Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar 

Gold Placer Area of Interest

By Michael P. Chornack and Thomas J. Mack

12B.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the North Takhar gold-placer area of interest (AOI) 

in Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 12B–1a,b). The AOI is located in northeastern 

Afghanistan in the Darqad, Chah Ab, Shahri, Buzurg, Yanqi Qalla, Rustag, Fayzabad, Kisham, 

Kalafgan, and Khwaja Ghar Districts in the Takhar and Badakhshan Provinces (fig. 12B–1a,b). The AOI 

encompasses an area of 6,128 km2 (square kilometers) (the areas in Tajikistan are not considered). 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

12B.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the North Takhar gold placer AOI is based on data generated for the 

Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA)

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet 

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 
970 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

The average precipitation for the 2009–2010 water year for the region of Afghanistan that 

includes the AOI, as published in the Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock, 2010, map 2), ranged from 255 to 300 mm (millimeters). The AOI received 61 to 100 mm of 

precipitation in February 2010, the month with the greatest precipitation (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 3). The AOI received 24 to 58 mm of precipitation in October 

2009, the month with the least precipitation (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, 

map 4). The amount of precipitation increases from west to east across the AOI.

a 
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 971

b 

Figure 12B–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b

There are no Agromet stations located within the AOI, but there are two stations within 70 km of 

the center of the AOI. The Taluqan (Taloqan) Agromet station is located in Takhar Province 

approximately 55 km south-southwest of the center of the AOI. This is the closest Agromet station to the 

AOI for which 2009–2010 water year and long-term average (LTA) precipitation data are available. 

Precipitation data for the Taluqan Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 

) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the North Takhar gold placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
972 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

2010) are shown in table 12B–1. The Agromet maps discussed above show the integration of data from 

several stations; therefore, precipitation values differ from those in table 12B–1. The total snowfall 

reported for the 2009–2010 water year at the Taluqan station was 74 cm (centimeters). For comparison, 

snowfall during the 2008–2009 water year was 127 cm. 

Table 12B–1. Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation 

and temperature at the Taluqan and Faizabad Agrometeorological (Agromet) stations within 70 km of the North 

Takhar gold placer area of interest, Afghanistan.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius; nr, not reported]

Precipitation Temperature

1 1 Distance Long-term average Long-term average Agromet Elevation 2009–2010 from AOI Monthly Monthly Maximum station (m) annual Annual Monthly maximum Minimum (°C) center (km) minimum (mm) mean (°C) and (mm) (mm) (mm) and month and month and month (°C) month

Taluqan 55 820 518.5 563 0.1 June 131.1 March nr nr nr

0.3 August

Faizabad 63 1,200 594.3 492.6 1.1 August 99.2 April –0.6 January 11.3 26.9 July

1

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

The Faizabad Agromet station is approximately 63 km east of the center of the AOI. Available data 

for this station include 2009–2010 water year and LTA precipitation and temperature data.Precipitation 

and temperature data for the Faizabad Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 

2010) are shown in table 12B–1. The Faizabad Agromet station received a total of 45 cm of snow during 

the 2009–2010 water year. Snow fell at this Agromet station on 7 days during the 2009–2010 agricultural 

season: 1 in January, 5 in February, and 1 in March. The snow-depth map for 17 January, 2010 (Ministry 

of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 6), indicates that snow depth ranged from less than 2 

cm in the northwest corner of the AOI to 30 cm in the eastern part of the AOI.

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation is azonal riverine along the Amu Darya River in the northern part of the AOI 

(Breckle, 2007). The vegetation transitions to Pistacia vera-Woodlands to the east and to higher 

elevations in the AOI. Farther east and at still higher elevations, the vegetation is Amygdalus-Woodlands 

as classified by Breckle (2007). Much of the upland surface of the AOI is bedrock outcrop with thin 

alluvial cover and sparse vegetation. Azonal riverine vegetation likely was present in the stream valleys, 

but the trees have been harvested for fuel and building materials. Most land suitable for farming has 

been plowed and planted, especially along major stream valleys and some of the ephemeral tributary 

stream valleys. Large irrigated areas are present in the northwest corner of the AOI (fig. 12B–2).

12B.1.2 Demographics

The population in the North Takhar gold placer AOI is concentrated in the northwest corner of 

the AOI and in some of the major stream valleys as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, 2010) (fig. 12B–3). The population density is related to the availability of water for 

domestic supply and irrigation. In a few areas, population density exceeds 5,000/km2. Population density 

in most of the high-population areas ranges from 51 to 2,500/km2; except in these areas, the AOI is 

sparsely populated. Some of the higher elevation areas are uninhabited, as indicated by the gray shading 
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 973

in figure 12B–3. Population densities in other areas range from 1 to 50/km2. The population density 

shown in figure 12B–3 has a pixel resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010).

12B.1.3 Topography

The topography of the North Takhar gold placer AOI transitions from the low-elevation plains 

along the Amu Darya River to the mountains in the east (Davis, 2006) (fig. 12B–4). Elevations along the 

Amu Darya River range from 420 to 550 m (meters) above sea leval (asl). The elevations of some 

highest peaks in the eastern part of the AOI exceed 2,000 m asl, and one peak is mapped at 2,814 m asl 

(Bohannon, 2005). The wide valley formed by the Amu Darya River at the border between the AOI and 

Tajikistan is the dominant geographic feature in the northwest corner of the AOI (fig. 12B–1b).

12B.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the

North Takhar gold placer AOI is in the North Afghanistan Artesian Region. The North Afghanistan 

Artesian Region is located in the north of the country and is part of the drainage area of the Amu Darya

River. The outcrops and near-surface rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and 

hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 12B–4 with the 

underlying topography to allow examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figures 12B–

5a and b show the generalized geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the 

geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown in

figures 12B–5a and b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic 

coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rocktype groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from 

high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “river channel; 

sands, undifferentiated; loess and fine sediments; tills; conglomerate sediments and rocks; sedimentary 

rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 12B–4, 12B–5a). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic 

maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to 

generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic map that covers this AOI is

provided by Fridrich and others (2005).

River-channel sediments and sands are present in the Amu Darya River valley and other river 

valleys in the AOI. The thicknesses of these deposits are unknown, but in the Amu Darya River valley 

they could be tens to hundreds of meters thick. Where these units are in the Amu Darya River valley, 

they could compose an alluvial aquifer with considerable groundwater resources. Sands mapped on 

topographic highs (fig. 12B–4) may compose unconsolidated aquifers of limited thickness and extent 

overlying bedrock units. The conglomerate sediments and rocks, which in many areas of Afghanistan 

are semi-consolidated, are deposited on topographic high areas overlying bedrock units. The 

conglomerate sediments and rocks occupy the largest areal extent of all rock types in the AOI. If these 

deposits are thick and laterally extensive, this unit could also be a source of considerable groundwater in 

the AOI. There is a small outcrop of sedimentary rocks near the southeast corner of the AOI. It appears 

that this outcrop has been exposed by either nondeposition or erosion of the overlying conglomerate 

sediments and rocks group. Field investigations, including geologic mapping, geophysical surveys, and 

borehole drilling and testing, are needed to determine whether the sands and conglomerate sediments 

and rocks groups represent areas of groundwater resources in the AOI. If sedimentary rocks are present 

beneath the conglomerate sediments, those rocks also could be a potential source of groundwater in the 

AOI. Additional investigation also would be needed to determine the groundwater potential of this unit.

12B.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams in the North Takhar gold placer AOI, modified 

from AIMS (Afghanistan Information Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and 
974 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in figure 12B–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, 

generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 12B–2. Names of major streams 

and identification numbers for any streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the AOI also 

are shown in figure 12B–1b. 

Figure 12B–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

North Takhar gold placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 975

Figure 12B–3. Population density of the North Takhar gold placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
Figure 12B–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the North Takhar gold placer area of interest in 

Afghanistan.

There are three streamgage stations in the AOI. Two are located on the Kokcha River and 

one is on a tributary to the Kokcha River. The Kokcha River at Khojaghar streamgage station 

(Afghan identification number 15-0.000-1M) is located near the western border of the AOI 

976 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 977

(figs. 12B–1b, 12B–2). This station is at an elevation of 446 m asl and has a drainage area of 20,645 km

2

and a period of record that extends from 26 April, 1964, to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0096 m3/s/km2

(cubic meters per second per square kilometer). The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum

monthly streamflow is high flows in the early to mid summer and low flows in the late fall and winter. A 

statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in table 12B–2.

Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan can be 

accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.

The Kokcha River near Keshem streamgage station (Afghan identification number 15-0.000-3M) 

is located in the southeast corner of the AOI (figs. 12B–1b, 12B–2). This station is at an elevation of 

805 m asl and has a drainage area of 16,765 km2 and a period of record that extends from 1 October, 1969, 

to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for 

this station is 0.0095 m3/s/km2. The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is 

high flows in the early to mid summer and low flows in the winter through early spring. A statistical 

summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in table 12B–3. 

The Keshem River near Keshem streamgage station (Afghan identification number 

15-1.L00-1A) is located in the southeast corner of the AOI (figs. 12B–1b, 12B–2). This station is at an 

elevation of 822 m asl and has a drainage area of 2,145 km

2 and a period of record that extends from

8 October, 1969, to 30 September, 1978 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean 

streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0096 m3/s/km2. The seasonal timing of maximum and 

minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the early to mid summer and low flows in the winter. A 

statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in table 12B–4.

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S5 and S6 (figs. 12B–1b and 12B–2) using a 

drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on historical flows at the Keshem River near 

Keshem streamgage station (Afghan identification number 15-1.L00-1A) (Olson and Williams-Sether, 

2010). The estimated mean annual streamflow for point S5 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 1,246 km2, 

is about 11.5 m3

/s (cubic meters per second). By applying the same method, the estimated mean annual 

streamflow at point S6 is 6.37 m3/s. The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly 

streamflow, with high flows in the summer and low flows in winter (app. 2), probably is similar to that 

at the Keshem River near Keshem station. Appendix 2 also shows streamflow estimates based on 

historical flows at the Farkhar River near Taloqan streamgage station. The drainage area of the Farkhar 

River near Taloqan streamgage station is twice that of the Keshem River near Keshem station, and the 

streamflow per unit area is greater (0.01 m3/s/km2); therefore, flows estimated by using data from the 

Farkhar River near Taloqan station are greater than those estimated by using data from the Keshem 

River near Keshem station. The Keshem River station was used in the analysis above because it is the 

most representative historical gage, and using data from this station results in more conservative 

streamflow estimates than using data from the Farkhar River station.

The Amu Darya and Kokcha Rivers are considerable surface-water resources within the AOI and 

may provide sufficient water for mining-related activities. The dense population and irrigation along 

these rivers indicate that these water sources are highly utilized. Streamflow monitoring and additional 

investigations are needed to assess the potential effects of additional withdrawals from these rivers on 

local and downstream water users.

12B.2.2 Groundwater

Approximately 240 shallow community groundwater-supply wells have been installed in the 

North Takhar gold placer AOI by NGOs. Information about these wells can be found in a database 

maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011). Well-depth and 

static-water-level information is available for 90 of the wells in this database (figs. 12B–5a,b). About 
978 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

78 percent of the supply wells are more than 30 m deep and the deepest well is 54 m deep. The median 

well depth is moderately deep at 39 m. The depth to water in 33 percent of the supply wells in the AOI 

is less than 15 m (fig.12B–5a). The median depth to water is 18 m. 

a 
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 979

b 

Figure 12B–5. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and 

(b) geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community supply wells in the North Takhar gold 

placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
980 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Table 12B–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kokcha River at Khojaghar 

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

15-0.000-1M KOKCHA RIVER AT KHOJAGHAR

Maximum Minimum Mean

Water year Water year Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Streamflow Streamflow Coefficient of of of deviation of annual (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s) variation 3 occurrence occurrence (m /s) streamflow

October 142 1968 82.2 1972 110 19.9 0.18 4.67

November 111 1970 64.8 1978 85.9 16.3 0.19 3.65

December 99.8 1970 53.1 1973 72.3 13.8 0.19 3.08

January 92.7 1970 42.5 1973 62.6 15.2 0.24 2.66

February 84.3 1970 46.5 1971 63.3 14.1 0.22 2.69

March 153 1969 42.7 1977 80.4 24.2 0.30 3.42

April 201 1978 60.7 1977 133 47.4 0.36 5.67

May 368 1969 128 1974 225 70.7 0.31 9.57

June 748 1978 291 1974 484 137 0.28 20.6

July 703 1969 313 1970 511 133 0.26 21.7

August 472 1967 205 1972 338 76.5 0.23 14.4

September 240 1967 130 1972 186 30.9 0.17 7.90

Annual 262 1969 144 1972 198 37.4 0.19 100

Table 12B–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kokcha River near Keshem 

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

15-0.000-3M KOKCHA RIVER NEAR KESHEM

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Coefficient Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow deviation of of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) 3 (m /s) variation streamflow

October 116 1970 69.5 1978 92.9 15.6 0.17 4.86

November 105 1970 47.7 1978 71.1 16.7 0.23 3.72

December 80.7 1970 41.0 1978 56.1 11.3 0.20 2.93

January 73.0 1970 35.9 1978 48.4 11.4 0.24 2.53

February 67.4 1970 39.0 1977 48.1 9.37 0.19 2.51

March 67.5 1973 39.6 1977 57.0 8.59 0.15 2.98

April 153 1975 49.3 1977 102 38.0 0.37 5.34

May 271 1978 105 1977 196 61.8 0.31 10.3

June 666 1978 262 1974 402 146 0.36 21.0

July 579 1978 285 1970 414 111 0.27 21.6

August 374 1978 171 1972 274 56.2 0.21 14.3

September 180 1978 104 1972 151 25.9 0.17 7.89

Annual 210 1978 122 1972 160 29.3 0.18 100
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 981

Table 12B–4. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Keshem River near Keshem 

streamgage station (Olson and Williams-Sether 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

15-1.L00-1A KESHEM RIVER NEAR KESHEM

Month

Maximum Minimum

Streamflow Water year of

(m3/s) occurrence

Mean

Streamflo Water year 

w of 

(m3/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standar

d 

deviatio

n 

3 (m /s)

Coefficie

nt of

variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

12.2

10.6

10.1

8.25

8.01

11.7

24.4

48.3

74.7

83.8

41.3

23.4

26.2

1973

1973

1978

1978

1978

1973

1978

1978

1978

1976

1973

1973

1978

9.39

7.67

5.56

5.20

3.83

4.59

4.90

8.62

28.8

27.5

20.8

13.0

12.7

1972

1974

1970

1970

1972

1974

1974

1974

1974

1970

1974

1971

1974

11.4

8.93

7.60

6.45

5.84

7.09

14.5

28.6

50.7

50.1

29.5

17.2

20.5

0.99

1.05

1.54

1.11

1.48

2.11

6.65

11.1

16.6

19.8

6.12

3.84

4.85

0.09

0.12

0.20

0.17

0.25

0.30

0.46

0.39

0.33

0.40

0.21

0.22

0.24

4.78

3.75

3.19

2.71

2.46

2.98

6.1

12.0

21.3

21.00

12.4

7.25

100

Available well-construction information is limited; however, most wells are “tube” wells (driven 

wells with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing) or dug wells with concrete-ring casing. Wells are generally 

installed in unconsolidated sediments, completed a few meters below the depth at which water is first 

encountered, and equipped with a hand pump. The wells near perennial streams are likely to be 

completed in river-channel sediments; however, the limited areal extent and thickness of these deposits 

precluded showing them on the 1:250,000-scale geologic maps. Figure 12B–5b shows the height of 

static water in the casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static depth to water). The 

median height of static water in well casings is 19.5 m. In all but three wells in the AOI for which 

information is available, more than 10 m of static water is present. No groundwater-monitoring wells are 

in or near the AOI; however, wells with more than 10 m of static water are not likely to be subject to 

drying due to seasonal water-level fluctuations. The shallow and moderately thick alluvial aquifers in 

the valley bottoms of the AOI may be a groundwater resource with the potential to supply water for 

mining activities; however, the quality and sustainability of the water in these aquifers is not known, and 

the effects of any additional withdrawals on existing wells would need to be closely monitored to avoid 

adverse effects on existing water uses. The characteristics of groundwater in deeper, conglomeritic 

aquifers also are not known. 

12B.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the North 

Takhar gold placer AOI were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 12B–6) and 

Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery 

(fig. 12B–7a,b). Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for 

identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found 

(Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to

identify areas of high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock 
982 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

(Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 12B–6 were delineated 

visually, whereas those in figure 12B–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of 

the multispectral characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, 

U.S. Geological Survey August 24, 2011, written commun.). 

Figure 12B–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and 

natural-color Landsat imagery in the North Takhar gold placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 983

a 
984 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 12B–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery, and 

(b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery, in the North Takhar gold 

placer area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 12B. Geohydrologic Summary of the North Takhar Gold Placer Area of Interest 985

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in 

areas of highly fractured bedrock. There are many northeast-trending lineaments in the AOI that may be 

caused by fracturing related to regional structure or bedding-plane weaknesses. Areas where lineament 

density is high, such as the northeast areas of the AOI (figs. 12B–6, 12B–7a, 12B–7b), potentially are 

areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an 

indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. 

Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a 

high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including 

those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and additional data

to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones.

12B.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources are more likely to be available in the North Takhar gold placer AOI than in 

other areas of Afghanistan as determined from the relatively high streamflows, indicating high recharge 

rates, and the presence of potential aquifer units in the AOI. The presence of considerable groundwater 

resources is particularly likely in the Amu Darya River valley and along other perennial streams in the 

AOI. Surface-water resources in the AOI also are likely to be considerable on the basis of historical 

information. Shallow to moderately deep alluvial aquifers in valley bottoms and streams are a highly 

utilized resource in the AOI. The diversion of water from rivers to support mining activities would need 

to be closely monitored, particularly during low-flow periods, if the quantity and quality of the water 

resource are to be preserved so that surface-water flow remains sufficient to supply water for irrigation 

and to provide recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic 

consumption.

No information is available about deep groundwater in the AOI or adjacent areas. Some areas of 

the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are likely areas for 

further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water resources in the 

AOI remain to be determined, however. Close monitoring and careful management of potential new 

surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing 

supply for current local water uses. Field investigations, including geologic mapping, geophysical 

surveys, and hydraulic well testing, are needed to adequately characterize the extent and availability of 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

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