Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay and 

Gypsum Area of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

17C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 17C–1a,b). The AOI is an 1,800-km2 (square 

kilometer) area in northeast-central Afghanistan in the Ruyi Du Ab District in Samangan Province, and 

the Kahmard and Tala Wa Barfak Districts in Baghlan Province (fig. 17C–1a,b). 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in well casings are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the bedrock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator 

of high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan.

17C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI is based on data generated for the 

Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA)

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet 

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010 
1304 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1305

b 

Figure 17C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest in Afghanistan.

The Dara-e-Soof Agromet station is located in Samangan Province in the northwest corner of the 

AOI. Data available for this station include 2009–2010 water year and long-term average (LTA) 
1306 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

precipitation data. The station received 411 mm (millimeters) of precipitation during the 2009–2010 

water year and has a LTA precipitation of 277.1 mm (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 

2010). The AOI can be considered semiarid on the basis of this annual precipitation. Reported monthly 

precipitation was highest (148 mm) in May 2010. No precipitation was reported in September 2009 and 

August 2010. The LTA monthly high precipitation is 64.8 mm in March and the LTA monthly low is 

0 mm in September and August. 

The Agromet station located in the settlement of Bamyan, Bamyan Province, is the closest 

station to the AOI for which 2009–2010 water year and LTA precipitation and temperature data are 

available. The Bamyan Agromet station is about 100 km (kilometers) southwest of the center of the 

AOI. The average monthly high temperature at this Agromet station for the 2009–2010 water year was 

19.5°C (degrees Celsius) in July 2010 and the average monthly low temperature was -4.51°C in 

January 2010. The LTA high and low temperatures at this station are 18.2°C for July and -6.8°C for 

January (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). Table 17C–1 presents precipitation 

and temperature data for the Agromet station in Bamyan. 

Table 17C–1.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; 

Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation 

and temperature at the Bamyan Agrometeorological (Agromet) station 100 km southwest of the Baghlan claygypsum area of interest, Afghanistan. °

C, degrees Celsius] 

Precipitation Temperature

Long-term average1 Long-term average

Agromet

Station

1

Distance 

from AOI 

center 

(km)

Elevation 

(m)

2009–

2010 

Annual 

(mm)

Annual 

(mm)

Monthly 

minimum 

and month 

(mm)

Monthly 

maximum 

and month 

(mm)

Minimum 

and month 

(°

Monthly 

mean 

C) (°

Maximum 

and month 

C) (°

Bamyan

C)

100 3,100 207.4 142 0

August

34.3 

April

–6.8 

January

5.3 18.2 July

1 Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

The Bamyan Agromet station had a total of 17 reported snow days during the 2009–2010 water 

year with the following distribution: November 2009, 4 days; December 2009, 2 days; January 2010, 

3 days; February 2010, 6 days; and March 2010, 2 days. A total snowfall of 99 cm (centimeters) was 

reported for Bamyan during the 2009–2010 water year. The snow-depth map for 17 January, 2010 

(Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, 2010, map 6), indicates a snow depth from 10 to 

30 cm in the AOI, but this was before the snowfall in February. The snow-depth map for 30 September, 

2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, 2010, map 7), shows less than 2 cm of snow in 

the AOI.

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. It presents the natural vegetation 

potential and resources that would occur in the various regions of Afghanistan. Today, as a result of 

continued exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural 

vegetation is found only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation 

has resulted in the degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of 

long-lasting desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation in the AOI is primarily “dwarf Amygdalus-semidesert” surrounded by a zone of 

“thorny cushions, subalpine and alpine semi deserts and meadows” as classified by Breckle (2007, 

p. 161). Much of the upland surface of the AOI is bedrock outcrop with thin alluvial cover. Azonal 

riverine vegetation likely was present in the stream valleys, but the trees have been harvested for fuel 

and building materials. Most land suitable for farming has been plowed and planted, especially along 
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1307

major stream valleys and some of the ephemeral tributary stream valleys. Irrigated fields are present in 

the perennial stream valleys and a few ephemeral stream valleys in the AOI (fig. 17C–2).

Figure 17C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest in Afghanistan.
1308 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

17C.1.2 Demographics

The Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI is sparsely populated, with most areas having 1 to 25 inhabitants 

per square kilometer as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) (fig. 17C–3). The

mapped population density exceeds 50/km2 in only a few places; these areas are mostly along the 

perennial streams. Some of the more mountainous areas are estimated to be uninhabited as indicated by 

the gray shading in figure 17C–3. The population density shown in figure 17C–3 has a pixel resolution 

of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010).

17C.1.3 Topography

The topography of the Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI is very mountainous with very little area 

suitable for agriculture as indicated by irrigated land (figs. 17C–2 and 17C–4). A high, mountainous 

ridge in the northeast corner of the AOI is more than 3,500 m (meters) above sea level (asl) for a 

distance of 9 km (Bohannon, 2005). Another high ridge, more than 3,000 m asl, trends east-west in the 

central part of the AOI (Davis, 2006). The perennial streams that flow through the AOI have formed 

deeply incised valley with more than 1,000 m of relief. There are also several deeply incised ephemeral 

stream valleys.

17C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI is in the transition area between the Northern Afghanistan Artesian Region 

and the Central Afghanistan Hydrogeological Folded Region. The outcrops and near-surface rocks in the 

AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology 

of the AOI is shown in figure 17C–4 with the underlying topography to allow examination of the 

geohydrology in the context of relief. Figures 17C–5a and b show the generalized geohydrology without 

topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed 

in the Groundwater section) are shown in figures 17C–5a and b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were 

created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and 

rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic 

groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, 

table 2.3), are “sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments and rocks; limestones and dolostones; 

sedimentary rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 17C–4, 17C–5a,b). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) 

used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey 

(AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic maps 

that cover this AOI are provided by Lindsay and others (2005) and Turner (2005). 

The mapped outcrops of sands are confined to three relatively small areas along the Kunduz 

River. Although water-supply wells have been constructed in the sediments of this geohydrologic group, 

it is unlikely that sufficient groundwater is present to support additional withdrawals for uses such as 

mining activities (fig. 17C–5a,b). The conglomerate sediments and rocks geohydrologic group forms a 

fairly large outcrop in the western part of the AOI. Where this unit is exposed in stream valleys, it 

appears to be as much as 1,000 m thick. Some wells have been constructed in the areas mapped as 

conglomerate (fig. 17-5a); however, wells are more likely to have been constructed in unmapped 

alluvium. Additional work would be needed to determine whether the conglomerate constitutes an 

aquifer that could supply groundwater for mining activities. The sedimentary rocks and the limestones 

and dolostones geohydrologic groups have a limited outcrop area. A few wells are located in the 

sedimentary rocks geohydrologic group in the Kunduz River valley (fig. 17C–5a,b); however, they are 

also likely to be completed in the overlying alluvium. 

At least one third of the AOI is included in the intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group. In 

the absence of fractures, the hydraulic conductivity and storage capacity of this geohydrologic group are 
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1309

likely to be low. If these rocks are highly fractured and the fracture network is extensive, there is the 

potential for limited groundwater availability. The intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic group forms 

much of the higher elevation areas and may have considerable recharge potential from snow melt. 

Additional work is needed to adequately characterize the groundwater potential of this and all other 

geohydrologic groups in the AOI. 

Figure 17C–3. Population density of the Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest in Afghanistan.
1310 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 17C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest in 

Afghanistan.
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1311

a 
1312 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 17C–5. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b) 

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community-supply wells in the Baghlan clay-gypsum area 

of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1313

17C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, in the Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI, modified from 

AIMS (Afghanistan Information Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and 

Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in figure 17C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, 

generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 17C–2. Names of major 

streams and identification numbers for any streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the 

AOI are shown in figure 17C–1b. 

The three streamgage stations in the AOI are shown in figures 17C–1b and 17C–2. The 

unlabeled streamgage station is identified as the Kunduz River at Doab; however, no additional 

information is available for that streamgage. The Bamyan River at Doab streamgage station (Afghan 

identification number 14-9.R00-1A) is at an elevation of 1,468 m asl and has a drainage area of 

5,005 km2 and a period of record that extends from 1 October, 1967, to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0018 m3/s/km2 

(cubic meters per second per square kilometer). The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum 

monthly streamflow is high flows in the late spring and early summer and low flows in late winter and 

early spring. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented 

in table 17C–2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan 

can be accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php. 

The other station in the AOI is the Kunduz River at Dasht-i-Safed streamgage station (Afghan 

identification number 14-90.000-8M). This station is at an elevation of 1,588 m asl and has a drainage 

area of 3,795 km2 and a period of record that extends from 12 October, 1967, to 5 May, 1975; 

13 August, 1977, to 30 September, 1978; and 1 October, 1967, to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0028 m3/s/km2. 

The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the early summer 

and low flows in late winter and early spring, but the mean flow at this station is fairly consistent 

throughout the year. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is 

presented in table 17C–3. 

Table 17C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Bamyan River at Doab

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010).

3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

14-9.R00-1A BAMYAN RIVER AT DOAB

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 8.55 1970 3.10 1972 5.99 1.69 0.28 5.53

November 8.82 1970 3.26 1972 5.70 1.64 0.29 5.27

December 7.92 1970 2.98 1972 4.85 1.33 0.27 4.48

January 6.69 1970 2.70 1978 4.43 1.16 0.26 4.10

February 5.85 1969 2.46 1978 4.15 1.15 0.28 3.83

March 5.32 1968 2.82 1975 4.18 0.85 0.20 3.86

April 8.25 1968 3.06 1972 4.90 1.67 0.34 4.52

May 26.6 1973 10.4 1975 14.9 4.83 0.32 13.8

June 56.1 1969 9.35 1971 30.7 14.6 0.47 28.4

July 31.5 1969 2.66 1971 15.5 8.79 0.57 14.3

August 13.3 1969 2.65 1971 6.85 3.18 0.46 6.33

September 10.5 1969 1.97 1971 6.06 2.61 0.43 5.60

Annual 14.4 1969 4.90 1971 9.03 2.92 0.32 100
1314 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Table 17C–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kunduz River at Dasht-i-Safed

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010).

3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

14-0.000-8M KUNDUZ RIVER AT DASHT-I-SAFED

Month

Maximum Minimum

Streamflow Water year of

(m3/s) occurrence

Mean

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standard

deviation 3 (m /s)

Coefficient 

of

variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

13.0

12.8

13.5

13.7

12.9

12.5

12.4

14.2

21.7

13.8

12.7

12.8

12.6

1970

1970

1970

1969

1969

1969

1969

1972

1972

1968

1968

1969

1969

8.78

7.91

7.64

9.37

8.22

7.07

7.64

8.13

7.32

8.31

8.82

8.49

9.07

1971

1971

1971

1972

1978

1978

1978

1974

1971

1970

1970

1972

1978

10.6

9.96

10.5

11.0

10.2

9.51

9.62

10.4

13.4

11.2

10.5

10.1

10.5

1.67

1.38

1.81

1.48

1.46

1.54

1.43

1.93

5.52

1.90

1.22

1.66

1.21

0.16

0.14

0.17

0.13

0.14

0.16

0.15

0.19

0.41

0.17

0.12

0.16

0.12

8.33

7.85

8.31

8.65

8.02

7.49

7.58

8.21

10.5

8.80

8.28

7.96

100

17C.2.2 Groundwater

Eighteen shallow community groundwater-supply wells have been installed in the Baghlan claygypsum AOI by NGOs. Information about these wells can be found in a database maintained by 

DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011). Well-depth and water-level 

information is available for 14 of the wells in this database (figs. 17C–5a,b). One supply well is 31.6 m 

deep and most (71 percent) are less than 20 m deep. The median well depth is 14 m. The depth to water 

in the supply wells in the AOI is generally less than 20 m (fig.17C–5a). The median depth to water is 

slightly less than the well depth, about 13.5 m. 

The 14 wells for which construction information is available are reported to utilize concrete-ring 

casing. Wells are generally installed in unconsolidated sediments, completed a few meters below the 

depth at which water is first encountered, and equipped with a hand pump. Figure 17C–5b shows the 

height of static water in the casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static depth to water).

The median height of static water in well casings is less than 1 m and all wells contained less than 3 m 

of static water. There are no groundwater-monitoring wells in or near the AOI; however, seasonal waterlevel fluctuations are typically at least 1 m and may be several meters. Such shallow wells with little 

static water are vulnerable to seasonal water-level fluctuations and becoming dry for extended periods of 

time, or even permanently, where groundwater withdrawals are increasing. Increases in groundwater 

withdrawals near existing wells in the AOI may disrupt the availability of groundwater supplies. There 

is no information on groundwater resources in bedrock aquifers in or near the AOI; however, limited 

groundwater resources may be available in the conglomerates and fractured intrusive rocks in the AOI.

Groundwater may be more available in sedimentary rocks in the Kunduz River valley. 

17C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Baghlan clay-gypsum AOI were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 17C–6) 

and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery 

(fig. 17C–7a,b). Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for 

identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found 

(Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1315

identify areas of high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock 

(Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 17C–6 were delineated 

visually, whereas those in figure 17C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of 

the multispectral characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, 

unpub. data, 2011).

Figure 17C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and naturalcolor Landsat imagery in the Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest in Afghanistan.
1316 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1317

b 

Figure 17C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery and 

(b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the Baghlan clay-gypsum 

area of interest in Afghanistan.
1318 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in 

areas of highly fractured bedrock. Lineaments in the AOI have a predominantly northeast trend, 

following the regional structure. Areas where lineament density is high (figs. 17C–6, 17C–7a, 17C–7b) 

potentially are areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. 

Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock waterwell placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and 

areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, 

including those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and 

additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture 

zones. 

17C.3 Summary and Conclusions

The availability of water resources for mining and other uses is likely to be greater in the 

Baghlan clay-gypsum area of interest (AOI) than in other areas of Afghanistan. Water resources in the 

AOI and surrounding area consist mainly of surface water, particularly the Kunduz River, but some of 

the geohydrologic groups may contain considerable groundwater resources. Field investigations are 

needed to determine the quantity and quality of any groundwater resources that currently are not being 

used. Some areas have shallow, valley-bottom alluvial aquifers that likely are a highly utilized 

groundwater resource. Most streams are also likely to be highly utilized by the local population and 

represent the primary source of water for irrigation. The diversion of water from the rivers to support 

mining activities would need to be closely monitored, particularly during low-flow periods, so that the 

quantity and quality of the surface water remains sufficient to supply water for irrigation and to provide 

recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic consumption. 

There is no information about deep groundwater in the AOI or adjacent areas. Some areas of the 

AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are likely areas for further 

exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water resources in the AOI 

remain to be determined, however. Close monitoring and careful management of potential new surfacewater or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing supply 

for current local uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, geophysical surveys, and 

hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and availability of groundwater 

resources in the AOI. 

17C.4 References Cited

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., eds. in chief, 1977, Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan, 

book 2: Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries, Afghanistan Geological Survey, reprinted 

2008, British Geological Survey Occasional Publications No. 15, 292 p. 

Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997, Irrigated areas: Afghanistan Information 

Management Service Afghanistan Shape Files, scale 1:250,000, accessed October 15, 2010, at 

http://www.aims.org.af/. 

Bohannon, R.G., 2005, Geologic map of quadrangle 3568, Polekhumri (503) and Charikar (504) 

quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1101B. 

Breckle, S.W., 2007, Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan: Basic and Applied Dryland Research, v. 1, 

no. 2, p 155–194. 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011, Update on “National groundwater monitoring 

wells network activities in Afghanistan” from July 2007 to December 2010: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), 23 p. 

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1345, 18 p., also at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/. 
Chapter 17C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Baghlan Clay-Gypsum Area of Interest 1319

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 

604 p. 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038/.

Lattman, L.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1964, Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of 

ground water in carbonate rocks: Journal of Hydrology, v. 2, p. 73–91. 

Lindsay, C.R., Snee, L.W., Bohannon, R.G, Wahl, R.R., and Sawyer, D.A., 2005, Geologic map of 

quadrangle 3568, Polekhumri (503) and Charikar (504) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2005–1101A. 

Mabee, S.B., 1999, Factors influencing well productivity in glaciated metamorphic rocks: Groundwater, 

v. 37, no. 1, p. 88–97. 

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock and the Afghan Meteorological Authority of Ministry 

of Transport , 2010, The Afghanistan agrometeorological seasonal bulletin 2009–2010, no. 7, 26 p., 

accessed July 6, 2011, at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/documents.php?cat=1. 

Moore, R.B., Schwarz, G.E., Clark, S.F., Jr., Walsh, G.J., and Degnan, J.R., 2002, Factors related to 

well yield in the fractured-bedrock aquifer of New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

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