Containment and Disposal

of Large Amounts of 

Contaminated Water:

A Support Guide for Water Utilities

Office of Water (4608T) EPA 817-B-12-002 September 2012 http://www.epa.gov/watersecurity
Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities

ii

Office of Water (4608T)

EPA 817-B-12-002

September 2012

http://www.epa.gov/watersecurity
Disclaimer

The Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Water: A Support Guide for Water 

Utilities is designed to provide recommendations that may be useful in preparing for 

contamination threats and events. While it may serve as a reference document for 

preparation and response to an actual contamination event when rapid decision making is needed, this guide does not address all facets of the decontamination phase of 

a response. It consists of broad recommendations that may be adaptable to a specific 

situation or incident. Use of this guide is voluntary. This guide is not a rule; it is not legally enforceable; and it does not confer legal rights or impose legal obligations upon 

any member of the public, water utilities, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA), state and local governments, tribes, or any other agency. It includes references 

to statutes and regulations, but it does not change or substitute for any legal requirements. While EPA has made every effort to ensure the accuracy of the discussion in 

this guide, the obligations of the regulated community are determined by the relevant 

statutes, regulations, or other legally binding requirements. In the event of a conflict 

between the discussion in this document and any statute or regulation, this document 

would not be controlling. The word “should” as used in this guide does not connote a 

requirement, but may indicate EPA’s strongly preferred approach to ensure effective 

implementation of legal requirements. 

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List of Acronyms

ACP Area Contingency Plan

ADAMS Agency-wide Documents Access and Management System

AEA Atomic Energy Act

ALARA As Low as Reasonably Achievable

ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

BSL Biosafety Level

CBR Chemical, Biological, and Radiological 

CDC Centers for Disease Control

CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CID EPA Criminal Investigation Division

CRS Congressional Research Service

CSO Combined Sewer Overflow

CWA Clean Water Act

CWT Centralized Waste Treatment

DBP Disinfection Byproduct

DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security

DOD U.S. Department of Defense

DOE U.S. Department of Energy

DOT U.S. Department of Transportation

EDR Electrodialysis Reversal

EMS Emergency Management Service

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

ERLN Environmental Response Laboratory Network 

ERP Emergency Response Plan

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 

FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration

FOTW Federally Owned Treatment Works

FR Federal Register

GAC Granular Activated Charcoal

HAA Haloacetic Acid

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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HASP Health and Safety Plan

HAZMAT Hazardous Materials

HLRW High-Level Radioactive Waste

HMR Hazardous Materials Regulation

IC Incident Commander

ICS Incident Command System

ID Identifier

IND Improvised Nuclear Device

JTTF Joint Terrorism Task Force

LDR Land Disposal Restrictions

LLMW Low-Level Mixed Waste

LLRW Low-Level Radioactive Waste

LLRWDF Low-Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility

LQG Large Quantity Generators

MARPOL Marine Pollution; more specifically, the designation for the International

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

MCL Maximum Contaminant Level

NCP National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan

NHMRR National HAZMAT (Hazardous Materials) Route Registry

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

NRT National Response Team

OPA Oil Pollution Act

OSC On-Scene Coordinator

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl

PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration 

POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works

RAP Remediation Action Plan

RCP Regional Contingency Plan

RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

RDD Radiological Dispersal Device

RPTB Response Protocol Toolbox

SAFESTAT Motor Carrier Safety Status Measurement System

SAM Standardized Analytical Methods for Environmental Restoration following 

Homeland Security Events

SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act

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SEB Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B

THM Trihalomethane

TRAGIS Transportation Routing Analysis Geographic Information System

TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act

UIC Underground Injection Control 

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAPHC U.S. Army Public Health Command 

USC United States Code

USCG U.S. Coast Guard

USDW Underground Source of Drinking Water

UST Underground Storage Tank

UV Ultraviolet

WCIT Water Contaminant Information Tool

WLA Water Laboratory Alliance

WSi CMP Water Security Initiative Interim Guidance on Developing Consequence 

Management Plans for Drinking Water Utilities 

WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Glossary

The following terms are defined for purposes of this guidance document:

Agency – A division of government with a specific function, or a non-governmental organization (e.g., private 

contractor, business, etc.) that offers a particular kind of assistance. In the incident command system (ICS), 

agencies are defined as jurisdictional (having a statutory role in incident mitigation) or assisting and/or cooperating (providing resources and/or assistance). 

Agreement State – Any State with which the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or the Atomic Energy Commission has entered into an effective agreement under subsection 274b of the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as 

amended in 68 Stat. 919 (Per 40 CFR 191.02(f)).

All Hazards – An incident, natural or manmade, that warrants action to protect life, property, environment, 

and public health or safety, and to minimize disruptions of government, social, or economic activities. (From 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Response Framework, FEMA Publication P-692, 2008)

As Low as Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) – Making every reasonable effort to maintain exposures to 

radiation as far below the dose limits in this part as is practical consistent with the purpose for which the licensed activity is undertaken, taking into account the state of technology, the economics of improvements in 

relation to the state of technology, the economics of improvements in relation to benefits to public health and 

safety, and other societal and socioeconomic considerations, and in relation to utilization of nuclear energy 

and licensed materials in the public interest (Per 10 CFR 20.1003).

Before the Drinking Water Distribution System – Water is considered to be located before the drinking water distribution system after it has been withdrawn from the source water (e.g., surface water or ground water) 

and before it is released to the pipes in the drinking water distribution system. Therefore, for the purposes of 

this guide, this does not include source water, but does include water located within a drinking water treatment plant or reservoir that has not entered the distribution system. 

Biosafety Level – The level of precaution that must be taken to minimize the exposure of workers and the 

environment to infectious agents. The greater the threat of infection a contaminant poses, the greater the biosafety level. (From Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical 

Laboratories, 5th ed., HHS Publication (CDC) 21-1112, 2009) 

Brine – Treatment residual highly saturated with salt.

Cancelled Pesticide – A pesticide for which the registration (i.e., license) has been cancelled through one 

of the following actions:

• Voluntary cancellation by the registrant

• Cancellation by EPA because required fees were not paid

• Cancellation by EPA because unacceptable risk existed that could not be reduced by other actions 

such as amendment to terminate one or more uses or amendment to change the terms and conditions 

of registration and labeling 

For more information, see 7 U.S.C. 136d Section 6(b) and EPA’s Web page on regulating pesticides: http://

www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/restricted.htm#canceled.

Catch Basins – Chambers or sumps, usually built at the curb line, which allow surface water runoff to enter 

the stormwater conveyance system. 

Centralized Waste Treatment (CWT) Facility – Any facility that treats (for disposal, recycling, or recovery of 

material) any hazardous or non-hazardous industrial wastes, hazardous or non-hazardous industrial wastewater, and/or used material received from off site. “CWT facility” includes both a facility that treats waste 

received exclusively from off site and a facility that treats wastes generated on site as well as waste received 

from off site. For example, an organic chemical manufacturing plant may, in certain circumstances, be a CWT 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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facility if it treats industrial wastes received from off site as well as industrial waste generated at the organic 

chemical manufacturing plant. CWT facilities may also include re-refiners and may be owned by the federal 

government (Per 40 CFR 437.2).

Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) – The CFR is the codification of the federal regulations published in the 

Federal Register by the executive departments and agencies of the federal government. Each volume of the 

CFR is updated once each calendar year and is issued on a quarterly basis. See http://www.gpoaccess.gov/

cfr/index.html.

Combined Sewer System – Sewer system that is designed to collect stormwater runoff, domestic sewage, 

and commercial and industrial wastewater in a single pipe and transport it to a treatment plant, where it is 

treated and then discharged to a water body. Combined sewer systems generally include some combined 

sewer overflow (CSO) discharge points prior to reaching the treatment plant. For more information, see EPA’s 

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Web page on combined sewer overflows: http://

cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=5.

Containment – The temporary storing of water to prevent further contamination or harm to human health and 

the environment.

Contaminated Water – Water contaminated with a biological, chemical, or radiological contaminant.

Decontamination – The inactivation or reduction of contaminants from surfaces by physical, chemical or 

other methods to meet a cleanup goal. Decontamination does not include treatment of contaminated water 

or wastewater.

Drinking Water Distribution System – System consisting of pipes, pumps, control valves and storage facilities designed to provide water for human consumption (e.g., to homes, businesses, hospitals, government 

facilities, etc.). For the purposes of this guide, this does not include the end point of the water (e.g., the home, 

business, etc.). 

Drinking Water Primacy Agency – The agency that has primary responsibility for administration and enforcement of primary drinking water regulations and related requirements applicable to public water systems 

within a state (Per 40 CFR Part 142). Drinking water primacy for a particular state or tribe may reside in one 

of a variety of agencies, such as health departments, environmental quality departments, etc., or in the applicable EPA region. The drinking water primacy agency may also play the role of technical assistance provider 

to drinking water utilities. 

Drinking Water System – A utility, its components, personnel, and assets that are involved in providing drinking water to its customers.

Emergency – Any incident, whether natural or manmade, that requires responsive action within hours to protect life or property. As defined in the Stafford Act, any occasion or instance for which, in the determination 

of the President, federal assistance is needed to supplement state and local efforts and capabilities to save 

lives and to protect property and public health and safety, or to lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe in 

any part of the United States (Per 42 U.S.C. 5122).

Emergency Response Plan – A document that describes the actions that a drinking water or wastewater 

utility might take in response to various emergencies, disasters, and other unexpected incidents. (From EPA 

Emergency Response Plan Guidance for Small and Medium Community Water Systems to Comply with the 

Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act of 2002, EPA 816-R-04-002, 2004)

Federal Register (FR) – The Federal Register is the official daily publication for rules, proposed rules, and 

notices of federal agencies and organizations, as well as executive orders and other presidential documents. 

See http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/browse/collection.action?collectionCode=FR.

Force Main – Pipeline that conveys wastewater under pressure from the discharge side of a pump or pneumatic ejector to a discharge point. Pumps or compressors located in a lift station provide the energy for 

wastewater conveyance in force mains.

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Hazardous Substance – Consistent with the definitions in the Comprehensive Environmental Response, 

Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and the National Contingency Plan (see 40 CFR 300.5), this term 

generally includes (but is not limited to): 

• Any of more than 400 hazardous substances designated under section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Clean Water Act (CWA) or toxic pollutants listed under section 307(a) of the CWA

• Any substance designated pursuant to section 102 of CERCLA

• Any hazardous waste having the characteristics identified or listed under section 3001 of the Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

• Any of more than 200 hazardous air pollutants listed under section 112 of the Clean Air Act (CAA), as 

amended

• Any imminently hazardous chemical substance or mixture about which the EPA Administrator has 

“taken action pursuant to” section 7 of the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)

The term does not include petroleum, including crude oil or any fraction thereof that is not otherwise listed 

or designated above. The term does not include natural gas, natural gas liquids, liquefied natural gas, or 

synthetic gas usable for fuel (or mixtures of natural gas and such synthetic gas). 

High-Level Radioactive Waste (HLRW) – The highly radioactive materials produced as byproducts of fuel 

reprocessing or of the reactions that occur inside nuclear reactors. HLRW includes: (1) irradiated reactor 

fuel; (2) liquid wastes resulting from the operation of the first cycle solvent extraction system, or equivalent, 

and the concentrated wastes from subsequent extraction cycles, or equivalent, in a facility for reprocessing 

irradiated reactor fuel; and, (3) solids into which such liquid wastes have been converted (Per 10 CFR 60.2). 

Containment and disposal of this type of radioactive waste is not covered in this guide. 

Hydrophobic – Having a strong aversion for water.

In Situ – In place. 

Incident Command System (ICS) – A standardized on-scene emergency management construct specifically designed to provide for the adoption of an integrated organizational structure that reflects the complexity and demands of single or multiple incidents, without being hindered by jurisdictional boundaries. ICS is 

a management system designed to enable effective incident management by integrating a combination of 

facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational 

structure, designed to aid in the management of resources during incidents. It is used for all kinds of emergencies and is applicable to small as well as large and complex incidents. ICS is used by various jurisdictions and 

functional agencies, both public and private, to organize field-level incident management operations. (From 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Response Framework, 2008, FEMA Publication P-692.)

Individual Control Mechanism – Individual permit, order, or similar control mechanism. For example, this 

phrase is used in EPA’s General Pretreatment regulations at 40 CFR 403.8(f)(1)(iii). 

Initial Response – Actions taken immediately following notification of a contamination incident or release. 

In addition to search and rescue, scene control, and law enforcement activities, initial response may include 

initial site containment, environmental sampling and analysis, and public health activities, such as treatment 

of potentially exposed persons.

Injection Well – A “well” into which “fluids” are being injected. A well is defined as a bored, drilled, or driven 

shaft whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension; or, a dug hole whose depth is greater than 

the largest surface dimension; or, an improved sinkhole; or, a subsurface fluid distribution system (Per 40 

CFR 144.3.) For more information see http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/basicinformation.cfm.

Large Quantity Generators (LQG) – A facility that generates 1,000 kilograms per month or more of hazardous waste, more than 1 kilogram per month of acutely hazardous waste, or more than 100 kilograms per 

month of any residue, contaminated soil, waste or other debris from the cleanup of spills of acute hazardous 

waste (Per 40 CFR 261.5(e)(2) and 40 CFR 262). For more information on LQG, see http://www.epa.gov/osw/

hazard/generation/lqg.htm.

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Lift Station – A tank or chamber accompanied by a pump and related controls used to retain and periodically 

discharge effluent. 

Lined Evaporation Pond – Man-made pond having a large surface area for maximum exposure (e.g., exposure to sunlight or atmosphere).

Local Limits – Limitations and requirements that an industrial user must meet before discharging into a 

publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Developed in accordance with 40 CFR 403.5(c), local limits are 

Pretreatment Standards for the purpose of CWA section 307(d) [per 40 CFR 403.5(d)]. Each POTW pretreatment program must develop, implement, and enforce technically based local limits. (From EPA Local Limits 

Development Guidance, EPA-833-R-0-4002A, July 2004)

Low Level Mixed Waste (LLMW) – Material containing low-level radioactive waste and hazardous waste as 

defined by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). 

Low Level Radioactive Waste (LLRW) – Radioactive waste not classified as high-level radioactive waste, 

transuranic waste, spent nuclear fuel, or byproduct material as defined in section 11e (2), (3) or (4) of the 

definition of byproduct material set forth in 10 CFR 20.1003 (Per 10 CFR 61.2). LLRW may contain either high 

or low concentrations of radioactivity. 

Low Level Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility (LLRWDF) – Commercially operated sites licensed by the 

NRC or an Agreement State to dispose of solid LLRW. 

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) – The maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water which 

is delivered to any user of a public water system (Per 40 CFR 141.2). Under CERCLA, ground waters and 

surface waters that are current or potential drinking water sources are generally expected to be returned to 

beneficial reuse, which includes achieving MCLs.

Mixed Waste – RCRA section 1004(41) defines mixed waste as waste that contains both hazardous waste 

and source, special nuclear, or by-product material subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954.

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) – Also called the National 

Contingency Plan, the NCP (40 CFR part 300) generally provides a blueprint for carrying out response actions under CERCLA and section 311 of the CWA. The NCP is designed to provide for efficient, coordinated, 

and effective response to discharges of oil and releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants. The NCP describes the organizational structure and procedures for preparing for and responding to 

discharges of oil and releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, and contaminants.

National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) – The national program for issuing, modifying, 

revoking and reissuing, terminating, monitoring and enforcing permits, and imposing and enforcing pretreatment requirements, under sections 307, 402, 318, and 405 of CWA (Per 40 CFR 122.2). This permit program 

controls water pollution by regulating point sources that discharge pollutants into waters of the United States. 

Oil – Consistent with the definition published in the NCP at 40 CFR 300.5, this term includes:

• Oil as defined by section 311(a)(1) of the CWA, which means oil of any kind or in any form, including, 

but not limited to, petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse, and oil mixed with wastes other than dredged 

spoil. 

• Oil as defined by section 1001 of the Oil Pollution Act (OPA), which means oil of any kind or in any 

form, including, but not limited to, petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse, and oil mixed with wastes 

other than dredged spoil, but does not include petroleum, including crude oil or any fraction thereof, 

which is specifically listed or designated as a hazardous substance under subparagraphs (A) through 

(F) of section 101(14) of CERCLA (42 U.S.C. 9601) and which is subject to the provisions of that Act.

On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) – The federal official predesignated by EPA or the U.S. Coast Guard to coordinate and direct responses under subpart D, or the government official designated by the lead agency to 

coordinate and direct removal actions under subpart E of the NCP (Per 40 CFR 300.5). The specific duties of 

the OSC are provided in 40 CFR 300.120.

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Paint Filter Liquids Test – This method is used to determine the presence of free liquids in a representative 

sample of waste and compliance with 40 CFR 264.314 and 40 CFR 265.314 (disposal of bulk and containerized liquids at hazardous waste landfills). See Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical 

Methods, Method 9095B, EPA Publication SW-846, November 2004, for more information.

Potable Water – Water of sufficiently high quality that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate 

or long-term harm.

Public Health – The practice of preventing disease and promoting good health within groups of people, from 

small communities to entire countries. 

Public Water System – A system for the provision to the public of water for human consumption through 

pipes or, after August 5, 1998, other constructed conveyances, if such system has at least 15 service connections or regularly serves an average of at least 25 individuals daily at least 60 days out of the year. Such 

term includes: any collection, treatment, storage, and distribution facilities under control of the operator of 

such system and used primarily in connection with such system; and any collection or pretreatment storage 

facilities not under such control which are used primarily in connection with such system. Such term does 

not include any “special irrigation district.” A public water system is either a “community water system” or a 

“noncommunity water system” (Per 40 CFR 141.2).

Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) – A treatment works as defined by section 212 of the CWA 

which is owned by a state or municipality (as defined by section 502(4) of the CWA). This definition includes 

any devices and systems used in the storage, treatment, recycling, and reclamation of municipal sewage or 

industrial wastes of a liquid nature. It also includes sewers, pipes and other conveyances only if they convey 

wastewater to a POTW plant. The term also means the municipality as defined in section 502(4) of the CWA, 

which has jurisdiction over the indirect discharges to and the discharges from such a treatment works (Per 

40 CFR 403.3(q)).

Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) Pretreatment Program or Approved Pretreatment Program – 

A program administered by a POTW that meets the criteria established in 40 CFR 403.8 and 403.9 and that 

has been approved by a Regional Administrator or State Director in accordance with 40 CFR 403.11 (Per 40 

CFR 403.3(d)). The program may include requirements for the reduction of the amount of contaminants, the 

elimination of contaminants, or the alteration of the nature of contaminant properties in wastewater prior to 

release into a POTW.

Pump Station – Facility that consists of pumps and service equipment designed to pump flows from lower 

to higher elevations to allow continuous and cost-effective treatment.

Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD) – Any device that causes the purposeful dissemination of radioactive 

material, across an area with the intent to cause harm, without a nuclear detonation occurring.

Raw Water – Untreated water.

Raw Water Main – Transmission, arterial, or distribution water main, but not a service line that transports raw 

water from source to the treatment plant. 

Receiving Body – The body of water into which water and/or effluent is discharged from wastewater systems, stormwater systems, and other point-source dischargers.

Remediation – Remediation includes the processes of characterizing, decontaminating, and clearing a contaminated site or items, including disposal of wastes. It is a synonym for cleanup. (From U.S. DHS/EPA, Draft 

Planning Guidance for Recovery Following Biological Incidents, May 2009)

Reservoir – Any natural or artificial holding area used to store, regulate, or control water.

Residual – Byproducts from the treatment of contaminated water, including water, water-soluble materials, 

and solids.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Hazardous Waste – RCRA section 1004(5) defines a 

waste as hazardous if it is a solid waste that may cause an increase in mortality or serious illness or pose a 

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substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, 

transported, disposed or otherwise managed. See Solid Waste (below) for the statutory and regulatory definition of a RCRA solid waste. RCRA hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, or sludges. The regulatory 

definition of hazardous waste is found in 40 CFR Part 261. A waste may be considered hazardous if it exhibits 

certain hazardous properties (characteristics) in 40 CFR 261.21 to 261.24 or if it is listed as hazardous waste 

in 40 CFR 261.31 to 261.33, Subpart D-Lists of Hazardous Wastes). They can be discarded commercial 

products, such as cleaning fluids or pesticides, or the byproducts of manufacturing processes. See RCRA 

1004(5) and 40 CFR 261.3 for the complete definitions, and http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/index.htm for 

more information.

Response – Includes immediate actions to save lives, protect property and the environment, and meet basic 

human needs. Response also includes the execution of emergency plans and actions to support short-term 

recovery. (From U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Response Framework, FEMA Publication 

P-692, 2008)

Service Reservoir – A water storage container that holds clean water after it has been treated in a water 

plant, and before it is piped to the end users.

Solid – State of matter characterized by particles arranged such that their shape and volume are relatively 

stable. The constituents of a solid tend to be packed together much closer than the particles in a gas or liquid. 

Solid Waste – RCRA section 1004(27) defines a solid waste as any garbage, refuse or sludge from waste 

treatment, water supply treatment and air pollution control and other discarded materials from industrial, 

commercial, mining and agricultural operations and from community activities. The statutory definition also 

includes several exclusions. The RCRA regulatory definition of solid waste is any discarded material that is 

abandoned, recycled, inherently waste-like, or a military munition, subject to certain exclusions. See 40 CFR 

261.2 for the complete definition and http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/dsw/index.htm. 

Soluble – Susceptible of being dissolved in or as if in a liquid, especially water.

Source Water – Water in its natural state, prior to any treatment for drinking.

Stabilization/Solidification – Waste stabilization means any physical or chemical process used to either 

reduce the mobility of hazardous constituents in a hazardous waste or eliminate free liquids as determined 

by Test Method 9095B (Paint Filter Liquids Test) in Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods, EPA Publication SW-846, as incorporated by reference in 40 CFR 260.11. A waste stabilization 

process includes mixing the hazardous waste with binders or other materials, and curing the resulting hazardous waste and binder mixture. Other synonymous terms used to refer to this process are “waste fixation” 

or “waste solidification.” This does not include the adding of absorbent materials to the surface of a waste, 

without mixing, agitation, or subsequent curing, to absorb free liquid (Per 40 CFR 265.1081). 

Storage – Long term containment of water.

Stormwater System or Separate Storm Sewer System – A conveyance or system of conveyances (including roads with drainage systems and municipal streets) that is designed or used for collecting or conveying 

stormwater for discharge to waters of the United States.

Surface Water – Water that is open to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff, such as rivers and lakes.

Suspended Pesticide – A pesticide for which the registration (i.e., license) has been suspended for one of 

the following reasons:

• If a registrant does not take appropriate steps to address an Agency-imposed requirement for the 

generation and submission of data that are necessary to support continued registration of a pesticide 

product or does not submit timely and acceptable data in response to such requirement

• If necessary to prevent an imminent hazard during the time required for cancellation or change of classification proceedings 

For more information, see 7 U.S.C. 136d Section 6(c) and EPA’s Web page on suspended pesticides at: 

http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/regulating/registering/.

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Temporary Storage – Short-term containment of water in a storage area or container specifically designed 

to hold water (e.g., holding ponds and holding tanks).

Transuranic Waste – Waste containing more than 100 nanocuries of alpha-emitting transuranic isotopes, 

with half-lives greater than twenty years, per gram of waste, except for: (1) High-level radioactive wastes; (2) 

wastes that the Department of Energy has determined, with the concurrence of the EPA Administrator, do 

not need the degree of isolation required by this part; or (3) wastes that the Nuclear Regulatory Commission 

(NRC) has approved for disposal on a case-by-case basis in accordance with 10 CFR Part 61 (Per 40 CFR 

191.02(i)). Transuranic elements are artificially made radioactive elements, such as neptunium, plutonium, 

americium, and others that have atomic numbers higher than uranium in the periodic table of elements. 

Transuranic waste is primarily produced from recycling spent nuclear fuel or using plutonium to fabricate 

nuclear weapons.

Treatment – The removal of contaminants from water or wastewater. Treatment is not the same as “decontamination.” (See separate definition for this term.)

Underground Source of Drinking Water – An aquifer or its portion: (a)(1) Which supplies any public water 

system; or (2) Which contains a sufficient quantity of ground water to supply a public water system; and (i) 

Currently supplies drinking water for human consumption; or (ii) Contains fewer than 10,000 mg/l total dissolved solids; and (b) Which is not an exempted aquifer.

Volume Reduction – A process used to decrease the quantity or amount of space the contaminated water 

occupies.

Wastewater System – A utility, its components, personnel, and assets that are involved in the handling, collecting, and treating of wastewater.

Wastewater Treatment Plant – A treatment system that may consist of physical, biological, chemical, and 

mechanical processes for the purpose of removing and/or reducing contaminants in the wastewater. Generic 

term that includes publicly owned treatment works (POTW), federally owned treatment works (FOTW), centralized waste treatment (CWT) facilities, and other wastewater treatment plants. 

Water Contaminant – Any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in water (Per 

section 1401(6) of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and 40 CFR 141.2). For the purposes of this guide, 

this definition will be used for drinking water and wastewater.

Water Profile – The characteristics of the water including but not limited to contaminant levels, temperature, 

pH, and turbidity. 

Water System – The water supply source, treatment plant infrastructure and processes, and the water distribution system. 

Within the Drinking Water Distribution System – Water located within the pipe, pumps, control valves, and 

storage facilities of the distribution system which are designed to provide water for human consumption to 

homes, businesses, hospitals, government facilities, etc. This does not include water at the end point of the 

system (e.g., the home, business, etc.).

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Table of Contents

LIST OF ACRONYMS ...............................................................................................v

GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................viii

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1

2.0 CONTAINMENT AND DISPOSAL AS PART OF REMEDIATION 

 AND RECOVERY.................................................................................................5

2.1 Actions Prior to Containment .....................................................................................5

2.2 EPA Water Sector Response and Recovery Guidance ............................................5

2.3 Statutes and Regulations ..........................................................................................6

2.4 Potential Partners ......................................................................................................7

3.0 CONTAINMENT AND TREATMENT OF WATER ..............................................9

3.1 Containment of Water In Situ .....................................................................................9

3.2 Containment of Water in Temporary Storage ..........................................................12

3.3 Treatment of Water ..................................................................................................14

4.0 DISPOSAL OF WATER .....................................................................................19

4.1 Direct Discharge of Water to Surface Water ...........................................................25

 4.2 Disposal of Water through a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) ......................26

 4.3 Transfer of Water to a Hazardous or Medical/Infectious Waste Facility .................30

4.4 Underground Injection of Water ...............................................................................30

 4.5 Volume Reduction and Solidification of Water with Radiological Contaminants ..... 31

5.0 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION ..............................................................32

 5.1 Storage of Water ......................................................................................................32

 5.2 Transportation of Water ...........................................................................................33

APPENDIX A: RISK COMMUNICATION .............................................................A-1

APPENDIX B: POTENTIAL TREATMENT METHODS .......................................B-1

APPENDIX C: SAMPLE DISPOSAL CHECKLIST ..............................................C-1

APPENDIX D: RESOURCES ................................................................................D-1

APPENDIX E: SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE LAWS AND REGULATIONS ...... E-1

APPENDIX F: REFERENCES.............................................................................. F-1

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
xvi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1: Classes of Contaminants Addressed in Guide .....................................................3

Table 2-1: Potentially Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations for Containment, 

Treatment, and Disposal........................................................................................................7

Table 3-1: Potential Additional Considerations Related to Containment In Situ .................12

Table 3-2: Additional Contaminant Specific Considerations for Temporary Storage ..........13

Table 3-3: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Chemicals.............15

Table 3-4: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Biologicals ............16

Table 3-5: Recommended Treatment Methods for Biotoxin Contaminated Water .............17

Table 3-6: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Radiologicals........17

Table 4-1: Characteristics of Treated Water and Potential Disposal Requirements ...........20

Table 4-2: Information on Disposal by Direct Discharge to Surface Water 

(Chemical, Biological, Toxin, and Radiological) ...................................................................25

Table 4-3: Some Key Additional Requirements and Considerations for WWTPs...............27

Table 4-4: Information on Disposal by Transfer or Discharge to a WWTP .........................29

Table B-1: Description of Potential Treatment Methods for CBR Contaminants .............. B-2

Table B-2: Potential Hydrolysis Products from Chemical Contaminants .......................... B-7

Table B-3: Potential Treatment Byproducts and Treatment Process Residuals ............... B-8

Table D-1: General Resources .......................................................................................... D-1

Table D-2: Disposal Resources ......................................................................................... D-6

Table D-3: Storage Resources ........................................................................................... D-7

Table D-4: Transport Resources ........................................................................................ D-8

Table D-5: Information on Disposal of Solids ..................................................................... D-9

Table E-1: Classes and Considerations for Underground Injection/Well Disposal ........... E-6

Table E-2: Summary of Storage, Treatment, Transportation, and Disposal of Mixed 

Wastes, Final Rule, May 2001 ........................................................................................... E-8

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1-1: Overview of Potential Options for Containment, Treatment, and Disposal of 

Large Amounts of Water from Drinking Water, Wastewater, and/or Stormwater Systems ...4

Figure 3-1: Recommended Decision-Making Framework for Containment and 

Treatment of Contaminated Water for Drinking Water Systems .........................................10

Figure 3-2: Recommended Decision-Making Framework for Containment and 

Treatment of Contaminated Water for Wastewater and Stormwater Systems ................... 11

Figure 4-1: Recommended Decision Tree for Evaluating Disposal of Treated Water for 

Drinking Water Systems ......................................................................................................23

Figure 4-2: Recommended Decision Tree for Evaluating Disposal of Treated Water for 

Wastewater and Stormwater Systems ................................................................................24

Figure A-1: Recommended Framework for Developing a Risk Communication Strategy 

for a Drinking Water Utility Following a Contamination Incident........................................ A-3

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
1

1

In the event that a drinking water, wastewater, or stormwater system is contaminated with a chemical, biological 

(including toxins), or radiological (CBR) contaminant, the system may need to contain, treat, and/or dispose of 

large volumes of water as a part of the decontamination efforts to return to service. This guide is intended for 

events involving emergency response activities at water utilities. In these types of events, an Incident Command 

System (ICS) may be established to manage the response, including decontamination activities.1

 This guide 

provides a summary of key information that may be useful in addressing containment, treatment, and disposal 

of water contaminated with a CBR agent within any part of a drinking water, wastewater, and/or stormwater system resulting from an “all hazards” contamination event.2,3

.0 Introduction

Who May Find this Guide Useful?

The information and recommendations in this guide were developed 

primarily for drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater utility personnel involved in response activities. Decision makers involved with 

emergency response planning, such as emergency management 

agencies, environmental agencies, public health agencies, law enforcement, as well as other federal, state, local, and tribal agencies, 

may also find the information and recommendations in this guide 

useful as a reference source. 

What is the Scope of this Guide?

This guide provides the following for water within drinking water, wastewater, and/or stormwater systems:

• An overview of the issues associated with containment, treatment, 

and disposal of water contaminated with CBR agents after a decision to contain the water has been made, including:

– Potential types of containment

– Potential treatment methods

– Potential disposal options and associated considerations

– Information on some of the key relevant statutes and regulations 

that may be applicable for containment and disposal

• Recommended decision-making frameworks for containment, treatment, and disposal of water contaminated with CBR agents

This guide is not intended to provide recommendations on:

• Initial response activities immediately following a confirmed contamination incident4

• Source water, such as ground water or surface water that has not 

entered the drinking water, wastewater, or stormwater system

1 For more information on the ICS and how ICS applies to water facilities, see http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/emerplan/

index.cfm#pp5. 

2 Potential treatment options are included in this guide because disposal options may be affected by the type of treatment employed.

3 For more information on how the U.S. manages an all-hazards response, see http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-core.pdf. 

4 Please note that water should not be released without regard to statutory and regulatory requirements.

Potential Locations 

of Large Amounts of 

Contaminated Water at the 

Utility 

Drinking Water System

Raw water pipe 

(intake to treatment plant)

Drinking water treatment plant

Transmission mains

Service reservoir

Drinking water distribution 

network

Pump stations

Storage tanks

Wastewater System

Collection system

Wastewater treatment plant

Effluent pipes

Lift stations

Treatment lagoons

Stormwater System

Catch basins

Collection system

Force mains

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
2

• Development of clearance goals

• Decontamination of system infrastructure

• Decontamination of household infrastructure/equipment (e.g., hot water heaters, etc.)

• Disposal of solids including treatment residuals5

• Disposal of source water or water residing at consumer locations

• Roles and responsibilities during decontamination and/or treatment activities and disposal

• Details of coordination activities among involved parties

• Wash water generated from decontamination activities that has not been discharged to a wastewater or 

stormwater system6 

If the contamination event requires a criminal investigation, additional actions that are outside of the scope of 

this guide may be required to preserve and collect evidence. In this case, the responding agencies should coordinate evidence preservation/collection and treatment/disposal activities with applicable agencies, such as 

local law enforcement, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Criminal Investigation Division (CID), or the 

Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

How Should this Guide be Used?

This guide is intended to be used as a preparedness tool and as a 

reference during emergency response-related containment, treatment, and disposal activities for large amounts of water. Information and recommendations presented in this guide are subject to 

change, and users are encouraged to consult current versions of 

the laws, regulations, resources, and references presented. In addition to the methods, statutes, regulations, and issues discussed 

in this guide, it may be appropriate to consider other factors such 

as system size, available assets, and state and local regulations 

pertaining to the treatment, storage, and disposal of large amounts 

of contaminated water. 

This guide does not supersede any federal or state statutes or 

regulations. Please consult state authorities for guidance on additional requirements, as states may have laws or regulations that 

are more stringent than federal laws and regulations. 

Which Contaminants Are Included in this 

Guide?

Chemical, biological, toxin, and radiological contaminants of concern to the Water Sector are included in this guide. Contaminantspecific information is identified through color-coding and the use 

of contaminant-specific icons. Table 1-1 presents the contaminant 

classes covered in each section of the guide.

5 This document is not meant to provide guidance for the disposal of solids. However, under RCRA, solid waste includes solid, liquid, semisolid, 

or contained gaseous material. Liquids considered solid waste by RCRA are included in this guide. Please refer to the glossary for the definitions 

of both solid and solid waste. For information and resources on disposal of solids, refer to Appendix D, Table D-5.

6 While this document is not intended to provide recommendations for the disposal of wash water, some of the information in this guide may be 

applicable to wash water.

How is this Guide Organized? 

This guide is organized in the 

following sections:

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Containment, Treatment, and 

Disposal as Part of Response 

and Recovery

3.0 Containment and Treatment of 

Water

4.0 Disposal of Water

5.0 Storage and Transportation

Appendix A: Risk Communication

Appendix B: Potential Treatment 

Methods

Appendix C: Sample Disposal 

Checklist

Appendix D: Resources

Appendix E: Summary of Potentially 

Applicable Laws and 

Regulations

Appendix F: References

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
3

Treatment Method Method Description Representative Contaminants

CHEM

Chemical Warfare 

Agents 

• 

• 

• 

• 

BZ 

Cyclosarin 

Lewisite

Sarin

• 

• 

• 

Sulfur 

Tabun 

VX 

Mustard 

Heavy Metals 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Arsenic

Cadmium

Chromium

Copper 

• 

• 

• 

Mercury

Nickel

Thallium 

Hydrophobics

• 

• 

• 

• 

Chlordane

Chlorinated 

Coal Tars

Diesel

solvent mixtures

• 

• 

• 

Heating oil

Industrial dyes and solvents 

Petroleum products (including 

petroleum) 

oil and 

• Gasoline • PCBs

Pesticides

• 

• 

• 

• 

Aldicarb

Carbofuran 

Dichlorvos

Dicrotophos

• 

• 

• 

Fenamiphos

Mevinphos

Phorate

Bacteria

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Bacillus anthracis

Brucella spp.

Burkholderia spp.

Clostridium perfringens

Coxiella burnetii 

Escherichia coli O157:H7

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Francisella tularensis

Salmonella Typhi 

Shigella dysenteriae 

Vibrio cholerae

Yersinia pestis

BIO

Viruses

• 

• 

Caliciviruses 

Hepatitis A virus 

• 

• 

Rotavirus

Variola major virus (Smallpox)

Protozoa

• 

• 

Cryptosporidium 

Giardia spp.

spp.

• Toxoplasma gondii

TOXIN

Plant Toxins • Digoxin • Ricin

Bacterial Toxins

• 

• 

Anatoxin A

Botulinum

• Staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB)

Algal Toxins

• 

• 

Brevetoxin

Microcystins

• Saxitoxin

Fungal Toxins • Aflatoxin • T2 mycotoxin

RAD

Alpha • Americium-241

Beta† • 

• 

Cesium-137

Cobalt-60

• 

• 

Iridium-192

Strontium-90

Gamma‡ • 

• 

Americium-241

Cesium-137

• 

• 

Cobalt-60

Iridium-192

Table 1-1: Classes of Contaminants Addressed in Guide

* High-level radioactive waste (HLRW) is not covered in this document.

† Of the four radioisotopes shown here, only Strontium-90 is predominantly a beta emitter; Cesium-137, Cobalt-60, and Iridium-192 are predominantly gamma emitters.

‡ Americium-241 is predominantly an alpha emitter.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Figure 1-1 presents a high-level overview of the recommended process for containment, treatment, and disposal of water contaminated with CBR contaminants for drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater systems. 

Flowcharts in Section 3.0 and Section 4.0 incorporate more detail on containment/treatment and disposal, 

respectively. The recommended processes for containment/treatment and disposal for drinking water systems 

and wastewater/stormwater systems differ, and, therefore, separate flowcharts are provided. 

Figure 1-1: Overview of Potential Options for Containment, Treatment, and Disposal of 

Large Amounts of Water from Drinking Water, Wastewater, and/or Stormwater Systems

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
5

2.0 Containment, Treatment, and Disposal 

 as Part of Response and Recovery

Containment, treatment, and disposal of large amounts of water associated with decontamination activities may be 

critical to response and recovery after a contamination event at a water utility. This section provides information that 

may be taken into consideration, including actions taken prior to containment, additional response and recovery 

guidance, statutes and regulations, and potential partners in disposal operations.

2.1 Actions Prior to Containment

Response actions taken prior to containment may include confirmation of contamination and identification of 

contaminant type.7

 Response and recovery actions that support containment, treatment, and disposal planning 

may include:

• Characterization of the CBR contaminant and utility system – After initial identification, further characterization of the chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) agent may provide critical information regarding 

contaminant concentrations and any potential health risks. Characterization of the affected utility may provide 

critical information concerning the location and status of the contaminant in the system (e.g., whether the 

agent is stable or prone to hydrolysis or natural attenuation).

• Determination of clearance goals – Prior to containment, treatment, and/or disposal, clearance goals may 

be established on a site-specific and incident-specific basis by the Incident Command (IC) in accordance 

with applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. Clearance goals may also specify measurable criteria, 

in accordance with any applicable laws and regulations, for determining the success of treatment. 

• Development of the Remediation Action Plan – The drinking water, wastewater, and/or stormwater system 

may develop a site-specific and incident-specific Remediation Action Plan that describes actions to remove, 

reduce, or eliminate contaminates in or on a site. It includes a treatment and decontamination strategy in accordance with any applicable laws and regulations. This plan may consider the capabilities and limitations 

of the system, the circumstances of the contamination incident, volume and location of contaminated water, 

and any applicable statutory and regulatory requirements.

2.2 EPA Water Sector Response and Recovery Guidance

The following documents provide additional information regarding response and recovery and may be used in 

conjunction with this guide: 

• Water Security Initiative: Interim Guidance on Developing Consequence Management Plans for Drinking Water Utilities, October 2008 (WSi CMP)8

 – Assists drinking water utilities with the development of plans 

to guide the utility and partner agencies through the processes of validating, responding to, and recovering 

from a contamination incident in the distribution system. While the WSi CMP recommends proper disposal 

of wastewater, it does not provide specific guidance on the disposal of large amounts of water. However, it 

provides in-depth information concerning actions taken prior to containment, including characterization and 

development of a Remediation Action Plan, as described in Section 2.1 above.

7 Please note that the water also may be contained during the initial response.

8 See EPA 817-R-08-001, http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2008_10_24_watersecurity_guide_interim_cmp_wsi.pdf.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
6

• Response Protocol Toolbox: Planning for and Responding to Drinking Water Contamination Threats 

and Incidents, Interim Final, April 2004 (RPTB – Module 6)9

 – Describes response and recovery activities following a confirmed contamination incident; however, it provides only limited information on disposal 

options for water. A similar toolbox is currently under development for wastewater but is not yet available 

to the public.

2.3 Statutes and Regulations

This section identifies statutory and regulatory 

requirements that may apply to planning and 

decision making for containment, treatment 

and disposal of large amounts of water contaminated with CBR contaminants. Table 2-1

lists these statutes and regulations by contaminant category. Summaries are available 

in Appendix E. The applicability of these statutes and regulations should be evaluated on 

a case-by-case and incident-specific basis.

States may have EPA-approved programs 

for implementing certain requirements in the 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

(RCRA), Clean Water Act (CWA), Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), or other federal environmental statutes. States may also have 

additional, more stringent statutes or regulations as part of these programs. Please 

consult state authorities for guidance on additional requirements.

9 See EPA 817-D-03-006, http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_05_19_watersecurity_guide_response_module6.pdf.

Clean Water Act Sections 301(f) and 311(b) 

While a number of statutes and regulations may apply, 

two sections of CWA are particularly relevant to the 

contaminants included in this guide.

Section 301(f): “Not withstanding any other provisions of 

[the Clean Water] Act it shall be unlawful to discharge any 

radiological, chemical, or biological warfare agent, any 

high-level radioactive waste, or any medical waste, into the 

navigable waters.”

Section 311(b): “The Congress hereby declares that it is 

the policy of the United States that there should be no 

discharges of oil or hazardous substances into or upon the 

navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines, 

or into or upon the waters of the contiguous zone, or in 

connection with activities under the Outer Continental Shelf 

Lands Act or the Deepwater Port Act of 1974, or which may 

affect natural resources belonging to, appertaining to, or 

under the exclusive management authority of the United 

States (including resources under the Magnuson Stevens 

Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976).” 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
7

Table 2-1: Potentially Applicable Federal Statutes and Regulations for Containment, 

Treatment, and Disposal Clean Water Act (CWA)* Comprehensive Environmental 

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)†Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)‡Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR)¶Oil Pollution Act (OPA)§Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)**Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)††Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA)‡‡The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (AEA), as Amended¶¶Low Level RadioactiveWaste Policy Act§§

Chemical • • • • • • •

Biological • • • • •

Toxin • • • • •

Radiological • • • • • • •

* 33 USC 1251 et seq.

† 42 USC 9601 et seq. CERCLA may apply in incidents involving federal response or requiring federal assistance. This guide does not include all 

exemptions that may apply during incidents requiring federal assistance or federal response. See http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cercla.

html for more information. 

‡ 7 USC 136 et seq.

¶ 49 CFR Parts 100–185.

§ 33 USC 40 2701–2720; applicable when dealing with a discharge of oil (may also apply for discharge of a mixture of oil and Clean Water Act 

section 311 hazardous substances).

** 42 USC 6901 et seq.

†† 42 USC 300f et seq.

‡‡ 15 USC 2601 et seq.

¶¶ 42 USC 2011 et seq.

§§ 42 USC 2021b et seq.

2.4 Potential Partners 

The following entities may be involved in containment, treatment, and disposal operations, depending on 

site-specific and incident-specific characteristics of the contamination event:

• Drinking water utility

• Stormwater utility

• Wastewater utility

• Neighboring utilities (drinking water and/or wastewater)

• Local health department

• Local law enforcement

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
8

• Local government

• Local emergency planning committees and emergency management agencies

• Local fire, emergency medical service (EMS), and hazardous materials (HAZMAT) responders

• State government

• State environmental and/or public health laboratories

• State environment or health department

• State emergency responders

• State emergency management and homeland security agencies

• State law enforcement

• State drinking water and wastewater primacy agencies

• Mutual aid and assistance partners

• Media

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

• EPA regional offices and/or laboratories

• EPA Criminal Investigation Division (CID)

• Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF)

• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

• National Guard

• National Response Center

• Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

• U.S. Department of Homeland Security, including Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and U.S. 

Coast Guard (USCG)

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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3.0 Containment and Treatment of Water

Contaminated water generally should be contained and treated either in situ or using temporary storage consistent with applicable regulatory requirements. Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2 illustrate a recommended decisionmaking process for choosing whether to contain in situ or in temporary storage for drinking water systems and 

wastewater/stormwater systems, respectively. Numbers in the flowcharts indicate sections in this guide where 

the specific topics are discussed in more detail.

A number of factors should be considered when evaluating containment and treatment methods, including: 

• Risk to public health and the environment 

• Worker health and safety 

• Contaminant properties 

– Potential adherence to infrastructure and subsequent contamination of additional water

– Formation of, or interaction with, biofilms

– Potential formation of secondary contaminants through hydrolysis or other mechanisms

– Aerosolization and/or vaporization potential

• Any isolation of water that may be needed during confirmation of contamination

3.1 Containment of Water In Situ

Depending on the location of the contaminated water, containment and treatment in situ may be an option. A 

hydraulic map of the water system may assist in identifying potential locations of contamination. Water may 

be able to be contained: 

• Before the Drinking Water Distribution System – Contaminated water that has not yet entered the drinking water distribution system (e.g., it is in storage tanks at the drinking water treatment facility)

• Within the Drinking Water Distribution System – Contaminated water that has entered the distribution 

system may be contained within the system by turning off valves and pumps and advising customer(s) to 

keep faucets closed10

• Within the Wastewater or Stormwater System – Contaminated water that is contained in the wastewater 

system (e.g., in overflow tanks, sanitary sewer pipes) or stormwater system (e.g., in stormwater collection 

pipes)

10 When making the decision to contain contaminated water within a distribution system, it is important to consider any potential exposure risks 

to people served by the closed off portion of the system.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Figure 3-1: Recommended Decision-Making Framework for Containment and Treatment 

of Contaminated Water for Drinking Water Systems

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
11

Figure 3-2: Recommended Decision-Making Framework for Containment and Treatment of 

Contaminated Water for Wastewater and Stormwater Systems11

11 If it is decided that treatment will occur off site, it may be disposed of at a WWTP. However, prior to considering disposal through a WWTP as 

an option, utilities should check with the proposed receiving WWTP to ensure that contaminated water can be safely treated and/or discharged 

according to the terms contained within the facility’s discharge permit issued by EPA or an authorized state or tribe. WWTPs are not allowed to 

discharge contaminates above the thresholds established within their NPDES permits.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
12

Table 3-1 provides potential additional considerations for evaluating each of these containment options. 

Storage 

Location Additional Considerations

Before the 

Drinking 

Water 

Distribution 

System

• Feasibility of containing water and preventing it from entering the distribution system

• Health and safety of drinking water system personnel (e.g., will containment result in further 

exposure of workers to contaminants?)

Within the 

Drinking 

Water 

Distribution 

System

• Feasibility of containing water within the system (e.g., construction, age, and design life of 

infrastructure as well as the ability to shut off valves and the timeline for these activities)

• Water within the drinking water distribution system posing a risk to those serviced by the 

closed-off portion of the system 

• Notifying the public when contaminated water is contained within the distribution system (see 

Appendix A for more information on risk communication and public notification) 

• Leaks, poorly sealed connections, corrosion, old breaks, etc., that may also allow release of 

vapors and water

• Contaminated water exacerbating corrosion of connections, pumps, etc.

Within the 

Wastewater 

or 

Stormwater 

System

• Feasibility of containing water within the system; factors that may affect the ability to contain in 

situ, such as system capacity, intake flow rates, design life of infrastructure, and availability of 

shutoff valves

• Leaks, poorly sealed connections, corrosion, old breaks, etc., that may also allow release of 

vapors and water

• Contaminated water exacerbating corrosion of connections, pumps, etc. 

• Health and safety of wastewater and/or stormwater system personnel (e.g., will containment 

result in further exposure of workers to contaminants?)

• Notifying the public when contaminated water is contained within the system and preventing 

sewage backups in homes (see Appendix A for more information on risk communication and 

public notification)

• Leaks within the system (e.g., collection and conveyance) that, depending on the severity, 

may require action (e.g., deploying HAZMAT teams) by the appropriate authority (e.g., fire 

department, health department) once they are identified 

Table 3-1: Potential Additional Considerations Related to Containment In Situ

3.2 Containment of Water in Temporary Storage

Temporary storage may be appropriate for containment of the contaminated water under a number of circumstances including, but not limited to:

• Containment in situ is not feasible (e.g., stormwater or combined12 systems may not have the infrastructure 

or capacity to contain in situ or may result in leakage to ground water) 

• Treatment in situ is not feasible

• Contaminant(s) may adhere to the walls of pipes or other system infrastructure and re-contaminate water 

later conveyed through the system

12 See NPDES CSO 9 Minimum Control Plan at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/cso/ninecontrols.cfm?program_id=5 for more information.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Potential considerations for all contaminant types when determining the type of temporary storage to use 

include:

• Quantity of water 

• Feasibility of treatment within temporary storage

• Availability of tanks, containers, holding ponds, etc.

• Potential location of temporary storage and transportation requirements 

• Structure and integrity of new or existing temporary storage area(s) 

• Security of temporary storage location(s)

• Duration of storage

• Applicable regulations on construction of temporary storage area(s)

• Threat posed by temporary storage to the public, environment, and emergency responders 

• Public health threat posed while transferring the water to storage 

Table 3-2 provides additional contaminant-specific considerations that should be contemplated when evaluating options for containing water in temporary storage.

Table 3-2: Additional Contaminant Specific Considerations for Temporary Storage

Contaminant Type Contaminant-Specific Considerations

CHEM

• Applicability of underground storage tank (UST) regulations (40 CFR Part 280)*

• Chemical properties of contaminant (e.g., toxicity, reactivity)

• Applicability of RCRA regulations†

BIO

• State regulations regarding medical/infectious waste 

• Labeling containers with appropriate Biosafety Level‡

TOXIN

• State regulations regarding medical/infectious waste 

• Applicability of UST regulations (40 CFR Part 280) 

• Chemical properties of contaminant (e.g., toxicity, reactivity)

• Labeling containers with appropriate Biosafety Level 

• Applicability of RCRA regulations

RAD

• Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses (e.g., unless the NRC license requirement is waived, one should apply for a license once the type of temporary storage has 

been chosen)

• Other NRC requirements

• RCRA requirements, if any, applicable to mixed waste

* See http://www.epa.gov/swerust1/fedlaws/cfr.htm for an overview of regulations pertaining to underground storage tanks.

† If temporary storage of a RCRA hazardous waste exceeds 90 days, RCRA regulations for treatment, storage and disposal facilities may apply.

‡ See www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/biosfty/biosfty.htm for information on biosafety and the 5th edition of Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical 

Laboratories, http://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/index.htm, for specific BSL definitions.

¶ Contact the NRC or Agreement State for more information on NRC requirements. Also see http://www.nrc.gov/. 

Potential Types of 

Temporary Storage

• 55-gallon drums

• Single tank trucks 

hold 5,000 to 9,000 

gallons

• Multiple truck tankers

• Use of railway tanks 

to hold in large 

facilities

• On-site or off-site 

holding tanks

• Empty water basins

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
14

3.3 Treatment of Water

The following should be considered when determining which treatment methods to use:

• Clearance goals – Water should be treated until it meets the clearance goals in accordance with any applicable laws and regulations. Sampling and analysis should be used to verify if the clearance goals have 

been met. 

• Quality and characteristics of the water – Characteristics such as water alkalinity, hardness, and turbidity 

may influence the efficacy of treatment and the ability to accurately analyze water samples.

• CBR contaminant – Characteristics of the contaminant, such as solubility and specific gravity, concentration of the contaminant, potential for aerosolization, possible toxicologically significant hydrolysis products 

(see Appendix B, Table B-2), and treatment byproducts and residuals (Table B-3) may dictate which treatment methods will successfully remove or inactivate the contaminant. 

• Location of water – Whether the water is located within a water distribution system, wastewater conveyance system, or other location can limit treatment options.

• System capabilities and limitations – The capabilities of the affected system may limit the system’s options for treatment.

• Health and safety considerations13 – During the treatment process, contaminants may become concentrated. Safety precautions may include appropriate safety placards and labeling, use of personal protective 

equipment (PPE), and limiting periods of exposure. Extra safety precautions should be taken with residuals 

which may have high levels of radioactivity.14

• FIFRA regulations – Chemicals, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and chloramines, used to treat water 

contaminated with biological contaminants, are typically regulated as pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), in which case they may be used only in accordance with 

their label or labeling.15 A FIFRA exemption should be requested and obtained for off-label use of a registered pesticide or use of an unregistered pesticide.

• Federal, state, and local laws and regulations – Applicable laws and regulations regarding treatment 

and other actions may affect the available range of treatment options.

Tables 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6 indicate candidate treatment methods for specific contaminants in each contaminant class (see Appendix B for method descriptions and considerations, including the formation of toxic 

treatment byproducts).16 These tables summarize data available in EPA’s online Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT).17 Users are encouraged to consult WCIT directly as needed since this tool is updated periodically as new information becomes available. Tables 3-3 through 3-6 reflect current WCIT data and should 

not be viewed as an exhaustive or critical review of the state of the science for treatment technologies listed. 

13 See http://www.osha.gov/index.html.

14 See http://www.epa.gov/safewater/radionuclides/pdfs/webcast/presentations/worker_safety_loren_setlow.pdf.

15 See http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/laws.htm#fifra.

16 Tables 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6 do not address treatment residuals.

17 See http://www.epa.gov/wcit/ for more information and updates on treatment methods. Registration is required.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Contaminated Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Table 3-3: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Chemicals Activated alumina Booms Chlorination Coagulants Filtration Hydrogen peroxide Ion Exchange Lime softening Oil-water separators

OzoneReverse osmosisSkimmersSorbents* UV

Chemical Warfare 

Agents

BZ •

Cyclosarin •

Lewisite •

Sarin • •

Sulfur mustard •

Tabun •

VX • •

Heavy Metals

Arsenic • • • •

Cadmium • • • • •

Chromium • • • • •

Copper • • • •

Mercury • • • •

Nickel • • •

Thallium • •

Hydrophobic contaminants

Chlorinated solvent mixtures • • • •

Chlordane •

Coal tars • • • •

Diesel fuel • • • • • •

Gasoline • • • • • •

Heating oil • • • • • •

Industrial dyes and solvents •

Petroleum products (e.g., oil and 

petroleum) • • • • •

PCBs • • •

Pesticides

Aldicarb • • • •

Carbofuran • • • •

Dichlorvos • • • • •

Dicrotophos • •

Fenamiphos • •

Mevinphos • • • •

Phorate • • •

* The term “sorbents” includes granular activated carbon and powdered activated carbon.

CHEM

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
16

BIO

ChloraminationChlorinationChlorine dioxideFiltrationOzoneReverse osmosisUV

Bacteria

Bacillus anthracis •

Brucella spp. •

Burkholderia spp. • •

Clostridium perfringens • • • • •

Coxiella burnetii •

Escherichia coli O157:H7 • • • • •

Francisella tularensis •

Salmonella Typhi • •

Shigella dysenteriae • • •

Vibrio cholerae • •

Yersinia pestis •

Viruses

Caliciviruses • • •

Hepatitis A virus • • • • •

Rotavirus • • • •

Variola major virus (Smallpox) •

Protozoa

Cryptosporidium spp. • • • • •

Giardia spp. • • • •

Toxoplasma gondii • •

Table 3-4: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Biologicals 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

17

TOXIN

ChlorinationCoagulants FiltrationHydrogen peroxideOzoneReverse osmosisSorbents 

Plant 

Toxins

Digoxin •

Ricin • •

Bacterial 

Toxins

Anatoxin A • • •

Botulinum • • •

Staphylococcal Enterotoxin B (SEB) • • • •

Algal 

Toxins

Brevetoxin •

Microcystins • • • • • •

Saxitoxin • • • •

Fungal 

Toxins

Aflatoxin • • • • •

T2 Mycotoxin •

RAD

Activated aluminaActivated sludgeBiosorptionCoagulants Co-precipitation with barium sulfateElectrodialysis/EDR†FiltrationHydrous manganese oxideIon Exchange Lime softeningMagnetic polyamine epichlorhydrin resin Particle separation and magnetic separationPrecipitationReverse osmosis

Alphaand 

GammaEmitter

Americium-241 • • • •

Beta- and 

GammaEmitter

Cesium-137 • • • • •

Cobalt-60 • • • • • • • •

Iridium-192 • • •

BetaEmitter

Strontium-90 • • • • • •

* See WCIT at http://www.epa.gov/wcit/ for more information and updates on treatment methods. Registration is required. In addition to WCIT, 

this table includes treatment methods investigated in other EPA preliminary scoping studies on existing methods.

† EDR = Electrodialysis reversal.

Table 3-5: Recommended Treatment Methods for Biotoxin Contaminated Water

Table 3-6: Potential Treatment Methods for Water Contaminated with Radiologicals* 
18

The following methods and resources should be consulted in support of laboratory analyses before and after 

treatment:

• Water sampling and analysis methods – EPA’s Sampling Guidance for Unknown Contaminants in Drinking 

Water, November 2008 (EPA-817-R-08-003), EPA’s Standardized Analytical Methods for Environmental Restoration Following Homeland Security Events - 2010 (Revision 6.0, EPA-600-R-10-122), or state-approved methods 

(EPA-817-R-08-003, EPA-600-R-10-122)18,19

• Laboratory capabilities and capacities – Environmental Response Laboratory Network (ERLN) and the 

Water Laboratory Alliance (WLA)20

• Analytical methods for response to contamination with CBR contaminants – WCIT21

• Test procedure guidelines and methods – Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of 

Pollutants (40 CFR Part 136) for certain CWA programs and methods included in the National Primary 

Drinking Water Regulations (40 CFR Part 141)

• Certified drinking water laboratories – Laboratories certified by EPA or the state to analyze drinking water 

samples for monitoring compliance with drinking water standards. Contact EPA’s State Certification Program 

for a list of certified laboratories.22

18 See http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/wla/upload/2008_12_31_watersecurity_pubs_guide_watersecurity_

samplingforunknown.pdf

19 See SAM at http://www.epa.gov/sam/SAM_2012_07162012.pdf; SAM is updated as new information becomes available; users should consult 

the most current version of this document.

20 See www.epa.gov/compendium/ for ERLN and WLA (registration required).

21 See http://www.epa.gov/wcit/ for more information on analytical methods (registration required).

22 See http://water.epa.gov/scitech/drinkingwater/labcert/ for more information on the Drinking Water Laboratory Certification program.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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4.0 Disposal of Water

After the contaminated water has been treated, the sampling and analyses have been completed, and the clearance goals for treatment have been met, the water should be assessed to determine suitable disposal options 

in accordance with applicable laws and regulations. For example, when water contains certain contaminants 

or exhibits certain characteristics, statutes such as RCRA, CWA, and FIFRA and their implementing regulations 

may have additional requirements for disposal. 

The following potential disposal methods are discussed in Sections 4.1– 4.5:

• Direct discharge to surface water

• Disposal through a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)

• Transfer to a hazardous or medical/infectious waste facility 

• Disposal in an underground injection well

• Volume reduction and solidification (radiological contaminants only)

RCRA Hazardous Waste Permits and 

Manifests

 

 CHEM TOXIN

Disposal of water that is considered RCRA 

hazardous waste may require:

• An EPA identification number (EPA Form 8700-

12)

• A hazardous waste manifest for transport (EPA 

Form 8700-22)

• Permits for the disposal facility 

EPA RCRA forms can be obtained either online at 

http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/index.htm or by 

contacting the state waste and/or environmental 

office. Water utilities sending RCRA hazardous 

waste off site should ensure that the transporter 

and disposal facility are in compliance with all 

RCRA requirements. 

WWTPs that treat hazardous wastewater may 

qualify for a Permit-By-Rule exemption (40 CFR 

270.60) whereby the facility’s non-RCRA permit 

serves in place of a RCRA permit, provided 

that the facility is in compliance with its permit 

and other RCRA administrative requirements. 

Waste discharged under a Permit-By-Rule must 

meet all federal, state, and local pretreatment 

requirements. For information regarding statespecific RCRA requirements, state agencies 

should be contacted.

NRC Disposal Application 

RAD

In some instances of radiological contamination, 

an NRC disposal application may be required. If 

required, an NRC disposal application should be 

submitted to obtain approval of the disposal method 

selected (authority provided to NRC under the AEA, 

as amended). The NRC or Agreement State should 

be contacted to determine if this approval is required.

The NRC provides a list of provisions in 10 CFR 

20.2002 for the approval of a disposal procedure not 

otherwise authorized by NRC regulations. If a disposal 

application is required, all the following information 

needs to be submitted in an NRC application before 

disposing of the water:

• A description of the waste, including the 

physical and chemical properties important to 

risk evaluation, and the proposed manner and 

conditions of disposal

• An analysis and evaluation of pertinent information 

on the nature of the environment/location of 

disposal

• The nature and location of other potentially affected

licensed and unlicensed facilities

• Analyses and procedures used to ensure that 

doses are maintained as low as reasonably 

achievable (ALARA) and within the dose limits in 

this part

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Table 4-1 provides a high-level overview of potential characteristics and corresponding disposal requirements which may be helpful when evaluating the above options. The column titled “Potential Disposal Requirements” in particular highlights potential limiting factors to consider.

Table 4-1: Characteristics of Treated Water and Potential Disposal Requirements

Characteristic Class Potential Disposal Requirements Other Potential Considerations To Evaluate

Contains chemical, biological, or radiological warfare agent

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

• The Clean Water Act Section 301(f) prohibits the discharge of any radiological, 

chemical, or biological warfare agent, any high-level radioactive waste, or any medical waste into the navigable waters.

• • • 

If the contaminant is a chemical warfare agent, the water also may be considered RCRA hazardous waste.If the contaminant is a biological warfare agent, the water also may be considered infectious/medical waste.If the contaminant is a radiological warfare agent, determine whether the contaminant is an alpha, beta, or gamma emitter.

Contains harmful quantities pursuant to the Clean Water Act 311(b) and the sheen rule (40 CFR 110.3) promulgated thereunder. Rule prohibits a discharge that would:

• Cause a sheen or discoloration on the surface of a 

body of water

• Violate applicable water quality standards

CHEM

• Oil that violates the sheen rule should not 

be discharged to navigable waters as outlined in the Clean Water Act Section 311(b) and 40 CFR Part 110.

• • 

For disposal of water contaminated with oil, users should contact the appropriate EPA regional office or the state and local authorities (e.g., departments of environmental protection, fish & wildlife, etc.) for the applicable Area Contingency Plan (ACP). Please refer to Appendix E for more information on the ACP.EPA reporting exemptions for releases include: – Discharges from properly functioning vessel 

engines

– Research and development releases– National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

(NPDES)-permitted releases

• Cause a sludge or emulsion 

to be deposited beneath the surface of the water or on adjoining shorelines • 

– Discharges permitted under International 

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 

See http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/content/reporting/oilexem.htm for more information.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
21

Characteristic Class Potential Disposal Requirements Other Potential Considerations To Evaluate

Contains cancelled or suspended pesticide (7 USC 136d) See http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/registering/suspensions.htm for a current list of suspended pesticides and http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/regulating/restricted.htm for more information on cancelled pesticides 

CHEM

• • 

EPA may have issued additional requirements and/or procedures for those who dispose of the pesticide (varies by pesticide). The EPA regional or headquarters pesticides program office should be contacted to determine if there are additional requirements and/or procedures for the cancelled or suspended pesticide and to determine if those requirements and/or procedures apply to the contaminated water.

• Additional requirements and/or procedures may 

include: – Labeling and disposal of the pesticide– Labeling and disposal of any container of a pesticide, any rinsate containing the pesticide, or any 

other material used to contain or collect excess or spilled quantities of the pesticide

Contains PCBs or other TSCA-regulated chemicals Contact the EPA regional office to determine if the contaminant is regulated under TSCA 

CHEM

• • 

Restrictions will depend on the contaminant. For example, PCBcontaminated waters are subject to specific requirements under 40 CFR Part 761.States may have additional regulations governing PCB disposal.

• State 

tional 

or local officials 

considerations 

should 

as they 

be consulted 

vary by state.

for addiConsidered RCRA hazardous waste (40 CFR Part 261)

• The water is considered 

a RCRA hazardous listed waste* or

• The water exhibits hazardous 

waste characteristics of ignitability, corrosivity, toxicity, or reactivity

CHEM

TOXIN

• Subject to RCRA hazardous waste 

requirements for transportation, storage, and disposal including:– An EPA identification number– Hazardous waste manifest– Permits

• If the treated water is considered a RCRA hazardous waste and is shipped to a WWTP for disposal 

(or another WWTP if the contamination occurred at a wastewater treatment system), the receiving WWTP may be subject to additional RCRA regulations.

Considered medical or infectious waste State or local officials should be consulted to determine if the water qualifies as medical or infectious waste

BIO

• • 

CWA Section 301(f) prohibits discharge of medical waste to navigable waters as noted above. Some states require medical/infectious waste to be disposed of as RCRA hazardous waste while others enforce special medical/infectious waste requirements.

• State 

tional 

or local officials 

considerations 

should be consulted 

as requirements vary 

for 

by 

addistate.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
22

Characteristic Class Potential Disposal Requirements Other Potential Considerations To Evaluate

Considered low-level radioactive waste (LLRW) Confirm that the water is considered LLRW (i.e., radioactive by coming in contact or co-existing with low levels of 

RAD

• Maximum federal or state regulatory concentrations for direct discharge to surface 

water and release into sewers may apply.

• • 

An NRC or Agreement State license may be required to handle and dispose of the water.Consider whether the contaminant is an alpha, beta, or gamma emitter.

radioactive materials or neutron activation)

Considered low-level mixed waste (LLMW) 

• Confirm that the water is considered LLMW (see above)• Confirm the water is a RCRA 

hazardous waste (see above)

RAD

• • 

Maximum federal or state regulatory concentrations for direct discharge to surface water and release into sewers may apply for radioactivity.Subject to RCRA hazardous waste regulations for transportation, storage, and disposal unless an exemption is obtained (Appendix E, Table E-2).

• • • 

An NRC or Agreement State license may be required to handle and dispose of the water.Consider whether the contaminant is an alpha, beta, or gamma emitter.If the treated water is considered a RCRA hazardous waste and is shipped to a WWTP for disposal (or another WWTP if the contamination occurred at a wastewater treatment system), the receiving WWTP may be subject to additional RCRA regulations.

* See http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/wastetypes/listed.htm.

Figures 4-1 and 4-2 provide a suggested order for evaluating these disposal methods depending on the characteristics of the water and typical 

availability of the method. One may evaluate any of these methods, as long as the disposal is conducted in accordance with applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. Numbers in the flowcharts indicate sections in this guide where the topic is discussed in more detail.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Figure 4-1: Recommended Decision Tree for Evaluating Disposal of Treated Water for Drinking Water Systems

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
24

Figure 4-2: Recommended Decision Tree for Evaluating Disposal of Treated Water for Wastewater and Stormwater Systems

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
25

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Contaminant 

Type Contaminant-Specific Considerations Potential Discharge Specifications/Requirements

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Locate an accessible and appropriate body of 

water.

Contact the state environmental office or EPA 

regional office to apply to obtain or modify an 

existing NPDES permit. Note that in some circumstances, discharges in compliance with the 

instructions of an On-Scene Coordinator may not 

require an NPDES permit. For more information, 

see 40 CFR 122.3(d).

Test the water using methods in EPA’s SAM or 

other appropriate methods to confirm that contaminant levels are below the acceptable discharge levels listed on the NPDES permit.

Discharge to surface water following the specifications listed in the NPDES permit.

Obtain a license or other approval from the NRC 

or Agreement State to discharge to the receiving 

body of water, if applicable. (Radiological only)

• 

• 

• 

The following characteristics of the discharge should be considered:

– Location of discharge

– Method of discharge

– Time of discharge

– Volume of discharge

– Flow rate of discharge

– Water profile

The Clean Water Act Section 301(f) prohibits the discharge of any chemical, 

biological or radiological warfare agent, 

any high-level radioactive waste, or any 

medical waste into the navigable waters. 

Oil that meets the Sheen Rule should not 

be discharged to navigable waters as 

per CWA 311(b) and 40 CFR Part 110. 

(Chemical, Biological, and Toxin Only)

NPDES Permits

Discharge to surface water is regulated by the CWA, which prohibits discharge of pollutants to waters of the 

United States except as in compliance with specified provisions of the Act. To discharge to surface water, 

an NPDES permit should be obtained from the authorized state or EPA region (40 CFR Part 122 et seq.). An 

NPDES permit includes the following:

• Technology-based and water quality-based limitations on pollutant discharges to surface water

• Additional provisions such as monitoring and reporting requirements

EPA’s national recommended water quality criteria are available at http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/

standards/criteria/current/index.cfm. These criteria are published pursuant to Section 304(a) of the CWA and 

provide guidance for states and tribes to use in adopting water quality standards.

For more information, please see: http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=45. 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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4.2 Disposal of Water through a Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

Water from all systems may be disposed through four types of WWTPs depending on a variety of factors including, but not limited to, the availability of the facility and characteristics of the water. These four types of WWTPs 

are the following:

• Publicly owned treatment works (POTW)

• Federally owned treatment works (FOTW)

• Centralized waste treatment facility (CWT) (chemical contaminants only)

• Privately owned WWTPs 

If the water from the incident was contained within the wastewater system, disposal may be appropriate through 

the WWTP of the system consistent with the NPDES permit requirements and any applicable permit. It should 

be determined if the water can be processed through the WWTP of the system without causing an untreated 

pass-through or interference or violating any applicable pretreatment requirements, or if the water should be 

transported to another WWTP. 

Different types of WWTPs may have different requirements for accepting water.23 Table 4-3 lists requirements 

that may apply and other potential considerations pertaining to the type of WWTP. Table 4-4 summarizes the 

recommended process a system may use to identify a receiving treatment works and provides additional information for the process of requesting a permit to discharge to a WWTP. 

23 Water discharged from a WWTP should be authorized by and consistent with a discharge permit issued by EPA or an authorized state or tribe.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

27

WWTP 

Type Additional Requirements Contaminant-Specific Considerations

POTW

• Water meets all the: 

–

Federally prohibited discharge standards

–

Federal categorical pretreatment requirements (which vary by industrial 

process category)

–

State laws and regulations

–

Local limits established by the POTW to prevent either:· Pollutants in the treated water from 

passing through the POTW untreated

· Interferences with the POTW (i.e., 

inhibition or disruption of POTW treatment process or operations or sludge process, use, or disposal)

CHEM

TOXIN

• Water considered a RCRA hazardous waste may be subject to additional disposal 

requirements described in the following documents:– EPA’s Guidance Manual for the Control of Wastes Hauled to Publicly Owned 

Treatment Works, September, 1999, which explains how smaller POTWs without pretreatment programs (see box below) accept and control hauled wastewater†

–

EPA’s Guidance Manual for the Identification of Hazardous Waste Delivered to 

POTWs by Truck, Rail or Dedicated Pipe, June 1987, which provides guidance on hazardous waste hauled to POTWs‡

• Water classified as hazardous may also be subject to additional reporting requirements, as listed in 40 CFR 403.12(p).• If the treated water is considered a RCRA hazardous waste and is shipped to a 

WWTP for disposal (or another WWTP if the contamination occurred at a wastewater treatment system), the receiving WWTP may become a hazardous waste facility and may be subject to additional RCRA regulations.

RAD

Maximum federal or state regulatory concentrations for direct discharge to surface water and release into sewers may apply for radioactivity.

BIO

Some states require medical/infectious waste to be disposed of as RCRA hazardous waste while others enforce special medical/infectious waste requirements.

* Please note that regardless of the type of facility, the discharge must be authorized and consistent with a discharge permit issued by EPA or an authorized state or tribe.† Publication No. EPA-833B-98-003; see http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/2005_07_14_hwfinal.pdf.

‡ Publication No. EPA-833-B-87-100; see http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=2000SWI9.txt.

Table 4-3: Some Key Additional Requirements and Considerations for WWTPs*
28

WWTP 

Type Additional Requirements Contaminant-Specific Considerations

FOTW 

OR 

OTHER 

WWTP

The discharge of the water should be covered by a permit as described below:• The FOTW or WWTP addresses the 

specific discharge either in the FOTW/WWTP’s NPDES permit or 

• The discharge is subject to a separate 

NPDES regulation pursuant to 40 CFR 122.44(m) or analogous state, territorial, or tribal NPDES regulation in areas where such government is authorized to administer the NPDES permitting program

CHEM

TOXIN

Discharges to an FOTW/WWTP that are not subject to and in compliance with requirements such as federal prohibited discharge standards, federal categorical pretreatment standards, and local limits may be subject to requirements applicable to “solid waste” under RCRA as well as effluent guidelines and standards.

RAD

Maximum water and 

federal or state regulatory concentrations for direct discharge to 

release into sewers may apply for water exhibiting radioactivity.

surface 

CWT

• • 

The CWT accepts wastewater from off site for treatment and/or recoveryCWTs are subject to the Centralized Waste Treatment Rule (40 CFR Part 437), which may affect the CWT’s conditions for acceptance of the water CHEM

• • 

Different CWTs may be better suited to treat water contaminated with different contaminants (e.g., CWT for oily wastes if the contaminant is oil or another hydrophobic, or CWT for metal-bearing wastes if the contaminant is a heavy metal). The resulting wastewaters from the CWT may be discharged directly to waters of the U.S. or indirectly to a POTW consistent with any applicable statutory or regulatory requirements or permit conditions.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
29

Table 4-4: Information on Disposal by Transfer or Discharge to a WWTP

Recommended Process for Identifying and Contacting 

a POTW, FOTW, CWT, or Other WWTP

Common Specifications and/or 

Requirements 

To transfer or discharge water to a POTW, FOTW, CWT, or other WWTP, 

one should:

1.Identify potential treatment facility. 

2.Contact a POTW, FOTW, CWT, or other WWTP and request (in writing) 

formal permission to discharge to the treatment works. 

3.In the written request, inquire about what requirements the WWTP has 

for accepting the treated water. 

4.If the POTW agrees to accept the treated water, obtain an individual 

control mechanism from the POTW (e.g., permit, license, contract, etc.) 

and provide information for revising the NPDES permit if necessary. 

Alternatively, for discharges to an FOTW, CWT, or other WWTP, provide 

information for revising the NPDES permit for the FOTW, CWT, or other 

WWTP enabling it to accept the water, if necessary.

5.Confirm that contaminant levels are compliant with the individual 

control mechanism issued by the POTW or with the requirements of 

the NPDES permit for the FOTW, CWT, or other WWTP. If contaminant 

levels are not compliant, pursue alternate disposal options.

6.After an authorization to send the waters to the POTW, FOTW, CWT, or 

other WWTP is confirmed, discharge the water to the treatment works 

following the requirements and instructions listed on the individual 

control mechanism or the permit, as applicable.

• The following characteristics 

of the discharge should be 

considered:

– Method of discharge

– Time of discharge

– Location of discharge

– Volume of discharge

– Flow rate of discharge

– Discharge standards 

• The Clean Water Act Section 

301(f) prohibits the discharge 

of any chemical, biological, or 

radiological warfare agent, any 

high-level radioactive waste, 

or any medical waste into the 

navigable waters. 

• Oil that meets the Sheen Rule 

should not be discharged to 

navigable waters as per CWA 

311(b) and 40 CFR Part 110.

Pretreatment Programs

An analysis of pretreatment requirements designed to prevent pass through, inhibition, and sludge 

contamination at a WWTP should be conducted prior to any transfer or discharge of hazardous waste to the 

facility. Section 307(b) of the CWA established the National Pretreatment Program which sets and/or enforces 

the following:

• Prohibited discharge standards – apply to pollutants that can never be discharged to a POTW (given 

below)

• Categorical pretreatment standards – national, technology-based limits on pollutant discharges that vary 

according to industrial sector

• Local limits – standards to prevent untreated pass-through at or interference with specific POTWs

National Pretreatment Standards: Prohibited Discharges (40 CFR 403.5)

The CWA prohibits the discharge of certain pollutants to a POTW, including chemical contaminant(s) and/or 

residuals from the treatment process. A POTW also may refuse to accept waste from a discharger. Potential 

applicable prohibitions include pollutants that may cause the following:

• A pass-through or interference with the treatment processes (including effects on the quality of sludge)

• Corrosive structural damage to the treatment works

• Acidification of the water to a pH lower than 5.0, unless the treatment works is designed to accommodate 

such a discharge

Additionally, potentially prohibited pollutants include the following:

• Solid or viscous pollutants in amounts that will cause obstruction to the flow of the POTW

• Petroleum oil, non-biodegradable cutting oil, or products of mineral oil origin that will cause interference or 

pass-through

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
30

4.3 Transfer of Water to a Hazardous or Medical/Infectious Waste Facility

Transfer to a hazardous waste facility may be an option for disposal of water from drinking water, wastewater, 

and stormwater systems. The following considerations should be evaluated prior to disposal:

• Is the treated water considered a RCRA hazardous waste or a medical/infectious waste handled by the state 

as RCRA hazardous waste?

• Does the facility agree to accept the water? 

• Does the treated water meet the conditions that the facility has for acceptance?

• Does the facility have the appropriate licenses and permits? 

Similarly, transfer to a medical/infectious waste facility may be an option for disposal of water from drinking 

water, wastewater, and stormwater systems. The following considerations should be evaluated prior to disposal:

• Is the treated water considered a medical/infectious waste?

• Does the facility agree to accept the water?

• Does the treated water meet the conditions that the facility has for acceptance?

• Does the facility have the appropriate licenses and permits?

4.4 Underground Injection of Water

Underground injection may be a disposal option for treated water if:

• The injection activity is permitted or authorized by rule, and the injection well is constructed and operated so 

that underground sources of drinking water are not endangered. Owners/operators of wells are responsible 

for obtaining the necessary permits or authorizations.

• An appropriate class of injection well is available and willing to accept the water, or a new well is constructed, 

and use of the well for injection is consistent with the existing or new Underground Injection Control (UIC) 

permit/authorization. A new or revised permit may need to be obtained, or in the case of an injection well authorized by rule, one may be required to submit updated inventory information. Only specific types of wastes 

are allowed to be injected into a given well class. 

• The disposer of the water contacts the well owner/operator and receives permission to transfer the water.

• The well owner/operator contacts the EPA regional UIC program office or the state if the state has UIC primacy.

Table E-1 in Appendix E describes the different classes of injection wells, class uses, and considerations for using each well class in further detail. 

More information on underground injection is available from the UIC program office in states with UIC primacy.24

For states that do not have UIC primacy, information is available from the EPA regional UIC program office.25

24 See EPA’s Underground Injection Control Programs Web page on UIC Primacy at: http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/Primacy.cfm

25 See EPA’s Underground Injection Control Programs Web page on UIC Regional Contacts at: http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/

whereyoulive.cfm .

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
31

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LLMW Requirements 

W

The EP

LLRW (see Appendix E for a description of the exemption). 

determine if the water qualifies for an exemption if it is stored as 

should be contacted to determine applicable requirements or to 

A Regional RCRA or Authorized State RCRA program office 

ater considered LLMW may be subject to RCRA requirements. 

RAD

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

32

5.0 Storage and Transportation of Water

As part of the response and recovery process, water may need to be stored or transported before, during, 

or after treatment and prior to disposal. The following subsections provide information on potential requirements for storage and transportation of water. 

5.1 Storage of Water

Section 3.2 of this document discusses containment of water in temporary storage prior to disposal. If the 

contaminated water cannot be disposed, the water should be stored above ground until further treatment or 

disposal options become available. Long-term storage should be in a secure location, and detailed records 

should be maintained. Additional sampling and analyses may be necessary to monitor the characteristics, 

quality, and/or contaminant levels of the water over time. Several statutes and regulations may apply to the 

storage of water depending on the contaminants in the water, the characteristics of the water, and other factors specific to the event. State and local jurisdictions may have additional regulations regarding long-term 

storage of water contaminated with chemical, biological, and radiological (CBR) agents; users should contact state and local authorities. 

EPA Requirements

 

 CHEM BIO TOXIN

These statutes and regulations include: 

• RCRA 

– In cases where the water is considered RCRA hazardous waste, RCRA storage regulations (40 CFR Part 

264 and 265) may apply. 

– Storage of RCRA hazardous waste may require an EPA identification number and permits that may be 

required by state and local environmental and/or waste offices. Refer to Section 4.0 for information on 

these permits. 

– RCRA hazardous waste may be exempt from permitting regulations if specific requirements are met. 

Appendix E provides a list of exemptions from RCRA permitting regulations regarding storage. 

– Underground storage – UST systems that are used to store hazardous substances and/or petroleum 

products are regulated under RCRA, Subtitle I. USTs containing hazardous wastes are regulated under 

Subtitle C of RCRA. See 40 CFR 302.4 for the regulated list of hazardous substances.

• FIFRA

– If the water or water system was intentionally treated with a pesticide (e.g., to control bacteria), the 

pesticide label or labeling may impose requirements affecting storage and/or disposal. 

– If the contaminant in the water is a pesticide that was canceled or suspended under FIFRA, EPA may 

have issued, pursuant to FIFRA section 19, additional requirements and/or procedures for storage and/or 

disposal of the contaminated water. 

– The regional EPA office should be contacted to determine if there are additional requirements and/

or procedures for the canceled or suspended pesticide and to determine if those requirements and/or 

procedures apply to the contaminated water.
33

NRC Requirements 

RAD

For water containing radiological contaminants, the NRC or Agreement State should be contacted 

to identify storage or labeling requirements specific to the type and amount of radioactivity at hand 

(Per 10 CFR 61.55 – 57). For descriptions of potential storage requirements and considerations, 

refer to the NRC Regulatory Issue Summary 2008 12, Considerations for Extended Interim Storage 

of Low Level Radioactive Waste by Fuel Cell and Materials License and/or Extended Storage of Low 

Level Radioactive Waste: Potential Problem Areas, BNL-NUREG-36149. (See Appendices D and F 

for links to these documents.)

5.2 Transportation of Water

In some instances, the water may need to be transported from the contaminated site for treatment, storage, 

or disposal. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR; 49 CFR 

Parts 100 – 185) provide requirements for the packaging, labeling, permitting, and transporting of hazardous 

materials, including chemical contaminants. For information about transportation requirements for hazardous materials, contact the DOT Hazardous Materials Information Line at 800-467-4922 or contact the state 

transportation department. States may have additional regulations, and state transportation agencies should 

be contacted for information regarding state-specific requirements.

EPA Requirements

 

 CHEM TOXIN

In addition to DOT regulations and requirements, EPA may have 

additional requirements for those transporting waste under:

• RCRA – EPA provides regulatory requirements for transporters 

of RCRA hazardous waste (pursuant to RCRA, 40 CFR Part 

263) such as requiring an EPA identification number, hazardous 

waste manifest, and permits that may be required by state and 

local environmental and/or waste offices. 

• FIFRA – EPA may have labeling requirements and/or procedures

for transporting canceled or suspended pesticides, any 

container of a pesticide, any rinsate containing the pesticide, or 

any other material used to contain or collect excess or spilled 

quantities of the pesticide, which may also apply to water 

contaminated with a canceled or suspended pesticide. (Per 

FIFRA, 7 USC 136q)

NRC Requirements 

RAD

The NRC works with DOT for the 

transportation and packaging 

of radioactive waste under the 

Hazardous Materials Regulations 

(HMR; 49 CFR Parts 100–185). 

These regulations establish 

requirements for the permitting, 

packaging, labeling, and shipping 

of contaminated materials. 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
34

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Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
A-1

Appendix A: Risk Communication

Figure A-1 describes an example framework that can be used to develop a risk communication strategy for 

decontamination efforts related to containment, treatment, and disposal of large amounts of water from a 

drinking water, wastewater, or stormwater system.27 The left-hand column depicts communication and coordination with federal, state, local and/or tribal agencies to notify them of the Remediation Action Plan and to 

coordinate the development of a public risk communication strategy. The third column illustrates aspects of 

the implementation of the public notification and risk communication strategy. As part of pre-incident planning, it is recommended that a communication strategy be developed and contact information for federal, 

state, local and/or tribal agencies, health agencies, emergency responders, and public officials be collected 

and compiled. 

Resources on risk communication include:

• Revised Public Notification Handbook, March 2010 (EPA-816-R-09-013) – This handbook provides guidance to states, public water systems, and the general public regarding how EPA interprets public notification regulations. This handbook also provides example “boil water” alerts and “problem corrected” 

notices. See EPA’s public notification Web page for more details and access to the handbook: http://water.

epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/publicnotification/upload/PNrevisedPNHandbookMarch2010.pdf. 

• 40 CFR 141.201, National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Subpart Q – Public Notification of Drinking 

Water Violations – 40 CFR 141.201 describes general public notification requirements including Tier 1 requirements. 

• Water Security Initiative: Consequence Management Plan Guidance, October 2008 (EPA-817-R-08-001) 

This guidance document includes an example of how public information activities might be planned during 

each response phase of a contamination incident. See http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/

upload/2008_10_24_watersecurity_guide_interim_cmp_wsi.pdf.

• Risk Communication in Action: The Risk Communication Workbook, August 2007 (EPA-625-R-05-003) 

This workbook provides a better understanding of the elements of successful risk communication to public 

health officials, local environmental managers and community decision makers. It describes concepts of 

risk communication based on perceptions, value differences, persuasion, and presentation of data in new 

ways. See http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000I2U.txt. 

• Risk Communication in Action: The Tools of Message Mapping, August 2007 (EPA-625-R-06-012) – 

This workbook provides an explanation of how to create and use message maps, which are science-based 

risk communication tools that enable members of the emergency response and environmental protection 

communities to quickly and concisely deliver the most pertinent information about an emergency. See 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000IOS.txt. 

• Effective Risk and Crisis Communication during Water Security Emergencies: Summary Report of 

EPA Sponsored Message Mapping Workshops, March 2007 (EPA-600-R-07-027) – This report summarizes results from three water security risk communication message mapping workshops. It provides 

information about effective message development and delivery that could be useful to Water Sector organizations as they develop their respective risk communication plans. See http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=60000GH1.txt. 

• Summary Report of the National Water Security Risk Communication Symposium, November 2005 

(EPA-600-C-05-006) – This document summarizes a two-day symposium hosted by EPA about communicating risks to drinking water and wastewater systems on May 20 – 21, 2004, in San Francisco, California. 

The Symposium provided an opportunity to inform key water security stakeholder groups about crisis risk 

27 Please note that this figure illustrates an example of a drinking water communications strategy and would need to be modified appropriately 

for decontamination efforts at a wastewater or stormwater utility.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
A-2

communication; a forum to share effective risk communication strategies, best practices, tools, and existing projects; and an opportunity to gather information and advice to support activities in developing and 

implementing successful risk communication strategies, tools, and plans. Sessions included risk communication during and following a crisis and risk communication in preparation for a potential crisis. See 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100049M.txt.

• Response Protocol Toolbox: Planning for and Responding to Drinking Water Contamination Threats 

and Incidents, April 2004 (EPA 817-D-03-005 and EPA 817-D-03-006) – These modules provide emergency 

response planning tools that are designed to help the water sector to effectively and appropriately respond 

to intentional contamination threats and incidents. Module 5 introduces the concept of a comprehensive 

communications strategy of providing information to the public and details the message, audience, potential vehicles, resources needed and feedback mechanisms. Module 6 discusses each of these elements 

in more detail. See http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_05_19_watersecurity_

guide_response_module5.pdf and http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_05_19_

watersecurity_guide_response_module6.pdf. 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
A-3

Figure A-1: Recommended Framework for Developing a Risk Communication Strategy for a Drinking Water Utility Following a Contamination Incident

O btain applicable perm its specific to treatm ent

C oordinate on federal, state, and local level to 

arrange transport

O btain perm its for disposal option

C oordinate w ith local W W TP(s) to determ ine 

feasibility of discharging to W W TP

C oordinate on federal, state, and local level to 

arrange transport, if applicable

D eterm ine feasibility of disposal to underground 

injection w ells

Provide inform ation on the nature of incident 

and treatm ent goals and objectives

R egularly update on treatm ent activities

Incorporate com m unity feedback and adapt

After system is restored, notify public that incident 

is m itigated

Provide follow -up inform ation and reports to public

R ecurring Public C om m unications

C oordinate w ith federal, state, local, and/or 

tribal agencies to verify approach before 

com m unicating w ith public

After coordinating w ith involved agencies and 

public officials to im plem ent public 

notification and risk com m unication

C ontam ination is 

C onfirm ed

Phase of Incident 

R esponse Presented in 

D isposal G uide

Im plem entation of Public N otification 

and R isk C om m unication Strategy

Verification of D econtam ination 

A pproach B efore Public 

C om m unication

C ontact Inform ation

State H ealth D epartm entC ontact:__________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________Local H ealth D epartm entC ontact:__________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________

O ther Agencies

Agency N am e:_____________C ontact:__________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________Agency N am e:_____________C ontact:__________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________Agency N am e:_____________C ontact:__________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________

O ther C ontacts (e.g., public 

officials and first responders)

C ontact:__________________O rg/Title:_________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________C ontact:__________________O rg/Title:_________________Phone:___________________Em ail:____________________

D eterm ine feasibility of disposal to hazardous or 

m edical w aste facility

C om m unications Started Prior to D econtam ination C om m unications Started Prior to D econtam ination

D eterm ine public health and environm ental risk 

w ith state and local health departm ents

N otify all applicable agencies (federal, state, local, 

and/or tribal, including health agencies), first 

responders, and public authorities

C oordinate w ith W W TP(s) and other disposal 

facilities to determ ine treatm ent and disposal 

options

Initiate public notification of contam ination and 

advisories (e.g., boil w ater, do not use/drink)

Provide inform ation on short/long term alternate 

w ater supply as appropriate

Provide inform ation on w ater use and safety, 

including “curb to faucet”

D isposal

Transfer to hazardous 

or m edical w aste 

facility 

D ischarge to W W TP

U nderground injection

D ischarge to surface 

w ater

C ontain and Treat

In situ

Tem porary storage

Transport to treat

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Appendix B: Potential Treatment Methods

In some situations, the contaminant may degrade over time in the water, resulting in natural attenuation. The 

likelihood of natural attenuation depends on the characteristics of the contaminant, such as tendency to hydrolyze; water quality aspects including acidity/alkalinity, temperature, presence of other contaminants; and 

exposure of contaminated water to environmental stressors such as sunlight, wind, and freeze-thaw cycles. 

Natural attenuation may require extended holding times and may result in byproducts of toxicological significance, for example from hydrolysis (see Table B-2) or other natural processes. Water that has undergone 

natural attenuation should be treated and/or disposed in accordance with applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. The likelihood of a contaminant to naturally attenuate should also be considered when 

choosing and implementing a treatment method. Tables B1 – B3 provide information on potential treatment 

methods. These tables can be used to help identify which treatment methods may be appropriate in different 

circumstances. 

Table B-1 provides method descriptions and specific considerations for potential treatment options identified 

in Tables 3-3 through 3-6 that may be used to treat water contaminated with chemical, biological, or radiological (CBR) agents. This table does not address disposal of treatment residuals. 

Table B-2 lists some of the potential hydrolysis products that may result from the representative contaminants listed in this guide. These products vary in toxicological significance. For example, hydrolysis products 

of lewisite and VX can have similar, high acute toxicity as the parent compounds. Hydrolysis products with 

much lower acute toxicity may be present as well; however, all need to be considered in order to protect human health and ensure effective treatment. Many of the example hydrolysis products identified in Table B-2 

may have non-lethal human health effects, depending on dose and duration of exposure. Table B-2 is not 

an exhaustive list. Rather, the entries in the table are designed to illustrate that hydrolysis products may be 

of concern in certain circumstances, and should be considered when devising a treatment plan. Consult the 

Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT) for more information on other potential hydrolysis products. EPA 

Cumulative Risk Assessments also provide information on toxicologically significant hydrolysis products for 

several classes of pesticides (http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/cumulative/).

Table B-3 provides information on byproducts resulting from several potential treatment methods, along with 

some treatment process residuals (e.g., treatment chemicals added in excess). The considerations listed 

in Table B-1 indicate the formation of these byproducts for various treatment processes. Table B-3 provides 

some specific, illustrative examples for several chemicals. Table B-3 is not an exhaustive list, but is primarily 

intended to raise awareness of specific types of treatment byproducts beyond what is well known in the water 

industry regarding regulated “disinfection byproducts” such as trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. Users 

are encouraged to obtain updated and more detailed information from EPA’s WCIT. EPA Cumulative Risk Assessments also provide information on toxicologically significant treatment byproducts for several classes of 

pesticides (http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/cumulative/).

While many natural attenuation, hydrolysis, and treatment products may be treated the same way as the parent contaminant, additional treatment technology may be required to remove such byproducts, as illustrated 

in Table B-3. 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

B-1
B-2

Treatment Method Method Description Considerations and Notes

Activated alumina

• Adsorption of contaminant is facilitated 

the porous nature of activated alumina.

by • Residuals may include backwash water, caustic regenerant solution, 

neutralization water, and rinse water containing high levels of the contaminant. 

Activated sludge

• • 

Microorganisms and air (oxygen) are added to the water to consume organic material. Radionuclides are consumed with organic material.

• Residuals may include contaminated sludge.

• Resulting sludge is settled or filtered out of 

the water.

Biosorption

• • 

Metal ions and/or organic compounds are removed by microorganisms.Microorganisms settle or are filtered out.

• Residuals may include contaminated sludge.

Booms

• Floating oil 

face layers, 

is concentrated in thicker 

making recovery easier.

sur- • 

• 

Recommended pipes.Recommended es.

for for 

useuse

 in  in 

holding tanks/storage areas, not within conjunction with additional removal processChloramination • Chlorine (or hypochlorite) and ammonia are combined in water to form monochloramine, which inactivates microorganisms in the water and may also affect some chemical contaminants. • • 

• 

Treatment chemical mixture may be considered a pesticide and may require special handling. Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts or residuals may result in negative human health effects.Residuals include chloraminated water.

• If off-label use of a registered pesticide, or use of an unregistered pesticide, is contemplated, an exemption from FIFRA (Sec. 18) must be 

obtained.

Table B-1: Description of Potential Treatment Methods for CBR Contaminants

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
B-3

Treatment Method Method Description Considerations and Notes

Chlorination

• • 

Chlorine or hypochlorite is added to to obtain desired concentration and time.The free chlorine interacts with the contaminant(s) for treatment.

water 

contact 

• • • • • • • 

Residuals include chlorinated water. Method may result in the production of disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), which may themselves result in negative human health effects.Most vegetative bacteria are susceptible to free chlorine.Some spore-forming bacteria, such as B. anthracis, and many protozoa, may be more resistant to chlorine. However, it may be possible to use high doses of chlorine (compared to normal treatment) to inactivate resistant organisms.When using chlorine, increased concentrations and/or contact times may be required for the treatment of chlorine-resistant organisms. Treatment chemical mixture may be considered a pesticide and may require special handling. If off-label use of a registered pesticide, or use of an unregistered pesticide, is contemplated, an exemption from FIFRA (Sec.18) must be obtained. 

Chlorine dioxide

• Microorganisms are inactivated through 

oxidation (by chlorine dioxide or sodium chlorite).

• • 

Chlorite and chlorate ions may be formed, which may require additional processing to mitigate them prior to disposal; however, formation of these ions will be minimized by proper use of chlorine dioxide.If off-label use of a registered pesticide, or use of an unregistered pesticide, is contemplated, an exemption from FIFRA (Sec.18) must be obtained.

• Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these 

byproducts and residuals may result in negative human health effects.

Coagulants or 

flocculants (e.g., 

alum coagulation)

• • 

A coagulant is added to the water, causing particles to clump together.Repulsion forces between contaminant molecules are neutralized, allowing formation of complexes that can be more readily removed from water.

• Method is 

methods.

often used as an initial treatment, prior to filtration or sorbent 

Co-precipitation 

with barium 

sulfate

• Radioactive strontium is adsorbed on 

barium sulfate precipitate, and has been used for modeling of the decontamination process in continuous and semi-continuous stirred tank reactors.

• Through simulations, it has been found that the 

mean residence time, and the semi-bath stirred configuration.

critical parameter is the 

tank reactor is the best 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Treatment Method Method Description Considerations and Notes

Electrodialysis/ 

reversal (EDR)

• Ions of elements are extracted by a mercury 

cathode, creating a mercury mixture that causes a separation of contaminated materials from the waste volume.

• Additional processing is required for mercury mixture.

• Water is passed through a 

taminant particles become side of the filter.

filter and 

trapped 

the conon one • 

• 

Residuals include sand beds and other spent filters with high concentrations of contaminants.Filter should be chosen based on physical and chemical properties of the contaminant.

Filtration • Filters may be fouled quickly, depending on the surface area of the 

filter and extent of the contamination.

• • 

Speed of treatment may be dictated by type of filter employed.Large-scale filtration may be problematic, in terms of time and cost, for some contaminants.

Hydrogen 

peroxide

• Hydrogen peroxide is added to water to obtain desired concentration and contact time 

in order to treat the contaminant.

• • 

The pH of the water may be decreased by treatment.Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts or residuals may result in negative human health effects.

Hydrous 

manganese oxide

• The contamination 

oxygen atoms and ion exchange.

becomes surrounded by 

is removed through an 

• Intraparticle diffusion is the rate-limiting 

nant to microporous oxides.

step in the sorption of contamiIon 

(e.g., 

exchange 

greensand)

• • 

Water is passed through a resin containing exchangeable ions (cations, anions, or a mixture of the two).The ions on the resin are replaced by contaminants since they form stronger bonds.

• • • 

Stronger bonds must be formed between the contaminant and resin than the exchangeable ion.Effectiveness of treatment can be limited by other ions, such as sulfate, calcium and magnesium.Residuals may include brine, backwash, rinse water, and aged/ineffective resins.

Lime softening

• Hydrated lime or quicklime is added 

water to precipitate the contaminant.

to the • 

• • 

Residuals may include backwash, sludge, and aged media.Corrosivity of the water may be altered by the treatment, and a corrosion-inhibiting material may need to be added to the water.Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts and residuals may themselves result in negative human health effects.

• Contaminants’ hydrolysis rates can be altered by lime softening (see 

Appendix B, Table B-3).

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Treatment Method Method Description Considerations and Notes

Magnetic • Magnetic polymer composition is placed in • Residuals may include spent, contaminated resins.

polyamine water in the presence of an external magepichlorhydrin netic field.

resin 

Oil-water 

separators

• Water is pumped through a separation tank; 

hydrophobic contaminants rise to the top or settle to the bottom of the water column, allowing removal of the contaminant from the water.

• • 

Method works well when the contaminant rises to the top or settles to the bottom of the water column. May not be effective if the contaminant is dispersed throughout the water column.Oil is effectively removed from heavily contaminated waters; may not reduce the oil level to an adequate level for discharge.

Ozone

• Ozone is 

erators.

infused into water via ozone gen- • 

• • 

Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts and residuals may result in negative human health effects. Bromate is a regulated byproduct of the ozonation reaction, and is formed regardless of contaminant concentration if the water contains bromide.Flow should be monitored carefully to ensure sufficient contact time.

Particle 

separation 

and Magnetic 

separation

• • 

Metal ions and radionuclides are selectively bound on the surface of magnetic and nonmagnetic particles.Particles are filtered or applied to a magnetic field.

• Residuals may include contaminated particles and filters.

Photocatalytic 

oxidation

• Organic contaminants are mineralized, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and 

the oxidized inorganic anions of any heteroatoms present.

• Disinfection 

byproducts 

byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these 

and residuals may result in negative human health effects.

Precipitation

• • 

Water flow is reduced and/or chemicals are introduced so that contaminants can precipitate.Precipitant is settled out of the water or is filtered out.

• Residuals may include contaminated precipitants.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Treatment Method Method Description Considerations and Notes

Reverse osmosis

Water is forced through a membrane with 

small pores, achieving a pressure-driven membrane separation process.

• The contaminant is unable to pass through 

the pores, separating it from the water.

• • • 

Membrane fouling or scaling can be caused by hard Treated water may have decreased pH.Residuals may include spent/used membranes, and with high concentrations of the contaminant.

water.

liquid residuals 

Skimmers

• Floating oil is removed 

cal separation, suction als.

from water by physior absorptive materi- • Recommended pipes. for use in holding tanks/storage areas, not within 

Sorbents (e.g., 

granular activated 

carbon [GAC])

• • 

Insoluble materials or mixtures of materials are used to recover liquids through absorption, adsorption (adherence), or both.Hydrophobic contaminants are bound to GAC, enabling physical removal from the water.

• • • • 

Method is often used to remove final traces of oil from water.Characteristics of sorbent and contaminant should be considered to optimize treatment.GAC is identified as the best available technology in the National Primary Drinking Water implementation regulation (40 CFR 142.62) for treatment of many synthetic organics, including chlordane and various pesticides.Residual GAC may be a RCRA hazardous waste or CERCLA hazardous substance.

Supercritical 

water oxidation

• Temperature and pressure of the water are 

raised to be above critical point in order for oxidation to occur.

• • 

Additional treatment methods may be necessary for precipitates formed during supercritical water oxidation.Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts and residuals may result in negative human health effects.

UV

• Water 

vating 

is passed through 

microorganisms.

UV stream, inacti- • 

• • • 

Photochemical transformation by this process has been observed. Disinfection byproducts or liquid residuals may be produced; these byproducts and residuals may result in negative human health effects.Flow should be monitored carefully to ensure sufficient contact time.Efficacy of treatment may decrease for water with high turbidity or high suspended solids.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Table B-2: Potential Hydrolysis Products from Chemical Contaminants*

Contaminant Hydrolysis Product

BZ Benzyilic acid

3-quinuclidinol 

Carbofuran Carbofuran phenol

Dichlorvos

Dichloroacetaldehyde 

Dichloroacetic acid 

Dichloroethanol 

Dimethyl phosphate

Dimethyl phosphoric acid

Dicrotophos 

O-desmethyldicrotophos 

N,N-dimethylacetoacetamide

Monocrotophos

Lewisite

Acetylene 

Arsenites

2-Chlorovinyl arsonous acid

Lewisite oxide 

Sarin

Diisopropyl methylphosphonic acid 

Hydrogen fluoride 

Isopropyl methylphosphonic acid 

Methylphosphonic acid 

Methylphosphonic acid mono(1-methylethyl) ester (IMPA)

Methylphosphonofluoridic acid

Tabun

Cyanide compounds

Dimethylamine

Dimethylphosphamide 

Dimethylphosphoramidic acid 

D-ethyldimethylamide phosphoric acid 

Ethyl phosphoric acid 

Ethylphosphoryl cyanidate 

Phosphoric acid

VX

Diisopropyl ethyl mercaptoamine

EA2192

Ethanol

Ethyl methylphosphonic acid

Methylphosphonic acid

* Note that this table does not contain all potential hydrolysis products. Consult WCIT for more information on other potential hydrolysis products. EPA Cumulative Risk Assessment provides information on toxicologically significant hydrolysis products for several classes of pesticides (http://www.

epa.gov/oppsrrd1/cumulative/).

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Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of Water: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

B-8

Treatment 

Method Byproducts Byproduct Notes Treatment Process Residual Treatment process for byproducts and residual

Free chlorine

Oxons, sulfoxides, sulfones Examples include aldicarb sulfoxide, aldicarb sulfone, methyl 

paraoxon, phorate sulfoxide, etc.

Byproducts – activated carbon, filtration, ozonation, etc.Residuals – dechlorination agents, reducing agents, etc.Regulated DBPs – formation control, reverse osmosis

Regulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs)

Include trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids Free Chlorine

Ozone

Oxons, sulfoxides, sulfones

Examples similar to free chlorine. All oxidative process may form these byproducts to varying degrees.

Byproducts – activated carbon, filtration, ozonation, etc.Regulated DBPs – formation control, reverse osmosis

Regulated DBPs Bromate will be formed if the water contains bromide

Reverse 

Osmosis Hydrolysis products

pH change from process may affect hydrolysis mechanisms and corresponding products; e.g. for organophosphates

Residuals may include spent/used membranes, and liquid residuals with high concentrations of the contaminant.

High concentration of contaminants may cause waste to be subject to additional regulations and/or more difficult to deal with.

* Note that this table does not contain all potential treatment byproducts or residuals. Additionally, while many byproducts may be treated as described in Table B-1, the treatment technology for the residuals may be different than the technique needed to treat the original contaminant. EPA Cumulative Risk Assessments provide information on toxicologically significant treatment byproducts for several classes of pesticides (http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/cumulative/).

Table B-3: Potential Treatment Byproducts and Treatment Process Residuals*
C-1

Appendix C: Sample Disposal Checklist

Disclaimer: This sample checklist addresses potential actions to contain, treat, and/or dispose of contaminated 

water resulting from a CBR incident in a drinking water, wastewater, and/or stormwater system and some of the 

potentially applicable statutory and regulatory requirements. Utilities, state agencies, and first responders may 

elect to create a site-specific checklist to ensure all actions are documented and performed appropriately.

Contamination Incident and Site Background Information

General Information:

Name(s) of utility or entity affected (if known): ______________________________________________________

Responsible Party (if known): ____________________________________________________________________

Date and Time of the Incident:____________________________________________________________________

Type of Incident (e.g., explosion, vehicle accident, pipeline, intentional): _______________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Systems affected (check all that apply):

_____Contamination of drinking water distribution system

_____Contamination of wastewater system

_____Contamination of stormwater collection system

_____Other

Contamination Location:_________________________________________________________________________

_____Public notification has been implemented or addressed (e.g., radio broadcast, safety zone broadcast 

to mariners, road closure, etc.)

Contaminant Information:

Type: _____Biological contaminant(s): __________________________________________________________

_____Toxin contaminant(s): ______________________________________________________________

_____Chemical contaminant(s): __________________________________________________________

_____Radiological contaminant(s): ________________________________________________________

_____Other: ___________________________________________________________________________

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Details (if applicable): Contaminant Name _________________________________________________________

Viscosity: ______________________________________________________

Solubility: _______________________________________________________

Volatility:________________________________________________________

Percent Evaporation in: 24 Hours - _________ 48 Hours - _____________

Other details:____________________________________________________

Estimated volume of contaminated water:_______________ gals ______________ bbls

Release status: _______ Instantaneous _______ Continuous ________ Intermittent

If continuous or intermittent, specify rate of release: ________________gals/bbls per hour

Estimated surface area covered (if applicable): _______________ acres/sq ft

Contact Information

Name Organization Role Phone Number

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Step 1: Evaluating the Potential to Contain Contaminated Water for Treatment

Where is the water contained? (Please note: A hydraulic map of the contaminated water system may facilitate 

identifying potential locations of contamination within the system to aid containment.)

_____Before the drinking water system _____Within the drinking water system

_____Within the wastewater system _____Temporary storage

_____Within the stormwater system

If stored in temporary storage, what types of container(s) are used (check all that apply)?

_____Drums (size: ___________ number: ___________)

_____Holding tanks (size: ____________ number: ___________)

_____Truck tankers (size: ____________ number: ___________)

_____Railway tanks (size: ____________ number: ___________)

_____Holding ponds (size: ___________ number: ___________)

_____Other (_______________________) (size: ___________ number: ___________)

Step 2: Treatment of Water

Operations Prior to Treatment:

_____Water profile evaluation completed

Notes on water profile:

Turbidity__________________ Temperature __________________

Alkalinity _________________ Hardness _____________________

Laboratory used (if applicable) _____________________________________________

Other ___________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

_____Clearance goals established 

_____ Remediation Action Plan developed

_____Clearance sampling and analysis plan developed 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
C-4

Notes on clearance goals and sampling and analysis plan:

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

Treatment method(s) selected ___________________________________________________________

Have samples been collected and monitored for natural attenuation or hydrolysis (if applicable)? 

Yes ___ No ___

Operations after Treatment:

_____Treatment confirmed (i.e., water meets clearance goals)

Notes on analysis after treatment:

Analysis method used ____________________________________________________

Laboratory used (if applicable) _____________________________________________

If treatment is not confirmed, conduct additional treatment (list methods above). 

Step 3: Assessment of Water after Treatment

Does the water contain any of the following (check all that apply):

____Warfare agent(s) ____RCRA hazardous waste

____TSCA regulated substance ____Cancelled or suspended pesticide

____Radioactivity (LLRW) ____Mixed waste (LLMW)

In addition to the requirements under the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act, there may be additional requirements that are applicable to the disposal of water with the following characteristics to surface 

waters or underground injection control wells, depending on the particular characteristics of the contaminated water (check those that apply in this situation):

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
C-5

Characteristic Requirements

Warfare agent(s) ____Clean Water Act Section 301(f) prohibits discharge of warfare agents to 

navigable waters

TSCA regulated 

substance

____TSCA disposal requirements

Contaminant specific requirements ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Radioactivity (LLRW) ____NRC requirements for storage

____NRC requirements for disposal

RCRA hazardous waste

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for transportation

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for storage

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for disposal

Cancelled or suspended 

pesticide

____FIFRA storage requirements or procedures

____FIFRA labeling requirements or procedures

____FIFRA disposal requirements or procedures

Contaminant specific requirements ______________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

Mixed waste (LLMW)

____NRC requirements for storage

____NRC requirements for disposal

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for transportation

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for storage

____RCRA hazardous waste requirements for disposal

Oil ____Clean Water Act Section 311(b) and 40 CFR Part 110 prohibit discharge of 

oil to navigable waters

Step 4: Disposal of Water28

Direct Discharge to Surface Water:

Check once completed/verified. 

_____Location of discharge identified

28 May also apply to the disposal of liquid residuals.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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_____NPDES and other appropriate permits for discharge obtained

_____Water does not contain any biological, chemical, or radiological warfare agents, High Level Radioactive 

Waste (HLRW), medical waste, or oil 

Disposal of Water through a WWTP (POTW, FOTW, CWT, or Other):

Check once completed/verified. 

_____Water meets federal, state, and local pretreatment program standards (if applicable)

_____No pollutants in the water will pass through the WWTP untreated

_____Water will not cause interferences with WWTP (i.e., inhibition or disruption of WWTP treatment process 

or operations or sludge process, use, or disposal)

_____WWTP has agreed to accept the water 

_____WWTP has issued/revised a permit for the discharge 

Underground Injection:

Check once completed/verified. 

_____Underground injection disposal located 

_____Well owner(s)/well operator(s) have the appropriate permit(s) and will accept the water

_____Injection meets federal and state UIC requirements including the prohibition of movement of fluid containing any contaminant into underground sources of drinking water (40 CFR 144.12)

Volume Reduction and Solidification (radiological contaminants only):

Check all that apply. 

_____Feasible to solidify the water (at current amount)

_____Feasible to reduce volume of water 

Disposal at a Hazardous or Medical/Infectious Waste Facility (chemical, biological, and 

toxin contaminants):

Check all that apply. 

_____Water qualifies for disposal at a hazardous or medical/infectious waste facility

_____Hazardous or medical/infectious waste facility agrees to accept water 

Public Notifications:

_____Press releases, other communication strategies and/or other public notification requirements have 

been employed to notify affected public of any public health risks associated with disposal 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Step 5: Storage of Water

Regulatory Requirements

Check all that apply. 

_____Water is considered a RCRA hazardous waste

_____Does storage of water qualify for an exemption from RCRA permitting requirement? (If no, obtain permit; if yes, contact state or regional EPA hazardous waste office to identify actions necessary to maintain the 

exemption.)

Storage Parameters:

Check once completed. 

_____Storage area and/or containers approved by the authorities such as NRC or EPA (if applicable)

_____Storage containers and facilities labeled appropriately

_____Proper security measures implemented around storage area

Public Notifications:

_____Press releases or other communication strategies employed to notify affected public of any public 

health risks 

Step 6: Transportation of Water

Operational Controls:

Check once completed. 

_____Receiving entity (e.g., hazardous waste facility) agreed to accept waste and approved method of transport

_____All required tracking forms, manifests, etc., obtained and filled out

_____All federal, state, and local transportation authorities have approved the method and route of transport 

Public Notifications:

_____Public notification implemented or addressed to facilitate safe transportation of water (e.g., safety zone 

broadcast to mariners, road closure, and other DOT requirements)

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Appendix D: Resources

Resources for treatment, storage, transportation, and disposal are presented in the following tables:

• Table D-1: General Resources

• Table D-2: Disposal Resources

• Table D-3: Storage Resources

• Table D-4: Transport Resources

• Table D-5: Information on Disposal of Solids

Table D-1: General Resources

Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

This database provides access to all public documents published by 

Agency-wide 

Documents Access 

and Management 

System (ADAMS)

the NRC since November 1, 1999, as well as bibliographic records 

for public documents published by the NRC before November 1999. 

• ADAMS is both Web-based and Citrix-based. ADAMS permits full-text 

searching and enables users to view document images as well as 

download and print files. See http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/adams.

html to access the tool. 

Agency for Toxic 

Substances and 

Disease Registry • • • ATSDR provides useful information for substances not found in the 

EPA WCIT. See http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/.

(ATSDR)

Biosafety in 

Microbiological This manual explains biosafety procedures for laboratories and 

and Biomedical 

Laboratories 5th • • provides biosafety level (BSL) definitions. See HHS Publication No. 

(CDC) 21-1112, http://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/

edition, December index.htm. 

2009

CERCLA/Superfund This document describes the Superfund program. See EPA 

Orientation Manual, • • • • publication EPA-542-R-92-005, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

October 1992 cgi?Dockey=10002WV5.txt.

The guide has been designed as a resource for emergency 

Communicating responders and federal, state, and local officials communicating 

Radiation Risks, • with the public and the media during a radiological crisis. See 

September 2007 EPA-402-F-07-008. See http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=500025HA.txt.

Criminal and 

Epidemiological 

Investigation 

Handbook, 2006

• •

This handbook explains the steps of a criminal investigation following 

 an attack with a biological contaminant (DOJ, FBI, and U.S. Army 

Soldier Biological Chemical Command). 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

D-1
D-2

Resource

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Description

Effective Risk and 

Crisis Communication This report summarizes results from three water security risk 

during Water Security communication message mapping workshops. It provides information 

Emergencies: Summary Report of EPA • • • • about effective message development and delivery that could be 

useful to Water Sector organizations as they develop their respective 

Sponsored Message risk communication plans. See EPA publication EPA-600-R-07-027, 

Mapping Workshops, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000GH1.txt.

March 2007

Guidance on PCBs •

This website provides a list of guidance documents related to PCB 

response, removal, and other regulations. See http://www.epa.gov/

wastes/hazard/tsd/pcbs/pubs/guidance.htm. 

Health and Safety 

Plans (HASPs) • • • • An electronic expert software system (developed by EPA and OSHA) 

is available at: http://www.osha.gov/dep/etools/ehasp/index.html. 

Incident Waste 

Decision Support Tool • • • •

A decision support tool that organizes large amounts of information 

related to managing waste resulting from incidents of national 

significance (e.g., contaminated buildings and natural disasters). The 

tool can be used by individuals (i.e., emergency response authorities 

and property owners; tribal, state, and local permitting agencies; 

treatment and disposal managers; and/or planners) responsible for 

making disposal decisions. See http://www2.ergweb.com/bdrtool

(registration required).

Joint NRC/EPA 

Guidance on Testing 

Requirements for 

Mixed Radioactive and 

Hazardous Waste, 

November 1997

•

NRC and EPA’s joint final guidance on the testing requirements for 

mixed waste. See Federal Register Notice (62 FR 224. November 20, 

1997), https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/1997/11/20/97-30528/

joint-nrcepa-guidance-on-testing-requirements-for-mixed-radioactiveand-hazardous-waste.

National Primary 

Drinking Water 

Regulations

• • • •

SDWA regulations (40 CFR Part 141) set mandatory water quality 

standards for drinking water contaminants. More information is 

available at: http://water.epa.gov/drink/drink/contaminants/index.cfm. 

A list of the standards can be found at http://water.epa.gov/drink/

standardriskmanagement.cfm. 

Oil Spill Response 

Techniques •

This website provides information on oil spill response techniques 

including booms, skimmers, and sorbents. See http://www.epa.gov/

OEM/content/learning/oiltech.htm.

Planning for 

Decontamination 

Wastewater: A Guide 

for Utilities, 2005

• • • •

This guide informs wastewater utility personnel of the pre-planning 

necessary to prevent, detect, respond to and/or recover from the 

impacts of decontamination wastewater containing CBR substances. 

See http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/deq-wb-wws2005WWDeconGuide_271352_7.pdf.

Radionuclides 

Compliance Help •

This document describes the treatment and non-treatment options for 

radionuclides in water as well as discusses disposal issues. See http://

www.epa.gov/ogwdw/radionuclides/pdfs/learn.pdf. 

RCRA Online • •

The RCRA Online database is designed to enable users to locate 

documents, including publications and other outreach materials, 

which cover a wide range of RCRA issues and topics. See http://www.

epa.gov/waste/inforesources/online/index.htm.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Resource

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Description

Response Protocol 

Toolbox (RPTB): 

Planning for and 

Responding to 

Drinking Water 

Contamination Threats 

and Incidents, April 

2004

• • • •

The RPTB is composed of six interrelated modules that focus on 

different aspects of planning a response to contamination threats and 

incidents. Remediation and Recovery Guide - Module 6. See EPA 

publication EPA-817-D-03-006, http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/

watersecurity/upload/2004_05_19_watersecurity_guide_response_

module6.pdf. 

Response Protocol 

Toolbox: Response 

Guidelines, August 

2004

• • • •

An action-oriented document to assist drinking water utilities, 

laboratories, emergency responders, state drinking water programs, 

technical assistance providers, and public health and law enforcement 

officials during the management of an ongoing contamination threat 

or incident. See EPA publication EPA 817-D-04-001, http://water.epa.

gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_11_24_rptb_response_

guidelines.pdf. 

Revised Public 

Notification Handbook, 

March 2010

• • • •

This handbook provides guidance to states, public water systems, 

and the general public regarding how EPA interprets public notification 

regulations. See EPA’s public notification Web page for more details 

and access to the handbook: http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/

sdwa/publicnotification/upload/PNrevisedPNHandbookMarch2010.

pdf; (EPA publication EPA-816-R-09-013).

Risk Communication 

in Action: The Risk 

Communication 

Workbook, August 

2007

• • • •

This workbook provides a better understanding of the elements 

of successful risk communication to public health officials, local 

environmental managers, and community decision makers. It 

describes concepts of risk communication based on perceptions, 

value differences, persuasion and presentation of data in new ways. 

See EPA publication EPA-625-R-05-003, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/

ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000I2U.txt

Risk Communication 

in Action: The Tools 

of Message Mapping, 

August 2007

• • • •

This workbook provides an explanation of how to create and use 

message maps, which are science-based risk communication 

tools that enable members of the emergency response and 

environmental protection communities to quickly and concisely 

deliver the most pertinent information about an emergency. See EPA 

publication EPA-625-R-06-012, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=60000IOS.txt.

Safe Drinking Water 

Hotline • • • •

The Safe Drinking Water Hotline provides the general public, 

regulators, medical and water professionals, academia, and media, 

with information about drinking water and ground water programs 

authorized under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Call 1-800-426-4791 for 

a point of contact for drinking water information. Also see http://water.

epa.gov/drink/hotline/index.cfm for more information about the hotline.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Resource

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Description

Sampling Guidance 

for Unknown 

Contaminants in 

Drinking Water, 

November 2008

• • •

This document provides comprehensive guidance that integrates 

recommendations for pathogen, toxin, chemical, and radiochemical 

sample collection, preservation, and transport procedures to support 

multiple analytical approaches for the detection and identification of 

potential contaminants in drinking water. This guidance document can 

be used to supplement a drinking water utility’s emergency response 

plan by providing detailed recommended sampling procedures for 

use by utility personnel in response to a potential contamination 

event. See EPA publication EPA-817-R-08-003, http://water.epa.gov/

infrastructure/watersecurity/wla/upload/2008_12_31_watersecurity_

pubs_guide_watersecurity_samplingforunknown.pdf.

Standardized Analytical Methods for Environmental Restoration 

Following Homeland 

Security Events (SAM)

• • • •

This resource identifies analytical methods to be used by laboratories 

tasked with performing analyses of environmental samples 

following a homeland security event. See http://www.epa.gov/sam/

sam2010_9302010.pdf. Companion documents that discuss related 

issues (e.g., sampling) can be found at http://www.epa.gov/sam/

samcomp.htm.

Storage, Treatment, 

Transportation, and 

Disposal of Mixed 

Waste; Final Rule (40 

CFR Part 266)

• This final rule provides guidance on a conditional exemption for LLMW. 

See http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2001-05-16/pdf/01-11408.pdf. 

Summary Report 

of the National 

Water Security Risk 

Communication 

Symposium, 

November 2005

• • • •

This document summarizes a 2-day symposium hosted by EPA 

about communicating risks to drinking and wastewater systems 

on May 20 21, 2004, in San Francisco, California. The Symposium 

provided an opportunity to inform key water security stakeholder 

groups about crisis risk communication; a forum to share effective 

risk communication strategies, best practices, tools, and existing 

projects; and an opportunity to gather information and advice 

to support activities in developing and implementing successful 

risk communication strategies, tools, and plans. Sessions 

included risk communication during and following a crisis and 

risk communication in preparation for a potential crisis. See EPA 

publication EPA-600-C-05-006, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=P100049M.txt.

Technical Guide 188: 

U.S. Army Food and 

Water Vulnerability 

Assessment Guide, 

July 2008

• •

Technical guide for conducting a water vulnerability assessment (U.S. 

Army Public Health Command [USAPHC]). The July 2008 revision is 

available for official use by contacting USAPHC at http://www.med.

navy.mil/sites/nepmu2/Documents/environmental_health/TG%20

188%20Food%20and%20Water%20Vulnerability%20Assessment%20

Guide.pdf.

Water Contaminant 

Information Tool 

(WCIT)

• • • •

A secure, online database that provides information on chemical, 

biological, and radiological contaminants of concern for water security. 

Also can be used as a resource for contaminant-specific detailed 

information on the effectiveness of treatment methods for drinking 

water and wastewater. WCIT was updated in 2010 to include analytical 

methods data from the National Environmental Methods Index for 

Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Methods. See http://www.epa.

gov/wcit/ (registration required).

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Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

Water Laboratory 

Alliance • • • •

The Water Laboratory Alliance (WLA) provides the drinking water 

sector with an integrated nationwide network of laboratories with 

the analytical capability and capacity to respond to intentional and 

unintentional drinking water contamination events involving chemical, 

biological, and radiochemical contaminants. See http://water.epa.gov/

infrastructure/watersecurity/wla/index.cfm.

Worker Safety 

Radionuclides Web 

Cast, 2004

•

EPA’s Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water conducted five 

on-site Radionuclides Implementation Workshops in the spring of 

2007 (http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/radionuclides/

training.cfm). The training sessions were intended for state drinking 

water program and radiation program personnel, but were also open 

to technical assistance providers and system operators. Although 

rule requirements were reviewed, the focus of the workshops was on 

treatment technologies and residual disposal options and regulations. 

At the training, a presentation (dated 2004) was used, see http://www.

epa.gov/safewater/radionuclides/pdfs/webcast/presentations/worker_

safety_loren_setlow.pdf.

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Table D-2: Disposal Resources

Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

Guidance Manual for 

the Control of Wastes 

Hauled to Publicly 

Owned Treatment Works, 

September 1999

• • •

Provides information for smaller POTWs, generally those 

without pretreatment programs, on how to develop and 

implement hauled waste controls. See EPA publication 

EPA-833-B-98-003, http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/

upload/2005_07_14_hwfinal.pdf. 

Guidance Manual for the 

Identification of Hazardous 

Waste Delivered to POTWs 

by Truck, Rail or Dedicated 

Pipe, June 1987

• •

Guidance to EPA regions and states on how to identify POTWs 

that receive hazardous wastes by truck, rail, or dedicated pipe, 

and what requirements to impose on those POTWs. See http://

www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/owm0190.pdf. 

Guide to Discharging 

CERCLA Aqueous 

Wastes to Publicly Owned 

Treatment Works, March 

1991

• •

Describes the process and regulations for discharging CERCLA 

wastes to POTWs in greater detail. See EPA publication 9330.2-

13FS, http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/remedy/pdfs/93-

30213fs-s.pdf.

National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination 

System (NPDES) Program

• • • •

Information about the EPA discharge permit program can be 

found at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_

id=45.

Radioactive Waste 

Streams: Waste 

Classification for Disposal, 

Congressional Research 

Service (CRS) Report to 

Congress, December 

2006

• Information on the classification of LLRW is found at http://www.

fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32163.pdf, (CRS Order Code RL32163).

Stabilization/ Solidification 

Processes for Mixed 

Waste, June 1996

•

The document explains how to solidify mixed waste. See 

EPA publication EPA 402-R-96-014, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/

ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P10094M5.txt.

A System’s Guide to 

the Identification and 

Disposal of Hazardous 

and Non-Hazardous Water 

Treatment Plant Residuals, 

August 2006

• • • •

RCRA hazardous waste regulations are summarized in this 

document. See EPA publication EPA 816-F-06-011, http://water.

epa.gov/drink/info/arsenic/upload/2006_09_14_arsenic_guide_

arsenic_disposalhazardous-nonhazardous.pdf .

Underground Injection 

Control (UIC) Program • • • •

EPA established regulations for UIC pursuant to Section 1421 of 

SDWA. Those regulations are at 40 CFR Parts 144–148. States 

may have more stringent requirements. See http://water.epa.

gov/type/groundwater/uic/index.cfm for more information about 

EPA’s UIC program.

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Table D-3: Storage Resources

Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

Considerations for 

Extended Interim Storage 

of Low-Level Radioactive 

Waste by Fuel Cycle and 

Materials Licensees, May 

2008

•

The NRC issued this regulatory issue summary (NRC 

Regulatory Issue Summary 2008-12) to address considerations 

related to extended interim storage of low-level radioactive 

waste. See http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gencomm/reg-issues/2008/ris-08-12.pdf. 

EPA training module: 

Introduction to Containers, 

September 2005 

• • • •

Provides basic requirements that pertain to the management of 

hazardous waste containers and regulations governing residues 

of hazardous waste in empty containers. See EPA publication 

EPA-530-K-05-010, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=P1008KG6.txt.

EPA training module: 

Introduction to Land 

Disposal Restrictions,

September 2005

• • • •

Provides an overview of the requirements for RCRA land 

disposal restrictions. See EPA publication EPA-530-K-05-014, 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P1009IJ2.txt.

Large Quantity Generators 

(LQG) • • •

Those generating more than 2,200 lbs hazardous waste or 2.2 

lbs acute hazardous waste per calendar month are subject to 

additional RCRA regulations. To determine if you are a large 

quantity generator, refer to the EPA chart at: http://www.epa.

gov/solidwaste/hazard/generation/summary.htm. 

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Table D-4: Transport Resources

Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

Department of Energy 

(DOE) Transportation 

Routing Analysis 

Geographic Information 

System (TRAGIS)

• • •

The Transportation Routing Analysis Geographic Information 

System (TRAGIS) model is used to calculate highway, rail, or 

waterway routes within the U.S. and therefore helps identify a 

transportation mode and route. 

Department of 

Transportation (DOT) 

Hazardous Materials 

Information Line

• • • For answers to questions regarding transportation of hazardous 

materials, call 800-467-4922.

Hazardous Waste Manifest 

System • • •

To obtain EPA Uniform Hazardous Waste Manifest Form 8700-

22 visit http://www.epa.gov/wastes/hazard/transportation/

manifest/pdf/newform.pdf or contact the state hazardous waste 

office. See http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/transportation/

manifest/index.htm for more information about the program.

National HAZMAT 

(Hazardous Materials) 

Route Registry (NHMRR)

• • •

The NHMRR provides access to a national repository of both 

hazardous materials routes that are either designated for 

HAZMAT transportation or restricted from use by HAZMAT 

carriers. See http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/safety-security/hazmat/

national-hazmat-Route.aspx. 

Nuclear Regulatory 

Commission (NRC) 

Transportation 

Requirements

•

The following website provides access to NRC regulatory 

guides including those with transportation requirements:

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides/

transportation/rg/.

Pipeline and Hazardous 

Materials Safety 

Administration (PHMSA)

• • •

PHMSA works to protect the American public and the 

environment by ensuring the safe and secure movement 

of hazardous materials to industry and consumers by all 

transportation modes, including the nation’s pipelines. Call 

202-366-4535 or see http://phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat/regs/sp-a/

special-permits. 

SafeStat (short for Motor 

Carrier Safety Status 

Measurement System)

• • •

SafeStat is an automated, data driven analysis system 

designed by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration 

(FMCSA). Combines current and historical carrier-based safety 

performance information to measure the relative (peer-topeer) safety fitness of interstate commercial motor carriers and 

intrastate commercial motor carriers that transport hazardous 

materials. See http://ai.fmcsa.dot.gov/SMS/. 

State Manifest 

Requirements • • •

This EPA website provides links to the state program websites 

or contacts for the state hazardous waste manifest program. 

See http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/transportation/states.

htm. 

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Table D-5: Information on Disposal of Solids

Resource

CHEM

BIO

TOXIN

RAD

Description

Land Disposal 

Restrictions: Summary 

of Requirements, August 

2001

•

This document summarizes the requirements of the Land 

Disposal Restrictions (LDR) program. This document is 

organized in a question-answer format to provide information 

about LDR regulations. See EPA publication EPA 530-R-01-007, 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P1004UMF.txt. 

Paint Filter Liquid Test 

(SAM Method 9095B), 

September 2004

• • • •

This is a method that is used to determine the presence of free 

liquids in a representative sample of waste. See EPA publication 

SW-846, http://www.epa.gov/wastes/hazard/testmethods/

sw846/pdfs/9095b.pdf for the method description.

Resource Conservation 

Recovery Act Orientation 

Manual, 2011

• •

This manual addresses the management of solid or hazardous 

waste such as contaminated soils, water, debris, and sludges. 

See http://www.epa.gov/osw/inforesources/pubs/orientat/. 

Stabilization/Solidification 

Processes for Mixed 

Waste, June 1996

•

The document explains how to solidify mixed waste. See 

EPA publication EPA 402-R-96-014, http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/

ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P10094M5.txt. 

A System’s Guide to 

the Identification and 

Disposal of Hazardous 

and Non-Hazardous Water 

Treatment Plant Residuals, 

August 2006

• • •

This document summarizes the RCRA hazardous waste 

regulations. See EPA publication EPA 816-F-06-011, http://

water.epa.gov/drink/info/arsenic/upload/2006_09_14_arsenic_

guide_arsenic_disposalhazardous-nonhazardous.pdf. 

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
Appendix E: Summary of Potentially Applicable 

 Laws and Regulations

This appendix provides a summary of the federal laws and regulations potentially applicable to the containment and disposal of large amounts of water contaminated with chemical, biological, or radiological (CBR) 

contaminants. The full text of all the regulations cited below can be found at the Federal Register website 

(https://www.federalregister.gov/) or the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) website (http://www.gpoaccess.

gov/cfr/index.html). 

State and local governments and other federal agencies may have additional regulations for containment and 

disposal. Those regulations are not summarized in this document. Contact your state or local government for 

information and guidance.

EPA Environmental Requirements

• Clean Water Act (CWA; 33 USC 1251 et seq.)

• Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA; 42 USC 9601 et seq.)

• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA; 7 USC 136 et seq.)

• National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP; 40 CFR Part 300)

• Oil Pollution Act (OPA; 33 USC 2701 et seq.)

• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA; 42 USC 6901 et seq.)

• Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA; 42 USC 300f et seq.)

• Storage, Treatment, Transportation, and Disposal of Mixed Wastes, Final Rule, May 2001 (66 FR 95. May 16, 

2001)

• Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA; 15 USC 2601 et seq.) 

Other Federal Requirements

Transportation Requirements

Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR; 49 CFR Parts 100–185)

Atomic Energy Act 

Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as Amended (AEA; 42 USC 2011 et seq.)

Disposal Requirements, Non-EPA

Low Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (Pub. L. 96–573)

Safety Requirements

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act; 29 USC 651 et seq.)

Federal Emergency Assistance

The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act; 42 USC 5212–52076)

E-1

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Environmental Requirements 

Clean Water Act (CWA; 33 USC 1251 et seq.)

The Clean Water Act establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of 

the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. The Clean Water Act section 301(f) prohibits the discharge to waters of the United States of any radiological, chemical, or biological warfare agent, 

as well as any high-level radioactive waste or medical waste. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/

lawsregs/laws/cwa.html.

Under the CWA, EPA has implemented pollution control programs and regulates: 

• Direct discharges of liquid waste to surface waters (rivers, lakes, etc.) generally through National Pollutant 

Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits (which are in many cases administered on the state level) 

(40 CFR Part 122)

• Discharges to publicly owned treatment works (POTW) through the National Pretreatment Standards (40 

CFR Part 403)

• Discharges of oil to navigable water under 40 CFR Parts 110 and 112

EPA’s CWA regulations prohibit the discharge of certain pollutants to a POTW through the National Pretreatment Standards: Prohibited Discharges (40 CFR 403.5). CBR contaminants can be considered pollutants. 

Prohibitions include pollutants that may:

• Cause a pass-through or interference with the POTW treatment processes (including the quality of sludge)

• Cause corrosive structural damage to the POTW

• Have a pH lower than 5.0 (i.e., are acidic), unless the POTW is designed to handle such a discharge

• Create a fire or explosion hazard

• Obstruct the flow in the POTW

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA; 42 

USC 9601 et seq.)

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA or Superfund) provides broad response authority for cleaning up releases of hazardous substances, pollutants or contaminants, establishes potential liability of persons responsible for releases of hazardous substances at these 

sites, and established a trust fund to provide for cleanup (e.g., when no responsible party could be identified). 

CERCLA authorizes both short-term removals (e.g., to address releases or threatened releases in need of 

prompt response), and long-term remedial response actions (e.g., to address releases or threats of releases 

of hazardous substances for sites listed on EPA’s National Priorities List).

CERCLA provides broad federal response authority that EPA (and consistent with Executive Order 12580, 

other federal agencies) can use for cleanup. EPA may enter into a cooperative agreement with state and local 

governments to assist in the cleanup where CERCLA section 104 authority is used to respond to a release 

of CBR contaminants. CERCLA cleanups are carried out consistent with the NCP and existing Superfund 

program guidance. 

See http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/cercla.html for more information.

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA; 7 USC 136 et seq.)

Products used to treat water contaminated with biological contaminants, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, 

and chloramines may be registered as pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide 

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Act (FIFRA), in which case they may used only in accordance with the label or labeling approved by EPA. 

Under FIFRA, no one may sell or distribute a pesticide unless it is registered by the EPA, or is otherwise exempted from the registration requirement. Registration includes approval by the EPA of the pesticide’s label, 

which must give detailed instructions for its safe and effective use and disposal. Different kinds of exemptions 

are issued by EPA, depending on the situation and whether the criteria for granting such exemptions are met. 

For example, EPA issued numerous exemptions permitting the use of registered and unregistered antimicrobial pesticides for inactivating Bacillus anthracis spores after EPA reviewed those products to ensure that they 

would be effective and not present unreasonable adverse effects to humans or the environment. For more 

information, see http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/health_fs.htm.

A chemical contaminant that is a FIFRA cancelled or suspended pesticide, rinsate containing the pesticide, 

or any other material used to collect excess or spilled quantities of the pesticide may be subject to additional 

regulations and/or requirements issued by EPA regarding labeling, transportation, storage, and disposal. 

Requirements vary depending on the pesticide, and, therefore, the regional EPA office should be contacted 

to determine if there are additional requirements and/or procedures for a cancelled or suspended pesticide 

and to determine if those requirements and/or procedures apply to the contaminated water. For more information on pesticides, please see http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/. For more information about FIFRA and 

cancellation/suspension of pesticides, please see http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/lfra.html.

National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP; 40 CFR 

Part 300)

The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (NCP) provides a blueprint for preparing for and responding to discharges of oil and releases or threats of release of hazardous substances (or 

of pollutants and contaminants which may present an imminent and substantial endangerment to the public 

health and welfare). The NCP establishes the National Response Team (NRT), which consists of 16 federal 

agencies that are responsible for national response and preparedness planning. The NCP also establishes 

13 Regional Response Teams (RRTs).29,30

Details regarding planning and preparedness are found in 40 CFR 300.200 to 300.220. In this portion of the 

NCP, the objective, authority, and scopes of the NCP, Regional Contingency Plans (RCPs), and Area Contingency Plans (ACPs) are defined. The NCP, RCP, and ACP may be consulted during the response to a spill for 

guidance on cleanup and disposal.

The description and breakdown of responsibilities of a response are found in 40 CFR 300.100 to 300.185. 

This part of the NCP describes the actions and responsibilities of the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) and federal agencies, as well as establishes the unified command structure. 

Regulations specific to oil spill response are found in 40 CFR 300.300 to 300.335 and regulations for responses to hazardous substances releases are found in 40 CFR 300.400 to 300.525. 

Oil Pollution Act (OPA; 33 USC 2701 et seq.)

The OPA establishes provisions that expand the federal government’s ability, and provides the money and 

resources necessary, to respond to oil spills. The OPA provides new requirements for contingency planning 

both by government and industry. The National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan 

(NCP) has been expanded in a three-tiered approach: the federal government is required to direct all public 

and private response efforts for certain types of spill events; Area Committees– composed of federal, state, 

29 See http://www.nrt.org/ for more information on the NRT.

30 See http://www.nrt.org/Production/NRT/RRTHome.nsf/AllPages/othr_rrt.htm?OpenDocument for information the RRT responsible for your 

area.

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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and local government officials – must develop detailed, location-specific Area Contingency Plans; and owners or operators of vessels and certain facilities that pose a serious threat to the environment must prepare 

their own Facility Response Plans. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/oem/content/lawsregs/

opaover.htm.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA; 42 USC 6901 et seq.)

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act gives EPA the authority to control hazardous waste from “the 

cradle to the grave.” This includes the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. RCRA also sets forth a framework for the management of non-hazardous solid wastes. For more 

information, see http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/rcra.html.

Hazardous waste is defined in 40 CFR 261.3, Definitions of Hazardous Waste. A waste may be considered 

hazardous if it exhibits certain hazardous properties (characteristics) in 40 CFR 261.21 to 261.24 or if it is 

listed as a hazardous waste in 40 CFR 261.31 to 261.33, Subpart D – Lists of Hazardous Wastes. Waste 

streams that are not listed specifically as hazardous wastes may exhibit hazardous characteristics and thus 

be a RCRA hazardous waste. RCRA identifies four hazardous waste characteristic properties: ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. Methods used to determine if a waste qualifies as hazardous waste are found 

in Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods (SW-846).31 Water produced during 

treatment that meets the definition of “Hazardous Waste” as described above may be subject to RCRA regulation (Subtitle C, 40 CFR Parts 260 to 299). 

Under RCRA, EPA has promulgated regulations for generators of hazardous waste (40 CFR Part 262), hazardous waste treatment facilities (40 CFR Parts 264 and 265), hazardous waste storage facilities (40 CFR 

Parts 264, 265, and 270), hazardous waste transporters (40 CFR Part 263), and state hazardous waste management plans (40 CFR Part 271). 

As described in 40 CFR 264.1(g)(8)(i), RCRA Part 264 regulations do not apply to a person containing or 

treating waste during immediate response to the following except as provided in paragraph (g)(8)(ii) of the 

same section:

• A discharge of a hazardous waste32

• An imminent and substantial threat of a discharge of hazardous waste

• A discharge of a material that, when discharged, becomes a hazardous waste

• An immediate threat to human health, public safety, property, or the environment, from the known or suspected presence of military munitions, other explosive material, or an explosive device, as determined by an 

explosive or munitions emergency response specialist as defined in 40 CFR 260.10

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA; 42 USC 300f et seq.)

The Safe Drinking Water Act was established to protect the quality of drinking water in the U.S. This law 

focuses on all waters actually or potentially designed for drinking use, whether from above ground or underground sources. The Act authorizes EPA to establish national primary drinking water regulations for water 

for human consumption and requires all owners or operators of public water systems to comply with these 

standards. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/sdwa.html or http://water.epa.gov/

lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/index.cfm. EPA’s regulations are at 40 CFR Part 141. More information about the 

standards is available at http://water.epa.gov/drink/standardsriskmanagement.cfm. A list of the standards 

can be found at http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/index.cfm. The National Secondary Drinking Water 

31 See http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/testmethods/sw846/online/index.htm.

32 Discharge is defined as the accidental or intentional spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, or dumping of hazardous waste 

into or on any land or water (40 CFR 260.10, Definitions).

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Regulations are listed in Part 143 of the SDWA. These regulations control contaminants that primarily affect 

the aesthetic qualities relating the public acceptance of drinking water. At considerably higher concentrations of these contaminants, health implications may also exist. The secondary regulations are not federally 

enforceable but are intended as guidelines for states. There are secondary regulations for 15 contaminants. 

For more information see http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/secondarystandards.cfm. 

The SDWA also required EPA to establish regulations for the UIC Program to prevent endangerment of underground sources of drinking water (USDWs). The UIC regulations are at 40 CFR Parts 144–148. UIC programs 

are administered by EPA or states with primary enforcement responsibility for the program. States may have 

more stringent requirements. There are six classes of injection wells: Hazardous, Radioactive, Industrial & 

Municipal Waste Disposal Wells (Class I), Waste disposal wells for oil and gas production (Class II), Solution 

Mining Wells (Class III), Shallow Hazardous and Radioactive Injection Wells (Class IV; banned in 1984), injection wells not included in Class I, II, III, IV, or VI (Class V), and Geological Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide 

(Class VI). 

Table E-1 describes the different classes of injection wells and considerations specific to each well class. 

Refer to EPA’s Technical Program Overview: Underground Injection Control Regulations for further guidance 

on the regulations of UIC wells.33

33 See http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/upload/2004_5_3_uicv_techguide_uic_tech_overview_uic_regs.pdf.

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Table E-1: Classes and Considerations for Underground Injection/Well Disposal34

Class Use Considerations

I

• Includes deep injection wells used 

for hazardous waste, radioactive 

waste and other industrial material

• As defined in 40 CFR 144.3, radioactive waste includes any waste which 

contains radioactive material in 

concentrations which exceed those 

listed in 10 CFR 20, Appendix B, 

Table 2, Column 2 

• There are approximately 650 Class 

I injection wells nationwide, of those 

only about 113 are used for the injection of hazardous waste.

• Only 10 states have wells that accept 

hazardous waste

• Class I hazardous or mixed radioactive waste disposal 

wells have the most stringent USDW protective requirements

• As with all well classes under the UIC program may not 

conduct any injection activity in a manner that allows 

the movement of fluid containing any contaminant into 

USDWs, if the presence of that contaminant may cause 

a violation of any primary drinking water standard under 

40 CFR 142 or may otherwise adversely affect public 

health (40 CFR 144.12)

• Very few Class I facilities are able to accept hazardous 

waste generated off site 

• Fluids must be injected below the lowermost formation 

containing a USDW

• Class I wells can be expensive to construct because 

they are technically complex

• No radioactive waste disposal wells are currently in 

operation

II

Includes injection wells used for disposal of fluid brought to the surface 

in connection with oil and natural gas 

production, or for enhanced recovery of 

oil or natural gas, or liquid hydrocarbon 

storage

Not an option

III Wells which inject to extract minerals Not an option

IV

Shallow wells used to inject hazardous 

or radioactive waste into or above an 

underground source of drinking water 

(USDW)

Class IV wells were banned in 1984 with the exception of 

wells used to inject contaminated ground water that has 

been treated and is being reinjected into the same formation from which it was drawn, if such injection is approved 

by EPA, or a State, pursuant to provisions for a cleanup of 

releases under CERCLA or RCRA

V

• Injection wells not included in Classes I – IV, or VI 

• Class V wells are located in every 

state

• As with all well classes under the UIC program may not 

conduct any injection activity in a manner that allows 

the movement of fluid containing any contaminant into 

USDWs, if the presence of that contaminant may cause 

a violation of any primary drinking water standard under 

40 CFR 142 or may otherwise adversely affect public 

health (40 CFR 144.12)

VI

• Wells that are used for geologic 

sequestration of carbon dioxide beneath the lowermost USDW• Not an option

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 

34 For more information on UIC and well disposal classes, please visit http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/index.cfm.
E-7

Storage, Treatment, Transportation, and Disposal of Mixed Wastes, Final Rule, May 2001 

(66 Federal Register 95 (16 May 2001), pp. 27217-27266)

Following the Storage, Treatment, Transportation, and Disposal of Mixed Wastes, Final Rule, low-level mixed 

waste (LLMW) may be conditionally exempt from RCRA storage, treatment, transportation, and disposal 

regulations if the waste meets several conditions.35 Conditionally exempt LLMW is then stored, treated, transported, and disposed as low-level radioactive waste (LLRW). 

This exemption is applicable only in RCRA-authorized states that have adopted the exemption provisions. 

States may also have additional conditions for the exemption. If waste does not qualify for the exemption it is 

subject to both NRC and RCRA requirements.

Table E-2 provides a summary of the provisions for the conditional exemption.

35 Refer to http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2001-05-16/pdf/01-11408.pdf for the full text of the final rule.

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Table E-2: Summary of Storage, Treatment, Transportation, and Disposal of Mixed Wastes, Final 

Rule, May 2001

Action Conditions for 

Exemption Notifications Recordkeeping

Storage

• Waste is generated 

under a single NRC 

or Agreement State 

license

• Waste is stored in a 

tank or container

• Notify RCRA regulatory authority in 

writing by certified delivery claiming a 

conditional exemption for the LLMW

– Notify within 90 days of when a 

storage unit is first used to store 

conditionally exempt LLMW 

– Include your name, address, RCRA 

identification number, NRC or NRC 

Agreement State license number, the 

waste code(s) and storage unit(s), 

and a statement that you meet the 

conditions of this subpart

– Check to make sure the notification 

is signed by the authorized 

representative.

• Keep the following:

– Records required by 

NRC or NRC Agreement 

State license

– Initial notification records 

– Return receipts 

– Reports of failures to 

meet the exemption 

conditions

– All records supporting 

any reclaim of an 

exemption

– Certification that facility 

personnel who manage 

stored mixed waste 

are trained in safe 

management of LLMW 

– Emergency plan as 

specified in 40 CFR 

266.230(b)

• Keep all records for as 

long as the exemption is 

claimed and for 3 years 

thereaft

Treatment

• Waste is treated in a 

tank or container

• Waste must be 

treated to levels 

that are as low 

as reasonably 

achievable (ALARA)

• Waste cannot be 

transported if one 

wishes to maintain 

the LLMW exemption

Transportation

• Comply with NRC 

or Agreement 

State regulations 

and manifest 

requirements 

• Waste must be 

treated to levels that 

are ALARA

• Solid waste must 

be treated to land 

disposal restrictions 

(LDR) treatment 

standard

• Provide notice to the RCRA regulatory 

authority claiming the transportation 

conditional exemption prior to shipment 

(notice must include the facility name, 

address, phone number, RCRA ID, and 

be sent by certified delivery)

• Notify those receiving the exempted 

waste before shipment. Notification 

includes:

– A statement that you have claimed the 

waste exemption 

– A statement that the waste meets LDR 

treatment standards

– Facility’s name, address, and RCRA ID 

number

– A statement that the waste must be 

placed in a container according to 40 

CFR 266.340 prior to disposal 

– The manifest number of the shipment 

that will contain the exempt waste

– A certification that all the information 

provided is true, complete and 

accurate

Disposal

• Liquids cannot be 

disposed of at LLRW 

disposal facilities

• Solid waste must 

be treated to LDR 

treatment standards 

and disposed of in 

containers meeting 

NRC requirements

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA; 15 USC 2601 et seq.) 

The Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA) provides EPA with authority to require reporting, record-keeping and 

testing requirements, and restrictions relating to chemical substances and/or mixtures. TSCA also addresses 

chemicals specifically including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), asbestos, radon and lead-based paint. 

For additional information, see http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/tsca.html. Under TSCA authority, EPA has 

promulgated regulations to implement pre-market review of any new chemical substance before it is introduced into commerce. Under TSCA, EPA developed regulations for disposal of liquids and solids contaminated with PCBs. 

Transportation Requirements

Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR; 49 CFR Parts 100–185)

For information on the Hazardous Materials Regulations and other Department of Transportation (DOT) transport requirements see: http://www.phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat/regs/. 

Safety Requirements

Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act; 29 USC 651 et seq.)

For information about the Occupational Safety and Health Act and worker health and safety guidance refer 

to: http://www.osha.gov/. 

Federal Emergency Assistance

The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act; 42 

USC 5121 et seq.)

If state and local resources are overwhelmed during an emergency or major disaster, the Stafford Act provides guidance on how the state can request federal assistance. For information about the Stafford Act and 

the process for receiving federal assistance during an emergency or major disaster, refer to: https://www.fema.

gov/library/viewRecord.do?fromSearch=fromsearch&id=3564. 

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Appendix F: References

General References

Bazan, EB, 2005. Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act: Legal Requirements 

for Federal and State Roles in Declarations of an Emergency or Major Disaster. CRS Report for Congress. 

September 2005. http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/53688.pdf

National Association of Clean Water Agencies (NACWA), 2005. Planning for Decontamination 

Wastewater: A Guide for Utilities. http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/deq-wb-wws2005WWDeconGuide_271352_7.pdf

U.S. Department of Energy, 2006. Transportation Routing Analysis Geographic Information System. 

September 2006. 

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National 

Institutes of Health, 2007. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) 5th Edition. 

http://www.cdc.gov/biosafety/publications/bmbl5/index.htm

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, 2005. Possession, Use, and 

Transfer of Select Agents and Toxins; Final Rule. Federal Register Volume 70, Number 52, March 18, 2005. 

http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2005-03-18/pdf/05-5216.pdf

U.S. Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Planning 

Guidance for Recovery Following Biological Incidents. May 2009 Draft. 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2008. National Response Framework. FEMA Publication P-692, 

January 2008. http://www.fema.gov/pdf/emergency/nrf/nrf-core.pdf

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2003a. Homeland Security Presidential Directive – 7: Critical 

Infrastructure Identification, Prioritization, and Protection. December 17, 2003. http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/

laws/gc_1214597989952.shtm

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2003b. Presidential Policy Directive – 8: National Preparedness. 

December 17, 2003. http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/gc_1215444247124.shtm

U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2003c. Homeland Security Presidential Directive – 10: Biodefense 

for the 21st Century. December 17, 2003. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=446666

U.S. Department of Labor, 2006. OSHA e-HASP Software. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 

March 2006. http://www.osha.gov/dep/etools/ehasp/index.html

U.S. Department of Transportation, 2008. The National Hazardous Materials Route Registry. Federal Motor 

Carriers Safety Administration. http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/safety-security/hazmat/national-hazmat-Route.aspx

U.S. Department of Transportation, 2005. Special Permits. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety 

Administration. http://phmsa.dot.gov/hazmat/regs/sp-a/special-permits

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008. Resource Conservation Recovery Act Orientation Manual. 

Office of Solid Waste. http://www.epa.gov/osw/inforesources/pubs/orientat/ 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Incident Waste Decision Support Tool. Office of Research and 

Development, National Homeland Security Research Center, April 2012. http://www2.ergweb.com/bdrtool/

login.asp

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. Technical Brief: Water Systems Materials Disposal Decision 

Support Tool. Office of Research and Development, National Homeland Security Research Center, 

September 2007.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. Risk Communication in Action: The Risk Communication 

Workbook. Publication No. EPA/625/R-05/003, Office of Research and Development, August 2007. 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000I2U.txt 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. Risk Communication in Action: The Tools of Message 

Mapping. Publication No. EPA/625/R-06/012, Office of Research and Development, August 2007. 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=60000IOS.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. Effective Risk and Crisis Communication during Water 

Security Emergencies: Summary Report of EPA Sponsored Message Mapping Workshops. Publication No. 

EPA/600/R-07/027. Office of Research and Development, March 2007. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.

cgi?Dockey=60000GH1.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. Revised Public Health Notification Handbook. Publication 

No. EPA/816/R-07/03. Office of Water, March 2010. http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/

publicnotification/upload/PNrevisedPNHandbookMarch2010.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. Introduction to Containers (Training Module). Publication No. 

530-K-05-010. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, September 2005. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/

ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P1008KG6.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. Introduction to Tanks (Training Module). Publication No. 530-

K-05-018. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, September 2005. http://www.epa.gov/wastes/

inforesources/pubs/training/tanks05.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. Introduction to Land Disposal Units (Training Module). 

Publication No. 530-K-05-014. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, September 2005. 

http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P1009IJ2.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. Method 9095B: Paint Filter Liquids Test. Office of Solid Waste 

and Emergency Response, November 2004. http://www.epa.gov/wastes/hazard/testmethods/sw846/

pdfs/9095b.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. Response Protocol Toolbox: Planning for and Responding 

to Drinking Water Contamination Threats and Incidents, Response Guidelines. Office of Water, Interim 

Final, August 2004. http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_11_24_rptb_response_

guidelines.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. Response Protocol Toolbox: Planning for and Responding to 

Drinking Water Contamination Threats and Incidents, Module 6: Remediation and Recovery Guide. Office 

of Water, Interim Final, April 2004. http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/upload/2004_05_19_

watersecurity_guide_response_module6.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. Summary Report of the National Water Security Risk 

Communication Symposium. Publication No. EPA/600/C-05/006. Office of Research and Development, May 

2004. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P100049M.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2004 Local Limits Development Guidance, EPA833-R-0-4002A, July 

2004. http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/final_local_limits_guidance.pdf

Containment and Disposal of Large Amounts of &RQWDPLQDWHGWater: A Support Guide for Water Utilities 
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001. Land Disposal Restrictions: Summary of Requirements, 

EPA530-R-01-007, Offices of Solid Waste and Emergency Response and Enforcement and Compliance 

Assurance, August 2001. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=P1004UMF.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2001. Technical Program Overview: Underground Injection Control 

Regulations, EPA 816-R-02-025, Office of Water, July 2001. http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/

upload/2004_5_3_uicv_techguide_uic_tech_overview_uic_regs.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999. Guidance Manual for the Control of Wastes Hauled to 

Publicly Owned Treatment Works, Publication No. EPA-833-B-98-003. Office of Wastewater Management, 

September 1999. http://water.epa.gov/aboutow/owm/upload/2005_07_14_hwfinal.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. Hazardous Waste Requirements for Large Quantity 

Generators, Publication No. 530-F-96-032. Office of Solid Waste, June 1996. http://www.epa.gov/osw/

hazard/downloads/lqgpdf.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Hazardous Waste Manifest System, Office of Solid Waste and 

Emergency Response. http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/transportation/manifest/index.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011. National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution 

Contingency Plan (also known as the National Contingency Plan [NCP]) Overview. Office of Emergency 

Management. http://www.epa.gov/osweroe1/content/lawsregs/ncpover.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Off-Site Rule Fact Sheet. Office of Solid Waste and 

Emergency Response. http://www.epa.gov/waste/hazard/wastetypes/wasteid/offsite/os-facts.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. State Manifest Requirements, Office of Solid Waste and 

Emergency Response. http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/hazard/transportation/states.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. Standardized Analytical Methods for Environmental 

Restoration following Homeland Security Events, Revision 6, EPA/600/R-10/122. Office of Research and 

Development. http://www.epa.gov/sam/sam2010_9302010.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. Water Contaminant Information Tool (WCIT). Office of Water. 

http://www.epa.gov/wcit/

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2012. NRC Regulatory Guides – Transportation (Division 7). http://

www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides/transportation/rg/

Water UK, 2003. Protocol for the Disposal of Contaminated Water, Version 2.1, September 2003. http://www.

water.org.uk/home/policy/publications/archive/industry-guidance/disposal-of-contaminated-water/2003-

protocol-contamwater.pdf?s1=protocol&s2=for&s3=the&s4=disposal&s5=of&s6=contaminated&s7=water

Chemical References

Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/

Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, 2010. SafeStat Module, August 2010. http://ai.fmcsa.dot.gov/SMS/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010. Hazardous Waste Generator Regulations, Version 5, August 

2011. http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/hazard/downloads/tool.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Booms, March 2009. http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/

content/learning/booms.htm

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: 

Cadmium.(archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/upload/

Archived-Technical-Fact-Sheet-on-Cadmium.pdf. For current information, see http://water.epa.gov/drink/

contaminants/basicinformation/cadmium.cfm. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: 

Chromium. (archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/

upload/Archived-Technical-Fact-Sheet-on-Chromium.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: 

Copper. (archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/upload/

Archived-Technical-Fact-Sheet-on-Copper.pdf 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: 

Mercury. (archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/upload/

Archived-Technical-Fact-Sheet-on-Mercury.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: Nickel. 

(archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/upload/ArchivedTechnical-Fact-Sheet-on-Nickel.pdf 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Drinking Water Contaminants, Technical Factsheet on: 

Thallium. (archived document) http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/historical/upload/

Archived-Technical-Fact-Sheet-on-Thallium.pdf 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Emergency Management: Skimmers, March 2009.

http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/content/learning/skimmers.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Emergency Management: Sorbents, March 2009.

http://www.epa.gov/emergencies/content/learning/sorbents.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. National Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Report: Documents 

and Data. July 2009. http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/inforesources/data/biennialreport/index.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. NRT Quick Reference Guide: Cyclosarin (GF), National 

Response Team. 2000. http://www.nrt.org/production/NRT/NRTWeb.nsf/AllAttachmentsByTitle/A1043WMDGF(Cyclosarin)QRG/$File/GF_QRG_Final_(07-28-11).pdf?OpenElement

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. NPDES Permit Program Basics. Office of Water, April 2009. 

http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=45

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009. Underground Injection Control Program. July 2009.

http://water.epa.gov/type/groundwater/uic/index.cfm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008. Generator Summary Chart. November 2008. 

http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/hazard/generation/summary.htm

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008. Sampling Guidance for Unknown Contaminants in Drinking 

Water, Publication No. 817-R-08-003, November 2008. http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/watersecurity/wla/

upload/2008_12_31_watersecurity_pubs_guide_watersecurity_samplingforunknown.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2008. NRT Quick Reference Guide: Lewisite (L), National 

Response Team. 2008. http://www.nrt.org/production/NRT/NRTWeb.nsf/AllAttachmentsByTitle/A1009WMDQRGLewisite/$File/120216_Lewisite_QRG_Final.pdf?OpenElement

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2005. Treatment Technologies for Arsenic Removal. National Risk 

Management Research Laboratory, Publication No. EPA/600/S-05/006, November 2005. http://nepis.epa.

gov/Exe/ZyPURL.cgi?Dockey=20017IDW.txt

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. Technologies and Costs for Removal of Arsenic from Drinking 

Water. Office of Water, Publication No. EPA 815-R-00-028, December 2000. http://water.epa.gov/drink/info/

arsenic/upload/2005_11_10_arsenic_treatments_and_costs.pdf 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1992. CERCLA/SUPERFUND Orientation Manual. Office of Solid 

Waste and Emergency Response. Publication No. EPA 542-R-92-005, October 1992. http://nepis.epa.gov/

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1991. Guide to Discharging CERCLA Aqueous Wastes to Publicly 

Owned Treatment Works (POTWs). Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, March 1991. http://

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1987. Guidance Manual for the Identification of Hazardous Waste 

Delivered to POTWs by Truck, Rail or Dedicated Pipe. Office of Water Enforcement and Permits, June 1987. 

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Biological References

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Lowe H.N., and D.C. Lindsten, 1957. Removal of CBR Contaminants from Water. Military Med. 121: 330–335.

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Toxin References

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Services (HHS), 2005. Possession, Use, and Transfer of Select Agents and Toxins; Final Rule, 2005. Federal 

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and Data. July 2009. http://www.epa.gov/solidwaste/inforesources/data/biennialreport/index.htm

Radiological References

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Baeza, A., et al., 2004. “Elimination of Man-Made Radionuclides from Natural Waters by Applying a 

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Lowry, J.D., and S.B. Lowry, 1988. “Radionuclides in Drinking Water,” Journal of the American Water Works 

Association. 80(7): 50–64. 

Morton, R.J., and C.P. Straub, 1956. “Removal of Radionuclides from Water by Water Treatment Processes,” 

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in Environmental Matrices, Publication No. EPA/600/S-07/001. Office of Research and Development, 

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and Indoor Air. August 2004. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/radionuclides/pdfs/webcast/presentations/

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. Radionuclides in Drinking Water, Office of Water. http://water.

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