deploy to Silver 

Flag Alpha at Creech AB outside Las Vegas for a two-month training 

period. During this time, troops would focus on improving combat 

skills while also training in leadership based on lessons learned from 

TF 1041. The entire BDG would then deploy as a composite unit to 

Balad AB and work a relief in place / transfer of authority with the 

assigned Army units. Our plan was for the first training rotation to 

begin in the summer of 2005 with the assumption of base defense at 

Balad by the fall of 2005. Just as with ODS, implementing the plan 

was an aggressive undertaking.

Our small team hit the road to sell the plan. We worked our way 

up the Army chain of command in Iraq to the corps level and got 

good buy-in. We then worked the deal back in the Pentagon with the 

Army and Air Force staffs, this time getting good support along the 

way. Word of TF 1041’s success had spread, and opposition among 

the SF senior staff seemed to fade away. Unfortunately, just as we 

were finalizing the exchange deal, Air Force leaders balked at the 

plan due to the long-term commitment of such a large number of 

security forces. While the concern was reasonable, I was convinced 

that the drain driven by detainee operations should be an even bigger concern. I argued that at least with an SF commitment at Balad, 

we were investing in Air Force equities and had something we would 

control. To me, detainee operations were not only outside of our 

core mission but also a growing requirement with no end in sight. 
OUTSIDE THE WIRE │ 209

Much more back-and-forth discussion ensued, but the end result 

was that we would not replace TF 1041. The deal to trade detainee 

operations for base defense operations at Balad AB fell apart. It was 

a crushing blow, and it would be five more years before SF finally assumed responsibility for security and air base defense inside and 

outside the wire at Balad.

Although we failed to continue the OTW mission, ODS/TF 1041 

showed that security forces are a credible, capable ground combat 

force. There were dozens of lessons learned; over the next few years, 

we worked these lessons into USAF policy and doctrine. We may 

have failed to continue ODS at Balad, but Colonel Bargery and the 

men and women of TF 1041 proved that USAF security forces belonged on the battlefield.44

Notes

1. Christensen, “Air Base Defense,” 8.

2. Spacy, “Future of Security Forces in Combat.”

3. Joint Service Agreement on United States Army–United States Air Force 

Ground Defense of Air Force Bases and Installations, art. II, pars. 1(b) and 2, in Davis, 31 Initiatives, app. 6, 128. The agreement is known as JSA 8 because it enacts the 

eighth of the 31 Initiatives. The USA and USAF CSAFs signed the Memorandum of 

Agreement on US Army–US Air Force Joint Force Development Process on 22 May 

1984, prescribing the JSA’s development (in ibid., app. 3, 105–6).

4. Lt Gen Walter E. Buchanan, III, USAF, retired (combined force air component 

commander, August 2003–April 2006), written statement, 29 January 2016.

5. Spacy, briefing.

6. Maj Gen Bradley D. Spacy, USAF (director, Force Protection Air Forces Central [Forward], July 2004–June 2005), written statement, 1 February 2016.

7. Col Glen E. Christensen, USAF (operations officer, Task Force 1041, November 2004–March 2005), written statement, 1 February 2016.

8. Spacy, statement.

9. Seip to Spacy, e-mail.

10. Ibid.

11. Spacy, statement.

12. Buchanan, statement.

13. Spacy, statement.

14. Buchanan, statement.

15. Spacy, statement.

16. Buchanan, statement.

17. Spacy, statement.

18. Lt Col Armand Lyons, USAF, retired (intelligence officer, Task Force 1041, 

November 2004–March 2005), written statement, 6 April 2015.

19. Spacy, statement.

20. Christensen, statement.
210 │ BUCHANAN, SPACY, BARGERY, CHRISTENSEN, & LYONS

21. Lyons, statement.

22. Col Chris Bargery, USAF (commander, Task Force 1041, November 2004–

March 2005), written statement, 3 February 2016.

23. Spacy, statement.

24. Christensen, statement.

25. Spacy, statement.

26. Lt Col Roger Trueblood, USAF, retired (chief, Force Protection Intelligence, 

Air Forces Central [Forward], November 2004–May 2005), written statement, 30 

January 2016.

27. Lyons, statement.

28. Bargery, statement.

29. BOLO books were very sensitive items and strictly controlled. Patrol leaders 

were made to sign books out for operations, and the utmost attention was paid to 

their accountability. The loss of a BOLO book could have severely stunted operations, and extreme care must be exercised in issuing such materials.

30. Lyons, statement.

31. A red team provides “an independent capability to fully explore alternatives 

in plans and operations in the context of the operational environment and from the 

perspective of adversaries and others.” Red teams also “assist joint operation planning by validating assumptions about the adversary, as well as participating in the 

wargaming of friendly and adversary COAs.” JP 2-0, Joint Intelligence, I-28.

32. RAF, Air Pamphlet 3241, Force Protection Doctrine.

33. Bargery, statement.

34. Lyons, statement.

35. Christensen, statement.

36. Bargery, statement.

37. Lyons, statement.

38. Bargery, statement.

39. Lyons, statement.

40. Bargery, statement.

41. Trueblood, statement.

42. Christensen, statement.

43. Bargery, statement.

44. Spacy, statement.
Chapter 5

Three Enemies

Lessons from Enemy Air Base Attacks 

in Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan

Shannon W. Caudill

“By God, we’ve kicked the Vietnam syndrome once and for all!”1

So said President George Bush in a euphoric victory statement at the 

end of the Gulf War, suggesting the extent to which Vietnam continued to haunt the American psyche more than 15 years after the fall of 

South Vietnam. The same sentiment was on the minds of many Air 

Force leaders when they compared the results of ground-based attacks on US airfields in Iraq and Afghanistan to the effectiveness of 

the Vietnamese foe.

In Vietnam, Vietcong and North Vietnamese forces attacked 

American air bases 475 times between 1964 and 1973—primarily 

with indirect fire (IDF)—destroying 99 US and South Vietnamese aircraft and damaging 1,170 aircraft.2

 Such losses would be unsustainable 

today due to the high cost of aircraft production and the lengthy 

manufacturing process. In Iraq, only 15 fixed-wing aircraft were damaged across all bases.3

 In Afghanistan, air base attacks destroyed six 

aircraft and damaged four.4

 (Table 5.1 compares above statistics.) To 

put it simply, there is no comparison between Vietnam and the recent 

conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan with regard to aircraft losses.

While such comparisons appear impressive on the surface, they are 

fundamentally flawed. The enemy differed dramatically in each of 

these conflicts. If the success of defending air bases in Iraq and Afghanistan is misinterpreted, senior leaders and planners could easily 

be lulled into a false sense of security related to the air base defense 

(ABD) problem—which could well distort security planning despite 

growing threats. A misplaced confidence could be detrimental to present and future resource allocation for base defense functional areas.

A 2015 RAND Corporation study on airfield attacks found that 

ABD “has not been a priority for the institutional air force, primarily 

because it has not been conceptualized as a core warfighting problem. 

It also has not received the attention and resources from the joint community, a critical problem because ground-based air defense of air 
212 │ CAUDILL

bases is an Army responsibility.” The study also indicated that “the relatively low priority for air base defense has led to a variety of shortfalls in 

USAF capabilities and in Army ground-based air defense capabilities.”5

Table 5.1. Statistical comparison of fixed-wing aircraft destroyed and 

damaged by air base attack

Theater

Number of 

fixed-wing 

aircraft destroyed

Number of 

fixed-wing 

aircraft damaged

Estimated 

size of 

insurgency

Vietnam (1964–73) 99 1,170 300,000a

Iraq (2003–12) 0 15 20,000–

 100,000b

Afghanistan (2002–14) 6 4 20,000c

Source: Data was produced during the 2013–14 Air Command and Staff College yearlong research elective 

Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, instructed by Col Shannon W. Caudill. Student researchers 

were Maj Russell S. Badowski, Maj Jason F. Baggett, Maj Scott Black, Maj Loren M. Coulter, Maj Colby B. 

Edwards, Maj Raymond J. Fortner, Maj Steward J. Parker, and Maj Michael M. Wellock. Researchers reviewed 

all available Air Force history reports covering Sather AB (Baghdad International Airport), Joint Base Balad, 

Tallil AB, Kirkuk AB, and al-Asad AB. See notes 1–3 and below for specific sources.

a

“Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960,” The Pentagon Papers, Gravel ed., vol. 1 (Boston: 

Beacon Press, 1971), chap. 5, sec. 3, 314–46, www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent14.htm.

b

Daniel L. Byman, “Iraq and the Global War on Terrorism,” Brookings Institution, 1 July 2007, https://www

.brookings.edu/articles/iraq-and-the-global-war-on-terrorism/.

c

Peter Bergen and Katherine Tiedemann, “Commentary: More Troops Needed for Afghan War,” CNN, 

4 August 2009, http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/08/04/bergen.afghanistan/index.html.

Prior to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the USAF considered 

threats outside the air base perimeter the responsibility of either the 

host-nation or sister service forces.6

 In 1985 the USAF and Army 

signed Joint Service Agreement 8, formally tasking the Army with 

the exterior defense of USAF bases.7

 By 2005 the USAF had acknowledged that the Army would not have sufficient forces in some instances to effectively perform exterior ABD missions. As a result, 

USAF and Army leaders terminated the agreement, giving USAF 

commanders more latitude in defending air bases with their own assets.8

 Thus, today’s base defense operational environment is hamstrung by uncertainty as to which service is responsible for securing 

air bases, especially expanded outward from the perimeter of the installation. This lack of clarity projects a shadow of uncertainty on future responsibilities and resource allocation to meet potential ABD 

gaps and seams in capabilities.

Future air base attack threats may prove more daunting than those 

in Iraq and Afghanistan. Comparing the threats in Vietnam, Iraq, 

and Afghanistan is useful in identifying reasons for the disparity in 
THREE ENEMIES │ 213

aircraft losses. However, it is also important to examine enemy forces 

and future threats to which the United States has not yet been directly 

exposed. Groups like the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)—

also known as the Tamil Tigers, the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria 

(ISIS), and Hezbollah—have pioneered the use of airpower in their 

deadly work of targeting enemy forces. The LTTE went so far as using 

small aircraft to attack government air bases and facilities.9

 Finally, 

leaders need to ponder the current mix of forces and pursue the right 

organizational and operational template to meet the adaptable needs 

of future conflict.

US Base Defense History: 

A Comparison of Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan

IDF was the number-one threat to air bases in Vietnam, Iraq, and 

Afghanistan because standoff weapons enable enemy forces to attack 

from a distance, giving them a better chance of survival. A 1995 

RAND report observed, “The standoff threat, particularly from rockets, proved troublesome through the end of the [Vietnam] war. Given 

the nature of the conflict and the terrain, there was no foolproof 

countermeasure to this threat.”10 The single unifying commonality of 

air base attacks in Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan was the principal 

use of IDF. Beyond that, the three conflicts had little similarity. The 

terrain, political environment, and enemy were radically different.

Former deputy secretary of state Richard Armitage once argued 

that “Hezbollah may be the A-team of terrorists and maybe Al Qaeda 

is actually the B-team.”11 Armitage was simply looking at the capabilities and lasting effects of Hezbollah vice al-Qaeda. Similarly—

when examining overall effects—one can stipulate that of the three 

conflicts examined herein, there is a clear distinction between the 

enemy threat and proficiency of each. The Vietnamese deserve an “A” 

for their effectiveness in damaging and destroying aircraft. When 

contrasted with the Vietnamese, the Taliban is really a “D”-level 

player. While the group has mounted some spectacular attacks on air 

bases, its fire has been less effective. Finally, the insurgent effort in 

Iraq was haphazard and lacked any real impact against coalition airpower sortie generation—clearly an “F” effort. This categorization 

provides some context, but further case study analysis will show that 

even more daylight exists between the top and bottom tiers of these 

three enemies in their capabilities and effectiveness.
214 │ CAUDILL

Vietnam 1964–75

All sides saw the control and use of air bases in Vietnam as strategic. 

The defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu denied them their northern 

air hub from which to project airpower and disperse ground forces. 

After the withdrawal of the French, the entry of significant American 

ground forces was predicated on protecting air bases that had been 

attacked and harassed by enemy strikes. Finally, the North Vietnamese 

and Vietcong effort to overrun the US Marine Corps (USMC) air base 

at Khe Sanh showed the enemy’s all-out effort to deal a strategic defeat 

to the United States—similar to the impact of its victory at Dien Bien 

Phu. The sheer number of successful attacks on American air bases in 

Vietnam displays what a truly committed enemy can do to mitigate 

the effectiveness of airpower and hasten the negative effects of such 

attacks on political and public support at home.

The enemy in Vietnam was the most sizable, organized, exceptionally trained, and effectively led force of the three enemies studied. Its 

commitment to its cause was motivated by nationalism and ideology, 

sustaining its morale and will to fight despite major setbacks in the 

field.12 Insights can be gained from captured training documents emphasizing intelligence preparation of the battlefield:

Before mounting any attack, you must learn exactly the number of enemy 

troops and their armament . . . [and] all you can about the commander. . . . 

You should also study the morale of the enemy soldiers, the location of their 

strong points . . . and heavy weapons emplacements, and the organization of 

their forces. Find out what is the chain of command and how many men are 

in a squad, a section, or a company; identify enemy units by number or name. 

Find out the equipment of each unit, the fire power of which it is capable, and 

the political and military training received by the enemy troops.13

US forces put Vietcong and North Vietnamese air base attack 

methods into four categories: standoff attacks (today known as 

indirect fire), sapper raids, battalion-size assaults, and sabotage.14

Enemy forces claimed that it took between 3 and 18 months of training to prepare for air base attacks.15 Importantly, the Vietcong followed the Kiem Thao method, also referred to as “criticism/selfcriticism sessions,” that proved effective in analyzing and correcting 

training and operational issues.16 The sessions also bolstered the psychological health, resiliency, and trust in leadership needed for sustained unit cohesion and continuous operational improvement. As 

an example, table 5.2 is a translation of the daily training schedule 

from 1 to 16 May 1967 for the Vietcong’s 514th Battalion:
Table 5.2. Vietcong training schedule for May 1967, South Vietnam National Liberation Armed Forces—514th Battalion

- The remaining 13 days of the month will be devoted to moving and fighting.- The companies and sections are free to use their nights as they see fit, but they should inform the Battalion of their plan.- Evaluation and observation on training should be made as we go along. For example, the 3-man cells make a preliminary evaluation of the training and next comes the turn of the platoons. This is to be done at night.- The units should not take one hour devoted to one subject to add to the teaching of another subject. They should report a day in advance whenever they want to make a change. The training program will be approved by the Party Chapter and the unit commander.- Upon completing the training of one subject, the training document should be returned in order to maintain secrecy. The units are not allowed to keep these documents.- In the case of the Signal Unit, the Reconnaissance Unit, and the Demolition Unit: they should draw up a political training time schedule with the help and approval of the Battalion, but they can fill out their time schedule for military training themselves.

May 1, 1967.For the Command Staff of the 514th Bn.Signed: TU RIN

*One - page typewritten document.

Document No. 15

Training Schedule for May 1967*

The South Vietnam National Liberation Armed Forces — The 514th Battalion

May 1 Party Chapter Conference and meeting of cadres.May 2 Study of financial policy for 1967.May 3 Individual fighting technique , 3-man cell fighting technique.May 4 Evaluation of policy for 1967.May 5 Practice of raid on enemy forces by 3-man cells and squads.May 6 Indoctrination on the 3 good points of the Party Chapter.May 7 General practice of raids.May 8 Indoctrination on the 3 good points of the Party Chapter.May 9 Principles of raid by platoon and company.May 10 Practice by the platoons of attack on enemy forces stationed in the field.May 11 lndoctrination on the responsibilities of the military personnel, and discussion.May 12 Practice by the platoons of attack on enemy forces stationed in the field.May 13 Theory concerning firing at night.May 14 Tactics for fighting against the Americans.May 15 General practice by the Companies of attack on enemy forces stationed in the field, in accordance with the plan of attack.May 16 Political mission in the fight against the Americans.

Party Committee

Assist. Company Com.

 Company Com.

Dept. Bn. Commander

Co. Commander

Party Committee

Co. Commander and Mil. Staff

Party CommitteeParty Committee

Mil. Staff and Co. Com.

Military Staff

Mil. Staff and Co. Com.

Command Staff

Bn. Command Staff

Party Secretary

Bn. Command Staff

 Squad Leader and Pl. Leader

Command Staff

Squad and Platoon Leaders

Party Secretary

Assist. Platoon and Pl. Leaders

Party Secretary

Military Staff

Company Command Staff

Platoon Leaders and Co. cadres

Deputy Bn. Commander

and Bn. Com.

Company Political Officer

Date Contents Length of time Night Time Checked by Instructor Remarks

7 Hrs.7 Hrs.6 Hrs.7 Hrs.6 Hrs.7 Hrs.6 Hrs.7 Hrs.4 Hrs.6 Hrs.6 Hrs.6 Hrs.3 Hrs.4 Hrs.6 Hrs.7 Hrs.

Discussions of plan by all units.Each squad should check results of trainingfor 4 hours in the morning.Rest in the afternoon, and preparationsfor general practice by platoons at night.

(The plan of attack will be drawn up by the companies)

Source: Reproduced from David W. P. Elliott and Mai Elliott, Documents of an Elite Viet Cong Delta Unit: The Demolition Platoon of the 514th Battalion—Part Four: Political Indoctrination and Military Training, RM-5848-ISA/ARPA (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, May 1969), 98, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_memoranda/2008/RM5851.pdf.
216 │ CAUDILL

One key difference between Vietnam and recent wars is that in 

Vietnam, a deficit of airfields early in the war led to a propensity 

among American and South Vietnamese forces to overfill runways 

with tightly parked aircraft. Dr. James Corum noted that buildup of 

American aircraft, particularly interceptors, “contributed to the overcrowding at South Vietnamese airfields, and it was not long before 

such lucrative targets became irresistible to the Viet Cong.”17 In fact, 

a survey of assigned aircraft circa 1969 showed a dizzying array of 

American and South Vietnamese aircraft to target. For instance, Bien 

Hoa airfield had 515 aircraft while Da Nang’s had 347. All told, the 

enemy had 1,956 aircraft to target at 10 major airfields.18 According to 

the Air Force History Office (AFHO), urban sprawl near air bases in 

South Vietnam and civilian population collusion with the Vietcong 

added to enemy effectiveness. The AFHO observed that the

concentrations of civilian dwellings adjacent to the 10 USAF operating 

bases afforded the enemy an absolute tactical advantage since they provided 

cover and concealment to the threshold of the target base. These same conditions seriously restricted defense forces by prohibiting or limiting use of 

booby traps, trip flares, sensors, free-fire zones, and exclusion areas around 

base perimeters. . . .

The USAF and VNAF buildup soon saturated the six older air bases to a 

point that invited enemy attack. Near the peak of the war, 76 percent of the 

total aircraft and 60 percent of all USAF aircraft operated from these more 

vulnerable airfields, whose target value was further heightened by large stores 

of ammunition and aviation fuel.19

Indeed, one Vietcong unit noted that “in the attack on Tan Son 

Nhut airbase, the people there helped us for the first time. We have a 

strong armed force that extends from our rear bases to the towns 

and cities.”20 The same Vietcong paper documents an “attack on two 

ammunition dumps in Bien Hoa, . . . 11 attacks on Soc Trang airfield[,] . . . two attacks on Tan Son Nhut airbase[,] . . . [and an] . . . 

attack on [a] hotel housing close to 200 pilots.”21

Attacks in Vietnam were more complex than those in Iraq and 

Afghanistan. Air base defenders in Vietnam could not effectively

patrol the IDF threat ring around their installations. Consequently, 

enemy forces in-theater had greater freedom of movement, enabling 

them to mass fires and ground attacks from hard to reach jungle areas 

or large, adjacent urban squalor. Vietnam theater air bases endured 

not only IDF attacks but also 29 sapper attacks during which forces 

attempted to penetrate bases to destroy aircraft and key defenses.22
THREE ENEMIES │ 217

Eight of those attacks used IDF as a diversion for base defense forces, 

thereby screening attackers during ground assaults.23 Sapper attacks 

were well organized, trained, and equipped (fig. 5.1).

Typical Sapper Force for Attack without Infantry Support

Typical Sapper Force for Attack without Infantry Support

SAPPER

RAIDING

PARTY

SECURITY

ELEMENT

ASSAULT

ELEMENT

ASSAULT TEAM I

(COMPOSITION OF ASSAULT TEAMS)

ASSAULT TEAM II

RESERVE

ELEMENT

FIRE SUPPORT

ELEMENT

ASSAULT TEAM I ASSAULT TEAM II

4 MEN

4 MEN 5 MEN 4 MEN 4 MEN

13 MEN 27 MEN

1 B-40 Grenade Launcher

2 AK-47 Assault Rifles

2 Mines

2 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

3 Bangalore

 Torpedoes

2 Wire Cutters

2 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

4 Bangalore

 Torpedoes

2 B-40 Grenade

 Launchers

3 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

70 Shaped Charges

4 Antitank

 Grenades

5 MEN

1 B-40 Grenade

 Launcher

45 Shaped

 Charges

2 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

5 Antitank

 Grenades

4 MEN

1 B-40 Grenade

 Launcher

35 Shaped

 Charges

2 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

3 Antitank

 Grenades

2 AK-47 Assault

 Rifles

1 B-40 Grenade

 Launchers

50 Shaped Charges

5 Antitank

 Grenades

2 MEN

1 B-40 Grenade

 Launcher

1 AK-47 Assault

 Rifle

1 Machine gun

1 B-40 Grenade Launcher

9 AK-47 Assault Rifles

.30 Shaped Charges

2 82-MM Mortars

4 AK-47 Assault Rifles

1 K-63 Man-Packed Radio

CELL I

(PENETRATION)

CELL I

(PENETRATION)

CELL II

(ASSAULT)

CELL II

(ASSAULT)

CELL III

(ASSAULT)

CELL III

(ASSAULT)

CELL IV

(FIRE SUPPORT)

Figure 5.1. Vietcong sapper attack configurations. (Reproduced from 

Roger P. Fox, Air Base Defense in the Republic of Vietnam, 1961–1973 

[Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, US Air Force, 1979], 48–49.) 

Afghanistan 2002–15

The American military was determined not to repeat the mistakes 

of the Soviets in their Afghanistan loss in the 1980s. Pivotal to the 
218 │ CAUDILL

mujahedin’s campaign, supported by the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), was the notion of taking away the airpower advantage enjoyed by the Soviet military early in the conflict. The Afghan objective was realized through IDF, direct ground attacks, and 

US-supplied shoulder-launched missiles.

The threat against US air bases since the American-led campaign 

began in 2002 has consisted primarily of indirect fire, occasional direct ground attack, and insider attacks. IDF has been largely harassing in nature with few major accomplishments to its credit. Direct 

attacks, sometimes masked with IDF, have featured attackers wearing 

US Army combat uniforms designed to confuse defenders and a mixture of rocket propelled grenades (RPG), small arms, hand grenades, 

and suicide vests. Two of the most impressive ground assaults are 

reviewed next.

The 19 May 2010 attack on Bagram Airfield illustrates the commitment and audacity of Taliban planned attacks. Between 20 and 30 

insurgents attacked the installation in an audacious effort to penetrate the security perimeter.24 Later, 10 dead insurgents dressed in US 

Army combat uniforms were found along the perimeter. The contingent had attempted to mount a ground assault by foot using a combination of hand grenades, small arms, and IDF from supporting insurgents. The insurgents focused their main assault on a section of 

perimeter guard towers. While no aircraft were damaged, the attack 

disrupted flying operations for hours as well as other operations for 

the coalition base. One civilian was killed in action and nine military 

were wounded.25

Bagram’s perimeter defense was largely the responsibility of the 

USAF’s 455th Air Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron; however, 

the integrated defense of the installation was a complex framework of 

joint and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) units. The incident was captured in Bagram’s military paper with the description 

of one Airman’s experience at a perimeter tower:

Airman Zeising, deployed from Ramstein Air Base, Germany, explained he 

had been in his tower on the south side of the airfield for about five minutes 

when he heard an explosion. “When I heard the explosion it was a small one 

and I thought it was an IDF attack.”

He stepped onto the catwalk of his tower and began to scan the area to 

look for a point of origin but did not see the initial explosion. As he proceeded back into his tower to grab his radio, Airman Zeising noticed some 

suspicious personnel.
THREE ENEMIES │ 219

“Two individuals were walking along the perimeter in [Army combat uniforms],” he said. “As they were walking, one raised a rifle and began firing.”

Once he saw the individuals firing, Airman Zeising proceeded out to engage them and noticed two more individuals in the distance. “Once I started 

engaging, they moved to a covered position out of sight. I ran inside, grabbed 

my radio and when I was trying to call in, they reappeared and began to shoot 

randomly and throw grenades.”

As Airman Zeising, a Logan, Iowa, native, engaged the enemy, a support 

element of 455th ESFS personnel and Army quick reaction force moved to his 

position in support. He neutralized two enemy combatants and when the 

other units arrived, the other enemy combatants were eliminated.26

Although the May 2010 Bagram attack turned out badly for the 

enemy, it continued to pursue and refine this ground-based tactic 

with similar attacks elsewhere, such as against Forward Operating 

Base (FOB) Fenty near Jalalabad, Afghanistan, on 13 November 

2010.27 The most spectacular and effective ground attack against an 

air base was at Camp Bastion, a coalition base supporting US Marines, the Royal Air Force, and the Afghan army. Wearing US Army 

uniforms, the attackers penetrated the air base’s defenses under the 

cover of night. Armed with rifles, RPG launchers, and suicide vests, 

the 14-man team began its deadly mission against an air base in Helmand Province, Afghanistan, jointly manned by NATO’s International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). On 14 September 2012,

15 Taliban insurgents infiltrated the perimeter of the Camp Bastion, 

Leatherneck, and Shorabak (BLS) Complex specifically to attack the 

aircraft and adjoining airfield support facilities (fig. 5.2). The ensuing 

battle resulted in the deaths of two Marines, the wounding of eight US 

and eight British military personnel as well as one British civilian contractor, the annihilation of six and damage of two US Harrier jets, and 

the destruction of six refueling stations.28 In September 2012, this insurgent operation constituted the most successful ground attack 

against NATO’s ISAF air assets to date in the Afghanistan conflict and 

the most devastating wartime attack against American airpower since 

the Vietnam War.

Camp Bastion illuminated the complexity of Taliban intelligence 

preparation, training, and operational effectiveness. The small-team 

tactics exhibited looked much like what one would expect from a 

small special forces team. US Central Command (USCENTCOM) 

later interrogated a detainee who attended training at the same compound as the attackers. He stated that the “training consisted of weapons training, physical training, communications, individual move-
220 │ CAUDILL

ment techniques, and chain link fence breaching, among other 

things.” The detainee also pointed out that he “did not know the other 

attackers until he arrived at the training compound,” illustrating a 

high level of operational security used to compartmentalize the parties who might know of the pending attack.29

Figure 5.2. Route and targets of the three Taliban insurgent attack 

teams. (Reproduced from Maj James Allen and MSgt Thomas Grubbs, 

storyboard, in “2014 Camp Bastion Complex Attack,” ed. Col Erik 

Rundquist, USAF/ACC [Hampton, VA: Training Brain Operations Center, Sims Directorate, US Army Training and Doctrine Command, February 2014].)

These attacks appear to have later inspired ISIS operatives because 

the tactics appear similar. On 13 February 2015, ISIS elements attacked al-Asad AB with “between 20 and 25 ISIS fighters wearing 

Iraqi Army uniforms.” The attack featured two waves. The first used 

suicide vests at the base’s perimeter while the second used 10 to 15 

fighters in an attempt to breach the perimeter. The Iraqi army, backed 

by US attack helicopters, defeated the threat. At the time, the air base 

housed approximately 400 American troops who were training and 

advising the Iraqi army.30

The Afghan threat also portrays the unique aspect of insider attacks. From 2007 to 2011, Pentagon statistics highlighted 42 attacks 
THREE ENEMIES │ 221

by members of the Afghan National Security Forces on US and NATO 

personnel, claiming the lives of 70 coalition troops and wounding 

110 others.31 One of the most egregious and horrific instances of an 

insider threat occurred on the morning of 27 April 2011, when an 

Afghan air force colonel killed eight Airmen and one contractor at 

Kabul International Airport.32 Another incident demonstrated how a 

determined, crafty suicide bomber could infiltrate a CIA base in eastern Afghanistan and kill eight Americans.33 This disturbing trend intensified in 2012 as uniformed Afghan security forces conducted 46 

insider attacks against coalition forces, killing 60 NATO personnel.34

Iraq 2003–12

Unlike enemy forces in Vietnam and Afghanistan, those in Iraq 

were diverse and disorganized with wide-ranging skill sets. Iraqi 

forces preferred to attack with IDF and appeared to lack the commitment and sophistication needed for penetrating ground attacks.

Indeed, sapper attacks did not materialize in Iraq because they require highly complex, synchronized operations involving extensive 

coordination, preparation, and training. The Vietcong were aligned 

with a state power and used its training and organizational templates 

to facilitate ground attacks. The Taliban in Afghanistan executed ambitious ground assaults on air bases and FOBs. Conversely, the insurgents in Iraq were disparate, uncoordinated, and most often at odds 

with one another. They were united in one way only—their

opposition to the US occupation of Iraq. Sharing this “negative” goal 

was the singular unifying theme of these multifarious insurgent 

groups ranging from Sunni factions to Shiite militia to Islamist 

groups like al-Qaeda. The Sunni-Shiite divide simply did not allow 

for a united effort.

Sunni groups used largely leftover munitions from the Hussein regime to supply and sustain attacks against coalition forces. Inspiration and support for Sunni insurgents came from a spectrum that 

included al-Qaeda and Baathist holdouts. Syria encouraged Sunni 

Arab insurgent groups and former Iraqi Baathists to organize and attack American forces in Iraq.35

Shiite groups were supported and inspired by Iran and Hezbollah. 

The Iranian Quds Force, a special operations element of the Islamic 

Revolutionary Guard Corps, ran three training camps modeled on 

Hezbollah operations in which groups of 20 to 60 radical Iraqi Shiites 
222 │ CAUDILL

were trained in the use of improvised explosive devices (IED), IDF 

(mortars and rockets), sniper operations, and insurgent tactics.36 US 

intelligence officials identified the Quds Force as “backing the creation of Iraqi Shiite ‘special groups’ ” based on Hezbollah organization and tactics.37 Gen David Petraeus, US Army, commander, MultiNational Forces–Iraq, testified to Congress that Hezbollah created a 

special unit called Department 2800 “to support the training, arming, 

and funding and in some cases direction of the [Iraqi Shiite] militia 

extremists by the Iranian Republican Guard’s Quds Force.”38 Shiite 

groups were responsible for the rout of the British in Basra, Iraq, and 

targeting of their forces at the Basra airport, which is discussed later.

Additionally, many of these groups, both Sunni and Shiite, subcontracted their deadly work to criminal groups. According to the 

US Army Strategic Studies Institute, “The U.S. 4th Division’s Taskforce Ironhorse reported in November 2003 that between 70 and 80 

percent of those apprehended for making attacks in their area were 

paid to do so, the going rate being anything between $150 and $500.”39

Iraqi insurgent forces ranged from well-trained former Baathists to 

disenfranchised tribes with militialike capabilities and unskilled attackers motivated solely by monetary reward for attacking US patrols 

and air bases. Consequently, many IDF attacks were perpetrated by 

novices who undertook subcontract work for insurgent groups. Joint 

Base Balad’s (JBB) counter-IDF strategy focused on deterring and disrupting attacks to prevent the enemy from massing fires for maximum 

effect. As a result, enemy IDF attacks were typically short in duration 

and performed hurriedly from unprepared firing positions.

While these groups appear to have emphasized conducting operations against US ground forces and the Iraqi government and creating secular disorder, they nonetheless sustained harassment of US 

air bases through IDF. As an example, the security at JBB’s entry control points and perimeter drove the enemy to IDF attacks as the 

course of least resistance, giving it the best chance for disrupting US 

operations. Each attack required personnel at the installation to take 

cover and clear the terrain of unexploded ordnance prior to returning to normal operations. The patterns of attack in Iraq displayed a 

lack of specificity in targeting, but their basic objectives sought to 

disrupt coalition military operations and inflict casualties in order to 

undercut the American public’s resolve. Insurgent forces attacking 

JBB maintained a steady drumbeat of mortar and rocket attacks—albeit largely ineffective (fig. 5.3).
THREE ENEMIES │ 223

1

2 3

4

# of attacks/month

5

Median quarterly monthly attacks

0

1

2

3

4

Median Intervals between

attacks (days)

Figure 5.3. Median monthly attacks and attack intervals on Joint Base 

Balad. 332nd Expeditionary Security Forces Group, Joint Intelligence 

Support Element, 2011. (Reproduced from Joseph A. Milner, “The Defense of Joint Base Balad: An Analysis,” in Shannon W. Caudill, ed., 

Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency [Maxwell AFB, AL: Air 

University Press, 2014], 235.)

Despite persistent attacks, USCENTCOM and the US Air Force 

were so unconcerned by the air base defense threat in Iraq that

they did not track the number of aircraft damaged or destroyed. 

When the data was requested, Air Forces Central directed researchers to the Air Force Historical Research Agency to cull through history reports.40 After a year of research, students at Air Command 

and Staff College (ACSC) found that only 15 fixed-wing aircraft had 

been damaged across all the bases—10 in Balad and 5 in Baghdad—

with zero aircraft destroyed.41

The Growing Three-Dimensional Threat to Air Bases

If Amazon plans to “deliver parcels of up to five pounds to customers in the U.K. within 30 minutes of order” using off-the-shelf remotely piloted vehicles (RPV), what could a determined enemy do 

with that same technology to disrupt, deter, or destroy airpower?42
224 │ CAUDILL

Imagine a fleet of small RPVs flying quickly and accurately to land on 

each wing of a B-2 stealth bomber with five pounds of explosives. 

Aircraft are fragile, so a small amount of explosives in close proximity 

to a wing filled with fuel is a formula for disaster. For an investment of 

mere thousands, someone could take out billions of dollars in aircraft 

and have a huge strategic effect on the military balance of power.

In the case of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), it has 

pioneered the use of small RPVs as combat enablers. Indeed, ISIL 

used RPV surveillance to plan its successful August 2014 assault on 

the Syrian al-Tabqa AB in Raqqa, effectively removing the Syrian 

government’s ability to project power into that area of Syria.43 On

2 October 2016, ISIL successfully used an IED-laden RPV to kill two 

Kurdish troops and injure two French paratroopers in northern 

Iraq—a first for the organization.44 What makes ISIL’s effort unique is 

its use of off-the-shelf technology rather than the larger explosiveladen RPVs used by Hamas and Hezbollah based on Iranian militarygrade technology, like the Ababil-3.45 The ISIL effort provides a “how 

to” for anyone with access to a retail store.

Another insurgent venture into airpower was by the LTTE—one 

of the deadliest and most innovative insurgent and terrorist groups 

in modern history. The LTTE (Tamil Tigers) is credited with creating the suicide vest, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation states 

that it is the “only terrorist group to have assassinated two world 

leaders.”46 Its 26-year history of combating the Sri Lankan government exemplifies ingenuity and a deadly commitment to a cause. 

During the course of the conflict, the LTTE planned and executed 

more than 200 suicide-bomber attacks with “tens of thousands” of 

Sri Lankans killed in the crossfire.47

The LTTE conducted an audacious attack on the Bandaranaike International Airport and its adjoining Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) base 

in July 2001. Using suicide squad tactics, terrorists infiltrated the military runway.48 Their attack destroyed or damaged 26 civilian and military aircraft and “revealed [first] the weakness of strategic and tactical 

intelligence collection, analysis, dissemination and review and second, force protection. . . . There was no prioritization of intelligence 

gathering, projection and sharing to erode the LTTE’s network.”49

What if insurgents had an Air Force? In the case of LTTE forces, 

they pioneered the use of aircraft to support their operational objectives.50 They conducted three air attacks on Sri Lankan government 

air bases and facilities using commercial light aircraft modified to 
THREE ENEMIES │ 225

drop small bombs during the final year of the Sri Lankan civil war. 

One notable Indian naval officer observed that the “acquisition of air 

capability does add a new dimension to the ongoing warfare . . . [but 

that] . . . the limited numbers and the type of aircraft do not pose such 

grave danger.” He added, “The aircraft procured are no match for the 

SLAF. The only reason for the success is some excellent planning 

based on sound intelligence and well-coordinated simultaneous/

advance ground commando operations as in the case of the recent 

attack on Anuradhapura.”51

The LTTE and ISIL case studies show the innovation of a determined enemy and the lack of initial preparedness of air base defenders in facing an insurgent air threat. Could this shortfall also be the 

Achilles’ heel of future American base defense efforts?

Today, the DOD views the challenges of antiaccess/area denial (A2/

AD) as a pressing strategic issue for American force projection and a 

key factor in shaping the planning for future operations, especially in 

the Pacific.52 The central premise of A2/AD is that an enemy force will 

seek to deny the United States and its allies the access to bases or sea 

lanes that would allow follow-on power projection into the region. 

Much of the focus of A2/AD has been on a potential enemy’s use of 

long-range precision weapons and evolving technologies to target air 

bases. Literally nothing has been written about ground-based threats 

posed by enemy-aligned indigenous groups, insurgents, and special 

forces—all of which could play a role in a final line of denial by a potential enemy committed to a full-spectrum A2/AD concept. Thus, 

the incorporation of small, IED-laden RPVs or small aircraft into

the full-spectrum defense formula is paramount because it presents a 

potential gap in the defensive operating picture.

During the Cold War, planners at NATO bases concentrated on 

the USSR’s intent to attack air bases. The Soviets explored a number 

of ways to assault and disable bases, primarily by employing the 

Spetsnaz (Russian special forces). A review of Spetsnaz airfield-attack 

profiles in declassified Cold War–era CIA reports would prove useful 

because of their insights into methods for direct strikes on these targets. In one method, 30 special operators were air-dropped near an 

air base. They then broke into “four operations teams, each team with 

specific responsibilities including capturing vehicles and personnel 

for the purpose of infiltrating the target [air base],” using surface-toair missiles (SAM) and explosive devices to destroy aircraft.53 Additionally, “in a second method, a Spetsnaz company (approximately 10 
226 │ CAUDILL

teams of five to 12 men) operated against a heavily defended airfield. 

The company could not get closer than 2 to 3 km to the target. During 

the first night Block Strelas [three-tubed SAM launchers mounted on 

a tripod] were positioned as close as possible to either end of the field, 

and then attacks were initiated against pipelines, powerlines, communication lines, security personnel, and crews heading toward the 

airfield.”54 This tactic would disrupt airfield operations, create the impression that a larger Soviet force was in the area, and draw more 

NATO forces in for defense and away from the front lines.55

Imagine well-trained enemy special forces like Spetsnaz coupled 

with the motivation of the Vietcong and innovation of the LTTE, 

and married to technological advances like small aircraft, RPVs, and 

precision-guided munitions (PGM). The base defense problem becomes incredibly difficult, and the complexity (and cost) of countering these emerging threats escalates significantly. Thus, the successful defense of air bases from such threats may be the critical linchpin 

for either a successful or disastrous military campaign in the future. 

It depends very much on whether leaders will take these threats seriously, provide sufficient resources, develop accepted joint doctrine 

to address these gaps, and use the right template for force structures 

and operations.

Templates for Air Base Defense: Time for an Update

These case studies and technological advances should spur American leaders to review how best to organize an effective “joint” defense 

against a rapidly changing threat. However, the American view of integrated ABD is largely monolithic, uninformed by other examples 

outside of American or British experiences. Indeed, the USAF has 

been singularly focused on the British approach to ABD. This pattern 

is born of intellectual laziness—the British do write in English—and 

the close and enduring ties both countries enjoy, including having 

exchange officers at the US Air Force Security Forces Center and 

Royal Air Force Regiment. Yet the recent British ABD record is problematic: failures at Basra, Iraq, and Camp Bastion, Afghanistan.

After the invasion of Iraq in 2003, British troops quickly adapted a 

peacekeeping model. They began foot patrols of Basra wearing regimental berets instead of helmets and started driving unarmored 

vehicles. However, what was praised widely as the model for counterinsurgency operations in Iraq disintegrated into a disastrous rout 
THREE ENEMIES │ 227

over time. As Shiite criminal and Mahdi militia groups organized, 

British casualties began to mount. During a period in 2006–7, as 

many as 80 percent of recorded attacks in Iraq targeted British forces; 

this situation directly affected the political support for British military action.56 In turn, the British government pressed its military 

forces to swiftly transfer security control to the Iraqi security forces. 

Over the course of a year, the British forces in Basra went from patrolling the streets from six main bases to withdrawing all forces to their 

contingency operating base at Basra Air Station. The net effect was to 

abandon the battlespace to the enemy, isolate and barricade the remaining British forces at one base, and become a magnet for IDF until their unheralded withdrawal in 2008. The British newspaper Telegraph highlighted the perceived initial failed withdrawal from the 

operating environment in a 2010 article portraying the British Army 

as “abandon[ing] Basra to terror.” Gen Jack Keane, US Army, retired, 

said that “it was a huge mistake to pull out” while retired US Army 

colonel Peter Mansoor stated, “I don’t know that you could see the 

British withdrawal from Basra in 2007 in any light other than a defeat.”57

Likewise, in Afghanistan, the failure of British forces was clearer. 

The attack on USMC aircraft and personnel fell in the British base 

defense sector where its forces were responsible for the perimeter, 

towers, and construction of a defense in depth designed to repel an 

attack. Taliban insurgents instigated a sophisticated sapper attack on 

the BLS Complex, realized with extensive preparation, recruitment, 

and training far exceeding the expected threat of rocket and entry 

control point attacks that were the norm in Afghanistan.58 In the British Parliament’s House of Commons report on the incident, members 

observed that “no one was actually doing any guarding” from the perimeter to the aircraft—a wide-open door exploited by the enemy.59

Regardless of British responsibilities, two USMC general officers 

were relieved because they did not ensure the safety of American aircraft. One British politician opined, “That is the sticking point. . . . We 

[the UK] manned the perimeter, but the Americans lost their jobs.”60

Another remarked that the American generals either “fell on their 

sword—or the sword was stuck in them.”61 Finally, the House of Commons report concluded, “Given that the attack took place in the British sector of the camp, British commanders must bear a degree of 

responsibility for these systemic failures and associated reputational 

damage.”62 To date, no British officers have been held responsible for 

the Camp Bastion failures. Accordingly, British performances at both 
228 │ CAUDILL

Basra and Camp Bastion deserve scrutiny and have no doubt impacted the standing of the British in the annals of ABD history.

Bucking the trend of “templating” the British ABD organizational 

model, Canadian officer Lt Col Paul M. Thobo-Carlsen offers his perspective in an essay entitled “Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough,” in which 

he contrasts and compares the ABD organizations of Canada, the 

UK, France, Germany, Australia, the Netherlands, Italy, and the 

United States.63 His work serves as a reminder that base defense can 

be conceptualized and organized in many ways, and, importantly, 

that American leaders must look beyond the comfortable templates 

of their own experience (and that of the British) to stay relevant and 

agile. Further study of non-European models of ABD is warranted to 

expand the aperture beyond Western thinking.

Conclusion

Dr. Alan Vick, RAND Corporation, highlights the growing vulnerabilities to US airpower by ground and missile attack due to improving enemy capabilities that “are bringing the era of [airpower] 

sanctuary to an end, with significant implications for the American 

way of war.”64 If such is indeed the case, new resources don’t appear to 

be materializing to meet the growing threats. In that respect, the 

pivot toward Asia has proven hollow.65 Sequestration has straitjacketed defense spending.66 Furthermore, the Army and Air Force 

continue to lack the agreements that made them more synergistic 

and cooperative on ABD matters in the ’80s and ’90s.67

The Vietnam War was a watershed moment for US forces engaged 

in the protection of air bases because they faced a determined and 

competent enemy focused on harassing and neutralizing the American hubs of strategic power: US air bases. The Vietcong and North 

Vietnamese forces were well trained, well led, highly disciplined, and 

committed to their cause—just as were enemy forces in Afghanistan. 

However, Afghan forces were far fewer in number and faced a daunting base defense scheme. Only once at Camp Bastion did they have a 

real air base attack success. Finally, Iraq was a diverse, uncoordinated 

mix of insurgents and criminals who never had any strategy other 

than harassment and were ineffective in their effort to blunt airpower.

As leaders look to the future of ABD, the growing technological 

prowess of terrorists and insurgents should give them pause. Analysis 

of these case studies leads to some recommendations.
THREE ENEMIES │ 229

Complacency is the enemy. The American templates used in Iraq 

and Afghanistan will likely fail against a rapidly changing threat environment and more sophisticated enemy—one that will focus and 

dedicate resources to mitigate and destroy the traditional American 

airpower advantage. Accordingly, the USAF and, importantly, the 

joint force should invest in studying, analyzing, and programming to 

meet the threat posed by an ever more complicated base defense 

threat. As noted earlier, during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, 

the Air Force and USCENTCOM did not track the total number of 

aircraft destroyed or damaged. It was left to ACSC students to cull 

through site history reports. This example is indicative of the lack of 

seriousness given to ABD as well as the ineffectiveness of the enemy.

Therefore, the USAF should create a standardized reporting system for air base attacks that would populate a database similar to the 

Theater History of Operations Reports (THOR), which plot and track 

every bomb dropped in the history of US airpower.68 Using research 

and mapping tools pioneered by THOR, the USAF could learn much 

from the historical data, attack patterns, and results of air base attacks. As air attacks from small RPVs and enemy use of precision 

munitions for mortars materialize—and they will—such data will become even more imperative in capturing the explosion of technology 

and the capabilities that are now beginning to be easy to acquire. If 

leaders are armed with this information, they may well make increased, targeted investments in the joint capabilities needed to meet 

future ABD challenges.

AirSea Battle (ASB) must holistically address all of these threats. 

ASB’s name itself is designed to evoke and template the success of 

AirLand Battle (ALB)—an operational concept jointly developed by 

the Army and USAF in the early 1980s. As part of ALB, the services 

developed the “31 Initiatives” to address gaps and seams in their operational approach, improve and synchronize procurement, and reduce redundancies.69 Six of these initiatives dealt specifically with the 

defense of air bases and the rear areas from which they operate.70 In 

the mid-2000s, these ABD agreements between the Army and Air 

Force were abrogated. If American leaders want to guarantee access 

of friendly forces to project military power within the theater of operations, then a similar accommodation must be made in agreeing on 

a joint approach to meeting the threat to air bases. The current ad hoc 

approach will leave shortfalls in resources and operations if not addressed as a joint problem.
230 │ CAUDILL

Limited resources drive the need for an enlarged focus on developing host-nation ABD capabilities—especially to support the concept 

of dispersal. Development of foreign internal defense (FID) capabilities for security forces would ensure a continuous investment in 

training host-nation forces to provide a defense in depth for austere 

and contingency air bases. The US government implements FID programs or operations to assist a host nation with its “internal defense 

and development (IDAD) program by specifically focusing on an anticipated, growing, or existing internal threat.”71 Expanding the traditional use of special forces in FID could prove vital in developing 

more robust partner capacity in securing airfields used for American 

airpower—a force multiplier.

While the United States has been largely successful in defending 

its air bases in Iraq and Afghanistan, the enemy in these conflicts was 

not optimally trained, organized, or equipped. It would be wrong to 

simply cite ABD efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan as the proper template for future defense or perpetuate the mind-set that new thinking 

is not needed to meet future threats. Vietnam showed what a determined, well-trained, and committed foe could accomplish in attacking air bases. In the future, the merging of competent enemy forces 

with precision weapons and modern technology will likely be the 

impetus for the real change needed to treat the defense of airfields 

with the seriousness of purpose it truly deserves. Given the replacement cost and lengthy manufacturing timetables of modern aircraft, 

the USAF and its coalition partners would not be able to sustain 

Vietnam-level ground-attack losses. Leaders must ensure that the 

full spectrum of air base threats is addressed, including the traditional ground threat married with the high-tech capabilities of

precision-guided IDF and RPVs. It is often said that generals try to 

fight the last war.The lack of enemy effectiveness against air bases in 

recent conflicts should not lull leaders into underresourcing or dismissing the growing threats against air bases if a major strategic calamity is to be avoided.

Notes

1. Dowd, “After the War.”

2. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 68.

3. Data was produced during the Air Command and Staff College (ACSC) yearlong research elective Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, 2013–14, instructed by Col Shannon W. Caudill. Student researchers were Maj Russell S. Badowski, Maj Jason F. Baggett, Maj Scott Black, Maj Loren M. Coulter, Maj Colby B. 
THREE ENEMIES │ 231

Edwards, Maj Raymond J. Fortner, Maj Steward J. Parker, and Maj Michael M. 

Wellock. Researchers reviewed all available Air Force history reports covering Sather 

AB (Baghdad International Airport), Joint Base Balad, Tallil AB, Kirkuk AB, and

al-Asad AB.

4. At Camp Bastion on 14 September 2012, six AV-8B Harriers were destroyed; 

aircraft damaged included two AV-8B Harriers, one C-130E Hercules, and three

MV-22B Ospreys. Casualties included 2 military killed in action, 16 military coalition troops wounded in action (WIA), and 1 civilian WIA; insurgent force size was 

15. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 2.

At Bagram AB on 20 August 2012, one C-17 was destroyed and two troops were 

WIA; force size is unknown. Taylor, “General’s Aircraft Damaged”; Rayment, “Harrier Destroyed”; and Rubin, “Audacious Raid.”

5. Vick, Air Base Attacks, xiv–xv.

6. Briar, “Sharpening the Eagle’s Talons,” 263–64.

7. Davis, 31 Initiatives, 125.

8. Headquarters USAF/XOS-F, Validating the Abrogation.

9. “Sri Lankan Rebels Launch Air Raid,” BBC News.

10. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 102.

11. Lewis, “Lebanon.”

12. Kellen, Conversations with Enemy Soldiers, ix, 99.

13. Fox, Air Base Defense, 32.

14. Ibid., 41.

15. Ibid., 36.

16. Kellen, Conversations with Enemy Soldiers, 30.

17. Corum and Johnson, Airpower in Small Wars, 265.

18. Fox, Air Base Defense, 61, ref. fig. “Aircraft Assigned to Primary RVN Bases 

3 January 1969,” from USAF Management Summary: Southeast Asia, 3 January 

1969, 39.

19. Ibid., 61–62.

20. Elliott and Elliott, Political Indoctrination and Military Training, 38.

21. Ibid., 37.

22. Ibid., 90.

23. Ibid.

24. Partlow, “U.S. Contractor Killed.”

25. Ibid.

26. Williams, “‘Defenders’ Neutralize Threat.”

27. Sommerville, “Afghanistan.”

28. British Parliament, “Camp Bastion Attack Report”; and Starr, Lawrence, and 

Sterling, “ISAF.”

29. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 4.

30. Raddatz and Martinez, “ISIS Fighters Attack Iraqi Base.” 

31. Mulrine, “Taliban Infiltrators in Afghanistan?”

32. Pawlyk, “Questions Remain.”

33. Warrick, “Suicide Bomber Attacks.”

34. “What Lies behind Afghanistan’s Insider Attacks?,” BBC News.

35. Naylor, “Syria Reportedly Encourages Sunni Insurgents.”

36. Partlow, “Iran’s Elite Force.”
232 │ CAUDILL

37. Ware, “Captured Hezbollah Agent.”

38. Statement of Gen David H. Petraeus, in House, Status of the War, 110th 

Cong., 1st sess., 16.

39. Beckett, Insurgency in Iraq, 4.

40. Damato and Jones to Caudill, e-mails.

41. Data produced by ACSC’s 2013–14 research elective Defending Air Bases in 

an Age of Insurgency, instructed by Colonel Caudill.

42. Kottasova, “Amazon to Test Drone Delivery.”

43. Vlogger, “Large Scale ISIS Attack.” Note: Video includes footage of an RPV 

used in planning the air base assault.

44. Lanyon, “ISIS Uses Exploding Drones.”

45. Schehl, “ISIS Is Expanding.”

46. Pickert, “Tamil Tigers.”

47. Ibid.

48. Gunaratna, “Intelligence Failures Exposed.”

49. Ibid.

50. Lipscomb University Institute for Conflict Management, “Aerial Attack by 

the LTTE, 2007–2009.” For highlights of the LTTE’s airpower development and operations use, see app. A.

51. Ilangamuwa, “India Is Clear in Its Support.”

52. Air-Sea Battle Office, Service Collaboration, 1.

53. Director of Central Intelligence, Warsaw Pact Nonnuclear Threat, 35.

54. Ibid., 36, 39.

55. Ibid., 36.

56. Ucko, “Lessons from Basra,” 143.

57. Harding, “Iraq.”

58. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 3–4.

59. House of Commons, Afghanistan—Camp Bastion Attack, vol. 2, EV-13.

60. Ibid., EV-24.

61. Ibid., EV-10.

62. House of Commons, Afghanistan—Camp Bastion Attack, vol. 1, 15.

63. Thobo-Carlsen, “Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough,” 43–110.

64. Vick, Air Base Attacks, xiii.

65. Edelman and Zakheim, “Obama’s Defense ‘Pivot.’ ”

66. Reich, “House Budget.”

67. AF/XOS-F, Validating the Abrogation of Joint Service Agreement 8.

68. Air Force Research Institute, Theater History of Operations Reports (THOR).

69. Davis, 31 Initiatives, 25.

70. Ibid., 48.

71. JP 3-22, Foreign Internal Defense, ix.
PART 3

Air Base Defense Enablers

Air-Mindedness and Counterintelligence

Chapter 6

Enabling a Three-Dimensional 

Integrated Defense

Colby B. Edwards

In a world of proliferating precision, threats against air bases are 

growing at an ever-increasing rate. With modern military aircraft becoming more complex and expensive, costs of synchronized attacks 

against air bases by ballistic or cruise missiles coupled with traditional ground attack could run into the billions of dollars. Worse, aircraft assets may not be easy to replace, and their airfields may be difficult to repair. As a result, a quick, massed attack against US air bases 

could be a national disaster—granting potential adversaries tremendous offensive initiative and strategic room for maneuver. Defending 

air assets while on the ground is one of the least understood and 

underinvested operational aspects of airpower. Today’s strategy for 

defending USAF air bases is known as integrated defense (ID) (formerly known as air base defense or air base ground defense), yet it 

provides only a component of the capability needed to meet the full 

spectrum of modern threats.

The threat to air bases is not limited to just high-end weapons. Attacks from small remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) or precisionguided munitions (PGM) now available in mortars could soon be 

used by proxy or criminal forces.1

 These technological advancements 

will enable enemy forces to cause strategic devastation with low-cost 

methods and complicate attribution to the true source of the attack. 

Thus, air base vulnerabilities are more prevalent and insidious than 

ever. The successful defense of air bases may therefore be the critical 

piece in the success or failure of an entire campaign.

The Air Force has the most obvious interest in air base defense 

(ABD) and must take the lead for joint forces as an advocate for an 

effective defensive scheme. In addition, while the joint force will continue to be integral to the base defense plan, the USAF must apply its 

own resources more effectively to protect its most valuable assets. The 

Air Force must ensure that its air base commanders are armed and 

resourced appropriately to achieve effective defense. Current ABD 

planning is ground-centric and focuses on low-tech threats while advanced threats are relegated to higher commands. Although doctrine 
236 │ EDWARDS

and resourcing are sufficiently attentive to ground attacks and 

ground-based defenses, air-based threats or air-defense concepts are 

not well integrated.

An air-minded approach properly categorizes air bases as strategic assets, prioritizes resources for their defense, and incorporates 

cross-domain defense assets to cover the spectrum of threats threedimensionally. By adopting an air-minded approach and applying 

adaptive command and control (C2) architectures, the local air base 

commander can leverage the creativity and flexibility inherent in decentralized control and execution to employ assets in an integrated, 

three-dimensional defense plan.

This chapter describes the challenges of an effective threedimensional integrated defense concept in the context of the spectrum of threats and operational environments. It discusses the strategic impact of this concept and then examines the operational 

environment and threat expectations. To frame the problem, the 

challenges and responsibilities of balancing centralized control and 

decentralized execution (CCDE) in the ABD role are examined. Finally, recommendations are presented for advancing ABD thinking 

toward a three-dimensional approach in the context of future contested environments.

Meeting the Threat Head-On

The wide spectrum of threats to air bases requires a tailored yet 

flexible response. While traditional threats may be effectively combated with ground-based systems and forces alone, defense against 

emerging and advanced threats requires cross-domain-capable assets 

including air and missiles. Current doctrine lacks a full-throated discussion on this subject regarding ABD.

The Air Force should primarily be concerned with the defense of 

its air bases and associated assets, yet the Air Force air base commander is not clearly responsible for many aspects of ID. Additionally, 

the assets and personnel dedicated to ID are often variable, scarce, 

multiservice, and assembled ad hoc. Furthermore, rapid advances in 

technology widen the spectrum of low-cost means for an adversary 

to use in attacks and thus raise the risk for commanders to mitigate or 

accept. With the increasing costs and complexity of today’s aircraft, 

the associated risks of parking them on a ramp also rise.
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 237

Strategic Impact

In the broad historical context, the strategic effect of large attacks 

on American forces abroad is significant. Limited resources force 

commanders to choose between conducting offensive operations and 

performing base defense. US policy shifts and second-order effects 

after major attacks like the Khobar Tower bombings and others on US 

forces and embassies must also be considered by strategists when 

making basing and security decisions.2 Dr. Alan Vick, a RAND Corporation expert in base defense studies, exemplifies the historical strategic significance of ID in the American “island hopping” campaign 

in World War II’s Pacific theater, in which the entire plan rested on the 

ability of the combatants to take or defend airfields.3

 It is easy to envision a similar contested environment in today’s geopolitical arena.

Bringing the threat to reality, a September 2012 attack on Camp 

Bastion destroyed eight AV-8 Harrier fighter aircraft and damaged 

several transport aircraft.4

 While the attack was spectacular and 

costly, the effects would be multiplied tremendously if the aircraft 

were expensive F-22s or F-35s. According to experts and budget 

documents, the current estimated costs of the F-35 is over $170 million per copy.5

 Even a conservative estimate of costs would put an

attack on F-35s equivalent to that of Bastion at over $1 billion. While 

F-35s are not in Afghanistan, the system will replace many aircraft 

used in these austere locations. Despite the location, with a ramp full 

of F-35s rather than A-10s, F-16s, and AV-8s, the risk and cost of attacks on airfields increase.

Adding incentive to target US aircraft on the ground is the difficulty of countering advanced US aircraft while they are airborne. 

Specifically designed to survive in an antiaccess/area-denial (A2/AD) 

environment, the F-35 has stealth characteristics and onboard sensors that make the jet difficult to find and engage while airborne.6

Paradoxically, these features increase its vulnerabilities while on the 

ground. Stealth composites and fragile electronics are susceptible to 

damage, require a lengthier maintenance tail, and take more time to 

repair. The aircraft thus has a longer ground time and decreased 

availability for missions. In addition, with the expanding use of PGMs 

and RPVs, the threat is widening in scope and becoming more difficult to defend against. These low-cost threats are easily proliferated 

and have already caused other national security concerns.7

 As a compound effect, both the threat and strategic advantages are growing. 
238 │ EDWARDS

An opponent’s ability to deny the US Air Force the use of its most 

advanced aircraft with little cost is concerning.

The Operational Environment 

and Threat Expectations

The threat to air bases will vary drastically based on the operational environment. Both traditional and emerging threats challenge 

the integrity of defenses, and commanders must adapt. A thorough 

assessment of the operational environment and associated threats 

provides a starting point for planning, however.

Each operating environment is unique, and the defenses must be 

tailored accordingly. The doctrine for base security, Joint Publication 

(JP) 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, states that “knowledge 

of the enemy’s identity, capabilities, vulnerabilities, and likely intentions is essential to prepare for combat operations, prevent surprise, 

and protect the joint security area.”8

 But a thorough assessment of the 

operating environment must also consider a vision of how ID will be 

applied. When considering joint defense efforts in an irregular warfare (IW) setting, the complications of communication, battlespace 

responsibilities, and fires deconfliction are ever-present. These challenges are magnified in a major contingency fight against a near 

peer—an environment in which communications and control networks may be limited while chaos from attacks inhibits normal operations.9

 Recent IW conflicts have presented an opportunity to adapt 

and mend procedures during the campaign with little risk to the mission in the process. Under such conditions, defense concepts are finetuned as defenders learn and apply new methods. Altering procedures, technologies, or resources in IW is a matter of efficiency and 

effectiveness rather than survival. In contrast, effective defenses must 

be in place prior to hostilities to ensure force survival in a robust 

threat environment. A surprise attack with ballistic missiles or aircraft offers little time to learn or discuss changes. Then, the only survivable option is to put into action predetermined, clear responsibilities and procedures.

Recent discussions regarding a pivot to the Pacific and the concept 

of AirSea Battle (now referred to as the Joint Concept for Access and 

Maneuver in the Global Commons or JAM-GC) are indicative of the 

challenges that future air base commanders may face in the ID role.10
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 239

Considering the robust capabilities of the Western Pacific Theater

of Operations (WPTO) and the Chinese People’s Liberation Army 

(PLA), having a vigorous ID takes center stage. According to the 

Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, “Apart from increasingly vulnerable bases and facilities on allied territory, bases and 

facilities on US territory in the Western Pacific comprise a small 

number of very large and effectively undefended sites located on a 

handful of isolated islands, all within range of PLA weapons systems.”11 Defending air assets against these advanced threats is a complex endeavor; current joint forces simply are not up to the task. The 

modern threat environment requires a different approach, one that 

truly synchronizes the defensive posture against anything from missiles to unmanned vehicles to the traditional mortar and rocket 

threats common in IW environments. This importance is noted in 

the JAM-GC concept, where the critical first step is “withstanding

the initial attack and limiting damage to US and allied forces and 

bases.”12 That is, without initial force survival, the concept is inept. 

By first understanding these operational environments, the services 

can tailor an effective defense plan.

Ground-Centric Integrated Defense

There is a disconnect in the application of three-dimensional capabilities to ID concepts. Current approaches to ID do not include the 

necessary consideration of the air dimension’s unique capabilities 

and vulnerabilities. The air-minded approach is to realize the value of 

air bases and assets and thus prioritize their defense, consider attack 

from the air, and enable cross-domain assets to aid in effective defense.13 A ground-centric approach and blurred responsibilities challenge the realization of an air-minded vision in today’s ID concepts 

and doctrine.

The current perspective on ID is mostly ground based, and any 

mention of airpower is rooted in support for ground operations (intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance [ISR]; air-ground fires; 

etc.). Even these concepts lack true integration. A review of applicable 

ID doctrines highlights the ground-centric nature and lack of integrated defense spanning the air-to-ground threat.14 JP 3-09, Joint Fire 

Support, and JP 3-09.3, Close Air Support, are well-known and practiced doctrines in the execution of air support to friendly ground 

forces. However, ground elements responsible for base defense are 
240 │ EDWARDS

unlikely to be familiar with these procedures. While security forces 

and military police continue to be the US military’s primary means of 

defending air bases, they do not possess the relevant skill sets, training, or equipment to integrate the air component through tactical air 

control.15 In fact, relevant doctrine does not seem to consider these 

capabilities necessary. Conversely, while pilots and aircraft operators 

practice air support procedures with other ground forces regularly, 

they are likely unaware of ID doctrines and do not integrate with base 

defense personnel except on an ad hoc basis. While the Department 

of Defense has made strides to leverage the air component in the defense of ground-based threats for ID, the concept still relies on niche 

expertise (in the form of joint tactical air controllers or JTACs) to 

truly integrate the air and ground components. At a minimum, planners must consider this crucial link when developing defenses.

Threats commonly associated with ID are traditional, groundbased attacks such as direct and indirect fire, sappers, and shoulderlaunched missiles—also known as man-portable air-defense systems 

or MANPADS. Joint doctrine makes little mention of emerging and/

or high-tech threats such as small RPVs, PGMs, and cruise or ballistic 

missiles. Level III threats (airborne, heliborne, large ground forces, 

etc.) as described in JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, are 

considered beyond the scope of security force (SF) capabilities and as 

requiring other significant combat forces, yet it does not discuss how 

these defenses are formed or integrated.16 Although revisions to JP 

3-10 captured lessons learned from recent conflicts, it has yet to look 

forward to conflicts other than IW and address attacks from advanced 

threats.17 In a major contingency operation with a near-peer competitor, the Air Force may have to accept limited air superiority due to 

limited basing, logistics, and force density—a prospect that seems 

impossible based on recent experience. This scenario likely involves 

protection of air bases from more than IDF and ground assault.

Responsibilities

Clear responsibility for coverage of a three-dimensional battlespace 

is an important aspect of ID. In historical examples, uncertainty in 

security responsibilities has hindered defense effectiveness. Defenses 

failed when Air Force commanders relied on other services for security. As one RAND air-base-attack study concludes, “In each case, air 

base defense had to compete with other missions to which ground 
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 241

commanders assigned higher priority.”18 While a joint approach to ID 

is expected, relying on other services for the defense of air bases will 

not likely be effective because of competing priorities.

Many of the issues associated with uncertainty regarding roles in

an ID environment are derivatives of doctrinal conflicts. In con -

sidering a comprehensive, three-dimensional plan for ID, commanders must reference numerous doctrinal sources. These doctrines have 

several gaps and overlaps distinctly drawn along dimensional seams, 

reflecting the very challenges for effective ID. On one hand, groundbased threats such as mortars, rockets, and ground-assault forces are 

addressed in ID concepts and doctrine.19 On the other hand, defense 

concepts for air and missile threats reside in other doctrine.

Local defenses are further detached from the responsibility for ID 

in the case of advanced threats. For instance, JP 3-01, Countering Air 

and Missile Threats, is devoted to defensive counterair (DCA) planning and concepts, cruise-missile defense, and integrated air defense 

systems; however, these concepts are rarely mentioned or discussed 

in the context of localized ID.20 The role of defending the theater (and 

therefore air bases) from airborne threats and missiles is the responsibility of the area air defense commander (AADC), not the base 

commander.21 ID concepts and doctrine lack any discussion of air 

threats and rather relegate this responsibility to theaterwide defenses 

with dangerously little discussion tying the concepts together. The 

2017 revision of JP 3-01 briefly mentions the phrase “base defense” 

four times in the context of counter-rockets, artillery, and mortars; 

air combat orders; and combat air patrol. However, it does not provide a great deal of clarity on how local commanders can address 

advanced air threats to bases.22

Similar to relegating responsibility for ground security to the 

Army, relying fully on the AADC for protection from advanced 

threats may be problematic. The AADC is typically responsible for a 

large area of responsibility (AOR) and will have competing priorities. 

In this highly centralized system, the AADC has limited ability to 

respond to specific ID needs. These constraints highlight yet another 

seam in ABD and detail the very conundrum that local commanders 

face. So where do the local responsibilities end and higher commands 

become accountable?

To assume that another agency, service, or higher headquarters 

will ensure defense of air bases from advanced threats without clear 

responsibilities and contingency plans would be negligent. As a con-
242 │ EDWARDS

sequential example, a short-range, surface-to-surface missile may be 

beyond the capabilities of local security forces; however, the shortrange nature of this attack will complicate a timely response in a centrally controlled theater air defense system. Likewise, a small RPV (or 

many RPVs) hovering over a base will exploit the seam between

theater and local defenses. Moreover, these threats may be too small, 

low, or unidentified to affect typical air defense systems. How these 

threats will be countered through clearly outlined responsibilities is 

yet to be thoroughly addressed and indicates one of many voids in 

current defense plans.

Unity of Command

Unity of command is a long-practiced military principle to ensure 

that direction and efforts are focused toward a common objective. 

For instance, having one commander allocate and account for joint 

defense assets has proven effective in the past, as illustrated at Joint 

Base Balad (JBB), Iraq, and Bagram AB, Afghanistan.23 Maj Gen 

Brian Bishop, former wing commander at JBB, observed that “consolidation of efforts/tools under a single commander was the best operational aid to effective ID.”24 The concept of unifying efforts has 

been employed from a ground perspective in an IW setting, but more 

discussion must focus on the advanced threats that now augment the 

traditional ground threat.

The diverse and advanced nature of air and missile threats complicate the C2 relationships for defenses. In his paper “Effective Command and Control for Global Missile Defense,” Maj Stephen Mann 

describes the complex architecture and command structure for missile defense using a combination of Air Force satellites and aircraft, 

Navy Aegis cruisers and destroyers, and Army Patriot missile systems and Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) radars.25

Underscoring geographic complications, Mann describes how these 

systems are scattered globally and allocated to various commands yet 

are used in combination for missile defense. Thus, he observes that 

the “doctrinal command and control authorities for these sensors 

and weapons systems can be somewhat confusing or even conflicting, increasing the complexity of defending against missiles that cross 

areas of responsibility.”26 Given that many of these missile threats 

range over thousands of miles, the command relationships and defense assets are global. While this operational range complicates 
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 243

things for the AADC—who is geographically limited and usually 

designated by a joint force commander under a combatant command—a local air base commander is even further removed from 

control of these assets.27 In this architecture, unity of command is 

geographically and spatially separated from a particular base being 

attacked and may or may not be distanced from appropriate defense 

assets. This plan may be insufficient for timely intervention, especially in an A2/AD environment.

The complexities associated with missile defense have obvious implications for individual base commanders—even with the assumption that normal communications architectures are effective. Although some ID assets (such as Patriots and aircraft) may reside on 

the base, the base commander is not directly in charge of them. How 

would local base commanders defend their assets if normal C2 relationships were degraded? At a time when they were defending against 

less advanced threats, commanders were often able to use ad hoc procedures and tactical innovation to defend the base during an attack.28

For advanced threats, similar measures would offer fewer survivable 

options during an attack.

Commanders must ensure that they fully understand the operational environment particular to their air base and associated defenses, how that base operates, and what they are responsible for. Ensuring that defense assets are definitively tasked to a responsible 

commander with clearly defined AORs will aid in effective ID. Empowering lower-level commanders to use (typically) centrally controlled assets may offer additional benefits in time-critical circumstances, but it will require a shift in the approach to C2.

Flexible Command and Control 

and a Decentralized Approach

The effective application of joint air operations requires an adaptive balance of CCDE that may be difficult to achieve in ID.29 Current doctrine describes joint air operations as centrally controlled, 

providing a single commander to plan and direct air throughout the 

AOR; however, decentralized execution at an operational and tactical level is also noted as the key to flexibility and responsiveness.30 

The dichotomy of this balance becomes apparent in the ID concept.
244 │ EDWARDS

In the ID role, centrally controlled assets must be used for a flexible, 

timely response to threats. Centralized command of air assets—similar to that for other high-value, low-density defense assets—is driven 

by several factors: the scarcity of platforms available, the need for efficient synchronization, and the geographic span of influence and responsibilities (fig. 6.1).31 In the area defense role, airpower and other 

theater defense assets, such as Patriots, ostensibly must be centrally 

controlled to ensure proper application of effects and cover large areas 

with scarce resources. While this strategy provides for the entire AOR, 

it challenges a decentralized approach required for timely, flexible ID 

options at the local level.

Forces Decentralization Forces Decentralization Enables Centralization Enables Centralization

Enables Decentralization Forces Centralization

Time Available

(in Decision Cycle)

Scarcity of Platforms

Need for Higher-Level

Synchronization

Sensitivity to Unintended

Consequences

Mistrust of Subordinate

(Situational Awareness, Competence, Initiative)

Bandwidth (Comm/Data)

Geographic Range

of Effects

DEPTH OF

COMMAND

HEIGHT OF EXECUTION

COMMAND

EXECUTION

CONTROL Adaptive

Control Zone

Figure 6.1. Balancing levels of command and control. (Reproduced 

from Harry Foster, deputy director, Center for Strategy and Technology, 

briefing, subject: Airpower’s Fight for Strategic Superiority in 2035: Getting It, Using It, Sustaining It, Maxwell AFB, AL, January 2015.)

Joint publications highlight the need for a decentralized approach 

to provide tactical flexibility. JP 3-30, Command and Control of Joint 

Air Operations, describes decentralized execution as enabling flexibility in making tactical-level decisions. It also states that levels of 

centralized control should be based on levels of complexity and uncertainty in certain missions. The JP specifically notes close air support 
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 245

(CAS) as an example that requires a high level of decentralization.32

CAS is typically used in ID against ground-based threats, leveraging 

an in-place C2 architecture designed to be highly decentralized. Further collaboration is found in JP 3-09, which states that to keep fire 

support responsive, the “support coordination between Service and 

functional components should occur at the lowest possible level.”33

General Bishop determined that “you have to push the authorization 

level down, or it will not be effective.”34 While the need for decentralized execution is evident in the ID role, the ability to gain agile support in a centrally controlled architecture can be difficult.

Like other air defense assets, air sorties are tasked via centralized 

control through an air tasking order (ATO) and are not typically at 

the discretion of the local base commander for use in ID. JP 3-30 

states that “sorties provided for air defense . . . are not ‘excess’ sorties 

and will be covered in the ATO,” but it adds that ATOs do not necessarily restrict their responsive use by commanders.35

An example of the dynamics of CCDE in the base defense role is 

found in the Vietnam experience. The use of AC-47 fixed-wing gunships over air bases in Vietnam served as an effective deterrent and 

fires platform for ID. Though Seventh Air Force centrally controlled 

the gunships, lower-level direction of their employment demonstrated that “decentralized control can be advantageous when tactical considerations, such as response time, outweigh considerations 

of efficiency.”36 Yet, another factor driving centralized control—scarcity of assets—limited the decentralized approach because the

AC-47s were often needed to support other priority missions.37 This 

dilemma highlights the challenge of properly balancing CCDE in 

ID. Finding a solution may depend on a commander’s initiative and 

creative approach.

Thinking outside the box may allow a commander to leverage 

local assets in a decentralized manner for ID. Recent examples in Iraq 

and Afghanistan illustrate an innovative approach to ID in a concept 

called residual base defense (RBD).38 RBD directs that returning aircraft use remaining fuel to support ID prior to landing. These aircraft 

add significant ISR capability and fires response without interrupting 

the normal asset-allocation priorities. This strategy is similar to that 

for the use of AC-47s in Vietnam. Air assets are centrally tasked—offering the benefits of ATO allocation and priority—but also provide 

the decentralized flexibility and persistence that proved beneficial to 

base defense commanders in Vietnam.
246 │ EDWARDS

A similar creative approach may be used for advanced threats, but 

these solutions cannot be developed ad hoc or ex post facto. The existential nature of advanced threats to air bases will not allow time to 

react and remedy defenses in a survivable way. With the realization 

that C2 networks will be degraded in a major contingency, the balance of CCDE is at the forefront of discussions regarding an A2/AD 

environment, especially in regard to dispersed operations.39 One option for enabling C2 in this environment is the adaptive C2 model in 

which the primary goal is “the creation of unity of effort through integration at the lowest appropriate level, thereby achieving agility and 

speed of action in delivering desired effects.”40 The applications of 

adaptive C2 are situation dependent and must consider the resources 

available, the mission at hand, levels of trust in subordinates, and acceptable political risks.41 Yet the issue remains—if these concepts are 

not practiced and trained for prior to hostilities, there may be little 

room for survivable adaptations.

Recommendations

For air base defense to be holistic and synchronized, the Air Force 

must adapt a three-dimensional and joint approach to ID doctrine. 

This approach should include addressing relevant advanced threats 

and A2/AD operational environments. It should also seek to integrate ground-based ABD doctrine tenants with those of air defense. 

Doing so will expose the seams in ID and force a reconciliation of 

the gaps between air and ground defenses. A proactive approach to 

solving doctrinal conflicts will pay dividends as a foundation for 

testing future ID concepts.

First, in light of the complexities of the Pacific theater and

JAM-GC, ID doctrine can no longer remain ground based and relegated to ad hoc procedures. Likewise, the challenges of an A2/AD 

environment indicate that a fully centralized approach to air defense, 

via the AADC, is insufficient. While the US military has improved ID 

doctrine after years of involvement in IW, its focus remains groundcentric. A similar, proactive approach to air base defense should 

leverage these doctrinal advances to include a three-dimensional 

methodology that addresses the full spectrum of threats.42 Gen Mike 

Hostage, USAF, retired, former commander of Air Combat Command (ACC), points to the need to resource this effort and observes 

that the “rebalance to the Pacific should drive a critical review and 
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 247

adaptation of existing doctrine in a highly contested environment—

on scale with the past decade’s renewal of counterinsurgency doctrine.”43 At the heart of survivability in A2/AD are the strategic bases 

that project US combat capability in the region, and ID must be a 

precursor to any discussion in this environment.

Second, the Air Force must enable the development of adaptive C2 

through training and education. The creation of a trusting and adaptive C2 culture must include rigorous training that involves all relevant levels of command. Doing so will undoubtedly challenge normal 

C2 procedures, service cultures, and tenets of central control but may 

be the only survivable option in advanced and degraded environments. Air Force “Flags” and Army training events at the National 

Training Center are aptly suited for large-force training and should 

be leveraged as an incubator for these concepts, including rankappropriate decision makers in the process. These joint exercises 

should test the fabric of normal C2 channels and force an adaptive 

approach, with a frank assessment of results.

As another measure to build a robust C2, the Air Force must establish a framework that empowers lower-level commanders and provides practiced authority delegation. Higher command authorities 

must embed the element of trust through practice and action. They 

can establish more effective operating procedures through empowerment and clearly stated commanders’ intent in operations and exercises. In a realistic A2/AD scenario, contingency plans must be enacted for C2. Through training, a graceful degradation of C2 can be 

developed. A generic ATO and simulated command architecture will 

not be sufficient. Commanders at higher levels—from the joint force 

air component commander to the wing level—must be participants 

in these exercises. Air Force leaders will thus be challenged by the 

complexities of a realistic scenario in which their authority must be 

delegated. These training practices will not only help build the element of trust and empowerment in combat situations but also may be 

leveraged for peacetime.

Third, the Air Force must initiate a comprehensive review of the 

US approach to basing and associated defenses. This analysis should 

include a deliberate attempt to complicate an enemy’s ability to target 

and attack from the beginning of force planning. Concepts for a comprehensive approach include dispersion, camouflage, concealment, 

and deception (CCD); hardening; and airfield design and repair.44

While these changes will challenge the current approach to basing 
248 │ EDWARDS

and resourcing, the costs of not adapting to this complex environment will severely limit power projection in these areas. ACC and Air 

Force Materiel Command (AFMC) must coordinate core functions 

to enable integrated ID concept development. ACC is the core function lead (CFL) for air superiority and C2.45 AFMC is responsible for 

agile combat support (ACS), including security and civil engineering 

aspects pertinent to ID.46 Therefore, AFMC should lead the creation 

of an innovative and integrated three-dimensional ID concept. It 

should be developed and coordinated with all relevant core functions 

working in conjunction. Responsibility for combining efforts in future ID must begin with these CFLs as comprehensive defenses are 

developed and resources are allocated.

Fourth, strategists should reconsider basing decisions in the context of the threat and geopolitical environment. Policy makers at the 

highest levels will be required to develop plans in concert with allies. 

The United States must reaffirm commitments and explain challenges 

associated with traditional approaches to basing so that US allies may 

understand and support a necessary shift to enable survivability. Accepting the tradeoffs in vulnerability and capability between distant/

dispersed and forward/consolidated basing is an important aspect of 

these decisions. Defenses and resources needed for a few large, consolidated bases are much different than those for several small, dispersed bases.47 On the one hand, robust defenses and hardening will 

be necessary for consolidated bases. On the other hand, more flexible, 

mobile defenses may be necessary for several dispersed bases. Likewise, combat projection capabilities and C2 architectures will vary 

greatly in these options. These decisions must be made in the full 

context of the operating environment and expected power-projection 

needs. Such a shift will take years to adjust; a proactive approach 

must begin now.

Conclusion

US adversaries have clear incentive and intent to damage or destroy American and coalition aircraft on the ground. This tactic is 

cost effective and represents the only time aircraft are stationary targets. A realistic assessment of the situation should be a wake-up call 

to leaders of the Air Force, and nation, when deciding to build air 

bases or deploy aircraft around the world. Potential US adversaries 

continue pursuing low-cost options to defeat or mitigate a techno-
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 249

logically advanced airpower advantage, and the methods, risks, accuracy, and benefits continue to grow in their favor.

Given that the dynamics of each operational environment do not 

allow for a single solution, commanders must take a comprehensive 

approach. In forming a plan for basing locations, leaders cannot

assume the defense of a base and its assets. Rather, they must perceive an effective ID plan as a prerequisite for all other operations to 

be successful. Commanders must understand the characteristics

associated with a particular air base environment; fully analyze the 

associated risk levels; and create effective, efficient procedures across 

all relevant domains. Typically, air defense assets are not available to 

the local air base commander for discretionary use in ID, complicating the orchestration of relevant systems in ID—regardless of the 

threat. While ID is a daunting and complex task, commanders must 

demand and apply sufficient resources to ensure appropriate defenses for the acceptable level of risks.

The current ID plan against advanced threats is deficient, and a 

centrally controlled approach is likely too inflexible for survival in 

these advanced environments. With rapidly changing technologies 

and complicated operational environments, such as A2/AD scenarios, 

a flexible, multilayered defense plan will be essential. Also, the time 

available to adjust defenses and react to enemy actions will be limited in this environment and therefore must be addressed proactively through clearly outlined procedures before hostilities begin. 

Through an air-minded approach and the application of adaptive C2 

architectures, the Air Force can enable a three-dimensional integrated defense.

Notes 

1. Christopherson, “First Precision-Guided Mortar.”

2. Friedman, “Bibi and Barack.”

3. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 108.

4. Gresham, “Attack on Camp Bastion.”

5. Wheeler, “F-35 Unit Cost.”

6. Lockheed Martin, “F-35 Fast Facts.”

7. Schmidt and Shear, “Rattles the White House.”

8. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, IV-2.

9. Neptune, “Cyber-based C4ISR Assets,” 2.

10. LaGrone, “Concept Lives On.”

11. Van Tol et al., AirSea Battle, 11.

12. Ibid., xiii.
250 │ EDWARDS

13. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 353–54.

14. Sagraves, “Defense outside the Wire,” 89.

15. JP 3-09.3, Close Air Support, II-6.

16. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, I-3.

17. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 271.

18. Vick, Snakes in the Eagles Nest, 108. Complications arise because various 

doctrines for integrated defense offer conflicting guidance. Fortunately, some Air 

Force and joint publications on ground-based defenses of air bases and personnel 

have been modified, combined, or removed to help alleviate this paradox. These include JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, 13 November 2014; AFI 31-101, 

Integrated Defense, 5 July 2017; LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 

17 April 2017; and LeMay Center, “Annex 3-2, Irregular Warfare,” 12 July 2016.

19. JP 3-01, Countering Air and Missile Threats, ix, I-2, IV-15.

20. Ibid. JP 3-01 discusses advanced and emerging threats as a C2 issue for which 

the AADC is primarily responsible. However, it does not mention how a local base 

commander would integrate command or assets in such conditions, even in a contingency scenario.

21. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 35, 293.

22. JP 3-01, Countering Air and Missile Threats, xx, III-5, V-24, V-28.

23. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 174.

24. Bishop, discussion with ACSC students.

25. Mann, “Global Missile Defense,” 6.

26. Ibid., 6, 8.

27. Ibid., 6, 8, 11.

28. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 35, 293; and Vick, Snakes in the Eagles 

Nest, 108. Caudill provides case studies describing how commanders implemented 

ad hoc procedures and innovative approaches in response to low-tech threats such as 

manned assaults and mortar attacks. This strategy proved effective in such environments versus those involving advanced threats, such as aircraft attacks, in which 

there was little time or ability to react.

29. Hinote, Centralized Control and Decentralized Execution.

30. JP 3-30, Joint Air Operations, I-3.

31. Foster, briefing, subject: Airpower’s Fight for Strategic Superiority in 2035. 

Harry Foster was the lead for an air dominance war game involving advanced 

threats and an A2/AD environment at Air University’s LeMay Center in January 

2015. The scenario included basing constraints related to the subject of this chapter. 

As deputy director of the Center for Strategy and Technology (CSAT), Foster is a 

renowned subject matter expert regarding future applications of airpower. Mr. Foster 

was consulted on the subject of this paper several times via e-mail and personally in 

April 2014.

32. JP 3-30, Joint Air Operations, I-3.

33. JP 3-09, Joint Fire Support, IV-2.

34. Bishop, discussion with ACSC students.

35. JP 3-30, Joint Air Operations, II-16.

36. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 173.

37. Ibid., 174.

38. Ibid., 207, 218.
ENABLING A THREE-DIMENSIONAL INTEGRATED DEFENSE│ 251

39. Hostage and Broadwell, “Resilient Command and Control,” 38–43. This article 

discusses in-depth the C2 levels in an A2/AD environment, including the concept of 

adaptive control and degraded C2 networks.

40. Hukill et al., Air Force Command and Control, 7.

41. Ibid., 7–9.

42. Air Force Policy Directive 10-25, Air Force Emergency Management.

43. Hostage and Broadwell, “Resilient Command and Control,” 41.

44. Foster, briefing.

45. Air Combat Command, Securing the High Ground, 8.

46. Air Force Mission Directive 4, Air Force Materiel Command, par. 3.1. This 

directive outlines the responsibility of AFMC as the agile combat support core function lead integrator for the Air Force.

47. Foster, briefing.

Chapter 7

Dissipating the Fog of War

Improving Intelligence Support to Air Base Defense

Jason F. Baggett

US Air Force brigadier general Andrew Wells found himself in command of deployed air bases responsible for the majority of combat airpower in the western region of the joint operating area. His units have 

reached high levels of combat effectiveness, carried out crushing strikes 

against insurgent forces, and proven the criticality of airpower across 

the full range of military operations. What General Wells doesn’t know 

is that the insurgent forces in his area are planning their own strikes. In 

fact, two days ago, insurgents moved specially trained and equipped 

fighters from another country to a village immediately outside the air 

bases to carry out those attacks. Those foreign fighters will attack

tonight, and by tomorrow, they will have inflicted significant damage

to General Wells’s aircraft and killed two of his Airmen. General Wells 

won’t be able to stop the attack before the insurgents infiltrate the installation because his key leaders and security team are blind to the external threat—despite foreign fighters being present in a friendly village for 

two days. The general and his advisors have a blind spot in their situational awareness caused by a lack of a tactical air-base-focused, grounddefense-oriented intelligence apparatus.

This fictional account may seem improbable, but its details follow 

the same timeline and results as the 14 September 2012 attack on 

Camp Bastion, Afghanistan. The aftermath of this real-world attack 

found

two US personnel killed in action (KIA), eight US personnel wounded in action (WIA), eight UK personnel WIA, one civilian contractor WIA, six AV-8B 

Harriers destroyed, two AV-8B Harriers severely damaged, one C-12 damaged, three MV-22B [with] minor damage . . . , one C-130E severely damaged, 

one UK SKASaC (Sea King) [with] minor damage . . . , two UK Jackal vehicles 

significantly damaged, three fuel bladders destroyed, five sun shades destroyed, one sun shade with structural and fire damage, three sun shades with 

fabric damage, extensive concrete damage, and damage to the VMA-211

hangar/maintenance facility.1
254 │ BAGGETT

In short, the Camp Bastion attack was the most devastating loss of 

American airpower since Vietnam.2

 Postincident investigations determined a lack of tactical intelligence assets that may well have detected 

the attack. The presence of foreign fighters in the friendly village adjacent to Camp Bastion was a key contributor to the success of the attack.3

 Case studies based on lessons learned from Afghanistan, Iraq, 

and Vietnam will show that the Air Force employs a piecemeal, ad hoc 

system of tactical human intelligence (HUMINT). Consequently, it is 

ill prepared to provide full intelligence support to air base defenders 

and guarantee that another Camp Bastion attack will not occur. The 

Air Force must doctrinally solidify intelligence analysis support to air 

base defense (ABD) forces and increase HUMINT collections dedicated to air base defense. To validate this argument, the following discussion examines some of these gaps in tactical HUMINT and intelligence analysis support to Air Force security forces (SF).

The Camp Bastion attack demonstrates the vulnerability of aircraft while on the ground. Italian airpower pioneer Gen Giulio 

Douhet observed that “it is easier and more effective to destroy the 

enemy’s aerial power by destroying his nests and eggs on the ground 

than to hunt his flying birds in the air.”4

 His prescription placed air 

bases in the crosshairs of American enemies in all conflicts because 

he recognized that they would be strategic strong points. Since World 

War II, USAF air bases have been defended by Air Force security 

forces, American sister services, foreign partner forces, and a mix of 

all the above. However, the USAF lost a component of these reinforcements with the 2004 abrogation of Joint Security Agreement 8—a US 

Army and US Air Force mutual support agreement whereby Army 

personnel would provide exterior security for air bases. Subsequently, 

Air Force security forces became de facto responsible for the defense 

of Air Force airpower from ground threats while the “eggs” were on 

the ground.5

In 2008 Joint Base Balad (JBB), Iraq, featured the largest deployment of security forces since the Vietnam War, whose responsibilities 

included the off-base combat defense mission of patrolling to deter 

enemy indirect fire (IDF) attacks.6

 Intelligence support has been a 

critical enabler for the expanded security mission. Air Force doctrine 

states that “effective intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance 

(ISR); counterintelligence [CI]; and liaison efforts are critical to identifying, analyzing, and disseminating threat information to commanders and ensuring FP [force protection].”7

 Security forces’ de-
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 255

mand for force protection intelligence increased, and time-sensitive, 

tactical HUMINT emerged at JBB as a key enabler to air base defense 

operations.8

Joint doctrine defines HUMINT as “a category of intelligence derived from information collected and provided by human sources.9

The Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) has proven to 

be the primary source of tactical, ABD-oriented HUMINT through 

its CI collections and counterthreat operations (CTO). However, the 

AFOSI is not doctrinally a HUMINT organization. The CI discipline 

takes steps to mitigate foreign intelligence threats and leverages multiple intelligence disciplines, including HUMINT, to fill informational gaps associated with CI activities. CTOs involve “the employment of AFOSI capabilities to find, fix, track, and neutralize enemy 

threats in order to create a sustained permissive environment for air, 

space, and cyberspace operations.”10 Such operations use CI collections to produce intelligence similar to that gathered from HUMINT 

methods. The term HUMINT is used here to describe intelligence 

gleaned from humans regardless of mission type.

First, to set the context for the evolution of intelligence support to 

ABD forces, this chapter discusses the experiences of security forces 

during Vietnam and at modern air bases, such as JBB, Iraq, and Bagram AB, Afghanistan. Also discussed are the Air Force’s deficiencies 

in the ABD intelligence apparatus, which create great risk for the future success of protecting air bases. Recommendations are offered to 

close the gaps in tactical intelligence support to ABD. Finally, with 

the emergence of new airpower strategies for the Joint Concept for 

Access and Maneuver in the Global Commons (JAM-GC), formerly 

known as AirSea Battle, the ability of security forces to secure airpower assets while on the ground will be much more difficult. Thus, 

a leading concept of employment for JAM-GC—known as Rapid 

Raptor—is presented and used as a baseline from which to make suggestions on how intelligence can evolve to give needed support to the 

ABD mission in the JAM-GC environment.

Vietnam: A Study in Intelligence Improvisation

As Roger Fox indicates in his book Air Base Defense in the Republic 

of Vietnam, 1961–1973, the Air Force has a history of ad hoc planning 

for base defense intelligence. In late 1965, US ground combat units 

were pulled into offensive operations. This change resulted in the 
256 │ BAGGETT

units that were previously providing perimeter and outside-the-base 

security effectively leaving the full ABD mission to the Air Force security police (SP). The SPs were not manned, equipped, or organized 

to take on the ground-defense mission required of ABD.11 By 1968, 

Seventh Air Force had worked to properly man, equip, and organize 

the new combat SP units to conduct their security mission; however, 

intelligence support to ABD was left largely unfulfilled. Fox contends 

that ABD commanders needed tactical ground intelligence and that 

Air Force intelligence should have fulfilled that need. Unfortunately, 

Air Force intelligence units were consumed with support for flying 

missions.12 The tactical intelligence Fox refers to would be known as 

force protection intelligence (FPI) in current Air Force policy. The 

Air Force defines FPI as

fundamental to the prosecution of an effective FP program. It is a mission set 

used to identify intelligence support to FP. All-source intelligence should be 

provided on threats to Department of Defense (DOD) missions, people, or 

resources stemming from terrorists, criminal entities, foreign intelligence entities, and opposing military forces as appropriate under Presidential Executive Order 12333, the US Constitution, applicable law, and DOD and Service 

policies and regulations.13

As an unexpected success story, the AFOSI partnered with air 

base security to supply critical ground intelligence. The AFOSI repurposed its already existent Area Source Program (ASP), expanding it to include HUMINT for defensive purposes. According to Fox, 

the program evolved into the “most fruitful source of base defense 

intelligence information.”14 The AFOSI ASP, which began in 1964, 

was a traditional CI collections program consisting of operations 

with Thai and Vietnamese counterparts to identify enemy spies.15

Operating from August 1968 through November 1969, “ASP generated 78.3 percent of all Department of Defense Intelligence Information Reports and 84.1 percent of the total items in these reports.”16

That said, tactical HUMINT collections quickly overwhelmed the 

extremely limited analytical capability of AFOSI units and displaced 

AFOSI’s criminal investigation and traditional CI missions.17

USAF intelligence analysis support to ABD still lagged behind. In 

response, SPs were forced to develop an ad hoc intelligence analyst 

cell comprised of untrained SP members to process raw intelligence. 

After several requests, Seventh Air Force finally garnered formal intelligence training for some of the SPs.18 As the Office of Air Force 

History notes, “Hobbling external security [in Vietnam] was the lack 
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 257

of reliable intelligence on enemy activities within striking distance of 

bases. This rose chiefly from the Air Force’s failure to generate tactical 

ground intelligence.”19

Afghanistan and Iraq: Modern Expeditionary 

Air Base Defense Ground Intelligence Support

Support from Air Force intelligence analysts improved drastically 

in the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts. JBB and Bagram AB exemplify 

this turnaround in the degree to which the USAF conveyed tactical 

ground intelligence to ABD forces there. The responsibility for ABD 

in these conflicts was similar to that in Vietnam. When the 332nd 

Expeditionary Security Forces Group (ESFG) stood up at JBB in 

2008, it assumed base operating support integrator (BOS-I) responsibilities from the US Army.20 For Bagram AB, Air Force defense forces 

were part of Task Force 455 and the 455 ESFG, responsible for defense of the interior and exterior base security zone (BSZ). However, 

unlike for JBB, the 445 ESFG also retained battlespace owner (BSO) 

responsibilities under its recognized TF 455 role.21 While 2008 joint 

and Army doctrine rescinded the term battlespace owner, it nevertheless continues to resonate in combat. The BSO signifies the unit exercising the authority and responsibility for all operations in the assigned operational area—to include those to capture or neutralize 

threats.22 Bagram was the first Air Force installation with assigned 

Air Force ground BSO responsibilities since Vietnam.23

Intelligence support for both locations was similarly structured. 

Each location used an all-source intelligence fusion center called the 

joint intelligence support element (JISE), which security forces inherited from outgoing Army units.24 The JISE conducted all-source 

intelligence analysis and collection management. It also contained an 

atmospherics collection cell as well as a cell that supported off-base 

ESFG patrols.25 In this configuration, JISE personnel not only had the 

ability to analyze intelligence but also could directly task ISR assets to 

corroborate existing intelligence or complete target analysis. JISE 

personnel partnered closely with tactical ground-intelligence personnel in developing common intelligence-collection priorities to 

continue providing fresh intelligence to ABD forces. Compared to 

the intelligence analytical support for ABD in Vietnam, such support 

in these conflicts had finally come of age. However, the JISE construct 
258 │ BAGGETT

was not an Air Force invention and is unlikely to be reemployed in 

the next conflict unless Air Force intelligence trains and plans for 

reemploying it in future ABD missions.

Despite the advances in intelligence analysis support, tactical 

ground-intelligence collection remained relatively unchanged with 

two exceptions. The first exception is the CI screening teams employed at the expeditionary air bases. When SF units took over BOS-I 

at Balad, they inherited existing contractor-manned CI screening 

teams. These teams conducted focused interviews of local and thirdcountry nationals working on the installations. Their operations were 

regulated by the task force CI coordinating authority in Baghdad under the auspices of US Central Command. The teams had the ability 

to capture key pieces of low-level HUMINT on operational environmental factors and potential threats. As such operations were a CI 

functional service, the argument could be made that the AFOSI 

should have been providing this function. Due to CTO manning and 

mission requirements, however, local AFOSI expeditionary detachments (EDet) were unable to take over the CI screening mission upon 

Air Force assumption of BOS-I. A second exception is the leveraging 

of passive HUMINT collections by ABD patrols and the JISE atmospherics cell. The patrols and atmospherics team provided a better 

understanding of the base defense operating environment. However, 

most of the information gleaned from passive collections was captured in localized JISE products but not in enduring documentation 

allowing for long-term analysis.

The vast majority of intelligence was not disseminated theaterwide 

via the intelligence community’s standardized intelligence information reports (IIR). IIRs serve as the vehicle to push intelligence information to the entire US intelligence community and are the DODmandated tool for all HUMINT and CI collectors to disseminate raw 

intelligence. Therefore, passive HUMINT amassed by JBB teams was 

not received by intelligence analysts looking for common enemy tactics or emerging trends at intelligence analytical cells above the JBB 

level. With that said, passive HUMINT collections contributed to 

battlespace awareness for Army and Air Force leaders on JBB and 

should be seen as a success story.

As for direct or “positive” HUMINT collections, the Army ground 

BSO owned the Army tactical HUMINT teams, as they were known 

in 2008—now called HUMINT collection teams. The Army BSO 

was responsible for a 3,000-square-kilometer area of operations 
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 259

(AO), with the JBB BSZ encompassing only 243 square kilometers of 

the AO.26 HUMINT teams were tasked with meeting the BSO’s 

HUMINT-related priority intelligence requirements. As only a sliver 

of the Army BSO’s responsibilities was the area immediately outside 

JBB, the Army HUMINT teams’ focus on JISE HUMINT needs was 

slight.27 This observation is in no way an attack on the mission dedication of the Army HUMINT teams; their priority for intelligence 

collections was the requirements of the BSO’s full AO. This focus by 

sister-service collectors is completely in line with their policy—but it 

is why the Air Force cannot blindly hope that sister-service HUMINT 

collectors will support ABD needs. The Marine Corps tactical-level 

HUMINT asset—the HUMINT support team—is task organized to 

support its owning Marine air-ground task force (MAGTF) intelligence needs.28 Likewise, Army HUMINT collectors are task organized to supported Army commanders to “build, employ, direct, and 

sustain combat power.”29 Thus, they may give ABD some HUMINT 

assistance but cannot give it the priority and sustained operational 

support it deserves.

Air Force HUMINT, however, does not appear to be postured to 

support the tactical HUMINT needs of the air base defender. This 

void is rooted in the Air Force’s resistance to make ground vice air 

threats the focus of its intelligence community. In 1995 the Air Force 

officially terminated its HUMINT squadrons. However, in 2008 it reinstituted the HUMINT program after the experience of several years 

of war in which tactical HUMINT remained a self-help project for the 

AFOSI and SF.30 Due to the classified nature of Air Force HUMINT 

policy, the exact targeting and intent of the program is unclear. The 

Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) is charged with implementing the 

greater CI and HUMINT programs in the DOD. Current direction 

for DOD HUMINT was seemingly solidified in April 2012 with the 

creation of the Defense Clandestine Service (DCS), designed to meet 

the critical need for strategic HUMINT.31 Trends in the DIA regarding 

HUMINT can inform the Air Force’s decisions on HUMINT targeting 

priorities. In this context, for the foreseeable future, the Air Force 

should continue to prioritize strategic intelligence needs to support 

its expanding role in JAM-GC—the corresponding US strategy for 

operating, fighting, and surviving in A2/AD environments.

As in Vietnam, the AFOSI was the primary dedicated HUMINT 

asset for Air Force ABD in Iraq and Afghanistan. AFOSI EDets 

produced large quantities of intelligence on threats to the respective 
260 │ BAGGETT

installations, to include targeting intelligence to identify, find, fix, 

track, and neutralize these threats. The targeted nature of the intelligence sought by CTOs drove AFOSI collection operations—potentially allowing passive, early-warning HUMINT for ABD to fall 

through the cracks.

Challenges of Future Conflicts

A common counter to the argument for increased Air Force tactical 

HUMINT is that air bases will not be located near or on the forward 

edge of the battle area (FEBA) in future conflicts. The Air Force focus 

on fighting in A2/AD environments will require it to employ forward 

basing practices radically different from the mega FOBs seen in Iraq 

and Afghanistan. A2/AD environments need to be better defined before the Air Force looks at solutions for operating in them. Joint Operational Access Concept (JOAC) doctrine describes antiaccess as 

“actions and capabilities, usually long-range, designed to prevent an 

opposing force from entering an operational area.” JOAC further defines area denial as “actions and capabilities, usually of shorter range, 

designed not to keep an opposing force out, but to limit its freedom 

of action within the operational area.”32

For future joint forces to survive and operate in the A2/AD environment, they must “maximize surprise through deception, stealth, 

and ambiguity to complicate enemy targeting.”33 The Rapid Raptor 

concept—an A2/AD solution that has emerged in open-source

media—better refines the potential posture Air Force units will employ to meet A2/AD challenges. In this scenario, four F-22 Raptors 

are paired with one C-17 to deploy to austere airfields with little to no 

buildup at the location. The aircraft would operate from the location 

for a short duration and then relocate. The intent is to prevent adversaries from tracing and targeting the Raptors.34 In the Rapid Raptor 

concept, these five aircraft would be the extent of the operational 

footprint at the airfield. The C-17 would contain all of the maintenance and support personnel and supplies. The balance between 

maintenance personnel and equipment in the available cargo space 

has been a challenge for concept developers.35 Thus, SF would be 

among the many other personnel that would need to be accommodated. Deployments of group-sized SF contingents to austere airfields 

would be impossible due to limited transport aircraft involved in the 

strategy, the increased number of potential airfields employed simul-
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 261

taneously, and the capacity of the SF career field to support such large 

manpower requirements. Therefore, Air Force leadership must accept much higher levels of force protection risk to achieve operational 

goals. This lack of security personnel and intelligence collectors on 

the ground will require new ways of providing intelligence support 

for the protection of austere airfields.

Recommendations

As demonstrated in recent conflicts, the Air Force has heightened 

its intelligence analysis and support for ABD since Vietnam.36 However, its practices have been ad hoc versus standardized. For instance, the JISE at JBB was transferred from the US Army to the 

USAF as part of the BOS-I transition, and it is unlikely that the Air 

Force would have built such a robust capability for ground intelligence on its own. To guarantee continued excellent support, Air 

Force intelligence should strengthen its guidance on specific skills in 

which intelligence personnel must be proficient to fulfill the ABD 

support role.37 Within the Air Force intelligence library of policies 

are several “14-2” series of instructions identifying such skills for 

support of specific missions.

Air Force intelligence should oversee the consolidation of lessons 

learned from deployed JISE intelligence personnel and develop standardized skill sets for those positions. Further, it should develop and 

publish training standards for intelligence support execution in line 

with other specialized missions that Air Force intelligence personnel 

support. Doing so would guarantee that air base defenders receive 

continued and consistent intelligence analysis and support.

Environmental factors may constrain improvements to HUMINT 

support of ABD. For instance, the ability of Air Force HUMINT to 

take on a tactical HUMINT mission is unlikely due to postsequestration manning and resource reductions.38 Equally difficult is 

the AFOSI’s ability to expand its deployment posture to undertake 

sole ownership of previously contracted CI screening responsibilities; conduct CTOs; and expand CI collections to offer persistent, 

early-warning HUMINT support. In fact, during Operation Iraqi 

Freedom, the DOD restricted the AFOSI from increasing the number of deployed agents due to manning caps.39 Army HUMINT personnel have recognized their inability to cover all HUMINT needs 

and called for similar fielding of tactical HUMINT collectors from 
262 │ BAGGETT

Army patrols to fill their own requirements in this area.40 While training SF personnel as positive HUMINT collectors is a burdensome 

prospect, ABD patrols could mirror the Army’s passive HUMINT 

strategies from 2004.41 A possibly more viable option is to embed 

AFOSI agents with ABD patrols and CI screening teams.

In 2008 the AFOSI increased the size of its JBB EDet by two agents and embedded them with 532 SFS patrols to develop passive 

HUMINT contacts to serve as preattack indicator sensors. The classified nature of attack after-action reports makes it difficult to determine if this approach ever resulted in successful preattack warning 

for the installation. Regardless, to leverage all avenues of potential 

tactical HUMINT, the AFOSI should employ a more fully embedded 

deployed-unit model in the future. Deployed AFOSI units should 

embed two agents with CI screening teams to capture intelligence 

gained via constant access to local nationals working on the installation. Additionally, they should install two agents with off-base SF 

patrols to create a distinct avenue of reporting for passive HUMINT 

collected by security patrols. The arrangement also provides the local 

EDet with trained informant handlers on patrols to identify and assess 

potential informants for proactive CI or HUMINT collection operations. The remaining AFOSI personnel would continue to conduct 

CTOs. This construct would ensure a more fused, tactical HUMINT 

and CI threat picture for air base defense. To meet Air Force and DOD 

CI program directives, the AFOSI would remain under the control of 

the senior AFOSI agent in-theater but in a direct supporting role to 

the air base where the unit was located.42

As we look to future A2/AD or JAM-GC conflicts, the immediately apparent problems are the lack of SF at austere airfields and potential lack of ground intelligence collectors focused on specific 

threats to the locations. Though Air Force leaders will be forced to 

accept a higher force-protection risk with strategies such as Rapid 

Raptor, it is highly doubtful that Air Force planners will accept zero 

aircraft security in the development of concepts. It is fair to suggest 

that the Air Force may employ a Phoenix Raven–like/small-fire-team 

posture for physical security in support of Rapid Raptor–like constructs and rely more heavily on host-nation ground-threat intelligence and local security forces and police.43

Regardless of who performs security for the Rapid Raptor team, 

those personnel will still need to know what potential threats they 

will face, who the friendly forces are, and indicators of potential 
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 263

threats. For austere airfields where Air Force personnel have no persistent presence, intelligence collection on local area threats will need 

to be accomplished ahead of the Rapid Raptor team deploying. The 

global focus of strategic Air Force and DIA HUMINT may be beneficial in identifying airfield locations less vulnerable to ground attack. 

Also, DOD force protection detachments (FPD), located at US embassies worldwide, can give threat assessments for general airfield 

areas by leveraging developed relationships with host-nation security 

and intelligence liaisons.

The DOD implements the FPD program with special agents from 

the AFOSI, the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS), and 

Army CI. The program’s premier mission is to “detect and warn of 

threats to DoD personnel and resources in-transit at overseas locations without a permanent DoD CI presence.” FPDs also work with 

their respective American embassy country teams to conduct vulnerability assessments of potential DOD transit locations as well as 

CI collections and reporting.44 FPD agents could conceivably serve as 

conduits with the host-nation law enforcement and security services 

to support the Air Force element securing the ad hoc airfield.45 Consequently, the Air Force should lean on the DOD FPD program to 

serve as its HUMINT support to air base defense at austere airfields.

Conclusion

Tactical ground intelligence and analytical support are vital to the 

ABD mission. The Air Force has had a mixed history of supporting 

the intelligence needs of ABD in deployed environments. In Vietnam, 

Air Force intelligence was not postured to support SPs, forcing air 

base defenders to develop ad hoc intelligence analysis capabilities. 

With the exception of limited tactical HUMINT from the AFOSI’s 

ASP, air bases in Vietnam were essentially blind to impending attacks 

and starved for ground intelligence. That said, Air Force intelligence 

has made extraordinary strides in ABD support in the realm of intelligence analysis and leveraging ISR assets to improve security forces’ 

understanding of their operational environment. Nevertheless, Air 

Force–provided HUMINT has lagged behind, with the program 

again operational since 2008 after being deactivated for over a decade.

The current Air Force HUMINT unit has no demonstrated or professed tactical HUMINT capability. While the AFOSI’s CTOs have 

proven capable of supplying tactical HUMINT for air base defense 
264 │ BAGGETT

through its CI collections, the capacity of its EDets left room for improvements in such operations. The Air Force should address these 

areas to guarantee that air bases receive the best intelligence support 

possible. Potential future conflicts in A2/AD environments present a 

whole new array of challenges to be overcome in order to protect Air 

Force assets.

To preserve and improve intelligence support for air bases located 

on or near the FEBA, Air Force intelligence must consolidate its lessons learned from JISE personnel. It must also codify training standards and capabilities for intelligence personnel supporting ABD 

units—much like intelligence policy dictates standards for support to 

crisis response units. To overcome current resource constraints, the 

AFOSI should also commit additional agents to embedding with SF 

patrols and CI screening teams to capture passive HUMINT and facilitate possible formal collections and counterthreat operations.

The A2/AD environment will require drastic changes in the way 

Air Force leadership views force-protection risk. As operational security will be paramount, large FP forces will not be possible. Commanders will be required to accept the potential that all FP threats 

cannot be defeated with the force posture proposed by concepts such 

as Rapid Raptor. Tactical HUMINT collection teams will not be in 

place to assist teams while on the ground. Accordingly, atypical solutions for collecting threat intelligence must be employed. Air Force 

HUMINT’s potential clandestine capability would be critical to collecting ground intelligence on potential threats to dispersed, austere 

airfields. DOD force protection detachments would also provide a 

vulnerability assessment, CI collection, and host-nation partnership 

capability that would serve to lend the deployed team intelligence 

support. The exact operational scheme the Air Force employs to operate and win in the A2/AD environment will evolve over the next 

few years. However, one fact is clear: Air Force assets will need FP 

support, and tactical intelligence support will be critical to the success of the FP mission.

Notes

1. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 2.

2. Owen, “Taliban Inflicted Biggest Loss.”

3. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum.

4. Douhet, Command of the Air, 53–54.

5. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 264.
DISSIPATING THE FOG OF WAR │ 265

6. Branum, “Many Airmen, One Mission.”

7. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 5.

8. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-2, Irregular Warfare,” 26.

9. JP 2-0, Joint Intelligence, GL-8.

10. Air Force Tactics, Techniques and Procedures 3-10.3, Integrated Defense 

Counterthreat Operations, 11.

11. Fox, Air Base Defense, 79–81.

12. Ibid., 139.

13. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 34.

14. Fox, Air Base Defense, 141.

15. According to JP 2-0, Joint Intelligence, CI is “information gathered and activities conducted to identify, deceive, exploit, disrupt, or protect against” threats 

posed by activities such as espionage, foreign intelligence collections, sabotage, or 

assassinations (I-19–I-20). Specifically, CI targets activities by or on behalf of hostile 

foreign actors or international terrorist organizations. The CI discipline takes steps 

to counter foreign intelligence threats and leverages multiple intelligence disciplines, 

to include HUMINT, to fill informational gaps associated with CI activities. AFOSI, 

Air Force Office of Special Investigations, 228–32.

16. Fox, Air Base Defense, 142.

17. Ibid.; and AFOSI, Office of Special Investigations, 229.

18. Fox, Air Base Defense, 143–45. By 1970 the Seventh Air Force intelligence 

director deemed the self-help AFOSI collections and SP intelligence analysis a success and sufficient to meet ABD needs. The Air Force director of security police argued that the Air Force would be better served with trained career intelligence personnel doing the intelligence work; these lessons and views were not heeded after 

Vietnam as they were not codified for future conflicts (ibid.).

19. Ibid., 171.

20. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 218. With this change in roles, the 332 

ESFG was then responsible for defense of the entire installation to include the BSZ 

outside the installation.

21. Dobrydney, “Group Assumes Task Force Role.”

22. Grigsby, Doctrine Update, 2-12, 5.

23. Dobrydney, “Group Assumes Task Force Role.”

24. Per JP 2-0, Joint Intelligence, III-6, JISE is typically the terminology reserved 

for JTF-level intelligence organizations; however, at JBB and other expeditionary air 

bases, JISE and other names were used to identify Air Force–led joint intelligence 

fusion cells.

25. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 227.

26. Ibid.

27. Capt Tyler McSpadden, former intelligence collection manager, Joint Intelligence Support Element, Joint Base Balad, interview and e-mail correspondence with 

author, November 2014.

28. Marine Corps Warfighting Publication 2-14, Counterintelligence, 3-14.

29. FM 2-22.3, Human Intelligence Collector Operations, 1-1.

30. Lai, “Officials Stand Up HUMINT Detachment.”

31. Miller, “Defense Clandestine Service.”

32. Department of Defense, Joint Operational Access Concept, ver. 1.0, i.
266 │ BAGGETT

33. Ibid., iii.

34. Cenciotti, “Rapid Raptor Package.”

35. Mize, “Rapid Raptor.”

36. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 205.

37. Ibid., 205–8.

38. Schogol, “Air Force May Cut 10,000 Airmen.”

39. Headquarters Air Force/A9, Studies and Analysis and Lessons Learned, “Expeditionary Base Security,” 11.

40. Gonzales, “Doctrine Achieve Its Objectives?,” 50.

41. To become trained active HUMINT collectors and to execute active 

HUMINT collections, SF personnel would have to meet all DIA oversight and control measures for their operations and collections. DIA-directed HUMINT and CI 

collections controls and training standards would effectively require SF personnel 

to be cross-trained into Air Force intelligence or AFOSI. Air Force intelligence is 

the only recognized positive intelligence agency in the Air Force. The AFOSI has 

standing in the intelligence community by virtue of its CI mission. For SF to gain 

standing in the intelligence community with trained HUMINT collectors, directives at Air Force, DOD, and US government levels would have to be changed. SF 

would also need to take on responsibility for establishing complex oversight structures to meet DOD and national intelligence community directives for intelligence 

analysis and collections controls.

42. To meet intelligence community oversight and control measures as well as 

Air Force Mission Directive 39, Air Force Office of Special Investigations, 7 May 2015, 

AFOSI agents would need to remain assigned to the senior AFOSI agent in-theater.

43. Air Mobility Command (AMC), “Phoenix Raven.” The Phoenix Raven program is an AMC concept whereby teams of two to six specially trained and equipped 

SF personnel deploy with AMC aircraft such as the C-17 to provide close-in aircraft 

security and mitigate the risk to exposed aircraft.

44. Department of Defense Instruction 5240.22, Counterintelligence Support to 

Force Protection, 7.

45. The limited amount of time these aircraft are on the ground makes developing 

local-area source networks with deployed personnel highly unlikely. Building such 

networks would have to be done well ahead of the arrival of the Rapid Raptor team 

and, due to the secrecy of the potential deployment, done in a clandestine manner 

requiring higher-order HUMINT support than that provided by the FPD locations.
PART 4

The Pivot to the Pacific

Air Base Defense and AirSea Battle

Chapter 8

Airpower Projection in the 

Antiaccess/Area-Denial Environment

Dispersed Operations and Base Defense

Russell S. Badowski

In 2012 the Defense Department issued guidance that the US 

armed forces must generate and maintain an ability to “project power 

despite anti-access/area denial [A2/AD] challenges.”1

 Current Air 

Force aircraft, bases, and power-projection models provide the available means and ways with which the Air Force seeks to achieve its 

contribution to the ends laid out by this strategic guidance. Meanwhile, technology available to adversaries continues to advance in 

precision and lethality, resulting in a basing construct held hostage 

under an increasingly capable threat. Unfortunately, the significant 

resources, manpower, and effort applied to actively defending these 

bases are being outstripped by the capabilities of adversaries; thus, the 

risk of reliance on these bases is escalating rapidly. Countering these 

growing threats requires action. Service leaders must strive to introduce technology and training supporting aircraft dispersal. Major and 

combat commands must ensure that functional staffs understand the 

risks driven by a dispersal strategy. Further, services and major commands (MAJCOM) must alter how they present forces through unit 

type codes (UTC) to accommodate force packages that better enable 

the dispersal concept.2

The joint force is actively looking at alternative, realistic ways to 

use available means to project airpower into an A2/AD environment 

without dependence on established bases or substantial resource increases. However, these new ideas challenge conventional thinking 

about the Air Force’s power-projection model and its associated 

risks. The model in force offers an acceptable level of risk in the permissive environments that we have operated in for the last several 

decades. As those give way to the A2/AD environments of tomorrow, 

the attendant risk to airpower escalates rapidly to an untenable level. 

Senior leaders have available options to mitigate some of this risk 

through dispersed operations, but they must accept and facilitate a 

new model for airpower projection that presents risks of its own. 
270 │ BADOWSKI

Service leaders with administrative control must train and equip the 

war fighter for these new roles and risks. Correspondingly, warfighting leadership must prepare the battlespace and employ forces 

using a dispersed operating model that ensures the availability of airpower in an A2/AD environment.

Current Model

The Air Force has made power projection into an A2/AD environment a mission priority, as evidenced by the procurement of advanced fifth-generation aircraft that will maintain capabilities to operate in nonpermissive environments. These aircraft represent the 

Air Force’s kinetic airpower-projection capabilities for A2/AD for the 

foreseeable future. However, the “inter-related factors of aircraft 

characteristics, aircrew fatigue, combat mission profiles, aerial refueling requirements, sortie rates, and aircrew to aircraft ratios” dictate 

that the fighters operate from bases within 1,000 to 1,500 miles of 

their objectives.3

 Current concepts of operation for fighter employment and power-projection models are predicated on a small, concentrated set of forward operating bases (FOB) serving as centralized hubs for logistics, command and control (C2) nodes, and other 

support functions. These FOBs are located within appropriate operational ranges to potential hot spots around the globe, but their numbers have shrunk due to the drawdown following the Cold War.4

 The 

few remaining forward bases serve as a gathering point for all capabilities the United States seeks to have at its ready disposal and have 

grown in mission scope.5

The centralization of capabilities onto fewer bases creates multiple 

benefits with little risk to planners and decision makers. Advantages 

include reduced costs for infrastructure and logistics; concentrated 

manpower requirements; and more efficient, robust C2. In the current fiscal environment and with the geopolitical focus on relatively 

permissive air environments, decision makers have accepted the risks 

of reliance on this power-projection model. The assumption is that a 

base’s potential value as a target is easily overcome by the primacy of 

our defensive capabilities relative to adversary capabilities and will. A 

contingent of academics and operators has followed the rapid changes 

occurring in the operating environment and raised the flag about the 

risks bases will face in the near future.6

 Indeed, the technological advancements of potential adversaries have surpassed our defensive 
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 271

capabilities, putting these hubs at much greater risk as a strategically 

valuable target.

The benefits derived from today’s power-projection model are 

warranted only if the accompanying array of infrastructure, aircraft, 

and personnel are secure from attack. Integrated defense has demanded more time and focus by air base commanders as their responsibilities have become clearer in Air Force doctrine and policy.7

The vast assortment of defense-based weapons—such as the Patriot 

missile system, Aegis destroyers, and the newer Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system—have been designed to protect bases 

around the world.8

 Career fields such as security forces and special 

investigations have received wider mandates to secure bases much 

more robustly than in previous decades.9

 Additionally, base commanders have become intimately involved in base defense plans and 

are actively seeking new capabilities and competencies that will help 

to secure bases. Finally, the USAF has developed advanced professional military education courses that address the problem of how to 

defend air bases despite growing threats.10

The Air Force has invested in these resources to find the correct 

combination of ways and means to reduce the risk associated with US 

power projection. The relatively successful defense of our forwardpostured forces under recent contextual settings has bred a sense of 

complacency that the United States can and will prevail against any 

threat. The US military lost a trivial number of aircraft to base attacks 

in Iraq and Afghanistan and never relinquished the ability to use an 

airfield for more than a limited period in those wars.11 Risk management seemed to work in these conflicts. However, adversaries increasingly possess the potential to upset that environment and change 

the risk calculus in their favor.

The New Operational Context

The United States now confronts the reality that advanced technologies afford the precision and lethality with which adversaries can 

jeopardize our forward presence.12 The Chinese have procured shortand medium-range ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, armed remotely 

piloted vehicles, rockets, and air-surface strike capabilities in an effort to create a realistic, credible, and redundant umbrella under 

which their opponents must operate.13 Of specific concern are the 

increased range and accuracy of future weapons such as the DF-4, 
272 │ BADOWSKI

DH-10, and D-3A that could easily be used for attacks beyond the 

first island chain.14 Additionally, Chinese strategists have stated, “To 

achieve air superiority, long distance firepower must be applied to 

‘control the air through the ground.’ Enemy combat aircraft would be 

suppressed or destroyed on the ground, and/or blockaded inside 

their bunkers, thus making it difficult for their air combat forces to 

play an effective role.”15 There are examples of how potential US adversaries worldwide have accepted this line of thinking and how it 

has become a global problem for US forces.16 Indeed, this operational concept is not new. In 1921 Italian Giulio Douhet wrote, “It is 

easier and more effective to destroy the enemy’s aerial power by destroying his nests and eggs on the ground than to hunt his flying 

birds in the air.”17 As joint force planners acknowledge that technology 

and strategy are aligning to allow our adversaries to threaten the 

limited number of bases from which our airpower originates, they 

can reassess the practicality of the current power-projection model. 

A 2015 RAND Corporation study on air base vulnerability observes 

that “emerging long-range strike capabilities are bringing the era of 

sanctuary to an end, with significant implications for the American 

way of war.”18 In short, the predictable and uncontested logistical 

buildup of American forces (and airpower) is likely to become a thing 

of the past due to “highly accurate long-range strike systems, particularly ballistic and cruise missiles” coupled with the traditional ground 

threat against air bases.19

The modern dynamic creates a situation where planners are forced 

to reconcile an increased level of risk within the existing ends, ways, 

and means framework. Efforts to maintain a superior defensive capability in response to an increasingly complex and capable adversary 

are costly, and the results are often short lived.20 The effects of downsizing and prioritized budgets are that the United States finds itself in 

a situation where the means cannot be extensively altered to create a 

long-term advantage. The politicians who dictate the ends have yet to 

keep stride with changing operational realities—as evidenced by the 

mandate to maintain the ability to project power into an A2/AD environment. Taken together, these factors force the remaining two 

variables—risk and ways—to account for the changes in the emerging A2/AD context.

Without fundamentally changing the established models that rely 

on FOBs, planners are accepting the increased risk of the new threat 

environment. As the threat grows, so too will the risk involved with 
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 273

current basing constructs. Adversaries are increasingly capable of 

completely denying US power projection through their ability to hold 

our forward bases hostage. Long-term procurement plans to acquire 

new technology and longer-range weapons systems will help to mitigate the problem—but not in the near future. Before these new means 

become available, leadership must assess whether the risk of maintaining the status quo is acceptable. Eventually, the untenable risk associated with the difficulty of defending the bases from which airpower is projected will force leaders to look at alternative ways to 

project power.

Alternative Option: Rapid Raptor Case Study

The defense of FOBs has been a concern long before this current 

threat began to materialize. During the Cold War, bases in Europe 

developed resiliency plans that included hardening measures and 

options for dispersed operations in the event of a Soviet attack.21 A 

1987 RAND study on the tactical dispersal of fighter aircraft called 

for a complementary system of main operating bases and dispersed 

operating locations that would complicate Soviet targeting in the 

event of conventional hostilities.22 In a related article the same year in 

the Air Force Journal of Logistics, Lt Col Price Bingham argued that 

two options are available for base defense. The first option, still in 

practice, involves “hardening measures, active defenses, and rapid repair capabilities.” The alternative is a strategy that “depends on dispersal, mobility, concealment, and deception measures for survival.”23

A key point from both studies is the requirement for an aircraft capable of, and effective at, operating from dispersed locations. Despite 

the US desire to attain a capability for dispersed airpower, the concept never gained operational status. The downfall of the Soviet 

Union and other geopolitical realities allowed the predominant 

thinking to grow into current projection models. Bingham’s first option was entrenched in Air Force planning, and the idea of using dispersed bases for conventional forces fell out of favor.

In response to the new operational context, the joint force has developed alternative plans to achieve strategic objectives and moderate 

some of the risks of the current construct. For instance, small teams 

of F-22 planners (including operators and maintainers) have sought 

to reinvigorate the concept of dispersed operations with the advent of 

Rapid Raptor. The F-22 is the aircraft ostensibly designed to allow for 
274 │ BADOWSKI

the implementation of the 1987 studies’ dispersal recommendations. 

This idea of a dispersed power-projection capability provides a case 

study for the discussion of how new ways to project airpower will 

alter the risks in the emerging threat environment.

Rapid Raptor is a concept that seeks to fulfill Bingham’s second 

option for defending airpower. Reliance on “dispersal, mobility, concealment, and deception” techniques is a cornerstone of this new 

model.24 It assumes that large bases may be unusable due to the inability to effectively defend against adversary attacks. Instead, Rapid 

Raptor seeks to use any available and appropriate runway for limited 

power-projection requirements. The plan has undergone several iterations, beginning with a version described in the 2014 article “Forward 

Arming and Refueling Points for Fighter Aircraft.”25 As it has evolved, 

the plan has solidified into a variety of flexible deterrent options that 

a combatant commander can use for power projection in the form of 

strike, alert, show-of-force, and presence missions. Rapid Raptor 

pairs a four-ship of F-22s and a single C-17 loaded out with a package of support equipment for the tasked mission.26 The operations 

and maintenance team of approximately 50 individuals is capable of 

rapidly deploying to any suitable runway in the operational area and 

successfully completing an assigned mission of limited duration.27

Former PACAF commander Gen Hawk Carlisle stated in 2014 that 

the Rapid Raptor exemplifies how the Air Force will “rely on Airmen’s 

abilities to create innovative solutions” and look at alternatives for 

“utiliz[ing] existing weapons systems and cultivat[ing] tactics, techniques, and procedures” for future operations.28

This updated model for power projection appears to offer a quick fix 

to a difficult problem. It proposes inventive ways to achieve the ends 

without a large-scale increase in the means available. However, before 

leadership can implement this model as a plan, there must be a broadbased analysis and understanding of the risks associated with its adoption. The concept was designed to counter the existing risk of reliance 

on a limited number of operating bases that fall under a potential 

threat. While Rapid Raptor may minimize that pitfall, it also introduces 

vulnerabilities of its own. Despite the difficulty of comparing one form 

of risk to another, a critical understanding of the risks associated with 

the different airpower-projection models will allow a dialogue and foster effective decision making across functions and levels of command. 

Rapid Raptor presents three broad risk areas that together must be 

weighed against the risk faced by strategic base defense.
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 275

Risks to Dispersed Operations

The primary risk associated with Rapid Raptor falls on logistical 

functions. The concept assumes that F-22s will project power for a 

limited time and on specific mission sets, then cycle back to a base that 

has full F-22 support.29 Using the model for a sustained conventional 

conflict will require several Rapid Raptor teams operating from a variety of locations and cycling into and out of theater on a semiregular 

basis.30 Additionally, without the support and infrastructure of an established base, sustained F-22 operations will potentially not meet 

current planned sortie or mission-capable rates, and the likelihood of 

not delivering an assigned mission may grow. As the duration of the 

deployment extends, the risk of not delivering on individual missions 

will also likely increase. The limited personnel and equipment associated with a Rapid Raptor package can only do so much to ensure that 

the aircraft is mission ready, and some fixes may potentially require 

more intensive maintenance than what would be available.31

Another aspect of the logistical risk is associated with a reliable 

source of jet fuel. The variants of the Rapid Raptor model have sought 

to deal with this constraint in one of two ways. One option is to fly the 

fuel into the airfield using tankers or specially modified C-17s.32

Doing so allows for a reduction in the reliance on local procurement 

but ties up additional aircraft and resources. The second option requires that the suitability of a runway as a dispersed operating location be dependent on the availability of locally procured jet fuel. 

Regardless of the source of fuel, the team will not have the support of 

a dedicated, assured source for its needs.

The logistical risks of a dispersed model exacerbate the fears of 

functional areas that grade themselves on delivering mission-ready 

aircraft to the combatant commander. Leaders must be willing to 

drive Rapid Raptor teams to deliver sorties while acknowledging the 

logistical challenges involved. At all levels of command, standardized 

metrics for performance and effectiveness must be developed—with 

a view toward overall strategy rather than day-to-day sortie production. Another option to quell some of these fears would be to preposition parts, tools, equipment, and fuel at various locations that 

teams could access as needed. Regardless of the functional imperatives driving caution, leaders must ask if the risk of losing a handful 

of sorties for logistical reasons outweighs that of losing all the sorties 

from a strategic base attack.
276 │ BADOWSKI

The second major risk associated with a dispersed airpowerprojection model is that of command and control. As a doctrinal concept, centralized control with decentralized execution has been a 

paramount, yet misunderstood, feature of the Air Force’s operations 

since its founding.33 In recent times, the air and space operations center (AOC) has consolidated control and leveraged technology so that 

the combined force air component commander (CFACC) can command and control forces through the dissemination of details via the 

daily air tasking order and other associated documents.34 The notion 

that a CFACC in the AOC must centrally control airpower has become fundamentally entrenched in Air Force culture over the last 

four decades.35 If commanders do not have the infrastructure to support secure communications or information systems to allow for rapid 

data transfer, their ability to circulate these details to dispersed teams 

becomes problematic. Proper C2 of assigned forces allows the AOC to 

take advantage of the speed, reach, and flexibility of airpower. Technology can be leveraged to ensure that limited data can be transferred 

to the dispersed teams—but not with the reliability and capacity that 

commanders have come to expect. These technologies must be fully 

embraced if Rapid Raptor is to succeed at projecting airpower. The 

ability to designate specific targets, times, or other mission-specific 

details ensures that tactical units are tied into a broader strategic perspective for a campaign; any degradation in that ability has the potential risk of reducing combat effectiveness.

Gen Martin Dempsey, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of 

Staff (CJCS), released a CJCS white paper on mission command in 

2012. While not novel, the key attributes of command he expresses 

have stood the test of time. For instance, General Dempsey conveys 

that leaders should understand the mission’s intent, ensure its mutual understanding throughout the chain of command, and achieve 

a common operating picture—all while fostering responsible decentralized execution in a complex, dynamic environment.36 The Air 

Force, however, has had difficulty fully adopting this mentality with 

respect to airpower as evidenced by its lethargy in finding adaptable 

C2 structures that operate subordinate to the CFACC and AOC.37 Senior Air Force leaders have addressed the concept of distributed control, and it offers some guidance on the way ahead. Nevertheless, the 

Air Force has not fully incorporated this concept into day-to-day operations.38 Dispersed operations such as Rapid Raptor are based on 

the actualization of the mission command and distributed control 
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 277

concepts. A more adaptable C2 architecture with established mechanisms, relationships, and authorities is required to take full advantage 

of the capabilities presented by dispersed operations. The question 

for decision makers is whether the requirement to project airpower 

in an A2/AD environment warrants a reduction of centralized control in favor of mission accomplishment. Does the risk of embracing 

adaptable C2 architecture and potentially losing AOC oversight outweigh the dangers posed to executing the mission from strategic hubs?

The final area that faces an increased risk when executing a dispersed power-projection model involves force protection. Rapid Raptor is designed to operate from any airfield, which may or may not 

have a security presence available. The intent is to use surprise and 

deception by maintaining a small footprint, making it difficult for adversaries to find the origin from which airpower is generated and thus 

complicating their targeting. However, because of this very strategy, 

the deployed team may not have access to the defensive measures that 

have become requisite for base commanders. It operates outside the 

layered defenses found at main operating bases, and the plan undermines the dominant thinking on integrated defense measures. The 

team becomes susceptible to attack or exploitation if its operating 

location is discovered. The most likely attack would come from the 

adversary using the weapons already discussed, but there is potential 

for a smaller attack originating from a local threat near the dispersed 

base. Regardless, the Rapid Raptor team will not have established 

force-protection capabilities and will be forced to rely on the limited 

capability with which it deploys. Leaders must determine if this increased risk to people outweighs the risk to the mission from operating at threatened bases with existing security layers.

Options are available to mitigate the dangers that dispersed teams 

face from every possible attack. The dispersed nature of the model 

counters the most likely threat, but it could be augmented by concerted placement of ballistic missile defense systems in-theater. With 

respect to the ground threat, an example from the Cold War presents 

a case for including security force members on the Rapid Raptor 

team. In the 1980s, the Air Force briefly employed small teams in 

Europe for the ground-launched cruise missiles (GLCM). These 

teams were composed of the operations, maintenance, and security 

personnel necessary to function from dispersed locations without 

any other external support.39 The downside to this option for the 

F-22 team is the limited space allocated for people on a single C-17. 
278 │ BADOWSKI

Current Rapid Raptor planning uses all available seating for maintenance and operations personnel, and adding security teams may 

reduce operational capability.40 Leaders will have to determine the 

appropriate mix for the team based on the operating locations and 

perceived threat.

A second option to lessen some of this risk is for combatant commanders to proactively use security cooperation partnerships to bolster indigenous security procedures around potential operating locations.41 Certifying that local forces understand the necessity to 

provide secure perimeters and oversight will ensure that airfields are 

relatively secure when and if Rapid Raptor teams are deployed. This 

preemptive measure does not necessarily require additional funds 

but does necessitate a level of focus for teams leading security cooperation endeavors around the globe.

Both previous measures would be incomplete without a final step. 

Members of a Rapid Raptor team have not had the appropriate

training to deploy and provide their own security. Teams must be 

prepared—with or without augmentation—to discharge basic security for the operating location. The Rapid Raptor dispersal plan deploys teams with small arms and limited battle armor and has not 

addressed the operational imperative of setting up a perimeter defense.42 Other aspects that must be considered are the extent to which 

the team should be equipped to fall back and the repercussions of 

losing tools, equipment, and potentially aircraft to an attacking force. 

Much of this danger can be overcome with a careful selection of the 

operating location, but team members should still be trained on contingency considerations.

Challenges to Change

The discussion of the specific risks involved with the Rapid Raptor 

concept illuminates the challenges that would be faced with any dispersed power-projection model. Three broad areas of risk—logistics, 

command and control, and force protection—form the basis from 

which an informed dialogue must commence regarding the benefits 

of this new model over reliance on strategic basing models. Because 

there is no doctrinal framework that guides risk assessment, commanders and their planning staffs are left to exercise operational art in 

conducting this dialogue and arriving at the appropriate conclusions.43

Unfortunately, bureaucratic resistance and the risk-averse nature of 
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 279

the military make it difficult to argue for the far-reaching changes required to promulgate an entirely new power-projection model.

Overcoming structural impediments to enacting these new ways 

requires commanders to alter existing thought processes, metrics, 

and established practices. Rapid Raptor has been proven as an operational concept through multiple trial runs in which teams deployed 

to established air bases within US jurisdiction.44 Without a commander’s proactive participation that forced disparate functional involvement, these trial runs would never have occurred, lessons would 

not have been learned, and the concept would have floundered. The 

commander was paramount to overcoming the functional backlash 

that arose due to nonstandard operational practices. It is this type of 

support and experimentation that will allow commanders to break 

down structural barriers—such as established metrics and existing 

technical orders / operating instructions—and the bureaucratic resistance associated with those barriers.

In addition to structural impediments, commanders seeking to 

mobilize these new ways must deal with risk aversion. There has 

always been a hesitation to try something new—people intrinsically 

fear change. However, experience shows that the military force as a 

whole has become more risk averse in the past several years. While 

some of the proof for this shift is anecdotal, as evidenced by the 

myriad generals and admirals who speak at Air University, one Department of Navy study captures a widespread concern with risk 

aversion.45 It indicates that leaders are hesitant to alter the status 

quo for fear of repercussions if something were to go wrong with a 

decision they make. Regardless of the validity of a growing risk 

aversion, the current reality that holds ends and means constant 

forces commanders to find an acceptable risk among a variety of 

ways to find the best solution to a strategic problem.

Recommendations

The operative power-projection model faces an unacceptably 

higher risk when transposed from a permissive to an A2/AD environment. The increased risk can be mitigated by following a dispersed 

power-projection model that would reduce the total risk by negating 

the most likely and dangerous threat while transferring any residual 

risk across several functional areas. These individual functional areas 

may be subject to a risk greater than that which was customary over 
280 │ BADOWSKI

the last several decades. However, the ability to project airpower 

would be preserved at a lower total risk than if the current powerprojection model were used in the new operating environment. To 

make this new model an operational reality and to prepare some 

functional areas for a changing risk structure, senior leaders can and 

should proactively train, equip, and employ forces within this new 

construct. First, service leaders must strive to introduce technology 

and training supporting aircraft dispersal. Second, major and combatant commands must ensure that functional staffs understand risks 

driven by a dispersal strategy. Finally, MAJCOMs must alter how 

they present forces through UTCs to accommodate force packages 

that better enable the dispersal concept.

As the providers tasked with presenting forces to the war-fighting 

leadership, MAJCOMs must aim to deliver the training and technology necessary to implement this concept. The training should include the opportunity to practice and refine the skill sets necessary to 

accomplish the mission via realistic exercises, while the technology 

should enable and enhance dispersed communications and adaptable 

C2. In addition to preparing individual units, MAJCOMs must ensure that the functional staffs are aware that there will be risk that is 

transferred to their areas of expertise. It is critical that all functional 

hierarchies understand the vision and rationale behind a dispersed 

power-projection model so that leaders across the chain of command 

do not generate undue bureaucratic resistance and are willing to

accept a changing risk structure. Finally, MAJCOMs must present 

forces following a renewed model of power projection. The current 

force-packaging structure of UTCs, which geographic combatant 

commanders (GCC) can employ, is organized on an assumption

that the force will be forward deployed within the model in place. 

Altering UTCs to accommodate force packaging based on dispersal 

must be achieved in conjunction with a discussion that will educate 

the GCCs on these updated force packages.

As the war-fighting leadership, GCCs and CFACCs must actively 

find ways to assimilate Air Force units that follow a dispersed powerprojection model. Typically, GCCs employ these units for four- to sixmonth rotations—such as for theater security package or continuous 

bomber presence missions—that use outdated force packaging and 

established power-projection models. A restructured plan to employ 

these units at various locations sporadically throughout a period of 

time would save money, continue to assure our allies, and still pro-
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 281

vide a presence in the theater of operations. Additionally, GCCs must 

be proactive with ongoing theater security cooperation measures that 

will enable dispersed operations. By focusing these cooperative measures on areas that will benefit dispersed operations, GCCs can ensure effectiveness and help to mitigate some of the risks involved with 

dispersed operations. As the senior Air Force officer in-theater, the 

CFACC must enable an adaptive C2 architecture that will allow the 

capabilities of dispersed operations to be fully realized. Doing so may 

entail a reduction in the influence and authorities of the CFACC and 

AOC. Such an architecture must be built on a level of trust and understanding with the dispersed teams, the subordinate JTFs to which 

those teams may be allocated, and any command/coordination elements in between.

Conclusion: Defending 

Airpower Projection Capabilities

Airpower pioneer Gen Billy Mitchell recognized that “in the development of air power, one has to look ahead and not backward and 

figure out what is going to happen, not too much what has happened.”46 Advanced technology, rising regional power tensions, and 

the traditional ground threat to air bases have conspired to paint a 

new reality for future airpower operations. If American airpower is to 

maintain its lethality, the USAF must make the initial survivability of 

its aircraft a priority. Technology, force packaging, and training must 

support aircraft dispersal. Functional staffs must be open-eyed about 

the risks associated with a dispersal strategy and alter how they present forces to better enable the dispersal concept.

The capability to deploy units to dispersed locations and effectively execute a mission that does not rely on a limited number of 

bases lends credence to a strategic message that we can and will operate and project airpower into an A2/AD environment. GCCs and 

CFACCs who employ this model will gain flexible deterrent options 

that offer tools to manage escalation under greater threat than would 

be available under current power-projection models. Retaining realistic, credible deterrent measures will allow GCCs to prevent adversaries from taking advantage of a perceived unwillingness to

deploy forces for small breaches of international order. These mea-
282 │ BADOWSKI

sures will also ensure order and the availability of airpower for global 

operations irrespective of the operating environment.

Commanders must weigh the threat to established air bases with 

the risks to dispersed operations. The current airpower-projection 

model faces a potentially existential threat, and leaders can no longer 

ignore this reality. Alternative models still include risks in the forms 

of logistics, C2, and force protection. Senior leaders can address and 

mitigate these risks to ensure that we retain the ability to project national power—and more specifically airpower—into any environment. General Dempsey challenged the services and the joint force to 

“collectively promote a culture that values calculated risk as a means 

to generate opportunity.”47 Leaders at all levels should find ways to 

advance this culture. Breaking down structural barriers and moderating potential risks are starting points. The time for action is now.

Notes

1. Department of Defense, Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership, 4.

2. Air Force Instruction 10-403, Deployment Planning and Execution, 66.

3. Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, ii. This study lays out fundamental problems with 

the current basing construct and the political and military threats to assured access 

for land-based fighter aircraft power-projection capabilities.

4. Pettyjohn and Vick, Posture Triangle, 82. Throughout this study, the authors 

provide insight regarding the mix of basing arrangements available to US military 

planners and the relative strengths and weaknesses of different contextual arrangements. For the purpose of this discussion, I am referring to the number of operating 

bases established for long-term fighter aircraft generation and sustainment. According 

to these authors, only seven such bases exist abroad.

5. Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, 19–30. Bowie identifies the paucity of runways 

available globally and highlights the myriad requirements for a typical base to operate as a hub for US fighter aircraft generation.

6. Several studies have looked at the A2/AD environment and the risks to our 

current power-projection model that relies on forward-deployed capabilities. The 

overarching thesis is that these bases are becoming increasingly susceptible to advanced threats, and thus the United States’ ability to project airpower from these 

bases is no longer guaranteed. I list several of these studies here for additional reference (see bibliography for full citations): Adderley, “Can’t Get There from Here”; 

Bowie, Anti-Access Threat; Cliff et al., Shaking the Heavens; Davis, “Forward Arming 

and Refueling”; Easton, Able Archers; and Haddick, Fire on the Water.

7. The Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” and Air Force Policy Directive 31-1, Integrated Defense, 

prescribe force-protection measures for the people, assets, and bases that the USAF 

has stationed around the globe. During in-class lectures for an air base defense class 

offered at Air Command and Staff College (ACSC) in 2015, several former expedi-
AIRPOWER PROJECTION IN THE A2/AD ENVIRONMENT │ 283

tionary wing commanders commented on the time and effort expended in pursuit of 

these objectives.

8. Ibid., 62.

9. Caudill, Defending Air Bases, vol. 1, 339–63. The concluding chapter of this 

book summarizes lessons learned from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as 10 propositions that enable successful base defense. The recommendations are influenced by 

the perspective of base defense from a security forces professional and are skewed 

toward the role of security forces and the Office of Special Investigations in base defense. Chap. 11 also highlights the recent changes in doctrine and policy that have 

supported the measures identified as necessary for successful base defense.

10. During the 2015 academic year, ACSC offered the yearlong elective Defending 

Airbases in an Age of Insurgency, for which the author originally wrote this chapter.

11. A portion of the coursework for the ACSC elective was to research the effectiveness of base attacks in Iraq from 2003 to 2012. The research was conducted at 

the Air Force Historical Research Agency at Maxwell AFB, AL. The research discovered that despite being attacked 1,964 times, the coalition as a whole suffered only 15 

damaged aircraft throughout the campaign, with zero complete losses. While these 

statistics do not speak to the time a runway was unavailable due to these attacks, 

aircraft were never lost for lack of a usable runway surface, nor were operations ever 

suspended beyond a cursory recovery period following an attack. Data from Afghanistan was unavailable at the time of this writing; however, anecdotal evidence 

suggests a similar limited effectiveness of base attacks for that campaign with the 

caveat of the US Marine Corps losses at Camp Bastion.

12. Haddick, Fire on the Water, 87–90. This section succinctly identifies the 

problem of advanced precision weapons, but several of the studies mentioned previously highlight the extent to which forward bases are under increased threat of 

attack.

13. Easton, Able Archers, 10. Although this study is conducted from a Taiwanese 

perspective, the conclusions have ramifications for US forces in the Pacific theater.

14. Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling,” 7.

15. Easton, Able Archers, 11. The original quotation is from a translation of Yu 

Jixun, ed., Second Artillery Force Science of Campaigns (Beijing: Liberation Army 

Press, 2004), 392.

16. Adderley, “Can’t Get There from Here,” 6–10.

17. Douhet, Command of the Air, 53–54.

18. Vick, Air Base Attacks, xiii, 63.

19. Ibid., 62–63.

20. Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, 62.

21. Berman, Integrating Basing. In his argument to incorporate basing considerations as a factor in future aircraft design requirements, Berman acknowledges the 

different measures available to protect against base attack. Additionally, see Halliday, 

Tactical Dispersal of Fighter Aircraft, 13–16.

22. Halliday, Tactical Dispersal of Fighter Aircraft, 7–8, 28–29.

23. Bingham, “Air Base Survivability,” 2.

24. Ibid.

25. Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling,” 11–17.
284 │ BADOWSKI

26. Misiak to the author, e-mail. MSgt Daniel Misiak was the production supervisor in the 90th Aircraft Maintenance Unit, 3rd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, 

3rd Maintenance Group, 3rd Wing, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, AK, at the 

time of this writing. He was the subject matter expert for the Rapid Raptor proof-ofconcept exercises conducted during the author’s time as acting director of operations, 90th Fighter Squadron. His expertise and insight were critical to a thorough 

understanding of the Rapid Raptor concept. In addition to his e-mail and our discussions, Master Sergeant Misiak provided load plans and data sheets outlining the 

various configurations of the concept available to planners based on mission type. I 

am indebted to him for his input and information related to the capabilities and risks 

associated with this particular form of dispersed operations.

27. Ibid.

28. Everstine, “ACC, PACAF Focused.”

29. Misiak to the author, e-mail.

30. Ibid. See also Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling,” 20.

31. Ibid.

32. Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling,” 11.

33. Hinote, Centralized Control, 3–12. See also Hukill et al., Air Force Command.

34. Carozza, “Unspoken Consequence of Communications,” 10.

35. Hukill et al., Air Force Command, 23.

36. Dempsey, Mission Command, 5.

37. Hukill et al., Air Force Command, 23.

38. Hostage and Broadwell, “Resilient Command and Control.” This paper was 

written prior to an Air Force C2 symposium in January 2015 in which Air Force 

leadership concluded that changing the tenet of centralized control / decentralized 

execution was not necessary since the concept of distributed control was already included in the underlying doctrine. However, symposium members highlighted the 

need to foster a better understanding of how distributed control could be fully implemented across the range of military operations.

39. Simpson, “GLCM,” 3.

40. Misiak to the author, e-mail.

41. Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, 53–56.

42. Misiak to the author, e-mail.

43. Huber, “Operational Art and Risk,” 67.

44. Misiak to the author, e-mail; and McCullough, “Ace in the Hole,” 24–25. Numerous wing- and MAJCOM-level exercises have tested the capability to employ the 

Rapid Raptor concept. F-22 units at Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson and Joint Base 

Pearl Harbor-Hickam (JBPHH), HI, have proven that the concept is viable with successful deployments to locations such as Eielson AFB, AK; JBPHH; and Andersen 

AFB, Guam. While deployed, these units relied solely on tools, equipment, and personnel sent with the Rapid Raptor team.

45. Snodgrass, “2014 Navy Retention Study,” 18, 38.

46. Mitchell, Winged Defense, 20–21.

47. Dempsey, Mission Command, 8.
Chapter 9

AirSea Battle and the Air Base 

Defense Shortfall

Shannon W. Caudill

Troy A. Roberts 

Thomas G. Miner

Counterinsurgency takes a heavy toll on a nation, its military, and 

the public. After a long conflict in Vietnam, the United States refocused its efforts on combat power in Europe against a Soviet Union 

that had grown technologically more advanced and menacing with 

the advent of the operational maneuver group concept.1

 In a similar 

scenario, the US military awoke to find the security challenge of 

China in the Pacific after being fixated on irregular warfare in Afghanistan and Iraq for over a decade. Consequently, America has 

been pivoting back to the Asia-Pacific region with a wary eye toward 

China. This redirection evokes similarities to the American military’s 

effort to refocus itself on the Soviet threat in Europe in the wake of a 

costly war in Vietnam.

In the 1970s and ’80s, the United States developed a joint strategy 

called AirLand Battle (ALB) to meet the growing capabilities of the 

Soviets. Today, American leadership emphasizes a pivot back to Asia 

with a refocused military and diplomatic effort centered on the Pacific. Supporting the military component, today’s planners have 

been developing a strategy rhetorically inspired by the success of 

ALB called the AirSea Battle (ASB) concept. In February 2010, the 

DOD declared,

The Air Force and Navy together are developing a new joint air-sea battle 

concept for defeating adversaries across the range of military operations, including adversaries equipped with sophisticated anti-access and area denial 

capabilities. The concept will address how air and naval forces will integrate 

capabilities across all operational domains—air, sea, land, space, and cyberspace—to counter growing challenges to U.S. freedom of action. As it matures, the concept will also help guide the development of future capabilities 

needed for effective power projection operations.2

ASB was renamed the Joint Concept for Access and Maneuver in the 

Global Commons (JAM-GC) in 2015.3
286 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

Much can be learned from the development of the ALB concept in 

the early 1980s, especially concerning the defense of air bases from 

ground attack—a topic that has only recently moved to the forefront 

of JAM-GC planning. As the American World War II island-hopping 

campaign in the Pacific required deeper penetration of enemy threat 

rings and strongpoints, so too will JAM-GC require an eventual 

logistical and force-protection toehold in a contested area requiring 

defense from ground-based threats.

It is easy to forget that during the Vietnam conflict, more US aircraft were destroyed by air base ground attacks than by North Vietnamese MiGs in air-to-air combat. In Vietnam, Vietcong and North 

Vietnamese forces attacked American air bases 475 times between 

1964 and 1973, primarily with mortars and rockets, destroying 99 US 

and South Vietnamese aircraft and damaging 1,170 aircraft.4

 Compare those startling statistics to American losses in air-to-air combat, 

which stood at 62.5

 Vietnam and the lessons from Middle East conflicts informed Army and Air Force leaders on the need not only to 

modernize and integrate forces but also to elevate the defense of air 

bases into a broader strategic and operational framework through the 

ALB concept.6

Today, JAM-GC centers on the challenges of an enemy with the 

technological prowess to prevent the United States from projecting 

forces into its theater of operation. This antiaccess/area denial (A2/

AD) conundrum—which analysts view as central to the future operational environment in the Pacific—is the focus of military planners. In 

January 2012, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta issued new strategic 

guidance for the DOD based on an assessment of the viability of US 

defense strategy in “the changing geopolitical environment.”7

 The guidance document defines 10 mission areas the joint force must address

in today’s globally competitive environment.8

 For one of these prioritized missions—“project power despite anti-­access/area denial 

challenges”—the report states, “Sophisticated adversaries will use 

asymmetric capabilities . . . to complicate our operational calculus” 

and actors will use them to “counter our power projection.” It further 

affirms that “accordingly, the U.S. military will invest as required to 

ensure its ability to operate effectively in [A2/AD] environments” 

(emphasis in original).9

 One of 10 focus areas that the JAM-GC Office 

identified for the A2/AD environment is distributed (or dispersed) 

basing in which a force is spread “across several semiprepared positions, making it harder for an adversary to target.”10
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 287

However, much of the strategy for A2/AD has been on the 

employment of long-range precision weapons, with scant little 

written about the traditional air base threat posed by ground attack. 

This traditional, low-cost threat constitutes the enemy’s final line of 

denial for US forces attempting to break into a contested zone. The 

Air Force advanced two similar strategies to address the A2/AD 

threat: Rapid Raptor for the Pacific and Untethered Operations for 

the European theater—the latter focused on the re-emerging Russian 

threat in Europe.11 Originally developed in 2013, Rapid Raptor seeks 

to deploy and operate strike aircraft in the contested A2/AD Pacific 

theater environment and project combat power against China. 

Supporting the JAM-GC concept of disbursement, Rapid Raptor 

looks to the deployment of fighter aircraft packages serviced by a 

single C-17 with the necessary support to refuel, rearm, and maintain 

the aircraft at an austere airfield but, notably, with no organic 

security.12 More recently, the Air Force validated a new concept—

Agile Combat Employment (ACE)—that builds on Rapid Raptor by 

further delineating rapid response and dispersal operations for 

forward deployed forces in the Pacific theater.13

Regardless of theater, American airpower strategies hinge on the 

concept of dispersed operations to meet the growing threat to US 

airpower dominance posed by rapid enemy A2/AD technological 

development. Dispersal is designed to lessen the impact of rapid and 

accurate long-range strikes by enemy forces. Spreading forces over a 

multitude of widespread, austere sites will make it exponentially 

harder for a determined enemy to target aircraft. Therefore, the logic 

is that the lack of organic security for these aircraft packages is an 

acceptable risk.

Having said that, the US military should examine and address the 

full spectrum of threats under A2/AD. Beyond the threat of hightech missiles and weapon systems, there must be a thoughtful analysis of an omnipresent ground threat across the theater. Such analysis 

must provide a comprehensive, joint approach to the traditional 

ground threat component of the A2/AD challenge. In a resourceconstrained environment, it would behoove the services to create a 

joint approach to air base security similar to the Army–Air Force “31 

Initiatives” of the 1980s that supported ALB. The services must also 

develop partnership capacity for host nations to provide exterior security for air bases and refine joint (and specifically Air Force) expe­
288 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

ditionary security capabilities to support the stand-up of austere and 

dispersed airfields.

AirSea Battle’s Intellectual Foundation

The use of the moniker AirSea Battle (JAM-GC’s forerunner) was 

designed to evoke the rhetoric and template of the highly successful 

ALB strategy developed by the Army and Air Force in the late 1970s 

and implemented in the 1980s. As part of ALB, the services developed 

the “31 Initiatives” to address gaps and seams in their operational approach, integrate and synchronize procurement of weapon systems, 

and reduce mission area redundancies. In the ALB concept, the security of air bases was viewed as a strategic imperative—so much so that 

six of these initiatives dealt specifically with the defense of air bases 

and security of the rear area.14 If JAM-GC is to guarantee access of 

friendly forces to project military power in the theater of operations, 

then a similar accommodation must be made in agreeing on a joint 

approach to meeting the threat to air bases.

The pervasive threat of air and ballistic missile targeting of US and 

ally airpower projection is not a new concept. During the Cold War, 

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) airfields faced Warsaw 

Pact air, missile, and special forces’ threats throughout NATO’s Central European theater.15 Threats of a Soviet attack on NATO airfields, 

air defense installations, nuclear weapons platforms, and command 

and control locations led NATO allies and the United States to increase their tactical air presence throughout Europe.16 In doing so, 

the United States established forward-dispersed air basing throughout Central Europe. As the greatest air arm in NATO, US Air Forces 

in Europe (USAFE) became the main effort to retaliate against Soviet 

air and missile attack.17

USAFE flew dispersed combat air missions from more than 20 air 

bases throughout Europe, all postured to survive and operate under 

Soviet attack.18 The United States continued to increase its air base 

survivability and retaliatory capability until the fall of the Soviet 

Union in 1991. The increased number of hardened NATO air operating locations under an umbrella of air and missile defense systems 

improved USAFE’s airpower survivability. Recently, USAFE dusted 

off elements of Cold War dispersal plans and issued the updated 

strategy of untethered operations.19 However, NATO’s dispersed air 

operating locations—much like those required for US Pacific Com­
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 289

mand’s (USPACOM) JAM-GC—necessitated protection from asymmetric ground threats.

Declassified Cold War–era Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimates identified the Soviet special operations force (Spetsnaz) as a 

credible Level I and II threat to NATO air bases. CIA estimates predicted that, at the outbreak of war, Spetsnaz would infiltrate the target 

area with the support of pre-­positioned clandestine agents. Working 

behind enemy lines, Spetsnaz would conduct reconnaissance and at 

the direction of command authorities would execute directed actions 

toward key NATO air operating locations.20

The Soviet Union’s Leningrad Military Academy taught two methods for Spetsnaz air-base-directed actions. The first method consisted 

of a 30-man airdrop that would break into teams, each with specific 

responsibilities to infiltrate less defended NATO air bases.21 The 

Spetsnaz would position mines and man-portable surface-to-air missiles (MANPADS) at night near the end of the runways. During the 

morning, Spetsnaz teams would direct attacks on exposed aircraft, 

personnel, and facilities. Emplaced mines and MANPADS would be 

used to fire upon departing aircraft.22 The second method of attack, 

directed at more heavily defended air bases, involved a Spetsnaz company of 10 teams of 5–12 men. The company would not penetrate the 

air base but would conduct first-night attacks on the air base’s lines of 

communication, support personnel, and infrastructure. No attacks 

would take place on the second night. The modus operandi was designed to create an impression that a significant force was within the 

target area. On the third night, Spetsnaz would conduct standoff attacks on aircraft and fuel storage.23

Simultaneous to the Spetsnaz operations, Cold War intelligence 

analysts believed that the operational maneuver groups would rapidly thrust into NATO countries to “overrun Europe quickly, before 

NATO’s nuclear forces could intervene” and “overrun NATO airfields 

before NATO [could] gain decisive air superiority.” Additionally, the 

Soviets “discussed the possibility of the units operating from NATO 

airfields” once seized to support penetrating helicopter units and potentially as logistics hubs.24

The service agreements made air base defense (ABD) a joint service interest in direct support of the Army’s AirLand Battle doctrine. 

Actions taken to protect air bases from the perceived Soviet air base 

ground threat were costly in passive defense and ABD manpower. 

Execution of this initiative and the utilization of host-nation security 
290 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

forces were enabled by the collective understanding of airpower’s role 

in countering Soviet military aggression. Additionally, NATO’s strategic and formal partnerships facilitated a multilateral capability 

spanning Central Europe to collectively fight a common state threat 

in total war. Thus, all NATO security forces safeguarding air operations were trained and equipped to meet a common standard determined by NATO. Supporting ALB and the 31 Initiatives, in 1985 the 

Air Force and Army signed Joint Security Agreement 8. Lasting almost 20 years, this joint policy formally tasked the Army with the 

exterior defense of Air Force bases while assigning interior security 

of air bases to the Air Force.25

During the Iraq campaign, however, the Army and Air Force acknowledged that the Army was stretched beyond capacity and did 

not have sufficient forces in to perform dedicated, exterior ABD missions. As a result, Air Force and Army leaders terminated the agreement, giving Air Force commanders more latitude in defending air 

bases with their own assets.26 Without clear roles in base defense responsibilities between the services, this abrogation of these responsibilities presents a potential gap in planning and resources.

ALB demonstrates the capacity to clarify roles and responsibilities 

to ensure full synchronization in the battlespace. In short, it was a 

focal point for both Army and Air Force leaders that air bases receive 

the requisite resources and defense synchronization to assure these 

strategic hubs remained operational. Can the same be said today for 

today’s conceptual cousin, AirSea Battle?

The Pivot to Asia and Ground-Based Threats

In 2011 former secretary of state Hillary Clinton outlined America’s 

“pivot” to Asia and its specific interest in China’s expanding influence in the region. She stated, “At the end of the day, there is no 

handbook for the evolving U.S.-China relationship.” However, she 

noted that the United States “will continue to embed our relationship 

with China in a broader regional framework of security alliances.”27

Her comments hint at the military and strategic challenges presented 

by China and the expanse of the Pacific itself. Clinton clearly stated 

that “this kind of pivot is not easy.”28 This reality is particularly true 

regarding American force projection in an increasingly hostile A2/

AD Pacific environment.
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 291

The forward distribution of air assets to increase airpower 

survivability and complicate adversarial A2 targeting will require 

the development of different air basing options. USPACOM’s JAMGC will drive a distributed air basing plan—which for the purposes 

of this discussion will be categorized as air expeditionary basing or 

dispersal airfields. Dispersal airfields will be serviced by host-nation 

forces in austere, geographically separated conditions designed to 

support a small dispersal footprint for launch and retrieval of air assets only. Although the environments will be permissive, distributed 

air operations could be performed at remote, restricted locations resembling Wake Island airfield. Other operating locations may be in 

more populated, developed, and accessible environments like that of 

Subic Bay airport in the Philippines. While siting forward distributed air bases in permissive environments dismisses the probability 

of conventional ground threat, it does not preclude the possibility of 

exposing air operating sites to asymmetric ground threats.

As much as planners would like to ignore the ground threat, 

ground bases are historically a low-cost, pervasive target within easy 

grasp of any foe. One can expect the enemy to plan ahead by training 

sleeper cells in countries friendly to the United States, employing 

special forces similar to the Soviet-era Spetsnaz model (only with 

more deadly weapons and technology), and leveraging insurgent and 

criminal groups during a crisis. Indeed, according to Dr. William 

Dean, an Air Force insurgency scholar, there are over 26 insurgent 

movements in the Asia-Pacific theater.29 Such was the case in 2001 

when a 14-man Tamil Tiger suicide team armed with explosives, grenade launchers, light antitank weapons, and machine guns targeted 

Sri Lanka’s air assets at Katunayake Air Base and the high-value aircraft at the adjoining Bandaranaike International Airport.30 The attackers successfully destroyed or damaged 26 high-value air assets—

one-third of Sri Lanka’s commercial airline fleet valued at over $350 

million and a quarter of its military fixed-wing capability.31

Large ethnic diasporas provide a potential manpower pool from 

which the mother country can draw. The Russians have used this 

strategy with great effect in Ukraine to justify their actions as designed to “save” the ethnic Russians from the oppressive Ukrainian 

regime, which, in their view, allowed them not only to arm and equip 

the insurgent force but also to intermix their own military advisors 

and special forces.32 When one looks at the Pacific, the Economist

points out that “more Chinese people live outside mainland China 
292 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

than French people live in France, with some to be found in almost 

every country.”33 Large Chinese populations are found in Vietnam 

(1.26 million), the Philippines (1.15 million), Singapore (2.79 million), Indonesia (7.67 million), Thailand (7.06 million), and Malaysia 

(6.39 million).34 This large Chinese diaspora offers a potential sphere 

of influence and pool of manpower sympathetic to the Chinese national cause, which could be leveraged for intelligence and air base 

attacks at dispersed airfields should a conflict arise.

To date, JAM-GC planners largely ignore the ground threat—

something ALB proponents did not. Defending air bases was a central component to ALB strategy. Whereas ALB developed four initiatives specific to air base ground defense, thus far, JAM-GC lacks any 

discussion regarding the ground defense of distributed bases. This 

omission is a major gap in the JAM-GC concept as contrasted with 

ALB. As noted by the Air Force’s Basic Doctrine, “Aircraft are most 

vulnerable on the ground. Thus, force protection is an integral part of 

airpower employment.”35 JAM-GC must therefore include a concept 

for the defense of airfields. To put it simply, if JAM-GC is to succeed, 

leaders and planners must treat it with the same level of seriousness 

and comprehensiveness as the Army and Air Force accord AirLand 

Battle. When it comes to securing air bases in support of JAM-GC, 

ad hoc is simply not good enough.36

Total Force: Bridging the Gap 

by Building Partnership Capacity

In an austere budget environment, JAM-GC must leverage the capabilities of friendly nations in the zone of conflict and build strategic 

relationships well in advance of hostilities. Central to this effort is the 

Building Partnership Capacity (BPC) program, whose goal is “to 

build partner capacity in the following focus areas: sustain[ing] defense through a partner’s human capacity, operational capacity, institutional capacity, civil sector capacity, combined operations capacity, 

operational access, [and] intelligence sharing . . . and assuring regional confidence and international collaboration.”37 The BPC program’s current efforts include developing capabilities “to defeat terrorist networks; defend the US homeland in depth; shape the choices 

of countries at strategic crossroads; prevent hostile states and nonstate actors from acquiring or using weapons of mass destruction 
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 293

(WMD); conduct IW [irregular warfare] and stabilization, security, 

transition and reconstruction (SSTR) operations; [and] enable host 

countries to provide good governance and conduct ‘military diplomacy.’ ”38 The BPC can easily be expanded to bridge the gap in JAMGC and provide integrated defense (ID) for distributed operations. A 

10-year study by the Joint Staff concluded that

partnering between the US and host nations was essential for the US to 

achieve its strategic goals and promote a number of key objectives. First, partnering enabled the host nation to develop a sustainable capacity to provide 

security and counter threats. This provided an exit strategy for the US and 

offered an alternative to sustaining a large US footprint on the ground. Second, partnering enhanced the legitimacy of US operations and freedom of 

action. Finally, partnering built connections between the US and host-nation 

security forces, increasing opportunities for influence both within respective 

militaries and with other sectors of government and society. Partnering offered the US a way to advance its objectives through influence rather than 

through direct action.39

The State Partnership Program (SPP) is a DOD security cooperation program under the authority of the National Guard.40 It was created in another era of “rebalancing” following the disintegration of 

the Soviet Union in 1991. US policy makers sought to stabilize the 

former Soviet states and encourage transition to democratic governance.41 One method was to increase military-to-military relationships in the former Soviet states. In several of these states the National Guard was viewed as a better option over a full-time, active-duty 

presence to minimize Russian “concerns about U.S. expansion into its 

former satellites.”42 The program began in 1993 with 13 partner nations primarily from the former Soviet Union.43

The SPP has grown steadily since its inception. With the signing of 

Cameroon in 2017, the program has created 74 state partnerships 

across all geographic combatant commands (COCOM).44 USPACOM 

has nine partnerships (table 9.1).

The focus of SPP efforts is based on several key factors: needs of the 

partner nation, capabilities of the state National Guard, goals of the 

representative US ambassador and the combatant commander, and 

statutory authorities and restrictions.45 The SPP conducts a broad 

range of security cooperation activities integral to the Guard’s role in 

BPC efforts.46 Three of the four goals of the SPP published by the National Guard Bureau’s (NGB) International Affairs Division involve 

BPC.47 BPC is also found in the SPP mission statement: “Enhance 
294 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

combatant commanders’ ability to build enduring mil-to-mil and 

civil-military relationships that improve long-term international security while building partnership capacity.”48

Table 9.1. SPPs in USPACOM area of responsibility

Partnered Nation State Year of Inception

Philippines Guam/Hawaii 2000

Thailand Washington 2002

Mongolia Alaska 2003

Indonesia Hawaii 2006

Bangladesh Oregon 2008

Cambodia Idaho 2009

Vietnam Oregon 2012

Tonga Nevada 2014

Malaysia Washington 2017

Source: National Guard Bureau, “State Partnership Program Map,” 27 June 2017, http://www.nation 

alguard.mil/Leadership/Joint-Staff/J-5/International-Affairs-Division/State-Partnership-Program/; 

and National Guard, “State Partnership Program,” fact sheet, May 2017, https://www.nationalguard.

mil/Portals/31/Resources/Fact%20Sheets/State%20Partnership%20Program%20Fact%20Sheet%20

(June%202018).pdf.

The SPP’s unique capabilities make it suited for BPC efforts in support of JAM-GC, distributed airfield operations, and ID. Arguably its 

primary advantage is the ability to build enduring relationships and 

trust with partner nations. For example, all of the original 13 partner 

nations from the program’s inception are still active.49 One reason for 

this longevity is that because Guard personnel tend to be in one unit 

longer than active duty personnel, they can develop long-term relationships with those in partner nations. Also, the SPP has buy-in 

from partner nations from the very beginning as they—not the 

United States—must initiate the program’s establishment. Finally, 

relatively few expectations are placed on partner nations. Initial interactions are oriented toward building relationships versus establishing a program with strict objectives. Because the United States 

requires airfields and the intent is for partner nations to secure dispersed aircraft, the solid relationships required can be created and 

fostered by the SPP.

A second advantage is that the SPP’s small footprint is less threatening to US adversaries and potentially more acceptable to nations 
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 295

hosting dispersed airfields. Placing a large US active duty force to 

secure dispersed airfields throughout the Asia-Pacific could create a 

perceived threat within China. Additionally, because some nations 

are sensitive to external pressure from China and internal pressure 

from their domestic constituencies, support for a large US force on 

their territory would be politically unsustainable. The inherent nature of SPP activities can alleviate some of these concerns since they 

normally are accomplished in small teams, spread over time, and 

built around a state militia.

A third advantage of the SPP is its low cost for an enduring effect. 

According to the NGB, the typical SPP event is a weeklong subject 

matter expert exchange (SMEE) with three to five guardsmen participating at an average cost of $20,000 per event.50 Gen Martin 

Dempsey, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, put his stamp 

of approval on the low-cost, high return of SPP, stating, “I think it’s 

really a modest investment for a pretty substantial return.”51 With a 

potential requirement for as many as 50 dispersed airfields, the low 

cost of the SPP is a strong advantage.52

A fourth advantage of the SPP is its inherently “whole of government” approach. Although the partner nation initiates the process, 

the program must be approved by the COCOM, US Embassy, and 

NGB. The involvement of the Department of State brings with it other 

intergovernmental agency participants, such as the US Agency for International Development and potentially other nongovernmental organization resources, all of which could be used to address causes of 

instability in communities or counter irregular threats surrounding 

dispersed airfields.

A final advantage is the dual roles of National Guard personnel as 

military members and civilian professionals. Many times, the civilian 

versus military occupations of Guard personnel determine SPP relationships and exchanges. During one SPP event, for example, Oregon 

guardsmen became aware that Bangladesh was struggling with implementing community policing. Some guardsmen were Portland police 

officers; they connected their police department—through the US 

Embassy—with their law enforcement counterparts in Bangladesh.53

This scenario demonstrates the flexibility of the SPP program.

The SPP has one main disadvantage when applied to the JAM-GC 

concept, dispersed operations, and ID. Building relationships takes 

time, and it is unclear if China’s rise will be peaceful or not. The JAMGC concept anticipates the implementation of an A2/AD environ­
296 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

ment with little to no warning. Therefore, US forces must consider 

other options for securing dispersed airfields until the SPPs are fruitful in their capabilities within partner nations.

Development of Air Force 

Expeditionary Security Capabilities

If countries do not have joint agreements on JAM-GC for resources and air base security and/or if host-nation forces cannot provide exterior security, then the Air Force must further develop its 

organic capabilities to meet this gap—or risk mission failure. Three 

off-the-shelf, rapidly deployable models are presently available for organic Air Force security capabilities. The first is the Air Mobility 

Command Phoenix Raven program, providing a minimal amount of 

close-in security through fly-away security teams (FAST) with usually a handful of Airmen (two to six).54 The second is the contingency 

response group (CRG) model in which a flight (platoon) of security 

forces is deployed.55 Finally, the base defense group model can project 

a squadron- or group-sized security force package.56

Currently, the USAF has four contingency response force units—

two contingency response wings (CRW) in CONUS and two overseas at US European Command and USPACOM. The CONUS-based 

CRWs fall under Air Mobility Command and are geographically 

aligned with US Southern Command and US Africa Command. Each 

CRW has an associated Guard contingency response group.57 The 

CRWs also have a mobility support advisory squadron dedicated to 

BPC in their aligned region.58

Pacific Air Force’s 36th Contingency Response Group is based out 

of Andersen Air Force Base on Guam. The 36 CRG has almost 500 

personnel with multiple specialties and the capability to operate in 

forward locations in austere environments. The group is already active in a wide variety of security cooperation activities, such as international exercises, SMEEs, and humanitarian assistance/disaster response events throughout the Asia-Pacific.

The 36 CRG is well suited for BPC efforts in support of JAM-GC, 

distributed airfield operations, and ID for several reasons. Its foremost task is to establish and sustain air base operability (ABO). The 

36 CRG is tasked to deploy within 12 hours of notification and then 

conduct airfield assessments and provide initial command and con­
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 297

trol, ID, air mobility support, airfield operations, force health protection, and base support operations for a small contingent. The 36 CRG 

will play a major role in enabling the JAM-GC concept by rapidly 

opening the distributed airfields that will be used to counter an A2/

AD environment in the Asia-Pacific.

Second, the 36 CRG comprises several squadrons with unique capabilities such as combat communications; mobile, rapid engineering (RED HORSE); and security.59 The 644th Combat Communications Squadron can deploy, operate, and maintain communications 

and computer systems under hostile, bare-base conditions. The 554th 

RED HORSE Squadron is a highly mobile response force supporting 

contingency operations with engineering, heavy repair, construction, 

and vehicle maintenance.60 Finally, the 736th Security Forces Squadron has capabilities to provide antiterrorism planning, force protection, airfield ID surveys, jungle enforcement patrols, close precision 

engagement teams, and FASTs. All of the above capabilities could be 

applied when countering an A2/AD environment.

Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough

Dispersal alone is not a sufficient strategy to address the challenges 

of the A2/AD environment. First, JAM-GC must include the seriousness of purpose and comprehensiveness of its intellectual cousin, 

ALB. Second, leaders must face the A2/AD challenge holistically 

across the spectrum of threats or risk opening a significant gap for the 

enemy to exploit. Third, JAM-GC planners must look beyond the 

threat of long-range, high-tech weapons to include the traditional, 

low-cost ground threat to airfields. While today’s resource-­constrained 

environment presents challenges across mission sets, leaders must 

take a thoughtful, joint approach to air base (and port) security similar to the construct of the Army–Air Force 31 Initiatives of the 1980s. 

The joint force must pursue this three-pronged approach to close the 

base defense gap in its current thinking on JAM-GC.

Joint forces—particularly the Air Force—need to reimagine their 

forces beyond their job specialties to incorporate a ground defense 

competency as part of the training and equipping of dispersed forces. 

Doing so will maximize the survivability of air assets, people, and 

equipment using the limited resources available. This idea is nothing 

new. A 1987 RAND study on the Cold War’s tactical dispersal of aircraft noted, “Security police [now security forces] could be aug­
298 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

mented by arming maintenance and other support personnel. This is 

the concept used at air-launched cruise missile (ALCM) bases; a total 

of 69 men defend the 16 nuclear armed missiles of each ALCM 

flight.”61 With dispersal comes risk and a lessened ability to send sufficient security force contingents. This eventuality will not only necessitate the need for all Airmen and joint force members to play a 

competent and expected role in defense but also accentuate the role 

of host-nation forces to push out localized threat rings.

To put it simply, ad hoc defense of airfields is not good enough and 

risks mission failure against a determined and capable enemy. Today’s leaders would do well to review the comprehensive and strategic approach taken by Cold War leaders toward addressing the Soviet 

threat to air bases and explore some of the aforementioned remedies 

to the Asia-Pacific ABD problem.

Notes

1. CIA, Soviet Operational Maneuver Group.

2. DOD, Quadrennial Defense Review Report, 32–33.

3. McLeary, “New US Concept.”

4. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 68.

5. Ibid., 68–69.

6. Kitfield, Prodigal Soldiers, 152–55.

7. DOD, Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership, 1.

8. Ibid., 4–6. The 10 missions are as follows:

(1) [Conduct] counterterrorism and irregular warfare.

(2) Deter and defeat aggression.

(3) Project power despite antiaccess/area denial challenges.

(4) Counter weapons of mass destruction.

(5) Operate effectively in cyberspace and space.

(6) Maintain a safe, secure, and effective nuclear deterrent.

(7) Defend the homeland and provide support to civil authorities.

(8) Provide a stabilizing presence.

(9) Conduct stability and counterinsurgency operations.

(10) Conduct humanitarian, disaster relief, and other operations. (Ibid.)

9. Ibid., 4–5. Supporting quotes from this guidance include the following: “While 

the U.S. military will continue to contribute to security globally, we will of necessity 

rebalance toward the Asia-Pacific” (emphasis in original); “Over the long term, China’s emergence as a regional power will have the potential to affect the U.S. economy 

and our security in a variety of ways”; and “The United States will continue to make 

the necessary investments to ensure that we maintain regional access and the ability 

to operate freely in keeping with our treaty obligations and with international law” 

(ibid., 2).
AIRSEA BATTLE AND THE AIR BASE DEFENSE SHORTFALL │ 299

10. LaGrone and Majumdar, “Future of Air Sea Battle.” In addition to distributed basing, the focus areas are cross-domain operations command and control; 

undersea warfare supremacy; war at sea; attack operations to defeat A2/AD; active 

and passive defense; contested space operations; contested intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance; contested logistics and sustainment; and contested cyberspace operations (ibid.).

11. Davis, “Forward Arming and Refueling Points,” 5–28; and Brown, Spacy, and 

Glover, “Untethered Operations,” 17–28.

12. “USAF Airmen Evaluate Rapid Raptor,” Air Force Technology.

13. McCullough, “Rapid Raptor 2.0.”

14. Davis, 31 Initiatives, 54.

15. Director of Central Intelligence, Warsaw Pact Nonnuclear Threat, 35.

16. Ibid., 35; and Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, 4.

17. Correll, Air Force and the Cold War, 42.

18. Ibid.

19. Raley, “Untethered Operations.”

20. Director of Central Intelligence, Warsaw Pact Nonnuclear Threat, 34–35.

21. Ibid., 35.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid., 36.

24. CIA, Soviet Operational Maneuver Group, 3–4.

25. US Army and US Air Force, Joint Service Agreement 8, art. II, sec. 2, in 

Davis, 31 Initiatives, 128.

26. Headquarters Air Force, staff package, Validating the Abrogation.

27. Clinton, “America’s Pacific Century.”

28. Ibid.

29. William Dean III (faculty, Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, 

AL), interview with Col Shannon W. Caudill, USAF, 24 May 2013.

30. Gunaratna, “Intelligence Failures Exposed,” 1.

31. Ibid., 3.

32. Butenko, Smith-Spark, and Magnay, “Russian Troops Have Entered Ukraine.”

33. “Mapping Migration,” Economist.

34. Ibid.

35. LeMay Center, Volume I, Basic Doctrine, “Security,” 57.

36. See Thobo-Carlsen, “Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough,” in Caudill, Defending Air 

Bases, vol. 1, chap. 2.

37. JP 3-16, Multinational Operations, I-4.

38. Boatright, “Building Partnership Capacity,” 3.

39. Joint Staff J7, Decade of War, vol. 1, 32.

40. Kapp and Serafino, National Guard State Partnership Program, 1.

41. Ibid., 2.

42. Ibid., 3.

43. Government Accountability Office, State Partnership Program, 1.

44. National Guard, “State Partnership Program.”

45. Kapp and Serafino, National Guard State Partnership Program, 6.

46. National Guard, “State Partnership Program.” Security cooperation activities 

include homeland defense and security; disaster response and mitigation; conse­
300 │ CAUDILL, ROBERTS, & MINER

quence and crisis management; interagency cooperation; border, port, and aviation 

security; fellowship-style internships; and combat medical events in training and 

exercise venues.

47. Kapp and Serafino, National Guard State Partnership Program, 2, fig. 1.

48. National Guard, “State Partnership Program.”

49. Roulo, “Dempsey: Forming Partnerships Vital.”

50. Kapp and Serafino, National Guard State Partnership Program, 4.

51. Roulo, “Dempsey: Forming Partnerships Vital.”

52. Center for Strategic and International Studies, U.S. Force Posture Strategy, 75.

53. Bergeron, “National Guard’s State Partnership Program,” 13.

54. Air Mobility Command, “Phoenix Raven.”

55. US Air Force Expeditionary Center, “621st Contingency Response Wing.”

56. Sprunk, “820th Base Defense Group.”

57. Lengyel, Bullet Background Paper, subject: AMC Contingency Response 

Wing.

58. Johns, memorandum, subject: Building Partnerships.

59. RED HORSE is the acronym for rapid engineer deployable heavy operational 

repair squadron engineer. 

60. Mull, “CRG Mission Brief.”

61. Halliday, Tactical Dispersal of Fighter Aircraft, 29.
PART 5

Organizing for the Future

Chapter 10

Target—Air Base

The Strategic Effects of Ground Attacks on Airpower

Scott P. Black

Base commanders must also consider that air base defense is 

not merely the protection of air assets but the ability to generate 

air power.

—Joint Publication 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater

Air bases are strategic nodes. History has shown that attacks on air 

bases can generate unexpected strategic effects, either for enemy success or an unforeseen reaction to the attack by the country targeted. 

As the price of modern aircraft continues to skyrocket, the sheer cost 

and time needed to replenish them (and pilots) could deal a strategic 

blow in today’s operational environment. Therefore, joint leaders 

must recognize that the special requirements of air base defense have 

strategic consequences. To defend air bases with suboptimal security 

only invites strategic disaster.1

America’s strategic global capabilities are enabled by a network of 

bases worldwide that provide the tools necessary for power projection. The American force-projection model works only when global 

mobility can move forces to “signal resolve, enhance deterrence, and 

expand near-term military options for national leaders”; thus, airfields and their enablers are of strategic importance.2

 Long wars, especially counterinsurgencies, rely heavily on airpower for round-theclock intelligence, close air support, logistics transport, and medical 

evacuation. The seminal doctrine used by American and coalition 

forces in Iraq and Afghanistan—Army Field Manual (FM) 3-24, 

Counterinsurgency (2006)—highlights the advantages of airpower in 

counterinsurgency (COIN) operations. It cites airpower as providing 

a “significant asymmetric advantage to COIN forces, enabling commanders to rapidly deploy, reposition, sustain, and redeploy land 

forces” and states that “air assets can respond quickly with precision 

fires” whenever insurgents mass for an attack. It also notes that “commanders must properly protect their bases and coordinate their de-
304 │ BLACK

fense among all counterinsurgents”—emphasizing the importance of 

defending these strategic centers.3

Enemy attacks on US (and coalition) aircraft are not designed 

merely to destroy or mitigate airpower itself. Rather, they are intended to trigger second-order strategic effects through altered public opinion and political decisions. The strategic value of aircraft is 

also heightened by their shrinking inventories in parallel with their 

increased technology and specialization. The number of destroyed 

aircraft the service can absorb continues to diminish. Therefore, attacks on high-value, low-density aircraft could reduce the effectiveness of our Air Force.

Reasons to Attack Air Bases: 

Cost-Benefit Analysis

An air base is oftentimes used to strategically extend the range of 

the force occupying it and demonstrate national resolve in a conflict. 

The location of bases in these areas or—in the case of our most recent 

deployments—in proximity to the enemy makes them a highly visible 

strategic target. In their RAND study, David Shlapak and Alan Vick 

outline three main reasons an enemy will continue to attack air bases. 

First, the enemy will attempt to destroy critical, high-value assets. 

Second, it will attempt to temporarily suppress sortie generation 

when aircraft are needed most in a conflict or crisis. Third, it will aim 

to generate a “strategic event” that alters public or political support.4

An air base offers more high-value targets than a base without air 

assets. Bases with air assets are also more visible to the enemy—literally and figuratively. An air base cannot sit quietly tucked away; aircraft departing and returning are constant reminders of its existence. 

Figuratively, the assets at an air base are a continual reminder of a 

technological advantage over an insurgent enemy and our continued 

presence. A conventional enemy also realizes the added value of air 

assets and air bases. The observation by early airpower theorist Giulio 

Douhet that destroying aircraft on the ground is easier than hunting 

them in the air has been frequently used to describe why an air base 

is particularly targeted.5

 This reality holds true for a conventional 

and an insurgent enemy, and both will try to take advantage of this 

vulnerability.
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 305

Finally, the enemy is a rational actor. It understands that it can 

wreak severe damage by supplying a few people with the weaponry 

and training to target an air base. The repercussions of effective mortar fire might include causing a strategic event, eliminating billions of 

dollars in air assets, and/or causing catastrophic loss of life with a 

fully loaded mobility aircraft.

Historic Examples

World War II

World War II offers many examples of strategic effects from attacks on air bases. Two primary ones are the British army’s Special 

Air Service (SAS) attacks in Africa and the island-hopping campaign 

of the United States in the Pacific. The SAS attacks involved small 

groups of lightweight, rapidly moving forces that would penetrate 

enemy defenses to destroy aircraft with explosives or machine guns.6

The island-hopping campaign in the Pacific was different from many 

of the other attacks discussed here because the goal was not enemy 

aircraft destruction but airfield occupation and utilization. The purpose of the air base takeovers was to extend the range of our forces 

and close our proximity to Japan. Both sets of attacks contributed to 

the success of the war effort.

Another esteemed study by Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, suggests that the loss of Axis aircraft caused by ground attacks from the 

Allies “may have influenced the outcome of the campaign.”7

 SAS 

forces destroyed 367 Axis aircraft in Africa and the Mediterranean.8

Vick also describes how

in one case—British special forces’ attacks on Axis airfields in North Africa—

the loss of aircraft from ground attacks was so severe and the airpower balance 

so precarious that these small actions made a major contribution to the [Royal 

Air Force’s] battle against the Luftwaffe. In other instances, the loss of airfields 

to attacking forces enabled the attacker’s air force to move in and extend its 

range. . . . The U.S. island-hopping campaign in the Pacific was focused on 

capturing airfields. . . . The Japanese attack on Midway sought to capture the 

island for . . . [their] airfield; their failure to do so and their losses incurred in 

the process marked a turning point in the war.9

The island-hopping campaign highlights the strategic importance of 

the position of air bases and why, in addition to their assets, they require a high level of protection.
306 │ BLACK

Vietnam

Vietnam proved the strategic importance of air bases through the 

defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu, the American reaction to air 

base attacks that served only to deepen US involvement in the conflict, and the staunch American defense at Khe Sahn designed to deprive the enemy of a strategic victory. During Vietnam, 99 US and 

Vietnamese aircraft were destroyed, with 1,170 damaged by ground 

attacks.10 These statistics reflect just attacks against USAF main operating bases (MOB). The number of aircraft destroyed increases to 375 

if the rest of the supporting bases are included.11 While this number 

accounts for only 4 percent of all aircraft losses, now that percentage 

would be much higher due to the fewer aircraft in inventory.12 Today, 

the destruction of that many aircraft could nearly wipe out the entire 

contingent of F-22 Raptors and F-15E Strike Eagles. The United States 

has 219 Strike Eagles and 183 Raptors; if these aircraft were to take 

losses similar to those in Vietnam, 93 percent would be destroyed.13

Air base attacks during Vietnam had little direct strategic effect as 

the 4 percent of total aircraft loss occurred over seven years. The 

United States had a huge aircraft inventory, and most of the 475 attacks did relatively little damage.14 Although these attacks had negligible material consequence to the outcome of the war, some of the 

major publicized incidents did hold some sway over public opinion.

The strategic effects caused by air base attacks during Vietnam created inroads on public opinion and political decisions. Col Robert 

Sagraves, USAF, retired, surmises that “the second-order strategic effects of the large-scale attacks on Tan Son Nhut AB and Bien Hoa AB 

during the Tet offensive, although a failure militarily, contributed to 

the overall impact of Tet on American public opinion and the subsequent erosion of popular support for the war.”15 Public support and 

political decision effects can be difficult to measure and can rarely be 

attributed to only one factor. Generally, public opinion is a combination of many influences and often acts as a culmination point for democracies as the public grows weary of casualties and expense. For 

example, the duration of the war, the number of Americans killed, 

and the press coverage of the Vietnamese civilian casualties all factored into the public opinion of the time.
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 307

Iraq

The strategic effects of base attacks during Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) had even less impact than during Vietnam. In fact, Lt Col 

Paul Thobo-Carlsen, Royal Canadian Air Force, retired, suggests that 

“most of them were aimed at cumulatively creating the ‘strategic 

event’ discussed by Shlapak and Vick—in this case, the erosion of 

military morale and the domestic political will of Western troopcontributing nations in order to force a withdrawal.”16 The 2015 air 

base defense seminar at Air Command and Staff College found that 

these attacks caused only minor damage, if any, to air bases. Furthermore, few attacks damaged aircraft, and no aircraft were destroyed 

from base attacks.17 These results should not be used as evidence that 

we will have the same success in a future war. OIF was a unique case 

against a minimally competent enemy; facing a more competent 

enemy, the outcome could be dramatically different.

Enemy forces in Iraq lacked training in mortar and rocket employment. Further, the equipment used to aim was often rudimentary. 

Both of these factors drastically limited the success of their attacks. 

Most of their attacks had little effectiveness. Many shots didn’t hit the 

base—much less anything on it. There were occasional lucky shots, 

but these were bound to happen with the volume of projectiles the 

forces were harassing the bases with.

Vick observes that in Vietnam “there were 10 USAF MOBs operating 365 days a year for 10 years, or 36,500 base days. Air base attacks 

occurred on only 500 base days. Thus, USAF bases had a total of 

36,000 attack-free days on which to operate.”18 Using the same method 

as Vick, we can compare OIF and Vietnam. The Iraq conflict’s inclusive dates were from 19 March 2003 to 15 December 2011, or 3,194 

days.19 There were five main air bases in Iraq. Given that they operated 

365 days a year during that time, there were 15,970 base days. There 

were a total of 1,964 attack days on all five bases, giving 14,006 attackfree days. This number doesn’t seem very substantial, but let’s take a 

look at just Balad—the largest fighter base in Iraq where a majority of 

the attacks took place. Balad had 1,447 attacks during the same time 

frame, meaning that it was attacked on 45 percent of its operating 

days. Also, across all the bases, only 15 aircraft were damaged—0 in 

Balad and 5 in Baghdad—with no aircraft destroyed.20

These statistics indicate that the number of attacks in Iraq was 

nearly four times greater than in Vietnam, with almost 74 percent of 
308 │ BLACK

them occurring on Balad. The number of aircraft damaged in Iraq 

was a small fraction, 1.2 percent, when compared to the total damaged and destroyed aircraft in Vietnam. Figure 10.1 portrays the 

number of attacks and aircraft damage/destruction on air bases in 

Vietnam versus Iraq.

Attacks

Vietnam

(500)

Balad

(1,447)

Other (517)

Damaged/Destroyed Aircraft 

Vietnam (1,269)

Balad (10)

Other (5)

Figure 10.1. Number of air base attacks and damaged/destroyed aircraft in Vietnam and Iraq. (Data produced by the Air Command and 

Staff College 2015 research elective Defending Air Bases in an Age of 

Insurgency, instructed by Col Shannon W. Caudill. Student researchers 

were Maj Russell S. Badowski, Maj Jason F. Baggett, Maj Scott Black, 

Maj Loren M. Coulter, Maj Colby B. Edwards, Maj Raymond J. Fortner, 

Maj Steward J. Parker, and Maj Michael M. Wellock. Researchers reviewed all available Air Force history reports covering Sather Air Base 

[Baghdad International Airport], Joint Base Balad, Tallil AB, Kirkuk AB, 

and al-Asad AB.)

These numbers are informative but must be considered in context. 

With today’s reduced aircraft inventories, a few major successful attacks could create a direct strategic effect. The number of attacks in 

Iraq was much higher than in Vietnam, but significantly fewer aircraft were damaged or destroyed. The higher number of attacks in 

concert with the low number of damaged aircraft further shows that 

the enemy in Iraq was unskilled and amateur compared to the enemy 

during the Vietnam conflict.

Afghanistan

While a comprehensive list of attacks is not available for Afghanistan as it is for Iraq and Vietnam, one instance should be highlighted. 

When insurgents attacked Camp Bastion, Afghanistan, on 14 Sep-
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 309

tember 2012, two Marines died and six Harriers were destroyed. This 

incident was a complex sapper attack—much more intricate than the 

pervasive harassing fire of mortars and rockets. The aircraft were not 

destroyed by standoff weapons but from inside the wire with machine 

guns and grenades.21

The attack illustrates a difference in the reduced numbers of aircraft in inventory and how that factor could play a major role in what 

would be considered a strategic event that could affect the outcome of 

a conflict. As of 2018 the United States had 126 Harriers in its inventory.22 If an attack occurred today like that at Camp Bastion, the destruction of just six aircraft would constitute a nearly 5 percent reduction in the US Harrier inventory.23 Even if only a small percentage of 

the attacks in Iraq and Afghanistan were as organized and successful, 

the number of damaged aircraft would escalate and hobble a limited 

pool of sophisticated, modern (and expensive) aircraft.

This event also underscores that when confronted with a more 

complex enemy attack, we may not be as successful. Moreover, it 

demonstrates that we must continue vigilance and not take our past 

success in Iraq as an indication that our success will continue. This 

attack didn’t use advanced technologies or any remarkable tactics; it 

simply exploited a lack of resources allocated. We cannot be lulled 

into complacency when addressing the defense of our air bases. Our 

defenses will not be as successful if our adversaries increase the 

complexity of attacks and the use of advanced technologies. The Bastion attack gives a glimpse of the devastation that could happen if we 

don’t practice basic defense-in-depth security, press allies and partners to do their part in the defense, and promote awareness of air 

base defense.

Direct Effects

Dwindling airpower assets make it more likely that a single attack 

on an air base will create strategic effects. For example, 2,874 F-4s 

were produced for the Air Force from 1958 to 1979.24 Compare that 

number to the total of 1,920 fighter and attack aircraft across the active, Air National Guard (ANG), and Air Force Reserve Command 

(AFRC) forces in today’s Air Force (table 10.1).25
310 │ BLACK

Table 10.1. Aircraft total active inventory

Fighter/attack aircraft Active ANG AFRC Total

A-10C Thunderbolt II 143 85 55 283

F-15 C Eagle 89 123 0 212

F-15 D Eagle 9 15 0 24

F-15 E Strike Eagle 220 0 0 220

F-16 C Fighting Falcon 450 289 54 793

F-16 D Fighting Falcon 109 45 2 156

F-22 A Raptor 166 20 0 186

F-35 A Lightning II 96 0 0 96

Total 1,282 577 111 1,970

Source: “The Air Force in Fact and Figures,” in “USAF Almanac 2017,” supplement, Air Force 

Magazine 100, no. 6 (June 2017): 56, http://secure.afa.org/joinafa/AFMag2017/AFMag0617

/mobile/index.html#p=1.

The total number of fighters in the Air Force today is a fraction of 

the F-4 fleet. At 33 percent fewer total fighters when compared to the 

total F-4s delivered to the Air Force fleet, losing an aircraft today not 

only costs exponentially more but also has far-reaching strategic effects. Consider that in addition to the F-4s, the United States during 

Vietnam also had a large inventory of many other types of fighter and attack aircraft. Losing a few aircraft today is a much bigger event and could 

have strategic impact if the aircraft loss rate equalled that in Vietnam.

What would a direct strategic effect look like? If enough aircraft 

were destroyed, it would obviously reduce the capability of the United 

States to demonstrate airpower. A more likely scenario—considering 

the small wars we fight more often these days—is that if we started 

taking aircraft losses, we would move them to a safer location. A safer 

location is most likely farther away. Although continuing to fly a long 

distance to the operational area would incur substantial costs, it is 

still feasible for the military. One of the direct strategic effects in this 

case is a reduced reaction time from alert aircraft. Moving a base farther away would also have second-order effects. A potential strategic 

impact from second-order effects could be a change in political will 

due to the increased costs involved.

Second-Order Effects

Second-order strategic effects of attacks on air bases come in the 

form of public opinion and political decisions. In Shlapak and Vick’s 

RAND study, their third reason why the enemy will continue to at-
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 311

tack air bases is to produce a “strategic event” designed to negatively 

impact public opinion and undercut democratic support for military 

operations.26 These phenomena could arise in a multitude of ways. 

Attacks on air bases don’t have much of an effect on opinions or operations unless they take lives or cost dollars. Taking lives has a substantial effect on public support for wars—particularly in the small 

wars of our recent past. The more lives lost, the lower the public opinion becomes and the less tolerant Americans become of losing more. 

Eventually, ensuing protests could cause our leaders to change their 

political decisions about how we continue to fight.

Money always plays a role in the actions of our government. If we 

lose a lot of high-dollar equipment, defense costs rise and affect the 

decisions made by our leaders. Air bases offer the highest and most 

visible concentration of high-value targets, making them a soughtafter target of the enemy. Robert Sagraves notes in his School of Advanced Air and Space Studies thesis the reality of strategic events that 

influence news coverage and public opinion:

Adversaries may reason that a successful ground attack on a US air base could 

have second-order strategic effects entirely out of proportion to the actual 

physical damage inflicted. In the past 25 years, the US military has been the 

target of a number of such “strategic events”: the 1983 bombing of the Marine 

barracks in Beirut, the bloodying of Task Force Ranger in Somalia in 1993, the 

1996 bombing of the USAF’s Khobar Towers complex in Saudi Arabia, and 

the 2000 attack against the USS Cole in Yemen. Although these tragic and 

unfortunate incidents cannot be classified as a “defeat” in a purely military 

sense, almost all served as catalysts for changes in existing US policy. Should 

the Air Force suffer a dramatic ground attack on one of its expeditionary air 

bases, the reality of today’s round-the-clock global news coverage, disseminated worldwide via television and the Internet, ensures the attack would receive almost instant media focus. The ensuing media coverage could test the 

resolve of the US public or that of the leadership, particularly for a conflict 

that does not enjoy broad political support. In the face of mounting political 

pressure, senior US decision makers might be faced with no other option but 

to reverse policy course—a potentially humiliating defeat.27

The media often spawns second-order effects. The rapid pace at 

which information is disseminated to the public increases the possibility that an air base attack will have strategic impact by influencing 

the perception of the conflict and, thus, affecting voters and politicians in a democracy. Graphic images of carnage and chaos can play 

repeatedly in the 24-hour news cycle. Such coverage impacts public 

polling for support for continued military operations in the conflict.
312 │ BLACK

Advanced Technology

Advancing technology will increase the effectiveness of attacks, 

thus provoking strategic consequences. An enemy with GPS-guided 

mortars or rockets would be able to hit buildings and aircraft of its 

choosing and inflict damage with less effort. Even with more readily 

available technology such as a quadcopter, an enemy could fly an explosive to a target using a preplanned route or high-definition video. 

Additionally, attackers able to hit specific targets on an air base could 

be detrimental to morale. We would need to substantially change our 

infrastructure for protection. The significance of an enemy able to 

target the chow hall or an aircraft in the open cannot be underestimated. Attacks such as these would quickly diminish public opinion 

and potentially affect national policy.

The United States Air Force has been complacent since we have 

not faced a major strategic setback from ground attack. Nonetheless, 

advancement in rocket and mortar guidance could negate the sense 

of dominance we have grown accustomed to when opposed by the 

ill-trained, underproficient, and low-technology enemy we have 

faced over the last two decades. According to a Center for Strategic 

and Budgetary Assessment report,

Special forces pose a growing potential threat because of the proliferation of 

more accurate stand-off weapons, which increases the perimeter US forces 

must defend. The most worrisome threats include precision munitions for 

mortars (which would enable attackers to hit high value targets with a small 

number of rounds); long-range, large caliber sniper rifles (which could be 

used against high-value aircraft to knock out key components); and anti-tank 

rockets (which could be used to penetrate aircraft and personnel shelters).28

These advances amplify the effectiveness of trained and untrained 

forces. While obtaining modern weapons systems might be difficult 

for an irregular insurgent fighter, strapping an explosive to an off-theshelf, remote-controlled aerial vehicle would not. These technologies 

will continue to make it easier for the untrained attacker to be more 

successful. Combating these technology advancements will become 

more difficult—but more essential—as we strive to protect our bases.

Recommendations

The Air Force and joint force need to develop joint doctrine and 

technologies that will counter the advancing threat. As off-the-shelf 
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 313

technologies progress, we must consider the creativity of the enemy 

and project how new technologies could be used against us. Some 

counter defenses will simply be awareness so that we are not caught 

off guard. Other counter defenses will require employing cuttingedge technology.

Security forces and other base defense enablers should not be sacrificed to the detriment of force protection. The lack of manpower 

was a contributing factor in the Camp Bastion attack and should be 

more closely monitored in the future. While technology can assist 

manpower and reduce the number of people required to protect an 

air base, security manpower cannot be reduced so low as to put us at 

considerable risk. Security staffing must be continually assessed to 

consider the advancements of the enemy and the actual threat we are 

defending against. In short, air base defense needs an investment 

strategy that ensures effectiveness and a higher priority for the long 

haul. Poor investment choices now could play havoc at the strategic 

level later.

Conclusion

Strategic effects from base attacks since WWII have been minimal. 

During OIF, ground attacks generated negligible direct strategic impacts. Attacks on the air base could be considered harassment at best; 

oftentimes attacks would not even hit the base, much less a specific 

target on the base. Effects may be minimally seen in diminishing 

public support, but this consequence was due to many other factors—such as the duration of the war—and not just the harassing 

mortar and rocket attacks. Americans expect quick results and have 

little tolerance of our forces dying in a seemingly endless war. The 

reduced public support was caused more by factors other than the 

base attacks.

Although the number of attacks increased nearly fourfold from 

Vietnam to Iraq, few aircraft were damaged in Iraq, and none were 

destroyed. This outcome may look like an amazing success story, but 

one must consider the skill of the attacker. Military leaders have been 

left with a false sense of protection from potential effects that could 

be caused from an attack on an air base. We cannot understate the 

high cost that a trained enemy could impose on airpower—potentially driving a strategic impact.
314 │ BLACK

Ground attacks have created limited strategic effects on US airpower since the Air Force has not been faced with a well-trained 

ground threat since Vietnam. Though strategic effects from ground 

attacks since WWII have been minimal, we must continue to emphasize the protection of our air bases. One lucky attack or an attack that 

gets played up by the media could cause unexpected strategic impacts. While our nation has been fortunate that strategic effects have 

been minimal, it could face drastically different effects if faced with a 

well-trained enemy or one that capitalizes on advanced technology.

Notes

1. In the wake of the 14–15 September 2012 Taliban attack on the Camp Bastion, 

Leatherneck, and Shorabak (BLS) Complex, Lt Gen Adrian Bradshaw, British army, 

deputy commander, International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), is reported to 

have characterized the USCENTCOM-PJHQ (United Kingdom Permanent Joint 

Headquarters) Memorandum of Understanding as a “sub-optimal C2 [command 

and control] solution.” Headquarters US Army Forces Command to commander, US 

Central Command, memorandum, 8.

2. Vick, Air Base Attacks, 13.

3. FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency, E-1, E-5.

4. Shlapak and Vick, “Check Six,” 15–19.

5. Douhet, Command of the Air, 53–54.

6. Sidoti, History of Attacks, 9.

7. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 109.

8. Sidoti, History of Attacks, 9.

9. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, xix–xx.

10. Ibid., 68.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid.

13. US Air Force, “F-15E Strike Eagle” and “F-22 Raptor,” fact sheets.

14. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 68, 100.

15. Sagraves, “Air Support for Base Defense,” 173–74.

16. Thobo-Carlsen, “Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough,” 53.

17. Data produced by the Air Command and Staff College research elective Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, instructed by Col Shannon W. Caudill. 

Student researchers were Maj Russell S. Badowski, Maj Jason F. Baggett, Maj Scott 

Black, Maj Loren M. Coulter, Maj Colby B. Edwards, Maj Raymond J. Fortner, Maj 

Steward J. Parker, and Maj Michael M. Wellock. Researchers reviewed all available 

Air Force history reports covering Sather AB (Baghdad International Airport), Joint 

Base Balad, Tallil AB, Kirkuk AB, and al-Asad AB.

18. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 101.

19. Torreon, U.S. Periods of War, 8–9.

20. Data produced by the Air Command and Staff College 2015 research elective 

Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency. 
TARGET—AIR BASE │ 315

21. Lamothe, “Taliban Fighter Survived.”

22. Rudder, 2018 Marine Aviation Plan, 37.

23. Gresham, “Attack on Camp Bastion.”

24. Boeing, “F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th.”

25. “Air Force in Fact and Figures,” in “USAF Almanac 2017,” 56.

26. Shlapak and Vick, “Check Six,” 18–19.

27. Sagraves, “Air Base Defense outside the Wire,” 27–28.

28. Bowie, Anti-Access Threat, iv.

Chapter 11

You Own It

The Commander’s Responsibility for Air Base Defense

Loren M. Coulter

Finding the precise balance between force projection and force 

protection lies with the subjective judgment ultimately reserved 

for those bestowed with the command. The fog of war, the uncertain risks of combat, and the actions of a determined foe 

do not relieve a commander of the responsibility for decisions 

that a reasonable, prudent commander of the same grade and 

experience would have made under similar circumstances.

—Gen James F. Amos, Commandant, US Marine Corps

A major leadership challenge to Air Force commanders serving in 

combat zones is their responsibility for base defense. Unlike their Marine or Army counterparts, most senior Air Force leaders who command wings and groups have little to no experience or training in 

how to mount an effective ground defense of their aircraft, resources, 

and people. The Air Force simply does not stress these skills as essential to building future leaders from the pilot corps, yet the defense of 

air bases is a central component of airpower. Airpower theorist Giulio 

Douhet wrote in 1921 that “it is easier and more effective to destroy 

the enemy’s aerial power by destroying his nests and eggs on the 

ground than to hunt his flying birds in the air.”1

 This concept holds 

true today and is reflected in Air Force basic doctrine: “Aircraft are 

most vulnerable on the ground. Thus, force protection is an integral 

part of airpower employment.”2

 However, air base defense (ABD)—

defending one’s air assets on the ground—is one of the least understood operational aspects of airpower. Nevertheless, from the moment Air Force leaders take command, they are responsible for this 

critical—and often most perplexing—airpower element in their command portfolio. A 2015 RAND Corporation report on air base attacks 

found that “too often, base defense and recovery are treated as support functions to be delegated to security forces and civil engineers. 

Although base and wing commanders take base defense seriously, it 
318 │ COULTER

has not been a priority for the institutional air force, primarily because it has not been conceptualized as a core warfighting problem.”3

Commanders may well take base defense seriously, but are they 

equipped to understand it and actively engage in its preparedness? 

Ultimately, the decisions they make or ignore have profound effects 

on the security and safety of the people and aircraft under their 

charge. After reviewing doctrine, training, and key case studies, the 

author contends that the Air Force must invest in this area of key 

leader development to better position Airmen for their responsibilities to lead the defense of airpower force projection.

Preparation for this command responsibility is of paramount importance, but the Air Force does precious little to give commanders 

the grounding and tool set needed to be effective leaders at the wing 

and group commander levels. Maj Gen Thomas Deale, twice a wing 

commander in Afghanistan, highlights this area of concern:

We could improve senior leader training in regard to base defense. There isn’t 

anything in the predeployment training I received that specifically prepared 

me for my responsibilities in base defense. Having experience helps a lot, and 

I credit my time as a wing commander in Korea as essential. You have to have 

some basic knowledge of how things work. You get that through personal experiences accumulated over the course of a career.

One thing we must do is continue the left seat and right seat exchanges of 

information and orientation prior to deployment and change of command. In 

combat, you do not have time for on-the-job training—you may be attacked at 

any moment, and as such, you must be ready to assume commander responsibilities from day one. Your Airmen rightly expect that from their leaders.4

Similarly, Maj Gen Brian Bishop, USAF, retired, echoed this sentiment as he reflected on his time as a wing commander in Iraq. He 

relayed that he had no specific training or background in air base 

defense when he was thrust into this arena head-on as he took over 

base operating support integrator (BOS-I) for Joint Base Balad (JBB) 

(formerly known as Logistics Support Area Anaconda and Balad 

AB).5

 As the new BOS-I for JBB, General Bishop became responsible 

for interior and exterior base defense for the 20,000 military, civilian, 

and contractor personnel working at JBB and, importantly, the air 

assets transiting and stationed on JBB.6

 Based on that experience, 

Bishop stated, “I would change the approach to Air Force base defense by addressing senior leader training in this area to ensure a better understanding of missions and capabilities. It took me a while to be 

comfortable with Airmen conducting the outside-the-wire mission, 
YOU OWN IT │ 319

not because I didn’t think they could do it, but rather . . . because I 

didn’t want to set up an us-versus-them mentality with the battlespace 

owner, our Army counterparts.”7

Regardless of functional background or experience, commanders 

are expected to understand and lead the defense of their air bases and 

coordinate closely with host-nation and ground forces to ensure the 

success of the flying mission. The importance of this problem centers 

on the fact that an air base is a key strategic center of operations in a 

combat environment, where it serves as a hub for force projection in 

the theater. As detailed in Joint Publication (JP) 3-10, Joint Security 

Operations in Theater, the amount of combat capability that exists on 

air bases in terms of aircraft, personnel, and equipment makes them 

“critical nodes, and . . . therefore lucrative targets.”8

 No matter the 

level of contested environment—from the Vietnam War to currentday Afghanistan—the enemy will continue to employ tactics from 

indirect fire (IDF) to complex attacks in order to disrupt or deny the 

war-fighting ability of air bases. Effectively defending air bases is a 

complex challenge that requires understanding a wide spectrum of 

base vulnerabilities and enemy capabilities.

Doctrine and Training: A Mismatch

Responsibility for integrated defense (ID) of air bases and force 

protection is a core component of command. It cannot be delegated 

to a subject matter expert or subcontracted out.9

 As indicated in Air 

Force doctrine for force protection, this obligation exists at all levels 

of command (i.e., wing to squadron) and requires commanders to 

protect the people and property within their control.10 Doing so as 

part of air base defense is to assess risks and to ensure that force 

protection measures are in place within their ability, authority, and 

available resources. In short, base defense requires the personal attention, involvement, and knowledge of the commander.

Today’s Air Force strategy for defending air bases is known as integrated defense (formerly known as air base defense, air base ground 

defense, or integrated base defense). Air Force Policy Directive 

(AFPD) 31-1, Integrated Defense, defines ID as the “incorporation of 

multidisciplinary active and passive, offensive and defensive capabilities, employed to mitigate potential risks and defeat adversary threats 

to Air Force operations within the base boundary and the base security zone.” It further states that “threats include, but are not limited to, 
320 │ COULTER

terrorists, insiders, foreign intelligence entities, criminals, and enemy 

forces.”11 The importance of the ID concept is its fundamental shift of 

the paradigm of applying manpower reflexively to secure specific air 

assets. Instead, ID gives commanders the flexibility to apply manpower and other security actions focused on meeting the threat—an 

effort based on analysis and risk management.

When implemented effectively, ID forms a secure foundation from 

which not only the USAF but also joint and coalition forces can 

launch combat sorties to protect operational assets—including aircraft, people, and resources. This concept for defense is designed to 

“achieve synergistic effects using an all-hazards approach.”12 It requires analysis and expenditure of intellectual capital on what often 

proves to be a “wicked problem”—one that grows exponentially in a 

counterinsurgency or antiaccess/area denial (A2/AD) operational 

environment. Figure 11.1 overviews the many considerations affecting a commander’s ID plan.

Acronyms: C4ISR - Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance; 

FP - Force Protection; FPCONs - Force Protection Conditions; IW/COIN - Irregular Warfare/Counterinsurgency; 

COAs - Courses of Action; CI - Counterintelligence; CBRNE - Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives; OPSEC - Operational Security; IED - Improvised Explosive Device; IDF - Indirect Fire; MANPAD – ManPortable Air Defense; CAS - Close Air Support

Figure 11.1. Integrated defense concept. (Reproduced from AFPD 31-1, 

Integrated Defense, 21 June 2018, fig. 1.1, 3, http://static.e-publishing.af

.mil/production/1/af_a4/publication/afpd31-1/afpd31-1.pdf.)
YOU OWN IT │ 321

One resource for identifying risk is the Integrated Defense Risk 

Management Process (IDRMP), which helps to inform leaders on the 

variables present in meeting specific threats (fig. 11.2). The IDRMP is 

a tool—not an “easy button” for creating a defense plan. The commander must still use judgment, advice from subject matter experts, 

intuition, and a grasp of the security situation as the primary means 

from which to mount the defense with limited resources.

1 2 3 4

Assess

Asset

Criticality

Consequence Probability

Assess

Vulnerabilities

Assess

Threats

Calculate

Risks

Risk

Tolerance

Decision

Determine

Countermeasure Courses of

Action (COAs)

Decision

and Implementation

Commander’s Intent

Continuous Assessment

Continuous Assessment

Commander’s

Guidance

Cost/Benet Analyses

Commander’s Critical

Information Requirement (CCIR)

Figure 11.2. Risk management process. (Reproduced from Curtis E. 

LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education, “Annex 3-10, 

Force Protection,” 17 April 2017, 28, www.doctrine.af.mil/Portals/61/do

cuments/Annex_3-10/3-10-Annex-FORCE%20PROTECTION

.pdf?ver=2017-09-19-154247-707.)

As AFPD 31-1 points out, “It is an installation commander’s inherent responsibility to identify risks and develop risk management 

strategies to produce effects-based, integrated defense plans to ensure 

unhindered Air Force, Joint and Coalition missions.”13 When resources are not available, commanders must either accept risk, change 

the operational variables, or advocate for more resources to fill the 

gap. The ability of commanders to assess and make risk-based decisions is part of their sacred responsibility and will be how they are 

judged in the event of a catastrophic event, such as the Khobar Towers 

or Camp Bastion, Leatherneck, and Shorabak (BLS) Complex attacks.
322 │ COULTER

Despite the magnitude of the challenge, little training is dedicated 

to air base defense. An examination of training for senior leaders 

such as expeditionary and group commanders is warranted. While 

the responsibility of commanders to protect their people and resources is fairly straightforward, carrying out this charge for a concept or mission outside their normal skill set can be difficult. Commanders who are rated, logistics, or maintenance officers likely have 

little to no force protection or ground defense experience, yet they are 

expected to analyze risks and make decisions in these areas with possible strategic effects.

Wing and group commanders receive training and mentorship on 

their command responsibilities at the Air Force’s Ira C. Eaker Center 

for Professional Development at Maxwell AFB, Alabama. These senior leader courses do not differentiate between those deploying into 

a combat zone or those serving in a low-threat garrison environment. 

Consequently, the briefings gravitate toward home station concerns 

versus the complexity of leading base defense in a high-threat environment. Those assuming command of deployed units may also have 

breakout sections addressing specific deployed topics but get no additional formalized base defense training. Most of the one-hour block 

in the wing and group commander courses covering antiterrorism 

and security forces applies to expeditionary commanders; however, 

other aspects of wartime ABD are not included.14 Prospective commanders would benefit from the addition of topics such as interacting with the land forces commander, countering direct and indirect 

attacks, and conducting host-nation relationships.

While training is one aspect of the tool set that commanders have 

for carrying out ABD, doctrine is another. Among current doctrine 

regarding ABD is JP 3-10. It defines a base as “a locality from which 

operations are projected or supported,” but it refers to an air base as 

just one of the potential base functions.15 Chapter 4 of JP 3-10 discusses air base considerations such as threats to slow and low-flying 

aircraft, but no place in the publication discusses the roles and responsibilities between land and airpower organizations. This ambiguity of command and control (C2) is not supported by the Air Force

doctrine designating that “clear lines of authority, with clearly identified commanders at appropriate echelons exercising appropriate control, are essential to achieving unity of effort, reducing confusion, 

and maintaining priorities.”16 However, no specific doctrine sets forth 

the best practices of integrating air and land forces for the ABD task. 
YOU OWN IT │ 323

Furthermore, the joint security framework described in the doctrine 

is arguably land forces–centered and does not account for the airpower mission.17 Consequently, absent an agreement between the 

Army and Air Force, the Air Force must be ready to provide for its 

own external defense.

Case Study: Vietnam

During the Vietnam War, deficiencies in doctrine such as the responsibility for outside the wire (OTW) and unclear command structures were at the heart of many air base defense problems and are still 

being debated today. Doctrine geared toward Cold War threats emphasized internal security measures and largely did not include the 

tactical area around an air base. Senior leaders failed to see the importance of the area outside the perimeter and drove a policy of Airmen providing only internal security.18 Bases such as Da Nang AB 

therefore emphasized the security of the flight line but had little ability 

against the external IDF threat to their aircraft and personnel.19 This 

deficit combined with the Army and Marines not being allocated for 

point defense—due to force strength limits and the priority of offensive operations—left the area OTW vulnerable.20 The concept of dealing with an external threat through internal security measures 

showed a lack of understanding of the problem by senior leaders. 

However, even had the Air Force recognized the need for an OTW 

mission, the service was not organized, trained, or equipped for it 

due to a lack of doctrine.21 A reflection of these problems is that by 

the end of 1973, 99 aircraft were destroyed and 1,170 damaged from 

ground attacks.22 The lessons learned about the importance of establishing ABD doctrine should have been evident at the end of the conflict. However, it wasn’t until 1985 that the development of doctrine 

covering roles and responsibilities between the Army and Air Force 

for ABD was directed through the signing of Joint Service Agreement 

(JSA) 8.23 However, the JSA was never implemented. In 2005 the 

agreement was officially abrogated, which renewed a gap in Army 

and Air Force air base defense responsibilities that is only addressed 

through ad hoc planning.24

Case Study: Khobar Towers

Regardless of any doctrine gaps or other deficiencies, the expectation is that commanders will ensure force protection. This point was 
324 │ COULTER

illustrated in the aftermath of the 1996 attack outside of the Khobar 

Towers on King Abdul Aziz AB, Saudi Arabia, in which a massive 

explosion killed 19 Airmen and wounded 500.25 A commission led by 

retired Army general Wayne Downing was formed to investigate the 

event, which ultimately ended with the forced retirement and denial 

of a second star for the wing commander, Brig Gen Terryl Schwalier. 

Findings from the Downing Report offer valuable insight for the 

overarching responsibility that commanders have for the force protection of their units. Although the report concluded that many institutional issues existed, such as poor organizational relationships and 

a lack of force protection guidance and standards, one of the most 

pointed findings was that General Schwalier “did not adequately protect his forces from a terrorist attack.”26

As the wing commander, General Schwalier had full command and 

authority for force protection; however, he did not have intelligence 

support for ABD aside from the security police (SP) squadron commander.27 Instead, intelligence operations focused on the air threat for 

Operation Southern Watch, which the wing regarded as its primary 

mission.28 Periodically, the Air Force Office of Special Investigations 

assisted the wing through security assessments. In January 1996 it 

recognized the perimeter as a vulnerability to the towers and the 

credibility of information that terrorists in Saudi Arabia had the capability and intention of carrying out attacks on targets. One of these 

was Khobar Towers, which analysis concluded was a likely target for a 

car bomb.29 Although these buildings stood just inside the perimeter 

fence, neither General Schwalier nor the security police commander 

seemed to fully consider the implications of the threat or the potential 

for a bomb the size eventually used in the attack.30 Instead, the general 

chose to focus the SP unit’s efforts on providing internal security and 

preventing a breach of the perimeter while relying on the host nation, 

Saudi Arabia, for adequate external security.31 Leadership discussed 

force protection measures, such as moving personnel away from the 

exterior of the building, but no significant steps were taken.32

It is important to note that this example is not meant to cast doubt 

on General Schwalier’s decisions but to show the litmus of accountability that commanders face. The reality is that whether it is a conscious decision or not to accept risk, the commander still owns the 

risk regardless. Although the report acknowledges that US Central 

Command did not afford adequate resources, guidance, or support to 

avoid the attack or mitigate the effects, the general neither informed 
YOU OWN IT │ 325

his superiors of force protection matters he couldn’t correct nor addressed expanding the perimeter or increasing security outside of the 

fence with the Saudis.33 By not doing either of these actions, as the 

commander, he had accepted the risk for any deficiencies in force 

protection. In 2015 General Schwalier exhausted his last appeal for 

reinstatement of his promotion to major general and stated that his 

punishment would have a chilling effect on commanders. Regarding 

the decision to demote him, Schwalier said, “I think it’s going to force 

our commanders to think more about checking their 6 . . . than looking ahead and trying to fight a battle.”34 The term “check six” is a 

phrase traditionally used by fighter pilots to denote a threat behind 

them but has also come to mean to actively take steps to avoid criticism or responsibility at a later date.

If commanders are “checking six” more often to ensure their forces 

are protected, perhaps that’s a good thing. Commanders must simultaneously perform their assigned flying missions and carry out their 

responsibility to protect all of their missions and the people who implement them. These two tasks are synonymous, and commanders 

must understand that they own both.

Case Study: Camp Bastion

The assault on the BLS Complex was a sophisticated sapper attack 

conducted with extensive preparation, recruitment, and training far 

exceeding the expected threat of rocket and entry control point attacks that were the norm in Afghanistan.35 Just as in the past, an effective organizational structure was not in place with clear lines of responsibility and authority, but the commanders in charge at the time 

of the attack were the ones held accountable for failing to protect their 

force. A memorandum of understanding (MOU) between the United 

States and United Kingdom, the two primary forces on the complex, 

outlined that the Leatherneck base would be headed by the Americans while Bastion would be run by the British. The MOU did not 

address the integration of Shorabak, mainly composed of Afghan National Army (ANA) forces, or designate a single base commander over 

the whole complex. Rather, it left force protection of the BLS complex 

to be a shared responsibility among the United States, UK, and ANA.36

Further complicating unity of command, many 3rd Marine Aircraft 

Wing (MAW) Forward (FWD) assets and personnel were at Bastion, 

which included the airfield, but still fell under the Leatherneck base 
326 │ COULTER

commander. This shared responsibility without a single commander 

to integrate and balance force protection led to a lack of synergy in 

the collection of information and assessment of the threat. Commanders of US forces at BLS appeared to be unaware of the vulnerabilities at the Bastion complex, including limited perimeter tower 

manning, a lack of defense in depth, and a porous perimeter fence.37

On 14 September 2012, the problems that existed on the BLS 

Complex were exploited by 15 Taliban insurgents who breached the 

perimeter fence, killed two Marines, and destroyed six aircraft while 

also damaging several others. Similar to Khobar Towers, in the aftermath of the attack an investigation identified command failures by 

both the Regional Command (RC) Southwest (SW) commander, Maj 

Gen Charles Gurganus, USMC, and the 3 MAW (FWD) commander, 

Maj Gen Gregg Sturdevant, USMC. As the area of operations commander, General Gurganus was ultimately responsible for establishing an effective level of force protection for the BLS Complex. Consistent with joint doctrine, day-to-day execution of force protection was 

placed on the various base commanders under his control.38 Despite 

organizational C2 issues that had been ongoing before each of these 

commanders had taken command and the lack of doctrine to outline effective base defense, the report and the Commandant of the 

Marine Corps determined that these generals had failed in providing 

force protection. In particular, as the 3 MAW (FWD) commander, 

General Sturdevant had relied on the British to provide protection for 

his forces on Bastion.39 Additionally, soon after General Gurganus had 

assumed command, he became aware of C2 issues that went against 

US Marine doctrine on the BLS Complex. By the time of the attack, 

those issues largely still existed, and at no point did he notify his commander that he was unable to successfully protect his force.40

In the wake of the attack, force protection measures were quickly 

reevaluated and vulnerabilities were mitigated, demonstrating that a 

defense in depth could still be created with existing forces.41 Finally, 

while the British were responsible for the sector where the attack occurred, American commanders were accountable for the defense of 

their own aircraft. The British House of Commons review of the Camp 

Bastion attack concluded, “Given that the attack took place in the 

British sector of the camp, British commanders must bear a degree of 

responsibility for these systemic failures and associated reputational 

damage.”42 However, the Ministry of Defense held no British commanders responsible and stated in its rebuttal to the House of Com-
YOU OWN IT │ 327

mons report that “no further UK action is required.”43 When it comes 

to trusting other parties with the security of the mission, commanders 

should “trust, but verify” to ensure that adequate security steps are 

taken to mitigate the threat and defend key operational assets.44

Recommendations

In the end, it comes down to the individual commander—his or 

her own self-preparation and the tools gained through training, doctrine, and security assets on the ground. Commanders set the tone 

for basewide synchronization of defense. If they don’t value it, no one 

will. For instance, one Army commander was quoted as saying, “I don’t 

give a damn about base defense”—signaling to all involved that it was 

not a priority.45

Most importantly, since commanders are charged with air base defense, they should prepare themselves for their role and take deliberate steps to assess and mitigate threats once in command. Despite 

doctrine and training gaps, a commander is always going to be responsible for critically thinking, effectively planning, and acting in a 

way that sets the conditions for success.46 In addition, training and 

doctrine should be improved to give commanders better tools for accomplishing this challenging mission. As new threats emerge with 

the progression of technology, future conflicts will become even more 

complex. Thus, commanders must be better equipped with the skill 

set of protecting these strategic hubs. With the rebalance to the Pacific 

and concepts such as dispersed operations in an A2/AD environment, 

the weight of operational tasks that a commander must balance will 

only increase.47 Sound doctrine and training that senior leaders can 

base their decisions on become even more critical.

Future commanders of air bases must understand that their role 

in force protection is primarily that of managing risks through developing an effective strategy. Doing so starts with making security a 

priority in the unit and encouraging subject matter experts to identify risks. It is the commander’s job to assess those risks, determine 

the best way to manage them, and match resources to the problem. If 

commanders are unwilling or unable to adequately manage risk, they 

must persistently advocate for resources and support through their 

chain of command for the means to do so as well as communicate the 

potential mission failure that will result.48
328 │ COULTER

Managing risk is one key task a commander must do, but balancing resources is also part of the challenge. One valuable tool to allow 

commanders to stretch their resources further is through ID—arguably an underdeveloped concept. General Deale summarizes the concept of ID in stating that “base defense is not just the defender’s activities, it has to be a defense-in-depth with all Airmen engaged.”49

Integrated defense gives commanders a force multiplier by making 

each Airman a part of the solution. Fundamental to translating this 

concept to reality is fostering a climate where all Airmen understand 

the threats and vulnerabilities around them and the need for being 

capable of implementing protective measures when required.50 The 

wing commander’s training syllabus covers the concept of ID and asserts that “every Airman is an active participant.” However, it doesn’t 

go into how to implement this prescript.51

Therefore, commanders must creatively analyze how ID can benefit overall force protection and ask questions to identify shortfalls. 

For instance, are there clearly publicized reporting chains for any recognized or perceived vulnerabilities or threats? Do all Airmen know 

their response actions for base attack such as IDF, and are they being 

adequately utilized? Airmen can become part of the integrated defense of a base, but plans and procedures must be developed, taught, 

and practiced to be effective. To maximize this concept, commanders 

should also think broadly beyond active defense measures, extending 

ABD to all Airmen. A seasoned staff judge advocate can advise the 

commander within the scope of the laws and regulation of applying 

effective base defense measures. Financial specialists can identify and 

allocate monetary resources appropriately to address vulnerabilities 

to meet ID challenges. Airmen—and their joint and coalition partners—need to play a constructive role in air base defense.

Implementing ID is one topic among many that senior leaders 

should learn about through a separate course for senior expeditionary commanders, in addition to the current wing commander’s 

course. Training is a necessary tool to inform commanders about ID 

challenges and expectations and should be expanded upon for senior 

leaders prior to a deployment. The current wing commander syllabus 

shows that force protection focuses on garrison antiterrorism measures. While it is a valuable topic, deployed commanders should be 

exposed to a host of other issues. These might include developing 

host-nation and coalition relationships, establishing relationships 

with land force commanders, and integrating ground intelligence. 
YOU OWN IT │ 329

Another useful lesson from the past absent from current training is 

the responsibility for the exterior security mission. Training for this 

mission is essential since it is not in a typical Airman’s skill set, and 

the land force commander for the area of operations must have confidence in Airmen executing this role. Training can support Air Force 

leaders in conducting the external mission through their gaining an 

understanding of how to work effectively with land force commanders and the dependencies of each other’s missions and capabilities.52

The last recommendation is that of improving joint doctrine to 

define roles and responsibilities for air base defense as well as an organizational model for it. Over the years, ABD doctrine has not captured the fundamental lessons learned and therefore has limited 

value for commanders. In today’s conflicts, air bases are a collection 

of many interwoven joint, coalition, and civilian partners. This diversity adds to the complexity of the challenge and makes ABD more 

than a service issue, which requires comprehensive joint doctrine. 

Specific issues that must be addressed include the responsibility for 

patrolling the external threat rings and an organizational structure 

that establishes unity of command.

Since the Vietnam War, discussion has ensued about which service 

has OTW responsibility. In the early 1960s, the Republic of Vietnam 

Armed Forces (RVNAF) were tasked with the responsibility for perimeter and external air base security.53 As their inability to perform 

this task became apparent to all, US Army and Marine forces took on 

a larger role in defending air bases. In 1965 the importance of offensive ground operations took precedence, and again the task of air 

base defense fell to the RVNAF and Air Force security police.54 Even 

today, after years of lessons and practice, the responsibility for external security of an air base has not been doctrinally established. Thus, 

the services have not trained, organized, and equipped for the mission. As the predominant airpower force, the Air Force should seek to 

assume the primary role of developing joint doctrine that can be put 

into practice by the commander with the preponderance of air assets 

for an air base. Naturally, this precept will mean that in many cases, 

the Air Force should hold accountability for air base security—to include the area outside the wire. Being an air-minded service, the 

USAF can develop the solution from the perspective of countering 

threats that impede airpower projection and sortie generation.

Besides determining the roles and responsibilities that support air 

base defense, defining an organizational structure is equally impera-
330 │ COULTER

tive. JP 3-10 describes a notional framework of base defense; however, it is general to any base, whether it has an air base function or 

not. Also, there is no discussion of organizational models at the base 

or base cluster level for the execution of the mission.55 Without this 

information, service-specific doctrine and tactics, techniques, and 

procedures will likely dictate the execution of base defense—providing less consistency since the composition of air bases in today’s environment is likely a diverse joint, multinational landscape. To address these organizational and C2 issues, several models used in both 

Afghanistan and Iraq can help determine what future force modernization to emulate.

On 1 January 2005, Task Force (TF) 1041 conducted its first patrol 

in the northern sector of Balad AB, Iraq, as part of a mission to reduce attacks by targeting insurgents.56 The successes of TF 1041 were 

made clear in its near elimination of all IDF attacks within its assigned sector.57 As a result of TF 1041, the 332nd Expeditionary Security Forces Group was activated with the responsibility of base defense out to eight kilometers from the base boundary. The 332nd 

provided perimeter, internal, and exterior security and was supported 

by a robust staff to execute all the standard staff functions.58 The enhanced security put pressure on insurgents, leading to less frequent 

attacks with higher miss distances of standoff weapons.59 Another organizational model is TF 1/455, a USAF-led and -manned ground 

battlespace owner. It integrated Air Force and Army forces under one 

commander for the external defense of Bagram AB, Afghanistan, 

starting in May 2012. This unit was responsible for “one of the largest 

concerted outside-the-wire missions in the history of the USAF at 

one of the world’s busiest airfields.”60

Each of these units had an overarching structure led by an Airman 

with the specific purpose of protecting the air base and had a specific 

mission with limited objectives—matching the definition of a joint 

task force (JTF) in JP 3-0, Joint Operations.

61 Under the TF 1/455 construct, the mission of defending the base (or portion assigned) was 

organized under a single commander who controlled the exterior terrain and threat patrol zones. Making a JTF the model established 

unity of command and allowed commanders to use existing joint 

doctrine within JP 3-33, Joint Task Force Headquarters, to synchronize defense efforts and design an effective organizational framework.
YOU OWN IT │ 331

Conclusion

Base commanders must also consider that air base defense is 

not merely the protection of air assets but the ability to generate 

air power.

—JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater

Air bases are critical centers of gravity enabling airpower to be 

projected, logistics to flow, and countless other functions to be implemented for an area of operations. Commanders are entrusted to protect these operating locations through a combination of the aforementioned tools and are empowered by their own diligence in 

understanding and preparing for the task. Doctrine establishes a basic framework for structuring base defense but does not detail specific considerations for air bases. In the future, Air Force leaders 

should be the primary developers of doctrine that identifies the services’ roles and responsibilities.

Recent history is rife with examples in which a combination of 

doctrine and training has left a gap in base defense that a commander 

must overcome. Doctrine has failed to adequately address significant 

tenets and lessons learned about how to effectively protect air bases. 

A shortfall continues in senior leader training that builds the requisite knowledge for defending air bases in a contested environment. 

Host-nation and adjacent land force coordination are some of the 

tasks outside the normal skill set of those who would command in a 

theater of operations. Regardless of the training and doctrine shortfalls, commanders must prepare themselves by recognizing the challenge, educating themselves on critical thinking in this component of 

their responsibilities, and vigorously advocating for the resources 

needed to protect the personnel, equipment, and air assets under 

their charge.

Notes

1. Douhet, Command of the Air, 53–54.

2. Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education (hereafter 

LeMay Center), Volume I, Basic Doctrine, 57.

3. Vick, Air Base Attacks, 64.

4. Maj Gen Thomas H. Deale (vice commander, Carl A. Spaatz Center for Officer 

Education), interview by Col Shannon W. Caudill, 17 January 2014.
332 │ COULTER

5. Maj Gen Brian T. Bishop (commander, Carl A. Spaatz Center for Officer Education), interview by Col Shannon W. Caudill, 17 January 2014.

6. Branum, “Balad Airmen Look Back.”

7. Bishop, interview.

8. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, I-7.

9. Loh, “Leadership in Command,” 91.

10. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 2.

11. AFPD 31-1, Integrated Defense, 2.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Author discussion with Air University Eaker Center personnel regarding 

Wing Commander Course, Maxwell AFB, AL, 22 October 2014.

15. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater, xiv, I-6.

16. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-30, Command and Control,” 2.

17. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations, II-7. The document presents the scenario 

of the Army as the designated joint security coordinator and the lower-echelon commanders as Army commanders.

18. Palmer, “Air Base Security Operations,” 15.

19. Wojtowicz, “USAF Vulnerability,” 13.

20. Palmer, “Air Base Security Operations,” 14.

21. Ibid., 16.

22. Vick, Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest, 68.

23. Palmer, “Air Base Security Operations,” 23.

24. Jumper and Schoomaker, Abrogation of Joint Service Agreement 8.

25. Downing, Report of the Downing Assessment Task Force, viii.

26. Ibid., xix.

27. Ibid., 55.

28. Ibid., xii.

29. Ibid., 56.

30. Ibid., 45.

31. Ibid., 51, 56.

32. Ibid., 57.

33. Ibid., 55.

34. Schogol, “One-Star Blamed.”

35. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 3–4.

36. Ibid., 7–8.

37. Ibid., 22.

38. Ibid., 8–9.

39. USMC, “Commandant Announces Decision.”

40. Garrett and Murray to commander, US Central Command, memorandum, 

5, 14.

41. Ibid., 19.

42. British Parliament, Camp Bastion Attack, 15.

43. British Parliament, Camp Bastion Attack: Government Response, 5.

44. Shipler, “Reagan and Gorbachev Sign Missile Treaty.” Note: “Trust but verify” 

is a Russian proverb used by President Ronald Reagan as a maxim for building verifiable arms control treaties.
YOU OWN IT │ 333

45. Hubbard, “Base Defense at the Special Forces Forward,” 40.

46. Doty and Doty, “Command Responsibility and Accountability,” 37.

47. Hostage and Broadwell, “Resilient Command and Control,” 38.

48. Lt Gen Steven Kwast (commander, Air University), interview by author, 

Maxwell AFB, AL, 30 January 2015.

49. Deale, interview.

50. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection.”

51. Author discussion with Eaker Center personnel.

52. Bishop, interview.

53. Fox, Air Base Defense, 12.

54. Ibid., 27.

55. JP 3-10, Joint Security Operations in Theater. The current version (2014) discusses the basic framework of joint security areas containing bases and base clusters. 

This high-level C2 organization does not distinguish between air bases and other 

land-force bases (i.e., forward operating bases). JP 3-10 offers little information 

about the relationships and interactions between these C2 nodes. Ambiguity also 

exists in defining roles, such as for the base commander and base cluster commander, 

in terms of tactical and operational control. Both definitions include bold statements 

that give tactical control of security assets to the commander, leaving no clarity regarding what forces the base commander gives up when part of a base cluster.

56. Spacy, “Future of Security Forces in Combat.”

57. Briar, “Sharpening the Eagle’s Talons,” 264.

58. Milner, “Defense of Joint Base Balad,” 221.

59. Ibid., 235–36.

60. Rundquist, “Short History of Air Base Defense,” 35–36.

61. JP 3-0, Joint Operations, IV-5.

Chapter 12

US Air Force Expeditionary 

Security Operations 2040

A Technology Vision 

for Deployed Air Base Defense Capabilities

Christopher W. Allen

In the not-so-distant future, the president orders the US military to 

conduct combat operations against a hostile state to protect national 

interests. American forces succeed in overcoming advanced antiaccess/

area denial (A2/AD) measures and establish new expeditionary air 

bases from which the US Air Force contributes manned and unmanned 

sorties to the joint fight. However, the enemy employs novel asymmetric 

tactics to hinder, harass, and deny USAF power projection. Precision 

indirect fire (IDF), remotely piloted vehicles (RPV), sophisticated insider attacks, and other innovative enemy capabilities ceaselessly wreak 

havoc on the bases, threatening to halt critical USAF missions.

In the event of this future worst-case scenario, the US Air Force 

will undoubtedly be called upon to deploy forces to conduct operations around the world in the next three decades—based on the frequency of expeditionary missions since the mid-1980s. The importance of base defense in hostile areas endures and requires 

improvement to meet ever-evolving threats in the future. This chapter 

envisions specific USAF expeditionary security operation (ESO) capabilities and enabling technologies in the 2040 time frame.1

 Technological advances offer opportunities for increasing future USAF ESO 

capabilities to protect forward bases from ever-evolving challenges 

and threats to deployed personnel and assets. Current decisions and 

planning must be influenced toward research, development, and acquisition in specific technology areas to enhance future ESOs.

For this exploration of ESOs, the research methodology is explained first to clarify how future capabilities and technologies are 

examined. The doctrinal context of how the USAF secures its bases is 

This chapter is an edited version of a master’s thesis entitled “USAF Expeditionary Security 

Operations 2040: A Technology Vision for Deployed Air Base Defense Capabilities,” Blue 

Horizons Program (Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, AL, 2014).
336 │ ALLEN

then established—specifically the roles of base security and counterthreat (CTO) operations in ESOs. The relevance of future ESO capabilities and technologies to national defense interests is addressed to 

emphasize the need for judicious planning and procurement in defending future USAF bases from future threats. The next major topic 

is projected capabilities for future base security and CTO requirements, followed by technological advances to meet anticipated base 

security and CTO capabilities requirements. Finally, recommendations are offered for ESO procurements that will posture future base 

security and CTO capabilities to overcome challenges and defeat anticipated threats in 2040.

Research Methodology

This research effort offers capabilities for effective ESOs over the 

next 20 years based on expected challenges and threats. Capabilities 

identification allows for investigating technologies to meet future 

ESO needs, bearing in mind the simultaneous need to anticipate 

threats that may counter or negate future ESO technologies and capabilities. Specifically, each technology section first links to a specific 

capability projected to counter or defeat threats. Next, various existing technologies or systems are introduced and assessed with respect 

to strengths and weaknesses. Last, recommendations for technology 

enhancement are presented in each section. The overall intent of this 

research is to identify and analyze state-of-the-art ESO technologies 

and, ultimately, to advocate for leveraging improvements in technology trends to satisfy specific ESO capability requirements in 2040.2

ESO Doctrinal Background and Relevance

Doctrinally, the USAF uses the terms force protection (FP), integrated defense (ID), and force protection intelligence (FPI) to explain 

missions and capabilities needed to secure Airmen and resources 

from threats and harm, stateside and abroad. Force protection is “the 

process of detecting threats and hazards to the Air Force and its mission, and applying measures to deter, pre-empt, negate or mitigate 

them based on an acceptable level of risk.”3

 Integrated defense is a 

force-protection line of effort. USAF security forces are the “enterprise 

lead” for ID, which operates to “protect and defend Air Force personnel, installations, activities, infrastructure, resources, and information 
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 337

. . . worldwide, from mature theaters to austere regions.”4 Force protection intelligence is vital to integrated defense. FPI leverages the 

efforts of USAF intelligence, security forces, and Air Force Office of 

Special Investigations (AFOSI) personnel to collectively provide a 

threat sight picture that enables leaders at all levels to enact proper 

force protection measures.5

It is important to understand how ID and FPI are operationalized 

in a deployed environment to execute what can be termed expeditionary security operations.6

 Security forces or “defenders” use the 

full spectrum of defensive ways and means to provide base security.7

Defenders not only conduct patrols to deter and detect threats to personnel and resources but also man static posts at entry control points 

(ECP) to regulate installation entry and exit. Defenders respond to 

defeat threats when they emerge within the base boundary (“tactical 

or jurisdictional limit”) or the base security zone (“range of enemy 

capabilities”), depending on the host-nation relationship.8

 Threats include indirect fire from rockets, mortars, and man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS). Defenders leverage technologies to track 

and interdict IDFs before they strike, and aerial assets assist with locating and defeating attackers.

Force protection leadership and AFOSI activities play a vital role 

in supporting integrated defense and FPI to protect expeditionary 

bases through the use of “risk-based measures or operations, such as 

counterintelligence support to FP, to preempt, deter, mitigate, or negate threats. FPI provides support to all phases of FP operations.”9

Collection, analysis, and dissemination of timely, multiple-source information provide pertinent authorities “tactical situational awareness to forewarn or preempt enemy or adversarial attack” against aircraft, personnel, and infrastructure.10

The core CTO activity—counterintelligence collections—primarily 

involves recruiting, handling, and extracting threat information from 

human sources. In an expeditionary environment, contacts can be 

found among the base populace—including local or foreign nationals 

granted base access—but it is also essential to locate and meet sources 

residing or working within the base security zone (BSZ). To do so, 

AFOSI personnel must travel off the installation to local population 

centers and canvass areas for new sources or meet existing ones. In 

uncertain or hostile BSZ environments, AFOSI units partner with 

security force tactical security element (TSE) teams to conduct and 

secure CTO missions. TSE members transport agents, linguists, and 
338 │ ALLEN

support personnel in tactical vehicles with significant defensive firepower and the capacity to carry equipment and supplies for convoy 

security and sustainment.

While tactical in execution, ESO is relevant to strategic interests. 

Events over the past 30 years indicate that the military instrument of 

power is likely to see continued use in a variety of operations and 

levels of conflict over the next three decades. USAF power projection 

requires basing in areas of operation. Expeditionary bases enable 

USAF combat operations to support national security priorities; at 

the same time, bases represent highly visible targets for enemy attacks. The effects of preventing or minimizing these attacks include 

maintaining mission continuity, averting enemy propaganda due to 

successful attacks, and reducing negative impacts on American public support for war efforts. Challenges from future threats are unlikely 

to diminish and necessitate adequate development of capabilities and 

technologies to confront increasingly sophisticated competitors.

Future Capabilities Requirements

Care should be given to the development of effective air base defense capabilities. For ESOs, three specific base security capabilities 

will be imperative in the future based on a dynamic, ever-challenging 

threat environment:

1. The ability to more effectively counter IDF threats to expeditionary bases. Rocket, mortar, and MANPADS capabilities will only 

increase in targeting precision, accuracy, and lethality in coming years.11

2. The ability to more effectively monitor, patrol, and respond within 

the base boundary to improve perimeter and ECP protection. 

This capacity counters enemy tactics, which continually gain 

effectiveness against human and technical security measures, 

while also responding to future remotely piloted ground vehicle threats.12

3. The ability to more effectively detect, interdict, and neutralize 

violent insider threats. The continued use of local nationals for 

support at deployed bases is anticipated, with attendant risks of 

enemy infiltration among such employees. Additionally, threats 

from “friendly” individuals unfortunately continue to emerge 

in deployed locations.13
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 339

Three specific CTO capabilities will thwart future threats to expeditionary bases:

1. The ability to more effectively travel outside the wire (OTW) 

within the BSZ to meet individuals for obtaining counterthreat 

and atmospherics information on areas in close proximity to a 

deployed base. Rugged, austere environments and creative enemies will continually challenge CTO convoy mobility.

2. The ability to more effectively use nonlethal and lethal means to 

protect CTO vehicle convoys and foot patrols. Rules of engagement that allow for local vehicles to travel in close proximity to 

convoys are assumed. Creative enemies will be relentless in efforts to attack convoys. Crowd control will pose an everevolving threat to foot patrols, especially in densely populated, 

confined spaces.

3. The ability to effectively communicate with more local individuals to obtain increased threat and atmospherics information for 

areas in close proximity to a deployed base. Currently, one or two 

linguists facilitate communication with a limited number of 

locals during an engagement visit. Language training for CTO 

personnel is limited and rarely sufficient to allow adequate 

understanding of complex descriptions of threats, individuals, 

and other critical information.14

The aforementioned base security and CTO capabilities hinge on 

improvements in existing or new technologies to bring future ESO 

capabilities to fruition.15 Technology is operationalized scientific 

knowledge; it provides a capability in the form of a tool. Technological 

advances drive development of various systems, enabling improvements in base security and CTO capabilities to meet future threats.

Future Base Security Technologies

Future base security capabilities require technological innovations 

in counter-IDF systems, unmanned ground vehicles (UGV), and robotic sentries. Counter-IDF systems will leverage technologies to improve accuracy and range in destroying inbound projectiles targeting 

an expeditionary base. UGVs of various sizes will enhance perimeter 

security and ECP protection and also conduct inside-the-wire security patrols. Robotic sentries will protect key base facilities and highly 
340 │ ALLEN

populated areas from violent insider threats. While UGVs and robotic sentries are not the only means to improve specific future capabilities, advances in these technologies offer opportunities to “enable 

manpower efficiencies and cost reductions.”16

Counter-IDF Systems

Ground-launched projectiles pose a significant threat for base security. Frequent insurgent IDF attacks on coalition bases in Iraq 

prompted adaptation of the US Navy Phalanx—a Gatling gun–based 

antiship missile system—into the Centurion counter-rocket, artillery, 

and mortar (C-RAM) system to autonomously defend a 1.2 km 

square area around deployed bases.17 IDF attacks have also been a 

constant source of concern for North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

bases in Afghanistan. C-RAM systems shot down approximately 70 

percent of IDF in both conflicts.18 Overall, imprecise IDF caused 

more fear and harassment than actual death and destruction, a fortunate outcome that is not likely to continue.19 In the future, “should 

precision IDF rounds become part of the operational environment, 

our Airmen won’t have the luxury of an enemy’s incompetent firing 

of dumb rounds”—an apt caution indeed.20 Moreover, a 30 percent 

failure rate will not suffice against future precision IDF attacks. Prospective threats of increasingly precise IDF demand a more effective 

counter to protect deployed resources.

Other recent counter-IDF technologies include the German Skyshield air defense system. Similar to the Centurion, Skyshield uses revolving guns for C-RAM capability. Unlike the Centurion, Skyshield 

munitions do not directly strike the targeted projectile. Skyshield 

rounds containing numerous subprojectiles are fired into the calculated path of the target, creating a destructive field of fire.21 This 

method offers the ability to strike targets at greater distances with 

less ammunition expended.22

Additional counter-IDF technological developments include Israel’s 

Iron Dome C-RAM system. The Iron Dome uses interceptor missiles 

to protect population centers against multiple, simultaneous IDF 

threats within a 70 km zone.23 According to US and Israeli officials 

(both countries financed its development), Iron Dome’s accuracy rate 

in destroying inbound projectiles is between 80 and 85 percent as of 

2012.24 Meanwhile, Raytheon has explored a laser-based version of 

the Phalanx and Centurion to allow defense of a larger area—about 
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 341

three times the area protected by existing systems—at less expense 

than a Gatling gun–based or missile-based C-RAM.25 Requirements 

for a laser version of the Centurion include sufficient power to defeat 

larger IDF threats, ruggedness to effectively operate in harsh environments, and friendly aircraft avoidance.26 These concerns stem from 

the developmental experiences of other laser-based C-RAM systems.

In 1996 the United States and Israel began joint development of a 

tactical high-energy laser (THEL) to protect Israel from IDF. After 10 

years of work and $300 million spent, the chemical-based laser program was terminated due to the system’s “bulkiness, high costs and 

poor anticipated results on the battlefield.”27 More recent counterIDF development has focused on electric lasers, which hold the 

promise of increased targeting precision and speed. Specifically, 

Boeing is developing the High Energy Laser Technology Demonstrator (HEL TD) for the US Army—an eight-wheeled tactical vehicle 

with a solid-state laser designed to defeat IDF, RPVs, and other tactical airborne threats.28 A potential limiting factor is the ability to continuously generate sufficient electricity to power the laser in an austere environment.

Future counter-IDF systems—whether based on missile, laser, or 

other directed-energy technologies—must increase in accuracy and 

range to autonomously destroy multiple inbound projectiles targeting an expeditionary base. These systems must also minimize collateral damage risks to friendly aircraft and populations. As laser technologies continue to mature into more powerful, smaller systems 

requiring less energy, effective laser-based, counter-IDF systems with 

“near-infinite magazines” will be an attractive option in 2040 in terms 

of cost and risk mitigation to surrounding ground communities.29

Unmanned Ground Vehicles

UGVs have yet to be fully exploited for base security. Existing and 

developing UGV technologies hold the potential to provide effective 

capabilities for perimeter, ECP, and inside-the-wire protection. A 

sensor-carrying UGV can function as “eyes and ears” without the 

need for a human on site. Multiple UGVs create a network for base 

defense operations center personnel to monitor in order to respond 

to threats.

The Israeli Guardium-LS is a currently fielded UGV often used in 

conjunction with foot patrols to detect and deter threats along the 
342 │ ALLEN

Gaza Strip security fence. A mobile reconnaissance sensor platform 

(with a loudspeaker), the Guardium has remote driving technology, 

four driving cameras, and a 360-degree observation camera.30 It is 

also used for tactical resupply to eliminate IED threats to manned 

vehicles and retains the “possibility to install a remotely operated 

weapons system and non-lethal weapons systems.”31 Unlike the 

smaller UGVs, Guardium provides a full-size UGV that can discreetly integrate with and augment manned vehicle and foot patrols 

or operate on its own to conduct deterrence, detection, and response 

missions without risking the lives of friendly forces.

Current and developing systems offer a glimpse of UGV possibilities in 2040. UGVs can appear identical to manned vehicles—such as 

in size, model, and color—when used for patrols or as reinforcements 

at static locations. Thus, they will confuse insider threats regarding 

which vehicles are manned, providing an additional defensive variable for enemies to overcome. Moreover, small UGVs will navigate 

hard-to-reach places and decrease presence visibility. Mounted, static 

cameras at key locations offer visibility for a particular area and zoom 

with ever-increasing effectiveness. However, their limitations of a 

fixed field of vision and inability to see around obstructions make a 

small, mobile UGV valuable. RPVs can also obviously be used for the 

same purposes as UGVs, but the aerial view of the ground that RPVs 

provide is more relatable for response purposes, including reaction 

to enemy penetration of a base. Lastly, the Mobile Detection Assessment Response System (MDARS) is a preview of “swarming” multiple small UGVs to quickly respond in suitable numbers to a threat 

to provide situational awareness, employing nonlethal and/or lethal 

force as appropriate. Such threats could include “protestors, mobs, 

and terrorist groups . . . quickly assembling near a base’s entrycontrol point or perimeter to protest, riot, or attack.”32

Robotic Sentries

Robotic sentries or “sentry-bots” can also thwart attacks at the 

base perimeter.33 In fact, UGV technological developments are closely 

related to robotic sentry advances since UGVs armed with lethal 

and/or nonlethal weapons can assume a static posture at specific locations to detect and neutralize violent insider threats. Robotic sentries can conceivably use sensors and facial recognition technologies 

to check identification to permit or deny entry to various locations.34
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 343

The most interesting recent robotic sentry technological developments come from South Korea and Israel.

Samsung Techwin built the SGR-A1 sentry for use on the South 

Korean side of the demilitarized zone (DMZ).35 Multiple sensors alert 

human operators to respond in person, or the SGR-A1’s operator can 

warn potential attackers via loudspeaker, track multiple targets, and 

engage using lethal (5.56 mm machine gun) or nonlethal (rubber 

bullets) weaponry.36 The Super aEgis 2 is another South Korean DMZ 

sentry. Like the SGR-A1, the Super aEgis 2 can detect, track, and

engage targets up to three kilometers away.37 Its all-weather automatic turret supports lethal weapons—machine guns, grenade 

launchers, or surface-to-air missiles.38 For the Gaza Strip border, the 

Israelis erected Sentry Tech towers equipped with sensors and lethal 

weapons “to create 1500-meter deep ‘automated kill zones.’ ”39 A single 

operator controls multiple towers, reducing manpower requirements 

and decreasing risks to human responders.40

For the USAF, the idea of a nonlethal robotic sentry appears less 

risky and offers a higher likelihood of use in 2040. Autonomous sentries posted among “friendlies” at densely populated locations (ECPs, 

dining facilities, gyms), critical mission areas (command buildings, 

flight lines), and critical infrastructure sites (communications nodes, 

power generation facilities) comprise a key element of an effective 

future “comprehensive interior security plan” to defeat violent insider threats.41 Additionally, incapacitating—not killing—an insider 

threat enables subsequent intelligence or law enforcement information collection.

Future CTO Technologies

Future CTO capabilities require technological advances or innovations in unmanned convoy vehicles, directed-energy weapons 

(DEW), and language translation devices. UGVs will augment 

manned convoy vehicles to provide security support, carry supplies 

and equipment, and deliver humanitarian aid to local populations in 

efforts to win their support. Directed-energy weapons—nonlethal 

and lethal—will permit more use-of-force options for CTO convoys 

and foot patrols. CTO personnel on the ground will use language 

translation devices to communicate with more local individuals, 

making it possible to more effectively gain potential threat information to prevent attacks.
344 │ ALLEN

Unmanned Convoy Vehicles

UGVs will augment manned CTO convoy vehicles to enable safer, 

more effective outside-the-wire travel to meet individuals—and deliver humanitarian aid when appropriate—in order to obtain threat 

information. UGVs enhance the protection and sustainment of CTO 

convoys by carrying additional sensors and weaponry, as well as 

equipment and supplies, without necessarily expanding manpower 

requirements. Two recent systems—the Guardium and the Crusher—

represent the future of UGV convoy support.

As discussed, the Israeli Guardium is an off-road, all-terrain vehicle 

capable of incorporation into convoys that travel unimproved surfaces and traverse rugged terrain. It operates semiautonomously at 

speeds up to 50 km per hour and carries up to 1.2 tons in supplies and 

equipment.42 Operators control each vehicle “in a remote control 

room using a steering wheel, joystick and pedals” with “the vehicle 

driving toward a map coordinate set by its operator.” Israel operationalized this concept in February 2016 with modified Ford F-350 commercial trucks as the workhorse for this remote system.43 If a Guardium vehicle is operated from base, a variable of concern is the 

maximum distance of control from a stationary control terminal 

based on the robustness of its wireless communication in a variety of 

climates and terrains. Additionally, its unmanned nature significantly 

mitigates survivability concerns, but it is unclear what level of fire 

Guardium can endure and still function. This factor is important if 

the UGV is relied upon for fire support to the convoy as well as for 

transport of vital supplies and equipment. Theoretically, Guardium 

technology holds the possibility of use on existing and future USAF 

tactical convoy vehicles.

In 2006 Carnegie Mellon University’s National Robotics Engineering Center (NREC) introduced the Crusher, a seven-ton, six-wheel, 

hybrid-engine UGV. Its ruggedized, highly versatile off-road chassis 

furnishes autonomous UGV capabilities to perform various tactical 

tasks—including reconnaissance and surveillance, resupply, and convoy defense—in a combat environment. It can carry over 8,000 pounds 

of payload and armor—a significant capacity to transport cargo such 

as equipment, supplies, sensors, and weaponry. The Crusher operates 

via multiple control modes—including full autonomy—and travels at 

speeds up to 26 miles per hour. Its hybrid diesel/electric engine enables relatively quiet movement for a large tactical vehicle in rough 
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 345

terrain.44 While slower than the much smaller Guardium, the Crusher 

appears to be significantly more survivable and carries over six times 

the payload.

The Guardium and Crusher show great potential for future UGV 

integration into tactical convoys, though advantages and disadvantages are evident in both systems. The NREC believes that UGV research and development will ultimately “enable new war-fighting capabilities while putting fewer soldiers in harm’s way.”45 The intent 

with respect to future UGV incorporation into CTO convoys is no 

different: more capabilities with less risk to Airmen on the ground. 

While a UGV must be able to traverse the same rugged, austere terrain as manned tactical vehicles, its principal advantage in a convoy 

is the elimination of the need for an on-board human driver and multiple other occupants, removing targets for enemies to threaten. The 

UGV operator rides in another manned vehicle in the convoy or controls the UGV from base. Ideally, a UGV will also operate autonomously within a convoy in 2040 as a “doppelganger,” mimicking 

manned convoy vehicle movements based on programming for 

speed, distance, and other parameters.

Directed-Energy Weapons

Powerful lasers hold great promise for defeating IDF threats to deployed bases.46 On a different level, lasers and other directed-energy 

weapons offer future possibilities for nonlethal and lethal applications against individual and vehicle threats posed to CTO convoys 

and foot patrols. Currently, DEWs can be used to disable a threatening vehicle approaching a convoy or dissuade threatening individuals 

in the vicinity of a foot patrol. Future advances in DEWs will enhance 

such capabilities, potentially providing lethal options as well.

Recent DEWs include various optical distractors or “dazzlers” that 

“deliver flash and optical glare effects to deny access [to], move, or 

suppress individuals.”47 Models currently in use include the handheld 

or weapon-mountable LA-9/P and GLARE MOUT, with ranges of 

65–1,000 meters and 18–760 meters, respectively. These devices use 

“non-blinding lasers” to produce “reversible optical effects,” in compliance with international prohibitions on devices that cause permanent blindness.48 Both devices have safety features that disable the 

laser when an object interrupts the beam within a certain distance.
346 │ ALLEN

Likewise, the prototype Personal Halting and Stimulation Response Rifle (PHASR) has a safety feature to prevent permanent eye 

damage.49 The Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) developed the 

PHASR for use in “protecting troops and controlling hostile crowds.”50

As with any weapon—nonlethal or lethal—an enemy can develop 

countermeasures. For example, the effect of dazzlers may be mitigated or defeated through use of light-filtering eye protection, though 

the PHASR seeks to counter this tactic by using two lasers at different 

wavelengths.51 While the PHASR is an innovative, rifle-sized device, 

this stand-alone nonlethal dazzler weapon appears less advantageous 

compared to the aforementioned devices that mount onto conventional military weapons and thereby provide more than one capability. 

If and when a lethal laser weapon is developed, such “rifles” may support a hybrid mix of laser, nonlethal, and/or conventional munition 

capabilities.

Another directed-energy application does not use lasers to disorient an enemy’s vision; instead, it targets the enemy’s skin. The 

AFRL developed the Active Denial System (ADS), a truck-mounted, 

electromagnetic radiation (microwave) device, to induce the sensation of burning skin to force an enemy to move away.52 In 2010 the 

ADS was deployed to Afghanistan. Unconfirmed reasons for the system’s lack of use there include “ineffectiveness in bad weather; lack of 

penetration of thick clothing; and inability to selectively target individuals in a crowd.”53 In any event, ADS development and refinement 

continue, specifically with respect to making the system smaller and 

portable.54

Along with a myriad of existing and potential nonlethal weapons 

and devices, directed-energy weapons in 2040 will provide options 

for CTO convoys and foot patrols in addition to conventional weapons and munitions. Options are of utmost importance when splitsecond, life-or-death decisions must be made regarding the use and 

escalation of force in accordance with applicable rules of engagement. 

While significant advances have occurred in recent years, work remains to enhance laser- and microwave-based DEWs to fully enable 

them to defeat potential countermeasures, ensure more precise target 

selection, and overcome environmental limitations. International 

and domestic concerns about usage of such weapons must be assuaged as well. Still, DEWs are a promising area for further advances 

in efforts to equip convoys and foot patrols with multiple ways to 

defend against hostile vehicles, crowds, and individuals.
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 347

Language Translation Devices

CTO personnel require real-time language translation to acquire 

threat information. Unarmed contract linguists provide this vital capability at great personal risk. However, a convoy supporting numerous CTO personnel conducting various duties typically contains one 

or two linguists able to facilitate communication with a limited number of individuals during an engagement visit to a locality. While 

some CTO personnel receive “just-in-time” or even formal language 

training, it is usually insufficient to enable receipt of complex descriptions of threats, individuals, relationships, geography, weapons, or 

other detailed information. Therefore, all CTO convoy personnel 

need the ability to communicate effectively with the local population, 

which will increase the pool of individuals contacted in efforts to gain 

vital threat and atmospherics information.

Several technologies aim to enable real-time translation and communication among individuals speaking different languages. One recent development is the ability to connect to language translation 

service providers, exemplified by the handheld Enabling Language 

Service Anywhere (ELSA) device. Designed primarily for use by first 

responders, ELSA connects via cellular signal to a company employing interpreters for over 180 languages.55 ELSA provides a possible 

model for military emulation whereby a pool of linguists is available 

on call for use in a tactical environment. Unfortunately, this model 

still depends on scarce linguist resources as well as effective communications links and does not offer as much potential as other technologies that seek to eliminate the need for a linguist altogether. 

Toward this end, the Defense Department and commercial technology firms seek to perfect speech-to-speech translation, providing 

the ability “to speak and have one’s words translated automatically 

into the other person’s language” on the spot.56

The Broad Operational Language Translation (BOLT) program is 

a Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) effort 

launched in 2011 to “create new techniques for automated translation and linguistic analysis.” The technology would enable English 

speakers to understand foreign languages in genres such as chat, 

messaging, and conversation and converse in speech and text with 

non-English speakers.57 Likewise, one software application of the US 

Army’s Machine Foreign Language Translation System (MFLTS) 

provides “two-way, real-time speech-to-speech translation.” An-
348 │ ALLEN

other application translates social media, electronic documents, and 

web pages. The MFLTS also plans to have applications allowing users 

to access over 65 language packs.58 Judging by the limited public information available on BOLTS, MFLTS, and other language processing technologies, it appears such programs are progressing but still 

not quite to the point of being able to realistically replace a linguist 

in the field.

Information technology giants Apple, Google, and Microsoft are 

also competing to develop an effective speech-to-speech capability. 

Each company is pursuing and promoting software or applications 

(apps) that translate spoken words from one language to another. 

Third-party apps for Apple devices, Google Translate, and Microsoft 

Bing Translator are each vying to provide the equivalent of the Star 

Trek “universal translator.”59 App-based solutions are appealing due 

to the ability to constantly refine translation capabilities, but a platform is still required to run the app in a field environment.

In 2040 CTO personnel will use language translation devices to 

more effectively communicate with local individuals. Significant 

gains in the field of speech-to-speech translation are currently taking 

place and bode well for future situations where an entire CTO team 

can engage, and be engaged by, individuals as necessary during OTW 

missions to more quickly gain potential threat information to prevent 

attacks on a deployed base.

Potential limiting factors for speech-to-speech translation devices 

include excessive background noise and multiple conversations in 

close proximity to the actual conversation requiring translation.60

These issues will prompt constant technological refinement but will 

likely not pose insurmountable barriers to effective translation device 

usage. Additionally, translation devices will only translate language, 

not the nonverbal cultural cues that can be equally, if not more, important to effective tactical communication. Thus, linguists/cultural 

advisors will remain integral members of the future CTO team not 

only to provide the most effective means to accurately translate between languages and cultures but also to resolve discrepancies between 

language translation device outputs and nonverbal cues observed by 

the device user.
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 349

Recommendations for ESO Procurements

The USAF must pursue specific base security and CTO capabilities 

to counter and defeat future threats to deployed bases. To do so, it 

must identify technological trends, harness progress, and exploit opportunities to enable specific capabilities. Regardless of executive 

agency authority or designation as lead on a specific program, the 

USAF must ensure visibility on, and input into, the development of 

technologies and capabilities that impact ESOs. Specifically, procurement decisions and planning must be geared toward acquiring technologies that enhance ESOs over the next 30 years.

The USAF must continually refine anticipated capabilities requirements for future ESOs to appropriately fund development and acquisition of enabling technologies. For base security, advances in 

counter-IDF, UGV, and robotic sentry technologies reflect a general 

trend toward “far greater use of autonomous systems in essentially all 

aspects of Air Force operations.”61 Laser-based counter-IDF systems 

will autonomously defeat precision IDF projectiles with increased 

accuracy and range, while minimizing collateral damage risks. A variety of autonomous and remotely operated UGVs carrying sensors 

and weaponry will enhance inside-the-wire protection and response 

capabilities. Posted at specific locations, nonlethal robotic sentries 

equipped with sensors and weaponry will autonomously detect and 

defeat violent insider threats. Overall, the USAF must pursue counterIDF systems, UGVs, and robotic sentries that add base security capabilities in 2040 while reducing manpower requirements, minimizing 

costs, and, most importantly, mitigating risk to deployed personnel 

and assets.

UGV, directed-energy, and speech-to-speech translation technology 

trends must be fully exploited to enhance and protect CTOs in 2040. 

UGVs of sufficient survivability and load capacity will augment 

manned convoys and thereby enhance OTW travel and sustainment 

by carrying sensors and weaponry necessary for convoy security. As 

is the case for UGV employment for base security, UGV use for CTO 

convoys provides more capabilities with less risk to Airmen. Directedenergy weapons will improve vehicle convoy and foot patrol protection by adding effective use-of-force options. Whether based on laser, 

microwave, or future directed-energy technology, these weapons 

must defeat countermeasures, offer precision targeting, and overcome environmental limitations. Speech-to-speech language transla-
350 │ ALLEN

tion devices will enable more communications by CTO personnel 

with more local individuals to swiftly obtain perishable, vital threat 

information.

Conclusion

State-of-the-art technologies must be leveraged and enhanced to 

meet specific ESO capabilities requirements anticipated in 2040. This 

area of research can revolutionize future USAF expeditionary capabilities; it should prompt questions and debate and spur further exploration. USAF leaders must think holistically about ESOs. Although individual capabilities and technologies may seem relatively 

insignificant by themselves, they provide the opportunity for a truly 

integrated base defense framework to better secure personnel, aircraft, and equipment supporting USAF force projection in the future.

The employment of USAF airpower is critical to achieving American military objectives in support of national security strategy. Continually protecting deployed USAF resources—man and machine—

is a fundamental prerequisite to successful airpower employment. As 

has been the case in recent decades, technological advances will likely 

continue to reduce risk to deployed personnel and equipment, which 

will have the ironic effect of encouraging politicians to put personnel 

in harm’s way with more frequency in pursuit of national interests.62

The USAF must be prepared to defend its people, aircraft, and other 

resources on the ground for future expeditionary operations deemed 

appropriate by civilian leadership.

Notes

1. Holmes et al., “New Ground War,” 41. The term expeditionary security operations is purposely borrowed from this influential article to highlight the combined 

proactive efforts of security force, intelligence, and special investigations personnel to 

defend and secure a deployed base. Integrated defense is a broader term for the security 

force–led submission of force protection at all USAF installations. See LeMay Center, 

“Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” s.v. “The Force Protection Community,” 36–37.

2. Due to the multitude of areas and issues that could be explored within ESOs, 

this research is based on the following key assumptions to focus the scope and intent 

of the discussion:

• The USAF will deploy forces in the future to conduct operations in an expeditionary environment requiring basing.
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 351

• The USAF will not be able to solely project airpower through manned or unmanned global standoff weapons platforms; locally based air platforms will 

still be required to conduct various missions.

• A2/AD capabilities will not prevent the USAF from forward basing in all potential hot spots around the world.

• The USAF will deploy forces to bases of varying sizes—from large hub bases 

to smaller forward operating bases—in permissive, uncertain, or hostile environments in varied climates and terrains with a range of indigenous infrastructure and security capabilities.

• USAF security forces will be responsible for security at expeditionary bases, 

despite shifts in responsibility at different points in time between USAF security forces and US Army units.

The AFOSI will be responsible for CTOs at USAF expeditionary bases. In uncertain 

or hostile environments, it will conduct OTW operations using overt tactical vehicles 

for convoys to and from mission locations in the vicinity of the base.

3. LeMay Center, “Air Force Glossary,” s.v. “force protection.”

4. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” s.v. “The Force Protection 

Community,” 36.

5. Ibid., s.v. “Risk Management Process,” 29–30.

6. Explanation is in order as to use of the term expeditionary security operations. 

Integrated defense and FPI are excellent starting points as doctrinal terms, but they 

do not specifically convey the proactive, operational nature of combined security 

forces, AFOSI, and intelligence efforts to defend and secure a deployed base. Base 

security and CTOs will be used to differentiate between the distinct, but mutually 

supporting, security force and AFOSI roles in ESOs to facilitate discussion of capabilities and technologies to support both roles in the future.

7. Holmes et al., “New Ground War,” 42–43.

8. Ibid., 44.

9. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” s.v. “Sources of Intelligence 

and Counterintelligence,” 30.

10. LeMay Center, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” s.v. “Counterintelligence Support to Force Protection,” 35.

11. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 31, 33–34; and Schwartz, “Airpower in Counterinsurgency,” 133.

12. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 34; and Miner, “Addressing a Gap,” 11.

13. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 31, 37–38.

14. I selected specific CTO capabilities and noted the threats these capabilities 

intend to address based on my experiences supporting and leading CTO missions in 

Iraq and Afghanistan in 2010 and 2012–13, respectively, and conversations with 

other agents with whom I had the honor to serve OTW.

15. Any number of capabilities related to base security and CTOs could be selected for future projections. Though certainly valuable for further research, many 

potential capabilities are not addressed here. These areas include ballistic missile defense; defense against land attack missiles; defense against conventional enemy air 

assets; individual protective equipment, gear, and weapons necessary for self-defense; 
352 │ ALLEN

access controls and screening; cyberspace defense; and information technology 

protection.

16. Office of the US Air Force Chief Scientist, Technology Horizons, xx.

17. Defense Industry Daily, “Laser Phalanx?”

18. Singer, Wired for War, 38.

19. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 33–34; and Schwartz, “Airpower in 

Counterinsurgency,” 133.

20. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 34.

21. Rheinmetall Defence, “Oerlikon Skyshield”; and Foss, “Mantis Maximises 

Protection.”

22. Rheinmetall Defence, “Oerlikon Skyshield.”

23. Rafael Advanced Defense Systems, “Iron Dome.” In addition to its C-RAM 

capability, the Iron Dome also defends against manned and unmanned aircraft 

threats. The latter poses a more recent threat likely to grow in sophistication in coming years, offering another interesting avenue for additional research. See Caudill 

and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 34–35.

24. Londoño, “System Represents Breakthrough”; and Rizzo, “U.S. Continues 

Support.”

25. Defense Industry Daily, “Laser Phalanx?”; and Singer, Wired for War, 85.

26. Defense Industry Daily, “Laser Phalanx?”

27. Broad, “Shelved Laser as a Defense.”

28. Week staff, “Army’s Eight-Wheeled Laser Truck”; and Boeing, “Completes 

System Integration.”

29. Office of the US Air Force Chief Scientist, Technology Horizons, 92.

30. Rogers, “Robot Patrol.”

31. “Guardium-LS UGV,” Army Recognition.

32. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 40.

33. Singer, Wired for War, 39.

34. Ibid.

35. Awesome-o, “Samsung Techwin’s SGR-A1.”

36. Ibid.

37. Cleary, “South Korean ‘Super Gun.’ ”

38. Ibid.; and Blain, “South Korea’s Autonomous Robot.”

39. Shachtman, “Israeli ‘Auto Kill Zone.’ ”

40. Ibid.

41. Caudill and Jacobson, “Nowhere to Hide,” 38.

42. “Guardium-LS UGV,” Army Recognition.

43. Rogers, “Robot Patrol.”

44. National Robotics Engineering Center, Carnegie Mellon University, 

“Crusher”; Watzman and Spice, “Unmanned Ground Combat Vehicles”; DARPA, 

“Unmanned Ground Combat Vehicle Unveiled”; and Singer, Wired for War, 68. The 

US Army’s DARPA funded the Crusher as part of the Future Combat Systems

program.

45. National Robotics Engineering Center, Carnegie Mellon University, 

“Crusher.”
US AIR FORCE EXPEDITIONARY SECURITY OPERATIONS 2040 │ 353

46. See Office of the US Air Force Chief Scientist, Technology Horizons, 30, which 

claims that “DE [directed-energy] systems will be among the key ‘game changing’ 

technology-enabled capabilities that enter service during this time frame [2010–30].”

47. DOD, Non-Lethal Weapons, 2.

48. Ibid.

49. Technology and Science, “(PHASR) Rifle.”

50. Blaylock, “New Technology ‘Dazzles’ Aggressors.”

51. Technology and Science, “(PHASR) Rifle.”

52. Hornig, “Evolution of Nonlethal Weaponry”; and Singer, Wired for War, 84.

53. Hornig, “Evolution of Nonlethal Weaponry.”

54. Ibid.; and “Murphy’s Law,” StrategyPage.

55. Wilson, “Translation, Please.”

56. Arora, Arora, and Roy, “Speech to Speech Translation,” 207.

57. Onyshkevych, “Broad Operational Language Translation.”

58. Program Executive Office, Intelligence Electronic Warfare and Sensors, 

“Army Language Translation System.”

59. Microsoft blog editor, “How Technology Can Bridge.”

60. Weiss and Schlenoff, “Performance Assessments,” 72.

61. Office of the US Air Force Chief Scientist, Technology Horizons, xx.

62. Singer, Wired for War, 315–25.

Afterword

Defending air bases has always been challenging because the enemy 

has the advantage. Air bases are large, stationary, and full of highvalue targets vulnerable to attack. Attacks on air bases can be devastating too; one has only to imagine the impact of a well-placed mortar or rocket on a loaded C-17, fuel farm, or dining facility. This type 

of attack would not only have an operational impact, it would also 

provide an insurgent enemy with a valuable media win. Despite these 

realities, a comprehensive air base defense strategy has historically 

been nearly impossible to develop and sustain. 

A lasting air base defense strategy has been difficult to sustain partly 

because the threat hasn’t been seen as imminent. Throughout the Cold 

War, air bases were positioned well back from the front lines. Even 

during DESERT STORM expeditionary air bases were “safely” tucked 

away in the rear area. A base defense strategy has also been difficult to 

sustain because Security Forces, as the base defense advocates, have 

never had the “functional influence” to keep them on the strategic 

map. The fact that base defense is viewed as a support function rather 

than a combat capability further complicates the argument. Security 

Forces themselves have sometimes made things worse by internally 

disagreeing on many aspects of air base defense; responsibility, organization, and command and control. Individual Major Commands 

(MAJCOMs) exacerbated this situation by pursuing MAJCOMunique base defense strategies, tactics, techniques, and procedures 

(TTP) and even nonstandard equipment. These factors have made a 

sustained, coherent approach to base defense almost impossible. 

Without an imminent threat and a focused advocacy, the Air Force 

allowed the role of defending air bases to be assigned to the Army.1

Throughout the 1980s and ’90s Security Police/Security Forces continued to train and exercise Air Base Defense skills but remained mostly 

confined to guarding the base perimeter, flight lines, and tent cities. 

The terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001 and subsequent invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq changed everything. Expeditionary air bases were 

no longer tucked away safely in the rear area; they were established in 

the middle of the combat zone. The threat suddenly became more 

imminent as insurgents attacked air bases with impunity and Airmen 

were injured or killed. Although Joint Service Agreement #8 still gave 

the Army responsibility for guarding air bases “outside the wire” 

(OTW), joint doctrine had been revised to give the responsibility for 
356 │ SPACY

base defense to base commanders. This change caused confusion, but 

it was a moot argument. Regardless of written agreements, the Army 

was too busy fighting in the field to tie maneuver units down guarding static locations. As the attacks on air bases continued during OIF/

OEF, Air Force leaders were confronted with the reality that Airmen 

would have to defend themselves. The conditions were ripe for a revolution in air base defense, but the revolution never came. 

The history of air base defense is both exciting and frustrating. 

This book is a great example of the exciting part; Operation DESERT 

SAFESIDE/Task Force 1041, Combined Joint Task Force 455 at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan; exploration of potential base seizure 

missions, advances in the use of intelligence, and the challenge of 

fighting in the anti-access/area-denial (A2/AD) environment. These 

chapters capture the courage, innovation, and initiative that have 

kept Airmen safe since Vietnam. They also describe a future where 

the full capabilities of airpower, and Airmen, can be harnessed and 

maximized in the joint fight. This is all very exciting!

But the history of air base defense is also frustrating. The frustrating part of the story has been the inability to turn this exciting progress into permanent change. Joint doctrine, Air Force Instructions, 

pamphlets, and enabling concepts have all evolved and now provide 

ample guidance for the Air Force to stake a definitive claim on the air 

base defense mission; inside and especially outside the wire. Security 

Forces, as the base defense functional owner, should be the driving 

force behind this effort. Progress, however, remains stagnated. A report on security force readiness observes that “the history of the SF 

career field is characterized by periods of conflict, each followed by a 

brief phase of advocating change based on freshly (re)learned experience, followed in turn by inertia; there appear to be systemic barriers 

to evolution within the career field.”2

 This grim statement captures 

much of the challenge.

The inability to effect permanent change is frustrating because the 

threat to air bases is perhaps more imminent than ever. In fact things 

are likely to get even more complicated—and deadly—in the future 

A2/AD environment as state-level actors like Russia thinly mask regular Army forces as “separatists” and fight using insurgent-style tactics out of uniform. New strategies to deal with future conflicts in the 

A2/AD environment also promise to keep air bases in the middle of 

the combat zone. Both the European and Pacific theaters are experimenting with new force packages, deployed using modernized ver-
AFTERWORD │ 357

sions of the forward arming and refueling point (FARP) operations 

concept. These force packages will stage far forward and be “untethered” from main operating bases: light, lean, and lethal.3

 They will be 

capable of operating semi-autonomously and count on speed and 

agility to project airpower well inside enemy threat rings. Air base 

defense in this future will count on fewer Airmen, better trained in 

more combat skills.4

 Perhaps it is time for a fresh look. Perhaps we 

need to stop thinking of air bases as vulnerable, hard-to-defend static 

locations and start treating them as agile, lethal weapons systems. 

One of the first areas of focus should be combat skills for all Airmen. Historically, Airmen received weapons training only and never 

learned the “shoot, move, communicate” skills necessary to use that 

weapon in combat.5

 Since the beginning of OIF the Air Force has 

made significant progress in combat skills training for all Airmen. 

These skills give Airmen the ability to operate confidently in a wide 

variety of missions throughout the combat zone. This not only contributes to the joint fight, it helps build a warfighter ethos among Airmen and it is critical to base defense. 

The future of ground combat skills training looked promising in 

2006 when a Doctrinal Change Recommendation signed by thenCSAF T. Michael Mosley said “these skills must be taught in all AF 

accession sources and refined throughout initial skills and continuation/ancillary training, as well as professional military education.6

Additionally, Air Force publications also state that base defense is a 

“fundamental battle competency for all Airmen, whether garrison or 

deployed” and that “every Airman is a sensor.”7

 However, today, faced 

with new fiscal challenges, the AF is in danger of returning to the pre9/11 approach of addressing combat skills training through home 

station training and CBT, with most critical skills taught “just in 

time.” If we want every Airman to have a role and stake in defending 

Air Bases, routine combat skills training should be institutionalized 

and exercised regularly.

Next, these combat trained Airmen could be used deliberately as 

force multipliers in base defense plans. Just as all Sailors have a battle 

station on a ship they man in times of increased threat, Airmen 

could have “battle stations” on a base they occupy as part of the base 

defense.8

 This was another important recommendation in the 2006 

DCR General Mosley signed to “develop an AF ‘fight the base’ concept where all Airmen have an active role in defending the installation. This recommendation takes the individual and collective 
358 │ SPACY

ground combat skills and forms them into an operational capability 

to defend the installation by surging to ‘battle stations.’ ”9

 Key is the 

recognition that Airmen trained in combat skills create an operational capability. 

The “fight the base” concept was codified in a draft Air Force Instruction and used locally with great success in 2007 and 2008 but 

never expanded as envisioned in the DCR. Today, rather than contributing to base defense as force multipliers, the majority of Airmen 

“shelter-in-place” during emergencies. “Fight the Base” should be revived and expanded. 

Finally, the most significant change involves the AF’s ground combat forces. All indicators point to a future that will require the Air 

Force to field a ground force capable of performing at the high end of 

combat in the A2/AD environment. As described above, part of this 

force could comprise more qualified Airmen from all specialties performing at their battle stations as part of a “fight the base” plan. This 

new base defense capability will free up Security Forces manpower to 

form the core of a professional Ground Combat Force (GCF), designed to fight across the spectrum of combat operations. This would 

be a standing force modeled loosely on the Base Defense Group 

(BDG) discussed in the BDG Enabling Concept, but it would be 

larger and more capable.10 The GCF could be built by combining all 

Air Force ground combat specialties into one coherent capability. 

Security Forces (SF) perform at the conventional end of the spectrum in their light infantry role focused on base defense, while Combat Control Teams (CCT) represent the special operations end of the 

spectrum. Other specialties that have been created and/or matured 

include Combat Rescue, Tactical Air Control Party (TACP), Special 

Operations Weather Teams (SOWT), and the Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) cadre. These “Ground Combat Airmen” 

represent the beret-wearing forces within the Air Force, yet while 

they share common core skills, they are aligned under different Air 

Force functions and trained/resourced/ managed within separate 

specialty-focused stovepipes.11 There are more optimal ways to use 

these capabilities. 

A new GCF could not only provide the core of a force capable of 

defending air bases in future combat environments, it could be 

treated as an operational capability and give joint force commanders 

more options. In addition to defending air bases, the GCF would continue to provide the Special Operations community the capabilities 
AFTERWORD │ 359

they require, while also offering an increased variety of complete, 

standardized/tailorable packages for Combatant Commands. These 

packages would evolve single-role mission “platforms” into multirole capabilities to create force presentation options not currently 

available.12 GCF teams could routinely build synergy in ground combat situations where they work together (e.g., TACPs controlling 

close air support for ABD or SF providing security for CCTs), then 

project combat power throughout the Base Security Zone or even 

into an expanded Area of Responsibility (AOR) to help joint forces 

defeat enemy threats. The AF does not need its own infantry, but it 

could use existing manpower more effectively by creating a more capable cross-functional GCF able to fight across the spectrum of combat operations.

Yes, defending air bases has always been challenging, but regardless of the status of doctrine or the determination of the enemy, Airmen have always found a way to “make the mission happen.” Where 

the enemy has been successful, Airmen have used initiative to mitigate the effects. This has created a false sense of security. The lack of 

mission failure is partly why air base defense, inside and outside the 

wire, remains a subject of debate instead of an Air Force–owned core 

competency. There are no quick fixes. However, by institutionalizing 

combat skills training for all Airmen, deliberately including them in 

the base defense mission, and creating a capable GCF, we can lay a 

solid platform on which to build a lasting capability. With this capability we can design doctrine and missions that defend air bases better and contribute more to the joint fight. This will take focus and 

persistence, but if we want to end the cycle of learning and relearning 

base defense lessons; if we hope to be successful defending Air Bases 

in an age of insurgency; then we need to design a comprehensive base 

defense strategy and commit the resources necessary to sustain it.

BRADLEY D. SPACY

Major General, USAF 

Notes

1. Davis, 31 Initiatives, 125.

2. Powell et al., Study into the Posture (OTE) and Readiness of Security Forces.
360 │ SPACY

3. Raley, “Untethered Operations.”

4. Holmes et al., “Air Force’s New Ground War,” 51.

5. Ibid. 

6. Moseley, “Change Recommendation (DCR) for Integrated Defense.” 

7. Air Force Policy Directive 31-1, Integrated Defense, 2; and Curtis E. LeMay 

Center for Doctrine Development and Education, “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 5.

8. Holmes et al., “Air Force’s New Ground War,” 51.

9. Moseley, memorandum, subject: Change Recommendation (DCR) for Integrated Defense.

10. Schwartz, Expeditionary Airbase Defense.

11. Editor’s note: The author produced a Ground Combat Airmen (GCA) White 

Paper on 21 April 2014, which outlines some of the ideas and concepts contained in 

this afterward. This paper has been widely circulated amongst senior Air Force 

leaders.

12. Ibid.
Abbreviations

AADC area air defense commander

ABD air base defense

ABGD air base ground defense

ABN DIV airborne division

ABO air base operability

ACC Air Combat Command

ACS agile combat support

ACSC Air Command and Staff College

ADS Active Denial System

AEF air and space expeditionary force

AEFC USAF Air and Space Expeditionary Force 

 Center

AEG air expeditionary group 

AEW air expeditionary wing

AFDD Air Force doctrine document

AFHO Air Force History Office

AFHRA US Air Force Historical Research Agency

AFI Air Force instruction

AFMC Air Force Materiel Command

AFOSI Air Force Office of Special Investigations

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSC Air Force specialty code

AFSOC Air Force Special Operations Command

AFTTP Air Force tactics, techniques, and procedures

AIF anti-Iraqi forces

ALB AirLand Battle 

ALCM air-launched cruise missile

ALO air liaison officer

AMC Air Mobility Command

AMLO air mobility liaison officers

AMOG air mobility operations group
362 │ ABBREVIATIONS

AMWC Air Mobility Warfare Center

ANA Afghan National Army

ANG Air National Guard

AO area of operations

AOC air and space operations center

AOR area of responsibility

ARVN Army of the Republic of Vietnam

ASB AirSea Battle

ASP Area Source Program

AT assessment team

ATC air traffic control

ATO air tasking order

A2/AD antiaccess/area denial

BCT brigade combat team

BDE brigade

BDG base defense group

BDS base defense squadron

BIA behavioral influences analysis

BIAP Baghdad International Airport

BLS Camp Bastion, Leatherneck, and Shorabak

BOLO “be on the lookout”

BOS-I base operating support integrator

BPC Building Partnership Capacity

BSO battlespace owner

BSZ base security zone

CANLS contingency airfield night lighting system

CAOC combined air operations center

CAS close air support

CASF casualty airlift staging facility

CCDE centralized control and decentralized execution

CCT combat control team
ABBREVIATIONS │ 363

CFACC combined force air component commander

CFL core function lead

CI counterintelligence

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

C-IDF counter–indirect fire

CJCS chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

CJTF combined joint task force

COA course of action

COCOM combatant command

COIN counterinsurgency

CONOPS concept of operations

CONUS continental United States

COSCOM Corps Support Command

C-RAM counter-rocket, artillery, and mortar

CRG contingency response group

CRW contingency response wing

CSAF chief of staff of the Air Force

CSG combat support group

CTO counterthreat operations

C2 command and control

CuOps current operations

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DCA defensive counterair

DCR DOTMLPF change recommendation

DCS Defense Clandestine Service

DEPORD deployment order

DHHB Division Headquarters and Headquarters 

 Battalion

DIA Defense Intelligence Agency

DIRMOBFOR director of mobility forces

DMZ demilitarized zone

DOD Department of Defense
364 │ ABBREVIATIONS

DOTMLPF doctrine, organization, training, materiel, 

 leadership and education, personnel, and 

 facilities

DRA Democratic Republic of Afghanistan

EBDG expeditionary base defense group

ECP entry control point

EDet expeditionary detachment

ELSA Enabling Language Service Anywhere

EMSG expeditionary mission support group

EMTF expeditionary mobility task force

EOD explosive ordnance disposal

EOG expeditionary operations group

EOSS expeditionary operations support squadron

ESFG expeditionary security forces group

ESFS expeditionary security forces squadron

ESO expeditionary security operation

EXORD execute order

FA field artillery

FARP forward arming and refueling point

FAST fly-away security team

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation

FEBA forward edge of the battle area

FET female engagement team

FID foreign internal defense

FM field manual

FMC fully mission capable

FMV full-motion video

FOB forward operating base

FOL forward operating location

FP force protection

FPD force protection detachment
ABBREVIATIONS │ 365

FPI force protection intelligence

FuOps future operations

GAMSS Global Air Mobility Support System

GAO United States Government Accountability Office

GCC geographic combatant commander

GCF ground combat force

GIS geospatial information system

GLCM ground-launched cruise missile

GM CONOPS global mobility concept of operations

GRG gridded reference graphics

GSTF global strike task force

HAF Headquarters Air Force

HAS hardened aircraft shelter

HEL TD High Energy Laser Technology Demonstrator

HMMWV high-mobility multipurpose wheeled vehicles

HQ headquarters

HUMINT human intelligence

HVT high-value target

IA Iraqi Army

IAF Iraqi Air Force

1CAV 1st Calvary Division

1ID 1st Infantry Division

ID integrated defense

IDF indirect fire

IDRMP Integrated Defense Risk Management Process

IED improvised explosive device

IIR intelligence information report

IMINT imagery intelligence

IPB intelligence preparation of the battlespace

ISAF International Security Assistance Force
366 │ ABBREVIATIONS

ISF Iraqi security forces

ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria

ISR intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance

ISRD Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance 

 Division

IW irregular warfare

JAM-GC Joint Concept for Access and Maneuver in the

 Global Commons

JBB Joint Base Balad

JBMDL Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst

JDOC joint defense operations center

JEOC joint emergency operations center

JFACC joint force air component commander

JFC joint force commander

JISE joint intelligence support element

JOAC Joint Operational Access Concept

JP joint publication

JRTC Joint Readiness Training Center

JSA joint service agreement

JSTARS Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System

JTAC joint tactical air controller

J-3 Joint Staff director of operations

LNO liaison officer

LPW Large Package Week

LSA logistics support area

LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

LZ landing zone

MAF mobility air forces

MAGTF Marine air-ground task force

MAJCOM major command
ABBREVIATIONS │ 367

MANPADS man-portable air-defense system

MASINT measurement and signature intelligence

MAW (FWD) Marine aircraft wing forward

MCOO modified combined obstacle overlay

MDARS Mobile Detection Assessment Response

 System

MFLTS Machine Foreign Language Translation 

 System

MMLS mobile microwave landing system

MOB main operating base

MOU memorandum of understanding

MP military police

MRD motorized rifle division

MTTPS multiservice tactics, techniques, and 

 procedures

MWD military working dog

NAF numbered air force

NAI named area of interest

NASIC National Air and Space Intelligence Center

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NCO noncommissioned officer

NGA National Geospatial Agency

NGB National Guard Bureau

NREC National Robotics Engineering Center 

NVG night vision goggles

ODS Operation Desert Safeside

OEF Operation Enduring Freedom

OIF Operation Iraqi Freedom

OND Operational New Dawn

OPCON operational 

OTW outside the wire
368 │ ABBREVIATIONS

PACAF Pacific Air Forces

PGM precision-guided munition

PHASR Personal Halting and Stimulation Response

 Rifle 

PIR priority intelligence requirement

PLA People’s Liberation Army

POI point of impact

POO point of origin

Prime BEEF prime base engineer emergency force

PUC persons under control

QRF quick reaction force

RAF Royal Air Force

RBD residual base defense

RC regional command

REAP Rapid Elevated Aerostat Platform 

RED HORSE rapid engineer deployable heavy operational 

 repair squadron engineer

RFF request for forces

RNAF Republic of Vietnam Air Force

ROK Republic of Korea

RPA remotely piloted aircraft

RPG rocket-propelled grenade

RPV remotely piloted vehicle

RVN Republic of Vietnam

RVNAF Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces

SAM surface-to-air missile

SAS Special Air Service

SEAD suppression of enemy air defenses

SecDef secretary of defense

SF security force(s)

SFG security forces group
ABBREVIATIONS │ 369

SFS security forces squadron

SIGINT signals intelligence

SMEE subject matter expert exchange

SOF special operations forces

SP security police 

SPP State Partnership Program

ST special tactics

STS special tactics squadron

STT special tactics team

TACC Tanker Airlift Control Center

TACON tactical control

TACP tactical air control party

TALCE tanker airlift control element

TAOR tactical area of responsibility

TASS tactical automated security system

TCN third-country national

TDY temporary duty

TF task force

THAAD Terminal High Altitude Area Defense

THEL tactical high-energy laser

THOR Theater History of Operations Report

TOC tactical operations center

TSE tactical security element

TST time-sensitive targeting

TTP tactics, techniques, and procedures

UAHMMWV up-armored high-mobility multipurpose 

 wheeled vehicle

UGV unmanned ground vehicle

USA United States Army

USAAF United States Army Air Forces

USAFCENT United States Air Forces Central Command
370 │ ABBREVIATIONS

USAFE United States Air Forces in Europe

USCENTAF United States Air Forces Central Command

USCENTCOM United States Central Command

USEUCOM United States European Command

USF-I United States Forces–Iraq

USMC United States Marine Corps

USPACOM United States Pacific Command 

USTRANSCOM United States Transportation Command

UTC unit type code

VNAF Vietnamese Air Force

WPTO Western Pacific Theater of Operations
Bibliography

Adderley, Michael E. “Can’t Get There from Here: Overcoming the 

Anti-Access Threat in 2035.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: 

Air War College, 2012. www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1018613

.pdf.

Adkin, Mark. Urgent Fury: The Battle for Grenada. Lexington, MA: 

Lexington Books, 1989.

Agreement between the United States of America and the Republic of 

Iraq on the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and the 

Organization of Their Activities during Their Temporary Presence in Iraq, 17 November 2008. http://www.globalsecurity.org

/military/library/policy/dod/iraq-sofa.htm.

Air Combat Command. Securing the High Ground: Air Combat Command Strategic Plan 2014. Langley AFB, VA: Air Combat Command, Department of the Air Force, 2014. https://www.global

security.org/military/library/policy/usaf/acc-strategy-2015_afd

-150810-026.pdf.

Air Force Instruction 10-209. Red Horse Program, 28 August 2017. 

http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a4/publication/afi10-209/afi10-209.pdf.

Air Force Instruction 10-403. Deployment Planning and Execution, 

20 September 2012. http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production

/1/af_a4/publication/afi10-403/afi10-403.pdf.

Air Force Instruction 13-217. Space, Missile, Command, and Control: 

Drop Zone and Landing Zone Operations, 10 May 2007. http://

static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a3_5/publication

/afi13-217/afi13-217.pdf.

Air Force Mission Directive 4. Air Force Materiel Command (AFMC), 

13 July 2017. http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_

a4/publication/afmd4/afmd4.pdf.

Air Force Office of Special Investigations. The Air Force Office of Special Investigations 1948–2000. Andrews AFB, MD: Air Force Office of Special Investigations, 2008.

Air Force Policy Directive 10-25. Air Force Emergency Management 

Program, 28 April 2014. http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/produc

tion/1/af_a4_7/publication/afpd10-25/afpd10-25.pdf.
372 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Air Force Policy Directive 31-1. Integrated Defense, 21 June 2018. 

http://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_a4/publica

tion/afpd31-1/afpd31-1.pdf.

Air Force Research Institute. Theater History of Operations Reports 

(THOR). Accessed 20 November 2017. http://www.au.af.mil/au

/afri/thor/report.asp.

Air Force Tactics, Techniques and Procedures 3-10.3. Integrated Defense Counterthreat Operations (CTO), 25 August 2015. http://

static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/saf_ig/publication

/afttp3-10.3/afttp3-10.3.pdf.

Air Mobility Command. “Phoenix Raven.” USAF Fact Sheet, 29 December 2011. http://www.amc.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Dis

play/Article/144021/phoenix-raven/.

Air Staff/XOO. “The Transition from Airfield Seizure to Airfield 

Opening Forces.” White paper. Ver. 1.0, 25 October 2002.

Air Staff/XOOS. “USAF Ground Warriors.” Air Force White Paper. 

Ver. 1.7, 11 September 2003.

Air-Sea Battle Office, Department of Defense. Air-Sea Battle: Service 

Collaboration to Address Anti-Access and Area Denial Challenges.

Washington, DC: Air-Sea Battle Office, Department of Defense, 

May 2013. http://archive.defense.gov/pubs/ASB-ConceptImple

mentation-Summary-May-2013.pdf.

“A Laser Phalanx?” Defense Industry Daily, 23 April 2009. http://

www.defenseindustrydaily.com/a-laser-phalanx-03783.

Allard, Kenneth. “Soviet Airborne Forces and Preemptive Power Projection.” Parameters 10, no. 4 (1980): 42–51.

Allardice, Brig Gen Bob, USAF, commander, 62nd Airlift Wing. 

Briefing. Air Command and Staff College, Maxwell AFB, AL, 

15 March 2004.

Amos, Gen James F., Commandant of the Marine Corps. Memorandum for record. Subject: Accountability Determination of U.S. 

Commanders for the 14–15 September 2012 Attack on the BLS 

Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan, 30 September 2013. 

https://www.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/142/Docs/CMC%20

Memo%20for%20the%20Record%20in%20Bastion%20Investi

gation.PDF.

Arana-Barradas, Louis A. “Bashur or Bust: Airmen Overcome Hardships to Open Airfield in Northern Iraq.” Airman 47, no. 7 (July 

2003): 28–35. Available at The Free Library. Accessed 10 July 2017. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 373

https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Bashur+or+bust%3a+airmen+

overcome+hardships+to+open+airfield+in...-a0105477563.

Arnold, Anthony. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Perspective. 

Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1985.

Arora, Karunesh, Sunita Arora, and Mukund Kumar Roy. “Speech to 

Speech Translation: A Communication Boon.” CSI Transactions 

on ICT 1, no. 3 (September 2013): 207–13. https://link.springer

.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs40012-013-0014-4.pdf.

 Aspaturian, Vernon V., Alexander Dallin, and Jiri Valenta. The Soviet 

Invasion of Afghanistan: Three Perspectives; Essays. Los Angeles: 

Center for International and Strategic Affairs, University of California, September 1980.

Awesome-o. “Samsung Techwin’s SGR-A1 Robot Sentry Video.” Machine Learning Agents, 14 November 2006. http://robotzeitgeist

.com/2006/11/samsung-techwins-sgr-a1-robot-sentry.html.

Bargery, Lt Col Chris, USAF, Task Force 1041 commander. Written 

Statement, 3 February 2016.

 Bauer, Cynthia, Air Mobility Command Public Affairs. “Commander 

Recounts Historic C-17 Airdrop into Iraq.” WIX Archives, 11 

April 2003. http://archive.warbirdinformationexchange.org/ar

chives/post24544.html.

———. “CSAF: The Time for Air Mobility Is Now.” US Air Force News, 

3 November 2003. http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid

/223/Article/138215/csaf-the-time-for-air-mobility-is-now.aspx.

Baumann, Robert F. “Compound War Case Study: The Soviets in Afghanistan.” In Compound Warfare: That Fatal Knot, edited by 

Thomas M. Huber, 285–306. Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army 

Command and General Staff College Press, 2002. Accessed 3 August 2016. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a481548.pdf.

Beckett, Ian F. W. Insurgency in Iraq: An Historical Perspective. Carlisle, 

PA: Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College, January 

2005. https://permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/ssi.armywarcol

lege.edu/pdffiles/PUB592.pdf.

Belmont, Larry M. “USAAF Airfields in the ETO [European Theater 

of Operations].” Skylighters: The Web Site of the 225th AAA 

Searchlight Battalion from Omaha Beach to V-E Day, 1942–1945. 

Accessed 20 March 2017. http://www.skylighters.org/history/air

fields/.

Bennendijk, Hans, Richard L. Kugler, Charles B. Shotwell, and Kori 

Schake, eds. Strategic Assessment 1999: Priorities for a Turbulent 
374 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

World. Washington, DC: Institute for National Strategic Studies, 

National Defense University, 1999. http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc

/awcgate/sa99/Key%20Findings.pdf.

Bennett, John T. “Analysis: Defense Clandestine Service Is Here to 

Stay.” Defense News, 12 February 2014.

Berger, Carl, ed. The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia, 1961–

1973: An Illustrated Account. Washington, DC: Office of Air 

Force History, 1984.

Bergeron, Lt Col Brian K. “Leveraging the National Guard’s State 

Partnership Program in the United States’ Rebalance toward 

Asia.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air War College, 14 

February 2013. www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/1018862.pdf.

Berman, Morton B., John Halliday, C. L. Batten, Richard J. Kaplan, Ed 

Phillips, W. E. Mooz, and T. F. Kirkwood. Integrating Basing, Support, and Air Vehicle Requirements: An Approach for Increasing 

the Effectiveness of Future Fighter Weapon Systems. Santa Monica, 

CA: RAND Corporation, August 1985. http://www.rand.org

/content/dam/rand/pubs/reports/2009/R3304.1.pdf.

Bigger, Col Brent D., commander, Mission Support Group, 332d Air 

Expeditionary Wing, during JBB transition. To MAJ Michael M. 

Wellock. E-mail, 12 February 2015.

Bingham, Price T. “Air Base Survivability: An Essential Element of 

Theater Air Power.” Air Force Journal of Logistics 11, no. 5 (Winter 1987): 2–5.

Bishop, Maj Gen Brian T., commander, Carl A. Spaatz Center for Officer Education. Discussion with Air Command and Staff College 

students, 12 November 2014.

Blain, Loz. “South Korea’s Autonomous Robot Gun Turrets: Deadly 

from Kilometers Away.” gizmag, 7 December 2010. http://www

.gizmag.com/korea-dodamm-super-aegis-autonomos-robot

-gun-turret/17198.

Blau, George E. The German Campaigns in the Balkans. Washington, 

DC: Office of Military History, Dept. of the Army, 1953. Facsimile Edition, 1984, 1986. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army. https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/balkan/in

tro.htm.

Blaylock, Eva D. “New Technology ‘Dazzles’ Aggressors.” US Air 

Force Research Laboratory Directed Energy Directorate Public 

Affairs, 2 November 2005. http://www.af.mil/News/Article-Dis

play/Article/132902/new-technology-dazzles-aggressors/.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 375

Boatright, Steven M. “Building Partnership Capacity by Leveraging 

the Air National Guard.” Research report AU/AFF/004/2009-04. 

Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Force Fellows, April 2009. http://www

.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a540362.pdf.

Bodansky, Yossef. “The Bear on the Chessboard; Soviet Gains in Afghanistan.” World Affairs 145, no. 3 (Winter 1982–83): 273–98. 

http://www.jstor.org/stable/20671951.

Boeing. “Boeing Completes System Integration of High Energy Laser 

Technology Demonstrator,” 27 June 2011. http://boeing.media

room.com/2011-06-27-Boeing-Completes-System-Integration

-of-High-Energy-Laser-Technology-Demonstrator.

———. “F-4 Phantoms Phabulous 40th,” May 1998. https://web.ar

chive.org/web/20110629034016/http://www.boeing.com/de

fense-space/military/f4/index.htm.

Bonham, Gordon C. “Airfield Seizure: The Modern ‘Key to the Country.’ ” Monograph. Fort Leavenworth, KS: United States Army 

Command and General Staff College, 1991. https://archive.org

/stream/DTIC_ADA233189/DTIC_ADA233189_djvu.txt.

Bowie, Christopher J. The Anti-Access Threat and Theater Air Bases. 

Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, 2002. http://csbaonline.org/research/publications/the

-anti-access-threat-and-theater-air-bases/publication.

Bowyer, Brad P. “Consolidating AMC’s Contingency Response Capabilities: A Delphi Study.” Master’s research paper, Air Force Institute of Technology, June 2015. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/full

text/u2/a619574.pdf.

Bradsher, Henry S. Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. Durham, NC: 

Duke University Press, June 1983. https://archive.org/details/af

ghanistansovie00henr.

Branum, SSgt Don. “Balad Airmen Look Back: 2008 in Review.” US 

Air Forces Central Command, 332d Air Expeditionary Wing, 

1 January 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090103142931 or

http://www.balad.afcent.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123129950.

———. “Many Airmen, One Mission: ‘Defend the Base.’ ” US Air Force 

News, 28 July 2008. http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay 

/tabid/223/Article/122866/many-airmen-one-mission-defend

-the-base.aspx.

Brennan, Richard R., Jr., Charles P. Ries, Larry Hanauer, Ben Connable, Terrence K. Kelly, Michael J. McNerney, Stephanie Young, 

Jason Campbell, and K. Scott McMahon. Ending the U.S. War in 
376 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Iraq: The Final Transition, Operational Maneuver, and Disestablishment of United States Forces–Iraq. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 

2013. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research

_reports/RR200/RR232/RAND_RR232.pdf.

———. Smooth Transitions? Lessons Learned from Transferring U.S. 

Military Responsibilities to Civilian Authorities in Iraq. Research 

brief. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2013. https://www.rand.org

/pubs/research_briefs/RB9749.html.

Briar, David P. “Sharpening the Eagle’s Talons: Assessing Advances in 

Air Base Defense Doctrine.” In Caudill, Defending Air Bases in an 

Age of Insurgency, vol. 1, 263–80.

Briefing. Subject: Operation Iraqi Freedom: Air Base Opening—Lessons Learned. Headquarters Air Mobility Command, Scott AFB, 

IL, 23 February 2004.

British Parliament, House of Commons Defence Committee. Afghanistan—Camp Bastion Attack. Vol. 1, Report, Together with 

Formal Minutes. Thirteenth Report of Session 2013–14. HC 830. 

London: The Stationery Office Limited, 16 April 2004. https://

publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/cmd

fence/830/830.pdf.

British Parliament, House of Commons Defence Committee. Afghanistan—Camp Bastion Attack. Vol. 2, Oral and Written Evidence. 

Thirteenth Report of Session 2013–14. HC 830. London: The Stationery Office Limited, 16 April 2004. https://publications.parlia

ment.uk/pa/cm201314/cmselect/cmdfence/830/830vw.pdf.

———. Afghanistan—Camp Bastion Attack: Government Response to 

the Committee’s Thirteenth Report of Session 2013–14. Second 

Special Report of Session 2014–15. HC 526. London: The Stationery Office Limited, 7 July 2014. https://publications.parliament

.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmdfence/526/526.pdf.

Broad, William J. “U.S. and Israel Shelved Laser as a Defense.” New 

York Times, 30 July 2006. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/30

/world/middleeast/30laser.html?_r=2&.

Brown, Maj Gen Charles Q., Jr., USAF; Brig Gen Bradley D. Spacy, 

USAF; and Capt Charles G. Glover III, USAF. “Untethered Operations: Rapid Mobility and Forward Basing Are Keys to Airpower’s Success in the Antiaccess/Area-Denial Environment.” 

Air and Space Power Journal 29, no. 3 (May–June 2015): 17–28. 

http://www.airuniversity.af.mil/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Vol

ume-29_Issue-3/SLP-Brown_Spacy_Glover.pdf.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 377

Buchanan, Lt Gen Walter E., III, USAF, retired, combined forces air 

component commander. Written Statement, 29 January 2016.

Bush, Cory W., 39th Air Base Wing Public Affairs. “435th AGOW 

[Air Ground Operations Wing] Deploys Team, Expands OIR 

[Operation Inherent Resolve] Mission.” Air Reserve Personnel 

Center, 7 October 2015. http://www.arpc.afrc.af.mil/News/Arti

cleDisplay/tabid/267/Article/622193/435th-agow-deploysteam-expands-oir-mission.aspx.

Bush, George Herbert Walker. “Address before a Joint Session of the 

Congress on the Persian Gulf Crisis and the Federal Budget Deficit,” 11 September 1990. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/doc

uments/address-before-joint-session-the-congress-the-persian

-gulf-crisis-and-the-federal-budget.

Bush, George W. The National Security Strategy of the United States of 

America. Washington, DC: White House, September 2002. https://

www.state.gov/documents/organization/63562.pdf.

Butenko, Victoria, Laura Smith-Spark, and Diana Magnay. “U.S. Official Says 1,000 Russian Troops Have Entered Ukraine.” CNN, 29 

August 2014. http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/28/world/europe

/ukraine-crisis/index.html.

Callander, Bruce D. “Controllers.” Air Force Magazine 86, no. 9 (September 2003): 52–56. http://www.airforcemag.com/Magazine

Archive/Pages/2003/September%202003/0903controller.aspx.

Cann, John P. Flight Plan Africa: Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974. Wolverhampton Military Studies no. 7. 

West Midlands, UK: Helion and Company Limited, 2015.

Carozza, John L. “The Unspoken Consequence of Communications 

Technology: Enhanced Micromanagement by Risk-Averse Commanders.” Research report. Newport, RI: Naval War College, 

2004. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a422827.pdf.

Caudill, Col Shannon W., and Maj Benjamin R. Jacobson. “Nowhere 

to Hide: The Growing Threat to Air Bases.” Air and Space Power 

Journal 27, no. 3 (May–June 2013): 30–46. https://www.airuni

versity.af.mil/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Volume-27_Issue

-3/F-Caudill_Jacobson.pdf.

Caudill, Shannon W., ed. Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency.

Vol. 1. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2014. http://www

.au.af.mil/au/aupress/digital/pdf/book/b_0133_caudill_defend

ing_air_bases.pdf.
378 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Caudill, Shannon W., and Ryan Bradley. Briefing. Subject: Drawdown 

Lessons from Vietnam: Integrating Host-Nation Forces into Base 

Defense. 532d Expeditionary Security Forces Squadron, Joint 

Base Balad, Iraq, June 2010.

Cenciotti, David. “Rapid Raptor Package: U.S. Air Force’s New Concept for Deploying Four F-22 Stealth Fighters in 24 Hours.” Aviationist, 29 September 2013. https://theaviationist.com/2013/09

/29/rapid-raptor-package.

Center for Army Lessons Learned. “Base Closure and Transfer Military Deception,” 18 July 2012 (USF-I FRAGO [fragmentary order] 0644 reference).

Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). U.S. Force Posture Strategy in the Asia Pacific Region: An Independent Assessment. Washington DC: CSIS, 27 June 2012. http://csis.org/files

/publication/120814_FINAL_PACOM_optimized.pdf.

Central Intelligence Agency. Interagency intelligence memorandum. 

Subject: Soviet Options in Afghanistan, 28 September 1979. Sanitized. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC

_0000278533.pdf.

———. The Soviet Operational Maneuver Group: An Intelligence Assessment. SOV 83-10034. Langley, VA: CIA, February 1983. CIA 

Electronic Reading Room, Special Collection: CIA Analysis of 

the Warsaw Pact Forces. Declassified and released to the public in 

1999. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/1983-02

-01.pdf.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction 3010.02E. Guidance 

for Implementing and Developing Joint Concepts, 17 August 2016. 

http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/concepts

/cjcsi_3010_02e.pdf?ver=2018-08-01-134826-593.

Christensen, Col Glen E., USAF, Task Force 1041 operations officer. 

Written Statement, 1 February 2016.

Christensen, Glen E. “Air Base Defense in the Twenty-First Century.” 

Monograph. Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced Military 

Studies, United States Army Command and General Staff College, 2007. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a470671.pdf.

———. “Battle Space Ownership Lessons Learned.” After action report. Bagram Airfield, Afghanistan, Combined Joint Task Force 

455, 2014.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 379

Christopherson, SSgt Todd. “Soldiers Fire First Precision-Guided 

Mortar in Afghanistan.” US Army website, 7 April 2011. http://

www.army.mil/article/54502/.

Churchill, Winston. The Gathering Storm. London: Cassell, 1948.

Cichowski, Brig Gen Kurt, 21 EMTF/CC; Brig Gen Richard Perraut, 

15 EMTF/CC; and Col Kip Self, HQ AMC/Deputy A3. Briefing. 

Subject: AMC’s Transformation: Expeditionary Mobility Task 

Force—The War Fighter’s New Mobility Spear. Headquarters Air 

Mobility Command, Scott AFB, IL, 2 February 2004.

Cirafici, Lt Col John L., USAF. Airhead Operations—Where AMC Delivers: The Linchpin of Rapid Force Projection. Maxwell AFB, AL: 

Air University Press, March 1995. https://media.defense.gov

/2017/Mar/31/2001725084/-1/-1/0/B_0060_CIRAFICI_AIR

HEAD_OPERATIONS.PDF.

Cleary, Tara. “South Korean ‘Super Gun’ Packs Hi-Tech Killing 

Power.” Video, 2:28. Reuters, 14 February 2011. http://www.re 

uters.com/video/2011/02/14/south-korean-super-gun-packs-hi

-tech-kil?videoId=187406842&videoChannel=2602.

Clements, Sean. “AMC Pushes Boundaries through Innovative Officer Development Programs.” Air Mobility Command News, 14 

June 2018. https://www.amc.af.mil/News/Features/Display/Arti

cle/1550267/amc-pushes-boundaries-through-innovative-offi

cer-development-programs/.

Cliff, Roger, John F. Fei, Jeff Hagan, Elizabeth Hague, Eric Heginbotham, and John Stillion. Shaking the Heavens and Splitting the 

Earth: Chinese Air Force Employment Concepts in the 21st Century. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2011. http://www

.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG915.html.

Clinton, Hillary. “America’s Pacific Century.” Foreign Policy, 11 October 2011. http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/americas-pacific

-century/.

Collins, Joseph J. The Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: A Study in the 

Use of Force in Soviet Foreign Policy. Lexington, MA: Lexington 

Books, 1986.

Cook, Lt Col Creighton, USAF. “USAF After Action Report for CSAF: 

C-17 Mission.” Charleston AFB, SC: 437th Airlift Wing, December 2003.

Correll, John T. The Air Force and the Cold War: A Pictorial History. The 

Air Force Association. Arlington, VA: Aerospace Education Foun-
380 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

dation, 2005. https://secure.afa.org/Mitchell/Reports/1205cw

_prem.pdf.

Corum, James S. “The German Campaign in Norway 1940 as a Joint 

Operation.” Journal of Strategic Studies 21, no. 4 (December 

1998): 50–77.

Corum, James S., and Wray R. Johnson. Airpower in Small Wars: 

Fighting Insurgents and Terrorists. Lawrence: University Press of 

Kansas, 2003.

Craven, Wesley F., and James L. Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in 

World War II. Vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.

Cullen, Lt Col Kevin, 455 ESFS commander. To Maj Raymond Fortner. E-mails, 19 January and 26 March 2015.

Curtis E. LeMay Center for Doctrine Development and Education. 

“Air Force Glossary,” 18 July 2017. http://www.doctrine.af.mil

/Portals/61/documents/Annex_Air-Force-Glossary/AF-GLOS

SARY.pdf?ver=2017-09-19-162111-897.

———. “Annex 3-2, Irregular Warfare,” 12 July 2016. https://www

.doctrine.af.mil/Doctrine-Annexes/Annex-3-2-Irregular-War

fare/.

———. “Annex 3-10, Force Protection,” 17 April 2017. https://www

.doctrine.af.mil/Doctrine-Annexes/Annex-3-10-Force-Protec

tion/.

———. “Annex 3-30, Command and Control,” 7 November 2014. 

https://www.doctrine.af.mil/Doctrine-Annexes/Annex

-3-30-Command-and-Control/.

———. Volume I, Basic Doctrine, 27 February 2015. https://www.doc

trine.af.mil/Portals/61/documents/Volume_1/Volume-1-Basic

-Doctrine.pdf.

Damato, Lt Col James P., USAFCENT/FP, and Kathi R. Jones, USAFCENT/HO (History Office). To Col Shannon Caudill. E-mails, 

20 April 2014.

Davis, Larry. Air War over Korea: A Pictorial Record. Carrollton, TX: 

Squadron/Signal Publications, 1982.

Davis, Lt Col Robert D., USAF. “Forward Arming and Refueling 

Points for Fighter Aircraft: Power Projection in an Antiaccess Environment.” Air and Space Power Journal 28, no. 5 (September–

October 2014): 5–28. http://www.airuniversity.af.mil/Portals/10

/ASPJ/journals/Volume-28_Issue-5/F-Davis.pdf.

Davis, Richard G. The 31 Initiatives: A Study in Air Force–Army Cooperation. Air Staff Historical Study. Washington, DC: Office of Air 
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 381

Force History, 1987. https://history.army.mil/html/books/106

/106-1/CMH_Pub_106-1.pdf.

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. “Crusher Unmanned 

Ground Combat Vehicle Unveiled.” defense-aerospace.com, 28 

April 2006. http://www.defense-aerospace.com/articles-view/re

lease/3/68564/darpa-unveils-unmanned-combat-vehicle

-%28may-2%29.html.

Dempsey, Gen Martin E. Mission Command White Paper. Washington, DC: Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 3 

April 2012. http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publica

tions/missioncommandwhitepaper2012.pdf.

Department of Defense. Joint Operational Access Concept (JOAC), 

ver. 1.0. Washington, DC: Office of the Chairman, Joint Chiefs of 

Staff, 17 January 2012. https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Docu

ments/pubs/JOAC_Jan%202012_Signed.pdf.

———. News Brief, 2 April 1999. Accessed May 2004. www.defense

link.mil/transcripts/1999/t04021999_t040299.html (site discontinued).

———. Non-Lethal Weapons (NLW) Reference Book. Quantico, VA: 

Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Directorate, 2012. http://www.dtic

.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a565971.pdf.

———. Quadrennial Defense Review Report. Washington, DC: Department of Defense, February 2010. http://www.comw.org/qdr

/fulltext/1002QDR2010.pdf.

———. Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century 

Defense. Washington, DC: Office of the Secretary of Defense, 

January 2012. archive.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guid

ance.pdf.

Department of Defense Instruction 5240.22. Counterintelligence Support to Force Protection, 24 September 2009. https://fas.org/irp

/doddir/dod/d5240_19.pdf.

Department of the Air Force. Expeditionary Airbase Defense: The 

Base Defense Group Enabling Concept. Staff report. Washington, 

DC: Department of the Air Force, 2009.

Department of the Army. Center of Military History Publication 

104-13 (Former Department of the Army Pamphlet 20-232). 

Airborne Operations: A German Appraisal. Historical Study. 

Washington, DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 1951. 

Accessed 12 September 2018. https://history.army.mil/books

/wwii/104-13/104-13.htm.
382 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Derry, Thomas. The Campaign in Norway. London: Her Majesty’s 

Stationery Office, 1952.

Detwiler, Ted, HQ AMC/A35O. Bullet Background Paper. Requirements for Joint Air Lodgment Multi-Service Tactics, Techniques 

and Procedures (MTTP), 1 April 2004.

Director of Central Intelligence. Warsaw Pact Nonnuclear Threat to 

NATO Airbases in Central Europe: National Intelligence Estimate. 

NIE 11/20-6-84. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 

25 October 1984. https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom

/docs/DOC_0000278545.pdf. Document is now declassified.

Dobrydney, SSgt David, 455th Air Expeditionary Wing Public Affairs. “Security Forces Group Assumes Task Force Role.” US Air 

Forces Central Command, 4 April 2013. http://www.afcent.af

.mil/News/Features/Display/tabid/139/Article/223362/security

-forces-group-assumes-task-force-role.aspx.

Doney, Michael. “Army Language Translation System Assists Soldiers’ Readiness,” 5 June 2017. https://www.army.mil/art

icle/188830/army_language_translation_system_assists_sol

diers_readiness.

Doty, Joe, and Chuck Doty. “Command Responsibility and Accountability.” Military Review (January–February 2012): 35–38. http://

usacac.army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/Mili

taryReview_20120229_art009.pdf.

Douhet, Giulio. The Command of the Air, ed. and trans. Dino Ferrari, 

Joseph P. Harahan, and Richard H. Kohn. Tuscaloosa: University 

of Alabama Press, 2009.

Dowd, Maureen. “After the War: White House Memo; War Introduces a Tougher Bush to Nation.” New York Times, 2 March 1991. 

http://www.nytimes.com/1991/03/02/world/after-the-war

-white-house-memo-war-introduces-a-tougher-bush-to-nation

.html.

Downing, Gen Wayne A., US Army, retired. Force Protection Assessment of USCENTCOM AOR and Khobar Towers, Report of the 

Downing Assessment Task Force. Washington, DC: Department 

of Defense, 30 August 1996. https://fas.org/irp/threat/downing

/report.pdf.

Dunigan, Molly. “A Lesson from Iraq War: How to Outsource War to 

Private Contractors.” Christian Science Monitor, 19 March 2013. 

https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2013
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 383

/0319/A-lesson-from-Iraq-war-How-to-outsource-war-to-pri

vate-contractors.

Durr, Oberst. “Die Luftnachrichten-Truppe im Norwegen Feldzug” 

[The Luftnachrichten (signals troops) in the Norwegian campaign]. Study for Luftwaffe Generalstab [general staff], Abt. 8 

(head of the Historical Division), 21 August 1944. In US National 

Archives and Records Administration (NARA), T-971. Von Rhoden Collection of Research Materials on the Role of the German 

Air Force in World War II, 1911–47, Roll 3. In Corum, “German 

Campaign in Norway,” 76.

Dzyubenko, Olga. “Coalition Seeks Use of Kyrgyz, Tajik Airbases.” 

Johnson’s Russia List. Accessed May 2004. http://www.russialist

.org/archives/5570-14.php.

Easton, Ian. Able Archers: Taiwan Defense Strategy in an Age of Precision Strike. Arlington, VA: Project 2049 Institute, September 

2014. https://project2049.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/06

/Easton_Able_Archers_Taiwan_Defense_Strategy.pdf.

Edelman, Eric, and Dov S. Zakheim. “Politico Column: Obama’s Defense ‘Pivot’ Masks Shrinkage.” Defense Drumbeat (blog), US 

Armed Services Committee, 23 July 2012. https://armedservices

.house.gov/news/drumbeat-blog-posts/politico-column

-obamas-defense-pivot-masks-shrinkage.

Elliott, David W. P., and Mai Elliott. Documents of an Elite Viet Cong 

Delta Unit: The Demolition Platoon of the 514th Battalion—Part 

Four: Political Indoctrination and Military Training. Santa Monica, 

CA: RAND Corporation. RM-5848-ISA/ARPA, May 1969. http://

www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_memo

randa/2008/RM5851.pdf.

Everstine, Brian. “ACC [Air Combat Command], PACAF [Pacific Air 

Forces] Focused on Pacific Pivot.” Air Force Times, 15 September 

2014. https://www.airforcetimes.com/story/military/careers/air

-force/officer/2014/09/15/acc-pacaf-focused-on-pacific

-pivot/15664749/.

Fidler, Stephen. “How the British Army Lost Basra.” Financial Times, 

20 August 2007. https://www.ft.com/content/2591095c-4f34

-11dc-b485-0000779fd2ac.

Field Manual 3-99. Airborne and Air Assault Operations, 6 March 

2015. https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf

/web/fm3_99.pdf.
384 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Field Manual 3-24. Counterinsurgency, December 2006. https://www

.scribd.com/document/9137276/US-Army-Field-Manual-FM

-3-24-Counterinsurgency.

Field Manual 2-22.3. Human Int

elligence Collector Operations, 6 September 2006. https://fas.org/irp/

doddir/army/fm2-22-3.pdf.

Fishel, Justin. “Panetta Concerned Israel Months from Striking Iran.” 

Fox News, 3 February 2012. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2012

/02/02/panetta-concerned-israel-months-from-striking-iran

.html.

 Fitzgerald, Mike. “Rocket Attack Kills Belleville Man at Afghanistan 

Air Base.” Belleville News Democrat, 4 December 2013. https://

archive.li/lk5sj.

Foss, Christopher F. “Mantis Maximises Protection—Indo14–Day 

3.” Indodefence 2014. Jane’s 360, 7 November 2014. http://www

.janes.com/article/45480/mantis-maximises-protection

-indo14-day3.

Foster, Harry, deputy director, Center for Strategy and Technology. 

Briefing. Subject: Airpower’s Fight for Strategic Superiority in 

2035: Getting It, Using It, Sustaining It. Maxwell AFB, AL, January 2015.

Fox, Roger P. Air Base Defense in the Republic of Vietnam, 1961–1973. 

Washington, DC: US Air Force Office of Air Force History, 1979. 

https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/21/2001330253/-1/-1/0

/AFD-100921-023.pdf.

Friedman, Thomas L. “Bibi and Barack, the Sequel.” New York Times,

3 December 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/12/04/opin

ion/friedman-bibi-and-barack-the-sequel.html?_r=0.

Garrett, LTG William B., III, US Army, Investigating Officer, and Maj

Gen Thomas M. Murray, US Marine Corps, Deputy Investigating 

Officer. To Commander, US Central Command. Memorandum. 

Subject: Army Regulation (AR) 15-6 Investigation of the 14–15 

September 2012 Attack on Camp Bastion, Leatherneck, and 

Shorabak (BLS) Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan, 19 

August 2013. Approved for Public Release. http://www.hqmc

.marines.mil/Portals/142/USCENTCOM%20Bastion%20At

tack%20Investigation%20Redacted%2015-6%20Report.pdf.

Girardet, Edward R. Afghanistan: The Soviet War. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1985.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 385

Glover,  Julian, Richard Norton-Taylor,  and  Patrick Wintour. “Iraq: 

Voters Want British Troops Home by End of Year.” Guardian, 23 

October 2006. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2006

/oct/24/uk.iraq.

Goldfein, Gen David L. Remarks to Air Force Association Air, Space, 

and Cyber Conference. Transcript, 18 September 2018. https://

www.af.mil/Portals/1/documents/Speeches/Gen%20Goldfein%20

AFA%20Keynote%20(FINAL).pdf?ver=2018-09-21-094804-523. 

Gonzales, Walter A. “Does U.S. Army HUMINT Doctrine Achieve 

Its Objectives? What Have Iraq and Afghanistan Taught Us?” Research report. Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School, March 

2013. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a580160.pdf.

Government Accountability Office. Afghanistan Drawdown Preparations: DOD Decision Makers Need Additional Analyses to Determine Costs and Benefits of Returning Excess Equipment. GAO-13-

185R. Washington, DC: GAO, 19 December 2012. http://www

.gao.gov/assets/660/651010.pdf.

———. Iraq Drawdown: Opportunities Exist to Improve Equipment 

Visibility, Contractor Demobilization, and Clarity of Post-2011 

DOD Role. GAO-11-774. Washington, DC: GAO, September 

2011. https://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11774.pdf.

———. Operation Iraqi Freedom: Actions Needed to Facilitate the Efficient Drawdown of U.S. Forces and Equipment from Iraq. GAO10-376. Washington, DC: GAO, April 2010. https://www.gao

.gov/new.items/d10376.pdf.

Grau, Lester W. “Artillery and Counterinsurgency: The Soviet Experience in Afghanistan.” Field Artillery Journal, May–June 1997, 

36–41.

Greeley, MSgt Jim, USAF. “Wave of Change, Pacific Air Forces Headquarters Swept Up by Operation Kuter.” Airman 45, no. 5 (May 

2001): 40–43.

Gresham, John D. “Attack on Camp Bastion: The Destruction of 

VMA-211.” Defense Media Network, 20 September 2012. http://

www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/attack-on-camp-bas

tion-the-destruction-of-vma-211/.

Griess, Thomas E., ed. The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean. West Point Military History Series. Wayne, NJ: Avery 

Publishing Group, 1984.

Grigsby, BG Wayne W., Jr. Doctrine Update, 2-12. Fort Leavenworth, 

KS: Mission Command Center of Excellence, US Army Com-
386 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

bined Arms Center, 3 April 2012. http://usacac.army.mil/cac2

/adp/Repository/Army%20Doctrine%20Update%202-12.pdf.

Gruppe XXI, “Erfahrungsbericht der Gruppe XXI [Field Report of 

Group XXI],” 7 October 1940. In BA/MA 24-21/5, 4. In Corum, 

“German Campaign in Norway,” 75.

“Guardium-LS UGV G-NIUS Autonomous Unmanned Ground Systems.” Army Recognition, 2017. http://www.armyrecognition

.com/israel_israeli_wheeled_armoured_and_vehicle_uk/guar

dium-ls_multi_purpose_autonomous_unmanned_ground

_vehicle_g-nius_ugv_israeli_army_israel_pictures.html.

Gunaratna, Rohan. “Intelligence Failures Exposed by Tamil Tiger 

Airport Attack.” Jane’s Intelligence Review 13, no. 9 (September 

2001): 14–17. http://www.island.lk/2001/09/05/featur01.html.

Haddick, Robert. Fire on the Water: China, America, and the Future of 

the Pacific. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2014.

Halliday, John M. Tactical Dispersal of Fighter Aircraft: Risk, Uncertainty, and Policy Recommendations. N-2443-AF. Santa Monica, 

CA: RAND Corporation, February 1987. http://www.rand.org

/content/dam/rand/pubs/notes/2005/N2443.pdf.

Harbour, Linn, chaplain, 42nd Air Base Wing. To Col Shannon W. 

Caudill. E-mail, 25 August 2015.

Harding, Thomas. “Iraq: British ‘Abandoned Basra to Terror.’” Telegraph, 

29 September 2010. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews

/middleeast/iraq/8031642/Iraq-British-abandoned-Basra-to

-terror.html.

Haulman, Daniel L. The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Hitting 

Home; The Air Offensive against Japan. Washington, DC: Air 

Force History and Museums Program (Government Printing Office, distributor), 1999. https://media.defense.gov/2010

/Sep/27/2001330168/-1/-1/0/AFD-100927-081.pdf.

Hayden, Dale. “Air-Mindedness.” Air and Space Power Journal 22, no. 

4 (Winter 2008): 44–45. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext

/u2/a491179.pdf.

Headquarters Air Force/A9, Studies and Analysis and Lessons 

Learned. “Focus Area: Air Force Innovations for the Joint Fight 

Enduring Features of Expeditionary Base Security.” Washington, 

DC: Headquarters USAF, June 2010.

Headquarters Air Force, Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Air 

and Space Operations, Director of Strategic Security–Force Pro-
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 387

tection (HQ USAF/XOS-FP). Staff package. Validating the Abrogation of Joint Service Agreement 8, 18 November 2004.

Headquarters Air Mobility Command (AMC). Briefing. Subject: 

AMC Global Assessment Teams (GAT) Mission Summary. Scott 

AFB, IL, 3 December 2003.

Headquarters Air Mobility Command/A3A. “Air Force Contingency 

Response Group Operational Concept.” Ver. 4.3, 2003.

Headquarters Air Mobility Command/A35. “Airbase Opening Operational Concept.” Ver. 8.2, 18 December 2003.

Headquarters Air Mobility Command/A3CCE. “Base Opening: How 

It Works.” Draft, 12 November 2003.

Headquarters Air Mobility Command/DOX. “Air Force Operational 

Concept: Airbase Opening CONOPS.” Ver. 6.0, draft, 8 May 

2003.

Headquarters US Army Forces Command. To commander, US Central Command. Memorandum. Subject: US Department of the 

Army Report, Army Regulation (AR) 15-6 Investigation of the 

14–15 September 2012 Attack on the Camp Bastion, Leatherneck, and Shorabak (BLS) Complex, Helmand Province, Afghanistan, 19 August 2013. Approved for public release. http://www

.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/142/USCENTCOM%20Bastion%20

Attack%20Investigation%20Redacted%2015-6%20Report.pdf.

Heiman, Leo. “Soviet Invasion Weaknesses.” Military Review 49, no. 8 

(August 1969): 38–45.

Hinote, Clint. Centralized Control and Decentralized Execution: A 

Catchphrase in Crisis? Research Paper 2009-1. Maxwell AFB, 

AL: Air Force Research Institute, 2009. https://media.defense

.gov/2017/Jun/19/2001764937/-1/-1/0/AP_0006_HINOTE

_CENTRALIZED_CONTROL_DECENTRALIZED_EXECU

TION.PDF.

Holmes, Robert H. “Bob,” Bradley D. Spacy, John M. Busch, and 

Gregory J. Reese. “The Air Force’s New Ground War: Ensuring 

Projection of Air and Space Power through Expeditionary Security Operations,” Air and Space Power Journal 20, no. 3 (Fall 

2006): 41–54. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a494328

.pdf.

Hooker, Richard D., Jr., and Christopher Coglianese. “Operation Weserübung and the Origins of Joint Warfare.” Joint Force Quarterly, 

no. 1 (Summer 1993): 100–111. www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2

/a528871.pdf.
388 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hornig, Doug. “The Technological Evolution of Nonlethal Weaponry.” Casey Daily Dispatch, 12 August 2013. https://www.casey

research.com/the-technological-evolution-of-nonlethal-wea

ponry/.

Hostage, Gilmary M., and Larry R. Broadwell Jr. “Resilient Command and Control: The Need for Distributed Control.” Joint Force 

Quarterly 74 (3rd Quarter 2014): 38–43. http://ndupress.ndu

.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-74/jfq-74_38-43_Hostage

.pdf.

Hubbard, Curtis W. “Base Defense at the Special Forces Forward Operational Base.” Master’s thesis, US Army Command and General 

Staff College, 2002. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2

/a407001.pdf.

Huber, Blue. “Operational Art and Risk: Why Doctrine Does Not 

Help.” Monograph. Fort Leavenworth, KS: School of Advanced 

Military Studies, US Army Command and General Staff College, 

2013. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1

.1030.2090&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

Hukill, Jeffrey, Larry Carter, Scott Johnson, Jenifer Lizzol, and Edward Redman. Air Force Command and Control—The Need for 

Increased Adaptability. Research Paper 2012-5. Maxwell AFB, 

AL: Air Force Research Institute, Air University Press, July 2012. 

https://media.defense.gov/2017/Jun/19/2001765118/-1/-1/0

/AP_HUKILL_JOHNSON_CARTER_LIZZOL_REDMAN

_YANNAKOGEORGOS_AF_COMMAND_CONTROL.PDF.

“If You Ain’t First . . . You’re Last,” Facebook. Accessed 19 October 

2018. https://m.facebook.com/profile.php?v=info&expand=1

&id=194101447284513.

Ilangamuwa, Nilantha. “India Is Clear in Its Support to Sri Lankan 

Government—Cmde. R. S. Vasan.” Sri Lanka Guardian, 29 October 2007. http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2007/10/india-is

-clear-in-its-support-to-sri.html.

Jaffe, Greg. “War in Iraq Will Be Called ‘Operation New Dawn’ to 

Reflect Reduced U.S. Role.” Washington Post, 19 February 2010. 

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/arti

cle/2010/02/18/AR2010021805888.html.

Johns, Gen Raymond E. Jr., commander, Air Mobility Command. 

Memorandum. Subject: Air Mobility System Building Partnerships, 20 February 2012.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 389

Joint Chiefs of Staff. Capstone Concept for Joint Operations: Joint Force 

2020. Washington, DC: Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 10 September 2012. http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doc

trine/concepts/ccjo_jointforce2020.pdf?ver=2017-12-28

-162037-167.

Joint Publication 0-2. Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF), 10 July 

2001.http://www.bits.de/NRANEU/others/jp-doctrine/jp0_2.pdf.

Joint Publication 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military 

and Associated Terms, 8 November 2010 (As Amended through 

15 February 2016). https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp1_02.pdf.

Joint Publication 2-0. Joint Intelligence, 22 October 2013. http://www

.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp2_0.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-0. Joint Operations, 17 January 2017. http://www

.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_0ch1

.pdf?ver=2018-11-27-160457-910.

Joint Publication 3-01. Countering Air and Missile Threats, 21 April 

2017 (Validated 2 May 2018). http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36

/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_01_pa.pdf?ver=2018-05

-16-175020-290.

Joint Publication 3-09, Joint Fire Support, 12 December 2014. http://

www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_09.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-09.3, Close Air Support, 25 November 2014. 

https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_09_3.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-10. Joint Security Operations in Theater, 13 November 2014. http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doc

trine/pubs/jp3_10.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-13.4. Military Deception, 26 January 2012. http://

jfsc.ndu.edu/Portals/72/Documents/JC2IOS/Additional

_Reading/1C3-JP_3-13-4_MILDEC.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-16. Multinational Operations, 16 July 2013. http://

www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_16.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-17. Air Mobility Operations, 30 September 2013

.http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs

/jp3_17.pdf.

Joint Publication 3-18. Joint Forcible E

ntry Operations, 11 May 2017. (Validated 27 June 2018.) http://www.jcs

.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs/jp3_18ch1_pa

.pdf?ver=2018-07-03-125841-997.
390 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Joint Publication 3-22. Foreign Internal Defense, 17 August 2018. 

http://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/pubs

/jp3_22.pdf?ver=2018-09-06-100310-183.

Joint Publication 3-30. Command and Control of Joint Air Operations, 

10 February 2014. https://fas.org/irp/doddir/dod/jp3_30.pdf.

Joint Staff, J-7, Joint and Coalition Operational Analysis (JCOA) Division. Decade of War. Vol. 1, Enduring Lessons from the Past Decade of Operations. Suffolk, VA: JCOA, 15 June 2012. handle.dtic

.mil/100.2/ADA570341.

Jumper, Gen John P., chief of staff, US Air Force, and Gen Peter J. 

Schoomaker, chief of staff, US Army. Memorandum for record, 

30 January 2005.

Jumper, Gen John P., USAF. “Rapidly Deploying Aerospace Power: 

Lessons from Allied Force.” Aerospace Power Journal 13, no. 4 

(Winter 1999): 4–10. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2

/a518161.pdf.

Jumper, John P., and Peter J. Schoomaker. Abrogation of Joint Service 

Agreement 8: USA-USAF Agreement for the Ground Defense of Air 

Force Bases and Installations. Washington, DC: Departments of 

the Army and Air Force, 2005.

Kakaes, Konstantin. “Why Computers Still Can’t Translate Languages 

Automatically.” Slate, 11 May 2012. http://www.slate.com/arti

cles/technology/future_tense/2012/05/darpa_s_transtac_bolt

_and_other_machine_translation_programs_search_for_mean

ing_.html.

Kapp, Lawrence, and Nina M. Serafino. The National Guard State 

Partnership Program: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress. Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report for Congress. Washington, DC: CRS, 15 August 2011. https://fas.org

/sgp/crs/misc/R41957.pdf.

Kellen, Konrad. Conversations with Enemy Soldiers in Late 1968/Early 

1969: A Study of Enemy Motivation and Morale. RM-6131-1-ISA

/ARPA. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, September 

1970. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research

_memoranda/2005/RM6131-1.pdf.

Kelly, Orr. From a Dark Sky: The Story of U.S. Air Force Special Operations. Brookhaven, PA: Diane Publishing, 1996.

Kennedy, Harold. “Jumper Eyeing New Unit of Air Commandos.” 

National Defense, 1 April 2004. http://www.nationaldefensemag
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 391

azine.org/articles/2004/3/31/2004april-jumper-eyeing-new

-unit-of-air-commandos.

Kilcullen, Lt Col David. “Twenty-Eight Articles: Fundamentals of 

Company-Level Counterinsurgency.” IO Sphere, Summer 2006, 

29–35. http://www.au.af.mil/info-ops/iosphere/iosphere_sum

mer06_kilcullen.pdf.

Kitfield, James. Prodigal Soldiers. New York: Simon and Schuster, 

1995.

Knauss, General der Flieger Robert. “Der Feldzug im Norwegen 

1940” [The campaign in Norway in 1940], manuscript (cs. 1950). 

Manuscript from Knauss family. In Corum’s collection. In Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 55.

Knight, Maj William, USAF, HQ AMC/A14D. To Maj J. William DeMarco. E-mail, 1 March 2004.

Kottasova, Ivana. “Amazon to Test Drone Delivery in the UK.” CNN 

Money, 26 July 2016. http://money.cnn.com/2016/07/26/tech

nology/amazon-delivery-drones-uk/.

LaGrone, Sam, and Dave Majumdar. “The Future of Air Sea Battle.” 

USNI [US Naval Institute] News, 30 October 2013 (updated 31 

October 2013). http://news.usni.org/2013/10/30/future-air-sea

-battle.

LaGrone, Sam. “Pentagon Drops Air Sea Battle Name, Concept Lives 

On.” USNI [US Naval Institute] News, 20 January 2015. https://

news.usni.org/2015/01/20/pentagon-drops-air-sea-battle-name

-concept-lives.

Lai, Maj Michelle, Air Force ISR Agency Public Affairs. “Officials Stand 

Up HUMINT Detachment.” US Air Force News, 22 August 2008. 

http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Arti

cle/122648 /officials-stand-up-humint-detachment.aspx.

 Lamothe, Dan. “A Taliban Fighter Survived the Attack on Afghanistan’s Camp Bastion. Will He Get the Death Penalty?” Washington Post, 12 September 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com

/news/checkpoint/wp/2014/09/12/one-taliban-insurgent-sur

vived-the-attack-on-afghanistans-camp-bastion-will-he-get

-the-death-penalty/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.d4a366336952.

Lanyon, Charley. “ISIS Uses Exploding Drones to Kill Kurdish Troops 

in First Successful Attack of Its Kind.” New York Magazine, 12 

October 2016. http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2016/10

/isis-uses-exploding-drones-to-kill-kurdish-troops.html.
392 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Large Package Week (LPW).” GlobalSecurity.org. Accessed 23 March 

2017. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/lpw.htm.

Lawrence, T. E. “Twenty-Seven Articles.” Arab Bulletin, 20 August 

1917. https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/The_27_Articles_of

_T.E._Lawrence.

 Lee, Roger. “The History Guy: The Third Persian Gulf War (The Iraq 

War).” Accessed 20 March 2017. http://www.historyguy.com

/GulfWar2.html.

Lenderman, Laura L. The Rise of Air Mobility and Its Generals. Drew 

Paper no. 1. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2008. https://

media.defense.gov/2017/Nov/21/2001847272/-1/-1/0

/DP_0001_LENDERMAN_RISE_AIR_MOBILITY_GENER

ALS.PDF.

Lengyel, Denise, HQ AMC/A3MM. Bullet Background Paper. Subject: AMC Contingency Response Wing (CRW) Reorganization. 

Scott AFB, IL: HQ AMC, 25 September 2009.

 Levine, Adam, and Paula Hancocks. “Nearly a Dozen Militants Dead 

after Bagram Attack,” CNN, 19 May 2010. http://www.cnn

.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/05/19/afghanistan.bagram.attack.

Levine, Alan J. The Pacific War: Japan versus the Allies. Westport, CT: 

Praeger, 1995.

Lewis, David. “Lebanon: Party of God.” Frontline/World, May 2003. 

www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/lebanon/thestory.html.

Lipscomb University Institute for Conflict Management. South Asia 

Terrorism Portal, Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) database. “Aerial Attack by the LTTE, 2007–2009.” Accessed 15 November 2016. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka

/database/Aerialattack.htm.

Lockheed Martin. “F-35 Fast Facts: Get to Know the F-35.” F-35 

Lightning II website. Accessed 7 April 2017. https://www.f35

.com/about/fast-facts.

Loh, Gen John Michael. “The Responsibility of Leadership in Command.” In Richard I. Lester, executive editor, and A. Glenn Morton, associate editor, AU-24, Concepts for Air Force Leadership. 

Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2008.

Londoño, Ernesto. “For Israel, Iron Dome Missile Defense System 

Represents Breakthrough.” Washington Post, 2 December 2012. 

https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national

-security/2012/12/01/24c3dc26-3b32-11e2-8a97-363b0f9a0ab3

_story.html.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 393

Lowe, Maj James, USAF, commander, 786th Security Forces Squadron. “Group Reflects on OIF Mission One Year Later.” Air Force 

Print News, 26 March 2004. http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDis

play/tabid/223/Article/137306/group-reflects-on-oif-mission

-one-year-later.aspx.

Lunsford, Lynn J. “Bird-Size Spy Planes See, Hear, Even Smell Enemy.” 

Wall Street Journal, 12 February 2003. http://www.uadrones.net

/military/research/2003/0212-a.htm.

Luttwak, Edward, Herbert Block, and W. Seth Carus. The Grand 

Strategy of the Soviet Union. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1983.

Lyons, Capt Armand, USAF, Task Force 1041 intelligence officer. 

Written Statement, 6 April 2015.

Lyons, Lt Col B., USAF; CDR D. McDuffie, USN; and MAJ M. Webb, 

USA. “Soviet Campaign in Afghanistan: Misapplications of the 

Principles of War.” Research report. Norfolk, VA: Joint Forces 

Staff College, Joint and Combined Staff Officer School, Class 02-

03I, 6 September 2002. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2

/a421633.pdf.

Mann, Stephen C. “Effective Command and Control for Global Missile Defense.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Command 

and Staff College, 2007.

“Mapping Migration: Where are the World’s Biggest Chinese and Indian Immigrant Communities?” Economist, 17 November 2011. 

http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/11/diasporas.

Marine Corps Warfighting Publication (MCWP) 2-14. Counterintelligence, 5 September 2000. https://fas.org/irp/doddir/usmc/mcwp2

-14.pdf.

Mårtensson, Robert. “German Assault on Fornebu.” Norway 1940. Accessed 17 March 2017. http://hem.fyristorg.com/robertm/norge

/Assault_on_Fornebu.html.

Matsumura, John, Randall Steeb, John Gordon, Russell Glenn, Tom 

Herbert, and Paul Steinberg. Lightning over Water: Sharpening 

America’s Light Forces for Rapid Reaction Missions. Santa Monica, 

CA: RAND, 2000. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_re

ports /MR1196.html.

McConnell, Malcolm. Just Cause: The Real Story of America’s HighTech Invasion of Panama. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991.

McCullough, Amy. “Ace in the Hole.” Air Force Magazine 100, no. 5 

(May 2017): 24–25. Special Edition: Air Warfare Symposium 

2017. http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive/Docu
394 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

ments/2017/May%202017%20(AWS)/0517McCullough_ACE

.pdf.

———. “Rapid Raptor 2.0.” Air Force Magazine, 7 March 2017. http://

www.airforcemag.com/DRArchive/Pages/2017/March%202017

/March%2007%202017/Rapid-Raptor-2.0.aspx.

McLeary, Paul. “New US Concept Melds Air, Sea and Land.” Defense 

News, 24 January 2015. https://www.defensenews.com

/home/2015/01/24/new-us-concept-melds-air-sea-and-land/.

McPeak, Merrill A. Hangar Flying. Lake Oswego, OR: Lost Wingman 

Press, 2012.

McSpadden, Capt Tyler, former intelligence collection manager, Joint 

Intelligence Support Element, Joint Base Balad, Iraq. To Jason F. 

Baggett. E-mail, November 2014.

Microsoft blog editor. “How Technology Can Bridge Language Gaps: 

Speech-to-Speech Translation Promises to Help Connect Our 

World.” Microsoft Research (blog), 14 May 2013. https://www.mi

crosoft.com/en-us/research/technology-can-bridge-language

-gaps/.

Middleton, Drew. “Soviet Display of Flexibility: Afghan Airlift Is Lesson in Moving Troops Fast.” New York Times, 28 December 1979. 

https://www.nytimes.com/1979/12/28/archives/soviet-display

-of-flexibility-afghan-airlift-is-lesson-in-moving.html.

Miller, Greg. “Pentagon Establishes Defense Clandestine Service, 

New Espionage Unit.” Washington Post, 23 April 2012. http://

www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/pentagon

-creates-new-espionage-unit/2012/04/23/gIQA9R7DcT_story

.html.

Milner, Joseph A. Integrated Defense: Lessons Learned from Joint Base 

Balad. Air Force Research Institute Paper 2012-3. Maxwell AFB, 

AL: Air University Press, 2013. https://media.defense.gov/2017

/Jun/19/2001764983/-1/-1/0/AP_1203_MILINER_INTE

GRATED_DEFENSE.PDF.

———. “The Defense of Joint Base Balad: An Analysis.” In Caudill, 

Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, vol. 1, 217–44.

Miner, Lt Col Thomas G., Jr. “Addressing a Gap: Shaping United 

States Expeditionary Air Base Defense Efforts in Support of a Rebalance to the Pacific.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air 

War College, 13 February 2014.

Misiak, Daniel, production superintendent, 3rd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron, Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson, AK. “Rapid 
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 395

Raptor Factsheets.” To Lt Col Russell S. Badowski, USAF. E-mail, 

29 October 2014.

Mitchell, William. Winged Defense: The Development and Possibilities 

of Modern Air Power—Economic and Military. New York: G. P. 

Putnam’s Sons, 1925.

Mize, SSgt Blake. “Rapid Raptor: Getting Fighters to the Fight.” Joint 

Base Elmendorf-Richardson Public Affairs, 20 February 2014. 

https://www.jber.jb.mil/News/Articles/Article/591641/rapid

-raptor-getting-fighters-to-the-fight/.

Moseley, T. Michael. Memorandum. Subject: Joint Doctrine, Organization, Training, Materiel, Leadership and Education, Personnel 

and Facilities (DOTMLPF) Change Recommendation (DCR) for 

Integrated Defense, 14 April 2006.

Mull, Lt Col Joey, commander, 36th Contingency Response Group. 

“CRG Mission Brief.” PowerPoint presentation, Andersen AFB, 

Guam, 16 January 2014.

Mulrine, Anna. “Taliban Infiltrators in Afghanistan? Pentagon Warns 

of ‘Insider Threat.’ ” Christian Science Monitor, 1 February 2012. 

https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Military/2012/0201/Taliban

-infiltrators-in-Afghanistan-Pentagon-warns-of-insider-threat.

 “Murphy’s Law: Death Ray Turns Warm and Fuzzy.” StrategyPage, 

3 October 2012. https://www.strategypage.com/htmw/ht

murph/20121003.aspx.

Murray, Williamson, and Robert Scales Jr. The Iraq War: A Military 

History. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 

2003.

National Guard. “State Partnership Program.” Fact sheet, June 2018. 

https://www.nationalguard.mil/Portals/31/Resources/Fact%20

Sheets/State%20Partnership%20Program%20Fact%20Sheet%20

(June%202018).pdf.

National Museum of the US Air Force. “Junkers Ju 52.” Fact sheet, 5 

June 2015. https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum

-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/195965/junkers%

E2%80%90ju%E2%80%90%2052/.

National Robotics Engineering Center, Carnegie Mellon University. “Crusher,” 2018. https://www.nrec.ri.cmu.edu/solutions

/defense/other-projects/crusher.html.

Nawroz, Gen Mohammad Yahya, Afghan Army, retired, and Col Lester W. Grau, US Army, retired. “The Soviet War in Afghanistan: 

History and Harbinger of Future War?” Foreign Military Studies 
396 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Office. Accessed 26 October 2018. http://sfr-21.org/sources/af

ghanistan.html. Originally published as Grau and Nawroz, “The 

Soviet Experience in Afghanistan,” Military Review 75, no. 5 

(September–October 1995): 17–27. http://cgsc.contentdm.oclc

.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/p124201coll1/id/445/rec/7.

Naylor, Hugh. “Syria Reportedly Encourages Sunni Insurgents.” New 

York Times, 7 October 2007. http://www.nytimes.com

/2007/10/07/world/africa/07iht-syria.1.7781943.html.

Nelson, Lt Col Denny R. “Soviet Air Power: Tactics and Weapons 

Used in Afghanistan.” Air University Review 36, no. 2 (January–

February 1985): 30–44. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10

/ASPJ/journals/1985_Vol36_No1-6/1985_Vol36_No2.pdf.

Neptune, John W. “Cyber-Based C4ISR Assets: A U.S. Air Force Critical Vulnerability.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Command and Staff College, 2009. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/full

text/u2/a539699.pdf.

Noorani, A. G. “Afghanistan and the Rule of Law,” The Review 24 

(June 1980): 37–52.

Oberbefehlshaber der Luftwaffe, Führungsstab 1.c. (Office of the Supreme Commander, Luftwaffe). “Einstaz der Fallschirm und 

Lufttransportverbande bei der Besetzung von Dänemark und 

Norwegen am 9.4.1940” [Use of parachute and air transport associations in the occupation of Denmark and Norway on 9 April 

1940], 10 April 1940. In USAF Historical Research Agency 

(AFHRA) report K113.305. In Corum, “German Campaign in 

Norway,” 65.

 Office of the US Air Force Chief Scientist. Technology Horizons: A 

Vision for Air Force Science and Technology 2010–2030. Maxwell 

AFB, AL: Air University Press, September 2011. https://www.

airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Books/B_0126_TECH

NOLOGYHORIZONS.PDF.

Onyshkevych, Boyan. “Broad Operational Language Translation 

(BOLT). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Accessed 

14 August 2018. https://www.darpa.mil/program/broad-opera

tional-language-translation.

“Operation Chromite: The Inchon Landing.” Fact sheet. State of New 

Jersey website. Accessed 28 February 2017. http://www.nj.gov

/military/korea/factsheets/chromite.html.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 397

 “Operation Iraqi Freedom—March 26, Day Seven,” Global Security

.org. Accessed 21 March 2017. https://www.globalsecurity.org

/military/ops/iraqi_freedom_d7.htm.

 “Operation Iraqi Freedom—April 4, Day Sixteen.” Global Security

.org. Accessed 21 March 2017. http://www.globalsecurity.org

/military/ops/iraqi_freedom_d16.htm.

Ottmer, Hans-Martin. “Das Unternehmen Weserübung; Die Besetzung Dänemarks und Norwegens durch die deutsche Wehrmacht 

im April 1940. Vorgeschichte, Vorbereitung und Durchführung 

der Landeunternehmungen in Norwegen” [Weserübung land invasion: The occupation of Denmark and Norway by the German 

army in April 1940; History, preparation, and implementation of 

the landing in Norway]. In Ideen und Strategien 1940 [Ideas and 

strategies 1940]. Ausgewählte Operationen und deren militärgeschichtliche Aufarbeitung [Selected operations and their military 

history workup], edited by Militargeschichtlichen Forschungsamt 

[Military history research office], 67–106. Herford, Germany: E. S. 

Mittler und Sohn, 1990. Translated by Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 57.

Owen, Jonathan. “Taliban Inflicted Biggest Loss of US Aircraft since 

Vietnam at Camp Bastion.” Independent, 4 October 2013. http://

www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/taliban-inflicted

-biggest-loss-of-us-aircraft-since-vietname-at-camp-bas

tion-8859903.html.

Palmer, Maj Glenn E. “Air Base Security Operations: An Air Component Responsibility.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: School 

of Advanced Air and Space Studies, June 2006.

Partlow, Joshua. “Iran’s Elite Force Is Said to Use Hezbollah as ‘Proxy’ 

in Iraq.” Washington Post, 3 July 2007. http://www.washington

post.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/02/AR200707

0200174.html.

———. “U.S. Contractor Killed, 9 Soldiers Wounded in Taliban Attack 

on Bagram Air Base.” Washington Post, 20 May 2010. http://www.

washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/19

/AR2010051901190.html.

Patrick, Lt Col Carolyn J. “Military Partnership Lessons Learned 

from Base Closure and Transition in Iraq.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air War College, February 2013.
398 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Patrick, Col Carolyn, deputy commander, 332 EMSG, and Joint Base 

Balad transition officer. To MAJ Michael M. Wellock. E-mail, 19 

January 2015.

Pawlyk, Oriana. “Questions Remain as Families Mourn Victims of 

2011 Green-On-Blue Kabul Attack.” Air Force Times, 27 April 

2016. https://www.airforcetimes.com/news/your-air-force/2016

/04/27/questions-remain-as-families-mourn-victims-of

-2011-green-on-blue-kabul-attack/.

Perry, Walter L., Richard E. Darilek, Laurinda L. Rohn, and Jerry M. 

Sollinger, eds. Operation IRAQI FREEDOM: Decisive War, Elusive Peace. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2015. http://

www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports

/RR1200/RR1214/RAND_RR1214.pdf.

Pettyjohn, Stacie L., and Alan J. Vick. The Posture Triangle: A New 

Framework for U.S. Air Force Global Presence. Santa Monica, CA: 

RAND Corporation, 2013. http://www.rand.org/content/dam

/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR400/RR402/RAND_RR402.pdf.

Pickert, Kate. “The Tamil Tigers.” Time, 4 January 2009. http://con

tent.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1869501,00.html.

Powell, C. J. et al. Study into the Posture (OTE) and Readiness of Security Forces to Execute Expeditionary Missions—Interim Report, 

August 2014.

Powers, Rod. “U.S. Military Uniform History—The Beret,” 16 May 

2018. https://www.thebalancecareers.com/u-s-military-beret

-history-3331980.

Prentice, David L. “Getting Out: Melvin Laird and the Origins of 

Vietnamization.” Master’s thesis, Ohio University, November 

2008. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=ohiou12

26597455&disposition=inline.

Program Executive Office, Intelligence Electronic Warfare and Sensors. “Army Language Translation System Assists Soldiers’ Readiness,” 6 June 2017. https://peoiews.army.mil/2017/army-lan

guage-translation-system-assists-soldiers-readiness.

Public Broadcasting Service. “The Soviet Occupation of Afghanistan,” 10 October 2006. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates

/asia-july-dec06-soviet_10-10/.

Raddatz, Martha, and Luis Martinez. “ISIS Fighters Attack Iraqi Base 

Wearing Iraqi Army Uniforms.” ABC News, 13 February 2015. 

http://abcnews.go.com/International/isis-fighters-sneak-iraqi

-base-wearing-iraqi-army/story?id=28944455.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 399

Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. “Iron Dome.” Accessed 24 

January 2018. http://www.rafael.co.il/5619-689-en/Marketing

.aspx.

Raley, Maj Je H. “White Paper on Untethered Operations for the Director of Logistics, Installations and Mission Support, HQ USAFEAFAFRICA.” Ramstein AB, Germany: HQ USAFE–AFAFRICA, 

7 November 2014.

Rayment, Sean. “Harrier Destroyed by Afghan Rocket.” Telegraph, 16 

October 2005. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1500

702/Harrier-destroyed-by-Afghan-rocket.html.

Reich, David. “House Budget Would Keep Slashing at Non-Defense 

Programs.” Off the Charts (blog), Center on Budget and Policy 

Priorities, 4 April 2016. http://www.cbpp.org/blog/house-bud

get-would-keep-slashing-at-non-defense-programs.

Rheinmetall Defence. “Oerlikon Skyshield MOOTW/C-RAM System,” 21 September 2010. http://www.rheinmetall-defence.de

/en/rheinmetall_defence/public_relations/news/detail_1602.php.

Richardson, Michael W. “Forcible Entry and the German Invasion of 

Norway, 1940.” Research report. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Army 

Command and General Staff College, 2001. https://apps.dtic.mil

/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a396983.pdf.

Rizzo, Jennifer. “U.S. Continues Support for Israel’s Iron Dome.” Cable News Network, 17 May 2012. http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/17

/us/israel-missile-system/index.html?_s=PM:US.

Rogers, James. “Robot Patrol: Israeli Army to Deploy Autonomous 

Vehicles on Gaza Border.” Fox News, 1 September 2016. http://

www.foxnews.com/tech/2016/09/01/robot-patrol-israeli-army

-to-deploy-autonomous-vehicles-on-gaza-border.html.

Rothrock, Col Martin L., commander, 65th Air Base Wing, Lajes 

Field, Azores, Portugal. To MAJ Michael M. Wellock. E-mail, 3 

November 2014.

Roulo, Claudette. “Dempsey: Forming Partnerships Vital for Future 

Force.” American Forces Press Service, 18 July 2012. https://www

.army.mil/article/83792.

Royal Air Force. “RAF Timeline 1942.” Accessed 16 March 2017. 

http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/rafhistorytimeline1942.cfm.

Royal Air Force (RAF), Ministry of Defence (MOD), United Kingdom. Air Pamphlet 3241. RAF Force Protection Doctrine for Air 

Operations. High Wycombe, UK: UK MOD, 2006.
400 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

Rubin, Alissa J. “Audacious Raid on NATO Base Shows Taliban’s 

Reach.” New York Times, 16 September 2012. http://www.ny

times.com/2012/09/17/world/asia/green-on-blue-attacks-in-af

ghanistan-continue.html.

Rudder, LtGen Steven R., deputy commandant for aviation, United 

States Marine Corps. 2018 Marine Aviation Plan. Washington, 

DC: Headquarters Marine Corps Aviation, 2018. https://www

.aviation.marines.mil/Portals/11/2018%20AvPlan%20FINAL

.pdf.

Rumsfeld, Donald. “21st Century Transformation.” Speech. National 

Defense University, Washington, DC, 31 January 2002. http://

prhs.pasoschools.org/mfairbank/NPR/Guest/Rumsfeld%20

speech%20on%2021st%20century%20preparedness.htm.

Rundquist, Erik K. “A Short History of Air Base Defense.” In Caudill, 

Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, vol. 1, 3–42.

Russian General Staff. The Soviet-Afghan War: How a Superpower 

Fought and Lost. Edited by Lester W. Grau and translated by Michael A. Gress. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002.

Sagraves, Robert D. “Air Base Defense outside the Wire: Air Support 

for Defending Expeditionary Air Bases on the Nonlinear Battlefield.” Research report. Maxwell AFB, AL: School of Advanced 

Airpower Studies, 2006.

———. “Air Support for Base Defense: Lessons for the Noncontiguous 

Battlefield.” In Caudill, Defending Air Bases in an Age of Insurgency, vol. 1, 111–95.

Schanz, Marc V. “Eagle Flag.” Air Force Magazine 90, no. 1 (January 

2007): 68–72. http://www.airforcemag.com/MagazineArchive

/Documents/2007/January%202007/0107eagle.pdf.

Schehl, Matthew. “ISIS Is Expanding the Reach and Sophistication of 

Its Drone Fleet.” Marine Corps Times, 17 April 2016. https://www

.marinecorpstimes.com/story/military/tech/2016/04/17/is

lamic-state-drones-target-american-coalition-forces/83096864.

Schmidt, Michael S., and Michael D. Shear. “A Drone, Too Small for 

Radar to Detect, Rattles the White House.” New York Times, 26 

January 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/27/us/white

-house-drone.html.

Schogol, Jeff. “Air Force May Cut 10,000 Airmen if Budget Cuts Return.” Air Force Times, 5 February 2015. https://www.airforce

times.com/story/military/pentagon/2015/02/05/air-force-may

-cut-10000-airmen/22923953/.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 401

———. “One-Star Blamed for Khobar Towers Loses Promotion Bid.” 

Air Force Times, 22 June 2015. http://www.airforcetimes.com

/story/military/2015/06/22/one-star-loses-promotion

-bid/29116319/.

Schuldheiss, John J. Briefing. Subject: Operation Iraqi Freedom: Airfield Planning and Coordination. Air Mobility Warfare Center, 

Fort Dix, NJ, 2 December 2003.

Schwartz, Gen Norton A. “Airpower in Counterinsurgency and Stability Operations.” NDU Prism 2, no. 2 (March 2011): 127–34. 

https://cco.ndu.edu/Portals/96/Documents/prism/prism_2-2

/prism_volume_2_issue_2.pdf.

———. United States Air Force Expeditionary Air Base Defense: The 

Base Defense Group Enabling Concept. Washington, DC: HAF/

A7S, June 2009.

Schwartz, Moshe, and Jennifer Church, Congressional Research Service (CRS). Department of Defense’s Use of Contractors to Support 

Military Operations: Background, Analysis, and Issues for Congress. Washington, DC: CRS, 17 May 2013. https://fas.org/sgp

/crs/natsec/R43074.pdf.

Seip, Brig Gen Norman, deputy combined force air component commander. To Col Bradley D. Spacy. E-mail, 5 March 2015.

720th Special Tactics Group. “First There.” GlobalSecurity.org. Accessed 

21 April 2017. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/usaf 

/720stg.htm.

Shachtman, Noah. “Israeli ‘Auto Kill Zone’ Towers Locked and 

Loaded.” Wired, 5 December 2008. http://www.wired.com/dan

gerroom/2008/12/israeli-auto-ki/.

ShadowSpear Special Operations, “Combat Control Team (CCT),” 30 

January 2009. https://www.shadowspear.com/2009/01/combat

-control-team/.

Shelton, Gen Henry H., chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Joint 

Vision 2020. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, June 

2000. https://permanent.access.gpo.gov/LPS5598/jv2020.pdf.

Shipler, David K. “Reagan and Gorbachev Sign Missile Treaty and 

Vow to Work for Greater Reductions,” New York Times, 9 December 1987. http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/09/politics/09REAG

.html?pagewanted=2&pagewanted=all&smid=pl-share.

Shlapak, David A., and Alan J. Vick. “Check Six Begins on the Ground”: 

Responding to the Evolving Ground Threat to U.S. Air Force Bases. 

Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1995. https://www.rand
402 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2007

/MR606.pdf.

Shlapak, David A., John Stillion, Olga Oliker, and Tanya CharlickPaley. A Global Access Strategy for the US Air Force. Santa Monica, 

CA: RAND, 2002. www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/mono

graph_reports/2005/MR1216.pdf.

Sidoti, Sal J., Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF). A History of Attacks 

on Airbases. Air Power Studies Centre Paper 80. RAAF Fairbairn, 

Australian Capital Territory: Air Power Studies Centre, November 

1999. http://airpower.airforce.gov.au/APDC/media/PDF-Files

/Archive%20Working%20Papers/paper-80-a-history-of-attacks

-on-airbases.pdf.

Simpkin, Richard E., in association with John Erickson. Deep Battle: 

The Brainchild of Marshal Tukhachevskii. New York: Brassey’s 

Defence, 1987.

Simpson, Col Charlie, USAF, retired. “GLCM—From Concept to 

Mission Complete.” Association of Air Force Missileers (AAFM) 

Newsletter 12, no. 4 (December 2004): 2–6. http://afmissileers

.com/newsletters/NL2004/Dec04.pdf.

Singer, P. W. Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in 

the 21st Century. New York: Penguin Group, 2009.

Snodgrass, CDR Guy M. (team lead), and LT Ben Kohlmann. “2014 Navy 

Retention Study: Survey Report.” Independent staff study, 1 September 2014. https://www.scribd.com/document/320407728/2014

-Navy-Retention-Study-Report-Final.

Sommerville, Quentin. “Afghanistan: Taliban Insurgents in Attack on 

NATO Base.” BBC, 13 November 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk

/news/world-south-asia-11749196.

Spacy, Brig Gen Bradley D., USAF, director, Force Protection Air 

Forces Central (Forward). Written Statement, 1 February 2016.

Spacy, Col Bradley D., USAF. Briefing. Subject: Operation Desert 

Safeside. Headquarters Air Force Security Forces, Washington, 

DC, September 2004.

———. “The Future of Security Forces in Combat.” Air Force Materiel 

Command, 24 January 2006. http://www.afmc.af.mil/News/Arti

cle-Display/Article/155671/the-future-of-security-forces-in

-combat/.

Spacy, Maj Gen Bradley D., USAF. “Ground Combat Airmen (GCA).” 

White paper, 21 April 2014.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 403

Speidel, General, ed. “Der Feldzug in Norwegen” [The campaign in 

Norway in 1940]. In AFHRA file K113.305. In Corum, “German 

Campaign in Norway.”

Sprunk, Lauren. “820th Base Defense Group Celebrates 20 Years.” 

Moody Air Force Base, 3 April 2017. http://www.moody.af.mil

/News/Article-Display/Article/1138882/820th-base-defense

-group-celebrates-20-years/.

“Sri Lankan Rebels Launch Air Raid.” BBC News, 26 March 2007. 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6494121.stm.

Starr, Barbara, Chris Lawrence, and Joe Sterling. “ISAF [International 

Security Assistance Force]: Insurgents in Deadly Attack in Afghanistan Wore U.S. Army Uniforms.” CNN, 15 September 2012. 

http://www.cnn.com/2012/09/14/world/asia/afghanistan-fatal

-attack/index.html.

Statement of Gen David H. Petraeus, commanding general, MultiNational Force, Iraq. In House, The Status of the War and Political 

Developments in Iraq: Joint Hearing before the Committee on 

Armed Services Meeting Jointly with the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives. 110th Cong., 1st sess., 10 September 2007. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2008.

Stoltz, Gen Jack, USAF, and Col John Dobbins, USAF. “Briefing from 

Tallil Forward Air Base.” DOD transcript. GlobalSecurity.org, 17 

April 2003. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news

/iraq/2003/iraq-030417-dod01.htm.

Szybist, Col Gerald P., director of security forces operations, 332 ESFG, 

during JBB transition. To MAJ Michael M. Wellock. E-mail, 13 

November 2014.

Taylor, Rob. “Top U.S. General’s Aircraft Damaged by Rockets in Afghanistan.” Reuters, 21 August 2012. http://www.reuters.com/ar

ticle/us-afghanistan-general-idUSBRE87K09C20120821.

Technology and Science. “Personnel Halting and Stimulation Response (PHASR) Rifle.” Arathtecho blogspot, 17 November 2016. 

http://arathtecho.blogspot.com/2016/11/personnel-halting-and

-stimulation.html.

“The Air Force in Facts and Figures.” In “USAF Almanac 2017.” Supplement, Air Force Magazine 100, no. 6 (June 2017): 42–65. http://

secure.afa.org/joinafa/AFMag2017/AFMag0617/mobile/index

.html#p=1.
404 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

“The Army Rangers: Missions and History.” Military.com. Accessed 

11 July 2017. http://www.military.com/special-operations/army

-ranger-missions-and-history.html.

Thobo-Carlsen, Paul M. “A Canadian Perspective on Air Base Ground 

Defense: Ad Hoc Is Not Good Enough.” In Caudill, Defending Air 

Bases in an Age of Insurgency, vol. 1, 43–110.

Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley. 

Abridged edition prepared by Ian Johnston. Malaspina UniversityCollege, BC (now Vancouver Island University). “The Sixth Book: 

Chapter 18.” Accessed 16 March 2017. http://records.viu

.ca/~johnstoi/thucydides/thucydides_4.htm.

Tiernan, Lt Col Sean P., deputy commander, 332 ESFG, during JBB 

transition. To MAJ Michael M. Wellock. E-mails, 11–12 February 2015.

Tirpak, John A., and Adam J. Herbert. “Battlefield Airmen.” Air Force 

Magazine 87, no. 4 (April 2004): 26–32. http://www.airforcemag

.com/MagazineArchive/Documents/2004/April%20

2004/0404airmen.pdf.

Tomczak, Col W. J., HQ AMC/A3X; Col Greg Cook, 621 AMOG/CC; 

Col A. Ray Myers, 723 AMS/CC; and Lt Col James A. Spaulding, 

715 AMS/CC. Briefing. Subject: Global Mobility CONOPS in 

Action, Opening Air Bases in Iraq. Airlift Tanker Association 

Convention, Los Angeles, October 2003.

Torreon, Barbara Salazar. U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Current 

Conflicts. CRS Report RS21405. Washington, DC: Office of Congressional Information and Publishing, 28 December 2012. 

http://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS21405.pdf.

Tripp, Robert S., Lionel A. Galway, Timothy Ramey, Mahyar A. 

Amouzegar, and Eric Peltz. Supporting Expeditionary Aerospace 

Forces: A Concept for Evolving the Agile Combat Support/Mobility 

System of the Future. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2000. 

http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1179.html.

Tripp, Robert S., Mahyar A. Amouzegar, Ronald G. McGarvey, Rick 

Bereit, David George, and Joan Cornuet. Sense and Respond Logistics: Integrating Prediction, Responsiveness, and Control Capabilities. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2006. http://

www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2006

/RAND_MG488.pdf.

Trueblood, Lt Col Roger, USAF, chief, Force Protection Intelligence, 

Air Forces Central (Forward). Written statement, 30 January 2016.
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 405

Trump, Donald. National Security Strategy of the United States of 

America. Washington, DC: The White House, 2017. https://www

.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Fi

nal-12-18-2017-0905.pdf.

 Twain, Mark. Chapters from My Autobiography. Project Gutenberg 

e-book. no. 19987, 1 December 2006. Published in North American Review, 7 September 1906–December 1907. http://www

.gutenberg.org/files/19987/19987.txt. See also Chapter 23, 5 July 

1907. The Literature Network. Accessed 2 November 2018. on

line-literature.com/twain/my-autobiography/23.

Ucko, David H. “Lessons from Basra: The Future of British Counterinsurgency.” Survival 52, no. 4 (21 July 2010): 131–58.

Ulmer, Phillip, US Air Forces in Europe News Service. “Airmen Jump 

In, Prepare Airfield in Northern Iraq.”GlobalSecurity.org, 2 April 

2003. http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/iraq/2003

/iraq-030402-afpn02.htm.

United States Air Force. “C-17 Globemaster III.” Fact sheet, 14 May 

2018. https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article

/1529726/c-17-globemaster-iii/.

———. “F-15E Strike Eagle.” Fact Sheet, 15 April 2005. http://www

.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article

/104499/f-15e-strike-eagle.aspx.

———. “F-22 Raptor.” Fact Sheet, 23 September 2015. http://www

.af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article

/104506/f-22-raptor.aspx.

United States Air Force Expeditionary Center. “621st Contingency 

Response Wing.” Fact sheet, 13 September 2016. http://www.ex

peditionarycenter.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display

/Article/438550/621st-contingency-response-wing/.

United States Army and United States Air Force. Joint Service Agreement 8. USA-USAF Agreement for the Ground Defense of Air 

Force Bases and Installations, 25 April 1985. In Davis, The 31 Initiatives: A Study in Air Force–Army Cooperation, 125–31.

United States Army, Fort Bragg. “82nd Airborne Division: Mission.” 

Accessed 11 July 2017. https://www.bragg.army.mil/index.php

/units-tenants/82nd-airborne-division.

United States Government Accountability Office (GAO). Report to 

Congressional Committees. GAO-12-548. State Partnership Program: Improved Oversight, Guidance, and Training Needed for Na-
406 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

tional Guard’s Efforts with Foreign Partners. Washington, DC: 

GAO, May 2012. http://www.gao.gov/assets/600/590840.pdf.

United States Marine Corps. “Commandant Announces Decision in 

Afghanistan Attack Investigation.” News Release, 30 September 

2013. https://www.hqmc.marines.mil/Portals/142/Docs/CMC%

20Announces%20Decision%20in%20Afghan%20Attack%20In

vestigation.pdf.

United States Central Air Forces (CENTAF). “Operation Iraqi Freedom—by the Numbers,” 30 April 2003. Prince Sultan AB, Saudi 

Arabia: CENTAF. http://www.globalsecurity.org/jhtml/jframe

.html#http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/re

port/2003/uscentaf_oif_report_30apr2003.pdf.

“USAF Airmen Evaluate Rapid Raptor Concept in Guam.” Air Force 

Technology, 5 December 2014. http://www.airforce-technology

.com/news/newsusaf-airmen-evaluate-rapid-raptor-concept-in

-guam-4460735.

United States Army. “75th Ranger Regiment.” Accessed 19 September 

2018. http://www.benning.army.mil/tenant/75thRanger/.

Valliere, John. “Disaster at Desert One: Catalyst for Change.” Parameters 22, no. 3 (Autumn 1992): 69–82. http://strategicstud

iesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/1992/1992%20

valliere.pdf.

Van Tol, Jan, with Mark Gunzinger, Andrew Krepinevich, and Jim 

Thomas. AirSea Battle: A Point-of-Departure Operational Concept.

Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, 

2010. http://csbaonline.org/research/publications/airsea-battle-con

cept/publication.

Vasco, John, and Peter Cornwell. Zerstörer [Destroyer]: The Messerschmitt 110 and Its Units in 1940. Norfolk, VA: JAC Publications, 

1995. In Corum, “German Campaign in Norway,” 67.

Vick, Alan J. Air Base Attacks and Defensive Counters: Historical Lessons and Future Challenges. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2015. 

http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports

/RR900/RR968/RAND_RR968.pdf.

———. Snakes in the Eagle’s Nest: A History of Ground Attacks on Air 

Bases. Project Air Force. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1995. https://

www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_re

ports/2006/MR553.pdf.

Vlogger. “Large Scale ISIS Attack on Syrian Air Base.” Video. Military.com. Posted 28 August 2014. http://www.military.com/video 
BIBLIOGRAPHY │ 407

/operations-and-strategy/terrorism/large-scale-isis-attack-on

-syrian-air-base/3754197212001.

Volcheff, Maj Gen Mark, AMC/A3, and Maj Gen Mike DeCuir, ACC/

DO. Briefing. Subject: Air Base Opening—Contingency Response Group (CRG). Ver. 1.0. Commander’s Conference, Scott 

AFB, IL, 2004.

Ware, Michael. “Officials: Captured Hezbollah Agent Helped Plan 

Deadly Karbala Raid.” CNN, 1 July 2007. http://www.cnn

.com/2007/WORLD/meast/07/01/iraq.hezbollah/index.html.

Warrick, Joby. “Suicide Bomber Attacks CIA Base in Afghanistan, Killing at Least 8 Americans.” Washington Post, 31 December 2009. 

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article 

/2009/12/30/AR2009123000201.html.

Watzman, Anne, and Byron Spice. “Carnegie Mellon’s National Robotics Engineering Center Unveils Futuristic Unmanned Ground 

Combat Vehicles.” Carnegie Mellon Today, 28 April 2006. https://

www.cmu.edu/cmnews/extra/060428_crusher.html.

Weaver, Lt Col Larry, USAF, retired, and Col Anthony C. Cain, USAF. 

“Task Force Concepts of Operations: Transforming the USAF.” 

Air and Space Power Journal 17, no. 2 (Summer 2003): 49–56. 

https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/ASPJ/journals/Vol

ume-17_Issue-1-4/sum03.pdf.

Weeks, John. Assault from the Sky: The History of Airborne Warfare. 

London: Westbridge Books, 1978.

Week staff. “The Army’s Eight-Wheeled Laser Truck That Zaps Enemy Missiles.” Week, 8 October 2012. http://theweek.com/article

/index/234467/the-armys-eight-wheeled-laser-truck-that-zaps

-enemy-missiles.

Weiss, Brian A., and Craig I. Schlenoff. “Performance Assessments of 

Two-Way, Free-Form, Speech-to-Speech Translation Systems for 

Tactical Use.” ITEA Journal 32 (March 2011): 69–75. https://

ws680.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=908374.

“What Lies behind Afghanistan’s Insider Attacks?” BBC News, 11 

March 2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19633418.

Wheeler, Winslow. “The Latest Word on F-35 Unit Cost.” POGO 

(Project on Government Oversight), 3 January 2014. http://www

.pogo.org/straus/issues/weapons/2014/the-latest-word-on-f

-35-unit-cost.html

White House, Office of the Press Secretary. “Remarks by the President 

in the State of the Union Address.” Press release, 12 February 2013. 
408 │ BIBLIOGRAPHY

http://http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/02/12

/remarks-president-state-union-address.

White, Randolph C., Jr. “The Airborne Forces of the United States: 

Cornerstone of Force Projection.” Research report. Newport, RI: 

Naval War College, 5 February 1999.

White, SMSgt Viking, USAF, flight instructor, Air Force Senior Noncommissioned Officer Academy, Maxwell AFB–Gunter Annex, 

AL. To Maj J. William DeMarco. E-mail, 3 April 2004.

Wilkes, Brig Gen Bobby J. USAF, Col Murrell F. Stinnette, USAF, and 

Maj Randall Reed, USAF. “Expeditionary Mobility Task Force: 

Projecting Combat Power.” Air and Space Power Journal 19, no. 2 

(Summer 2005): 15–22. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Por

tals/10/ASPJ/journals/Volume-19_Issue-1-4/sum05.pdf.

Williams, Richard, 455th Air Expeditionary Wing. “‘Defenders’ Neutralize Threat to Bagram Airfield.” Defense Video Imagery Distribution System, 19 May 2010. https://www.dvidshub.net

/news/50115/defenders-neutralize-threat-bagram-airfield.

Wilson, Conrad. “Translation, Please: Hand-Held Device Bridges 

Language Gap.” npr, 26 June 2013. http://www.npr.org/blogs

/alltechconsidered/2013/06/27/186525030/translation-please

-hand-held-device-bridges-language-gap.

Wojtowicz, Gail E. “USAF Vulnerability to Limited Ground Attacks.” 

Master’s thesis, School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, June 

1994. www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA425507.
1st Air Commando Group, 36

1st Brigade Combat Team 

(1st BCT), 39, 42, 179

1st Cavalry Division (1CAV), 120

1st Infantry Division (1ID), 113, 

121–23, 164

3d Battalion, 82d Field Artillery 

(FA) Regiment (3-82), 99, 130–31 

3d Combat Support Group (3 CSG), 89

3d Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) 

Forward (FWD), 325

3rd Brigade, 38–39

3rd Corps Support Command, 142

3rd Infantry Division (Mechanized) 

(3rd ID), 38–39, 42

3rd Marine Aircraft Wing, 44, 325

3-82d Field Artillery Regiment, 131

5th Guards Motorized Rifle Division 

(MRD), 28–29

10th Special Forces Group, 46

16th Airlift Squadron, 67

23rd Special Tactics Squadron 

(23 STS), 42

36th Contingency Response Group 

(36 CRG), 296–97

65th Air Base Wing (65 ABW), 100

81st Brigade Combat Team 

(81 BCT), 147

82nd Airborne Division 

(82 ABN DIV), 56, 67, 70

86 AT, 23, 44

86 CRG, 44–47, 50–52, 55, 57, 64, 68

103rd Guards ABN DIV, 30

105th Guards Airborne Division 

(105 ABN DIV), 28

108th Motorized Rifle Division 

(108 MRD), 30

173rd Airborne Brigade, 38, 44–45, 54

173rd Airborne Division 

(173 ABN DIV), 52

332nd Expeditionary Security Forces 

Group (332 ESFG), 94, 101, 223, 

257, 330

377th Combat Support Group 

(377 CSG), 89

377th Theater Support Command, 42

392d Air Expeditionary Group 

(392 AEG), 43

455th Air Expeditionary Security 

Forces Squadron (455 ESFS), 113, 

118–25, 127–31, 218

455th Air Expeditionary Wing (455 

AEW), 111, 115, 118–20, 122, 127–31

455th Expeditionary Base Defense 

Group (455 EBDG), 131

455th Expeditionary Base Defense 

Squadron (455 EBDS), 131

455th Expeditionary Mission Support 

Group (455 EMSG), 122–23, 125, 130

455th Expeditionary Operations 

Group (455 EOG), 125

455th Expeditionary Operations Support Squadron (455 EOSS), 125–26

455th Expeditionary Security Forces 

Group (455 ESFG), 130–31, 257

455th Expeditionary Security Forces 

Squadron (455 ESFS), 113, 118–25, 

127–31, 218

515 AMOW, 9

521 AMOW, 9

532d Expeditionary Security Forces 

Squadron (523 ESFS), 94–95

554th RED HORSE Squadron, 297

556th Expeditionary Security Forces 

Squadron (556 ESFS), 157, 159 

613 CRG, 68

615th Air Mobility Operations Group 

(615 AMOG), 41, 44

618 TACC, 60

621 CRW, 9

621 TALCE, 42

621st Air Mobility Operations Group 

(621 AMOG), 41

644th Combat Communications 

Squadron (644 CCS), 297

736th Security Forces Squadron, 297

755 ESFS, 130–31

Index
412 │ INDEX

820th Base Defense Group (820 BDG), 

55, 68, 131

820th Security Forces Group 

(820 SFG), 42–43, 51, 55, 64, 149, 

151, 155–56, 162, 165, 194, 201, 

203, 208

823 SFS, 156–59, 162, 164–66

824th Security Forces Squadron (824 

SFS), 149, 156, 165

Aalborg, 8, 20–22

ABD doctrine, 204, 246, 322–23, 329

Abizaid, John, 144

Active Denial System (ADS), 346

Aegis destroyers, 242, 271

Aerosonde’s ScanEagle, 126

Afghan National Army (ANA), 325

Afghan National Security Forces, 

127, 221

Afghanistan, Soviet invasion of, 8, 25, 

27, 29, 31, 34, 226 

Agile Combat Employment (ACE), 287

air and space expeditionary force 

(AEF), 4, 56, 59, 66, 71, 142, 149, 

155–56, 165, 208

air and space operations center (AOC), 

276–77, 281

air base opening, 5, 8–10, 14, 16–17, 

49–50, 52, 55, 57, 59–60, 63–64, 67, 

70, 73–75

air base operability (ABO), 296

Air Combat Command (ACC), 51, 55, 

57–58, 64, 68, 70, 74, 155, 220, 

246, 248

airdrop, 44–45, 52, 68, 289

air expeditionary group (AEG), 43

airfield coordination and planning 

team (ACPT), 40

airfield seizure, 4–14, 16–18, 23–24, 

26, 35–36, 40, 42, 49–50, 52, 55, 

61–62, 67. See also forced entry

Air Force Contingency Response 

Group Operational Concept, 

version 1.0, 68

Air Force HUMINT, 259–61, 263–64

Air Force Office of Special Investigations 

(AFOSI), 129, 156, 179, 255–56, 

258–64, 324, 337

Air Force Research Laboratory 

(AFRL), 346

Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), 6, 51, 55–56, 58, 70

air interdiction, 6, 15

airland (operations), 21–23, 29, 46, 49, 

52, 62, 65

AirLand Battle (ALB), 229, 285, 

289, 292

airlift, 6, 15–16, 21, 24–25, 27, 32, 

41–43, 45, 49, 55–56, 63, 67, 71, 

130, 141–44, 147, 155

air-mindedness, 117, 147, 180, 233

air mobility, 5–6, 9–10, 14–17, 22, 27, 

41, 49, 61–62, 66–67, 74, 76, 105, 

296–97 

Air Mobility Command (AMC), 5–6, 

9, 39, 41, 43–44, 47, 49–51, 53, 

55–61, 63–67, 69–74, 76, 296 

air mobility operations wing 

(AMOW), 9

Air Mobility Warfare Center, 74

air tasking order (ATO), 125, 133, 245, 

247, 276

AirSea Battle (ASB), 134, 229, 238, 255, 

285, 288, 290

al-Asad AB, 212, 220, 308

al-Qaeda, 213, 221

Al Udeid AB, 146, 149, 159–60, 

162–63, 167, 169–70

AMC CRG, 49, 57, 60–61, 64–65, 67, 

69–70

AMC Tanker Airlift Control Center 

(TACC), 43, 53, 60

Amin, Hafizullah, 31–32, 51

Ansar al-Islam, 38

antiaccess/area-denial (A2/AD), 225, 

237, 243, 246–47, 249, 259–60, 262, 

264, 269–70, 272, 277, 279, 281, 

286–87, 290, 295, 297, 320, 327, 335

anti-Iraqi forces (AIF), 176–82, 

185–87, 192, 194–197, 204

Armitage, Richard, 213

Army Field Artillery Regiment 3-82, 130
INDEX │ 413

Army ground BSO, 98–99, 101–3, 

258–59

Army HUMINT, 258–59, 261–62

Army of the Republic of Vietnam 

(ARVN), 88

Army Rangers, 8, 13, 47, 56, 67, 158

Army tactical HUMINT, 258

Army’s Command Post of the Future, 124

Asia-Pacific, 285, 291, 295–98

assessment team (AT), 16, 41–44, 

49–52, 69 

Assessment Team One (AT Martin), 

44–45, 68

Assessment Team Three (AT Myers), 

41–42, 44, 52, 62

Badr Brigade, 92

Baghad International Airport (BIAP), 

40, 43, 141, 149

Bagram AB/airfield, 28, 30–33, 113, 

117–35, 203, 218–19, 242, 255, 

257, 330

Bandaranaike International Airport, 

224, 291

Bargery, Chris, 118, 139, 154, 159, 

162–68, 176, 180, 183–86, 188–89, 

193, 195–96, 199, 203–4, 208–9

“Base Defense Group Enabling 

Concept,” 131

base operating support integrator 

(BOS-I), 257–58, 261, 318

base security zone (BSZ), 99, 104, 

115–16, 118–21, 125–27, 129–33, 

135, 190, 192, 194, 257, 259, 319, 

337, 339

Bashur, 9, 38, 40, 44–47, 50, 52, 55, 

68–69

Basra, 38, 87–88, 90–93, 101, 104, 222, 

226–28

battlefield Airman, 66, 70

battlespace owner (BSO), 98–101, 103, 

113, 121, 131, 159, 257–59, 319, 330

Bay of Pigs, 37

Bien Hoa, 216, 306

Bishop, Brian, 242, 245, 318

Blue Force Tracker, 124

Bosnia, 90

British House of Commons, 227, 326

British Ministry of Defense, 32, 326

Broad Operational Language 

Translation (BOLT), 14, 347

Buchanan, Walter E., III, 139–40, 

146–47, 151–56, 159–60, 163, 167, 

204, 206, 208

Building Partnership Capacity (BPC), 

292–94, 296

Bush, George H. W., 14, 211

Bush, George W., 14, 70

Bushmaster, 9, 40

Camp Bastion, 39, 134, 219–20, 

226–28, 237, 253–54, 308–9, 313, 

321, 325–26

Camp Bastion, Leatherneck, and 

Shorabak (BLS) Complex, 219, 227, 

321, 325–26

Camp Sather, 149, 212, 308

Carlisle, Hawk, 274

casualty airlift staging facility 

(CASF), 144

CENTAF Forward, 146, 162

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 

35, 218, 221, 225, 289

China, 11, 285, 287, 290–91, 295

Chindits, 36

Christensen, Glen E., 139, 149, 160, 

163, 182, 190, 192, 194, 203

Churchill, Winston, 24

Cirafici, John, 6

Clinton, Hillary, 290

close air support (CAS), 6, 15, 44, 57, 

115, 124, 141, 239, 244–45, 303, 320

Cold War, 3–4, 8–9, 13–14, 32, 56, 

75, 115, 141, 225, 270, 273, 277, 

288–89, 297–98, 323

combat control team (CCT), 55–56

combatant command (COCOM), 60, 

243, 280, 293, 295

combatant commander (CCDR), 15, 

55, 63, 67, 114, 243, 274–75, 278, 

280, 293–94

combined air operations center 

(CAOC), 43, 152, 163, 167, 169, 

171–73
414 │ INDEX

combined force air component 

commander (CFACC), 41, 140, 146, 

150–51, 156, 160, 164, 177, 204, 

276, 280–81

Combined Joint Task Force 1 

(CJTF-1), 121

Combined Joint Task Force 455 

(CJTF-455), 130–131, 356

command and control (C2), 16, 35, 

43–44, 47, 49, 51, 62, 114, 118, 123, 

132, 158–59, 179, 200, 236, 242–49, 

270, 276–77, 280–82, 276–77, 

280–82, 288, 322, 326, 330

concept of operations (CONOPS), 

15–17, 22, 40, 47, 60, 89, 96, 166, 

183, 187, 204, 273, 287

contingency response force unit, 296

contingency response group (CRG), 

38, 68, 296

contingency response group (CRG) 

model, 296

contingency response wing (CRW), 9, 

51, 58, 296

Conway, James, 154, 163

Corum, James, 216

counterair, 15, 241

counter–indirect fire (C-IDF), 94, 99, 

121, 222, 338–41, 349

counterinsurgency (COIN), 88, 90–91, 

93, 99, 101, 103–4, 114–16, 121, 

132, 139, 162, 173, 202, 226, 247, 

285, 303, 320

counterintelligence (CI), 179, 

196–97, 233, 254–56, 258–59, 

261–64, 320, 337

counter-rocket, artillery, and mortar 

(C-RAM), 97, 99–100, 104, 124, 

133, 340–41

counterthreat operation (CTO), 255, 

258, 260–63, 336–37, 339, 343–50

Crusher, 344–45

Czech Republic, 130–31

Da Nang, 216, 323

Deale, Thomas, 318, 328

Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA), 347

Defense Clandestine Service 

(DCS), 259

Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), 

259, 263

Democratic Republic of Afghanistan 

(DRA), 26

Dempsey, Martin, 276, 282, 295

deployment order (DEPORD), 61

Dien Bien Phu, 214, 306

directed-energy weapon (DEW), 343, 

345–46, 349

director of mobility forces 

(DIRMOBFOR), 60

dispersed operations, 19, 75, 246, 248, 

264, 269–70, 273–82, 286–88, 292, 

294–97, 327

dispersed power-projection model, 

277–80

Division Headquarters and Headquarters 

Battalion (DHHB), 121–23

DOD HUMINT, 259

dominant maneuver, 7, 19, 27

Doolittle, James H. “Jimmy,” 11

Douhet, Giulio, 113–14, 254, 272, 

304, 317

Downing Report, 324

Downing, Wayne, 324

Dragon, Randy, 160, 167–68, 185

Eagle Flag, 66, 74

electronic warfare, 15, 33–34

Enabling Language Service Anywhere 

(ELSA), 347

entry control point (ECP), 100, 117, 

129, 146, 227, 325, 337–39, 341

execute order (EXORD), 61–62, 201

expeditionary detachment (EDet), 157, 

258, 262

expeditionary mobility task force 

(EMTF), 9, 65–66, 73

expeditionary security operation 

(ESO), 335–39, 349–50

Expeditionary Warfare Center, 66

explosive ordinance disposal 

(EOD), 161, 190, 192
INDEX │ 415

First Infantry Division, Second Brigade 

Combat Team (2 BCT), 147, 

159–60, 164, 177, 179, 194

fly-away security team (FAST), 76, 93, 

132, 155, 173, 296

forced entry, 6, 15, 37, 40, 52, 68. See 

also airfield seizure

force projection, 7, 11, 14, 27, 48–49, 

223, 268, 288, 315–17, 348

force protection intelligence (FPI), 51, 

169–71, 202–3, 255–56, 336–37

Fort Bragg, 71, 142

forward arming and refueling point 

(FARP), 44

forward-dispersed air basing, 288

forward operating base (FOB), 98, 

134, 146, 270, 351. See also forward 

operating location (FOL)

Forward Operating Base (FOB) 

Fenty, 219

forward operating location (FOL), 4, 

12, 15, 51, 114. See also forward 

operating base (FOB)

full-spectrum dominance, 7, 34

fully mission capable (FMC), 166

Gablenz, Freiherr von, 22

Gamble, Patrick K., 71

Gates, Robert, 87

geographic combatant commander 

(GCC), 280–81

GLARE MOUT, 345

global air mobility support system 

(GAMSS), 6

global mobility CONOPS 

(GM CONOPS), 16–17, 47, 60

global reach, 20, 48, 59, 75

global strike CONOPS, 16

Government Accountability Office 

(GAO), 95, 101, 103

Guardium, 341–42, 344–45

Gurganus, Charles, 326

H1, 9

Hansen, Blair, 153, 167–68, 176

hardened aircraft shelter 

(HAS), 143, 153, 162, 165

Helmand Province, 219

Hezbollah, 213, 221–22, 224. See also 

Islamic State in Iraq and Syria 

(ISIS), Liberation Tigers of Tamil 

Eelam (LTTE), and Tamil Tigers

High Energy Laser Technology 

Demonstrator (HEL TD), 341

Holmes, Robert, 204

Hornburg, Hal, 155

improvised explosive device (IED), 

95, 119, 180–81, 184, 186, 188, 190, 

192, 197–98, 201, 204, 206, 222, 

320, 342

integrated defense (ID), 38–39, 42, 61, 

98–100, 121, 218, 235–49, 271, 277, 

293–97, 319–21, 328, 336–37, 350 

Integrated Defense Risk Management 

Process (IDRMP), 321

intelligence information report (IIR), 

256, 258

intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), 99, 115, 123–24, 

126, 169, 172, 177, 205, 239, 245, 

254, 257, 263, 320

International Security Assistance Force 

(ISAF), 219

Iraqi air force (IAF), 41, 44, 100, 103

Iraqi army (IA), 46, 92, 94, 100–101, 

192, 220

Iraqi security forces (ISF), 91–93, 227

Iron Dome, 340

irregular warfare (IW), 238–40, 242, 

246, 293, 320

Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 

213. See also Hezbollah, Liberation 

Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), and 

Tamil Tigers

Iwo Jima, 12, 36–37

Jalalabad, 31, 33, 219

January 2005 Election Day in Iraq, 205

Joint Base Balad base security zone 

(JBB BSZ), 99, 257, 259

Joint Concept for Access and 

Maneuver in the Global Commons 

(JAM-GC), 134, 238–39, 246, 255, 

259, 262, 285–89, 291–97
416 │ INDEX

joint defense operations center 

(JDOC), 119, 122–27, 130

joint emergency operations center 

(JEOC), 124

joint force air component commander 

(JFACC), 60, 247

joint force commander (JFC), 34, 60, 

243, 247

joint intelligence support element 

(JISE), 223, 257–59, 261, 264

joint intelligence support element 

(JISE) human intelligence (JISE 

HUMINT), 259

Joint Readiness Training Center 

(JRTC), 71, 74

Joint Service Agreement 8 (JSA 8), 135, 

139, 141, 212, 323

joint task force (JTF), 121, 130, 132, 330

Joint Task Force 455 (JTF 455), 130

Joint Vision 2020, 7–8, 19–20

Jumper, John, 9, 47, 49, 54–55, 57, 63, 

67–68, 72, 198

K1, 9

Kabul International Airport, 8, 28, 

33, 221

Kandahar International Airport, 5, 9, 

31, 33, 118

Katunayake Air Base, 291

Kern, Sean, 166

Khe Sanh, 214

Khobar Towers, 311, 321, 323–24, 326

Kiem Thao method, 214

Kingdom of Jordan, 130–31

Kirkuk AB, 9, 40, 141–42, 144–46, 

156–59, 162–63, 166, 212, 308

Kolfage, Brian, 152–54

Kurdish Peshmerga, 38

Kyrgyzstan, 5

LA-9/P, 345

Landing zone (LZ) Rhino, 5, 8

language translation device, 343, 347–48

Large Package Week (LPW), 67, 71, 74

Lawrence, T. E., 29, 104

lessons learned, 23, 37, 71, 87, 90, 92, 

98, 101, 105, 135, 140, 184, 202, 

204–5, 208–9, 240, 254, 261, 264, 

279, 323, 329, 331

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam 

(LTTE), 213, 224–26. See also 

Hezbollah, Islamic State in Iraq and 

Syria (ISIS), and Tamil Tigers

Logistics Support Area Anaconda, 

139, 142, 170, 176, 318

Luftwaffe, 8, 10, 17–24, 50–52, 57, 63, 

75, 305

Lyons, Armand “Beaux,” 139, 157, 162, 

174, 177, 182–83, 187, 194–96

MacArthur, Douglas, 36

Machine Foreign Language Translation 

System (MFLTS), 347

major command (MAJCOM), 51, 

58–60, 114, 269, 280

man-portable surface-to-air missiles 

(MANPADS), 240, 289, 337–38

Manzariyeh AB, 13

Marine air-ground task force 

(MAGTF), 259

Marine Corps tactical-level 

HUMINT, 259

Military Airlift Command (MAC), 55

military police (MP), 92, 117, 121–22, 

124, 129–30, 147, 240

Military Transport Aviation (VTA) 

(Soviet), 33

Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected 

(MRAP) vehicle, 127

Mitchell, Billy, 149, 151, 160, 165, 174, 

183, 202, 207, 281

Mobile Detection Assessment 

Response System (MDARS), 342

mujaheddin, 35

National Robotics Engineering Center 

(NREC), 344–45

National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America (2002), 69

National Security Strategy of the United 

States of America (2017), 5

National Training Center, 71, 247

Navy Phalanx, 340

night vision goggles (NVG), 45, 51, 

188–89, 195
INDEX │ 417

Ninth Air Force, 35, 58, 140, 156

Nixon, Richard, 88

Normandy, 35

North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

(NATO), 14, 34, 134, 218–19, 221, 

225–26, 288–90, 340

Norway, Soviet invasion of, 8, 10, 

17–24, 31, 51–52, 64, 75

Obama, Barack, 131

offensive air operations, 12

operational control (OPCON), 60, 100, 

122, 141

Operations

Allied Force (OAF), 68

Chromite (or Inchon), 13

Danger Shield, 122

Desert Safeside (ODS), 139–40, 

150, 153, 155, 157, 159–60, 167, 

169–70, 173, 176, 202, 206–9

Desert Storm, 153

Detachment (aka Iwo Jima), 12, 

36–37, 130, 157

Eagle Claw, 13, 38

Enduring Freedom (OEF), 5, 9, 17, 

49, 57, 63

Husky, 37

Iraqi Freedom (OIF), 8–9, 17, 38, 

40–41, 44, 47–51, 57, 61, 63, 68, 

76, 141, 154, 261, 307, 313

Joint Endeavor, 70, 239

Just Cause, 8, 13, 193, 228

Mercury, 17

Merkur, 37

New Dawn (OND), 94–95, 98–99

Overlord, 35, 37

Southern Watch, 153, 155, 324

Thunderbolt, 38, 310

Thursday, 36

Urgent Fury, 8, 13

Weserübung, 18, 21, 24

outside the wire (OTW), 99, 113, 120, 

139–42, 144–46, 148–49, 151–54, 

166, 170, 199–200, 203, 206, 208–9, 

318, 323, 329–30, 339, 344, 348–49

overland, 29, 49, 52, 65

Pacific Air Forces (PACAF), 51, 57, 59, 

61, 68, 71, 74, 274

Panetta, Leon, 286

Pathfinders, 56, 66, 158

Patriot missile system, 189, 242, 271

Persistent Threat Detection System, 126

Personal Halting and Stimulation 

Response Rifle (PHASR), 346

Phoenix Horizon, 72–73

Phoenix Horizon–Mobility, 66, 73, 296

Phoenix Horizon–Torch, 73

Phoenix Raven, 262, 296

power-projection model, 269–72, 277–80

precision engagement, 6–7, 20, 31–32, 

40, 157, 176, 297

Prime BEEF, 55

Qatar, 114, 146, 162–63, 170

quick reaction force (QRF), 115, 

118–19, 122, 181, 189, 219

RAF Regiment, 51, 54, 57, 63, 71, 180

Rapid Elevated Aerostat Platform 

(REAP), 126

Rapid Raptor, 134, 255, 260, 262–64, 

273–79, 287

Reaper-1, 127

Reaper patrols, 126–27, 129, 133

Red Army, 25, 32

RED HORSE, 55, 58, 64, 68, 297

Regional Command (RC)–East 

(RC-East), 113, 121–24, 127, 130–31

Regional Command (RC)–Southwest, 

326

remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), 72, 

99, 114

remotely piloted vehicle (RPV), 172, 

223–26, 229–30, 235, 237, 240, 

242, 335, 341–42

Republic of Korea, 121, 130–31

Republic of Vietnam (RVN) Air Force 

(RNAF or VNAF), 88–90, 216

Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces 

(RVNAF), 89–90, 329

request for forces (RFF), 61

Roberson, Daryl, 154

robotic sentry, 339–40, 342–43, 349

Roche, James G., 70
418 │ INDEX

rocket propelled grenade (RPG), 113, 

120, 218–19

Ross, Mike, 160

Royal Air Force (RAF), 12, 18, 44, 51, 

54, 57, 63, 71, 117, 172, 180, 219, 

226, 305, 307

Rumsfeld, Donald H., 15

Rundquist, Erik, 45, 113, 120, 122, 

203, 220

Saddam International Airport, 39

Sagraves, Robert, 306, 311

sapper attack, 214, 216–17, 221, 227, 

309, 325

Schwalier, Terryl, 324–25

secure lodgment, 5–6, 9, 11, 16

security forces (SF), 30, 42–43, 48, 50, 

54, 61, 72, 89–90, 95, 97, 99–100, 

103, 113, 115, 118–19, 122–28, 

130–31, 133–34, 139–49, 151–57, 

162, 167, 171, 186, 203, 207–9, 219, 

226, 240, 254, 256, 258–62, 264, 277, 

290, 296, 298, 324, 329, 335, 337

Seip, Norman, 150–52, 163

senior airfield authority (SAA), 118

SGR-A1 sentry, 343

Shiite, 91, 221–22, 227

shuras, 127

Sicilian Campaign, 10

Silver Flag Alpha, 208

Skyshield, 340

Sola airfield, 8, 19, 21–23

Soviet, 3, 8, 13, 17, 25–35, 48, 50–52, 

64, 75, 217–18, 225–26, 273, 285, 

288–90, 293, 298

Soviet-Afghan war, 26, 29

Spacy, Bradley, 139, 145, 148–55, 

159–64, 167, 169–71, 206

Special Air Service (SAS), 305

special air warfare operations, 15

special operations forces (SOF), 6, 13, 

62, 204, 221, 289

special tactics (ST), 38, 41–42, 49, 55–57

special tactics team (STT), 38, 43, 

55–56, 70, 73

Spetsnaz, 27–28, 32, 52, 225–26, 289, 291

stabilization, security, transition and 

reconstruction (SSTR), 293

State Partnership Program (SPP), 293–95

Student, Kurt, 17, 212, 308

Sturdevant, Gregg, 326

Subic Bay, 291

Sunni, 202, 205, 221–22

Super aEgis 2, 343

suppression of enemy air defenses 

(SEAD), 15

Supreme Command of the Armed 

Forces, 20

Supreme Council for the Islamic 

Revolution in Iraq, 92

tactical air control party (TACP), 70, 

358–59

tactical air reconnaissance, 15

tactical automated security system 

(TASS), 124, 128

tactical high-energy laser (THEL), 341

tactical operations center (TOC), 160, 

162, 165, 188–90

tactical security element (TSE), 337

tactics, techniques, and procedures 

(TTP), 62–63, 67, 140, 146, 180, 

197, 200, 206, 274, 330

Taliban, 5, 213, 218–21, 227, 326

Tallil AB, 9, 38, 40–44, 52, 62, 141, 

146, 149, 212, 308

Tamil Tigers, 211, 222. See also 

Hezbollah, Islamic State in Iraq and 

Syria (ISIS), and Liberation Tigers 

of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)

tanker airlift control element 

(TALCE), 41–44, 49, 53, 62–63

Tan Son Nhut, 89, 216, 306

TAOR Mitchell, 149, 151, 160, 165, 

174, 183, 202, 207, 281

Task Force 1041 (TF 1041), 139–40, 

148–49, 155, 157, 160, 162–64, 

166–74, 176–89, 192–96, 198–99, 

201–9, 330

Task Force 3-69, 39

Task Force 455 (TF 455), 113, 126, 

130–31, 257

Task Force Colonist (TF Colonist), 129
INDEX │ 419

Terminal High Altitude Area Defense 

(THAAD), 242, 271

Tet offensive, 306

TF 1/455, 113, 117, 122–23, 125–28, 

130, 132–34, 330

TF Tacoma, 147

“31 Initiatives,” 229, 287–88, 290, 297

Thucydides, 10

Tikrit, 39–40, 147

Title 10, 141

total force, 123, 157–59, 292

Tukhachevskii, Mikhail Nikolaevich, 

25, 35

Twentieth Air Force, 37

“Twenty-Eight Articles of 

Counterinsurgency,” 93

unit type code (UTC), 156, 269, 280

United States Africa Command, 296

United States Air Force Expeditionary 

Center (AEFC), 60

United States Air Forces Central 

Command (USAFCENT), 118

United States Air Forces in Europe 

(USAFE), 44, 47, 49, 51, 54–55, 

57–59, 61, 64, 68–69, 74, 288

United States Army (USA) Field 

Manual (FM) 3-99, Airborne and 

Air Assault Operations, 6

United States Army Air Forces 

(USAAF), 11, 35, 37, 50

United States Army Criminal Investigations Division, 129

United States Army Garrison 

Command, 121

United States Army Rangers, 8, 13, 47, 

56, 67, 70, 158, 311

United States Central Command 

(USCENTCOM), 40–41, 118, 139, 

141–42, 219, 223, 229, 258, 324

United States Central Command Air 

Forces (USCENTAF), 41, 142, 

144–46, 152, 155, 160–63, 170, 

172, 179

United States European Command 

(EUCOM), 44, 296

United States Forces–Iraq (USF-I), 

93–94, 103–4

United States Pacific Command 

(USPACOM), 289, 291, 293–94, 296

United States Southern Command, 296

United States Transportation 

Command (USTRANSCOM), 49, 

59–61

unmanned ground vehicle (UGV), 

339–45, 349

untethered operations, 287–88

up-armored HMMWV 

(UAHMMWV), 150, 161, 165

USAFE CRG, 44, 47, 49, 51, 55, 57, 61, 

64, 68

USSR, 13–14, 25–27, 31, 34–35, 225

Vick, Alan, 12, 228, 237, 304–5, 307, 310

Vietcong, 115, 211, 214, 216, 221, 226, 

228, 286

Vietnamization, 88

Vietnam War, 115, 132, 213, 219, 228, 

254, 285, 319, 323, 329

Wake Island, 12, 291

Warsaw Pact, 27, 34, 288

weapons of mass destruction 

(WMD), 292–93

Wehrmacht, 20, 24

Westmoreland, William, 115

World War I, 10–11, 25

World War II (WWII), 11–13, 37, 54, 

56, 313–14

X Air Corps, 21–22