Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin 

Area of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

14C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the tourmaline tin area of interest (AOI) in western 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 14C–1a,b). This AOI occupies an area of 

1,365 km2

 (square kilometers) in the Anar Dara and Shindand Districts in the Farah and Hirat Provinces 

(fig. 14C–1a,b).

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the bedrock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator 

of high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

14C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the tourmaline tin AOI is based on data generated for the Afghanistan 

agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 AgroMet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA)

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet 

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1097

The Shindand AgroMet station is located in Hirat Province approximately 40 km (kilometers) 

northeast of the center of the AOI. This station is the Agromet station that is closest to the AOI for 

which 2009–2010 water year and long-term average (LTA) precipitation data are available. Precipitation 

data for this Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) are shown in 

table 14C–1. No snowfall was reported for this station during the 2009–2010 water year, but 15 cm 

(centimeters) of snow was reported during the 2008–2009 water year. 

a 
1098 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 14C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the tourmaline tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.

Information available for the Hirat Agromet station located 150 km north of the center of the 

AOI includes 2009–2010 water year and LTA precipitation and temperature data. Precipitation and 
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1099

temperature data for this Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) are 

shown in table 14C–1.

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation in the AOI as classified by Breckle (2007, p. 161) changes from northwest to 

southeast across the AOI. A small zone of vegetation described as “other deserts, rich in chenopod” in 

the northwest corner abruptly changes to “dwarf Amygdalus-semidesert” at slightly higher elevations to 

the east and southeast. As the elevation continues to increase to the south and east, the “Amygdaluswoodlands” becomes the dominant vegetation type. Much of the upland surface of the AOI is bedrock 

outcrop with thin alluvial cover. Very little land in the AOI is suitable for farming, and there are few 

irrigated areas (fig. 14C–2).

Table 14C–1.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; 

Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation and 

temperature at the Shindand and Herat Agromet stations, 40 km northeast and 150 km north, respectively, of the 

tourmaline tin area of interest, in western Afghanistan. °

C, degrees Celsius; nr, not reported]

Precipitation Temperature

Long-term average1 Long-term average

Agromet

Station

1

Distance 

from AOI 

center (km)

Elevation 

(m) 

2009–2010 

Annual 

(mm)

Annual 

(mm)

Monthly 

minimum and 

month (mm)

Monthly 

maximum and 

month (mm)

Minimum 

and month 

(°

Monthly 

C) mean (°

Maximum and 

C) month (°

Shindand

C) 

40 1,070 198 195.6 0

multiple

months

50.8

2

May

nr nr nr

Hirat 150 920 198 224.7 0

multiple

months

49.9

3

March

3.1 January 13.8 29.6

July

1 Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

2 Long-term average precipitation in September, July, and August was 0 mm. 3 Long-term average precipitation in September, June, July, and August was 0 mm.

14C.1.2 Demographics

The tourmaline tin AOI is sparsely populated, with most areas either being uninhabited or having 

from 1 to 25 inhabitants per km2 (square kilometer) as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, 2010) (fig. 14C–3). Approximately half the AOI may be inhabited (fig. 14C–3). In a few 

areas, population density ranges from 101 to 500/km2. These areas are probably small farming 

settlements, some of which may be transient. The population density shown in figure 14C–3 has a pixel 

resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010).

14C.1.3 Topography

The topography of the tourmaline tin AOI consists of a dissected, northeast-trending, 

mountainous area surrounded by sediment-covered desert plains (fig. 14C–4). The highest elevations, in 

the northeast part of the AOI, are slightly more than 1,500 m (meters) above sea level (asl) (Bohannon, 

2005). The elevations of the lower areas average 1,000 m asl. Many of the landforms in the lower 

elevation areas appear to have been formed by desert eolian and fluvial processes.
1100 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 14C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

tourmaline tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1101

Figure 14C–3. Population density of the tourmaline tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
1102 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

14C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the tourmaline tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1103

14C.1.4 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

tourmaline tin AOI is in the “Southern Afghanistan Artesian Region.” The outcrops and near-surface 

rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized 

geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 14C–4 with the underlying topography to allow 

examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figure 14C–5 shows the generalized 

geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Any mapped wells 

present in the AOI (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown in figure 14C–5. Generalized 

geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) 

by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic 

characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic 

conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments 

and rocks; limestones and dolostones; sedimentary rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 14C–4, 

14C–5). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian 

and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 

1:250,000-scale geologic maps that cover this AOI are provided by Bohannon and Lindsay (2005) and 

Litke (2005). 

The sands, undifferentiated geohydrologic group is mapped at the lower elevations of the AOI, 

generally surrounding the outcrops of the intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group (figs. 14C–4, 

14C–5). No information is available on the thickness of this unit but, on the basis of the width of the 

outcrop areas, the maximum thickness may be less than 1,000 m. In a preliminary analysis of historical 

and recent aeromagnetic data (Sweeney and others, 2006; Shenwary and others, 2011), Drenth (2009) 

estimated the thickness of sediments overlying basement rock in a larger sedimentary basin 30 km 

southeast of the AOI to be at least 1,000 m, and possibly more than 2,000 m. The conglomerate 

sediments and rocks geohydrologic group is present in the northwest corner of the AOI (figs. 14C–4, 

14C–5). This geohydrologic group occupies a small area and no information is available on its 

thickness. The sediments and rocks of this group appear to have been deposited on the intrusive rocks 

and lavas and sedimentary rocks geohydrologic groups.

The intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group constitutes the largest mapped unit in the AOI 

(figs. 14C–4, 14C–5). As shown in figure 14C– 2, a substantial part of this area is covered by alluvial 

material, and only the higher elevation areas appear to consist of bedrock outcrop. The sedimentary 

rocks geohydrologic group crops out in the northwest and southeast corners of the AOI (figs. 14C–4, 

14C–5). These rocks are probably not an important groundwater resource within the AOI. If extensive 

outcrops are present adjacent to the AOI, this unit could be a potential source of groundwater. The 

limited information on the geohydrologic units indicates that field studies are needed to assess the 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

14C.1.5 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information 

Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), in the 

tourmaline tin AOI is shown in figure 14C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, 

generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 14C–2. Mapped springs, 

identified in the Vector Map (VMAP1) database (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), are 

shown in and adjacent to the AOI. Names of major streams and identification numbers for any 

streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the AOI are shown in figure 14C–1b. 
1104 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 14C–5. Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, and well locations in and near the tourmaline tin area of 

interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1105

The streamgage station nearest to the AOI is the Adraskan River at Adraskan station (Afghan 

identification number 7-0.000-7M), located approximately 75 km northeast of the center of the AOI 

(Williams-Sether, 2008). This station is at an elevation of 1,340 m asl and has a drainage area of 

1,970 km

2 and a period of record that extends from 30 March, 1933, to 30 September, 1978

(Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0033 m3/s/km2

(cubic meters per second per square kilometer). The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum

monthly streamflow is high flows in the spring and low flows in late summer and early fall. A statistical 

summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in table 14C–2. 

Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan can be 

accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.

The Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan streamgage station (Afghan identification number 

7-5.R00-1A) is about 83 km northeast of the AOI and 7 km from the Adraskan River at Adraskan

streamgage station. This station is at an elevation of 1,380 m asl and has a drainage area of 2,180 km

2

and a period of record that extends from 12 May, 1963, to 30 September, 1978 (Williams-Sether, 2010). 

The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0025 m3/s/km2. The seasonal timing of 

maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the spring and low flows in late summer 

and early fall. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is 

presented in table 14C–3.

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S21 and S22 (figs. 14C–1b and 14C–2) on selected 

streams in the AOI or subareas, using a drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on 

historical flows at the Adraskan River at Adraskan streamgage station (Afghan identification number

7-0.000-7M) and the Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan streamgage station (Afghan identification number 

7-5.R00-1A) (Williams-Sether, 2008). These streamgage stations were selected as the most 

representative historical gages, on the basis of their size and proximity to the AOI, for use with this 

method. The areas of the drainage basins for which flow was estimated were small, however, and the 

resulting flow estimates should be considered rough approximations. The estimated mean annual 

streamflow at point S21 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 415.7 km2

, is about 1.16 m3/s (cubic meters per 

second). By applying the same method, the estimated mean annual streamflow at point S22 is 0.71 m3/s. 

The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow, with high flows in the spring and 

low flows in late summer and early fall (app. 2), probably is similar to that at the Adraskan River at 

Adraskan streamgage station.

Little irrigation occurs in the AOI; where irrigation does occur, the source of the water is 

probably the alluvial material. Aerial images show that traditional hand-dug water tunnels (karezes) 

have been constructed in the alluvial sediments; the karezes are used to transport water for domestic 

supply and irrigation.

14C.1.6 Groundwater

No NGO community groundwater-supply wells have been installed in the tourmaline tin AOI, 

according to a database maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees,

2011). A group of community supply wells is present about 5 km north of the AOI (fig. 14C–5); the 

depth to water in these wells is generally between 5 and 15 m (fig. 14C–5). Two wells are identified in 

the VMAP1 database (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995); these wells are shown in figure 

14C–5. Additional dug wells likely are completed in unconsolidated sediments in the AOI, particularly 

in areas near the Darreh-ye Almish and Rud-e Khami Guwan streams (fig. 14C–2); however, no 

additional information is available about shallow supply wells, which may or may not exist in the AOI. 

Similarly, no information is available on groundwater resources in the bedrock aquifers of the AOI. 

VMAP1 data (fig. 14C–5) indicate that the two wells in the AOI contain fresh or potable water; 
1106 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

however, no other water-quality information is available for the unconsolidated or bedrock aquifers in 

the AOI. During USGS reconnaissance visits to the Dusar-Shaida AOI, layers of saline groundwater 

were found to be present in similar basins. These conditions may also be present in the tourmaline tin 

AOI.

One groundwater-monitoring well (GWM 79) less than 3 km from the AOI (fig. 14C–5) is 

monitored by DACAAR for groundwater levels and specific conductance. Another well, GWM 63, 

about 40 km east-northeast of the center of the AOI is also monitored by DACAAR. Hydrographs of 

water levels in groundwater-monitoring wells in the AOI, provided by DACAAR, are shown in 

appendix 3. The hydrographs show the date in week number and year, groundwater specific conductance

in microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius (μS/cm), and depth to water in meters below ground 

surface (bgs). The depth to water in GWM 79 was about 6 to 8 m and had a seasonal fluctuation of 1 to 

2 m. Groundwater specific conductance was about 2,000 μS/cm. This well is likely constructed in 

unconsolidated sediments. Alluvial basins occupy only a small percentage of the AOI. Limited 

groundwater may be available in the sedimentary rocks in the AOI; however, no information about this 

potential resource is available.

Shallow groundwater resources may be present in the sands, undifferentiated geohydrologic 

group. Deeper groundwater could be present in thick sequences of sediments in this group; however, as 

a result of the low precipitation and high evaporation rates that characterize this region, deep 

groundwater could be recharged very slowly and may be as much as thousands to tens of thousands of 

years old (Mack and others, 2010). Where it is sufficiently thick, the conglomerate sediments and rocks

group may have limited groundwater availability.

14C.1.7 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

tourmaline tin AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011) were conducted 

using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 14C–6) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal 

Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 14C–7a,b). Lineament 

identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in 

carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and 

Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of 

high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore 

and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 14C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in 

figure 14C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the multispectral 

characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). 

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of 

highly fractured bedrock. Many lineaments in the AOI are aligned to the northeast in a pattern that may 

be related to a structural trend or bedding-plane weaknesses. Some lineaments are coincident with the 

mapped faults in the southeast area of the AOI (fig. 14C–5). Areas where lineament densities are high 

(figs. 14C–6, 14C–7a, 14C–7b) potentially are areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in 

other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant further investigation for 

optimal bedrock water-well placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and 

storage of groundwater, and areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary 

porosity. Any lineament analyses, including those presented in this investigation, need to be 

corroborated by field investigations and additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their 

relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1107

Table 14C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Adraskan River at Adraskan streamgage station (Williams-Sether, 

2008). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

7- 0.000-7M ADRASKAN RIVER AT ADRASKAN

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 1.77 1970 0.149 1964 0.79 0.50 0.64 1.02

November 4.50 1978 0.703 1972 1.69 1.00 0.59 2.19

December 19.3 1969 0.415 1964 2.79 4.62 1.66 3.61

January 10.7 1969 1.02 1971 3.03 2.65 0.87 3.93

February 19.5 1972 1.57 1971 7.66 5.24 0.68 9.93

March 40.8 1972 2.46 1971 17.9 10.4 0.58 23.2

April 57.1 1976 3.85 1963 23.4 17.6 0.75 30.4

May 34.4 1967 2.80 1970 13.4 9.40 0.70 17.4

June 10.9 1976 0.715 1970 3.98 3.00 0.75 5.17

July 3.52 1972 0.306 1970 1.35 0.93 0.69 1.75

August 2.04 1976 0.010 1971 0.58 0.53 0.92 0.75

September 1.37 1976 0.010 1971 0.56 0.42 0.75 0.72

Annual 13.0 1972 1.89 1971 6.53 3.60 0.55 100

Table 14C–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan

2008). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

7- 5.R00-1A RUD-I-GAZ RIVER NEAR ADRASKAN

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 1.10 1977 0.062 1972 0.51 0.33 0.66 0.77

streamgage station (Williams-Sether, 

November 2.48 1978 0.209 1971 0.96 0.62 0.65 1.46

December 11.9 1969 0.410 1965 1.74 2.84 1.63 2.65

January 6.68 1969 0.602 1964 2.07 1.51 0.73 3.15

February 8.14 1969 1.04 1971 4.51 2.42 0.54 6.86

March 39.9 1972 1.75 1967 19.3 13.4 0.70 29.3

April 76.7 1976 6.45 1971 24.2 18.7 0.77 36.9

May 25.6 1976 1.29 1971 9.10 8.14 0.89 13.8

June 4.80 1967 0.232 1971 1.78 1.53 0.86 2.70

July 1.93 1976 0.075 1971 0.75 0.58 0.77 1.14

August 1.16 1976 0 1970, 1971 0.39 0.35 0.90 0.59

September 1.05 1976 0 1971 0.40 0.34 0.85 0.61

Annual 13.2 1976 1.05 1971 5.47 3.31 0.61 100
1108 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 14C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter digital-elevation-model data and 

natural-color Landsat imagery in the tourmaline tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1109

a 
1110 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 14C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery and (b) 

lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the tourmaline tin area of 

interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 14C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Tourmaline Tin Area of Interest 1111

14C.2 Summary and Conclusions

The availability of water resources for mining and other uses is likely to be more limited in the 

tourmaline tin area of interest (AOI) than in other areas of Afghanistan. There are few perennial streams 

within the AOI and the Adraskan River, a large perennial stream, is 5 km outside the AOI boundary.

Water resources in the AOI and surrounding area consist mainly of shallow groundwater. Shallow 

alluvial aquifers are likely in the sands, undifferentiated geohydrologic group in the valley bottoms of 

the AOI; however, saline groundwater was found near the land surface in similar basins to the north. 

Most streams are highly utilized by the local population and represent the primary source of water for 

irrigation. The diversion of water from the streams to support mining activities would need to be closely 

monitored to ensure that the quantity and quality of the surface-water flow remain sufficient to supply 

water for irrigation. Streamflow also would need to be monitored to ensure that the streams continue to 

provide recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic consumption.

No information about deep groundwater in the AOI or adjacent areas is available. Some areas of 

the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are likely areas for 

further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water resources in the 

AOI remain to be determined, however. Close monitoring and careful management of potential new 

surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing 

supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, geophysical 

surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and availability of 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

14C.3 References Cited

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., eds. in chief, 1977, Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan, 

book 2: Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries, Afghanistan Geological Survey, British 

Geological Survey Occasional Publications No. 15, 292 p. (Reprinted 2008.)

Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997, Irrigated areas, 1:250,000 scale, Afghanistan 

Information Management Service Afghanistan Shape Files, accessed October 15, 2010, at 

http://www.aims.org.af/.

Bohannon, R.G., 2005, Topographic map of quadrangle 3362, Shin-Dand (415) and Tulak (416) 

quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1109B.

Bohannon, R.G., and Lindsay, C.R., 2005, Geologic map of quadrangle 3362, Shin-Dand (415) and 

Tulak (416) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1109A.

Breckle, S.W., 2007, Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan: Basic and Applied Dryland Research, v. 1, 

no. 2, p 155–194.

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011, Update on “National groundwater monitoring 

wells network activities in Afghanistan” from July 2007 to December 2010: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), 23 p.

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ Mosaics of Afghanistan, U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2006–1345, 18 p., also at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/. 

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

Drenth, B.J., 2009, Potential field studies of the Central San Luis Basin and San Juan Mountains, 

Colorado, and New Mexico, and Southern and Western Afghanistan: Norman, Oklahoma, University 

of Oklahoma, 154 p.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038/.

Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 604 p.

Lattman, L.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1964, Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of 

ground water in carbonate rocks: Journal of Hydrology, v. 2, p. 73–91.
1112 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Litke, D.J., 2005, Geologic map of quadrangle 3262, Farah (421) and Hokumat-e-Pur-Chaman (422) 

quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1114A.

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