U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

OCS EIS/EA 

BOEM 2014-619 

Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2015 and 2016 

Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 

Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement 
U.S. Department of the Interior 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

OCS EIS/EA 

BOEM 2014-619 

Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2015 and 2016 

Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 

Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement 

Author 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

Published by 

New Orleans

September 2014 



v 

COVER SHEET

Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement 

for 

Proposed OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales 246 and 248 

in the Western Planning Area of the Gulf of Mexico

Draft (x) Final ( ) 

Type of Action: Administrative (x) Legislative ( ) 

Area of Potential Impact: Offshore Marine Environment and Coastal Counties/Parishes of Texas

and Louisiana

Agency Headquarters Contact Region Contacts 

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

(GM 623E) 

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard

New Orleans, LA 70123-2394

Stephanie Fiori (HM 4010) 

U.S. Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

381 Elden Street

Herndon, VA 20170-4817

703-787-1832

Michelle K. Nannen

504-731-6682

Gary D. Goeke

504-736-3233

ABSTRACT

This Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) addresses two proposed Federal actions: 

proposed Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas Lease Sales 246 and 248 in the Western Planning 

Area (WPA) of the Gulf of Mexico, as scheduled in the Proposed Final Outer Continental Shelf Oil & 

Gas Leasing Program: 2012-2017 (Five-Year Program) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a).

This Supplemental EIS updates the baseline conditions and potential environmental effects of oil and 

natural gas leasing, exploration, development, and production in the WPA since publication of Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 

246, and 248; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final Environmental 

Impact Statement (2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b); Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area 

Lease Sale 231, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a); and Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016; Western 

Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement 

(WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2014). This Supplemental EIS analyzes the 

potential impacts of a WPA proposed action on sensitive coastal environments, offshore marine

resources, and socioeconomic resources both onshore and offshore. It is important to note that this 

Supplemental EIS was prepared using the best information that was publicly available at the time the 

document was prepared. Where relevant information on reasonably foreseeable significant adverse 

impacts is incomplete or unavailable, the need for the information was evaluated to determine if it was 

essential to a reasoned choice among the alternatives and if so, it was either acquired or in the event it was 

impossible or exorbitant to acquire the information, accepted scientific methodologies were applied in its 

place.

The proposed actions are considered to be major Federal actions requiring an EIS. This document 

provides the following information in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
vi

and its implementing regulations, and it will be used in making decisions on the proposal. This 

Supplemental EIS is the final NEPA review conducted for proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. A separate 

NEPA review will be conducted prior to BOEM’s decision on whether or how to proceed with proposed 

WPA Lease Sale 248. This document includes the purpose of and need for a WPA proposed action, 

identification of the alternatives, description of the affected environment, and an analysis of the potential 

environmental impacts of a WPA proposed action, alternatives, and associated activities, including 

proposed mitigating measures and their potential effects. Potential contributions to cumulative impacts 

resulting from activities associated with the WPA proposed actions are also analyzed.

Hypothetical scenarios were developed on the levels of activities, accidental events (such as oil 

spills), and potential impacts that might result if a WPA proposed action is adopted. Activities and 

disturbances associated with the WPA proposed actions on biological, physical, and socioeconomic 

resources are considered in the analyses.

Additional copies of this Supplemental EIS, 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, and the other referenced publications may 

be obtained from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, Public 

Information Office (GM 335A), 1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard, Room 250, New Orleans, Louisiana 

70123-2394, by telephone at 504-736-2519 or 1-800-200-GULF, or on the Internet at 

http://www.boem.gov/nepaprocess/. 
Summary vii

SUMMARY

This Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) addresses two proposed Federal actions 

that offer for lease an area on the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) that may contain 

economically recoverable oil and gas resources. Under the Proposed Final Outer Continental Shelf Oil & 

Gas Leasing Program: 2012-2017 (Five-Year Program) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a), five proposed lease 

sales are scheduled for the Western Planning Area (WPA). The remaining two proposed lease sales 

within the WPA are proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248, which are tentatively scheduled to be held 

in August 2015 and 2016, respectively. Federal regulations allow for several related or similar proposals 

to be analyzed in one EIS (40 CFR § 1502.4). Since each lease sale proposal and projected activities are 

very similar for the proposed WPA lease sale area, a single EIS is being prepared for the two remaining

proposed WPA lease sales. At the completion of this Supplemental EIS process, a decision will be made 

on whether or how to proceed with proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. A separate National Environmental 

Policy Act (NEPA) review, in a form to be determined by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

(BOEM), will be conducted prior to BOEM’s decision on whether or how to proceed with proposed WPA 

Lease Sale 248. 

This Supplemental EIS updates the baseline conditions and potential environmental effects of oil and 

natural gas leasing, exploration, development, and production in the WPA since publication of Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 

246, and 248; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final Environmental 

Impact Statement (2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b); Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area 

Lease Sale 231, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a); and Western Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248, Final 

Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 

2014a). 

This Supplemental EIS analyzes the potential impacts of a WPA proposed action on sensitive coastal 

environments, offshore marine resources, and socioeconomic resources both onshore and offshore. It is 

important to note that this Supplemental EIS was prepared using the best information that was publicly 

available at the time this document was prepared. Where relevant information on reasonably foreseeable 

significant adverse impacts is incomplete or unavailable, the need for the information was evaluated to 

determine if it was essential to a reasoned choice among the alternatives and if so, it was either acquired 

or, in the event it was impossible or exorbitant to acquire the information, accepted scientific 

methodologies were applied in its place.

This summary section provides only a brief overview of the proposed WPA lease sales, alternatives, 

significant issues, potential environmental and socioeconomic effects, and proposed mitigating measures

contained in this Supplemental EIS. To obtain the full perspective and context of the potential 

environmental and socioeconomic impacts discussed, it is necessary to read the entire Supplemental EIS. 

Relevant discussion of specific topics can be found in the chapters and appendices of this Supplemental 

EIS as described below.

• Chapter 1, The Proposed Actions, describes the purpose of and need for the 

proposed lease sales, the prelease process, postlease activities, and other OCS oiland gas-related activities.

• Chapter 2, Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions, describes the environmental 

and socioeconomic effects of a proposed WPA lease sale and alternatives. Also 

discussed are potential mitigating measures to avoid or minimize impacts.

• Chapter 3, Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario, describes activities associated 

with a proposed lease sale and the OCS Program, and other foreseeable activities that 

could potentially affect the biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources of the 

Gulf of Mexico.

Chapter 3.1, Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario—Routine Operations, 

describes offshore infrastructure and activities (impact-producing factors) 
viii Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

associated with a proposed lease sale that could potentially affect the 

biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources of the Gulf of Mexico.

Chapter 3.2, Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario—Accidental Events,

discusses potential accidental events (i.e., oil spills, losses of well control, 

vessel collisions, and spills of chemicals or drilling fluids) that may occur as 

a result of activities associated with a proposed lease sale.

Chapter 3.3, Cumulative Activities Scenario, describes past, present, and 

reasonably foreseeable future human activities, including non-OCS oil- and 

gas-related activities, as well as all OCS oil- and gas-related activities, that 

may affect the biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources of the Gulf 

of Mexico.

• Chapter 4, Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis, describes the 

affected environment and provides analysis of the routine, accidental, and cumulative 

impacts of a WPA proposed action and the alternatives on environmental and 

socioeconomic resources of the Gulf of Mexico.

Chapter 4.1, Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248, 

describes the impacts of a WPA proposed action and two alternatives to a 

WPA proposed action on the biological, physical, and socioeconomic 

resources of the Gulf of Mexico.

Chapter 4 also includes Chapter 4.2, Unavoidable Adverse Impacts of the 

Proposed Actions; Chapter 4.3, Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment 

of Resources; and Chapter 4.4, Relationship Between the Short-term Use of 

Man’s Environment and the Maintenance and Enhancement of Long-Term 

Productivity.

• Chapter 5, Consultation and Coordination, describes the consultation and 

coordination activities with Federal, State, and local agencies and other interested 

parties that occurred during the development of this Supplemental EIS.

• Chapter 6, References Cited, is a list of literature cited throughout this Supplemental 

EIS.

• Chapter 7, Preparers, is a list of names of persons who were primarily responsible 

for preparing and reviewing this Supplemental EIS.

• Chapter 8, Glossary, is a list of definitions of selected terms used in this 

Supplemental EIS.

• Appendix A, Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures, is a list and description of 

standard postlease mitigating measures that may be required by BOEM or BSEE as a 

result of plan and permit review processes for the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region.

• Appendix B, Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis, is a technical analysis of a potential 

low-probability catastrophic event to assist BOEM in meeting the Council on 

Environmental Quality’s (CEQ) requirements for evaluating low-probability 

catastrophic events under NEPA. The CEQ regulations address impacts with 

catastrophic consequences in the context of evaluating reasonably foreseeable 

significant adverse effects in an EIS when they address the issue of incomplete or 

unavailable information (40 CFR § 1502.22). For NEPA purposes, “‘[r]easonably 

foreseeable’ impacts include impacts that have catastrophic consequences even if 

their probability of occurrence is low, provided that the analysis of the impacts is 

supported by credible scientific evidence, is not based on pure conjecture, and is 

within the rule of reason” (40 CFR § 1502.22(b)(4)). Therefore, this analysis, which 

is based on credible scientific evidence, identifies the most likely and most 
Summary ix

significant impacts from a high-volume blowout and oil spill that continues for an 

extended period of time. The scenario and impacts discussed in this analysis should 

not be confused with the scenario and impacts anticipated to result from routine 

activities or more reasonably foreseeable accidental events of a WPA proposed 

action. 

• Keyword Index is a list of descriptive terms and the pages on which they can be 

found in this Supplemental EIS.

Proposed Action and Alternatives

The following alternatives were included for analysis in this Supplemental EIS.

Alternatives for Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 

Alternative A—The Proposed Action (Preferred Alternative): This alternative would offer for lease 

all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area for oil and gas operations (Figure 2-1), with 

the following exception:

(1) whole and partial blocks within the boundary of the Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary (i.e., the boundary as of the publication of this Supplemental EIS).

The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) is conservative throughout the NEPA process and includes 

the total area within the WPA for environmental review even though the leasing of portions of the WPA 

(subareas or blocks) can be deferred during a Five-Year Program.

The proposed WPA lease sale area encompasses about 28.58 million acres (ac). As of July 2014, 

approximately 21.6 million ac of the proposed WPA lease sale area are currently unleased. The estimated 

amount of natural resources projected to be developed as a result of a proposed WPA lease sale is 

0.116-0.200 billion barrels of oil (BBO) and 0.538-0.938 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of gas (Table 3-1; refer 

to Chapter 2.3.1 for further details).

Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near Biologically Sensitive Topographic Features: This 

alternative would offer for lease all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area, as 

described for a proposed action (Alternative A), but it would exclude from leasing any unleased blocks 

subject to the Topographic Features Stipulation. The estimated amount of resources projected to be 

developed is 0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas. Refer to Chapters 2.3.3 and 4.1.3 for further 

details.

Alternative C—No Action: This alternative is the cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale. If this 

alternative is chosen, the opportunity for development of the estimated 0.116-0.200 BBO and 

0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas that could have resulted from a proposed WPA lease sale would be precluded 

during the current Five-Year Program, but it could again be contemplated as part of a future Five-Year 

Program. Any potential environmental impacts arising out of a proposed WPA lease sale would not 

occur, but activities associated with existing leases in the WPA would continue. Refer to Chapters 2.3.3 

and 4.1.3 for further details.

Mitigating Measures

Proposed lease stipulations and other mitigating measures designed to reduce or eliminate 

environmental risks and/or potential multiple-use conflicts between OCS operations and U.S. Department 

of Defense activities may be applied to the chosen alternative. Five lease stipulations are proposed for a 

WPA proposed lease sale—the Topographic Features Stipulation, the Military Areas Stipulation, the 

Protected Species Stipulation, the Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation, and the 

Stipulation on the Agreement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States 

Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico. The Law of the Sea 

Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation is applicable to the proposed WPA lease sales even though it is 

not an environmental or military stipulation.

Application of lease stipulations will be considered by the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Land 

and Minerals (ASLM). The inclusion of the stipulations as part of the analysis of a WPA proposed action 
x Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

does not ensure that the ASLM will make a decision to apply the stipulations to leases that may result 

from a proposed lease sale, nor does it preclude minor modifications in wording during subsequent steps 

in the prelease process if comments indicate changes are necessary or if conditions warrant. Any lease 

stipulations or mitigating measures to be included in a lease sale will be described in the Final Notice of 

Sale. Mitigating measures in the form of lease stipulations are added to the lease terms and are therefore 

enforceable as part of the lease. In addition, mitigations may be added to plans and/or permits for OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities. For more information on mitigating measures that are added at the 

postlease stage, refer to Appendix A (“Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures”). 

Scenarios Analyzed

Offshore activities are described in the context of scenarios for a WPA proposed action (Chapter 3.1) 

and for the OCS Program (Chapter 3.3). BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region developed these 

scenarios to provide a framework for detailed analyses of potential impacts of a proposed WPA lease sale. 

The scenarios are presented as ranges of the amounts of undiscovered, unleased hydrocarbon resources 

estimated to be leased and discovered as a result of a WPA proposed action. The analyses are based on a 

traditionally employed range of activities (e.g., the installation of platforms, wells, and pipelines, and the 

number of helicopter operations and service-vessel trips) that would be needed to develop and produce 

the amount of resources estimated to be leased.

The cumulative analysis (Chapter 4.1) considers environmental and socioeconomic impacts that may 

result from the incremental impact of a WPA proposed action when added to all past, present, and 

reasonably foreseeable future activities, including non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities such as import 

tankering and commercial fishing, as well as all OCS oil- and gas-related activities (OCS Program). The 

OCS Program scenario includes all activities that are projected to occur from past, proposed, and future 

lease sales during the 40-year analysis period (2012-2051). This includes projected activity from lease 

sales that have been held, but for which exploration or development has not yet begun or is continuing. In 

addition to human activities, impacts from natural occurrences, such as hurricanes, are analyzed.

Significant Issues

The major issues that frame the environmental analyses in this Supplemental EIS, the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS are the result of concerns raised during years of scoping for the Gulf of Mexico OCS Program. Issues 

related to OCS oil and gas exploration, development, production, and transportation activities include the 

potential for oil spills, wetlands loss, air emissions, discharges, water quality degradation, trash and 

debris, structure and pipeline emplacement activities, platform removal, vessel and helicopter traffic, 

multiple-use conflicts, support services, population fluctuations, demands on public services, land-use

planning, impacts to tourism, aesthetic interference, cultural impacts, environmental justice, and conflicts 

with State coastal zone management programs. Environmental resources and activities identified during 

the scoping process that warrant environmental analyses include air quality, water quality, coastal barrier 

beaches and associated dunes, wetlands, seagrass communities, topographic features, Sargassum

communities, deepwater benthic communities, soft bottom benthic communities, marine mammals, sea 

turtles, diamondback terrapins, coastal and marine birds, fish resources and essential fish habitat, 

commercial fisheries, recreational fishing, recreational resources, archaeological resources, and 

socioeconomic conditions. 

Other relevant issues include impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response;

impacts from past and future hurricanes on environmental and socioeconomic resources; and impacts on 

coastal and offshore infrastructure. During the past few years, both the Gulf Coast States’ and Gulf of 

Mexico oil and gas activities have been impacted by major hurricanes. The description of the affected 

environment (Chapter 4.1) includes impacts from these storms on the physical environment, biological 

environment, and socioeconomic activities, and on OCS oil- and gas-related infrastructure. This 

Supplemental EIS also considers baseline data in the assessment of impacts from a WPA proposed action 

on the resources and the environment (Chapter 4.1). 
Summary xi

Impact Conclusions

The full analyses of the potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a 

WPA proposed action and a WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts

are described in Chapter 4.1. A summary of the potential impacts from a WPA proposed action on each 

environmental and socioeconomic resource and the conclusions of the analyses can be found below.

Air Quality: Emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from the routine activities associated with a 

WPA proposed action are projected to have minimal impacts to onshore air quality because of the 

prevailing atmospheric conditions, emission heights, emission rates, and the distance of these emissions 

from the coastline, and are expected to be well within the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. 

While regulations are in place to reduce the risk of impacts from hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and while no 

H2S-related deaths have occurred on the OCS, accidents involving high concentrations of H2S could result 

in deaths as well as environmental damage. These emissions from routine activities and accidental events 

associated with a WPA proposed action are not expected to occur at concentrations that would change 

onshore air quality classifications.

Water Quality (Coastal and Offshore Waters): Impacts from routine activities associated with a 

WPA proposed action would be minimal if all existing regulatory requirements are met. Coastal water 

impacts associated with routine activities include increases in turbidity resulting from pipeline installation 

and navigation canal maintenance, discharges of bilge and ballast water from support vessels, and run-off 

from shore-based facilities. Offshore water impacts associated with routine activities result from the 

discharge of drilling muds and cuttings, produced water, residual chemicals used during workovers, 

structure installation and removal, and pipeline placement. The discharge of drilling muds and cuttings 

causes temporary increased turbidity and changes in sediment composition. The discharge of produced 

water results in increased concentrations of some metals, hydrocarbons, and dissolved solids within an 

area of about 100 meters (m) (328 feet [ft]) adjacent to the point of discharge. Structure installation and 

removal and pipeline placement disturb the sediments and cause increased turbidity. In addition, offshore 

water impacts result from supply and service-vessel bilge and ballast water discharges. Accidental events 

associated with a WPA proposed action that could impact coastal and offshore water quality include spills

of oil and refined hydrocarbons, releases of natural gas and condensate, spills of chemicals or drilling 

fluids, loss of well control, pipeline failures, collisions, or other malfunctions that would result in such 

spills. Although response efforts may decrease the amount of oil in the environment, the response efforts 

may also impact the environment through, for example, increased vessel traffic, hydromodification, and 

the application of dispersants. Natural degradation processes will also decrease the amount of spilled oil 

over time.

Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated Dunes: Routine activities associated with a WPA proposed 

action, such as increased vessel traffic, maintenance dredging of navigation canals, and pipeline 

installation, would cause negligible impacts. Such impacts would be expected to be restricted to 

temporary and localized disturbances and not deleteriously affect barrier beaches and associated dunes. 

Indirect impacts from routine activities are negligible and indistinguishable from direct impacts of 

onshore activities. The potential impacts from accidental events (primarily oil spills) associated with a 

WPA proposed action are anticipated to be minimal. Should a spill (other than a low-probability 

catastrophic spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected) contact a barrier 

beach, oiling is expected to be light and sand removal during cleanup activities minimized. No significant 

long-term impacts to the physical shape and structure of barrier beaches and associated dunes are 

expected to occur as a result of a WPA proposed action.

Wetlands: Impacts on wetlands from routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action are 

expected to be minimal because most of the activities affecting wetlands will be minor, localized, and 

temporary. Such activities may include the projected placement of short lengths of onshore pipeline

across wetlands, the placement of dredge spoil from maintenance dredging activities into minimal areas 

of wetlands, and the disposal of OCS wastes. Mitigating measures would be used to further reduce these 

impacts. Indirect impacts from wake erosion and saltwater intrusion are expected to result in low impacts 

that are indistinguishable from direct impacts from inshore activities. The potential impacts from 

accidental events (primarily oil spills, other than a low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not part of a 

WPA proposed action and not likely expected) are anticipated to be minimal. Overall, impacts to wetland 

habitats from an oil spill associated with activities related to a WPA proposed action would be expected 
xii Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

to be small and temporary because of the nature of the system, regulations, and specific cleanup 

techniques.

Seagrass Communities: Turbidity impacts from pipeline installation and maintenance dredging 

associated with a WPA proposed action would be temporary and localized due to regulations and 

mitigating measures. The increment of impacts from service-vessel transit associated with a WPA 

proposed action would be minimal. Should an oil spill occur near a seagrass community, impacts from 

the spill and cleanup would be considered short term in duration and minor in scope. Close monitoring 

and restrictions on the use of bottom-disturbing equipment to clean up the spill would be needed to avoid 

or minimize those impacts.

Topographic Features: The routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action that would 

impact topographic feature communities include anchoring, infrastructure and pipeline emplacement, 

infrastructure removal, drilling discharges, and produced-water discharges. However, adherence to the 

proposed Topographic Features Stipulation would make damage to the ecosystem unlikely. Contact with 

accidentally spilled oil would cause lethal and sublethal effects in benthic organisms, but the oiling of 

benthic organisms is not likely because of the small area of the banks, the scattered occurrence of spills, 

the depth of the features, and because the proposed Topographic Features Stipulation, if applied, would 

keep subsurface sources of spills away from the immediate vicinity of topographic features.

Sargassum Communities: A WPA proposed action is expected to cause only minor impacts to

Sargassum because the effects from OCS oil- and gas-related activities would occur within a small 

portion of the Sargassum community as a whole. Limited portions of the Sargassum community could 

suffer mortality if it contacted spilled oil or occurred in an area where cleanup activities were being 

conducted. The Sargassum community lives in pelagic waters with generally high water quality and 

would be resilient to the minor accidental effects predicted. It has a yearly cycle that promotes quick 

recovery from impacts.

Chemosynthetic and Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities: Chemosynthetic and 

nonchemosynthetic communities are susceptible to physical impacts from structure placement, anchoring, 

and pipeline installation associated with a WPA proposed action. However, the policy requirements 

described in Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) 2009-G40 greatly reduce the risk of these physical 

impacts by clarifying the measures that must be taken to ensure avoidance of potential sensitive 

deepwater benthic communities and, by consequence, avoidance of other hard bottom communities. 

Potential accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action are expected to cause little damage to 

the ecological function or biological productivity of the widespread, low-density chemosynthetic 

communities and the widespread, typical, deep-sea benthic communities.

Soft Bottom Benthic Communities: The routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action that 

would impact soft bottom benthic communities (i.e., bottom disturbance from anchoring and 

infrastructure emplacement, and accumulation of drill cuttings on the seafloor) generally occur within a 

few hundred meters of platforms, and the greatest impacts are seen in communities closest to the 

platform. Although localized impacts to comparatively small areas of soft bottom benthic communities

would occur, impacts would be relatively minor since soft bottom benthic communities are ubiquitous 

throughout the seafloor of the WPA, an area spanning 115,645 square kilometers (44,651 square miles). 

Even in situations where substantial burial of typical benthic infaunal communities occurred, 

recolonization by populations from widespread, neighboring soft bottom substrate would be expected 

over a relatively short period of time for all size ranges of organisms.

Marine Mammals: Routine events related to a WPA proposed action are not expected to have 

adverse effects on the size and productivity of any marine mammal species or population in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico. Characteristics of impacts from accidental events depend on whether the exposure is 

chronic or acute, but any level of exposure may result in harassment, harm, or mortality to marine 

mammals. Exposure to dispersed hydrocarbons is likely to result in sublethal impacts. 

Sea Turtles: Routine activities resulting from a WPA proposed action have the potential to harm sea 

turtles, although this potential is unlikely to rise to a level of significance due to the activity already 

present in the Gulf of Mexico and due to mitigating measures that are in place. Accidental events 

associated with a WPA proposed action have the potential to impact small to large numbers of sea turtles. 

Sea turtles in the northern Gulf of Mexico may be exposed to residuals of oils spilled as a result of a WPA 

proposed action during their lifetimes. While chronic or acute exposure from accidental events may result 

in the harassment, harm, or mortality to sea turtles, in the most likely scenarios, exposure to hydrocarbons 

persisting in the sea following the dispersal of an oil slick are expected to most often result in sublethal 
Summary xiii

impacts (e.g., decreased health and/or reproductive fitness and increased vulnerability to disease) to sea 

turtle individuals. The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action would not be likely to result 

in a significant incremental impact on sea turtle populations within the WPA; in comparison, impacts 

from non-OCS energy-related activities, including overexploitation, commercial fishing, and pollution, 

have historically proven to be a greater threat to sea turtle species.

Diamondback Terrapins: The routine activities of a WPA proposed action are unlikely to have 

significant adverse effects on the size and recovery of terrapin species or populations in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Impacts on diamondback terrapins from smaller accidental events are likely to affect individual 

diamondback terrapins in the spill area, but they are unlikely to rise to the level of population effects (or 

significance) given the probable size and scope of such spills. Due to the distance of most terrapin habitat 

from offshore OCS energy-related activities, impacts associated with activities occurring as a result of a 

WPA proposed action are not expected to impact terrapins or their habitat. The incremental effect of a 

WPA proposed action on diamondback terrapin populations is not expected to be significant when 

compared with historic and current non-OCS energy-related activities, such as habitat loss, 

overharvesting, crabbing, and fishing.

Coastal and Marine Birds: The majority of impacts resulting from routine activities associated with a 

WPA proposed action on threatened and endangered and nonthreatened and nonendangered avian species 

are expected to be adverse, but not significant. These impacts include behavioral effects, exposure to or 

intake of OCS oil- and gas-related contaminants and discarded debris, disturbance-related impacts, and 

displacement of birds from habitats that are destroyed, altered, or fragmented, making these areas 

otherwise unavailable. Impacts from potential oil spills associated with a WPA proposed action and the 

effects related to oil-spill cleanup are expected to be adverse, but not significant. Oil spills, irrespective 

of size, can result in some mortality as well as sublethal, chronic short- and long-term effects, in addition 

to potential impacts to food resources. Cumulative activities on coastal and marine birds are expected to 

result in discernible changes to avian species composition, distribution, and abundance; however, the 

incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impact is considered adverse but 

not significant because the effects of the most probable impacts, such as lease sale-related operational 

discharges and helicopters and service-vessel noise and traffic, are expected to be sublethal. Some 

displacement of local individuals or flocks to other habitat may occur if habitat is available.

Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat: Fish resources and essential fish habitat could be 

impacted by coastal environmental degradation potentially caused by canal dredging, increases in 

infrastructure, and inshore spills, and by marine environmental degradation possibly caused by pipeline 

trenching, offshore discharges, and offshore spills. Impacts of routine dredging and discharges are 

localized in time and space and are regulated by Federal and State agencies through permitting processes; 

therefore, there would be minimal impact to fish resources and essential fish habitat from these routine 

activities associated with a WPA proposed action. Accidental events that could impact fish resources and 

essential fish habitat include blowouts and oil or chemical spills. If a spill were to occur as a result of a 

WPA proposed action and if it was proximate to mobile fishes, the impacts of the spill would depend on 

multiple factors, including the amount spilled, the areal extent of the spill, the distance of the spill from 

particular essential fish habitats (e.g., nursery habitats), and the type and toxicity of oil spilled. Impacts 

from oil spills on sensitive essential fish habitat would be low because most sensitive essential fish 

habitats are located at depths greater than 20 m (65 ft) and the spilled substances would, at the most, reach 

the seafloor in minute concentrations. In addition, sensitive essential fish habitats would likely be 

distanced from OCS oil- and gas-related activities due to regulations, stipulations, and NTL’s. An oil 

spill is expected to cause a minimal decrease in Gulf of Mexico standing fish stocks of any population 

because most spill events would be localized, therefore affecting a small portion of fish populations. 

Commercial Fisheries: Routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the WPA, such as seismic 

surveys and pipeline trenching, would cause negligible impacts and would not deleteriously affect 

commercial fishing activities. Indirect impacts from routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities to inshore 

habitats are negligible and indistinguishable from direct impacts of inshore non-OCS oil- and gas-related

activities on commercial fisheries. The potential impacts from accidental events, such as a well blowout

or an oil spill, associated with a WPA proposed action are anticipated to be minimal. Commercial 

fishermen are anticipated to avoid the area of a well blowout or an oil spill. Large spills may impact 

commercial fisheries by forcing area closures. The overall impact depends on the areal extent and length 

of the closure. The impact of spills on catch or value of catch would depend on the volume and location 

(i.e., distance from shore) of the spill, as well as the physical properties of the oil spilled.
xiv Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Recreational Fishing: There could be minor and short-term, space-use conflicts with recreational 

fishermen during the initial phases of a WPA proposed action. A WPA proposed action could also lead to 

low-level environmental degradation of fish habitat, which would also negatively impact recreational 

fishing activity. However, these minor negative effects would be offset by the beneficial role that oil 

platforms serve as artificial reefs for fish populations. An oil spill would likely lead to recreational 

fishing closures in the vicinity of the oil spill. Except for a low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not 

part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected (e.g., the Deepwater Horizon oil spill), oil spills

should not affect recreational fishing to a large degree due to the likely availability of substitute fishing 

sites in neighboring regions.

Recreational Resources: Routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities can cause minor disturbances to 

recreational resources, particularly beaches, through increased levels of noise, debris, and rig visibility. 

Any oil spills that might result from a WPA proposed action would be small in area affected, of short 

duration, distantly located, and not likely to impact Gulf Coast recreational resources. Should an oil spill 

occur and contact a beach area or other recreational resource, it could cause some disruption during the 

physical oiling impact and cleanup phases of the spill. However, except for a low-probability 

catastrophic spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected (e.g., the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill), these effects are likely to be small in scale and of short duration.

Archaeological Resources (Historic and Prehistoric): The greatest potential impact to an 

archaeological resource as a result of routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with a WPA 

proposed action would result from direct contact between an offshore activity (e.g., platform installation, 

drilling rig emplacement, structure removal or site clearance operation, and dredging or pipeline project) 

and a historic or prehistoric site. The archaeological survey and archaeological clearance of sites, where 

required prior to an operator beginning oil and gas activities on a lease, are expected to be highly effective 

at identifying possible offshore archaeological sites; however, should contact occur with archaeological 

resources, there would be localized damage to or loss of significant and/or unique archaeological 

information. It is expected that coastal archaeological resources would be protected through the review 

and approval processes of the various Federal, State, and local agencies involved in permitting onshore 

activities. It is not very likely that accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, including a 

large oil spill, would impact coastal prehistoric or historic archaeological sites. If a spill were to occur 

and make contact with a prehistoric archaeological site, damage might include loss of radiocarbon-dating 

potential, direct impact from oil-spill cleanup equipment, and/or looting resulting in the irreversible loss 

of unique or significant archaeological information. The major effect from an oil-spill impact on coastal 

historic archaeological sites would be visual contamination, which, while reversible, could result in 

additional impacts to fragile cultural materials from the cleaning process.

Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure: A WPA proposed action would not require additional coastal 

infrastructure, with the possible exception of one new gas processing facility and one new pipeline 

landfall, and it would not alter the current land use of the analysis area. The existing oil and gas 

infrastructure is expected to be sufficient to handle development associated with a WPA proposed action. 

There may be some expansion at current facilities, but the land in the analysis area is sufficient to handle 

such development. There is also sufficient land to construct a new gas processing plant in the analysis 

area, should it be needed. Accidental events such as oil or chemical spills, blowouts, and vessel collisions

would have no effects on land use. Coastal or nearshore spills, as well as vessel collisions, could have 

short-term adverse effects on coastal infrastructure, requiring cleanup of any oil or chemicals spilled.

Demographics: A WPA proposed action is projected to minimally affect the demography of the 

analysis area. Population impacts from a WPA proposed action are projected to be minimal (<1% of total 

population) for any economic impact area in the Gulf of Mexico region. The baseline population patterns 

and distributions are expected to remain unchanged as a result of a WPA proposed action. The increase 

in employment is expected to be met primarily with the existing population and available labor force, 

with the exception of some in-migration (from elsewhere within or outside the U.S.), which is projected 

to move into focal areas such as Port Fourchon. Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed 

action, such as oil or chemical spills, blowouts, and vessel collisions, would likely have no effects on the 

demographic characteristics of the Gulf coastal communities.

Economic Factors: A WPA proposed action is expected to generate a <1 percent increase in 

employment in any of the coastal subareas, even when the net employment impacts from accidental 

events are included. Most of the employment related to a WPA proposed action is expected to occur in 

Louisiana and Texas. The demand would be met primarily with the existing population and labor force.
Summary xv

Environmental Justice: Environmental justice implications arise indirectly from onshore activities 

conducted in support of OCS oil and gas exploration, development, and production. Because the onshore 

infrastructure support system for the OCS oil- and gas-related industry (and its associated labor force) is 

highly developed, widespread, and has operated for decades within a heterogeneous Gulf of Mexico 

population, a WPA proposed action is not expected to have disproportionately high or adverse 

environmental or health effects on minority or low-income populations. A WPA proposed action would 

help to maintain ongoing levels of activity, which may or may not result in the expansion of existing 

infrastructure. For a detailed discussion of scenario projections and the potential for expansion at existing 

facilities and/or construction of new facilities, refer to Chapter 3.1.2. 

Table of Contents xvii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

SUMMARY................................................................................................................................................vii

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... xxi

LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................................xxiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................................. xxv

CONVERSION CHART .........................................................................................................................xxix

1. THE PROPOSED ACTIONS .............................................................................................................. 1-3

1.1. Purpose of and Need for the Proposed Actions ....................................................................... 1-3

1.2. Description of the Proposed Actions ....................................................................................... 1-6

1.3. Regulatory Framework ............................................................................................................ 1-6

1.3.1. Recent BOEM/BSEE Rule Changes......................................................................... 1-8

1.3.1.1. Recent and Ongoing Regulatory Reform and GovernmentSponsored Research ................................................................................. 1-8

1.3.1.2. Recent and Ongoing Industry Reform and Research ............................. 1-10

1.4. Prelease Process..................................................................................................................... 1-10

1.5. Postlease Activities................................................................................................................ 1-13

1.6. Other OCS Oil- and Gas-Related Activities .......................................................................... 1-14

2. ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTIONS ........................................................ 2-3

2.1. Supplemental EIS NEPA Analysis.......................................................................................... 2-3

2.2. Alternatives, Mitigating Measures, and Issues ........................................................................ 2-3

2.2.1. Alternatives ............................................................................................................... 2-3

2.2.1.1. Alternatives for Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 

246 and 248.............................................................................................. 2-4

2.2.2. Mitigating Measures.................................................................................................. 2-5

2.2.2.1. Proposed Mitigating Measures Analyzed ................................................ 2-5

2.2.2.2. Existing Mitigating Measures.................................................................. 2-6

2.2.3. Issues......................................................................................................................... 2-6

2.2.3.1. Issues to be Analyzed............................................................................... 2-7

2.2.3.2. Issues Considered but Not Analyzed ....................................................... 2-7

2.3. Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 .................................................... 2-8

2.3.1. Alternative A—The Proposed Action ....................................................................... 2-8

2.3.1.1. Description............................................................................................... 2-8

2.3.1.2. Summary of Impacts................................................................................ 2-8

2.3.1.3. Mitigating Measures .............................................................................. 2-10

2.3.1.3.1. Topographic Features Stipulation ....................................... 2-10

2.3.1.3.2. Military Areas Stipulation................................................... 2-10

2.3.1.3.3. Protected Species Stipulation .............................................. 2-10
xviii Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2.3.1.3.4. Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment 

Stipulation ........................................................................... 2-11

2.3.1.3.5. Stipulation on the Agreement between the United 

States of America and the United Mexican States 

Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 

in the Gulf of Mexico .......................................................... 2-11

2.3.2. Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near the Biologically 

Sensitive Topographic Features .............................................................................. 2-11

2.3.2.1. Description............................................................................................. 2-11

2.3.2.2. Summary of Impacts.............................................................................. 2-11

2.3.3. Alternative C—No Action....................................................................................... 2-12

2.3.3.1. Description............................................................................................. 2-12

2.3.3.2. Summary of Impacts.............................................................................. 2-12

3. IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO .................................................................... 3-3

3.1. Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario—Routine Operations............................................... 3-3

3.1.1. Offshore Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario .................................................... 3-3

3.1.1.1. Resource Estimates and Timetables......................................................... 3-4

3.1.1.1.1. Proposed Action .................................................................... 3-4

3.1.1.1.2. OCS Program ........................................................................ 3-5

3.1.1.2. Exploration and Delineation .................................................................... 3-6

3.1.1.2.1. Seismic Surveying Operations .............................................. 3-6

3.1.1.2.2. Exploration and Delineation Plans and Drilling.................... 3-6

3.1.1.3. Development and Production................................................................... 3-8

3.1.1.4. Operational Waste Discharged Offshore................................................ 3-10

3.1.1.5. Air Emissions......................................................................................... 3-11

3.1.1.6. Noise ...................................................................................................... 3-12

3.1.1.7. Major Sources of Oil Inputs in the Gulf of Mexico ............................... 3-12

3.1.1.8. Offshore Transport................................................................................. 3-12

3.1.1.9. Safety Issues........................................................................................... 3-13

3.1.1.10. Decommissioning and Removal Operations.......................................... 3-13

3.1.2. Coastal Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario..................................................... 3-13

3.1.2.1. Coastal Infrastructure ............................................................................. 3-13

3.1.2.2. Discharges and Wastes........................................................................... 3-15

3.2. Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario—Accidental Events............................................... 3-16

3.2.1. Oil Spills.................................................................................................................. 3-16

3.2.1.1. Spill Prevention...................................................................................... 3-16

3.2.1.2. Past OCS Spills...................................................................................... 3-16

3.2.1.3. Characteristics of OCS Oil..................................................................... 3-17

3.2.1.4. Overview of Spill Risk Analysis............................................................ 3-17

3.2.1.5. Risk Analysis for Offshore Spills ≥1,000 bbl ........................................ 3-18

3.2.1.6. Risk Analysis for Offshore Spills <1,000 bbl ........................................ 3-19

3.2.1.7. Risk Analysis for Coastal Spills............................................................. 3-20

3.2.1.8. Risk Analysis by Resource..................................................................... 3-20

3.2.1.9. Spill Response........................................................................................ 3-20

3.2.2. Losses of Well Control............................................................................................ 3-24

3.2.3. Pipeline Failures...................................................................................................... 3-25

3.2.4. Vessel Collisions..................................................................................................... 3-25

3.2.5. Chemical and Drilling-Fluid Spills ......................................................................... 3-25
Table of Contents xix

3.3. Cumulative Activities Scenario ............................................................................................. 3-26

3.3.1. OCS Program .......................................................................................................... 3-26

3.3.2. State Oil and Gas Activity....................................................................................... 3-26

3.3.3. Other Major Factors Influencing Offshore Environments ...................................... 3-27

3.3.3.1. Dredged Material Disposal .................................................................... 3-28

3.3.3.2. OCS Sand Borrowing............................................................................. 3-28

3.3.3.3. Marine Transportation............................................................................ 3-28

3.3.3.4. Military Activities.................................................................................. 3-29

3.3.3.5. Artificial Reefs and Rigs-to-Reefs Development................................... 3-29

3.3.3.6. Offshore Liquefied Natural Gas Projects and Deepwater Ports............. 3-30

3.3.3.7. Development of Gas Hydrates............................................................... 3-30

3.3.3.8. Renewable Energy and Alternative Use................................................. 3-30

3.3.4. Other Major Factors Influencing Coastal Environments......................................... 3-32

3.3.4.1. Sea-Level Rise and Subsidence ............................................................. 3-32

3.3.4.2. Mississippi River Hydromodification.................................................... 3-32

3.3.4.3. Maintenance Dredging and Federal Channels ....................................... 3-32

3.3.4.4. Coastal Restoration Programs................................................................ 3-32

3.3.5. Natural Events and Processes.................................................................................. 3-33

3.3.6. Oil Spills.................................................................................................................. 3-33

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND IMPACT ANALYSIS ........................................ 4-3

4.1. Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 .................................................... 4-3

4.1.1. Alternative A—The Proposed Action ....................................................................... 4-9

4.1.1.1. Air Quality ............................................................................................... 4-9

4.1.1.2. Water Quality......................................................................................... 4-12

4.1.1.2.1. Coastal Waters..................................................................... 4-12

4.1.1.2.2. Offshore Waters .................................................................. 4-15

4.1.1.3. Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated Dunes..................................... 4-18

4.1.1.4. Wetlands................................................................................................. 4-22

4.1.1.5. Seagrass Communities........................................................................... 4-26

4.1.1.6. Topographic Features............................................................................. 4-28

4.1.1.7. Sargassum Communities........................................................................ 4-31

4.1.1.8. Chemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities................................ 4-34

4.1.1.9. Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities.......................... 4-37

4.1.1.10. Soft Bottom Benthic Communities........................................................ 4-42

4.1.1.11. Marine Mammals................................................................................... 4-45

4.1.1.12. Sea Turtles.............................................................................................. 4-49

4.1.1.13. Diamondback Terrapins......................................................................... 4-53

4.1.1.14. Coastal and Marine Birds....................................................................... 4-56

4.1.1.15. Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat............................................. 4-61

4.1.1.16. Commercial Fisheries............................................................................. 4-65

4.1.1.17. Recreational Fishing............................................................................... 4-68

4.1.1.18. Recreational Resources.......................................................................... 4-71

4.1.1.19. Archaeological Resources...................................................................... 4-73

4.1.1.19.1. Historic ................................................................................ 4-73

4.1.1.19.2. Prehistoric............................................................................ 4-76
xx Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

4.1.1.20. Human Resources and Land Use ........................................................... 4-79

4.1.1.20.1. Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure ................................... 4-79

4.1.1.20.2. Demographics ...................................................................... 4-84

4.1.1.20.3. Economic Factors ................................................................ 4-86

4.1.1.20.4. Environmental Justice ......................................................... 4-89

4.1.1.21. Species Considered due to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Concerns ................ 4-95

4.1.2. Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near Biologically Sensitive 

Topographic Features .............................................................................................. 4-97

4.1.3. Alternative C—No Action ..................................................................................... 4-100

4.2. Unavoidable Adverse Impacts of the Proposed Actions ...................................................... 4-102

4.3. Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources .................................................... 4-104

4.4. Relationship between the Short-term Use of Man’s Environment and the 

Maintenance and Enhancement of Long-term Productivity ................................................ 4-105

5. CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ..................................................................................... 5-3

5.1. Development of the Proposed Actions ..................................................................................... 5-3

5.2. Call for Information and Notice of Intent to Prepare a Supplemental EIS .............................. 5-3

5.3. Development of the Draft Supplemental EIS ........................................................................... 5-3

5.3.1. Summary of Comments Received in Response to the Call for Information ............. 5-3

5.3.2. Summary of Scoping Comments ............................................................................... 5-4

5.3.3. Additional Scoping Opportunities ............................................................................. 5-4

5.3.4. Cooperating Agency .................................................................................................. 5-5

5.4. Distribution of the Draft Supplemental EIS for Review and Comment .................................. 5-5

5.5. Coastal Zone Management Act ................................................................................................ 5-7

5.6. Endangered Species Act ........................................................................................................... 5-8

5.7. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act ............................................ 5-8

5.8. National Historic Preservation Act .......................................................................................... 5-8

5.9. Government-to-Government .................................................................................................... 5-9

6. REFERENCES CITED ........................................................................................................................ 6-3

7. PREPARERS ....................................................................................................................................... 7-3

8. GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................ 8-3

FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... Figures-3 

TABLES ........................................................................................................................................... Tables-3 

APPENDIX A. COMMONLY APPLIED MITIGATING MEASURES.............................................. A-3 

APPENDIX B. CATASTROPHIC SPILL EVENT ANALYSIS: HIGH-VOLUME, 

EXTENDED-DURATION OIL SPILL RESULTING FROM LOSS OF 

WELL CONTROL ON THE GULF OF MEXICO OUTER CONTINENTAL 

SHELF .......................................................................................................................... B-3 

KEYWORD INDEX ................................................................................................................... Keywords-3 
List of Figures xxi

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1-1. Gulf of Mexico Planning Areas, Proposed WPA Lease Sale Area, and 

Locations of Major Cities. .........................................................................................Figures-3

Figure 2-1. Location of Proposed Stipulations and Deferrals.......................................................Figures-4

Figure 2-2. Military Warning Areas and Eglin Water Test Areas in the Gulf of Mexico. ...........Figures-5

Figure 3-1. Offshore Subareas in the Gulf of Mexico. ................................................................. Figures-6

List of Tables xxiii

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3-1. Projected Oil and Gas in the Gulf of Mexico OCS..................................................... Tables-3

Table 3-2. Offshore Scenario Information Related to a Typical Lease Sale in the Western 

Planning Area.............................................................................................................. Tables-4

Table 3-3. Offshore Scenario Information Related to OCS Program Activities in the Gulf 

of Mexico (WPA, CPA, and EPA) for 2012-2051...................................................... Tables-5

Table 3-4. Offshore Scenario Information Related to OCS Program Activities in the Western 

Planning Area for 2012-2051...................................................................................... Tables-6

Table 3-5. Annual Volume of Produced Water Discharged by Depth (millions of bbl)..............Tables-7

Table 4-1. Unusual Mortality Event Cetacean Data for the Northern Gulf of Mexico ................Tables-7

Table 4-2 . Number of Angler Trips in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013..................................Tables-8

Table 4-3. Top Species Landed by Recreational Fisherman ........................................................ Tables-9

Table 4-4. Employment in the Leisure/Hospitality Industry in Selected Geographic Regions..Tables-10

Table 4-5. Baseline Population Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area .............Tables-11

Table 4-6. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area AL-1 ................................................................................................................. Tables-13

Table 4-7. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area FL-1 .................................................................................................................. Tables-16

Table 4-8. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area FL-2 .................................................................................................................. Tables-19

Table 4-9 . Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area FL-3 .................................................................................................................. Tables-22

Table 4-10. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area FL-4 .................................................................................................................. Tables-25

Table 4-11 . Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area LA-1 ................................................................................................................. Tables-28

Table 4-12. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area LA-2 ................................................................................................................. Tables-31

Table 4-13. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area LA-3 ................................................................................................................. Tables-34

Table 4-14. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area LA-4 ................................................................................................................. Tables-37

Table 4-15. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area MS-1 ................................................................................................................. Tables-40

Table 4-16. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area TX-1 ................................................................................................................. Tables-43

Table 4-17 . Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area TX-2 ................................................................................................................. Tables-46

Table 4-18 . Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact 

Area TX-3 ................................................................................................................. Tables-49
xxiv Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-19 . Sales Volumes, Sales Values, and Revenues............................................................ Tables-52

Table 4-20 . Baseline Employment Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area..........Tables-53
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxv

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

°C degree Celsius

°F degree Fahrenheit

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; 

Multisale EIS Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 246, and 248; 

Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247; 

Final Environmental Impact Statement; Volumes I-III 

ac acre

Agreement Agreement between the United States of America and the United

Mexican States Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 

in the Gulf of Mexico

AL Alabama

API American Petroleum Institute

ASLM Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Land and Minerals

bbl barrel

BBO billion barrels of oil

BOEM Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

BOEMRE Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement

BOP blowout preventer

BSEE Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement

Call Call for Information

CD Consistency Determination

CEQ Council on Environmental Quality

CEWAF chemically enhanced (dispersed) water-accommodated fractions

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CG Coast Guard (also: USCG)

CH4 methane

CMP Coastal Management Program 

CO carbon monoxide

CO2 carbon dioxide

COE Corps of Engineers (U.S. Army)

CPA Central Planning Area

CPA 235/241/247 Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2015-2017;

Supplemental EIS Central Planning Area Lease Sales 235, 241, and 247; 

Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

CSA Continental Shelf Associates

CYP1A cytochrome P-4501A

CZMA Coastal Zone Management Act

DOI Department of the Interior (U.S.) (also: USDOI)

EFH essential fish habitat

e.g. for example

EIA Economic Impact Area

EIS environmental impact statement

EPA Eastern Planning Area

EPA 225/226 EIS Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014 and 2016; 

Eastern Planning Area Lease Sales 225 and 226; 

Final Environmental Impact Statement

EPAct Energy Policy Act of 2005

ERMA Environmental Response Management Application

ESA Endangered Species Act of 1973

et al. and others

et seq. and the following

Five-Year Program Proposed Final Outer Continental Shelf Oil & Gas Leasing Program: 

2012-2017
xxvi Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Five-Year Program EIS Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Leasing Program: 2012-2017, 

Final Environmental Impact Statement

FL Florida

FR Federal Register

ft feet

FWS Fish and Wildlife Service

G&G geological and geophysical

g gram 

GAP General Activities Plan

GMFMC Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council

GOM Gulf of Mexico

H2S hydrogen sulfide

i.e. specifically

km kilometer

LA Louisiana

LNG liquefied natural gas

m meter

MAG-PLAN MMS Alaska-GOM Model Using IMPLAN

MARAD Maritime Administration (U.S. Department of Transportation)

Mcf thousand cubic feet

mi mile

MMbbl million barrels

MMPA Marine Mammal Protection Act

MMS Minerals Management Service

MODU mobile offshore drilling unit

MS Mississippi

N2O nitrous oxide

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NEPA National Environmental Policy Act

NGL natural gas liquids

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service

nmi nautical-mile

NO2 nitrogen dioxide

NOx nitrogen oxides

NOA Notice of Availability

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOI Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS

NOS National Ocean Service

NPDES National Pollutant and Discharge Elimination System

NRC National Research Council

NRDA Natural Resource Damage Assessment

NTL Notice to Lessees and Operators

OCS Outer Continental Shelf

OCSLA Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

ODMDS ocean dredged-material disposal site

OSAT Operational Science Advisory Team

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSRA Oil Spill Risk Analysis

OSRP oil-spill response plan

OSV offshore supply vessel

P.L. Public Law

PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 

PM particulate matter

PM2.5 particulate matter less than or equal to 2.5 μm 

PM10 particulate matter less than or equal to 10 μm 
Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii

PSD Prevention of Significant Deterioration

ROD Record of Decision

SAP Site Assessment Plan

SBF synthetic-based fluid

Secretary Secretary of the Interior 

SMART Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies

SO2 sulphur dioxide

SOx sulphur oxides

Stat. Statute

Tcf trillion cubic feet

Trustee Council Natural Resource Damage Assessment Trustee Council

TX Texas

U.S. United States

U.S.C. United States Code

UME unusual mortality event

USCG U.S. Coast Guard (also: CG)

USDHS U.S. Department of Homeland Security

USDOC U.S. Department of Commerce

USDOE U.S. Department of the Energy

USDOI U.S. Department of the Interior (also: DOI)

USDOT U.S. Department of Transportation

USEPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VGP Vessel General Permit

VOC volatile organic compound

VSP vertical seismic profiling

W. west

WAF water-accommodated fraction

WPA Western Planning Area

WPA 233/CPA 231 Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014;

Supplemental EIS Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233;

Central Planning Area Lease Sale 231; 

Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

WPA 238/246/248 Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016;

Supplemental EIS Western Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248; 

Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

Conversion Chart xxix

CONVERSION CHART

To convert from To Multiply by

centimeter (cm) inch (in) 0.3937

millimeter (mm) inch (in) 0.03937

meter (m) foot (ft) 3.281

meter2 (m2) foot2 (ft2) 10.76

meter2 (m2) yard2 (yd2) 1.196

meter2 (m2) acre (ac) 0.0002471

meter3 (m3) foot3 (ft3) 35.31

meter3 (m3) yard3 (yd3) 1.308

kilometer (km) mile (mi) 0.6214

kilometer2 (km2) mile2 (mi2) 0.3861

hectare (ha) acre (ac) 2.47

liter (L) gallons (gal) 0.2642

degree Celsius (°C) degree Fahrenheit (°F) °F = (1.8 x °C) + 32

1 barrel (bbl) = 42 gal = 158.9 L = approximately 0.1428 metric tons

1 nautical mile (nmi) = 1.15 mi (1.85 km) or 6,076 ft (1,852 m)

tonnes = 1 long ton or 2,240 pounds

CHAPTER 1 

THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

The Proposed Actions 1-3 

1. THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

1.1. PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

The proposed Federal actions addressed in this Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) 

are to offer for lease certain Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) blocks located in the Western Planning Area 

(WPA) of the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) (Figure 1-1). Under the Proposed Final Outer Continental Shelf 

Oil & Gas Leasing Program: 2012-2017 (Five-Year Program) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a), proposed WPA 

Lease Sales 246 and 248 are tentatively scheduled to be held in August 2015 and 2016, respectively. The 

proposed Federal action is to offer for lease those areas that may contain economically recoverable oil and 

gas resources in accordance with the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) of 1953 (67 Stat. 462), 

as amended (43 U.S.C. §§ 1331 et seq.). 

The purpose of the proposed action is to further the orderly development of OCS oil and gas 

resources. The proposed WPA lease sales will provide qualified bidders the opportunity to bid upon and 

lease acreage in the Gulf of Mexico OCS in order to explore, develop, and produce oil and natural gas. 

Under the OCLSA, for each proposed lease sale in the Five-Year Program, the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management (BOEM) makes individual decisions on whether and how to proceed with a proposed lease 

sale. Although the analyses cover more than one proposed lease sale, this Supplemental EIS will be used 

by BOEM to make an informed decision on proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. An additional National 

Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) review, as appropriate, will be prepared prior to proposed WPA Lease 

Sale 248 to address any newly available significant information relevant to that proposed action (refer to

Chapter 2.1), and a separate decision will be made at the time scheduled for proposed WPA Lease Sale 

248. That NEPA review will tier from and incorporate by reference the analyses from previous lease sale 

EIS’s.

The United States (U.S.) still has a great demand for oil and gas resources and, therefore, there is a 

need for continued oil and gas resource development. The WPA, together with the Central Planning Area 

(CPA) of the GOM, constitutes one of the world’s major oil- and gas-producing areas and has proved a 

steady and reliable source of crude oil and natural gas for more than 50 years. Oil serves as the feedstock 

for liquid hydrocarbon products, including gasoline, aviation and diesel fuel, and various petrochemicals. 

Oil from the WPA would help reduce the Nation’s need for oil imports and lessen the growing 

dependence on foreign oil. The U.S. consumed 18.9 million barrels (MMbbl) of oil per day (USDOE, 

Energy Information Administration, 2014a) and 25.68 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of natural gas per day 

(USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014b) in 2013. The Energy Information Administration 

projects the total U.S. consumption of liquid fuels, including fossil fuels and biofuels, to fall slightly from 

19.03 MMbbl per day in 2013 to 18.73 MMbbl by 2040 (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 

2014c). The Energy Information Administration also projects the total U.S. consumption of natural gas to 

rise from 25.68 Tcf to 31.48 Tcf by 2040 (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014b). The 

U.S. net imports of natural gas accounted for 1.34 percent of our total natural gas consumption in 2013 

and are projected to decrease to 0.04 percent by 2017 (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 

2014b). Altogether, net imports of crude oil and petroleum products (imports minus exports) accounted 

for 34 percent of our total petroleum consumption in 2013 and are projected to decrease to 32 percent by 

2040 (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014d). The U.S. crude oil imports stood at 

7.7 MMbbl per day in 2013, and the petroleum product imports were 2.1 MMbbl per day in 2013 

(USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014e). Exports totaled 2.9 MMbbl per day in 2013, 

mainly in the form of distillate fuel oil, petroleum coke, and residual fuel oil (USDOE, Energy 

Information Administration, 2014f). The net exports of natural gas are projected to be 0.66 percent in 

2018 and rise to 5.78 percent in 2040 (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014b). In 2013, the 

Nation’s biggest supplier of crude oil and petroleum-product imports was Canada (32%), with countries 

in the Persian Gulf being the second largest source (21%) (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 

2014e). In 2013, the Nation’s biggest supplier of natural gas was Canada (97%), with Trinidad being the 

second largest source (2.4%) (USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2014g). Oil produced from 

the WPA would also reduce the environmental risks associated with transoceanic oil tankering from 

sources overseas. Natural gas is not easily transported, making domestic production especially desirable. 

The need for domestic natural gas reserves is also based upon its use as an environmentally preferable 

alternative to oil or coal for generating electricity.
1-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

This Supplemental EIS tiers from and incorporates by reference all of the relevant analyses from Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 

246, and 248; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final Environmental 

Impact Statement (2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b); Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area 

Lease Sale 231, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a); and Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016; Western 

Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

(WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2014a). The 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS notes that two sales may be held each year during the Five-Year Program—one in the WPA and one 

in the CPA.

Other Pertinent Environmental Reviews or Documentation

This Supplemental EIS supplements and incorporates by reference all of the relevant analyses from 

the Multisale EIS and Supplemental EIS’s listed below.

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 

• July 2012 – Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western 

Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 246, and 248; Central Planning Area 

Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final Environmental Impact Statement

(2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b) 

• April 2013 – Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western 

Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area Lease Sale 231, Final 

Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a)

• March 2014 – Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016; Western 

Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248, Final Supplemental Environmental 

Impact Statement (WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2014a)

The NEPA documents listed above are part of the Five-Year Program, and their relationship (tiering 

and supplementing) and timing with their respective proposed actions (lease sales) are illustrated in the 

figure below.
The Proposed Actions 1-5 

Each subsequent Supplemental EIS, regardless of the planning area, updates the potential 

environmental effects of oil and natural gas leasing, exploration, development, and production in the 

GOM in Chapter 4.1.1 and updates the cumulative impacts from the most recent Supplemental EIS. 

Within each specific planning area, the baseline conditions for that planning area are updated to reflect 

the most recent technical and scientific information available.

This Supplemental EIS focuses on updating the baseline conditions and potential environmental 

effects of oil and natural gas leasing, exploration, development, and production in the WPA since 

publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. This Supplemental EIS analyzes the potential impacts of a WPA 

proposed action on the marine, coastal, and human environments. This Supplemental EIS will also assist 

decisionmakers in making informed, future decisions regarding the approval of operations, as well as 

leasing. At the completion of the NEPA process, a decision will be made only for proposed WPA Lease 

Sale 246. A separate NEPA review, in a form to be determined by BOEM, will be conducted prior to 

BOEM’s decision on whether or how to proceed with proposed WPA Lease Sale 248. The analysis in 

this Supplemental EIS also focuses on the potential environmental effects of oil and natural gas leasing, 

exploration, development, and production in the areas identified through the Area Identification (Area ID) 

procedure as the proposed lease sale area. In addition to the No Action alternative (i.e., cancel a proposed 

lease sale), other alternatives may be considered for a proposed WPA lease sale, such as deferring certain 

areas from a proposed lease sale.

The Secretary of the Interior (Secretary) has designated BOEM as the administrative agency 

responsible for the mineral leasing of submerged OCS lands and for the supervision of most offshore 

operations after lease issuance. BOEM is responsible for managing development of the Nation’s offshore 

resources in an environmentally and economically responsible way. The functions of BOEM include 

leasing, exploration and development, plan administration, environmental studies, NEPA analysis, 

resource evaluation, economic analysis, and the renewable energy program. The Bureau of Safety and 

Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) is responsible for enforcing safety and environmental regulations. 

The functions of BSEE include all field operations, including permitting and research, inspections, 

offshore regulatory programs, oil-spill response, and training and environmental compliance functions.
1-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

1.2. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

The proposed actions are the next two oil and gas lease sales in the WPA as scheduled in the 

Five-Year Program. Federal regulations allow for several related or similar proposals to be analyzed in 

one EIS (40 CFR § 1502.4). Since the proposed WPA lease sales are in the same area and their projected 

activities are very similar, BOEM has decided to prepare a single EIS for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 

and 248. The analyses contained in this Supplemental EIS examine impacts from a single, typical WPA 

lease sale. The findings of these analyses can be applied individually to each of the proposed lease sales, 

i.e., WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248. While the impact analyses can be applied to each proposed lease 

sale, this Supplemental EIS is a decision document for only proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. An 

additional NEPA review will be conducted for proposed WPA Lease Sale 248 to address any newly 

available significant information relevant to that proposed action (refer to Chapter 2.1). 

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 are tentatively scheduled to be held in August 2015 and 

2016, respectively. The proposed WPA lease sale area encompasses virtually all of the WPA’s 

approximately 28.58 million acres (ac). This area begins 3 marine leagues (9 nautical miles [nmi]; 

10.36 miles [mi]; 16.67 kilometers [km]) offshore Texas and extends seaward to the limits of the United 

States’ jurisdiction over the continental shelf (often the Exclusive Economic Zone) in water depths up to 

approximately 3,346 meters (m) (10,978 feet [ft]) (Figure 1-1). As of July 2014, approximately 

21.6 million ac of the proposed WPA lease sale area are currently unleased. 

The estimated amount of resources projected to be developed as a result of a single, typical lease sale 

(e.g., proposed WPA Lease Sale 246) is 0.116-0.200 billion barrels of oil (BBO) and 0.538-0.938 trillion 

cubic feet (Tcf) of gas. A proposed WPA lease sale includes proposed lease stipulations designed to 

reduce environmental risks; these stipulations are discussed in Chapter 2.3.1.3 of this Supplemental EIS

and in Chapter 2.3.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

1.3. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

Federal laws mandate the OCS leasing program (e.g., Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act) and the 

environmental review process (e.g., NEPA). Several Federal regulations establish specific consultation 

and coordination processes with Federal, State, and local agencies (e.g., Coastal Zone Management Act, 

Endangered Species Act, the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, and the 

Marine Mammal Protection Act). In addition, the OCS leasing process and all activities and operations 

on the OCS must comply with other applicable Federal, State, and local laws and regulations. A detailed 

list of the major, applicable Federal laws, regulations, and Executive Orders are listed below.

Regulation, Law, and Executive Order Citation

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 43 U.S.C. §§ 1331 et seq.

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4347

40 CFR § 1500-1508

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 16 U.S.C. §§ 1451 et seq.

15 CFR part 930

Endangered Species Act of 1973 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531 et seq.

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 16 U.S.C. §§ 1251 et seq.

Essential Fish Habitat Consultation (in 1996 reauthorization of the 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act)

P.L. 94-265

16 U.S.C. §§ 1801-1891

50 CFR part 600 subpart K

Marine Mammal Protection Act 16 U.S.C. §§ 1361 et seq.

Clean Air Act 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401 et seq.

40 CFR part 55

Clean Water Act 33 U.S.C. § 1251 et seq.

Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research and Control Act P.L. 105-383

Oil Pollution Act of 1990 33 U.S.C. §§ 2701 et seq.
The Proposed Actions 1-7 

Regulation, Law, and Executive Order Citation

Executive Order 12777

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability 

Act of 1980

42 U.S.C. §§ 9601 et seq.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 42 U.S.C. §§ 6901 et seq.

Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act 33 U.S.C. §§ 1901 et seq.

National Fishing Enhancement Act of 1984 33 U.S.C. §§ 2601 et seq.

Fishermen’s Contingency Fund 43 U.S.C. §§ 1841-1846

Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 33 U.S.C. §§ 1223 et seq.

Marine and Estuarine Protection Acts 33 U.S.C. §§ 1401 et seq.

Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 P.L. 92-532

National Estuarine Research Reserves 16 U.S.C. § 1461, Section 315

National Estuary Program P.L. 100-4

Coastal Barrier Resources Act 16 U.S.C. §§ 3501 et seq.

National Historic Preservation Act 16 U.S.C. §§ 470 et seq.

Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 33 U.S.C. §§ 401 et seq.

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 29 U.S.C. §§ 651 et seq.

Energy Policy Act of 2005 P.L. 109-58

Gulf of Mexico Energy Security Act of 2006 P.L. 109-432

Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act P.L. 109-449

American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 P.L. 95-341

42 U.S.C. §§ 1996 and 1996a

Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 16 U.S.C. §§ 703 et seq.

Submerged Lands Act of 1953 43 U.S.C. §§ 1301 et seq.

49 U.S.C. 44718: Structures Interfering with Air Commerce 49 U.S.C. § 44718

Marking of Obstructions 14 U.S.C. § 86

Wilderness Act of 1964 P.L. 88-577

16 U.S.C. §§ 1131-1136

78 Stat. 890

Toxic Substances Control Act P.L. 94-469

15 U.S.C. §§ 2601-2697

Stat. 2003

Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940 P.L. 86-70

16 U.S.C. §§ 668-668d

Executive Order 11988: Floodplain Management 42 FR 26951 (1977); amended by 

Executive Order 12148 (7/20/79)

Executive Order 11990: Protection of Wetlands 42 FR 26961 (1977); amended by 

Executive Order 12608 (9/9/87)

Executive Order 12114: Environmental Effects Abroad 44 FR 1957 (1979)

Executive Order 12898: Environmental Justice 59 FR 5517 (1994)

Executive Order 13007: Indian Sacred Sites 61 FR 26771-26772 (1996)

Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef Protection 63 FR 32701-32703 (1998)

Executive Order 13175: Consultation and Coordination with Indian 

Tribal Governments

65 FR 67249-67252 (2000)

Executive Order 13186: Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to 

Protect Migratory Birds

66 FR 3853 (2001)
1-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

1.3.1. Recent BOEM/BSEE Rule Changes

In light of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, the Federal Government, along 

with industry, increased their rules and safety measures related to oil-spill prevention, containment, and 

response. Additionally, the Federal Government and industry have increased their research and reform in 

response to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response through government-funded 

research, industry-funded research, and joint partnerships. These joint partnerships are often between 

government agencies, industry, and nongovernmental organizations. For more information about the 

BOEM/BSEE rule changes prior to this Supplemental EIS, refer to Chapters 1.3 and 1.5 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. 

1.3.1.1. Recent and Ongoing Regulatory Reform and Government-Sponsored 

Research

BOEM and BSEE have already instituted regulatory reforms responsive to many of the 

recommendations expressed in the various reports prepared following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response. To date, regulatory reform has occurred through both prescriptive and 

performance-based regulation and guidance, as well as OCS safety and environmental protection 

requirements, as described in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. The reforms strengthen the 

requirements for all aspects of OCS operations. Ongoing reform and research endeavors to improve 

workplace safety and to strengthen oil-spill prevention planning, containment, and response are described 

in detail in Chapter 1.3.1.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, with updated information in 

Chapter 1.3.2.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and Chapter 1.3.1.1 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Since publication of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, no 

substantive rule changes have been implemented that would affect potential environmental impacts from 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the Gulf of Mexico. However, new and modified Notices to 

Lessees (NTL’s) and other policies applicable to OCS oil and gas operations in the Gulf of Mexico are 

summarized below.

BOEM Final Rule, “Timing Requirements for the Submission of a Site Assessment Plan 

(SAP) or General Activities Plan (GAP) for a Renewable Energy Project on the Outer 

Continental Shelf (OCS)”

This final rule, published in the Federal Register on April 17, 2014 (Federal Register, 2014a), gives 

lessees or grantees of renewable energy leases a term of 12 months to submit a SAP or GAP, as well as 

amending other regulatory provisions.

NTL 2014-BSEE-G01, “New Addresses for New Orleans and Houma District Offices and 

Measurement Inspection Unit”

This Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) provides lessees up-to-date addresses and contact 

information for the New Orleans and Houma District Offices, as well as the new Measurement Inspection 

Unit.

NTL 2014-BSEE-N01, “Elimination of Expiration Dates on Certain Notices to Lessees and 

Operators Pending Review and Reissuance”

This NTL informs lessees that certain NTL’s (published on BSEE’s website) will remain in effect 

until BSEE revises, reissues, or withdraws the NTL’s, regardless of any stated expiration date.

NTL 2014-BSEE-N02, “Performance Measures for OCS Operators and Form BSEE-0131” 

This NTL gives lessees information about when and how to file their Performance Measures Data 

with the bureau.
The Proposed Actions 1-9 

NTL 2012-BSEE-N07, “Oil Discharge Written Follow-up Reports”

The BSEE issued this NTL to address the oil discharge reports (30 CFR § 254.46(b)(2)) that are 

required to be submitted by a responsible party to BSEE for spills >1 barrel (bbl) within 15 days after a 

spill has been stopped or ceased. The responsible party is encouraged to report the cause, location, 

volume, remedial action taken, sea state, meteorological conditions, and size and appearance of the slick.

2014 BSEE Domestic and International Standards Workshop 

In January 2014, BSEE hosted the Domestic and International Standards Workshop. The BSEE 

Standards Development Program collaborates with national and international Standards Development 

Organizations to develop and revise existing standards for safety and environmental protection on the 

OCS. This collaboration enables BSEE to minimize the time needed to identify and incorporate new and 

updated industry standards into its regulatory program.

Gulf of Mexico Environmental Studies Program

The Division of Environmental Sciences manages the Environmental Studies Program for BOEM. 

The Environmental Studies Program develops, conducts, and oversees world-class scientific research 

specifically to inform policy decisions regarding the development of OCS energy and mineral resources. 

Research covers physical oceanography, atmospheric sciences, biology, protected species, social sciences 

and economics, submerged cultural resources, and environmental fates and effects. BOEM is a leading 

contributor to the growing body of scientific knowledge about the Nation’s marine and coastal 

environment. Studies published by the Environmental Studies Program, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, 

since publication of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS are shown in the table below. For a list of 

studies published by the Environmental Studies Program, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, prior to those 

listed below (i.e., 2006-2013), refer to Appendix E of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

Publications of the Environmental Studies Program, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, 

Since Publication of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS

Study Number Title

BOEM 2013-011110 Archaeological Analysis of Submerged Sites on the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental 

Shelf

BOEM 2013-214

BOEM 2013-215

Long-Term Monitoring at the East and West Flower Gardens Banks National Marine 

Sanctuary, 2009-2010

Volume I: Technical Report

Volume II: Appendices

BOEM 2014-011 Determining the Geographical Distribution and Genetic Affinities of Corals on 

Offshore Platforms, Northern Gulf of Mexico

BOEM 2014-040 Analysis of Ocean Current Data from Gulf of Mexico Oil and Gas Platforms

BOEM 2014-058 Ecospatial Information Database: U.S. Atlantic Region

BOEM 2014-606 User’s Guide for the 2014 Gulfwide Offshore Activities Data System (GOADS-2014)

BOEM 2014-617

BOEM 2014-618

Offshore Oil and Deepwater Horizon: Social Effects on Gulf Coast 

Communities

Volume I: Methodology, Timeline, Context, and Communities

Volume II: Key Economic Sectors, NGOs, and Ethnic Groups
1-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

1.3.1.2. Recent and Ongoing Industry Reform and Research

Since the preparation of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, the oil and gas industry and 

engineering trade groups have continued to prepare new standards and develop best practices for the safe 

and environmentally responsible development of OCS oil and gas. As an example, the American 

Petroleum Institute (API) has produced several Recommended Practices and Standards that have become 

part of State and Federal regulations. In May 2014, API completed Standard 17F, “Standard for Subsea 

Production Control Systems” (API, 2014). This standard covers the design, fabrication, testing, 

installation, and operation of subsea production control systems, including surface control systems, 

subsea-installed control systems, and control fluids, and it can be applicable to multi-well systems.

1.4. PRELEASE PROCESS

Scoping for this Supplemental EIS was conducted in accordance with the Council on Environmental 

Quality’s (CEQ) regulations implementing NEPA. Scoping provides those with an interest in the OCS 

Program an opportunity to provide comments on the proposed actions. In addition, scoping provides 

BOEM an opportunity to update the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s environmental and socioeconomic 

information base. BOEM conducted early coordination with appropriate Federal, State, and local 

government agencies; Tribal Nations; nongovernmental organizations; and other concerned parties to 

discuss and coordinate the prelease process for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 and for this 

Supplemental EIS. While scoping is an ongoing process, it officially commenced on April 4, 2014, with 

the publication of the Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS (NOI) in the Federal Register (2014b). 

Additional public notices were distributed via local newspapers, the U.S. Postal Service, and the Internet. 

A 30-day comment period was provided; it closed on May 5, 2014. Federal, State, and local 

governments, along with other interested parties, were invited to send written comments to the Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region on the scope of this Supplemental EIS. Comments were received in response to the 

NOI from Federal, State, and local government agencies; interest groups; industry; businesses; and the 

general public on the scope of this Supplemental EIS, significant issues that should be addressed, 

alternatives that should be considered, and mitigating measures. All scoping comments received were 

considered in the preparation of the Draft Supplemental EIS. The comments are summarized in 

Chapter 5.3, “Development of the Draft Supplemental EIS.”

In addition to BOEM’s consideration of scoping comments received for this Supplemental EIS, this 

document tiers from and incorporates by reference all of the relevant scoping comments and responses to 

the comments from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b), WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a), and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS (USDOI, 

BOEM, 2014a). A summary of scoping comments incorporated by reference can be found in Chapter 5.3, 

“Development of the Draft Supplemental EIS,” of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

On October 4, 2012, BOEM released its Area ID decision. The Area ID is an administrative prelease 

step that describes the geographical area of the proposed actions (proposed lease sale area) and identifies 

the alternatives, mitigating measures, and issues to be analyzed in the appropriate NEPA document. As 

mandated by NEPA, this Supplemental EIS analyzes the potential impacts of the WPA proposed actions 

on the marine, coastal, and human environments.

BOEM will mail copies of the Draft Supplemental EIS for review and comment to Federal, State, and 

local government agencies; Tribal Nations; interest groups; industry; nongovernmental organizations; the 

general public; and local libraries. To initiate the public review and comment period on the Draft 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM will publish a Notice of Availability (NOA) in the Federal Register. In 

addition, public notices will be mailed with the Draft Supplemental EIS and will be placed on BOEM’s 

Internet website (http://www.boem.gov/nepaprocess). 

A consistency review will be performed in accordance with the Coastal Zone Management Act 

(CZMA), and a Consistency Determination (CD) will be prepared for each affected State prior to each 

proposed WPA lease sale. To prepare the CD’s, BOEM reviews each State’s Coastal Management 

Program (CMP) and analyzes the potential impacts as outlined in this Supplemental EIS, new 

information, and applicable studies as they pertain to the enforceable policies of each CMP. Based on the 

analyses, BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Regional Director makes an assessment of consistency, 

which is then sent to the States of Texas and Louisiana for WPA lease sales. If a State disagrees with the 
The Proposed Actions 1-11

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management’s CD, the State is required to do the following under the CZMA: 

(1) indicate how BOEM’s presale proposal is inconsistent with its CMP; (2) suggest alternative measures 

to bring BOEM’s proposal into consistency with their CMP; or (3) describe the need for additional 

information that would allow a determination of consistency. Unlike the consistency process for specific 

OCS plans and permits, there is not a procedure for administrative appeal to the Secretary of Commerce 

for a Federal CD for presale activities. In the event of a disagreement between a Federal agency and the 

State’s CMP regarding consistency of the proposed lease sales, either BOEM or the State may request 

mediation. The regulations provide for an opportunity to resolve any differences with the State, but the 

CZMA allows BOEM to proceed with a proposed lease sale despite any unresolved disagreements if the 

Federal agency clearly describes, in writing, how the activity is consistent to the maximum extent 

practicable with the State’s CMP. 

Prior to proposed WPA Lease Sale 246, which is tentatively scheduled for August 2015, BOEM must

publish a Final Supplemental EIS, which must be available for public review for 30 days. To initiate the 

public review, BOEM will publish an NOA in the Federal Register. BOEM will send copies of the Final 

Supplemental EIS for review to Federal, State, and local agencies; Tribal Nations; interest groups; 

industry; nongovernmental organizations; the general public; and local libraries. In addition, public 

notices will be mailed with the Final Supplemental EIS and will be placed on BOEM’s Internet website 

(http://www.boem.gov/nepaprocess/). At the completion of this Supplemental EIS process, a decision 

will be made for proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. A separate NEPA review will be conducted prior to

proposed WPA Lease Sale 248.

The Final Supplemental EIS is not a decision document. A Decision Memorandum will be prepared 

by the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Land and Minerals Management (ASLM) for the decision on 

whether to hold each proposed lease sale, i.e., one each for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248. A 

NEPA Record of Decision (ROD) will memorialize the decision and will identify BOEM’s preferred 

alternative for each lease sale, as well as the environmentally preferable alternative, if different. The 

ROD will summarize the proposed action and the alternatives evaluated in this Supplemental EIS, the 

information considered in reaching the decision, and the adopted mitigations. 

A Proposed Notice of Sale (NOS) will become available to the public 4-5 months prior to each 

proposed lease sale. A notice announcing the availability of the Proposed NOS will appear in the Federal 

Register, initiating a 60-day comment period. Comments received will be analyzed during preparation of 

the decision documents that are the basis for the Final NOS, including lease sale configuration and terms 

and conditions.

If the decision by the ASLM is to hold a proposed lease sale, a Final NOS will be published in its 

entirety in the Federal Register at least 30 days prior to the lease sale date, as required by the OCSLA.

Measures to Enhance Transparency and Effectiveness in the Leasing and Tiering Process

The following discussion is from the Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Leasing Program: 

2012-2017, Final Environmental Impact Statement (Five-Year Program EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012c) 

and has been incorporated into this Supplemental EIS for information purposes.

BOEM realizes that each region is different in terms of mineral resources and dependent economies, 

the relative state of infrastructure and support industries, and the sensitivity of ecosystems, environmental 

resources, and communities; and that a leasing strategy needs to be sensitive to those differences, but also 

that it must be consistent with OCSLA principles. BOEM envisions a phased OCSLA process that 

minimizes multiple-use and environmental conflicts to the extent possible during the Five-Year Program 

implementation, that makes lease sale decisions in the context of the best available information, and that 

discloses clear reasons for those decisions, even in the face of uncertainty. This vision is consistent with 

the National Ocean Policy Implementation Plan and related Marine Planning initiatives, all of which 

provide a complementary framework for space-use conflict considerations.

BOEM is committing to several process enhancements to ensure transparency during the phased 

OCSLA and tiered NEPA processes of this Five-Year Program. Although specific approaches to 

implementation may be tailored to the different needs of the Regions and their stakeholders, BOEM is 

determined to improve the effectiveness of the tiering process through the following:
1-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

• Alternative and Mitigation Tracking Table. BOEM has established an alternative 

and mitigation tracking table to provide increased visibility into the consideration of 

recommendations for deferrals, mitigations, and alternatives at different stages of the 

leasing process. Beginning with the Five-Year Program EIS, the table tracks the 

lineage and treatment of suggestions for spatial exclusions, temporal deferrals, and/or 

mitigation from the Five-Year Program to the lease sale phase and on to the plan 

phase. This table allows commenters to see how and at what stage of the process 

their concerns are being considered. BOEM will maintain a table that will be 

updated as deferral requests are considered at the lease sale and plan stages, and as 

new requests are made. The alternative and mitigation tracking table has been placed 

on BOEM’s website at http://www.boem.gov/5-year/2012-2017/Tracking-Table/. A 

link to the table will be provided in the lease sale documents and in the annual report, 

which is discussed below.

• Strengthening the Prelease Sale Process. BOEM is taking a number of steps to 

enhance opportunities for members of the public to comment and provide new 

information in the prelease sale planning process. Historically, the Call for 

Information (Call), which is the first step in the Prelease Sale Process, has generally 

asked for industry to nominate specific blocks or descriptions of areas within the 

Five-Year Program area for which they have the most interest, while the NOI 

requests comments on issues that should be addressed and alternatives that should be 

considered in the NEPA documents that will be prepared for the action.

• Annual Progress Report. BOEM will publish an annual progress report on the 

approved Five-Year Program that includes an opportunity for stakeholders and the 

public to comment on the Five-Year Program’s implementation. Under Section 18(e) 

of the OCSLA, the Secretary must review annually the approved Five-Year Program. 

Historically, this has been an internal review process that reported to the Secretary 

any information or events that might result in a revision to the Five-Year Program. If 

the revision is considered significant under the OCSLA, the Five-Year Program can 

only be revised and reapproved by following the same Section 18 steps used to 

originally develop the Program. However, once the Section 18 process has been 

initiated for the next Five-Year Program, the annual review is subsumed in that 

process, as the same substantive and procedural requirements are being addressed.

The findings of this progress report may lead the Secretary to revise the Five-Year 

Program by reducing the size of, delaying, or canceling scheduled lease sales. If the 

desired revisions are considered significant, such as including new areas for 

consideration or more lease sales in areas already included, the entire Section 18 

process must be followed, in essence resulting in the preparation of a new Program. 

• Systematic Planning. BOEM is committed to engaging in systematic planning 

opportunities that foster improved governmental coordination, communication, and 

information exchange. As the only agency authorized to grant renewable energy, 

marine mineral, and oil and gas leases on the OCS, the Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management has been assigned as the Federal co-lead, along with the U.S. Coast 

Guard, for systematic regional planning efforts in the Mid-Atlantic. Additionally, 

BOEM will participate on Regional Planning Bodies in the Northeast, Mid-Atlantic, 

and West Coast as the Department of the Interior (DOI) lead. In the Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region, BOEM representatives will assist the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

(FWS), the DOI regional lead, with various working group activities. This will 

facilitate data and information availability, provide research of new technologies, and 

identify conflict resolution and avoidance strategies. BOEM anticipates that its 

Marine Planning engagement will enhance regulatory efficiency through improved 

coordination and collaboration, and, in the long term, enhance the stewardship of 

ocean and coastal resources.
The Proposed Actions 1-13

These strategies will allow BOEM to not only address the activities that take place under the 

2012-2017 Five-Year Program but also to lay the groundwork for decisions that will be faced in 

subsequent Five-Year Programs. BOEM will improve efforts to gather information while enhancing 

opportunities for stakeholders and other interested parties to participate in and be engaged in the 

decisionmaking process. The initiation of studies and long-term planning will now facilitate future 

decisions by ensuring that the best information is available when making leasing decisions on the 

approved program and before the development of future OCS Programs.

1.5. POSTLEASE ACTIVITIES

BOEM and BSEE are responsible for managing, regulating, and monitoring oil and natural gas 

exploration, development, and production operations on the Federal OCS to promote the orderly 

development of mineral resources and to prevent harm or damage to, or waste of, any natural resource, 

any life or property, or the marine, coastal, or human environment. Regulations for oil, gas, and sulphur 

lease operations are specified in 30 CFR parts 550, 551 (except those aspects that pertain to drilling), 

and 554.

Measures to minimize potential impacts are an integral part of the OCS Program. These measures are 

implemented through lease stipulations, operating regulations, NTL’s, and project-specific requirements 

or approval conditions. Mitigating measures address concerns such as endangered and threatened species, 

geologic and manmade hazards, military warning and ordnance disposal areas, archaeological sites, air 

quality, oil-spill response planning, chemosynthetic communities, artificial reefs, operations in hydrogen 

sulfide (H2S) -prone areas, and shunting of drill effluents in the vicinity of biologically sensitive features. 

Refer to Appendix A (“Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures”) for more information on the 

mitigations that BOEM and BSEE apply to plans and/or permits.

BOEM issues NTL’s to provide clarification, description, or interpretation of a regulation; to provide 

guidelines on the implementation of a special lease stipulation or regional requirement; or to convey 

administrative information. A detailed listing of the current Gulf of Mexico OCS Region NTL’s is 

available through BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Internet website at http://boem.gov/

Regulations/Notices-Letters-and-Information-to-Lessees-and-Operators.aspx or through the Region’s 

Public Information Office at 504-736-2519 or 1-800-200-GULF.

Formal plans must be submitted to BOEM for review and approval before any project-specific 

activities, except for ancillary activities (such as geological and geophysical [G&G] activities or studies 

that model potential oil and hazardous substance spills), can begin on a lease. Conditions of approval are 

mechanisms to control or mitigate potential safety or environmental problems associated with proposed 

operations. Conditions of approval are based on BOEM’s technical and environmental evaluations of the 

proposed operations. Comments from Federal and State agencies (as applicable) are also considered in 

establishing conditions. Conditions may be applied to any OCS plan, permit, right-of-use of easement, or 

pipeline right-of-way grant.

Some BOEM-identified mitigating measures are implemented through cooperative agreements or 

coordination with the oil and gas industry and Federal and State agencies. These measures include the 

National Marine Fisheries Service’s (NMFS’s) Observer Program to protect marine mammals and sea 

turtles when OCS structures are removed using explosives, labeling of operational supplies to track 

sources of accidental debris loss, development of methods of pipeline landfall to eliminate impacts to 

barrier beaches, and semiannual beach cleanup events.

Refer to Chapter 1.5 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS for descriptions of postlease activities including G&G

surveys; exploration and development plans; permits and applications; inspection and enforcement; 

pollution prevention, oil-spill response plans, and financial responsibility; air emissions; flaring and 

venting; hydrogen sulfide contingency plans; archaeological resources regulation; coastal zone 

management consistency review and appeals for plans; best available and safest technologies, including at 

production facilities; personnel training and education; structure removal and site clearance; marine 

protected species NTL’s; and the Rigs-to-Reefs program.
1-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

1.6. OTHER OCS OIL- AND GAS-RELATED ACTIVITIES

BOEM and BSEE have programs and activities that are OCS oil- and gas-related but not specific to 

the oil and gas leasing process or to the management of exploration, development, and production 

activities. These programs include both environmental and technical studies, and cooperative agreements 

with other Federal and State agencies for NEPA work, joint jurisdiction over cooperative efforts, 

inspection activities, and regulatory enforcement. BOEM also participates in industry research efforts 

and forums. Chapter 1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS contains descriptions of the other OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities, including the Environmental Studies Program, Technology Assessment and Research Program, 

and interagency agreements.
CHAPTER 2 

ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions 2-3 

2. ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

This Supplemental EIS addresses two proposed Federal actions: proposed OCS oil and gas Lease 

Sales 246 and 248 in the WPA of the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 1-1), as scheduled in the Five-Year 

Program (USDOI, BOEM, 2012a). The proposed actions (proposed lease sales) assume compliance with 

applicable regulations and lease stipulations in place at the time a ROD is signed for each proposed 

action. 

2.1. SUPPLEMENTAL EIS NEPA ANALYSIS

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 were analyzed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. 

This Supplemental EIS tiers from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, and it summarizes and hereby incorporates 

those documents by reference. Each of the proposed lease sales is expected to be within the scenario 

ranges summarized in Chapter 3 of this Supplemental EIS and as discussed in Chapter 3 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. 

Since proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 and their projected activities are very similar, this 

Supplemental EIS encompasses the two proposed lease sales as authorized under 40 CFR § 1502.4, which 

allows related or similar proposals to be analyzed in one EIS. In addition, one Area ID was prepared for 

the proposed WPA lease sales. The Multisale EIS approach is intended to focus the NEPA/EIS process 

on the differences between the proposed lease sales and on new issues and information. It also lessens 

duplication and saves agency resources. At the completion of the NEPA process for this Supplemental 

EIS, a decision will be made on whether or how to proceed with proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. An 

additional NEPA review will be conducted in the year prior to proposed WPA Lease Sale 248 to address 

any relevant significant new information. This additional NEPA review could take the form of a 

determination of NEPA adequacy, an environmental assessment, or if BOEM deems necessary, a 

supplemental EIS. Informal and formal consultation with other Federal agencies, the affected States, 

Tribal Nations, nongovernmental organizations, and the public will be carried out to assist in the 

determination of whether or not the information and analysis contained in this Supplemental EIS is still 

valid. Specifically, information requests will be issued soliciting input on proposed WPA Lease Sale 248.

This Supplemental EIS analyzes the potential impacts of a WPA proposed action on sensitive coastal 

environments, offshore marine resources, and socioeconomic resources both onshore and offshore, and it

is the final NEPA review conducted for proposed WPA Lease Sale 246. It has been prepared to aid in the 

determination of whether or not new available information indicates that the proposed lease sales would 

result in new significant impacts not addressed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. In preparation for this 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM utilized the best information available to determine if the baseline condition 

for resources had changed since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. This best available information was 

derived from ongoing and past research and from review of peer-reviewed scientific reports and studies, 

as well as through review of sources open to BOEM’s subject-matter experts through Internet searches. 

Further discussion and analysis of newly identified information and best available information is 

contained in Chapters 3 and 4 and Appendix B. This Supplemental EIS presents an analysis of this 

new information.

2.2. ALTERNATIVES, MITIGATING MEASURES, AND ISSUES

2.2.1. Alternatives

The alternatives to be considered for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 are detailed in 

Chapter 2.3 below. These suggested alternatives have been derived from both the historical comments 

submitted to BOEM and the EIS-specific scoping performed for this analysis.

Through our scoping efforts for this Supplemental EIS and previous EIS’s, numerous issues and 

topics were identified for consideration. During the scoping period for the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 
2-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, a 

number of alternatives or deferral options were suggested and examined for inclusion in those EIS’s 

(Chapter 2.2.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS). Those alternative and deferral options were also reexamined 

during the preparation of this Supplemental EIS. These suggestions included additional deferrals, policy 

changes, and suggestions beyond the scope of this Supplemental EIS. BOEM has not identified any new 

significant information that changes its conclusions in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, or that indicates that the 

proposed alternatives or deferral options are not appropriate for further in-depth analysis. The 

justifications for not carrying those suggestions through detailed analyses in this Supplemental EIS are 

the same as those used in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

The analyses of environmental impacts from the proposed alternatives summarized in 

Chapter 2.3.1.2 below and described in detail in Chapter 4.1.1 are based on the development scenario, 

which is a set of assumptions and estimates on the amounts, locations, and timing for OCS oil and gas 

exploration, development, and production operations and facilities, both offshore and onshore. A detailed 

discussion of the development scenario and major related impact-producing factors is included in 

Chapter 3. 

2.2.1.1. Alternatives for Proposed Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 

and 248

Alternative A—The Proposed Action (Preferred Alternative): This alternative would offer for lease 

all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area for oil and gas operations (Figure 2-1), with 

the following exception: 

(1) whole and partial blocks within the boundary of the Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary (i.e., the boundary as of the publication of this Supplemental EIS).

DOI is conservative throughout the NEPA process and includes the total area within the WPA for 

environmental review even though the leasing of portions of the WPA (subareas or blocks) can be 

deferred during a Five-Year Program. 

The proposed WPA lease sale area encompasses about 28.58 million ac. As of July 2014, 

approximately 21.6 million ac of the proposed WPA lease sale area are currently unleased. The estimated 

amount of resources projected to be developed as a result of a proposed WPA lease sale is 

0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas (Table 3-1).

Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near Biologically Sensitive Topographic Features: This 

alternative would offer for lease all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area, as 

described for a proposed action (Alternative A), but it would exclude from leasing any unleased blocks 

subject to the Topographic Features Stipulation. The estimated amount of resources projected to be 

developed is 0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas. The number of blocks that would not be 

offered under Alternative B represents only a small percentage of the total number of blocks to be offered 

under Alternative A; therefore, it is assumed that the levels of activity for Alternative B would be 

essentially the same as those projected for a WPA proposed action. Refer to Chapters 2.3.2 and 4.1.2

for further details. 

Alternative C—No Action: This alternative is the cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale. If this 

alternative is chosen, the opportunity for development of the estimated 0.116-0.200 BBO and 

0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas that could have resulted from a proposed WPA lease sale would be precluded 

during the current 2012-2017 Five-Year Program, but it could again be contemplated as part of a future 

Five-Year Program. Any potential environmental impacts arising out of a proposed WPA lease sale 

would not occur, but activities associated with existing leases in the WPA would continue. Refer to 

Chapters 2.3.3 and 4.1.3 for further details.
Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions 2-5 

Alternatives and Deferrals Considered but Not Analyzed in Detail

Chapter 2.2.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS includes a detailed description of 

alternatives considered, but not analyzed in this Supplemental EIS, including the following: exclude deep 

water and limit leasing to shallow waters; delay leasing until drilling safety is improved; do not allow 

drilling in areas with strong ocean currents such as the Loop Current; delay leasing until the state of the 

Gulf of Mexico environmental baseline is known; and identify and protect sensitive ecosystems. The 

justifications for not engaging in detailed analysis of these alternatives and deferrals in this Supplemental 

EIS are the same as those used in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and BOEM has identified no 

new information that changes these conclusions. One alternative was proposed during the scoping period; 

this alternative suggested that all drilling be stopped until all studies on the impacts of the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response are complete (refer to Chapter 5.3.2 for a summary of the 

scoping comments). This alternative was previously addressed in Chapter 2.2.1.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, which is incorporated by reference.

2.2.2. Mitigating Measures

The NEPA process is intended to help public officials make decisions that are based on an 

understanding of environmental consequences and to take actions that protect, restore, and enhance the 

environment. Agencies are required to identify and include in the alternative chosen relevant and 

reasonable mitigating measures and lease stipulations that could improve the action. The CEQ 

regulations (40 CFR § 1508.20) define mitigation as follows: 

• Avoidance—Avoiding an impact altogether by not taking a certain action or part of 

an action.

• Minimization—Minimizing impacts by limiting the intensity or magnitude of the 

action and its implementation.

• Restoration—Rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, or restoring the 

affected environment.

• Maintenance—Reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and 

maintenance operations during the life of the action.

• Compensation—Compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute 

resources or environments.

2.2.2.1. Proposed Mitigating Measures Analyzed

The potential lease stipulations and mitigating measures included for analysis in this Supplemental 

EIS were developed as a result of numerous scoping efforts for the continuing OCS Program in the Gulf 

of Mexico. Five lease stipulations (described in Chapter 2.3.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS) are proposed for 

WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248—the Topographic Features Stipulation, the Military Areas Stipulation, the 

Protected Species Stipulation, the Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation, and the 

Stipulation on the Agreement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States

Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico. The Law of the Sea 

Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation is applicable to a proposed WPA lease sale even though it is not 

an environmental or military stipulation.

These measures will be considered for adoption by the ASLM, under authority delegated by the 

Secretary. The analysis of any stipulations for Alternative A does not ensure that the ASLM will make a 

decision to apply the stipulations to leases that may result from a proposed WPA lease sale nor does it 

preclude minor modifications in wording during subsequent steps in the prelease process if comments 

indicate changes are necessary or if conditions change.

Any lease stipulations or mitigating measures to be included in a lease sale will be described in the 

ROD for that lease sale. Mitigating measures in the form of lease stipulations are added to the lease terms 

and are therefore enforceable as part of the lease. In addition, each exploration and development plan, as 
2-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

well as any pipeline applications that result from a lease sale, will undergo a NEPA review, and additional 

project-specific mitigations will be applied as conditions of plan approval. The BSEE has the authority to 

monitor and enforce these conditions, and under 30 CFR part 250 subpart N, may seek remedies and 

penalties from any operator that fails to comply with those conditions, stipulations, and mitigating

measures.

2.2.2.2. Existing Mitigating Measures

Mitigating measures have been proposed, identified, evaluated, or developed through previous 

BOEM lease sale NEPA review and analysis. Many of these mitigating measures have been adopted and 

incorporated into regulations and/or guidelines governing OCS oil and gas exploration, development, and 

production activities. All plans for OCS oil- and gas-related activities (e.g., exploration and development 

plans, pipeline applications, and structure-removal applications) go through rigorous BOEM review and 

approval to ensure compliance with established laws and regulations. Existing mitigating measures must 

be incorporated and documented in plans submitted to BOEM. Operational compliance of the mitigating

measures is enforced through BSEE’s onsite inspection program.

Mitigating measures are a standard part of BOEM’s program to ensure that operations are conducted 

in an environmentally sound manner (with an emphasis on minimizing any adverse impact of routine 

operations on the environment). For example, certain measures ensure site clearance, and survey 

procedures are carried out to determine potential snags to commercial fishing gear and to avoid 

archaeological sites and biologically sensitive areas such as pinnacles, topographic features, and 

chemosynthetic communities. 

Some BOEM-identified mitigating measures are incorporated into OCS operations through 

cooperative agreements or efforts with industry and State and Federal agencies. These mitigating

measures include mandating compliance with NMFS’s Observer Program to protect marine mammals and 

sea turtles during the use of explosives for structure removal, labeling operational supplies to track 

possible sources of debris or equipment loss, developing methods of pipeline landfall to eliminate impacts 

to beaches or wetlands, and requiring beach cleanup events.

Site-specific mitigating measures are also applied by BOEM during plan and permit reviews. BOEM 

realized that many of these site-specific mitigations were recurring and developed a list of “standard” 

mitigations. There are currently over 120 standard mitigations. The wording of a standard mitigation is 

developed by BOEM in advance and may be applied whenever conditions warrant. Standard mitigation 

text is revised as often as is necessary (e.g., to reflect changes in regulatory citations, agency/personnel 

contact numbers, and internal policy). Site-specific mitigation “categories” include air quality, 

archaeological resources, artificial reef material, chemosynthetic communities, Flower Garden Banks, 

topographic features, hard bottoms/pinnacles, military warning areas and Eglin Water Test Areas, 

hydrogen sulfide, drilling hazards, remotely operated vehicle surveys, geophysical survey reviews, and

general safety concerns. Site-specific mitigation “types” include advisories, conditions of approval, 

hazard survey reviews, inspection requirements, notifications, post-approval submittals, and safety 

precautions. In addition to standard mitigations, BOEM may also apply nonrecurring mitigating

measures that are developed on a case-by-case basis. Refer to Appendix A (“Commonly Applied

Mitigating Measures”) for more information on the mitigations that BOEM and BSEE apply to plans 

and/or permits.

BOEM is continually revising applicable mitigations to allow the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region to 

more easily and routinely track mitigation compliance and effectiveness. A primary focus of this effort is 

requiring post-approval submittal of information within a specified timeframe or after a triggering event 

(e.g., end of operations reports for plans, construction reports for pipelines, and removal reports for 

structure removals). 

2.2.3. Issues

Issues are defined in CEQ Guidance as the principal “effects” that an EIS should evaluate in-depth. 

Selection of environmental and socioeconomic issues to be analyzed was based on the following criteria:
Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions 2-7 

• the issue is identified in CEQ regulations as subject to evaluation;

• the relevant resource/activity was identified through agency expertise, through the 

scoping process, or from comments on past EIS’s;

• the resource/activity may be vulnerable to one or more of the impact-producing 

factors associated with the OCS Program;

• a reasonable probability of an interaction between the resource/activity and impactproducing factor should exist; or

• the information that indicates a need to evaluate the potential impacts to a 

resource/activity has become available.

2.2.3.1. Issues to be Analyzed

Chapter 2.2.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS addresses the issues related to potential 

impact-producing factors and the environmental and socioeconomic resources and activities that could be 

affected by OCS oil and gas exploration, development, production, and transportation activities (i.e., 

accidental events; drilling fluids and cuttings; visual and aesthetic interference; air emissions; water 

quality degradation and other wastes; structure and pipeline emplacement; platform removals; OCS oiland gas-related support services, activities, and infrastructure; and regional cultures and socioeconomics). 

Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS describe the resources 

and activities that could be affected by the impact-producing factors listed above and include the 

following resource topics:

— Air Quality

— Archaeological Resources (Historic and 

Prehistoric)

— Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated 

Dunes

— Coastal and Marine Birds

— Commercial Fisheries

— Deepwater Benthic Communities 

(Chemosynthetic and Nonchemosynthetic)

— Diamondback Terrapins

— Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat

— Human Resources and Land Use

(Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure, 

Demographics, Economic Factors, and 

Environmental Justice) 

— Marine Mammals

— Recreational Fishing

— Recreational Resources

— Sargassum Communities

— Sea Turtles

— Seagrass Communities

— Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

— Topographic Features

— Water Quality (Coastal and Offshore)

— Wetlands

2.2.3.2. Issues Considered but Not Analyzed

As previously noted, the CEQ regulations for implementing NEPA instruct agencies to adopt an early 

process (termed “scoping”) for determining the scope of issues to be addressed and for identifying 

significant issues related to a proposed action. As part of this scoping process, agencies shall identify and 

eliminate from detailed study the issues that are not significant to a WPA proposed action or have been 

covered by prior environmental review.

Additional issues identified during scoping are addressed in this Supplemental EIS. Comments 

received during scoping are summarized in Chapter 5.3.2. The first four comments listed in Chapter 

5.3.2 are issues that are considered in this Supplemental EIS. The fifth comment is a suggested 

alternative that is addressed in Chapter 2.2.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 2.2.1.1 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, which is incorporated by reference.
2-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2.3. PROPOSED WESTERN PLANNING AREA LEASE SALES 246 AND 248

2.3.1. Alternative A—The Proposed Action

2.3.1.1. Description

Alternative A would offer for lease all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area for 

oil and gas operations (Figure 2-1), with the following exception: 

(1) whole and partial blocks within the boundary of the Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary (i.e., the boundary as of the publication of this Supplemental EIS). 

The DOI is conservative throughout the NEPA process and includes the total area within the WPA for 

environmental review even though the leasing of portions of the WPA (subareas or blocks) can be 

deferred during a Five-Year Program. 

The proposed WPA lease sale area encompasses about 28.58 million ac. As of July 2014, 

approximately 21.6 million ac of the proposed WPA lease sale area are currently unleased. The estimated 

amount of resources projected to be developed as a result of a proposed WPA lease sale is 

0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas (Table 3-1). 

The analyses of impacts summarized below and described in detail in Chapter 4.1.1 are based on the 

development scenario, which is a set of assumptions and estimates on the amounts, locations, and timing 

for OCS oil and gas exploration, development, and production operations and facilities, both offshore and 

onshore. A detailed discussion of the development scenario and major related impact-producing factors is 

included in Chapter 3. 

Alternative A has been identified as BOEM’s preferred alternative; however, this does not mean that 

another alternative may not be selected in the Record of Decision.

2.3.1.2. Summary of Impacts

A search by BOEM’s subject-matter experts was conducted for each resource to consider new 

information made available since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS and to consider new information on the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. It must also be emphasized that, in arriving at the 

overall conclusions for certain environmental resources (e.g., coastal and marine birds, fisheries, and 

wetlands), the conclusions are not based on impacts to individuals, small groups of animals, or small 

areas of habitat, but on impacts to the resources/populations as a whole. Any new information discovered 

was analyzed by BOEM’s subject-matter experts to determine if the impact conclusions presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS were altered as a result of the new information.

For the following resources, BOEM’s subject-matter experts determined through literature searches

and communications with other agencies and academia that there was no new information made available

since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS that was relevant to a WPA proposed action. Therefore, the impact 

conclusions for these resources remain the same as those that were presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. These 

impact conclusions are presented in Chapter 4.1.1. For ease of review, the individual chapter numbers 

for each resource are provided in the following list.

• Seagrass Communities (Chapter 4.1.1.5) 

• Diamondback Terrapins (Chapter 4.1.1.13) 

• Archaeological Resources (Prehistoric) (Chapter 4.1.1.19.2) 

• Species Considered due to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Concerns (Chapter 

4.1.1.21) 
Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions 2-9 

For the following resources, BOEM’s subject-matter experts determined through literature searches 

and communications with other agencies and academia that there was new information made available 

since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS that was relevant to a WPA proposed action. BOEM’s subjectmatter experts have reexamined the analyses for these resources based on new information made 

available; however, none of the new information was deemed significant enough to alter any of the 

impact conclusions presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. These impact conclusions are presented in 

Chapter 4.1.1. For ease of review, the individual chapter numbers for each resource are provided in the 

following list.

• Air Quality (Chapter 4.1.1.1) 

• Water Quality (Coastal and Offshore Waters) (Chapters 4.1.1.2.1 and 4.1.1.2.2, 

respectively) 

• Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated Dunes (Chapter 4.1.1.3) 

• Wetlands (Chapter 4.1.1.4) 

• Topographic Features (Chapter 4.1.1.6) 

• Sargassum Communities (Chapter 4.1.1.7) 

• Chemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.1.1.8) 

• Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.1.1.9) 

• Soft Bottom Benthic Communities (Chapter 4.1.1.10) 

• Marine Mammals (Chapter 4.1.1.11) 

• Sea Turtles (Chapter 4.1.1.12) 

• Coastal and Marine Birds (Chapter 4.1.1.14) 

• Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat (Chapter 4.1.1.15) 

• Commercial Fisheries (Chapter 4.1.1.16) 

• Recreational Fishing (Chapter 4.1.1.17) 

• Recreational Resources (Chapter 4.1.1.18) 

• Archaeological Resources (Historic) (Chapter 4.1.1.19.1) 

• Human Resources and Land Use (Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure, 

Demographics, Economic Factors, and Environmental Justice) (Chapters 4.1.1.20.1, 

4.1.1.20.2, 4.1.1.20.3, and 4.1.1.20.4, respectively) 

Ultimately, no new significant information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusions for 

any of the resources analyzed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analyses and potential impacts 

detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS remain valid and, as such, apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and

248.

In accordance with CEQ regulations to provide decision-makers with a robust environmental analysis, 

Appendix B (“Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis”) provides an analysis of the potential impacts of a lowprobability catastrophic oil spill, which is not a part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, to 

the environmental and cultural resources and the socioeconomic conditions analyzed in Chapter 4.1.1. 
2-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2.3.1.3. Mitigating Measures

2.3.1.3.1. Topographic Features Stipulation

The topographic features located in the WPA provide habitat for hard bottom communities of high 

biomass and diversity (Chapter 4.1.1.6). These communities could be severely and adversely impacted 

by oil and gas activities resulting from a WPA proposed action if such activities took place on or near 

these communities without the Topographic Features Stipulation and if such activities were not mitigated. 

The DOI has recognized this problem for some years and, since 1973, has made lease stipulations a part 

of leases on blocks that are within the boundaries of a topographic feature, a No Activity Zone 

surrounding a topographic feature, or a shunting zone (1,000-Meter, 1-Mile, 3-Mile, and/or 4-Mile) 

surrounding a topographic feature so that impacts from nearby oil and gas activities were mitigated to the 

greatest extent possible. This stipulation would not prevent the recovery of oil and gas resources, but it 

would serve to protect valuable and sensitive biological resources from routine OCS oil and gas activity 

by distancing bottom-disturbing activity (i.e., anchors, chains, cables, and wire ropes) 152 m (500 ft) from 

the No Activity Zone that surrounds topographic features and by requiring that drill muds and cuttings be 

shunted to the seafloor if a well is within a shunting zone (1,000-Meter, 1-Mile, 3-Mile, and/or 4-Mile) 

surrounding a topographic feature. 

The Topographic Features Stipulation was formulated based on consultation with various Federal 

agencies and comments solicited from the States, industry, environmental organizations, and academic 

representatives. This stipulation has been updated over time, using years of scientific information 

collected since the stipulation was first proposed. This information includes numerous Agency-funded 

studies of topographic features in the GOM; numerous stipulation-imposed, industry-funded monitoring 

reports; and the National Research Council (NRC) report entitled Drilling Discharges in the Marine 

Environment (1983). BOEM and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) also 

co-sponsor an ongoing long-term monitoring program at the Flower Garden Banks in order to determine 

if continued offshore oil and gas activity in the GOM have impacted the reef habitat of these features. 

The Topographic Features Stipulation protects these biotic communities from routine OCS oil and gas 

activities resulting from a WPA proposed action, while allowing the development of nearby oil and gas 

resources. This stipulation would not prevent adverse effects of an accident such as a large blowout on a 

nearby oil or gas operation from impacting these biotic communities; however, it would distance the 

activity at least 152 m (500 ft) from the No Activity Zone surrounding topographic features, thereby

reducing the possibility of physical oiling. The location of the blocks affected by the Topographic 

Features Stipulation is shown on Figure 2-1. A more detailed discussion and definition of this stipulation 

and its effectiveness are found in Chapter 2.3.1.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

2.3.1.3.2. Military Areas Stipulation

The Military Areas Stipulation has been applied to all blocks leased in military areas since 1977 and 

reduces potential impacts, particularly in regards to safety. However, this stipulation does not reduce or 

eliminate the actual physical presence of oil and gas operations in areas where military operations are 

conducted. The stipulation contains a “hold harmless” clause (holding the U.S. Government harmless in 

case of an accident involving military operations) and requires lessees to coordinate their activities with 

appropriate local military contacts. Figure 2-2 shows the military warning areas in the Gulf of Mexico. 

A more detailed discussion and definition of this stipulation and its effectiveness are found in 

Chapter 2.3.1.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

2.3.1.3.3. Protected Species Stipulation

The Protected Species Stipulation has been applied to all blocks leased in the GOM since December 

2001. This stipulation was developed in consultation with the Department of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NMFS, and the Department of the Interior, FWS in accordance 

with Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act, and it is designed to minimize or avoid potential adverse 

impacts to federally protected species. A more detailed discussion and definition of this stipulation and 

its effectiveness are found in Chapter 2.3.1.3.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.
Alternatives Including the Proposed Actions 2-11

2.3.1.3.4. Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation

The Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation applies to blocks or portions of blocks 

beyond the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (generally greater than 200 nmi [230 mi; 370 km] from the 

U.S. coastline). Leases on these blocks may be subject to special royalty payments under the provisions 

of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention (consistent with Article 82), if the U.S. becomes a party to the 

Convention prior to or during the life of the lease. A more detailed discussion and definition of this 

stipulation and its effectiveness are found in Chapter 2.3.1.3.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS.

2.3.1.3.5. Stipulation on the Agreement between the United States of America and the 

United Mexican States Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

in the Gulf of Mexico

The “Agreement Between the United States of America and the United Mexican States Concerning 

Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico” has now entered into force, making it 

possible for U.S. lessees to enter into voluntary agreements with a licensee of the United Mexican States 

to develop transboundary reservoirs. The stipulation has been applied to blocks or portions of blocks 

located wholly or partially within the 3 statute miles (4.8 km) of the maritime or continental shelf 

boundary with Mexico. The stipulation incorporates by reference the Agreement and notifies lessees that, 

among other things, activities in this boundary area will be subject to the Agreement and that approval of 

plans, permits, and unitization agreements will be conditioned upon compliance with the terms of the 

Agreement. For more information, refer to the Agreement itself, which is available at http://

www.boem.gov/BOEM-Newsroom/Library/Publications/Agreement-between-the-United-States-andMexico-Concerning-Transboundary-Hydrocarbon-Reservoirs-in-the-Gulf-of-Mexico.aspx. 

2.3.2. Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near the Biologically 

Sensitive Topographic Features

2.3.2.1. Description

Alternative B differs from Alternative A by not offering the unleased blocks that are subject to the 

proposed Topographic Features Stipulation (Chapter 2.3.1.3.1 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 

2.3.1.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Blocks subject to the Topographic Features 

Stipulation include any unleased block in which a No Activity Zone or Shunting Zone Topographic 

Features Stipulation may be applied. These unleased blocks will not be available for lease under 

Alternative B. The number of unleased blocks that would not be offered under Alternative B represents 

only a small percentage of the total number of blocks to be offered under Alternative A; therefore, it is 

assumed that the levels of activity for Alternative B would be essentially the same as those projected for a 

WPA proposed action (refer to Chapter 4.1.2 for further details). The estimated amount of resources 

projected to be developed under Alternative B is within the same scenario range as for Alternative A, i.e., 

0.116 0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas. 

All of the assumptions, including the four other potential mitigating measures (i.e., the Military Areas 

Stipulation, Protected Species Stipulation, Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation, and 

the Stipulation on the Agreement between the United States of America and the United Mexican States 

Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico, as described in Chapter 

2.2.1.3), are the same as for Alternative A. A description of Alternative A is presented in Chapter 

2.3.1.1. The Topographic Features Stipulation would not be applicable with Alternative B because the 

blocks that could be subject to the Topographic Features Stipulation would not be offered for lease.

2.3.2.2. Summary of Impacts

The analyses of impacts summarized in Chapter 2.3.1.2 and described in detail in Chapter 4.1.1 are 

based on the development scenario, which is a set of assumptions and estimates on the amounts, 

locations, and timing for OCS oil and gas exploration, development, and production operations and 
2-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

facilities, both offshore and onshore. A detailed discussion of the development scenario and major related 

impact-producing factors is included in Chapter 3. 

The difference between the potential impacts described for Alternative A and those under 

Alternative B is that under Alternative B no oil- and gas-related activity would take place in the blocks 

subject to the Topographic Features Stipulation (Figure 2-1). The number of blocks that would not be 

offered under Alternative B represents only a small percentage of the total number of blocks to be offered 

under Alternative A; therefore, it is assumed that the levels of activity for Alternative B would be 

essentially the same as those projected for a WPA proposed action. As a result, the impacts expected to 

result from Alternative B would be very similar to those described under a WPA proposed action 

(Chapter 4.1.1). Therefore, the regional impact levels for all resources, except for the topographic 

features, would be similar to those described under a WPA proposed action. This alternative, if adopted, 

would prevent any oil- and gas-related activity whatsoever in the affected blocks; thus, it would eliminate 

any potential direct impacts to the biota of those blocks from oil- and gas-related activities, which 

otherwise would be conducted within the blocks.

2.3.3. Alternative C—No Action

2.3.3.1. Description

Alternative C is the cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale. If this alternative is chosen, the 

opportunity for development of the estimated 0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas that could 

have resulted from a proposed WPA lease sale would be precluded or postponed to a future WPA lease 

sale. Any potential environmental impacts arising out of a proposed WPA lease sale would not occur, but 

activities associated with existing leases in the WPA would continue. The No Action alternative, 

therefore, encompasses the same potential impacts as a decision to delay the leasing of unleased blocks in 

the WPA to a later scheduled lease sale under the Five-Year Program, when another decision on whether 

to hold that future lease sale would be made. Because delay of a proposed WPA lease sale would yield 

essentially the same results as the No Action alternative (i.e., most impacts related to Alternative A would 

not occur), delay of a proposed WPA lease sale was not considered as a separate alternative under this 

Supplemental EIS.

2.3.3.2. Summary of Impacts

Canceling a proposed WPA lease sale would eliminate the effects described for Alternative A 

(Chapter 4.1.3). The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed lease sale to the cumulative effects 

would also be foregone, but the effects from other activities, including other OCS lease sales, would 

remain. Moreover, if a proposed WPA lease sale was canceled, the resulting development of oil and gas 

could be reevaluated under a future lease sale. Therefore, the overall level of OCS oil- and gas-related

activity in the WPA would only be reduced by a small percentage, if any, and the cancellation of a 

proposed WPA lease sale would not significantly change the environmental impacts of overall OCS oiland gas-related activity. However, the cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale could result in direct 

economic impacts to the individual companies. Revenues collected by the Federal Government (and thus 

revenue disbursements to the States) also would be adversely affected.

If a proposed WPA lease sale was canceled, then other sources of energy could potentially be 

substituted for the lost production. Principal substitutes would be additional imports, conservation, 

additional domestic production, and switching to other fuels. These alternatives, except conservation, 

have significant negative environmental impacts of their own. For example, the tankering of fuels from 

alternate sources over longer distances would also have significant potential negative impacts, including 

through the increased risk of spills in the Gulf of Mexico.
CHAPTER 3 

IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO

Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-3 

3. IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO

3.1. IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO—ROUTINE OPERATIONS

3.1.1. Offshore Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario

Chapter 3.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS describe in detail the offshore infrastructure and activities 

(impact-producing factors) associated with a WPA proposed action (i.e., a typical lease sale that would 

result from a proposed action) within the WPA that could potentially affect the biological, physical, and 

socioeconomic resources of the Gulf of Mexico. In addition, Chapter 3.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and Chapter 3.1.1 of the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014 and 2016; 

Eastern Planning Area Lease Sales 225 and 226; Final Environmental Impact Statement (EPA 225/226 

EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013b) also describe the OCS Program’s cumulative activity scenario resulting 

from past and future lease sales in the WPA, CPA, and EPA that could potentially affect the biological, 

physical, and socioeconomic resources of the GOM within the WPA. Note that offshore and onshore 

impact-producing factors and scenarios associated with a CPA or an EPA proposed action (i.e., a typical 

lease sale that would result from a proposed action within the CPA or EPA) as well as OCS Program 

activity resulting from past and future lease sales in the CPA or EPA are disclosed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, CPA 235/241/247 Supplemental EIS

(Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2015-2017; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 235, 241, 

and 247; Draft Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement; USDOI, BOEM, 2014b), and EPA 

225/226 EIS.

Offshore is defined, for the purposes of this Supplemental EIS, as the OCS portion of the GOM that 

begins 3 marine leagues (9 nmi; 10.36 mi; 16.67 km) offshore Texas and Florida and 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 

5.6 km) offshore Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. The OCS extends seaward to the limits of the 

United States’ jurisdiction over the continental shelf in water depths up to approximately 3,346 m 

(10,978 ft), which comprises the Exclusive Economic Zone (Figure 1-1). Coastal infrastructure and 

activities associated with a WPA proposed action are described in Chapter 3.1.2 of this Supplemental 

EIS and in Chapter 3.1.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

BOEM projects that the overwhelming majority of the oil and natural gas fields discovered as a result 

of a WPA proposed action will reach the end of their economic lives within a time span of 40 years 

following a lease sale. Therefore, activity levels are projected to 40 years for this Supplemental EIS. 

Although unusual cases exist where activity on a lease may continue beyond 40 years, BOEM’s forecasts 

indicate that most significant activities associated with exploration, development, production, and 

abandonment of leases in the GOM occur well within the 40-year analysis period. For the cumulative 

case analysis, total OCS Program exploration and development activities are also forecast over a 40-year 

period. For modeling purposes and quantitative OCS Program activity analyses, a 40-year analysis period 

is also used. Exploration and development activity forecasts become increasingly more uncertain as the 

length of time of the forecast increases and the number of influencing factors increases.

BOEM uses a series of spreadsheet-based data analysis tools to develop the forecasts of oil and gas 

exploration, discovery, development, and production activity for a proposed action and OCS Program 

scenarios presented in this Supplemental EIS. BOEM’s analyses incorporate all relevant historical 

activity and infrastructure data, and BOEM’s resulting forecasts are analyzed and compared with actual 

historical data to ensure that historical precedent and recent trends are reflected in each activity forecast.

BOEM is confident that its analysis methodology, with adjustments and refinements based on recent 

activity levels, adequately projects Gulf of Mexico OCS oil- and gas-related activities in both the short 

term and the long term for the EIS analyses.

The WPA proposed actions and the Gulfwide OCS Program scenarios are based on the following 

factors:

• resource estimates developed by BOEM;

• recent trends in the amount and location of leasing, exploration, and development 

activity;
3-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

• estimates of undiscovered, unleased, economically recoverable oil and gas resources 

in each water-depth category and each planning area;

• existing offshore and onshore oil and/or gas infrastructure;

• published data and information;

• industry information; and

• oil and gas technologies, and the economic considerations and environmental 

constraints of these technologies.

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 each represent 4-5 percent of the OCS Program activities 

expected in the WPA from 2012 through 2051 based on barrels of oil equivalent (BOE) resource 

estimates and 1 percent of the total OCS Program (WPA, CPA, and EPA) from 2012 through 2051.

Specific projections for activities associated with a WPA proposed action are discussed in the 

following scenario sections. The potential impacts of the activities associated with a proposed “typical” 

WPA lease sale are considered in the environmental analysis sections (Chapter 4.1.1 of this 

Supplemental EIS and Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS).

The OCS Program scenario includes all activities that are projected to occur from past, proposed, and 

future lease sales during the analysis period. This includes projected activity from lease sales that have 

been held but for which exploration or development has either not yet begun or is continuing. Activities 

that take place beyond the analysis timeframe as a result of future lease sales are not included in this 

analysis. The impacts of activities associated with the OCS Program on biological, physical, and 

socioeconomic resources are analyzed in the cumulative environmental analysis sections (Chapters 4.1.1

of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS). 

3.1.1.1. Resource Estimates and Timetables

A WPA proposed action and the cumulative oil and gas program have not changed since last analyzed 

for the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. BOEM has not identified any new information or change in 

circumstances since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, or WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS that would change the estimates and 

timetables.

3.1.1.1.1. Proposed Action

The proposed action scenario is used to assess the potential impacts of a proposed “typical” lease sale. 

The resource estimates for a proposed action are based on two factors: (1) the conditional estimates of 

undiscovered, unleased, conventionally recoverable oil and gas resources in the proposed lease sale area; 

and (2) estimates of the portion or percentage of these resources assumed to be leased, discovered, 

developed, and produced as a result of a proposed action. Due to the inherent uncertainties associated 

with an assessment of undiscovered resources, probabilistic techniques were employed and the results 

were reported as a range of values corresponding to different probabilities of occurrence. The estimates 

of the portion of the resources assumed to be leased, discovered, developed, and produced as a result of a 

proposed action are based upon logical sequences of events that incorporate past experience, current 

conditions, and foreseeable development strategies. Historical databases and information derived from oil 

and gas exploration and development activities are available to BOEM and were used extensively. The 

undiscovered, unleased, conventionally recoverable resource estimates for a proposed action are 

expressed as ranges, from low to high. This range provides a reasonable expectation of oil and gas 

production anticipated from a “typical” lease sale held as a result of a proposed action based on an actual 

range of historic observations.

Table 3-1 presents the projected oil and gas production for a WPA proposed action and for the OCS 

Program. Table 3-2 provides a summary of the major scenario elements of a WPA proposed action, a 

“typical” lease sale, and related impact-producing factors. To analyze impact-producing factors for a 

WPA proposed action and the OCS Program, the proposed WPA lease sale area was divided into offshore 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-5 

subareas based upon ranges in water depth. Figure 3-1 depicts the location of the offshore subareas. The 

water-depth ranges reflect the technological requirements and related physical and economic impacts as a 

consequence of the oil and gas potential, exploration and development activities, and lease terms unique 

to each water-depth range. Estimates of resources and facilities are distributed into each of the subareas.

Proposed Action Scenario (WPA Typical Lease Sale): The estimated amounts of resources projected 

to be leased, discovered, developed, and produced as a result of a typical proposed WPA lease sale are 

0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas.

The number of exploration and delineation wells, production platforms, and development wells 

projected to develop and produce the estimated resources for a WPA proposed action is given in 

Table 3-2. The table shows the distribution of these factors by offshore subareas in the proposed lease 

sale area. Table 3-2 includes estimates of the major impact-producing factors related to the projected 

levels of exploration, development, and production activity.

Exploratory drilling activity generally takes place over an 8-year period, beginning within 1 year after 

a lease sale. Development activity generally takes place over a 39-year period, beginning with the 

installation of the first production platform and ending with the drilling of the last development wells. 

Production of oil and gas begins by the third year after a lease sale and would likely conclude by the 

40th year; however, in rare cases, production could continue beyond the 40th year.

3.1.1.1.2. OCS Program

OCS Program Cumulative Scenario (WPA, CPA, and EPA): Projected reserve/resource production 

for the OCS Program is 18.335-25.64 BBO and 75.886-111.627 Tcf of gas and represents anticipated 

production from lands currently under lease plus anticipated production from future lease sales over the 

40-year analysis period. The OCS Program cumulative scenario includes WPA, CPA, and EPA 

production estimates. Table 3-3 presents all anticipated production from lands currently under lease in 

the WPA, CPA, and EPA plus all anticipated production from future total OCS Program (WPA, CPA, 

and EPA) lease sales over the 40-year analysis period.

WPA Cumulative Scenario: Projected reserve/resource production for the OCS Program in the WPA 

(2.510-3.696 BBO and 12.539-18.434 Tcf of gas) represents anticipated production from lands currently 

under lease in the WPA plus anticipated production from future WPA lease sales over the 40-year 

analysis period. Projected production under the cumulative scenario represents approximately 14 percent 

of the oil and 17 percent of the gas of the total Gulfwide OCS Program. Table 3-4 presents all 

anticipated production from lands currently under lease in the WPA plus all anticipated production from 

future WPA lease sales over the 40-year analysis period. The impact-producing factors, affected 

environment, and environmental consequences related to a WPA proposed lease sale are disclosed in this 

Supplemental EIS and in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

CPA Cumulative Scenario: Projected reserve/resource production for the OCS Program in the CPA 

(15.825-21.733 BBO and 63.347-92.691 Tcf of gas) represents anticipated production from lands 

currently under lease in the CPA plus anticipated production from future CPA lease sales over the 40-year 

analysis period. Projected production under the cumulative scenario represents approximately 

85-86 percent of the oil and 83 percent of the gas of the total Gulfwide OCS Program. Table 3-6 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS presents all anticipated production from lands currently under lease 

in the CPA plus all anticipated production from future CPA lease sales over the 40-year analysis period. 

The impact-producing factors, affected environment, and environmental consequences related to CPA

proposed lease sales are disclosed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and CPA 235/241/247 Supplemental EIS.

EPA Cumulative Scenario: Projected reserve/resource production for the OCS Program in the EPA 

(0-0.211 BBO and 0-0.502 Tcf of gas) represents all anticipated production from lands currently under 

lease in the EPA plus all anticipated production from future EPA lease sales over the 40-year analysis 

period. Projected production represents approximately 1 percent of the oil and <1 percent of the gas of 

the total Gulfwide OCS Program. Table 3-3 of the EPA 225/226 EIS presents all anticipated production 

from lands currently under lease in the EPA plus all anticipated production from future EPA lease sales 

over the 40-year analysis period. The impact-producing factors, affected environment, and environmental 

consequences related to EPA proposed lease sales are disclosed in the EPA 225/226 EIS.
3-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

3.1.1.2. Exploration and Delineation

3.1.1.2.1. Seismic Surveying Operations

Prelease surveys are comprised of seismic work performed on or off leased areas, focused most 

commonly (but not always) on deeper targets and collectively authorized under BOEM’s geological and 

geophysical permitting process. Postlease, high-resolution seismic surveys collect data on surficial or 

near-surface geology used to identify potential shallow geologic hazards for engineering and site planning 

for bottom-founded structures. Noise associated with OCS oil and gas development results from seismic

surveys, the operation of fixed structures such as offshore platforms and drilling rigs, and helicopter and 

service-vessel traffic. These noise sources are discussed in Chapter 3.1.1.6 of this Supplemental EIS and 

in Chapter 3.1.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS), 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

WPA Proposed Action Scenario (Typical Lease Sale): Because of the cyclic nature in the acquisition 

of seismic surveys, a prelease seismic survey would be attributable to lease sales held up to 7-9 years after 

the survey. Based on an amalgam of historical trends in G&G permitting and industry input, BOEM 

projects that proposed lease sales within the EPA, WPA, and CPA would result in 29,197 OCS blocks 

surveyed by two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) deep seismic operations for the years 

2012-2017. Broken down per planning area, this yields approximately 583 blocks surveyed in the EPA, 

approximately 21,314 blocks surveyed in the CPA, and approximately 7,300 blocks surveyed in the 

WPA. It should be noted that the number of blocks could include multiple surveys on a single block that 

would then be counted each time as a unique block survey. For postlease seismic surveys, information 

obtained from high-resolution seismic contractors operating in the GOM project a proposed action would 

result in about 50 vertical seismic profiling (VSP) operations and 629 high-resolution surveys covering 

approximately 226,400 line miles (364,420 km) of near-surface and shallow penetration seismic during 

the life of a proposed action. The impact-producing factors, affected environment, and environmental 

consequences related to WPA proposed lease sales are disclosed and addressed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. Chapter 3.1.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail ocean-bottom 

surveys.

OCS Program Cumulative Scenario: Seismic surveys are projected to follow the same trend as 

exploration activities, which peaked in 2008-2010, will steadily decline until 2027 and will remain 

relatively steady throughout the second half of the 40-year analysis period. It is important to note that the 

cycling of G&G data acquisition is not driven by the 40-year life cycle of productive leasing, but instead 

will tend to respond to new production or potential new production driven by new technology. 

Consequently, some areas will be resurveyed in 2-year cycles, while other areas, considered 

nonproductive, may not be surveyed for 20 years or more.

Assuming that acoustic-sourced seismic will remain the dominant exploration tool used by industry in 

the future and that a number of surveyed blocks will be resurveyed several more times, BOEM makes the 

following projections. During the first 5 years (2012-2017) of the 40-year analysis period (2012-2051), 

BOEM projects the following annual activities: 50 VSP operations; 226,400 lines miles (364,420 km) 

surveyed by high-resolution seismic; and 29,197 blocks surveyed by deep seismic, including areas that 

will be resurveyed. Expanding this analysis to the first 20 years (2012-2032), the annual projections 

would be 60 VSP operations, 400,000 mi (740,800 km) surveyed by high-resolution seismic, and 

33,000 blocks of 2D/3D deep seismic (10% in the EPA, 60% in the CPA, and 30% in the WPA). During 

the second half of the 40-year analysis period, the annual projection would be approximately 40 VSP 

operations, 240,000 mi (444,480 km) surveyed by high-resolution seismic, and 15,000-20,000 blocks 

surveyed by deep seismic annually (50% in the CPA, 30% in the WPA, and 20% in the EPA).

3.1.1.2.2. Exploration and Delineation Plans and Drilling

Chapter 3.1.1.2.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail exploration and 

delineation plans and drilling.

Oil and gas operators use drilling terms that represent stages in the discovery and exploitation of 

hydrocarbon resources. An exploration well generally refers to the first well drilled on a prospective 

geologic structure to confirm that a resource exists. If a resource is discovered in quantities appearing to 

be economically viable and in circumstances when reservoirs are large, one or more follow-up delineation 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-7 

wells help define the amount of resource or the extent of the reservoir. Following a discovery, an 

operator will often temporarily plug and abandon a discovery to allow time to generate a development 

scenario and to build or procure equipment.

In the GOM, exploration and delineation wells are typically drilled with mobile offshore drilling units 

(MODU’s); e.g., jack-up rigs, semisubmersible rigs, submersible rigs, platform rigs, or drillships. 

Non-MODU’s, such as inland barges, are also used. The type of rig chosen to drill a prospect depends

primarily on water depth. Because the water-depth ranges for each type of drilling rig overlap to a 

degree, other factors such as rig availability and daily operation rates play a large role when an operator 

decides upon the type of rig to contract. The depth ranges for exploration rigs used in this analysis for 

Gulf of Mexico MODU’s are indicated below.

MODU or Drilling Rig Type Water-Depth Range

Jack-up, submersible, and inland barges ≤100 m (328 ft)

Semisubmersible and platform rig 100-3,000 m (328-9,843 ft)

Drillship ≥600 m (1,969 ft)

Historically, drilling rig availability has been a limiting factor for activity in the GOM and is assumed 

to be a limiting factor for activity projected as a result of a proposed lease sale. Drilling activities may 

also be constrained by the availability of rig crews, shore-based facilities, risers, and other equipment.

The scenario for a WPA proposed action assumes that an average exploration well will require 

30-120 (mean of 60) days to drill. The actual time required for each well depends on a variety of factors, 

including the depth of the prospect’s potential target zone, the complexity of the well design, and the 

directional offset of the wellbore needed to reach a particular zone. This scenario assumes that the 

average exploration or delineation well depth will be approximately 4,572-7,010 m (15,000-23,000 ft) 

below the mudline (i.e., surface of the seafloor).

Some delineation wells may be drilled using a sidetrack technique. In sidetracking a well, a portion 

of the existing wellbore is plugged back to a specific depth, directional drilling equipment is installed, and 

a new wellbore is drilled to a different geologic location. The lessee may use this technology to better 

understand their prospect and to plan future wells. Use of this technology may also reduce the time and 

exploration expenditures needed to help evaluate the prospective horizons on a new prospect.

The cost of an average exploration well can be $40-$150 million, or more, without certainty that 

objectives can be reached (i.e., an actual discovery and/or confirmation of hydrocarbons). Some recent 

ultra-deepwater exploration wells (>6,000 ft [1,829 m] water depth) in the GOM have been reported to 

cost upwards of $200 million. The actual cost for each well depends on a variety of factors, including the 

depth of the prospect’s potential target zone, the complexity of the well design, and the directional offset 

of the wellbore needed to reach a particular zone.

Subpart D of BSEE’s regulations (30 CFR part 250) specifies requirements for drilling activities. 

Refer to Chapter 1.3.1 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 1.3.1 and Table 1-2 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 1.3.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Chapter 1.3.1 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, which provide a summary of new and updated safety requirements.

Tables 3-2 through 3-4 show the estimated range of exploration and delineation wells by waterdepth range for the WPA typical lease sale cases; for the WPA, CPA, and EPA total OCS Program case; 

and for the WPA cumulative cases, respectively.

WPA Proposed Action Scenario (Typical Lease Sale): BOEM estimates that 53-89 exploration and 

delineation wells would be drilled as a result of a WPA proposed action. Table 3-2 shows the estimated 

range of exploration and delineation wells by water-depth range. Approximately 55 percent of the 

projected wells are expected to be on the continental shelf (0-200 m [0-656 ft] water depth), and a little 

less than 45 percent are expected in the intermediate water-depth ranges and deeper (>200 m; 656 ft).

OCS Program Cumulative Scenario (WPA, CPA, and EPA): BOEM estimates that 

6,910-9,827 exploration and delineation wells would be drilled in the WPA, CPA, and EPA as a result of 

all past OCS lease sales and projected activity for future lease sales associated with this Five-Year 

Program. Tables 3-3 and 3-4 of this Supplemental EIS and Table 3-6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS show the estimated range of exploration and delineation wells by water-depth range. Of 

these wells, approximately 55 percent are expected to be on the continental shelf (0-200 m [0-656 ft] 

water depth) and approximately 45 percent are expected in intermediate water-depth ranges and deeper 
3-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

(>200 m; 656 ft). Note that offshore and onshore impact-producing factors and scenarios associated with 

a CPA or an EPA proposed action (i.e., a typical lease sale that would result from a proposed action 

within the CPA or EPA) as well as OCS Program activity resulting from past and future lease sales in the 

CPA or EPA are disclosed in the 2012-2017 Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, CPA 

235/241/247 Supplemental EIS, and EPA 225/226 EIS.

3.1.1.3. Development and Production

Development and Production Drilling

Chapter 3.1.1.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and Chapter 3.1.1.3 of the 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS describes in detail development and production drilling and 

development operations and coordination documents.

Delineation and production wells are sometimes collectively termed development wells. A 

development well is designed to extract resource from a known hydrocarbon reservoir. After a discovery, 

the operator must decide whether or not to complete the well without delay, to delay completion with the 

rig on station so that additional tests may be conducted, or to temporarily abandon the well site and move 

the rig off station to a new location and drill another well. Sometimes an operator will decide to drill a 

series of development wells, move off location, and then return with a rig to complete all the wells at one 

time. If an exploration well results in a dry hole, the operator permanently abandons the well without 

delay.

One form of well completion involves a process known as “induced hydraulic fracturing,” commonly 

referred to as “fracking.” The term is used colloquially to refer to a number of activities; however, for the 

OCS oil and gas program, induced hydraulic fracturing refers to a process used to fracture a reservoir rock 

around the wellbore using pressurized liquid. The technique is used to increase flow rate and maximize 

production. The pressurized fluid is typically a mixture of water, well treatment chemicals, and a 

mechanical agent or proppant. The mechanical agents or proppants, such as sand, man-made ceramics, or 

small microspheres (tiny glass beads), are designed to keep open the induced hydraulic fractures that are 

created by the pressurized fluids so that they can perform as conduits to assist the flow of hydrocarbons 

from the reservoir formation to the wellbore. Well treatment chemicals are commonly used to improve 

well productivity. For example, acidizing a reservoir to dissolve cementing agents and improve fluid 

flow is the most common well treatment in the GOM. During production activities, additional waste 

streams include produced water, produced sand, and well treatment, workover, and completion fluids 

(refer to Chapter 3.1.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Chapter 3.1.1.4.2 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS discusses well treatment, workover, and completion fluids and notes that these 

fluids include fracturing fluids. Both USEPA Regions 4 and 6 prohibit the discharge of well treatment, 

completion, and workover fluids that exceed oil and grease limitations or that contain priority pollutants 

or free oil. However, some well treatment, workover, and completion chemicals are discharged with the 

drilling muds and cuttings or with the produced-water streams. Both of these waste streams may only be 

discharged if they meet the discharge criteria of the Region 6 or Region 4 NPDES permits as appropriate 

to the location of the operation. Chapter 3.1.1.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS explains 

that produced sands can result from hydraulic fracturing as well as other practices. Both USEPA 

Region 4 and Region 6 NPDES permits prohibit the discharge of produced sand. Since discharges from 

drilling and production platforms are regulated by USEPA through the NPDES permit process, the effects 

from these discharges should be limited.

In contrast to the large-scale, induced hydraulic fracturing procedures used in onshore oil and gas 

operations for low-permeability “tight gas,” “tight oil,” “shale gas,” and “coal gas” reservoirs, 

completions that include induced hydraulic fracturing carried out on the OCS in the GOM are small scale 

by comparison. Completions using hydraulic fracturing on the OCS are most commonly used for highpermeability formations to repair formation damage caused during drilling operations and also to prevent 

formation damage during production. Since damage to the formation caused by OCS drilling operations 

does not extend for large distances away from the reservoir-borehole interface, the fracturing induced by 

the procedure is also designed to remain in close proximity to the borehole, extending distances of only a 

few feet to 40 or 60 ft (12 or 18 m) from the borehole, rarely extending for more than 100 ft (305 m) from 

the borehole. After a production test determines the desired production rate to avoid damaging the 

reservoir, the well is ready to go online and produce.
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-9 

The development operations and coordination document is the chief planning document that lays out 

an operator’s specific intentions for development. The range of postlease development plans is discussed 

in Chapter 1.5 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS. 

Table 3-2 shows the estimated range of development wells and production structures by water-depth 

subarea for a WPA proposed action.

WPA Proposed Action Scenario (Typical Lease Sale): BOEM estimates that 77-121 development and 

production wells would be drilled as a result of a WPA proposed action. Table 3-2 shows the estimated 

range of development and production wells by water-depth subarea. Approximately 55 percent of the 

projected wells (oil and gas combined) are expected to be on the continental shelf (0-200 m [656 ft] water 

depth) and 45-47 percent are expected in intermediate water-depth ranges and deeper (>200 m; 656 ft). 

Trends between the oil and gas development wells are markedly different. For the 27-40 oil wells 

projected as a result of a WPA proposed action, 55-60 percent of those wells fall within the intermediate 

water-depth ranges and deeper (200-1,600 m; 656-5,249 ft). The percent of oil wells in the other waterdepth categories each range from around 7 to 15 percent. For 36-62 gas wells projected as a result of a 

WPA proposed action, nearly 80 percent of gas wells are projected to be located on the continental shelf 

(0-200 m [0-656 ft] water depth). The percent of gas wells in the other water-depth categories is much 

less, and each range from 3 to 6 percent.

OCS Program Cumulative Scenario (WPA, CPA, and EPA): It is estimated that 8,530-12,180 

development and production wells will be drilled in the WPA, CPA, and EPA as a result of the proposed 

lease sales and all OCS oil- and gas-related activity associated with previous lease sales. Table 3-3

shows the estimated range of development wells by water depth.

The 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, CPA 235/241/247 

Supplemental EIS, and EPA 225/226 EIS detail the offshore and onshore impact-producing factors and 

scenarios associated with a CPA or an EPA proposed action, i.e., a typical lease sale that would result 

from a proposed action within the CPA or EPA, as well as OCS Program activity resulting from past and 

future lease sales in the CPA or EPA.

Infrastructure Emplacement/Structure Installation and Commissioning Activities

Chapter 3.1.1.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail infrastructure 

emplacement/structure installation and commissioning activities.

Bottom-founded or floating structures may be placed over development wells to facilitate production 

from a prospect. These structures provide the means to access and control the wells. They serve as a 

staging area to process and treat produced hydrocarbons from the wells, initiate export of the produced 

hydrocarbons, conduct additional drilling or reservoir stimulation, conduct workover activities, and carry 

out eventual abandonment procedures. There is a range of offshore infrastructure installed for 

hydrocarbon production. Among these are pipelines, fixed and floating platforms, caissons, well 

protectors, casing, wellheads, and conductors.

WPA Proposed Action Scenario (Typical Lease Sale): It is estimated that 15-23 production structures 

will be installed as a result of a WPA proposed action. Table 3-2 shows the projected number of

structure installations for a WPA proposed action by water-depth range. About 67-74 percent of the 

production structures installed for a WPA proposed action are projected to be on the continental shelf 

(0-60 m; 0-197 ft).

OCS Program Cumulative Scenario (WPA, CPA, and EPA): It is estimated that 1,435-2,026 

production structures would be installed in the WPA, CPA, and EPA as a result of the proposed lease 

sales and all OCS oil- and gas-related activity associated with previous lease sales. Tables 3-2 and 3-3 of 

this Supplemental EIS and Table 3-6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS show the projected 

number of structure installations by water-depth range for the OCS Program.

The 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, CPA 235/241/247 

Supplemental EIS, and EPA 225/226 EIS detail the offshore and onshore impact-producing factors and 

scenarios associated with a CPA or an EPA proposed action, i.e., a typical lease sale that would result 

from a proposed action within the CPA or EPA, as well as OCS Program activity resulting from past and 

future lease sales in the CPA or EPA.
3-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Bottom Area Disturbance

Chapter 3.1.1.3.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail bottom area 

disturbances. Structures emplaced or anchored on the OCS to facilitate oil and gas exploration and 

production include drilling rigs or MODU’s (jack-ups, semisubmersibles, and drillships), pipelines, and 

fixed surface, floating, and subsea production systems, and are described in Chapter 3.1.1.3 of this 

Supplemental EIS and in Chapters 3.1.1.3.1 and 3.1.1.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. 

The emplacement or removal of these structures disturbs small areas of the sea bottom beneath or 

adjacent to the structure. If mooring lines of steel, chain, or synthetic polymer are anchored to the sea 

bottom, areas around the structure can also be directly affected by their emplacement. This disturbance 

includes physical compaction or crushing beneath the structure or mooring lines and the resuspension and 

settlement of sediment caused by the activities of emplacement. Movement of floating types of facilities 

will also cause the movement of the mooring lines in its array. Small areas of the sea bottom will be 

affected by this kind of movement. Impacts from bottom disturbance are of concern near sensitive areas 

such as topographic features, pinnacles, low-relief live bottom features, chemosynthetic communities, 

high-density biological communities in water depths ≥400 m (1,312 ft), and archaeological sites.

Sediment Displacement

Chapter 3.1.1.3.2.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail sediment 

displacement. Displaced sediments are those that have been physically moved “in bulk.” Displaced 

sediments will cover or bury an area of the seafloor, while resuspended sediments will cause an increase 

in turbidity of the adjacent water column. Resuspended sediments eventually settle, covering the 

surrounding seafloor. Resuspended sediments may include entrained heavy metals or hydrocarbons.

Infrastructure Presence

Chapter 3.1.1.3.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail impact-producing 

factors due to infrastructure presence. The installation and maintenance of infrastructure may include, but 

is not limited to, the following:

• anchoring;

• offshore production systems;

• space-use requirements (deployment of survey equipment or bottom-founded 

production equipment);

• aesthetic quality (presence and visibility of equipment, vessels, and air traffic); and

• workovers and abandonments.

3.1.1.4. Operational Waste Discharged Offshore

Chapter 3.1.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail impacting factors due 

to operational wastes discharged offshore, and Chapter 3.1.1.4 of the WPA 233/ CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS provides a summary as well as detailed updated information on more recent, stricter regulations 

regarding vessel discharges. Operational wastes discharged offshore include the following:

• drilling muds and cuttings;

• produced waters;

• well treatment, workover, and completion fluids;

• production solids and equipment;

• bilge, ballast, and fire water;

• cooling water;
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-11

• deck drainage;

• treated domestic and sanitary wastes;

• minor discharges;

• vessel operational discharges; and

• distillation and reverse osmosis brine. 

BOEM maintains records of the volume of water produced from each block on the OCS and its 

disposition―injected on lease, injected off lease, transferred off lease, or discharged overboard. The 

amount discharged overboard for the years 2000-2013 is summarized by water depth in Table 3-5, with

new data provided for the year 2013. The total volume for all water depths during this 13-year period 

ranged from 489.0 to 648.2 MMbbl, with the largest contribution (68-88%) coming from operations on 

the shelf. The total volume of produced water generally decreased after 2004, reflecting an overall 

decrease in contributions from operations on the shelf. The contribution of produced water from 

operations in deep water (>400-m [1,312-ft] water depth) and ultra-deepwater (>1,600-m [5,249-ft] water 

depth) production has been increasing. From 2000 to 2013, the contribution from these operations (deep 

and ultra-deepwater together) increased from 6 percent (37.8 MMbbl) to 28 percent (142.8 MMbbl) of the 

total produced-water volume (calculated from data in Table 3-5). The updated annual amounts and depth 

distributions of produced water discharged by depth are within the range of or similar to data presented in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS. Thus, this new 

information did not change the validity of the operational wastes discussion previously presented. 

3.1.1.5. Air Emissions

In 1990, pursuant to Section 328 of the Clean Air Act Amendments and following consultation with 

the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and the Secretary of the Interior, the U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) assumed air quality responsibility for the OCS waters east of 

87.5o W., this Agency retained National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) air quality jurisdiction 

for OCS operations west of the same longitude in the GOM. Air quality regulations are under a 

comprehensive review in 2014 to replace obsolete provisions and to ensure that updates in regulations are 

following improvements in scientific and technological information.

There are many air emissions sources related to OCS oil and gas exploration, development, and 

production in the GOM. During the exploration stage, most of the OCS non-platform emissions are from 

combustion from the equipment used on a drilling rig or from fuel usage of a support vessel. During the 

production stage, platform emission sources include boilers, diesel engines, combustion flares, fugitives, 

glycol dehydrators, natural gas engines, turbines, pneumatic pumps, pressure/level controllers, storage 

tanks, cold vents, and others. During the development stage, most of the OCS non-platform emissions are 

from fuel usage of support or survey vessels to lay pipelines, install facilities, or map geologic formations 

and seismic properties.

Pollutants released by OCS sources include the NAAQS pollutants carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen 

oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Pollutants also released by OCS sources 

(NOx and volatile organic compounds [VOC]) are precursors to ozone, which is formed by photochemical 

reactions in the atmosphere and is another NAAQS pollutant. Lastly, OCS sources release greenhouse 

gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

The Year 2008 Gulfwide Emissions Inventory Study (Wilson et al., 2010) indicates that, for calendar 

year 2008, OCS oil and gas production platforms and non-platform sources emit the majority of criteria 

pollutants and greenhouse gases in the GOM on the OCS, with the exception of PM and SO2 (primarily 

emitted from commercial marine vessels) and N2O (from biological sources). The OCS oil and gas 

production platform and non-platform sources account for 93 percent of the total CO emissions, 

74 percent of NOx emissions, 76 percent of VOC emissions, 99 percent of the CH4 emissions, and 

84 percent of the CO2 emissions on the OCS. Natural gas engines on platforms represented the largest 

CO emission source, accounting for 60 percent of the total estimated OCS oil- and gas-related CO 

emissions; and OCS oil- and gas-related support vessels were the highest emitters of NOx, accounting for 

35 percent of the total estimated emissions. Oil and natural gas production platform vents and fugitive 

sources account for the highest percentage of VOC and CH4 emissions. Support vessels (29% of total 
3-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

emissions), production platform natural gas turbines (15% of total emissions), and drilling rigs (12% of 

total emissions) emit the majority of the CO2 emissions attributable to oil and gas production on the OCS. 

3.1.1.6. Noise

Noise associated with OCS oil and gas development results from seismic surveys, the operation of 

fixed structures such as offshore platforms and drilling rigs, and helicopter and service-vessel traffic. 

Noise generated from these activities can be transmitted through both air and water, and may be longlived or temporary. Offshore drilling and production involve various activities that produce a composite 

underwater noise field. The intensity level and frequency of the noise emissions are highly variable, both 

between and among the various industry sources. Noise from proposed OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities may affect resources near the activities. Whether a sound is or is not detected by marine 

organisms depends both on the acoustic properties of the source (spectral characteristics, intensity, and 

transmission patterns) and the sensitivity of the hearing system in the marine organism. Extreme levels of 

noise can cause harassment, physical damage, or death to an exposed animal and, in limited 

circumstances, can cause “take” of endangered and threatened species as defined in the Federal 

Endangered Species Act. Source levels well above hearing thresholds can damage hearing or induce 

behavioral changes (Richardson et al., 1995). Chapter 3.1.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS 

describes in detail noise impact-producing factors associated with OCS oil and gas development.

3.1.1.7. Major Sources of Oil Inputs in the Gulf of Mexico

Petroleum hydrocarbons can enter the GOM from a wide variety of sources. The major sources of oil 

inputs in the GOM are natural seepage, permitted produced-water discharges, land-based discharges, and 

accidental spills. Numerical estimates of the contributions for these sources to the GOM coastal and 

offshore waters are shown in Tables 3-8 and 3-9 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Chapter 

3.1.1.7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail major sources of oil inputs in the 

Gulf of Mexico, including natural seepage, produced water, land-based discharges, and spills.

Chapter 3.1.1.7.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and Chapter 3.1.1.7 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS also provide the following information related to oil spills:

• trends in reported spill volumes and numbers;

• projections of future spill events;

• OCS oil- and gas-related offshore oil spills;

• non-OCS oil- and gas-related offshore spills;

• OCS oil- and gas-related coastal spills;

• non-OCS oil- and gas-related coastal spills; and

• other sources of oil.

3.1.1.8. Offshore Transport

Offshore transport includes both movements of oil and gas products, as well as the transportation of 

equipment and personnel. Chapter 3.1.1.8 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail 

sources of offshore transport and proposed action scenarios, including pipelines (installation and 

maintenance; landfalls), barges, oil tankers, and projections related to floating production, storage, and 

offloading systems, service vessels, and helicopter trips. Updated information on total traffic (OCS- and 

non-OCS Program-related) on navigation channels for 2011 can be found in Table 3-7 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. This information did not alter the projections or conclusions made in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, or WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-13

3.1.1.9. Safety Issues

Safety issues related to OCS oil and gas development include the presence of hydrogen sulfide and 

sulfurous petroleum and shallow hazards. These safety issues are described in detail in Chapters 3.1.1.9.1 

and 3.1.1.9.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Technologies continue to evolve to meet the 

technical, environmental, and economic challenges of deepwater development. These new and unusual 

technologies are described in Chapter 3.1.1.9.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

3.1.1.10. Decommissioning and Removal Operations

During exploration, development, and production operations, the seafloor around activity sites within 

a proposed lease sale area becomes the repository of temporary and permanent equipment and structures. 

In compliance with Section 22 of BOEM’s Oil and Gas Lease Form (BOEM-2005) and BSEE regulations 

(30 CFR §§ 250.1710 et seq.—Permanently Plugging Wells and 30 CFR §§ 250.1725 et seq.—Removing 

Platforms and Other Facilities), lessees are required to remove all seafloor obstructions from their leases 

within 1 year of lease termination or relinquishment. These regulations require lessees to sever bottomfounded structures and their related components at least 5 m (15 ft) below the mudline to ensure that 

nothing would be exposed that could interfere with future lessees and other activities in the area. The 

structures are generally grouped into two main categories depending upon their relationship either to the 

platform/facility (piles, jackets, caissons, templates, mooring devises, etc.) or to the well (wellheads, 

casings, casing stubs, etc.). Decommissioning and removal operations, including a WPA proposed action 

and OCS Program scenarios, are described in detail in Chapter 3.1.1.10 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS.

3.1.2. Coastal Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario

3.1.2.1. Coastal Infrastructure

A full description of coastal impact-producing factors and scenario is presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. No new significant information was discovered that would alter impact 

conclusions based upon these operations. The following is a summary. For more details, refer to Chapter 

3.1.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, which describes coastal impact-producing factors. These coastal impactproducing factors could potentially affect the biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources of the 

GOM. Chapter 3.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS provides a summary as well as detailed updated 

information on OCS oil- and gas-related coastal infrastructure types, which include the following, but are 

not limited to:

• service bases;

• helicopter hubs;

• construction facilities;

• processing facilities;

• terminals;

• coastal pipelines;

• coastal barging; and

• navigation channels (refer to the updated information on navigation channels in 

Table 3-7 of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS).

This OCS oil- and gas-related infrastructure has been developed over many decades, and it is an 

extensive and mature system that provides support for offshore activities. The expansive presence of this 

coastal infrastructure is the result of long-term industry offshore and onshore trends and is not subject to 
3-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

rapid fluctuations. The routine activities of built infrastructure associated with a WPA proposed action are 

regulated by Federal and State agencies through permitting processes, routine inspections, and a 

structured enforcement regime. Permit requirements largely mitigate any air and water quality impacts 

that can result from these activities. Because these impacts occur whether a WPA proposed action is 

implemented or not, a WPA proposed action would account for only a small percentage of these impacts. 

Detailed descriptions of the baseline affected environment for land use and coastal infrastructure in the 

WPA are provided in Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.20.1.1 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

BOEM projects no new coastal infrastructure with the exception of up to one new pipeline landfall 

and up to one new gas processing facility as a result of an individual proposed action. While offshore 

projects may add additional miles of pipeline to transport product, it is not likely that these projects would 

transport natural gas or crude oil directly onshore, but rather interconnect with existing systems. 

Generally, it is more cost effective for companies to tie into the existing offshore pipeline network. 

Pipeline safety regulations govern the entire life of pipeline operations, including design, construction, 

inspection, recordkeeping, worker qualification, and emergency preparedness; and any new pipeline 

landfalls would be subject to regulatory requirements. In 2008, projections indicated that the U.S. would 

need to increase its imports of natural gas, and industry began constructing liquefied natural gas (LNG) 

containers along Gulf ports to accommodate the influx in imports. Onshore unconventional natural gas 

production increased to the point that existing Gulf Coast LNG facilities were seeking to export natural 

gas to foreign countries. In 2011, Cheniere Energy’s Sabine Pass, Louisiana, facility received approval 

from the Department of Energy to export natural gas to any country in the world (Helman, 2013; U.S. 

Dept. of Energy, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, 2013). Twelve additional project sponsors 

have applied to DOE for authorization to export domestically produced LNG to free trade agreement and 

non-free trade agreement countries (Dismukes, 2013a and 2013b; U.S. Dept. of Energy, Federal Energy 

Regulatory Commission, 2013). In 2014, New Orleans-based Harvey Gulf International Marine broke 

ground on a Port Fourchon based LNG terminal. The first of its kind in the United States, the LNG 

facility will provide LNG fuel to the growing supply of LNG-operated vessels servicing the OCS as well 

as over-the-road vehicles fueled by LNG (Workboat, 2014a). 

Chapter 3.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS describes the activities and coastal impact factors of the 

following infrastructure types in the GOM. The GOM ports vary considerably by size, specialty, and 

defining characteristics. In general, however, there are two major types of port facilities: deep-draft 

seaports and inland river and intra-coastal waterways port facilities. A service base is a community of 

businesses that load, store, and supply equipment, supplies, and personnel that are needed at offshore 

work sites. Supply and service bases can range from large yards offering a range of services from full 

logistics management to smaller shops that supply one or many of the items needed on an offshore 

platform or marine vessel (Dismukes, 2011). While no proposed action is projected to significantly 

change existing OCS oil- and gas-related service bases or ports, or require any additional ports or service 

bases, a WPA proposed action would contribute to the use of these coastal infrastructure types. Roundtrip service vessel trips as a result of a WPA proposed action are projected between 64 and 75 thousand 

over the 40-year planning period (Table 3-2). For a more in depth discussion of service vessels, refer to 

Chapter 3.1.1.8. If activity levels increase, it is reasonable to assume that these facilities will expand to 

meet demand. Helicopter hubs or “heliports” are facilities where helicopters can land, load, and offload 

passengers and supplies, refuel, and be serviced. These hubs are used primarily as flight support bases to 

service the offshore oil and gas industry. Most of the helicopter operations originate at helicopter hubs in 

coastal Texas and Louisiana. There are 233 identified heliports within the analysis area that support OCS

oil- and gas-related activities; that is, 118 in Texas and 115 in Louisiana (Dismukes, 2011). Helicopter 

operations for a WPA proposed action are projected between 290,000 and 605,000 round-trip operations 

over the 40-year planning period (Table 3-2). No new heliports are projected as a result of the OCS 

Program; however, if activity levels increase, they may expand at current locations.

The U.S. Energy Information Administration updates national energy projections annually, including 

refinery capacity. A crude oil refinery is a group of industrial facilities that turns crude oil and other 

inputs into finished petroleum products. A refinery’s capacity refers to the maximum amount of crude oil 

designed to flow into the distillation unit of a refinery, also known as the crude unit. Most of the GOM 

region’s refineries are located in Texas and Louisiana (Table 3-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-15

EIS). Texas has 27 operable refineries, with an operating capacity of over 5.1 MMbbl/day, which is over 

28 percent of the total U.S. capacity. Louisiana follows closely behind Texas, with 19 operable refineries, 

with an operational capacity of over 3.27 MMbbl/day, which is 18 percent of the total U.S. capacity 

(USDOE, Energy Information Administration, 2013a). The estimated amounts of crude oil projected to 

be leased, discovered, developed, and produced as a result of a typical proposed WPA lease sale are 

between 0.116 and 0.200 BBO (Table 3-1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS ), which would 

require only 0.09-0.16 percent of the current combined Texas and Louisiana refinery capacity over the 

40-year planning period.

For all domestic refineries, distillation capacity is expected to stay at a steady rate of 

17.5 MMbbl/day, and the capacity utilization rate is expected to hover between 88 and 90 percent over

the Economic Impact Areas’ 29-year analysis period, which projects to 2040 (USDOE, Energy 

Information Administration 2013b). For many years, financial, environmental, and legal considerations 

have prevented the construction of new refineries in the U.S., thereby forcing companies to expand and 

retrofit existing facilities. Domestic refinery expansions are largely being driven by unconventional 

sources of oil, primarily Canadian oil sands (Sreekumar, 2013). The Canadian heavy crude is cheaper to 

purchase but costlier to refine, and many refineries planning to take advantage of the newest discoveries 

are expanding their facilities to handle higher volumes of impurities associated with heavier crude oils 

(Rigzone, 2013). Again, the expansive presence of this coastal infrastructure is the result of long-term 

offshore and onshore industry trends.

3.1.2.2. Discharges and Wastes

Chapter 3.1.2.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail coastal discharges and 

wastes and Chapter 3.1.2.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS provide a summary and updates to coastal discharges and wastes, which include the 

following:

• disposal and storage for offshore operational wastes;

• onshore facility discharges;

• coastal service-vessel discharges;

• offshore wastes disposed onshore; and

• beach trash and debris.

The USEPA, through general permits issued by the USEPA Region with jurisdictional oversight, 

regulates all waste streams generated from offshore oil and gas activities. The USEPA Region 6 has 

jurisdiction over the CPA off the Louisiana coast and all of the WPA. The USEPA Region 4 has 

jurisdiction over the eastern portion of the GOM, including all of the EPA and part of the CPA off the 

coasts of Alabama and Mississippi. Each region has promulgated general permits for discharges that 

incorporate the 1993 effluent guidelines as a minimum. In some instances, a site-specific permit is 

required. The USEPA also regulates vessel discharges with the Vessel General Permit (VGP), which is a 

Clean Water Act National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit that authorizes, on a 

nationwide basis, discharges incidental to the normal operation of nonmilitary and nonrecreational vessels 

greater than or equal to 79 ft (24 m) in length. On March 28, 2013, USEPA reissued the 2008 VGP for 

another 5 years; the reissued permit, the 2013 VGP, now contains numeric ballast water discharge limits 

for most vessels. The VGP also contains more stringent effluent limits for oil-to-sea interfaces and 

exhaust gas scrubber washwater (USEPA, 2013a). The VGP, geographically, covers inland waters out to 

3 mi (5 km) and applies to vessels acting as a means of transportation. If the vessel is moored to a rig 

generating an amount of water that is greater than what it takes for the normal operation of a vessel, the 

VGP would not apply to brine production.

BOEM’s policy regarding marine debris prevention is outlined in NTL 2012-JOINT-G01, “Marine 

Trash and Debris Awareness and Elimination.” The NTL instructs OCS operators to post informational 

placards that outline the legal consequences and potential ecological harms of discharging marine debris. 

The NTL also states that OCS workers should complete annual marine debris prevention training and 

instructs operators to develop a certification process for the completion of this training by their workers. 
3-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

These various laws, regulations, and NTL will likely minimize the discharge of marine debris from OCS 

operations.

3.2. IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO—ACCIDENTAL EVENTS

3.2.1. Oil Spills

Oil spills are unplanned accidental events, and historical data provide the most relevant data for use in 

predicting future oil-spill frequency and volume in the GOM on a programmatic level. The following 

sections discuss spill prevention and spill response, and analyze the risk of spills that could occur as a 

result of activities associated with a WPA proposed action. Public input through public scoping meetings, 

Federal and State agencies’ input through consultation and coordination, and industry and 

nongovernmental organizations input indicate that oil spills are perceived to be a major issue, especially 

in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The following discussion analyzes the risk of spills that 

could occur as a result of a typical WPA proposed action, as well as information on the number and sizes 

of spills from non-OCS oil- and gas-related sources. Although not reasonably expected as a result of a 

WPA proposed action, the potential occurrence of a catastrophic spill is exceedingly low, but it cannot be 

ruled out entirely; refer to Appendix B for the “Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis.”

3.2.1.1. Spill Prevention

Over the years, BOEM has established comprehensive pollution-prevention requirements that include 

redundant safety systems, as well as inspection and testing requirements to confirm that these devices are 

working properly (Chapter 1.5). Until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, an overall reduction in spill 

volume had occurred during the previous 40 years, while oil production had generally increased. A 

characterization of spill rates, average and median volumes from 1995 to 2009 compared with 1996 to 

2010, which includes the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, is provided in Update of Occurrence Rates for 

Offshore Oil Spills (Anderson et al., 2012). BOEM attributes this improvement to its operational 

requirements, ongoing efforts by the oil and gas industry to enhance safety and pollution prevention, and 

the evolution and improvement of offshore technology.

3.2.1.2. Past OCS Spills

The BSEE’s spill-event database includes records of past spills from activities that are regulated by 

BSEE. These data include oil spills >1 bbl that occurred in Federal waters from OCS facilities and 

pipeline operations. Spills from facilities include spills from drilling rigs, drillships, and storage, 

processing, or production platforms that occurred during OCS drilling, development, and production 

operations. Spills from pipeline operations are those that have occurred on the OCS and are directly 

attributable to the transportation of OCS oil. Anderson et al. (2012) was utilized in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS to characterize spill rates and to provide analysis for average and median volumes. The Anderson 

et al. (2012) analysis examined spill data for the period 1964 to 2010, including the Deepwater Horizon

oil spill.

A search of BSEE’s oil-spill database (USDOI, BSEE, 2013) was performed to assess new spill 

information during the 2011-2013 period and to provide an update to the Anderson et al. (2012) analysis. 

During the period 2011 to 2013, there were 46 spills from OCS oil- and gas-related activities of 

<1,000 bbl in size. The breakdown of the 46 spills <1,000 bbl that occurred from 2011 to 2013 from OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities into size classes is as follows: 28 spills of 1-4 bbl; 6 spills of 5-9 bbl; 

10 spills of 10-49 bbl; 1 spill of 50-99 bbl; 1 spill of 100-999 bbl; and 0 spills of ≥1,000 bbl. The 

combined total of oil spilled in these 46 events was 857 bbl. The BSEE database (USDOI, BSEE, 2013) 

indicated that there were two spills (one in 2011 and one in 2012) that were between 50 and 500 bbl in 

size, both of which occurred in the CPA. The spill in 2011 equaled 67 bbl and was the result of 

equipment failure from a platform leak located in Garden Banks Block 72. The spill in 2012 was 

estimated at 480 bbl and resulted from an explosion on a platform located in West Delta Block 32. There 

have been zero spills >50 bbl since the 480 bbl spill in 2012. In summary, two spills >50 bbl occurred 

during the period 2011 to 2013. This is an outcome that is well within the range of spills estimated to 

occur in Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, which serves as an estimate of the 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-17

number and size of spills likely to occur as a result of a WPA proposed action over a 40-year time period. 

Thus, the additional information provided by the review of BSEE’s oil-spill database (USDOI, BSEE 

2013) did not change the validity of the scenario previously presented. 

The majority of the 2011-2013 spills are attributed to OCS platforms/rigs, followed by vessels, and 

lastly by OCS pipelines. These data were compared with the estimated number and sizes of spills 

presented in Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS (derived in part from Anderson et al., 

2012), and it was found that the new spill data were well within the spill numbers estimated in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. The new data also concurred with the previous finding that the most 

likely source of a spill would be from platforms, rigs, or vessels. Thus, a review of recent information 

does not change the risk analyses for spills <1,000 bbl previously provided in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS. As estimated in Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, no spills have occurred in the ≥1,000-bbl size class since the Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill in 2010.

3.2.1.3. Characteristics of OCS Oil

The physical and chemical properties of oil greatly affect its transport and its ultimate fate in the 

environment and determine the following: how oil will behave on the water surface (surface spills) or in 

the water column and sediments (subsea spills); the persistence of the slick on the water; the type and 

speed of weathering processes; the degree and mechanisms of toxicity; the effectiveness of containment 

and recovery equipment; and the ultimate fate of the spill residues. Crude oils are a natural mixture of 

hundreds of different compounds, with liquid hydrocarbons accounting for up to 98 percent of the total 

composition. The chemical composition of crude oil can vary significantly from different producing 

areas; thus, the exact composition of oil being produced in OCS waters varies throughout the Gulf. The 

American Petroleum Institute gravity (API gravity) is a measure of the relative density of oil compared 

with water and is expressed in degrees (°). Oils with an API gravity <10 are heavier and typically sink, 

whereas oils with an API gravity >10 are lighter and typically float. Following an oil spill, the 

composition of the released oil can change substantially due to weathering processes such as evaporation, 

emulsification, dissolution, and oxidation. More details on the properties and persistence of different 

types of oils are provided in Table 3-7 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS.

Extensive laboratory testing has been performed on various oils from the GOM to determine their 

physical and chemical characteristics. For example, numerous oils collected from the GOM (U.S. waters) 

are included in Environment Canada’s (2013) oil properties database. The database provides details of an 

oils chemical composition including hydrocarbon groups (i.e., saturates, aromatics, resins, asphaltenes), 

VOC’s (such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene), sulfur content, biomarkers, and metals. The 

database also includes API gravities, of which GOM oils are in the range of 15° to 60°. Since the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill, new data have been collected from the approximately 450 deepwater 

exploration plans and development operations and coordination documents that were submitted to 

BOEM/BSEE. These data are available through BOEM’s Exploration and Development Plans Online 

Query (refer to USDOI, BOEM, 2013c). Statistics on these API gravities result in a similar range (16° to 

58°) as previously reported, with a mean value of 36°. These new data corroborate the information 

previously presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

3.2.1.4. Overview of Spill Risk Analysis

There are many factors that BOEM evaluates to determine the risk of impact occurring from an oil 

spill, including likely spill sources, likely spill locations, likely spill sizes, the likelihood and frequency of 

occurrence for different size spills, timeframes for the persistence of spilled oil, volumes of oil removed 

due to weathering and cleanup, and the likelihood of transport by wind and waves resulting in contact to 

specified environmental features. Sensitivity of the environmental resources and potential effects are 

addressed in the analyses for the specific resources of concern (Chapter 4.1.1). BOEM uses data on past 

OCS production and spills, along with estimates of future production, to evaluate the risk of future spills. 

Additionally, BOEM uses a numerical model to calculate the likely trajectory of spills (i.e., transport 

pathways) and analyzes historical data of occurrence rates for oil spills (refer to Anderson et al., 2012) to 

make projections of future oil-spill frequency and size. A more detailed description of the spill risk 
3-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

analysis and the trajectory model, called OSRA (oil-spill risk analysis) model, were provided in Chapter 3 

of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, as well as in the Ji et al. (2012) OSRA report. Appendix C of this 

Supplemental EIS also contains the OSRA model’s catastrophic spill event results to estimate the risks 

associated with a possible future catastrophic or high-volume, long-duration oil spill.

The OSRA model results and estimated spill size/frequency tables as presented and discussed in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS remain applicable because the basic assumptions inherent in the 

model and calculations are still valid. The latest analysis available for the characterization of spill rates 

and for average and median volumes (Anderson et al., 2012) inputted into the model is still valid because 

the more recent small OCS spills (2011-2013) were within spill scenario estimates developed using the 

past data. In addition, the physical forcing (e.g., ocean currents and wind fields) and environmental 

resources input (e.g., locations and seasonality of various biological resources) to the OSRA model are 

still representative of our current state of knowledge regarding both ocean modeling and potential 

environmental resources at risk. Numerous efforts are underway since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill to 

further improve trajectory modeling in the Gulf of Mexico, including several BOEM environmental 

studies (e.g., refer to Section 4.2 in Ji et al., 2013). The results of these new research activities are not yet 

available or fully tested for incorporation into BOEM’s oil-spill risk analysis for this Supplemental EIS. 

However, the OSRA analysts have chosen to take a more environmentally conservative approach by 

presuming persistence of oil over the selected time duration of the trajectories. As such, the trajectories 

simulated by the OSRA model do not involve any direct consideration of cleanup, dispersion, or 

weathering processes that could alter the quantity or properties of oil that might eventually contact the 

environmental resource locations. So in lieu of missing information and with the understanding that the 

OSRA model is overly conservative, BOEM can conclude that the unavailable information is not essential 

to an analysis of, or reasoned choice among, alternatives. Thus, new information did not change the 

results of previous spill risk analyses provided in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

The following discussions provide separate risk information for offshore and coastal spills that may 

result from a WPA proposed action. This analysis is divided into discussions of offshore spills 

≥1,000 bbl, offshore spills <1,000 bbl, and coastal spills of any spill volume. Only spills ≥1,000 bbl are 

addressed using OSRA because smaller spills typically do not persist long enough to be simulated by 

trajectory modeling.

3.2.1.5. Risk Analysis for Offshore Spills ≥1,000 bbl

Chapter 3.2.1.5 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS addressed the risk of spills ≥1,000 bbl 

that could occur from accidents associated with activities resulting from a WPA proposed action. The 

risk analyses included the following:

• estimated number of offshore spills ≥1,000 bbl and probability of occurrence;

• most likely source of offshore spills ≥1,000 bbl;

• most likely size of an offshore spill ≥1,000 bbl;

• fate of offshore spills ≥1,000 bbl;

• transport of spills ≥1,000 bbl by winds and currents;

• length of coastline affected by offshore spills ≥1,000 bbl; and

• likelihood of an offshore spill ≥1,000 bbl occurring and contacting modeled locations 

of environmental resources.

Specifically, the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS estimated for a WPA proposed action that the 

mean number of spills was estimated at <1 spill (mean equal to 0.1-0.2) total from both OCS oil- and gasrelated platforms and pipelines. Based on historical data, the most likely source of an offshore spill was 

determined to be a potential pipeline break at the seafloor.
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-19

The analysis presented in Anderson et al. (2012) remains applicable and up to date for characterizing 

spill rates and average and median spill volumes in this Supplemental EIS considering that no spills

≥1,000 bbl in size have occurred during 2011-2013. In terms of weathering, fate, and transport of oil 

spills in the Gulf of Mexico, a variety of ongoing studies are providing more insights in the aftermath of 

the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. For example, recent studies have provided further evidence that the 

diverse microbial communities in both the water column (e.g., Mason et al., 2012) and sediments (Kimes 

et al., 2013) of the GOM can play an active role in metabolizing and bioremediating crude oil from 

offshore spills. Further research is also being conducted regarding what impact chemical dispersant 

application may have on this biodegradation process. Other research on oil fates also suggests that 

marine snow formation in the aftermath of a large oil-spill event (such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill) 

may play a key role in the fate of surface oil (e.g., Passow et al., 2012). Many of the recent findings 

related to the quantitative modeling of fate and transport of large oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico are part 

of the ongoing Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) process and have not yet been publicly 

released. However, the OSRA analysts have chosen to take a more environmentally conservative 

approach by presuming persistence of oil over the selected time duration of the trajectories. As such, the 

trajectories simulated by the OSRA model do not involve any direct consideration of cleanup, dispersion, 

or weathering processes that could alter the quantity or properties of oil that might eventually contact the 

environmental resource locations. So in lieu of missing information and with the understanding that the 

OSRA model is overly conservative, BOEM can conclude that the unavailable information is not essential 

to an analysis of, or reasoned choice among, alternatives. Thus, a review of recent information does not 

change the quantitative risk analyses for spills ≥1,000 bbl previously provided the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS.

3.2.1.6. Risk Analysis for Offshore Spills <1,000 bbl

Chapter 3.2.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS addressed the risk of spills <1,000 bbl 

resulting from a WPA proposed action. Analysis of historical data shows that most offshore OCS oil 

spills fall within this category, with the majority of spills falling within the significantly smaller range of 

≤1 bbl (Anderson et al., 2012). Although spills of ≤1 bbl amount to 96 percent of all OCS oil- and gasrelated spill occurrences, they have contributed very little to the total volume of oil spilled. The risk 

analyses addressed in Chapter 3.2.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS included the following:

• estimated number of offshore spills <1,000 bbl and total volume of oil spilled;

• most likely source and type of offshore spills <1,000 bbl;

• most likely size of offshore spills <1,000 bbl;

• persistence, spreading, and weathering of offshore oil spills <1,000 bbl;

• transport of spills <1,000 bbl by winds and currents; and

• likelihood of an offshore spill <1,000 bbl occurring and contacting modeled locations 

of environmental resources.

A search of BSEE’s oil-spill database (USDOI, BSEE, 2013a) was performed to assess new spill 

information during 2011-2013, a period that was not analyzed in Anderson et al. (2012). During 2011-

2013, there were 46 spills from OCS oil- and gas-related activities of <1,000 bbl in size, totaling 857 bbl 

overall. The breakdown of these spills into size classes is provided in Chapter 3.2.1.2. As noted above, 

the 2011-2013 spill data were compared with the estimated number and sizes of spills presented in Table 

3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and were found to be well within the spill numbers 

estimated in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. The new data also supported previous findings 

that the most likely source of a spill of <1,000 bbl would be from platforms, rigs, or vessels. Thus, a 

review of recent information does not change the risk analyses for spills <1,000 bbl previously provided 

in Chapter 3.2.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.
3-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

3.2.1.7. Risk Analysis for Coastal Spills

Spills in coastal waters could occur at storage or processing facilities supporting the OCS oil and gas 

industry or from the transportation of OCS-produced oil through State offshore waters and along 

navigation channels, rivers, and through coastal bays. BOEM projects that almost all (>99%) oil 

produced as a result of a WPA proposed action will be brought ashore via pipelines to oil pipeline shore 

bases, stored at these facilities, and eventually transferred via pipeline or barge to Gulf coastal refineries. 

Because oil is commingled at shore bases and cannot be directly attributed to a particular lease sale, this 

analysis of coastal spills addresses spills that could occur prior to the oil arriving at the initial shoreline 

facility. It is also possible that non-OCS oil may be commingled with OCS oil at these facilities or during 

subsequent secondary transport. Chapter 3.2.1.7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in 

detail the estimated number and most likely sizes of coastal spills and the likelihood of coastal spill 

contact.

The number and most likely spill sizes to occur in coastal waters in the future are expected to 

resemble the patterns that have occurred in the past, as long as the level of hydrocarbon use by 

commercial and recreational activities remains the same. As discussed in Chapter 3.2.1.7 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, estimates of future coastal spills are based on the number and location of 

historical coastal spills reported to USCG. Based on the USCG’s historical data for the GOM region, 

Louisiana and Texas are the states with the highest probability of having a spill ≥1,000 bbl occur in 

coastal waters.

3.2.1.8. Risk Analysis by Resource

BOEM previously analyzed the risk to resources from oil spills and oil slicks that could occur as a 

result of a WPA proposed action in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. The risk results were based 

on BOEM’s estimates of likely spill locations, sources, sizes, frequency of occurrence, physical fates of 

different types of oil slicks, and probable transport that were described in more detail in specific spill 

scenarios. For offshore spills ≥1,000 bbl, combined probabilities were calculated using the OSRA model, 

which includes both the likelihood of a spill from a WPA proposed action occurring and the likelihood of 

the oil slick reaching areas where known environmental resources exist. The analysis of the likelihood of 

direct exposure and interaction of a resource with an oil slick and the sensitivity of a resource to the oil is 

provided under each resource category in Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS and was provided in 

Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, and in Chapter 3.2.1.8 and Figures 3-8 through 3-28 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

3.2.1.9. Spill Response

Chapter 3.2.1.9 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail offshore spill response. 

Issues discussed related to spill response include offshore response, containment, and cleanup technology; 

and onshore response and cleanup. Additional information and updates to the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS have been included within respective sections of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. As a result of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and the 

reorganization of the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement into BOEM 

and BSEE, BSEE was tasked with a number of oil-spill response duties and planning requirements. The 

following requirements are implemented according to BSEE’s regulations at 30 CFR parts 250 and 254:

• requires immediate notification for spills >1 bbl—all spills require notification to 

USCG, and BSEE receives notification from the USCG of all spills ≥1 bbl;

• conducts investigations to determine the cause of a spill;

• assesses civil and criminal penalties, if needed;

• oversees spill source control and abatement operations by industry;

• sets requirements and reviews and approves oil-spill response plans (OSRP’s) for 

offshore facilities;
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-21

• conducts unannounced drills to ensure compliance with OSRP’s;

• requires operators to ensure that their spill-response operating and management 

teams receive appropriate spill-response training;

• conducts inspections of oil-spill response equipment;

• requires industry to show financial responsibility to respond to possible spills; and

• provides research leadership to improve the capabilities for detecting and responding 

to an oil spill in the marine environment.

BOEM also has regulatory requirements addressing site-specific, oil-spill response plans and spill 

response information. As required by BOEM at 30 CFR §§ 550.219 and 550.250, operators are required 

to provide BOEM an oil-spill response plan that is prepared in accordance with 30 CFR part 254 

subpart B with their proposed exploration, development, or production plan for the facilities that they will 

use to conduct their activities; or to alternatively reference their approved regional OSRP by providing the 

following information:

• a discussion of the approved OSRP;

• the location of the primary oil-spill equipment base and staging area;

• the name of the oil-spill equipment removal organization(s) for both equipment and 

personnel;

• the calculated volume of their worst-case discharge scenario in accordance with 30 

CFR § 254.26(a) and a comparison of the worst-case discharge scenario in the 

approved regional OSRP with the worst-case discharge calculated for these proposed 

activities; and

• a description of the worst-case discharge to include the trajectory information, 

potentially impacted resources, and a detailed discussion of the spill response 

proposed to the worst-case discharge in accordance with 30 CFR §§ 254(b)-(d). 

All OSRP’s are reviewed and approved by BSEE, whether submitted with a BOEM-associated plan 

or directly to BSEE in accordance with 30 CFR part 254. Hence, BOEM relies heavily upon BSEE’s 

expertise to ensure that the OSRP complies with all pertinent laws and regulations, and demonstrates the 

ability of an operator to respond to a worst-case discharge. Site-specific OSRP’s are required to be 

submitted to BOEM with a proposed exploration, development, or production plan, and BOEM’s 

regulations require that an operator must have an approved OSRP prior to BOEM’s approval of an 

operator-submitted exploration, development, or production plan.

The NTL’s and guidance documents that clarify additional oil-spill requirements since the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response occurred have been issued. The spill-response-related NTL’s 

issued prior to 2012 and the guidance documents issued by BOEM and BSEE are described in detail in 

Chapter 3.2.1.9 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The NTL 2012-BSEE-N06, “Guidance to Owners and Offshore Facilities Seaward of the Coast Line 

Concerning Regional Oil Spill Response Plans,” which was effective on August 10, 2012, provides 

clarification, guidance, and information concerning the preparation and submittal of a regional OSRP for 

owners and operators of oil handling, storage, or transportation facilities, including pipelines located 

seaward of the coastline. A regional OSRP is defined as a spill response plan covering multiple facilities 

or leases of an owner, or operator, or their affiliates, which are located in the same BSEE region. Sitespecific OSRP’s submitted with BOEM exploration, development, or production plans can either be 

prepared using the 30 CFR part 254 regulations or the guidance outlined in NTL 2012-BSEE-N06.

Some of the clarifications and encouraged practices identified in NTL 2012-BSEE-N06 are based 

upon lessons learned from the Deepwater Horizon oil-spill response. This NTL indicates that BSEE’s 

review of OSRP’s will also be based, in part, upon information obtained during the Deepwater Horizon

oil-spill response. For example, during the Deepwater Horizon oil-spill response, it was discovered that 
3-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

the total estimated de-rated recovery capacity for all equipment listed in the OSRP overestimated the 

amount of oil that could be removed from the water. The NTL 2012-BSEE-N06 therefore states that the 

OSRP should be developed considering (1) a fully developed response strategy that includes the 

identification of the available dedicated recovery equipment as well as the actual operating characteristics 

of the systems associated with each skimmer and (2) the use of new technology and response systems that 

will increase the effectiveness of mechanical recovery tactics.

The NTL is designed to encourage owners and operators of offshore facilities to include innovative 

offshore oil-spill response techniques, particularly for a continuous high-rate spill. The NTL 2012-BSEEN06 includes requirements for the submittal of information regarding subsea containment equipment and 

subsea dispersant application among other provisions. This NTL also encourages the inclusion of options 

that will improve spill-response capabilities, such as

• using remote-sensing techniques as a tool for safe night operations to increase oilspill detection and to improve thickness determinations for ascertaining the 

effectiveness of response strategies;

• increasing spill-response operational time by reducing transit times to disposal 

locations and decontamination equipment;

• identifying sources for supplies and materials, such as fire boom and dispersants, that 

can support a response to an uncontrolled spill lasting longer than 30 days or for the 

duration of the spill response; and

• the use and specification of primary and secondary communications technology and 

software for coordinating and directing spill-response operations systems and/or 

providing a common operating picture to all spill management and response 

personnel, including the Federal On-Scene Coordinator and participating Federal and 

State government officials.

The BSEE has also issued NTL 2013-BSEE-N02, “Significant Change to Oil Spill Response Plan 

Worst Case Discharge Scenario” to clarify what BSEE considers a significant change in a worst-case 

discharge scenario, which requires that a revision to an OSRP be submitted. The guidance issued by this 

NTL states that a significant change in worst-case discharge may occur when calculating a new worstcase discharge based upon the following:

• the addition of a new facility installation or well;

• a modification to an existing facility; or

• a change in any assumptions and calculations used to determine the prior estimated 

worst-case discharge.

The NTL 2013-BSEE-N02 identifies the process an owner or operator of a facility should utilize to 

determine whether the new worst-case discharge represents a significant change. The BSEE considers a 

change in worst-case discharge as significant and thus requiring revision when the process identifies the 

need for additional onshore or offshore response equipment beyond what is included in an approved 

OSRP. Although information to make this determination is submitted to BOEM and forwarded to BSEE 

with a proposed exploration, development, or production plan, pursuant to NTL 2013-BSEE-N02, the 

15-day timeframe for notification of a significant change will be enforced by BSEE as beginning no later 

than the date that the operator submitted an Application for Permit to Drill to BSEE.

Typically, for OSRP revisions, once BSEE approves an OSRP, it must be reviewed at least every 

2 years, and modifications must be submitted in accordance with 30 CFR § 254.30(a). If no 

modifications are deemed necessary, the owner or operator must inform BSEE in writing that there are no 

changes. A separate revision to an OSRP must be submitted to BSEE within 15 days when the following 

conditions are met:
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-23

• there is a change that significantly reduces operator response capabilities;

• a significant change occurs in the worst-case discharge or in the type of oil being 

handled, stored, or transported at a facility;

• there is a change in the names or capabilities of the oil-spill removal organizations 

cited in the plan; or

• there is significant change to the area contingency plan.

The BSEE also issued NTL 2012-BSEE-N07, “Oil Discharge Written Follow-up Reports,” to address 

the oil discharge reports (30 CFR § 254.46(b)(2)) that are required to be submitted by a responsible party 

to BSEE for spills >1 bbl within 15 days after a spill has been stopped or ceased. The responsible party is 

encouraged to report cause, location, volume, remedial action taken, sea state, meteorological conditions, 

and the size and appearance of the slick.

Mechanical Cleanup

As previously indicated, BSEE oversees a research program to improve the capabilities for detecting 

and responding to an oil spill in the marine environment. One of BSEE’s recently completed research 

projects suggested an alternative to improve the present regulatory requirements at 30 CFR § 254.44 for 

determining the effective daily recovery capacity of spill-response skimming equipment. This suggested 

alternative would consider the encounter rate of a skimming system with spilled oil instead of the 

presently used de-rated pump capacity of a skimmer. This project was undertaken because the Deepwater 

Horizon oil-spill response highlighted that the existing regulation may not be an effective or accurate 

planning standard and predictor of oil-spill response equipment recovery capacity. The project was 

completed in 2012 and the National Academy of Sciences completed a peer review in 2013. The BSEE is 

currently determining if any significant revisions to the report or to BSEE’s oil-spill program are 

appropriate based upon the National Academy of Sciences’ review (USDOI, BSEE, 2014a). The USCG 

has indicated that the guidance generated by this research is applicable for offshore use but that a separate 

standard would still need to be developed for nearshore response capability determinations.

There have been some changes to the spill-response equipment staging locations previously reported 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Due to these changes, it is expected that the oil-spill response equipment 

needed to respond to an offshore spill in a proposed lease sale area could be called out from one or more 

of the following oil-spill equipment base locations: New Iberia, Belle Chasse, Baton Rouge, Sulphur, 

Morgan City, Port Fourchon, Harvey, Leeville, Fort Jackson, Venice, Grand Isle, or Lake Charles, 

Louisiana; La Porte, Corpus Christi, Port Arthur, Aransas Pass, Ingleside, Galveston, or Houston, Texas; 

Pascagoula or Kiln, Mississippi; Mobile or Bayou La Batre, Alabama; and/or Panama City, Pensacola, 

Tampa, and/or Miami, Florida (Clean Gulf Associates, 2014; Marine Spill Response Corporation, 2014; 

National Response Corporation, 2014).

Dispersants

The USEPA updated the National Contingency Plan (NCP) product schedule in 2014. The 2014 NCP 

Product Schedule lists the following types of products that are authorized for use on oil discharges:

• dispersants;

• surface washing agents;

• surface collecting agents;

• bioremediation agents; and

• miscellaneous oil-spill control agents.

In February 2014, the USEPA published an NCP Product Schedule Notebook that presents 

manufacturers’ summary information that describes (1) the conditions under which each of the products is 
3-24 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

recommended for use, (2) handling and worker precautions, (3) storage information, (4) recommended 

application procedures, (5) physical properties, (6) toxicity information, and (7) effectiveness information 

(USEPA, 2014).

Due to the unprecedented volume of dispersants applied for an extended period of time in situations 

not previously envisioned or incorporated in existing dispersant use plans during the Deepwater Horizon

oil-spill response, the National Response Team (NRT) has developed guidance for monitoring atypical 

dispersant operations. The guidance document, which was approved on May 30, 2013, is titled 

Environmental Monitoring for Atypical Dispersant Operations: Including Guidance for Subsea 

Application and Prolonged Surface Application. The subsea guidance generally applies to the subsurface 

ocean environment and focuses on operations in waters below 300 m (984 ft) and below the pycnocline. 

The surface application guidance supplements and complements the existing protocols as outlined within 

the existing Special Monitoring of Applied Response Technologies (SMART) monitoring program where 

the duration of the application of dispersants on discharged oil extends beyond 96 hours from the time of 

the first application (U.S. National Response Team, 2013). This guidance is provided to the Regional 

Response Teams by the NRT to enhance existing SMART protocols and to ensure that their planning and 

response activities will be consistent with national policy.

3.2.2. Losses of Well Control

A blowout preventer (BOP) is a device with a complex of choke lines and hydraulic rams mounted 

atop a wellhead designed to close the wellbore with a sharp horizontal motion that may cut through or 

pinch shut casing and sever tool strings. The BOP’s were invented in the early 1920’s and have been 

instrumental in ending dangerous, costly, and environmentally damaging oil blowouts on land and in 

water. The BOP’s have been required for OCS oil and gas operations from the time offshore drilling 

began in the late 1940’s.

The BOP’s are actuated as a last resort upon imminent threat to the integrity of the well or the surface 

rig. For a cased well, which is the typical well configuration, the hydraulic ram of a BOP may be closed 

if oil or gas from an underground zone enters the wellbore to destabilize the well. By closing a BOP, 

usually by redundant surface-operated and hydraulic actuators, the drilling crew can prevent explosive 

pressure release and allow control of the well to be regained by balancing the pressure exerted by a 

column of drilling mud with formation fluids or gases from below. Chapter 3.2.1.9.2 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS provides information on subsea well containment that could be utilized if a loss 

of well control occurred and resulted in a loss of fluids.

All losses of well control must be reported to BSEE. The BSEE clarified its procedure for loss of 

well control incident reporting in NTL 2010-N05, “Increased Safety Measures for Energy Development 

on the OCS,” which became effective on June 8, 2010. The BSEE Drilling Safety Rule (Federal 

Register, 2012a) became effective on October 22, 2012. This rule implements certain additional safety 

measures recommended in NTL 2010-N05 by incorporating the recommendations contained in the DOI 

report Increased Safety Measures for Energy Development on the Outer Continental Shelf (Safety 

Measures Report; USDOI, 2010), and the Deepwater Horizon Joint Investigation Team report (USDOI, 

BOEMRE and USDHS, CG, Joint Investigation Team, 2013). The BSEE amended the drilling, wellcompletion, well-workover, and decommissioning regulations related to well control, including subsea 

and surface blowout preventers, well casing and cementing, secondary intervention, unplanned 

disconnects, recordkeeping, and well plugging. The Drilling Safety Rule also enhanced the description 

and classification of well-control barriers, defined testing requirements for cement, clarified requirements 

for the installation of dual mechanical barriers, and extended requirements for BOP’s and well-control 

fluids to well-completions, workovers, and decommissioning operations. Operators are required to 

document any loss of well-control event, even if temporary, and the cause of the event, and they are 

required to furnish that information by mail or email to the addressee indicated in the NTL. The operator 

does not have to provide information on kicks that were controlled, but the operator should include the 

release of fluids through a flow diverter (a conduit used to direct fluid flowing from a well away from the 

drilling rig).

The current definition for loss of well control is as follows:

• uncontrolled flow of formation or other fluids (the flow may be to an exposed 

formation [an underground blowout] or at the surface [a surface blowout]);
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-25

• uncontrolled flow through a diverter; and/or

• uncontrolled flow resulting from a failure of surface equipment or procedures.

A loss of well control can occur during any phase of development, i.e., exploratory drilling, 

development drilling, well completion, production, or workover operations. A loss of well control can 

occur when improperly balanced well pressure results in sudden, uncontrolled releases of fluids from a 

wellhead or wellbore (PCCI Marine and Environmental Engineering, 1999; Neal Adams Firefighters, 

Inc., 1991). From 2007 to 2013, of the 41 loss of well-control events reported in the GOM, 22 (54%) 

resulted in loss of fluids at the surface or underground (USDOI, BSEE, 2014b). In addition to spills, the 

loss of well control can resuspend and disperse bottom sediments. Historically, since 1971, most OCS 

blowouts have resulted in the release of gas, while blowouts resulting in the release of oil have been rare.

3.2.3. Pipeline Failures

The potential mechanisms for damage to OCS pipeline infrastructure include mass sediment 

movements and mudslides that can exhume or push the pipelines into another location, impacts from 

anchor drops or boat collisions, and accidental excavation or breaching because the exact whereabouts of 

a pipeline is uncertain. Pipeline failures could also be by rig/platform and pipeline activities supporting a 

WPA proposed action. Chapter 3.2.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes previous 

incidents of OCS oil- and gas-related pipeline failures.

Any one of the mechanisms listed above could cause an OCS oil- and gas-related oil spill ≥1,000 bbl. 

Any resulting spill size would be limited by the size of the pipeline and the ability of an operator to 

quickly shut off flow from the source. The median spill size estimated from a pipeline failure is 2,200 bbl 

(Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). For a WPA proposed action, up to one spill of 

this size is estimated to occur during the 40-year analysis period.

3.2.4. Vessel Collisions

The BSEE revised operator incident reporting requirements in a final rule effective July 17, 2006 

(Federal Register, 2006). The incident reporting rule more clearly defines what incidents must be 

reported, broadens the scope to include incidents that have the potential to be serious, and requires the 

reporting of standard information for both oral and written reports. As part of the incident reporting rule, 

BSEE’s regulations at 30 CFR § 250.188(a)(6) require an operator to report all collisions that result in

property or equipment damage greater than $25,000. “Collision” is defined as the act of a moving vessel 

(including an aircraft) striking another vessel or striking a stationary vessel or object (e.g., a boat striking 

a drilling rig or platform). Chapter 3.2.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS provides data related 

to vessel collisions and discusses methods of prevention and avoidance of vessel collisions. No new data 

have emerged that would cause BSEE to reevaluate its analysis for this Supplemental EIS.

3.2.5. Chemical and Drilling-Fluid Spills

Chapter 3.2.5 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes OCS oil- and gas-related 

chemical and synthetic-based fluid spills. Below is a brief summary of that information.

Chemicals are stored and used to condition drill muds during production and in well completions, 

stimulation, and workover procedures. The most common chemicals spilled are methanol, ethylene 

glycol, and zinc bromide. Methanol and ethylene glycol may be used as a treatment to prevent the 

formation of gas hydrates while zinc bromide may be used in completion fluids. The chemicals that are 

used the most are also the chemicals that are spilled in the greatest volume. Completion fluids are used in 

the largest quantity and constitute the largest volume of accidental releases. Completion fluids consist of 

brines made from seawater mixed with calcium chloride, calcium bromide, and/or zinc bromide. A study 

of chemical spills from OCS oil- and gas-related activities determined that only two chemicals could 

potentially impact the marine environment—zinc bromide and ammonium chloride (Boehm et al., 2001). 

Both of these chemicals are used for well treatment or completion and, therefore, are not in continuous 

use. Most other chemicals are either nontoxic or used in small quantities. There are some differences in 

the operational needs for chemicals in deepwater versus shallow-water operations. Higher volumes of 
3-26 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

treatment chemicals (e.g., defoamers and hydrate inhibitors) are used in deepwater environments due to 

the conditions encountered there (Boehm et al., 2001).

Synthetic-based fluids (SBF’s) or synthetic-based muds have been used since the mid-1990’s. In 

deepwater drilling, SBF’s are preferred over water-based muds because of the SBF’s superior 

performance properties. The synthetic oils used in SBF’s are relatively nontoxic to the marine 

environment and have the potential to biodegrade. However, it should be noted that SBF’s are not 

permitted to be discharged into the marine environment; only cuttings wetted with SBF may be 

discharged after the majority of synthetic fluid has been removed. Additionally, accidental riser 

disconnects could result in the release of large quantities of drilling fluids and are of particular concern 

when SBF’s are in use. For further discussion on this topic, refer to Chapter 3.1.1.4.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Refer to Chapter 3.2.5 of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS for the 

most recent information on BSEE’s counts and summaries for spills ≥50 bbl. 

3.3. CUMULATIVE ACTIVITIES SCENARIO

3.3.1. OCS Program

The OCS Program scenario includes all activities that are projected to occur from past, proposed, and 

future lease sales during the 40-year analysis period. Projected reserve/resource production for the OCS 

Program (Table 3-1; WPA, CPA, and EPA) is 18.34-25.64 BBO and 75.886-111.627 Tcf of gas. 

Table 3-3 presents projections of the major activities and impact-producing factors related to future Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Program activities.

The level of OCS oil- and gas-related activity is connected to oil prices, resource potential, cost of 

development, and rig availability rather than just, or even primarily to, the amount of acreage leased. The 

cumulative impacts of activities associated with the OCS Program on biological, physical, and 

socioeconomic resources are analyzed in Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapters 4.1.1 and 

4.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 233 Supplemental EIS, and 

Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

Note that offshore and onshore impact-producing factors and scenarios associated with a CPA or an 

EPA proposed action (i.e., a typical lease sale that would result from a proposed action within the CPA or 

EPA) as well as OCS Program activity resulting from past and future lease sales in the CPA or EPA, are 

disclosed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, CPA 

235/241/247 Supplemental EIS, and EPA 225/226 EIS.

3.3.2. State Oil and Gas Activity

All five Gulf Coast States have had some historical oil and gas exploration activity and, with the 

exception of Florida and Mississippi, currently produce oil and gas in State waters. The coastal 

infrastructure that supports the OCS Program also supports State oil and gas activities.

State oil and gas infrastructure consists of the wells that extract hydrocarbon resources, facilities that 

produce and treat the raw product, pipelines that transport the product to refineries and gas facilities for 

further processing, and additional pipelines that transport finished product to points of storage and final 

consumption. The type and size of infrastructure that supports production depends upon the size, type, 

and location of the producing field, the time of development, and the life cycle stage of operations. 

operations. Chapter 3.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS provides a reference for relevant 

historical information on State leasing programs. The most recent lease sale information for Texas and 

Louisiana has been updated below.

Texas 

The most recent state oil and gas lease sale occurred on July 1, 2014. Thirteen parcels containing 

more than 21,520 ac of State lands were offered for oil and gas leasing in the offshore area by Texas State 

University Lands (State of Texas, General Lands Office, 2014). BOEM expects that Texas will conduct 

regular oil and gas lease sales during the 40-year cumulative activities scenario for OCS oil- and gasrelated activity, although the lease sale’s regularity could differ from current practices.
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-27

Louisiana

The most recent oil and gas lease sale occurred on April 12, 2014. Forty-four leases containing more 

than 29,698 ac were offered for oil and gas leasing by the Office of Mineral Resources on the behalf of 

the State Mineral Board for Louisiana. The April 12, 2014, State lease sale offered no leases in offshore 

areas. During the 2013-2014 Fiscal Year, 99 offshore leases containing more than 164,154 ac were 

offered; of these, only 28 leases were awarded. BOEM expects that Louisiana will conduct regular oil 

and gas lease sales during the 40-year cumulative activities scenario for OCS oil- and gas-related activity, 

although the lease sale’s regularity could differ from current practices (State of Louisiana, Dept. of 

Natural Resources, 2014).

Mississippi

BOEM expects Mississippi to institute a lease sale program in the near future and to begin leasing in 

State waters during the 40-year cumulative activities scenario for OCS oil- and gas-related activity 

analyzed in this Supplemental EIS. Recent efforts to open Mississippi State waters for seismic and 

leasing activities have been challenged in court (Davis, 2014). 

Alabama 

Alabama has no established schedule of lease sales. The limited number of blocks in State waters has 

resulted in the State not holding regularly scheduled lease sales. The last lease sale was held in 1997. 

BOEM does not expect Alabama to institute a lease sale program in the near future, although there is at 

least a possibility of a lease sale in State waters during the 40-year cumulative activities scenario for OCS 

oil- and gas-related activity following a CPA proposed action (Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce, 

2011). 

Florida

BOEM does not expect Florida to institute a lease sale program in the near future, although it is 

possible that a change in policy could lead to leasing on the OCS or in State waters during the 40-year 

cumulative activities scenario for OCS oil- and gas-related activity analyzed in this Supplemental EIS. 

For more information, refer to Chapter 3.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

Pipeline Infrastructure

A mature pipeline network exists in the GOM to transport oil and gas produced on the OCS to shore 

(Chapter 4.1.1.20.1). The network carries oil and gas onshore and inland to refineries and terminals, and 

a network of pipelines distributes finished products such as diesel fuel or gasoline to and between 

refineries and processing facilities onshore (Peele et al., 2002, Figure 4.1). Expansion of this network is 

projected to be primarily small-diameter pipelines to increase the interconnectivity of the existing 

network and a few major interstate pipeline expansions. Any new larger-diameter pipelines would likely 

be constructed to support onshore and offshore LNG terminals. Refer to Chapter 3.3.2 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS for information on pipeline infrastructure activities within the State waters of 

Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.

3.3.3. Other Major Factors Influencing Offshore Environments

Other influencing factors occur concurrently with OCS oil- and gas-related activity in the offshore 

areas of the Gulf Coast States. These factors include (1) dredged material disposal, (2) OCS sand 

borrowing, (3) marine transportation, (4) military activities, (5) artificial reefs and rigs-to-reefs 

development, (6) offshore LNG projects, (7) development of gas hydrates, and (8) renewable energy and 

alternative use.

Cumulative impacts to biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources from these types of nonOCS oil- and gas-related activities are analyzed in Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapters 

4.1.1 and 4.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 
3-28 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

3.3.3.1. Dredged Material Disposal

BOEM anticipates that, over the next 40 years, the amount of dredged material disposed at ocean 

dredged-material disposal sites (ODMDS’s) will fluctuate but that it will generally follow historical 

trends of the practice utilized to date by the Galveston and New Orleans Districts. Over the last 10 years, 

the Galveston District has averaged about 6.9 million yd3 (5.3 million m3

) of material dredged per year 

disposed at ODMDS’s, while the New Orleans District has averaged about 21.7 million yd3

(16.6 million m3

) of material dredged per year disposed at ODMDS’s. Quantities may decrease slightly 

as various entities identify additional onshore sites for the beneficial uses of dredged material. The 1972 

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (the London 

Convention), to which the U.S. is a signatory, requires annual reporting of the amount of materials 

disposed at sea. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) prepares the dredged material disposed 

portion of the report to the International Maritime Organization; these yearly reports are available on the 

COE’s Ocean Disposal Database (U.S. Dept. of the Army, COE, 2010). For a more complete and 

detailed discussion of maintenance dredging and Federal channels, refer to Chapter 4.1.1.3 of this 

Supplemental EIS, Chapters 3.3.3.1 and 3.3.4.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, and Chapter 3.3.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

3.3.3.2. OCS Sand Borrowing

If OCS sand is requested for coastal restoration or beach nourishment, BOEM uses the following two 

types of lease instruments: a noncompetitive negotiated agreement that can only be used for obtaining 

sand and gravel for public works projects funded in part or whole by a Federal, State, or local government 

agency, and a competitive lease in which any qualified person may submit a bid through a lease sale. 

BOEM has issued 43 noncompetitive negotiated agreements, but it has never held a competitive lease sale 

for OCS sand and gravel resources. BOEM’s Marine Minerals Program continues to focus on identifying 

sand resources for coastal restoration, investigating the environmental implications of using those 

resources, and processing noncompetitive use requests.

BOEM is expected to issue one new agreement in Louisiana for the Deepwater Horizon NRDA 

Whiskey Island Restoration Project in Terrebonne Parish using sand from Ship Shoal Block 88. In March 

2014, BOEM issued a noncompetitive agreement for Phase Two of the Caminada Headland Restoration 

Project in Lafourche and Jefferson Parishes using sand from South Pelto Blocks 13 and 14.

BOEM has outlined its responsibility as steward of significant sand resources on the OCS in NTL 

2009-G04 (“Significant OCS Sediment Resources in the Gulf of Mexico”), which states the following: 

“If it is determined that significant OCS sediment resources may be impacted by a proposed activity, the 

MMS GOMR may require you to undertake measures deemed economically, environmentally, and 

technically feasible to protect the resources to the maximum extent practicable. Measures may include 

modification of operations and monitoring of pipeline locations after installation.” This NTL also 

provides guidance for the avoidance and protection of significant OCS sediment resources essential to 

coastal restoration initiatives in BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Over the next 40 years, increased 

use of OCS sand for Louisiana restoration projects is likely. Currently, no Texas restoration projects have 

been specifically identified. For more information on OCS Sand Borrowing, refer to Chapter 3.3.3.2 of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

3.3.3.3. Marine Transportation

Under current conditions, freight and cruise ship passenger marine transportation within the analyzed 

area should continue to grow at a modest rate or remain relatively unchanged based on historical freight 

and cruise traffic statistics. In 2011, the Port of Houston was the second largest port in the United States, 

while the Port of New Orleans was the sixth largest. Tankers carrying mostly petrochemicals account for 

about 60 percent of the vessel calls in the Gulf of Mexico. Dry-bulk vessels, including bulk vessels, bulk 

containerships, cement carriers, ore carriers, and wood-chip carriers, account for another 17 percent of the 

vessel calls. The GOM also supports a popular cruise industry. In 2011, there were 149 cruise ship 

departures from Galveston, 139 cruise ship departures from New Orleans, and 199 cruise ship departures 

from Tampa (USDOT, MARAD, 2012).
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-29

Total port calls, or vessel stops at a port, in the U.S. is increasing as a whole, and total port calls 

within the GOM is also increasing. Gulf of Mexico port calls represent approximately 32 percent of total 

U.S. port calls. Trends for GOM port calls relative to total U.S. port calls shows an approximate 

3 percent average increase of GOM port calls over the last decade, from 17,673 to 22,989 (USDOT, 

MARAD, 2013a) (Table 3-10 in the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS). 

Table 3-2 presents the estimated number of vessel trips that would occur as a result of a WPA 

proposed action. Annual OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic due to a WPA proposed action represents 

a small proportion (<1%) of the total vessel traffic in the GOM (Chapter 3.1.1.8 of this Supplemental 

EIS, Chapter 3.1.1.8.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and Chapter 3.1.1.8 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS). Annual OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic due to cumulative OCS 

oil- and gas-related activity represents between 9 and 12 percent of the total traffic in the GOM.

Cumulative Activities Scenario: It is expected that the usage of GOM ports will continue to increase 

by approximately 3 percent annually over the next 40 years. As such, it is anticipated that port calls by all 

ship types will be bounded annually by a lower limit of current use and an upper limit of approximately 

85,000 vessel port calls.

3.3.3.4. Military Activities

Twelve military warning areas and six Eglin Water Test Areas are located within the GOM 

(Figure 2-2). The air space over the WPA is used by the U.S. Department of Defense for conducting 

various air-to-air and air-to-surface operations. The WPA includes all or parts of the following military 

warning areas: W-147, W-228, and W-602. These warning and water test areas are multiple-use areas 

where military operations and oil and gas development have coexisted without conflict for many years. 

Several military stipulations are planned for leases issued within identified military areas.

Naval Mine Warfare Command Operational Area D contains 17 blocks in the WPA and is used by the 

Navy for mine warfare testing and training. In addition to Naval Mine Warfare Command Operational 

Area D, the WPA has four warning areas that are used for military operations. The areas total 

approximately 21.3 million ac or 75 percent of the total acreage of the WPA.

Chapter 3.3.3.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes military activities within the 

OCS.

Cumulative Activities Scenario: BOEM anticipates that, over the next 40 years, the military use areas 

currently designated in the WPA will remain the same and that none of them will be released for 

nonmilitary use. Over the cumulative activities scenario, BOEM expects to continue to require military 

coordination stipulations in these areas. The intensity of the military’s use of these areas, or the type of 

activities conducted in them, is anticipated to fluctuate according to the operational needs of the military.

3.3.3.5. Artificial Reefs and Rigs-to-Reefs Development

A full description of artificial reefs and Rigs-to-Reefs operations is presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. No new significant information was discovered that would alter impact 

conclusions based upon these operations. The following is a summary this information. For more details, 

refer to Chapter 3.1.1.10 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 3.1.1.10 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS.

Artificial reefs have been used along the coastline of the U.S. since the early 19th century. Stone 

(1974) documented that the use of obsolete materials to create artificial reefs has provided valuable 

habitat for numerous species of fish in areas devoid of natural hard bottom. Some studies have indicated 

artificial reefs in marine waters not only attract fish but, in some instances, may also enhance the 

production of fish (Stone et al., 1979; Carr and Hixon, 1997; Dance et al., 2011). All of the five Gulf 

Coast States—Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida—have artificial reef programs and 

plans.

Many OCS oil and gas platforms have the potential to serve as artificial reefs. Offshore oil and gas 

platforms have been contributing hard substrate to the GOM since the first platform was installed in 1942. 

Approximately 12 percent of the platforms decommissioned from the Gulf OCS have been used in the 

Rigs-to-Reefs Program. Scientific and public interest in the ecology of offshore structures and the 

potential benefits of contributing substantial quantities of hard substrate to a predominantly soft bottom 
3-30 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

environment may lead to increased emphasis on the creation of artificial reefs through the Rigs-to-Reefs 

Program. At present, Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi participate in the Rigs-to-Reefs Program.

WPA Proposed Action Scenario (Typical Lease Sale): The number of platform removals projected 

for a WPA proposed action is 14-22 platforms (Table 3-2 of this Supplemental EIS and Table 3-2 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). BOEM anticipates that approximately 1-2 of the WPA platforms 

removed or 10 percent of the projected 14-22 platform removals will enter the Rigs-to-Reefs Program as a 

result of a proposed action.

OCS Program Scenario: Over the course of the 40-year cumulative activities scenario for the OCS 

Program (2012-2051), BOEM projects that a total of 1,279-1,837 platforms will be removed (Table 3-3). 

If approximately 10 percent of these structures are accepted into the Rigs-to-Reefs Program, there may be 

as many as 128-184 additional artificial reefs installed in the WPA, CPA, and EPA.

3.3.3.6. Offshore Liquefied Natural Gas Projects and Deepwater Ports

There are currently no liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals operating on the OCS in the GOM. The 

following provides updates to the status of LNG projects and deepwater ports in the GOM as provided in 

Chapter 3.3.3.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

3.3.3.7. Development of Gas Hydrates

Chapter 3.3.3.7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

describes the development of gas hydrates in detail. BOEM still anticipates that, within 40 years, it is 

likely that the first U.S. domestic production from hydrates may occur in Alaska. Gas obtained from 

onshore hydrates in Alaska will either support local oil and gas field operations or be available for 

commercial sale if and when a gas pipeline is constructed to the lower 48 states. However, Moridis et al. 

(2008) stated that one should not discount the possibility that the first U.S. domestic production of gas 

hydrates could occur in the GOM. Despite the substantially increased complexity and cost of offshore 

operations, there is a mature network of available pipeline capacity and easier access to markets in the 

Gulf of Mexico.

3.3.3.8. Renewable Energy and Alternative Use

On August 8, 2005, President George W. Bush signed the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) into 

law. Section 388 (a) of EPAct amended Section 8 of the OCSLA (43 U.S.C. § 1337) to authorize DOI to 

grant leases, easements, or rights-of-way on the OCS for the development and support of energy 

resources other than oil and gas and to allow for alternate uses of existing structures on OCS lands.

A final programmatic EIS for the OCS renewable energy program was published by this Agency in 

October 2007 (USDOI, MMS, 2007a) and a Record of Decision was published in the Federal Register on 

January 10, 2008 (Federal Register, 2008). The Act authorized this Agency to develop a comprehensive 

program and regulations to implement the new authority. Final rules for the BOEM renewable energy 

program were published on April 29, 2009, as 30 CFR part 285 (Federal Register, 2009).

The two primary categories of renewable energy that have the potential for development in the coastal 

and OCS waters of the U.S. are (1) wind turbines and (2) marine hydrokinetic systems. The first and 

most technologically mature renewable energy is wind energy, a popular source of clean and renewable 

energy that has been in use for centuries. The two primary categories of renewable energy that have the 

potential for development in the coastal and OCS waters of the U.S. are (1) wind turbines and (2) marine 

hydrokinetic systems. The first and most technologically mature renewable energy is wind energy, a 

popular source of clean and renewable energy that has been in use for centuries. The DOE released a 

strategic plan for creating an offshore wind industry in the U.S. (USDOE, 2011). In this plan, DOE 

determined that offshore wind energy can help the Nation reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, diversify 

its energy supply, provide cost-competitive electricity to key coastal regions, and stimulate economic 

revitalization of key sectors of the economy. However, if the Nation is to realize these benefits, key 

barriers to the development and deployment of offshore wind technology must be overcome, including 

the relatively high cost of energy, technical challenges surrounding installation and grid interconnection, 

and the permitting processes governing deployment in both Federal and State waters. There are two 

critical objectives to realize the strategic plan’s goals: (1) reduce the cost of offshore wind energy; and 

(2) reduce the timeline for deploying offshore wind energy (USDOE, 2011, page 2). Since April 29, 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-31

2009, when the regulations governing renewable energy on the OCS were publicized, no wind park 

developments have been proposed in OCS waters of the GOM; however, there have been proposals in 

Texas coastal waters.

In Fiscal Year 2010, the U.S. Department of Energy instituted the Offshore Wind Innovation and 

Demonstration (OSWInD) initiative to consolidate and expand its efforts to promote and accelerate 

responsible commercial offshore wind development in the United States. In 2012, the U.S. Department of 

Energy’s Wind Program announced Federal funding nationwide in three major categories: technology 

development; market acceleration; and advanced technology demonstration. The Wind Program is 

working with BOEM to advance a national strategy for offshore wind research and development 

(Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2013). According to the Navigant Consulting, Inc. report, there is a potential 

of 594 gigawatts of potential wind energy available in the GOM. Offshore wind could create 

approximately 20.7 direct jobs per annual megawatt (or 20,700 jobs per annual gigawatt) installed in U.S. 

waters. Baryonyx Rio Grande Wind Farms received $4 million to produce three demonstration turbines 

in State waters (refer to “Renewable Energy Projects in Texas State Waters” below).

The second category of potential offshore renewable energy technologies is marine hydrokinetic 

systems, which are in a more developmental stage relative to wind turbines. The marine hydrokinetic 

systems consist of devices capable of capturing energy from ocean waves and currents. There has been 

no interest expressed in wave or current technologies in the GOM because the conditions necessary for 

their deployment are not suitable to the Gulf. The marine hydrokinetic current technologies are actively 

being considered for the east coast of Florida where the Gulf Stream provides a strong and continuous 

source of energy to turn underwater turbines.

The EPAct clarifies the Secretary’s authority to allow the existing oil and gas structures on OCS lands 

to remain in place after production activities have ceased and to transfer liability and extend the life of 

these facilities for non-oil and gas purposes, such as research, renewable energy production, aquaculture, 

etc., before being removed. With approximately 1,900 bottom-founded platform structures located in 

OCS waters, the GOM would seem to have some potential for the reuse of these facilities.

Cumulative Activities Scenario: BOEM expects that, over the next 40 years, a limited number of 

alternative use projects will be proposed in the WPA. It is also likely that these alternative use projects 

will consist of wind energy projects, based on the current development of that technology. BOEM’s 

expectation is based on the fact that known projects are being proposed in Texas State waters Likewise, 

the potential alternative use projects could consist of a combination of integrated existing GOM 

infrastructure with new-built facilities.

Renewable Energy Projects in Texas State Waters

Chapter 3.3.3.8 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS provides a detailed description of Texas’ 

renewable energy and alternative use programs. Below are updates to the status of the previously 

reported projects:

Project Name

Proposed 

Capacity 

(megawatts)

Number of 

Turbines Status Notes

Target 

Completion 

Date

Galveston Offshore Wind 

(Coastal Point Energy)

150 55-75 Received lease from Texas General Land 

Office in 2007. Announced intention to 

install a 750-kilowatt test turbine.

2018

Baryonyx Rio Grande 

Wind Farms (North and 

South)

1,000 100-200 Received lease from Texas General Land 

Office in 2009. COE environmental studies 

are underway. Received DOE Wind Program 

grant to produce 3 demonstration turbines by 

2017.

2019

Source: Navigant Consulting, Inc., 2013. 
3-32 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

3.3.4. Other Major Factors Influencing Coastal Environments

The GOM is a dynamic, constantly changing system where natural and human-caused factors 

simultaneously impact both the coastal areas of the Gulf Coast States and OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities. These factors include (1) sea-level rise and subsidence, (2) Mississippi Delta 

hydromodification, (3) maintenance dredging and Federal channels, and (4) coastal restoration programs.

Cumulative impacts to biological, physical, and socioeconomic resources from these types of nonOCS oil- and gas-related activities are analyzed in Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapters 

4.1.1 and 4.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and Appendix D of WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

3.3.4.1. Sea-Level Rise and Subsidence

Given the results from the National Assessment of Coastal Vulnerability to Sea-Level Rise, BOEM 

anticipates that, over the next 40 years, the northern GOM will likely experience a minimum relative sealevel rise of 55.2 millimeters (2.17 inches) and a maximum relative sea-level rise of 384 millimeters 

(15.1 inches) (Pendleton et al., 2010). Sea-level rise and subsidence together have the potential to affect 

many important areas, including the OCS oil and gas industry, oil and gas infrastructure, waterborne 

commerce, commercial fishery landings, and important habitat for biological resources (State of 

Louisiana, Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority, 2012). Chapter 3.3.4.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS describes sea-level rise and 

subsidence in detail. Programmatic aspects of climate change relative to the environmental baseline for 

the Gulf of Mexico OCS Program are discussed in Appendix G.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS.

3.3.4.2. Mississippi River Hydromodification

BOEM anticipates that, over the next 40 years, there might be minor sediment additions resulting 

from new and continuing freshwater diversion projects managed by the COE. Chapter 3.3.4.2 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS describes Mississippi 

River hydromodification in detail.

3.3.4.3. Maintenance Dredging and Federal Channels

Along the Texas Gulf Coast there are eight federally maintained navigation channels in addition to 

the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. Most of the dredged materials from the Texas channels have high 

concentrations of silt and clay. Beneficial uses of dredged material include beach nourishment for the 

more sandy materials and storm reduction projects or ocean disposal for much of the finer-gained 

material. Ocean disposal locations along the Texas coast are situated so that materials are placed on the 

downdrift side of the channel (U.S. Dept. of the Army, COE, 1992). The construction of Federal 

channels is not a growth industry that would lead to future direct taking of wetlands, and at least one 

Louisiana channel (Mississippi River Gulf Outlet) has been decommissioned and sealed with a rock 

barrier as of July 2009 (Shaffer et al., 2009). For a more complete and detailed discussion of maintenance 

dredging and Federal channels, refer to Chapters 4.1.1.3 and 3.3.4.4 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 

4.1.1.3 and 3.3.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, 

and Chapter 3.3.4.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. For more information on coastal restoration programs, refer to Chapter 3.3.4.4 of this Supplemental 

EIS and Chapter 3.3.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. 

3.3.4.4. Coastal Restoration Programs

Coastal restoration programs are taking place on both the State and Federal level. Current Federal 

efforts include the Coastal Wetlands Planning Protection and Restoration Act program; the Coastal 

Impact Assistance Program, which was formed in response to the Energy Policy Act of 2005; and the 

Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration Council, which was formed in response to the Resources and 

Ecosystems Sustainability, Tourist Opportunities and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act 
Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario 3-33

(RESTORE Act). For more information on coastal restoration programs, refer to Chapter 3.3.4.4 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

3.3.5. Natural Events and Processes

Chapter 3.3.5 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS describes in detail natural events and 

processes in the Gulf of Mexico, including physical oceanography and hurricanes.

Since 2009, most of the extreme atmospheric events in GOM have been categorized as tropical 

storms with strong winds, heavy rain, and storm surges causing coastal flooding. However, on 

August 28, 2012, Hurricane Isaac made landfall in southeastern Louisiana as a Category 1 hurricane. 

While there were no reports of moderate or extensive damage to offshore oil or gas infrastructure in the 

GOM, Hurricane Isaac did result in the suspension of small amounts of tarballs and some oil from 

sediments (Mulabagal et al., 2013). This conforms with predictions in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS analysis and is discussed more fully in Chapter 4.1.1.2.1 of this Supplemental EIS.

3.3.6. Oil Spills

Oil spills related to non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities such as State oil and gas activity or vessel 

collisions (including tankering, barging, or State oil and gas vessels) can result in the contamination of 

offshore or coastal environments. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 strengthens planning and prevention 

activities in waters by (1) providing for the establishment of spill contingency plans for all areas of the 

U.S., (2) mandating the development of response plans for individual tank vessels and certain facilities for 

responding to a worst-case discharge or a substantial threat of such a discharge, and (3) providing 

requirements for spill-removal equipment and periodic inspections. Oil spills associated with a WPA 

proposed action are discussed in Chapter 3.2.1 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 3.2.1 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Refer to Chapter 3.2.1.9 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 3.2.1.9 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS for more information on the Oil Spill Pollution Act and other response 

requirements and initiatives regarding oil spills. Spills from tankers involve the spillage of crude oil, 

whereas barge spills involve spills of both crude oil and other petroleum products. Anderson et al. (2012) 

noted that tanker spill rates have continued a substantial decline since 2000. Most likely, tanker spills 

have declined due to major regulatory changes in the early 1990’s that substantially eliminated the use of 

single-hull tankers by requiring double hulls or their equivalent (Anderson et al., 2012). A majority of 

spills from tankers occurred in coastal areas (37 spills) verses offshore (16 spills) between 1974 and 2008. 

Barge spill rates for the last 15 years (1994 through 2008) declined dramatically as compared with the 

entire time period of available data (1974 through 2008), especially for crude oil barges and for both spill 

sizes ≥1,000 bbl and >10,000 bbl (Anderson et al., 2012). From 1974 through 2008, 197 petroleum spills 

≥1,000 bbl (28 of which were crude oil spills) occurred from barges in U.S. coastal, offshore, and inland 

waters (including U.S. territorial waters). Because the data available on barge transport in U.S. waters do 

not differentiate between inland and coastal/offshore transport, inland transport was included.

CHAPTER 4 

DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

AND IMPACT ANALYSIS

Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-3 

4. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND IMPACT ANALYSIS

The impacts of 10 proposed WPA and CPA lease sales were analyzed in the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil 

and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 246, and 248; 

Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final Environmental Impact Statement

(2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2012b); the impacts of 2 lease sales were 

analyzed in the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease 

Sale 233; Central Planning Area Lease Sale 231, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

(WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2013a); and the impacts of 3 lease sales were 

analyzed in the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016; Western Planning Area Lease 

Sales 238, 246, and 248 Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (WPA 238/246/248

Supplemental EIS) (USDOI, BOEM, 2014a). An analysis of the routine, accidental, and cumulative 

impacts of a WPA proposed action on the environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural resources of the 

Gulf of Mexico can be found in Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS are

hereby incorporated by reference.

The purpose of this Supplemental EIS is to determine if there are significant new circumstances or 

information bearing on the WPA proposed actions or their impacts, as previously discussed in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS and, if so, to disclose those changes and conclusions. This includes all relevant new 

information available since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. As will be demonstrated within each 

environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural resources chapter in this Supplemental EIS, the new 

circumstances and new information identified and discussed herein do not alter the discussions provided 

in or the conclusions reached in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

4.1. PROPOSED WESTERN PLANNING AREA LEASE SALES 246 AND 248

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 are tentatively scheduled to be held in August 2015 and 

2016, respectively. The proposed WPA lease sale area encompasses about 28.58 million ac. This area 

begins 3 marine leagues (9 nmi; 10.35 mi; 16.67 km) offshore Texas and extends seaward to the limits of 

the United States’ jurisdiction over the continental shelf (often the Exclusive Economic Zone) in water 

depths up to approximately 3,346 m (10,978 ft) (Figure 1-1). As of July 2014, approximately 

21.6 million ac of the proposed WPA lease sale area are currently unleased. A WPA proposed action 

would offer for lease all unleased blocks within the proposed WPA lease sale area for oil and gas 

operations (Figure 2-1), with the following exception: 

(1) whole and partial blocks within the boundary of the Flower Garden Banks National 

Marine Sanctuary (i.e., the boundary as of the publication of this Supplemental EIS). 

The DOI is conservative throughout the NEPA process and includes the total area within the WPA for 

environmental review even though the leasing of portions of the WPA (subareas or blocks) can be 

deferred during a Five-Year Program. 

Chapter 4.1.1 presents a brief summary of the baseline data for the physical, biological, and 

socioeconomic resources that would potentially be affected by a WPA proposed action or the alternatives. 

For additional information on the baseline data for the physical, biological, and socioeconomic resources 

that would potentially be affected by a WPA proposed action or the alternatives, refer to Chapter 4.1.1 of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. 

Chapter 4.1.1 also presents analyses of the potential impacts of routine events, accidental events, and 

cumulative activities associated with a WPA proposed action or the alternatives on these resources. 

Baseline data are considered in the assessment of impacts from proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 

on these resources. In addition, Appendix B (“Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis”) serves as a 
4-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

complement to this chapter and provides additional analysis of the potential impacts of a low-probability 

catastrophic oil spill, which is not reasonably expected and not part of a WPA proposed action, to the 

environmental and cultural resources and the socioeconomic conditions analyzed below. For additional 

information on environmental impacts of the cumulative case for the Gulf of Mexico resources, refer to 

Chapter 4.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, as well as Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. 

The Deepwater Horizon explosion resulted in the largest oil spill in U.S. history. An event such as 

this has the potential to adversely affect multiple resources over a large area. The level of adverse effect 

depends on many factors, including the sensitivity of the resource as well as the sensitivity of the 

environment in which the resource is located. All effects may not initially be seen and some could take 

years to fully develop. The following analyses of impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response on the physical, biological, and socioeconomic resources are based on post-Deepwater 

Horizon credible scientific information that was publicly available at the time this Supplemental EIS was 

prepared. This credible scientific information was applied using accepted methodologies, including

numerical modeling of data and scientific writing methods to convey the information of BOEM’s subjectmatter experts’ technical knowledge and experience. However, the Trustee Council of the NRDA for the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill continues to study, measure, and interpret impacts arising out of that spill. 

Because the NRDA information has not yet been made available to BOEM or the general public, there are 

thus instances in which BOEM is faced with incomplete or unavailable information that may be relevant 

to evaluating reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts on the human environment. While 

incomplete or unavailable information could conceivably result in potential future shifts in baseline 

conditions of habitats that could affect BOEM’s decisionmaking, BOEM has determined that there is 

sufficient basis to proceed with this Supplemental EIS while operating on the basis of the most current 

available data and expertise of BOEM’s subject-matter experts. Chapter 4.1.1 and Appendix B provide 

a summary of existing credible scientific evidence related to this issue and BOEM’s evaluation of 

potential impacts based upon theoretical approaches or research methods generally accepted in the 

scientific community. Despite the unavailability of complete information from the NRDA process, 

BOEM has determined that it can make an informed decision even without this incomplete or unavailable 

information because BOEM utilizes the best available scientifically credible information in its 

decisionmaking process and because BOEM cannot speculate as to the results of ongoing NRDA studies. 

Moreover, BOEM will continue to monitor these resources for effects caused by the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response, and will ensure that future BOEM environmental reviews take into 

account any new information that may emerge. 

Chapter 3.2.1 of this Supplemental EIS provides a brief summary of the information on accidental 

spills that could result from all operations conducted under the OCS Program, as well as information on 

the number and sizes of spills from non-OCS sources. Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS provides the number of spills ≥1,000 bbl and <1,000 bbl estimated to occur as a result of a WPA 

proposed action. BOEM estimates that the mean number of spills ≥1,000 bbl for a WPA proposed action 

is <1 spill. Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS provides spill rates for several spillsize categories. Chapter 3.2.1.8 and Figures 3-8 through 3-28 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS

describe the probabilities of a spill ≥1,000 bbl occurring and contacting modeled environmental 

resources. For additional information on accidental spills that could result from all operations conducted 

under the OCS Program, as well as information on the number and sizes of spills from non-OCS oil- and

gas-related sources, refer to Chapter 3.2.1 of this Supplemental EIS and to Chapter 3.2.1 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

Analytical Approach

The analyses of potential effects to the wide variety of physical, environmental, and socioeconomic 

resources in the vast area of the GOM and adjacent coastal areas is complex. Specialized education, 

experience, and technical knowledge are required, as well as familiarity with the numerous impactproducing factors associated with oil and gas activities and other activities that can cause cumulative 

impacts in the area. Knowledge and practical working experience of major environmental laws and 

regulations such as NEPA, the Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act, Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-5 

Endangered Species Act (ESA), Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA), Magnuson-Stevens Fishery 

Conservation and Management Act, and others are also required. 

In order to accomplish this task, BOEM has assembled a multidisciplinary staff with hundreds of 

years of collective experience. The vast majority of this staff has advanced degrees with a high level of 

knowledge related to the particular resources discussed in this chapter. This staff prepares the input to 

BOEM’s lease sale EIS’s and a variety of subsequent postlease NEPA reviews, and they are also involved 

with ESA, essential fish habitat, and CZMA consultations. In addition, this same staff is also directly 

involved with the development of studies conducted by BOEM’s Environmental Studies Program. The 

results of these studies feed directly into the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management’s NEPA analyses.

For this Supplemental EIS, BOEM developed a set of assumptions with an accompanying scenario 

and described impact-producing factors that could occur from both routine oil and gas activities and from 

accidental events. These assumptions, scenario, and factors are summarized in Chapter 3 of this 

Supplemental EIS and are discussed in detail in Chapter 3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. 

On the basis of these assumptions, scenario, and factors, BOEM’s multidisciplinary staff applies its 

knowledge and experience to analyze the potential effects that could arise out of proposed WPA Lease 

Sales 246 and 248.

For most resources, the conclusions developed by BOEM’s subject-matter experts regarding the 

potential effects of proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 are necessarily qualitative in nature; 

however, these conclusions are based on the expert opinion and judgment of highly trained subject-matter 

experts. BOEM’s staff approaches this effort in good faith utilizing credible scientific information 

including, but not limited to, information available since the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response, and applying this information using accepted methodologies, including numerical modeling of 

data and scientific writing methods to convey the information of the subject-matter experts’ technical 

knowledge and experience. It must also be emphasized that, in arriving at the overall conclusions for 

certain environmental resources (e.g., coastal and marine birds, fisheries, and wetlands), the conclusions 

are not based on impacts to individuals, small groups of animals, or small areas of habitat, but on impacts 

to the resources/populations as a whole. Where relevant information on reasonably foreseeable 

significant adverse impacts is incomplete or unavailable, the need for the information was evaluated to 

determine if it was essential to a reasoned choice among the alternatives. If BOEM’s subject-matter 

experts determined that the incomplete or unavailable information was essential, BOEM made good faith 

efforts to acquire the information. In the event that BOEM was unable to obtain essential information due 

to either impossibility or exorbitant cost, BOEM applied accepted scientific methodologies in place of 

that information. This approach is described in the next subsection on “Incomplete or Unavailable 

Information.”

Over the years, BOEM has developed a suite of lease stipulations and mitigating measures to 

eliminate or ameliorate potential environmental effects. In many instances, these lease stipulations and 

mitigating measures were developed in coordination with other natural resource agencies such as NMFS 

and FWS.

Throughout its effort to prepare this Supplemental EIS, BOEM has made painstaking efforts to 

comply with the spirit and intent of NEPA, to avoid being arbitrary and capricious in its analyses of 

potential environmental effects, and to use adaptive management to respond to new developments related 

to the OCS Program.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

In the following analyses of physical, environmental, and socioeconomic resources, BOEM identifies 

situations in which its analysis contains incomplete or unavailable information. The major area where 

BOEM is faced with incomplete or unavailable information is in relation to the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response. Information related to the explosion, oil spill, and response is still 

being collected, interpreted, and analyzed by a myriad of Federal and State agencies. With respect to 

some of this information, including much of the data related to the NRDA process, those in charge of 

analyzing impacts from the spill have not yet shared their data and findings with BOEM or made this 

information publicly available. Therefore, in situations in which BOEM’s subject-matter experts were 

faced with incomplete or unavailable information, the subject-matter experts for each resource utilized the 

most recent publicly available, scientifically credible information from other sources to support the 

conclusions contained in this Supplemental EIS. This information is identified and summarized in 
4-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS, is discussed in detail for each resource in Chapter 4.1.1 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and is updated in Chapter 4.1.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. In certain circumstances, identified and 

described in more detail in Chapter 4.1.1 of this Supplemental EIS, BOEM’s subject-matter experts were 

required to utilize accepted methodologies to extrapolate conclusions from existing or new information 

and to make reasoned estimates and developed conclusions regarding the current WPA baseline for 

resource categories and expected impacts from a WPA proposed action given any baseline changes. For 

reasons described below, there are no changes to the conclusions presented in the 2012-2017 WPA\CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

It is important to note that, barring another catastrophic oil spill, which is a low-probability accidental 

event, the adverse impacts associated with a proposed WPA lease sale are small, even in light of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. This is because of draft lease sale stipulations and 

because of BOEM’s and other Federal and State entities’ mitigating measures. BOEM also imposes sitespecific mitigations that become conditions of plan or permit approval at the postlease stage. 

Collectively, these measures further reduce the likelihood of adverse impacts.

For the following resources, as with the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, the subject-matter experts determined that

there is incomplete or unavailable information that is relevant to reasonably foreseeable significant 

adverse impacts; however, it is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

• Physical Resources in the WPA: Physical resources (i.e., water quality and air 

quality) within the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, based on the best available 

information and the WPA’s distance from the Macondo well (485.2 km; 301.5 mi). 

BOEM has determined that the incomplete or unavailable information is not essential 

to a reasoned choice among alternatives because BOEM utilizes the best available 

scientifically credible information in its decisionmaking process and cannot speculate 

as to the results of ongoing NRDA studies. In any event, much of the information 

related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may not be 

available for some time, regardless of the costs necessary to obtain this information, 

as there are numerous task forces and interagency groups involved in the production 

of the information. It is not expected that these data would become publicly available 

in the near term, and certainly not within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA

analysis of this Supplemental EIS. 

• Nonmobile Biological Resources within the WPA: Coastal and offshore biological 

and benthic habitats (i.e., barrier beaches, wetlands, seagrasses, soft bottom benthic 

communities, topographic features, and chemosynthetic and nonchemosynthetic 

communities) and nonmobile benthic species that would be expected to spend their 

entire life cycle in the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, based on the WPA’s distance 

from the Macondo well (485.2 km; 301.5 mi) and currently available data indicating 

that the spill did not reach WPA waters or sediments. Similarly to the analysis of 

physical resources in the WPA described in the preceding paragraph, BOEM has 

determined that the incomplete or unavailable information regarding nonmobile 

biological resources is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives because 

BOEM utilizes the best available scientifically credible information in its

decisionmaking process and cannot speculate as to the results of ongoing NRDA 

studies.

• Mobile Biological Resources within or Migrating through the WPA: Certain mobile 

biological resources (i.e., birds, fish, marine mammals, and sea turtles) having ranges 

and/or habitats that may include different areas in the GOM may have individually 

been affected by exposure to oil and/or spill-response activities, provided they were 

in the vicinity of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response during 

spill conditions. Precise information on the impacts on mobile biological resources 

within or migrating through the WPA is therefore not known, and it is not expected 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-7 

that this data would become publicly available within the timeline contemplated in 

the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. BOEM has concluded that this 

incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a reasoned choice among the 

alternatives because the adverse impacts from routine activities associated with a 

WPA proposed action are expected to be small, even in light of how baseline 

conditions may have been changed by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response. Moreover, based on the scientifically credible information that was 

available and applied in Chapter 4.1.1, such as peer-reviewed journals and 

government reports, this incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a 

reasoned choice among the alternatives because the subject-matter experts for this 

Supplemental EIS have already evaluated the probability and severity of these 

potential impacts and because this incomplete or unavailable information is not 

essential to understand every particular mechanism by which these significant 

impacts could occur. With regard to future potentially low-probability catastrophic 

spills, any incomplete or unavailable information regarding the nature of a very large 

spill would not be essential to a reasoned choice among the alternatives. This is 

because a low-probability catastrophic oil spill and its impacts are not “expected” as 

a result of a WPA proposed action since such a spill remains a low-probability event, 

particularly in light of improved safety and oil-spill-response requirements that have 

been put in place since the spill.

• Endangered and Threatened Species: BOEM and BSEE reinitiated consultation with 

NMFS and FWS in light of new information that may become available on these 

species and in light of effects from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response. Pending the completion of the reinitiated ESA Section 7 Consultation, 

BOEM has prepared an ESA Section 7(d) determination (50 CFR § 402.09). Section 

7(d) of the ESA requires that, after initiation or reinitiation of consultation under 

Section 7(a)(2), the Federal agency “shall not make any irreversible or irretrievable 

commitment of resources with respect to the agency action which has the effect of 

foreclosing the formulation or implementation of any reasonable and prudent 

alternative measures which would not violate” Section 7(a)(2). BOEM has 

determined that the proposed action during the reinitiated Section 7 consultation 

period is consistent with the requirements of ESA Section 7(d) because (1) approving 

and/or conducting a proposed WPA lease sale will not foreclose the formulation or 

implementation of any Reasonable and Prudent Alternative measures that may be 

necessary to avoid jeopardy (or the likely destruction or adverse modification of 

critical habitat) and (2) the Secretary of the Interior retains the discretion under 

OCSLA to deny, suspend, or rescind plans and permits authorized under OCSLA at 

any time, as necessary to avoid jeopardy. Lease sales alone do not constitute an 

irreversible and irretrievable commitment of resources. In addition, the results of 

consultation and any additional relevant information on endangered and threatened 

species can be employed during postlease activities to ensure that Reasonable and 

Prudent Alternative measures are not foreclosed. BOEM and BSEE have developed 

an interim coordination program with NMFS and FWS for individual consultations 

on postlease activities requiring permits or plan approvals while formal consultation 

and development of new Biological Opinions are ongoing.

• Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) Data: In response to the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, a major NRDA is underway to assess 

impacts to all natural resources in the GOM that may have been impacted by the 

resulting spill from the Macondo well, as well as impacts from the spill-response 

operations. The NRDA is mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. The 

U.S. Department of the Interior is a co-Trustee in the NRDA process, and BOEM is a 

cooperating agency on a Programmatic EIS being prepared as part of the NEPA

analysis for the Deepwater Horizon NRDA. However, the Deepwater Horizon 

NRDA process is being led by the NRDA Trustees, which include NOAA and DOI 

(FWS and National Park Service), but not BOEM. BOEM is listed as an affected 
4-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

party for NRDA purposes. At this time, limited data compiled in the Deepwater 

Horizon NRDA process have been made publicly available. Because limited data 

have been made publicly available, most Deepwater Horizon NRDA datasets are not 

available for BOEM to use in its NEPA analyses. BOEM acknowledges that the 

ability to obtain and use the NRDA data in its NEPA analyses could be relevant to 

reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts; however, the Deepwater Horizon 

NRDA data are not essential to a reasoned choice among the alternatives because 

impacts identified through the Deepwater Horizon NRDA process would likely be 

the same under any alternative and obtaining the data would not help inform the 

decisionmaker. In addition and as discussed above, the adverse impacts associated 

may have been changed by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. 

The impacts are expected to be small because of BOEM’s lease sale stipulations and 

mitigating measures, site-specific mitigations that become conditions of plan or 

permit approval at the postlease stage, and mitigations required by other State and 

Federal agencies. Even if the NRDA data were essential to a reasoned choice among 

the alternatives, it is not publicly available and much of the data may not become 

available for many years. The NEPA allows for decisions to be made based on 

available scientifically credible information (peer-reviewed journals and studies, 

government reports, etc.) applied using accepted methodologies where the 

incomplete information cannot be obtained or the cost of obtaining it is exorbitant. 

The NRDA process is ongoing and there is no timeline on when this information will 

be released. It is not within BOEM’s authority to obtain this information. Cost is not 

an issue in obtaining the information, regardless of whether the cost would be 

exorbitant or not. Instead, the limitations on the NRDA process, including statutory 

requirements under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, are the determining factors on the 

availability of this information. In light of the fact that the NRDA data may not be 

available for years, BOEM has used accepted scientific methodologies to evaluate 

each resource, as described in this chapter. These include numerical modeling of 

data and scientific writing methods to convey the information of BOEM’s subjectmatter experts’ technical knowledge and experience. Since the spill, BOEM’s Gulf

of Mexico OCS Region’s Environmental Studies Program has continually modified 

its Studies Plan to reflect the Agency’s current information needs for studies that 

address impacts and recovery from the oil spill. The scientific studies conducted by 

the Environmental Studies Program provide some of the data that BOEM relies on in 

making decisions in this Supplemental EIS. BOEM’s proposed studies attempt to 

avoid duplication of study efforts while striving to fill information gaps where 

Deepwater Horizon NRDA studies may not address particular resources and their 

impacts from the oil spill.

• Socioeconomic and Cultural Resources: Incomplete or unavailable information 

related to socioeconomic and cultural impacts (i.e., commercial and recreational 

fishing, recreational resources, archaeological resources, land use and coastal 

infrastructure, demographics, economic factors, and environmental justice) may be 

relevant to reasonably foreseeable adverse impacts on these resources. With regard 

to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, BOEM has determined 

that the incomplete or unavailable information would not be essential to a reasoned 

choice among alternatives because BOEM utilizes the best available scientifically 

credible information in its decisionmaking process and cannot speculate as to the 

results of ongoing Deepwater Horizon NRDA studies.

This chapter has thoroughly examined the existing credible scientific evidence that is relevant to 

evaluating the reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts of the proposed WPA lease sales on the 

human environment. The subject-matter experts that prepared this Supplemental EIS conducted a diligent 

search for pertinent information, and BOEM’s evaluation of such impacts is based upon theoretical 

approaches or research methods generally accepted in the scientific community. All reasonably 

foreseeable impacts were considered, including oil-spill impacts that could have catastrophic 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-9 

consequences, even if their probability of occurrence is low (Appendix B). Throughout this chapter, 

where information was incomplete or unavailable, BOEM complied with its obligations under NEPA to 

determine if the information was relevant to reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts; if so, 

whether it was essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives; and, if it was essential, whether it could 

be obtained and whether the cost of obtaining the information was exorbitant, as well as whether 

generally accepted scientific methodologies could be applied in its place (40 CFR § 1502.22).

4.1.1. Alternative A—The Proposed Action

4.1.1.1. Air Quality

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for air quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact 

conclusion for air quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of air quality, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of routine 

activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.1.1, 4.1.1.1.2, and 4.1.1.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is 

provided in Chapter 4.1.1.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is 

presented in Chapter 4.1.1.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.1 of the WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Details 

of air quality modeling are discussed in Appendix A of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents were 

published is presented below.

The following routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action would potentially affect air 

quality: platform construction and emplacement; platform operations; drilling activities; flaring; seismicsurvey and support-vessel operations; pipeline laying and burial operations; evaporation of volatile 

petroleum hydrocarbons during transfers; and fugitive emissions. These activities could result in 

emissions that are released to the atmosphere and then influenced by meteorology on air quality. This 

impact analysis is based on four parameters—emission rates, surface winds, atmospheric stability, and the 

mixing height. Refer to Chapter 4.1.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS and to Appendix A of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS for details on air quality modeling. Emissions of pollutants into the 

atmosphere from the activities associated with a WPA proposed action are projected to have minimal 

effects on onshore air quality because of the distance from shore where the emissions are released and 

dilution before they reach shore, as well as the prevailing atmospheric conditions; emission rates and 

mixing heights; and the resulting pollutant concentrations.

Accidental events that may cause impacts to air quality include the release of oil, condensate, natural 

gas, chemicals used offshore, or pollutants from the burning of these products, as well as blowouts and 

fires. The accidental release of hydrocarbons related to a WPA proposed action may result in the 

emission of air pollutants. The air pollutants include criteria NAAQS pollutants, volatile and semivolatile organic compounds, H2S, and methane. If a fire was associated with the accidental event, it could 

produce a broad array of pollutants, including all NAAQS-regulated primary pollutants, including 

nitrogen dioxide (NO2), CO, SOx, VOC, PM10, and PM2.5. Response activities to an accidental event that

could impact air quality include in-situ burning, the use of flares to burn gas and oil, and the use of 

dispersants applied from aircraft. Measurements taken during an in-situ burning show that a major 

portion of compounds was consumed in the burn (Fingas et al., 1995), and it was found that, during the 

burn, the pollutants were measured only at background levels; therefore, pollutant concentrations would 

be expected to be within the NAAQS. These response activities are temporary in nature and occur 

offshore; therefore, there are little expected impacts from these actions to onshore air quality. Accidents 
4-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

involving high concentrations of H2S could result in human deaths as well as environmental damage. 

Regulations and NTL’s mandate safeguards and protective measures, which are in place to protect 

workers from H2S releases. Overall, since blowouts and fires are rare events and are of short duration, 

potential impacts to air quality are not expected to be significant.

The cumulative analysis considers OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities that could occur and adversely affect onshore air quality from OCS sources during the 40-year 

analysis period. The OCS oil- and gas-related activities that could impact air quality include the 

following: platform construction and emplacement; platform operations; drilling activities; flaring; 

seismic-survey and support-vessel operations; pipeline laying and burial operations; evaporation of 

volatile petroleum hydrocarbons during transfers; fugitive emissions; the release of oil, condensate, 

natural gas, and chemicals used offshore, or pollutants from the burning of these products; blowouts; a 

low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not reasonably foreseeable and not part of a WPA proposed 

action (refer to Appendix B for more details); and fires. Emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere 

from activities associated with the OCS Program are not projected to have significant effects on onshore 

air quality because of the prevailing atmospheric conditions, emission rates and heights, and the resulting 

pollutant concentrations, which result in dilution of the emissions offshore before they reach the 

shoreline. In the WPA, the impacts of the OCS emissions on the onshore air quality are below the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency’s Significant Impact Levels (SIL’s) and BOEM’s Significance Levels, 

and they are well below the NAAQS. The only potential exception is for ozone, where there may be 

some minimal contribution to ozone at the shoreline. However, onshore impacts on air quality from 

emissions from OCS oil- and gas-related activities are estimated to be within the Prevention of Significant 

Deterioration (PSD) Class II allowable increments.

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activity includes both marine and onshore industries and activities that 

are unrelated to oil and gas exploration and production. The non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the 

cumulative scenario that could potentially impact onshore air quality include State oil and gas programs, 

other major offshore but non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors influencing offshore environments (such as 

sand borrowing and transportation), onshore non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities such as emissions 

from industry (including major stationary sources, e.g., power plants, petroleum refineries and chemical 

plants) and mobile sources (cars/trucks) related to human activities, onshore non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

sources unrelated to human activities such as forest fires, accidental releases from an oil spill, accidental 

releases of hydrogen sulfide, and natural events (e.g., hurricanes). Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activity 

on the water that would most likely contribute to cumulative impacts to air quality would be the marine 

shipping or transportation industry. Industrial activity in the industrial areas of Texas and Louisiana and 

emissions from cars in areas with high populations are the onshore sources that would contribute to the 

cumulative impact to air quality. These offshore and onshore emissions sources generate greater amounts 

of pollutants than OCS oil- and gas-related activity. Human populations reside near these same industries 

because they offer employment, and therefore humans encounter more air contaminants as a result of nonOCS oil- and gas-related activities than they do from the OCS Program. These non-OCS oil- and gasrelated sources would represent the majority of the cumulative emissions that are present at onshore 

locations.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of State and Federal databases, including updates to regulations, was conducted to determine 

the availability of recent information. The search revealed new information on the hydrofracking of oil 

onshore and intercontinental sources of fine particles in the atmosphere since publication of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. This information is pertinent to this Supplemental EIS because it details new 

information on non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts to the environment.

New information indicates that intercontinental dust from Central America has been found in the 

Texas atmosphere. Fine particulates (PM2.5), such as ammonium sulfate, can be suspended in the 

atmosphere and can impair visibility and adversely affect human health. Once in the atmosphere, these 

fine particulates can be transported for long distances. It has been observed that a substantial amount of 

the fine particulates observed in Texas comes from Mexico and Central America, and enters into the 

United States across Texas’ southern border. As a result, it reduces the visibility at Big Bend and 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-11

Guadalupe Mountains National Parks, both Class I (pristine with respect to visibility) areas. The results 

of air dispersion modeling indicate that as much as half of the visibility impairment (occurring on 20% of 

the most visibility impaired days) at Big Bend comes from international transport (Texas Commission on 

Environmental Quality, 2014). These results indicate that an increase in visibility impairment in Texas is 

likely due to international transport of dust rather than OCS emission sources, which occur far enough 

offshore that they are diluted before they reach land. New information indicates that hydrofracking of oil 

in Texas may also cause potential health and environmental effects. Some of the pollutants released by 

hydrofracking include benzene, toluene, xylene and ethyl benzene (BTEX); particulate matter and dust; 

ground-level ozone; nitrogen oxides; carbon monoxide; formaldehyde; and metals contained in diesel fuel 

combustion. These pollutants can travel in the atmosphere. The exposure to these chemicals could cause 

short-term effects to human health and the environment (Climate Science Watch, 2014). This information 

indicates that hydrofracking may result in more impacts to human health and the environment onshore 

than offshore OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The Offshore and Coastal Dispersion modeling results, 

which are discussed in Appendix A of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS and which are 

incorporated by reference here, indicate that typical operations on the OCS do not generate pollutants in 

an amount that would significantly impact or significantly contribute to air quality degradation in Texas 

and that the same applies to emissions that are generated from isolated events (e.g., accidents, which are 

temporary sources).

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. However, as discussed in this document, 

as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or

unavailable information regarding air impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response in the WPA, as well as limitations resulting from air quality modeling.

Although final summary information and reports on air quality impacts from the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response may be forthcoming, the final and conclusive information is not 

available at this time and will not be available within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of 

this Supplemental EIS. This unavailable information may be relevant to adverse effects and possible 

long-term effects because air emissions could have reached land or dispersed throughout the WPA before 

oil-spill response was activated. BOEM used reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate 

from available information on air quality measurements taken by Federal agencies in completing the 

relevant analysis to determine air impacts (USEPA, 2010a; de Gouw et al., 2011). Limited data released 

to the public and obtained from USEPA, NOAA, and other agencies indicating that air impacts tended to 

be minor and below USEPA’s health-based standards were extrapolated to come to the conclusion that air 

quality impacts in the WPA resulting from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response were 

minor because of its distance from the WPA. Data obtained from USEPA, NOAA, and other agencies do 

not reveal reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts, and because there are no continuing 

sources of air pollution related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, BOEM would 

not expect any additional measurements or information to alter the conclusions from currently existing 

data. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives.

In addition, as noted in Appendix A of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, there are a number 

of competing methods and available models for estimating and tracking potential air emissions and 

impacts. Each of these methods and models has inherent limitations, particularly with regard to the 

offshore environment in which a WPA proposed action would take place. BOEM’s Offshore and Coastal 

Dispersion Model, which was used for this environmental impact assessment (Appendix A of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS), has limitations such that it is a short-range dispersion model and it does 

not involve the reactive chemical. In acknowledgement of these limitations, BOEM’s subject-matter 

experts, using their best professional judgment and experience, have developed conservative assumptions 

and modeling parameters so as to ensure that the impact conclusions herein are reasonable and not 

underestimated (refer to Appendix A of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS for the modeling 

analysis). The modeling that was conducted was overly conservative. All of the emissions during 1 year 
4-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

for the entire WPA, which would actually be dispersed throughout the WPA, were modeled as if they 

originated in a single block, East Breaks Block 446. This block was selected because it represented a 

location where the water is deep enough that a dynamically positioned drillship would be used and where 

hydrocarbons are probably present. Although there are limitations in air quality modeling, the evidence 

currently available and that was used to develop conservative assumptions supports past analyses and 

does not indicate severe adverse impacts to air quality. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the 

incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for air quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented above. Emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from the routine and 

accidental activities associated with a WPA proposed action are projected to have minimal impacts to 

onshore air quality, and emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from activities associated with the 

OCS Program are also not projected to have significant effects on onshore air quality. The non-OCS oiland gas-related emission sources of intercontinental origin and the hydrofracking of oil may have the 

potential to impact onshore air quality and human health. However, the new information does not alter 

previous impact conclusions for air quality. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.2. Water Quality

4.1.1.2.1. Coastal Waters

Coastal waters within the WPA, as defined by BOEM, include all the bays and estuaries from the Rio 

Grande River to the Louisiana/Texas border. BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal water 

quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new 

information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for coastal water quality presented in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of coastal water quality, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.2.1.1, 4.1.1.2.1.2, and 4.1.1.2.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.2.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.2.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.2.1 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those 

documents were published is presented below.

The routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 that would impact 

water and associated sediment quality include the following: discharges during drilling of exploration 

and development wells; structure installation and removal; discharges during production; installation of 

pipelines; workovers of wells; maintenance dredging of existing navigational canals; service-vessel 

discharges; and nonpoint-source runoff from platforms and OCS Program-related vessels. The primary 

impacting sources to water quality in coastal waters are point-source and storm-water discharges from 

support facilities, vessel discharges, and nonpoint-source runoff. The impacts to coastal water quality 

from routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action should be minimal because of the distance 

to shore of most routine activities, USEPA and USCG regulations that regulate the discharge of 

pollutants, and the few, if any, new pipeline landfalls or onshore facilities that would be constructed as a 

result of a WPA proposed action. 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-13

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action that could impact coastal water quality

include spills of oil and refined hydrocarbons, releases of natural gas and condensate, spills of chemicals 

or drilling fluids, loss of well control, pipeline failures, vessel collisions, or other malfunctions that would 

result in such spills. Oil, gas, and chemical releases may degrade water quality and reduce oxygen in the 

water column. Pipeline breaks and vessel collisions in bays and estuaries would be the greatest risk for 

delivering concentrated contaminants to coastal waters. For coastal spills (those that occur in bays and 

estuaries), two additional factors that must be considered for the impacts of water quality on habitats are 

the shallowness of the area where the oil spill occurred and the proximity of the spill to shore because 

these spills are less likely to be diluted before they reach the shore and can impact sediment quality. 

However, spills from vessel collisions are not expected to be significant because vessel collisions occur 

infrequently. Those spills occurring in OCS waters would be diluted before they reached the bays and 

estuaries, and natural degradation processes will also decrease the concentration of spilled oil over time. 

Although response efforts to accidental releases may decrease the amount of oil in the environment, the 

response efforts may also impact the environment through, for example, increased vessel traffic, 

hydromodification (e.g., dredging, berm building, boom deployment, etc.), and application of dispersants. 

Chemicals spills are not a significant risk because the chemicals used by the OCS oil and gas industry are 

either nontoxic, used in minor quantities, or only used on a noncontinuous basis. Therefore, the impact of 

routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities on coastal water quality from smaller accidental spills is 

expected to be minimal.

Coastal waters are vulnerable to impacts from OCS oil- and gas-related activities, including erosion 

and runoff, sediment disturbance and turbidity from dredging, vessel discharges, and accidental releases 

of oil, gas, or chemicals. Erosion and runoff may degrade water quality; however, OCS oil- and gasrelated activities are not the leading source of contaminants that impair coastal water quality. The leading 

source of contaminants that impair coastal water quality is urban runoff, which is discussed in the next 

paragraph. Increased turbidity and discharge from a WPA proposed action would be temporary in nature 

and minimized by regulations and mitigation. Accidental oil, gas, and chemical spills in bays and 

estuaries can result in degraded water quality in the coastal environment. Water and sediment quality 

degradation would be greater for spills that occurred in the bays and estuaries than those that occurred in 

OCS waters and traveled to the bays and estuaries because the spills traveling from OCS waters would be 

dispersed or diluted before they reached the coastal waters. A catastrophic OCS Program-related accident 

would be rare and not expected to occur in coastal waters. An oil spill as a result of a low-probability 

catastrophic event, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, is discussed in 

Appendix B. 

Coastal waters are vulnerable to impacts from non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities or activities not 

related to a WPA proposed action or the OCS Program, including State oil and gas activities, alternative 

energy activities, alternate use programs for platforms (e.g., aquaculture), sand borrowing, the activities 

of other Federal agencies (including the military), natural events or processes, and activities related to the 

direct or indirect use of land and waterways by the human population and industry. These activities may 

result in runoff, sediment disturbance and turbidity, vessel discharges, and accidental releases of oil, gas, 

or chemicals. Many of these factors have a major impact on water quality, but the greatest threat to 

coastal water quality is urban runoff.

The impacts resulting from a WPA proposed action would not significantly contribute to the 

cumulative impacts on the coastal waters of the Gulf because non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities, 

including vessel traffic, erosion, and nonpoint source runoff, are cumulatively responsible for the majority 

of coastal water impacts. Additionally, a catastrophic OCS Program-related accident is not expected to 

occur in coastal waters. Furthermore, the impact on coastal water quality resulting from smaller 

accidental spills is expected to be minimal in comparison to the cumulative impacts from other sources. 

Therefore, the incremental contribution of the routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action to 

the cumulative impacts on coastal water quality is not expected to be significant.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS

Various Internet sources were examined and literature searches conducted in order to assess the 

availability of new information regarding the water quality and sediment quality in coastal waters that 

may be pertinent to a WPA proposed action. The searches included, but were not limited to, Google, 
4-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Google Scholar, several USEPA websites, and the NOAA Central Library Deepwater Horizon: A 

Preliminary Bibliography of Published Research and Expert Commentary website. New information was 

found on the affected environment after the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.

Liu and Liu (2013) investigated bacterial communities present in oil mousses collected from impacted 

salt marshes during the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Vibrio bacteria, a human 

pathogen, represented 57 percent of the community, suggesting that this indigenous genus is particularly 

responsive to weathered oil in the salt marshes (for more information on salt marshes, refer to Chapter 

4.1.1.4). Tao et al. (2011) found high numbers of Vibrio vulnificus in surface residual balls composed of 

weathered oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. A study by Stephens et al. (2013) found that levels 

of Vibrio vulnificus were higher after the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. They 

state that vibrios are found naturally in the marine environment and prefer brackish water (e.g., 5-10 parts 

per thousand for Vibrio vulnificus and 17-23 parts per thousand for Vibrio parahaemolyticus). However, 

a study by Smith et al. (2012) found that Vibrio parahaemolyticus did not grow on or oxidize naphthalene 

or phenanthrene, and a degradation product of naphthalene was found to inhibit growth. The authors 

concluded that an increase in human health risks from consuming shellfish due to stimulation of Vibrio 

parahaemolyticus by oil-derived polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s) is unlikely. The study did 

not address Vibrio vulnificus. These studies present information on the affected coastal environment (i.e., 

marshes, beaches, and shellfish beds) following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response 

and how certain bacterial communities responded to the presence of oil in their environment.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or 

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.2 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information that may be relevant to 

reasonably foreseeable impacts on coastal water quality. Much of this information relates to the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response and is continuing to be collected and developed 

through the NRDA process. These research projects may be years from completion. It is not possible for 

BOEM to obtain this information and incorporate it within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA

analysis of this Supplemental EIS regardless of the costs or resources needed. Few conclusions have been 

released to the public to date, though, extensive datasets have now been released to the public (refer to 

USDOC, NOAA, 2013), and peer-reviewed academic research has been and continues to be published 

relevant to this topic. The Federal Government’s reports and peer-reviewed journal articles that are 

available at this time have been discussed in Chapters 4.1.1.2.1 and 4.2.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. In 

particular, a portion of the recently released dataset was discussed as part of published Federal 

Government reports, e.g., the Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT) report (OSAT, 2010). As 

noted in Chapter 4.2.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, more than 6,000 water and 

sediment samples were collected in coastal waters during the Deepwater Horizon response by USEPA, 

USGS, and the Center for Toxicology and Environmental Health (a British Petroleum contractor), as well 

as by other Federal and State agencies. These samples were analyzed against the USEPA’s human health 

benchmarks and/or the USEPA’s aquatic life benchmarks, and the results were reported in the OSAT 

(2010) report. The report explained that none of the water samples exceeded the USEPA’s benchmark for 

human health while water samples revealed that there were 41 exceedances of the USEPA’s aquatic life 

benchmarks. Of those exceedances, only nine samples were consistent with Mississippi Canyon Block 

252 oil. There were 24 exceedances of sediment benchmarks for aquatic life; only 4 of those samples 

were consistent with Mississippi Canyon Block 252 oil. No water or sediment benchmark exceedances in 

the nearshore were measured after August 3, 2010 (the last overflight observation of surface oil). BOEM 

used reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from existing information in completing 

this analysis and formulating the conclusions presented here. Given the available data on coastal 

sediments and water quality that have been released and evaluated, as described above and in Chapters 

4.1.1.2.1 and 4.2.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, with the water and sediment samples discussed in the 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-15

OSAT report serving as an example, as well as the distance of the WPA from the Macondo well, water 

and sediment quality within the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Therefore, BOEM believes that this incomplete or unavailable 

information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives for the reasons stated herein and in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. 

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal water quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for coastal water quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

4.1.1.2.2. Offshore Waters

Offshore waters within the WPA, as defined by BOEM, include both Texas offshore waters and 

Federal OCS waters, which includes everything outside any barrier islands to the Exclusive Economic 

Zone. BOEM has reexamined the analysis for offshore water quality presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for offshore water quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated in the 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, still apply for proposed 

WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of offshore water quality, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts 

of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in 

Chapters 4.1.1.2.2.1, 4.1.1.2.2.2, and 4.1.1.2.2.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.2.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.2.2.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.2.2 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description incorporated from the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents were 

published is presented below.

The routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 that would impact 

offshore water quality may include the following: discharges during drilling of exploration and 

development wells; structure installation and removal; discharges during production; installation of 

pipelines; workovers of wells; service-vessel discharges; and nonpoint-source runoff. During exploratory 

activities, the primary impacting sources to offshore water quality are discharges of drilling fluids and 

cuttings. During platform installation and removal activities, the primary impacting sources to water 

quality are sediment disturbance and temporarily increased turbidity. Impacting discharges during 

production activities are produced water and supply-vessel discharges. Regulations are in place to limit 

the toxicity of the discharge components, the levels of incidental contaminants in these discharges, and in 

some cases, the discharge rates and discharge locations. Pipeline installation can also affect water quality 

by sediment disturbance and increased turbidity. Service-vessel discharges might include water with an 

oil concentration of approximately 15 parts per million. Impacts to offshore waters from routine activities 

associated with a WPA proposed action should be minimal due to regulations that limit the pollutant 

concentrations and toxicity of discharges.
4-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action that could impact offshore water quality

include spills of oil and refined hydrocarbons, releases of natural gas and condensate, spills of chemicals 

or drilling fluids, loss of well control, pipeline failures, collisions, or other malfunctions that would result 

in such spills. Oil, gas, and chemical releases may degrade water quality and reduce oxygen in the water 

column. Spills from platforms and pipelines would be the greatest risk for delivering concentrated 

contaminants to coastal waters. Overall, since major losses of well control and blowouts are rare events, 

potential impacts to offshore water quality are not expected to be significant. Spills from collisions are 

not expected to be significant. Although response efforts may decrease the amount of oil in the 

environment, the response efforts may also impact the environment through, for example, increased 

vessel traffic and the application of dispersants. Natural degradation processes in both surface and 

subsurface waters would decrease the amount of spilled oil over time through natural processes that can 

physically, chemically, and biologically degrade oil (NRC, 2003). Chemicals used in the oil and gas 

industry are not a significant risk for a spill because they are either nontoxic, are used in minor quantities, 

or are only used on a noncontinuous basis. Therefore, the impact of accidental events is expected to be 

small.

Offshore waters are vulnerable to impacts from OCS oil- and gas-related activities including sediment 

disturbance and turbidity, vessel discharges, discharges from exploration and production activities, and 

accidental releases of oil, gas, or chemicals. Routine activities that increase turbidity and discharges are 

temporary in nature and are regulated; therefore, these activities would not have a lasting adverse impact 

on water quality. In the case of a large-scale spill event, degradation processes in both surface and 

subsurface waters would decrease the concentration of spilled oil over time. An oil spill as a result of a 

low-probability catastrophic event, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and is not likely expected, 

could impact coastal water quality. Low-probability catastrophic spills are discussed in Appendix B. 

The impacts resulting from a WPA proposed action are a small addition to the cumulative impacts on the 

offshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico.

Offshore waters are also vulnerable to impacts from activities not related to a WPA proposed action 

or the OCS Program, including State oil and gas activities, alternative uses of platforms (e.g., 

aquaculture), sand borrowing, renewable energy activities, the activities of other Federal agencies 

(including the military), natural events or processes, and activities related to the direct or indirect use of 

land and waterways by the human population (e.g., urbanization, agricultural practices, coastal industry, 

and municipal wastes). These activities may result in erosion and runoff, sediment disturbance and 

turbidity, vessel discharges, natural releases of oil and gas (e.g., seeps), and accidental releases of oil, gas, 

or chemicals. Although some of these impacts are likely to affect coastal areas to a greater degree than 

offshore waters, coastal pollutants that are transported away from shore will also affect offshore 

environments. Many of these factors have a major impact on water quality. 

The impacts resulting from a WPA proposed action would be a small addition to the cumulative 

impacts on the offshore waters of the Gulf when compared with inputs from natural hydrocarbon inputs 

(seeps), coastal factors (such as erosion and runoff), and other non-OCS oil- and gas-related industrial 

discharges. Since a catastrophic accident is rare, the probability of impact from such accidents is 

expected to be small. Also, such an accident in offshore waters allows more opportunity to mitigate 

impacts before the spill enters coastal waters where it could pose a higher risk of harm. The incremental 

contribution of the routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impacts on 

coastal water quality is not expected to be significant.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

Various Internet sources were examined and literature searches conducted in order to assess the 

availability of new information regarding the water quality and sediment quality in coastal waters that 

may be pertinent to the WPA. The searches included, but were not limited to, Google, Google Scholar, 

several USEPA websites, and the NOAA Central Library Deepwater Horizon: A Preliminary 

Bibliography of Published Research and Expert Commentary website. New information was found in 

relation to the affected offshore environment following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response and oil degradation. Several researchers reported on biodegradation and photodegradation 

processes of crude oil related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. The 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response did not impact the WPA. However, the WPA and 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-17

CPA contain natural seeps at the seafloor that contribute oil and gas to the offshore marine environment; 

therefore, new research discussed below pertaining to hydrocarbon degradation processes applies to both 

the WPA and CPA.

Liu et al. (2014) evaluated impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on 

concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons in surface water near the release. Concentrations of total 

dissolved n-alkanes in surface water were more than an order of magnitude higher in May 2010 than in 

August 2010 or May 2011, indicating that the contamination was due to the release. In contrast, evennumbered n-alkanes dominated the dissolved fraction in the May 2011 samples, but they were generally 

not prevalent in the suspended particulate fraction. The authors concluded that the dissolved evennumbered n-alkanes originated from bacteria or were transported to the sample location from elsewhere. 

Concentrations of PAH’s in suspended particles were on average 5 times higher in the May 2010 sample 

than in the May 2011 sample. The results taken together indicate that surface waters of the sampling area 

in May 2010 were contaminated by the oil spill and that rapid weathering and/or physical dilution quickly 

reduced hydrocarbon levels by August 2010. These results show the rapid degradation of oil in the water 

column following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, as well as help in 

understanding of processes that also act on natural oil seeps in the WPA.

Zhou et al. (2013) investigated the photochemical and biological degradation of crude oil from the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response under controlled laboratory conditions. 

Naphthalene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and chrysene, in order from lower to higher molecular weight, 

were the most dominant PAH’s in the samples. Photochemical degradation caused a large decline in the 

aromatic fraction of oil, a preferential loss of low molecular weight alkanes and PAH’s, and decreased 

degradation indexes such as n-C17/pristine ratio. Biodegradation of these compounds was also observed 

in the absence of light. This type of degradation would be expected to take place in areas near natural oil 

seeps.

Yang et al. (2014) evaluated bacterial populations in the water column during and after the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. They found that the bacterial community was 

temporarily dominated in May 2010 by Oceanospirillales responding to oil in the water column. By 

October 2010, this bacterial bloom had been replaced by a diversified bacterial community that resembled 

its predecessor prior to the release. However, even after the deep hydrocarbon plume was no longer 

detectable in the wellhead area in October 2010, small populations of Oceanospirillales remained. These 

biodegradation processes also act in response to natural oil seeps in the WPA.

A Deepwater Horizon oil spill dataset, including extensive chemical analyses of sediment and water, 

is available online through NOAA (USDOC, NOAA, 2013). The dataset as a whole is not fully 

interpreted or discussed in context to the condition of the Gulf of Mexico, but since the data are the work 

of other Federal agencies, State environmental management agencies, and British Petroleum and its 

contractors that has been compiled by NOAA, at least some of the data were discussed in the InterAgency Joint Analysis Group reports as well as the OSAT reports discussed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. BOEM 

expects the data to be considered by the scientific community and further incorporated into additional 

reports and published in peer-reviewed literature in the future, at which time BOEM will analyze the 

information made available and, as appropriate, will incorporate such to its future NEPA analysis 

processes. 

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS and in Chapter 4.1.1.2 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information that may be relevant to reasonably 

foreseeable impacts on offshore water quality. Much of this information relates to the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response and is continuing to be collected and developed through the 

NRDA process. These research projects may be years from completion. Few conclusions have been 

released to the public to date, and peer-reviewed academic research has been and continues to be 

published relevant to this topic. The Federal Government’s reports and peer-reviewed journal articles that 
4-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

are available at this time have been discussed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. In particular, a portion of the recently 

released dataset was discussed as part of published Federal Government reports, e.g., the OSAT report 

(OSAT, 2010). Given the available data on offshore sediments and water quality that have been released 

and evaluated, with the water and sediment samples discussed in the OSAT report serving as an example, 

as well as the distance of the WPA from the Macondo well, water and sediment quality within the WPA 

were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response. Therefore, BOEM believes that this incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a 

reasoned choice among alternatives for the reasons stated herein and in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for offshore water quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for offshore water quality presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

4.1.1.3. Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated Dunes

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes 

previously presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes, along with the full analyses of 

the potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, 

are presented in Chapters 4.1.1.3.1, 4.1.1.3.2, and 4.1.1.3.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.3.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 

4.1.1.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since 

those documents were published is presented below.

The major routine impact-producing factors associated with a WPA proposed action that could affect 

coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes include navigational traffic, maintenance dredging of 

navigational canals, pipeline emplacements/landfalls, and construction and expansion of navigational 

canals and port facilities. Effects on coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes from pipeline 

emplacements, navigation channel use and dredging, and construction or continued use of infrastructure

in support of a WPA proposed action are expected to be restricted to temporary and localized disturbances 

such as land loss and erosion. The 0-1 pipeline landfalls projected in support of a WPA proposed action 

are not expected to cause significant impacts to barrier beaches because of the use of nonintrusive 

installation methods and regulations. Impacts could be reduced or eliminated through modern techniques, 

such as horizontal, directional (trenchless) drilling, to avoid damages to these sensitive wetland habitats. 

Any new gas processing facilities would not be expected to be constructed on barrier beaches. A WPA 

proposed action may contribute to the continued use of gas processing facilities that already exist. 

Existing pipelines, in particular those that are parallel and landward of beaches and that had been placed 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-19

on barrier islands using older techniques that left canals or shore protection structures, have caused and 

could continue to cause barrier beaches to narrow and breach.

Maintenance dredging of barrier inlets and bar channels is expected to occur, which, when combined 

with channel jetties, generally causes minor and localized impacts on adjacent barrier beaches downdrift 

of the channel. Navigational channels that support the OCS Program are listed in Table 3-11 of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Dredging activities in these channels for both vessel traffic and pipeline 

emplacement are permitted, regulated, and coordinated by the COE with the appropriate State and Federal 

resource agencies. Impacts from these operations are minimal due to requirements for the beneficial use 

of the dredged material for wetland and beach construction and restoration. Permit requirements further 

mitigate dredged material placement in approved disposal areas by requiring the dredged material to be 

placed in such a manner that it neither disrupts hydrology nor changes elevation in the surrounding marsh. 

Because these impacts occur whether a WPA proposed action is implemented or not, a WPA proposed 

action would only account for a small percentage of such impacts. A WPA proposed action is not 

expected to adversely alter barrier beach configurations much beyond existing, ongoing impacts in 

localized areas downdrift of artificially jettied and maintained channels.

Accidental disturbances resulting from a WPA proposed action, including oil spills and blowouts, 

have the potential to impact coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes of the WPA. Potential impacts 

from oil spills to barrier islands seaward of the barrier-dune system are discussed below, while potential 

impacts to barrier islands landward of the barrier-dune system are considered in the wetlands analysis 

(refer to Chapter 4.1.1.4). Due to the proximity of spills in a river, bay, or estuary to barrier islands and 

beaches, these spills pose the greatest threat because of the concentration and lack of weathering of the oil 

by the time it hits the shore and because dispersants applied to such spills are not an effective means of 

spill response because they do not break the oil down sufficiently before it hits the shoreline. Such spills 

may result from either vessel collisions that release fuel and lubricants or from pipelines that rupture. 

Crude oil from a spill that occurs in OCS waters would be lessened in toxicity if it reaches the coastal 

environments due to its distance from shore, weathering, the time oil remains offshore, and possibly the 

dispersant used, if any. Equipment and personnel used in cleanup efforts can generate the greatest direct 

impacts to an oiled area. Close monitoring and restrictions on the use of bottom-disturbing equipment 

would be needed to avoid or minimize impacts. The cleanup impacts of these spills could result in a 

short-term (up to 2 years) adjustment in beach profiles and configurations during cleanup operations. 

Some impact as a result of physical contact to lower areas of sand dunes is expected. These contacts 

would not result in significant destabilization of the dunes. The long-term stressors to barrier beach 

communities caused by the physical effects and chemical toxicity of an oil spill may lead to decreased 

primary production, plant dieback, and further erosion, particularly if oil is carried onto dunes by 

hurricanes. 

Currently available information suggests that impacts on barrier islands and beaches from accidental 

events associated with a WPA proposed action would be minimal due to the projected spill rates, small 

additional risk from a WPA sale, distance of most activity from shore, and anticipated weathering of oil 

spilled in OCS waters before it reaches shore. Should a spill other than a low-probability catastrophic 

spill contact a barrier beach, oiling is expected to be light and sand removal during cleanup activities 

minimized. No significant long-term impacts to the physical shape and structure of barrier beaches and 

associated dunes are expected to occur as a result of a WPA proposed action. Therefore, a WPA 

proposed action would not pose a significant increase in risk to barrier island or beach resources.

Specific OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors considered in this cumulative analysis 

include dredging, construction and expansion of navigational canals and port facilities, pipeline 

emplacement/landfalls, vessel traffic, oil spills, and oil-spill response and cleanup activities. Under the 

cumulative scenario, 0-1 OCS oil- and gas-related pipeline landfalls are projected. These pipelines are 

expected to be installed using modern techniques, which cause little to no impacts to the barrier islands 

and beaches. Impacts from existing infrastructure could continue to cause barrier beaches to narrow and 

breach. The impacts of oil spills from OCS oil- and gas-related sources to the Texas coast should not 

result in long-term alteration of landforms if the beaches are cleaned using techniques that do not 

significantly remove sand from the beach or dunes. Barrier beaches in the region around Galveston have 

the greatest risks of sustaining impacts from oil-spill landfalls because of the high concentrations of oil 

production near that coast and the high volume of oil transported by ships in that area. Oil spills as a 

result of a low-probability catastrophic event, which are not part of the proposed action and not likely 

expected, are discussed in Appendix B. 
4-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts include non-OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic, beach 

protection and stabilization projects, sea-level rise, subsidence, development and urbanization, tourism, 

recreational activities, and potential for nearshore salinity modifications (such as preparation of salt 

domes for oil storage). In addition, oil spills and oil-spill response and cleanup activities can originate 

from non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities, i.e., international tankers. River channelization, sediment 

deprivation, tropical and extra-tropical storm activity, sea-level rise, and rapid submergence have resulted 

in erosion of most of the barrier and shoreline landforms along the Louisiana coast. The Texas coast has 

experienced land loss due to a decrease in the volume of sediment delivered to the coast because of 

channelization and damming of coastal rivers, a natural decrease in sediment supply as a result of climatic 

changes during the past several thousand years, and subsidence along the coast. Storm-induced changes 

in hydrology have, in some cases, changed the current regime responsible for stabilizing the barrier 

islands. Some beach stabilization projects are considered by coastal geomorphologists and engineers to 

accelerate coastal erosion. The beneficial use of maintenance dredged materials and other restoration 

techniques could be required to mitigate some of these impacts. Recreational use of many barrier beaches 

in the WPA is intense due to their accessibility by roads (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.18). These activities can 

cause changes to the beach landscapes. There are ongoing restoration efforts to minimize damages to 

beaches from both natural and human impacts.

Coastal barrier beaches have experienced severe adverse cumulative impacts from natural processes 

and human activities. Natural processes are generally considered the major contributor to these impacts, 

whereas human activities cause severe local impacts and accelerate the natural processes that deteriorate 

coastal barriers. Human activities that have caused the greatest adverse impacts are river channelization 

and damming, pipeline canals, navigation channel stabilization and maintenance, and beach stabilization 

structures. Deterioration of Gulf barrier beaches is expected to continue in the future. Federal, State 

(Texas), and county governments have made efforts through the Texas Coastal Erosion Planning and 

Response Act program and Coastal Management Plan program to restore or protect the sensitive and 

vulnerable barrier islands and mainland beaches.

A WPA proposed action is not expected to adversely alter barrier beach configurations significantly. 

A WPA proposed action is not expected to increase the probabilities of oil spills beyond the current 

estimates. Strategic placement of dredged material from channel maintenance, channel deepening, and 

related actions can mitigate adverse impacts upon those localized areas. Thus, the incremental 

contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impacts on coastal barrier beaches and 

associated dunes is expected to be small.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental SEIS 

A search was conducted for information published on barrier beaches and dunes, and various Internet 

sources were examined to determine any recent information regarding barrier beaches and dunes. 

Sources investigated include BOEM; the U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey (USGS); 

National Wetlands Research Center; the USGS Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science Data Information 

Management System; Gulf of Mexico Alliance; State environmental agencies; USEPA; and coastal 

universities. Other websites from scientific publication databases (including Science Direct, Elsevier, the 

NOAA Central Library National Oceanographic Data Center, and JSTOR) were checked for new 

information using general Internet searches based on major themes. New information has been found on 

oiled beaches following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response as well as on the 

ecological resilience of hardened beaches, which provides baseline information for the affected 

environment.

Urbano et al. (2013) examined small surface residue balls (also called tarballs) of oil on Fourchon 

Beach and Elmer’s Island, Louisiana, and found that the position with respect to the tidal zone affected 

the rate of biodegradation, with the most efficient degradation occurring in the Fourchon supratidal 

samples and in some intertidal small surface residue balls. Newton et al. (2013) sampled beach sands at 

seven Gulf Coast beaches and found that, while individual beaches had unique bacterial communities, oil 

contamination increased the variability in community composition. Daylander et al. (2014) evaluated 

mobility and redistribution patterns of surface residual balls. They found that, under calm conditions, 

small surface residue balls are unlikely to move alongshore, but that mobility and transport was likely 

during storms, and that inlets probably serve as traps for small surface residue balls. These studies serve 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-21

to expand our understanding of the baseline environment following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response. They also provide information about the continuing impacts in the years following oil 

contamination of beaches.

Another recent study has investigated the impacts of non-OCS oil- and gas-related activity, such as 

reduced ecological resilience observed as sandy beach ecosystems are squeezed between fortifications 

and increasing sea levels (Berry et al., 2013). They found that hard- and soft-engineered options impede 

sand transport and storage systems and prevent retreat from advancing seas. This study helps to provide a 

context for the threats to beaches from sources other than OCS oil- and gas-related activities.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As identified in the resource analyses in this Supplemental EIS and in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information on impacts to beaches 

from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Other unknowns are future benefits from 

restoration projects and future impacts of coastal development. This incomplete or unavailable 

information may be relevant to reasonably foreseeable significant adverse effects because recent events

such as the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may have caused changes to baseline 

conditions for coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes of the Gulf of Mexico. A large body of 

information regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response upon coastal 

beaches and associated dunes is being developed through the NRDA process, but this information is not 

yet available. BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to 

extrapolate from available information in completing the relevant analysis (e.g., Urbano et al., 2013; 

Newton et al., 2013; Daylander, 2014; and Berry et al., 2013). These and other studies show that bacterial 

communities present in coastal beaches gradually degraded the oil that was stranded on beaches following 

the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (Bik et al. 2012; Kostka et al., 2011). These 

studies provided information about weathering and mobility of tarballs on and adjacent to the oiled 

beaches. None of the sources identify any reasonably foreseeable impacts that are significantly greater to 

coastal beaches and associated dunes with the implementation of an Action alternative as compared with 

the impacts of the No Action alternative. The WPA is an active oil and gas region with ongoing 

exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS energy-related factors will continue 

to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed action (i.e., development, urbanization, recreational 

activities, etc.). The potential for effects from changes to the affected environment (post-Deepwater 

Horizon), routine activities, accidental spills (including low-probability catastrophic spills), and 

cumulative effects remains whether or not the No Action or an Action alternative is chosen under this 

Supplemental EIS. Impacts on coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes from either smaller 

accidental events or low-probability catastrophic events will remain nearly the same. Although the body 

of available information is incomplete, the evidence currently available supports past analyses and does 

not indicate severe adverse impacts to coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes as a result of a WPA 

proposed action. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is not essential to a 

reasoned choice among alternatives.

There are also data gaps regarding the future restoration efforts being planned, such as what projects 

will ultimately be constructed and how successful they may be. The extent of other impacts to beaches in 

the future from coastal development is likewise unknown. This information will not be available until 

such projects are constructed, which is not within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this 

Supplemental EIS. However, BOEM used existing information regarding the effects of past projects, the 

plans for restoration projects currently being considered under the RESTORE Act, and past effects of 

coastal development on coastal beaches to anticipate the benefit of restoration projects in the WPA. 

BOEM has determined that the scope of the planned restoration projects would likely only partially 

restore what was present historically along the Gulf Coast, although any restoration of coastal barrier 

beaches and associated dunes would reduce the land loss rates. However, BOEM has determined that the 

incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives because the scope of the 

planned restoration projects would likely only partially restore what was present historically along the 
4-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Gulf Coast, and BOEM can extrapolate the effects of a WPA proposed action based on the effects of past 

lease sales on earlier baselines.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented above. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for beaches and dunes. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

4.1.1.4. Wetlands

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for wetlands presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact 

conclusion for wetlands previously presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts 

detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of wetlands, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of routine 

activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.4.1, 4.1.1.4.2, and 4.1.1.4.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is 

provided in Chapter 4.1.1.4 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is 

presented in Chapter 4.1.1.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.4 of the WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents were 

published is presented below. 

The primary routine impact-producing activities associated with a WPA proposed action that could 

affect wetlands and marshes include pipeline emplacement, channel maintenance and construction, 

disposal of OCS oil- and gas-related wastes, increased vessel traffic, and the use and construction of 

support infrastructure in these coastal areas. Potential impacts from these factors include land and wake 

erosion from pipeline emplacement, channel dredging, and navigation traffic, and additional onshore 

development encouraged by increased capacities of navigation channels. A WPA proposed action is 

projected to contribute to the construction of 0-1 new onshore pipelines. If new pipelines are needed, 

impacts to wetlands are reduced by modern construction techniques and mitigating measures, which 

would result in zero to negligible impacts on wetland habitats. Modern construction techniques avoid 

wetlands through the use of directional drilling to eliminate additional trenching in wetlands. Regulations 

require the avoidance of wetlands through selective emplacement in existing corridors and the restoration 

and revegetation of the impacted areas. In addition, the potential impacts from a WPA proposed action 

would be reduced through the continued use of armored channels and modern erosion-control techniques. 

If channel dredging is required, the dredged material will require disposal. However, it may be 

beneficially used for marsh creation to mitigate for land loss. Creation of OCS wastes and drilling byproducts would require disposal, but they should be delivered to existing facilities. Because of existing 

facility capacity, no additional facility expansion into wetland areas is expected. Secondary impacts to 

wetlands caused by existing pipeline and vessel traffic corridors will continue to cause land loss because 

pipelines canals were constructed before modern techniques were implemented and many reaches of 

current vessel traffic corridors are not armored. However, because of permit requirements, modern 

construction techniques, and mitigation, routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with a 

WPA proposed action are expected to cause negligible impacts to wetlands.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-23

The main accidental impact-producing factor that would affect wetlands is oil spills, which could 

result in the physical oiling of wetlands. The most likely cause of a spill ≥1,000 bbl is a pipeline break at 

the seafloor; other sources include platform or vessel accidents. Wetland impacts from spills originating 

on the OCS would be minimized due to the distance of wells and production facilities to the coastal 

wetlands and the protection provided by the barrier islands, peninsulas, sand spits, and currents. These 

factors, combined with the potential for only highly-weathered or treated oil reaching the shoreline, 

greatly minimize or eliminate the impacts of spills originating on the OCS. However, if an oil spill 

related to a WPA proposed action occurs in a river, bay, or estuary, some impact to wetland habitat could 

be expected. Although the probability of occurrence is low, the greatest threat of an oil spill to wetland 

habitat is from an oil spill in a river, bay, or estuary as a result of a vessel accident or pipeline rupture. 

Wetlands in the northern Gulf of Mexico are in moderate- to high-energy environments, and tidal 

movement should reduce the chances of oil persisting in these areas. While a resulting oil slick may 

cause minor impacts to wetland habitat, the equipment and personnel used to clean up the spill can 

generate the greatest impacts to the area. Associated foot traffic can work oil farther into the sediment 

than would otherwise occur. Close monitoring and restrictions on cleanup activities using bottomdisturbing equipment would be needed to avoid or minimize those impacts. Overall, impacts to wetland 

habitats from an oil spill associated with activities related to a WPA proposed action would be expected 

to be minimal and temporary because of the distance of most of the activity from shore, the weathering of 

spilled oil, and the ability of vegetation to recover from exposure to crude oil (Khanna et al., 2013).

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to a WPA proposed 

action, prior and future OCS lease sales in the Gulf of Mexico, and non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities such as State oil and gas activities, other governmental and private projects and activities, and 

natural processes that may affect wetlands. Several OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impactproducing factors could potentially impact wetland resources, including the following: oil spills and 

cleanup activity; OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic; construction of OCS oil- and gas-related 

infrastructure and support structure (including pipelines); and waste disposal. 

The primary impact-producing factors attributable to a WPA proposed action are pipeline landfalls, 

canal widening, and maintenance dredging of navigation canals because they result in land loss. 

However, modern construction techniques and regulations reduce impacts to wetlands as a result of these 

activities. In addition, because the increase in pipelines, dredging, and vessel traffic from a WPA 

proposed action are predicted to be minimal, impacts related to these factors are also expected to be 

minimal. The possibility of physical oiling of wetlands from a WPA proposed action as a result of an oil 

spill originating in OCS waters is minimal compared with an oil spill that is closer to the wetlands and 

that could occur in State waters or in rivers, bays, or estuaries. The effects from a spill have the highest 

probability of occurring in Galveston and Matagorda Counties, Texas. These are the primary areas where 

oil produced in the WPA is transported and distributed, while oil produced in the CPA is handled in 

Lafourche, Cameron, Plaquemines, and St. Bernard Parishes, Louisiana. If any oil spills occur in rivers, 

bays, or estuaries from pipelines or vessels, they will likely be small and at service bases or other support 

facilities, and these small-scale local spills would not be expected to severely affect wetlands. Accidental 

spills as a result of a low-probability catastrophic event, which are not part of the proposed action not 

likely expected, may have impacts on wetlands. Low-probability catastrophic events are discussed in 

Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that could potentially impact 

wetland resources include the following: State oil and gas; non-OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic; 

coastal infrastructure and development; maintenance of navigation canals; natural processes (including 

hurricane and tropical storms); and sea-level rise. Non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts from residential, 

commercial, agricultural, and silvicultural (forest expansion) developments are expected to continue in 

coastal regions around the Gulf of Mexico. Wetlands are most vulnerable to oil spills that may occur in 

State waters or in rivers, bays, or estuaries, the impacts of which would be primarily localized in nature. 

Many such spills are from non-OCS oil- and gas-related sources, such as State oil and gas activities, 

which can include vessel collisions, pipeline breaks, and shore-based transfer, refining, and production 

facilities. Insignificant adverse impacts upon wetlands from maintenance dredging are expected because 

the large majority of the material would be placed in existing disposal areas or used beneficially for marsh 

restoration or creation. Hurricanes and tropical storms can cause extensive damage to wetlands, including 

conversion of large acreages of wetlands to open water. Marine vegetation deposited by storms can rest 

on wetland plants, resulting in mortality. One benefit of storms is that they can be capable of delivering 
4-24 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

sediment from offshore or interior bays into wetland areas, partially offsetting erosion. Sea-level rise can 

impact coastal wetlands by the drowning of plants. Relative sea-level rise, which includes local factors 

such as subsidence, can increase salinity and flooding, resulting in reduced productivity of wetland plants 

(Spalding and Hester, 2007).

Development pressures in the coastal regions of Texas have been primarily the result of tourism and 

residential beachside development in the Galveston and Bolivar Peninsula areas. In Galveston, recreation 

and tourist developments have been particularly destructive. Development pressures in the coastal 

regions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida have caused the destruction of large areas of 

wetlands. In coastal Louisiana, the most destructive developments have been the inland oil and gas 

industry projects, which have resulted in the dredging of huge numbers of access channels. Agricultural, 

residential, and commercial developments have caused the most destruction of wetlands in Mississippi, 

Alabama, and Florida. In Florida, recreational and tourist developments have been particularly 

destructive. Groundwater extraction, vessel traffic, the drainage of wetland soils, and the construction of 

buildings, roads, and levees have also caused the loss of wetlands. The cumulative effects of human and 

natural activities in the coastal area have severely degraded the deltaic processes and have shifted the 

coastal area from a condition of net land building to one of net land loss; therefore, wetland loss is 

expected to continue.

A WPA proposed action represents a small (<5%) portion of the OCS oil- and gas-related impacts 

that will occur over the 40-year analysis period. Impacts associated with a WPA proposed action are a 

minimal part of the overall OCS oil- and gas-related impacts. The incremental contribution of a WPA 

proposed action to the cumulative impacts to coastal wetlands is minimal compared with the impacts 

associated with non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the GOM.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search was conducted for information published on northern Gulf of Mexico wetland communities, 

and various Internet sources were examined to determine any recent information regarding these 

communities. Sources investigated include BOEM, the USGS National Wetlands Research Center, the 

USGS Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science Data Information Management System, Gulf of Mexico 

Alliance, State environmental agencies, USEPA, and coastal universities. Other websites from scientific 

publication databases (including Science Direct, Elsevier, the NOAA Central Library National 

Oceanographic Data Center, and JSTOR) were checked for new information using general Internet 

searches based on major themes. New information was found on the affected environment, including 

information on in the impacts and recovery from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response 

as well as information on marsh populations in Texas and wetland loss.

Numerous studies have been published regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response. Zengel et al. (2014) compared treatment options for oiled marshes in Barataria Bay, 

Louisiana, 3 years after the initial oiling. They found that mechanical treatment (including vegetation 

raking, cutting, and using “squeegees” to skim thick oil mousse from the marsh surface), coupled with the 

planting of Spartina alterniflora, resulted in improved habitat recovery, compared with no treatment and 

mechanical treatment alone. Judy et al. (2014) studied impacts of oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill on Phragmites australis and found strong resistance to negative impacts when oil was applied to 

shoots alone, and greater impacts when oil was applied to the soil or with repeated shoot oiling. Sublethal 

effects were observed from application of oil to the soil, but mortality was not observed. This study 

indicates that Phragmites australis may have experienced greater impacts from oiled soil than oiled 

shoots alone as a result of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. This information can 

be used to assess the impact of oil spills to wetlands. 

Michel and Rutherford (2014) reviewed 32 oil spills and field experiments and found that, in many 

cases, recovery of marshes occurred within 1-2 growing seasons, even without treatment. Recovery was 

shortest for spills in a warm climate, light to heavy oiling of the vegetation only (not the marsh surface), 

medium crude oils, and less intensive treatment. Michel and Rutherford (2014) offered treatment 

recommendations for spills based on several related criteria. This information can be also used to assess 

the impact of oil spills to wetlands, as well as provide insight into how oil-spill response can influence 

recovery.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-25

Liu and Liu (2013) investigated bacterial communities present in oil mousses collected from impacted 

salt marshes during the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Vibrio bacteria, a human 

pathogen, represented 57 percent of the community, suggesting that this indigenous genus is particularly 

responsive to weathering oil in the salt marshes.

Khanna et al. (2013) used Advanced Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data from 

Barataria Bay, Louisiana, in September 2010 and August 2011 to map oil contamination and examine the 

impacts to vegetation. They found that vegetation stress was restricted to the tidal zone, extending 14 m 

(46 ft) inland from the shoreline in 2010, with the highest stress at the shoreline, and decreasing with 

distance from the water. Khanna et al. (2013) also found varying degrees of revegetation in 2011, with 

the poorest recovery adjacent to shorelines, which is where oil stress was the highest. This study showed 

salt marsh recovery the year following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, with the 

slowest recovery in the most heavily oiled areas.

Other recent research focused on issues other than oil-spill impacts. Staszak and Armitage (2013) 

evaluated the results of salt marsh restoration projects in Galveston Bay, Texas. They found that the 

restored areas had relatively high ecological value and contributed to the integrity of the regional wetland 

landscape. This information can be used to understand the net effect of oil spills to wetlands that are 

impacted but later restored.

Glick et al. (2013) investigated the potential impact of current and accelerating sea-level rise rates on 

key coastal wetland habitats in southeastern Louisiana, using the Sea Level Affecting Marshes Model. 

Results indicate a range of potential wetland losses from 9 to 24 percent of the 2007 wetland area by 

2100, depending on whether the lowest or highest sea-level-rise scenario was used. Cypress-tupelo 

swamp is projected to be heavily impacted by permanent flooding, thereby affecting regeneration. This 

information helps to project the future status of the affected environment.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As identified in the resource analyses in this Supplemental EIS and in Chapter 

4.1.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding 

wetlands in the WPA. This incomplete or unavailable information may be relevant to this analysis 

because recent events such as the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may have caused 

changes to baseline conditions for coastal wetlands of the Gulf of Mexico. A large body of information 

regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response upon coastal wetlands is 

being developed through the NRDA process, but this information is not yet available. Other unknowns 

are future benefits from restoration projects and future impacts of sea-level rise. BOEM used existing 

information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available information 

in completing the relevant analysis, e.g., Michel and Rutherford (2014), Zengel et al. (2014), Judy et al. 

(2014), Khanna et al. (2013), Moody et al. (2013), Staszak and Armitage (2013), and Glick et al. (2013). 

These studies provide insight into the extent of impacts that could be expected from a low-probability 

catastrophic oil spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, and potential 

recovery. However, none of these sources reveal reasonably foreseeable significantly greater adverse 

impacts from an Action alternative or the No Action alternative because the WPA is an active oil and gas 

region with ongoing exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS energy-related 

factors will continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed action (e.g., commercial 

development, subsidence, and hurricanes). The potential for effects from changes to the affected 

environment (post-Deepwater Horizon), routine activities, accidental spills (including low-probability 

catastrophic spills), and cumulative effects remains whether or not the No Action or an Action alternative 

is chosen under this EIS. Impacts on wetlands from either smaller accidental events or low-probability 

catastrophic events will remain the same. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the information is not 

essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

There are also data gaps regarding the future restoration efforts being planned in coastal states, such 

as what projects will ultimately be constructed and how successful they may be. This information will 

not be available until such projects are constructed, which is not within the timeline contemplated in the 
4-26 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. However, BOEM used existing information regarding the 

effects of past projects, the plans for restoration projects currently being considered under the RESTORE 

Act, and past effects of coastal development on coastal wetlands to anticipate the benefit of restoration 

projects in the WPA. BOEM has determined that the scope of the planned restoration projects would 

likely only partially restore what was present historically along the Gulf Coast, although any restoration 

of wetlands would reduce the land loss rates. However, BOEM has determined that the incomplete 

information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives because BOEM can extrapolate the 

effects of a WPA proposed action based on the effects of past lease sales on earlier baselines and can 

reasonably use the extrapolation in current analyses.

The rate of future sea-level rise is unknown (Hausfather, 2013), but BOEM has used studies of the 

effects of sea-level rise on wetland plants, as well as a study that used a likely range of projections of sealevel rise (Glick et al., 2013) to assess the likely impacts of sea-level rise to the baseline environment. 

BOEM used this existing information to determine possible impacts of a natural non-OCS oil- and gasrelated activity on an altered coast and compare it with the possible impacts of a WPA proposed action. 

BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives because BOEM can extrapolate the effects of a WPA proposed action on expected reduced 

future acreages of wetlands based on the effects of past lease sales on earlier baselines.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for wetlands presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/246 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact 

conclusion for wetlands presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts 

detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.5. Seagrass Communities

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for seagrass communities presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for seagrass communities presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of seagrass communities, as well as the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.5.1, 4.1.1.5.2, and 4.1.1.5.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is 

provided in Chapter 4.1.1.5 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is 

presented in Chapter 4.1.1.5.4 the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.5 of the WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents were 

published is presented below.

The potential routine-impact producing factors on seagrass communities of the WPA include the 

construction of pipelines, canals, navigation channels, and onshore facilities; maintenance dredging; and 

vessel traffic (e.g., propeller scars). These factors could result in submerged vegetation beds being 

uprooted, scarred, or lost; decreased oxygen in the water; turbidity; and the burial of plants from 

suspended sediment. However, routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the WPA that may impact 

seagrasses are not predicted to significantly increase in occurrence and range in the near future. Only a 

single potential new pipeline landfall is expected as a result of a WPA proposed action. Requirements of 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-27

other Federal and State programs, such as avoidance of seagrass and submerged vegetation communities 

or the use of turbidity curtains, reduce undesirable effects on submerged vegetation beds from potentially 

harmful activities. Local programs decrease the occurrence of prop scarring in grass beds, and generally, 

channels used by OCS oil- and gas-related vessels are away from exposed submerged vegetation beds. 

Because of these requirements and implemented programs, along with the beneficial effects of natural 

flushing (e.g., from winds and currents), any potential effects from routine OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities on submerged vegetation in the WPA are expected to be short term, localized, and not 

significantly adverse.

Accidental disturbances resulting from a WPA proposed action, including oil spills and blowouts, 

have the potential to change community structure, decrease growth rates, cause death, or cause a decline 

in ecological services by seagrass communities of the WPA. Although the size would be small and the 

duration would be short term, the greatest threat to inland, submerged vegetation communities would be 

from an inland spill resulting from a vessel accident or pipeline rupture. Because pipelines can be shut 

off, ships carry limited amounts of oil, and response vessels can more easily access nearshore areas, it is 

expected that the resulting spill would be smaller and shorter than an uncontrolled offshore spill or 

blowout, resulting in short-term and localized impacts. There is also the remote possibility of an offshore 

spill to reach an extent that it could affect submerged vegetation beds, and this would have similar effects 

as an inshore spill. The resulting impacts to seagrass from contacting oil could range from the sloughing 

of epiphytes to plant death. Further, an offshore spill could result in more sinking oil (e.g., tarballs and 

patties) than an inshore spill, and oil could become entrained within seagrass root and leaf complex near 

the seafloor. Because prevention and cleanup measures can have negative effects on submerged 

vegetation, close monitoring and restrictions on the use of bottom-disturbing equipment would be needed 

to avoid or minimize those impacts. The floating nature of nondispersed crude oil, the regional microtidal 

range, the dynamic climate with mild temperatures, and the amount of microorganisms that consume oil 

would alleviate prolonged effects on submerged vegetation communities. Also, safety and spillprevention technologies are expected to continue to improve and will minimize effects to submerged 

vegetation from a WPA proposed action. Impacts to submerged vegetation from an accidental event 

related to a WPA proposed action are expected to be minimal due to the distance of most activities from 

the submerged vegetation beds and because the likelihood of an accidental event reaching submerged 

vegetation beds remains small.

The cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related activities that present the greatest threat of impacts to 

submerged vegetation communities are dredging, oil spills, and pipeline installation. In general, a WPA 

proposed action would cause a minor incremental contribution to impacts on submerged vegetation from 

related dredging, pipeline installations, and oil spills. Of those mentioned, dredging generates the greatest 

overall risk to submerged vegetation by uprooting and burying plants, decreasing oxygen in the water, 

and reducing water clarity in an area. A low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not part of a WPA 

proposed action and not likely expected, could also impact seagrass communities. Refer to Appendix B 

for more details on the impacts of a low-probability catastrophic spill. Further, non-OCS oil- and gasrelated dredging and vessel traffic, boat scarring, changes in salinity and nutrient inputs (Waycott et al., 

2009; Orth et al., 2006), changes to natural flow regimes from constructed structures, and storm events 

could continue to cause direct damage to seagrass beds by physical destruction, increased turbidity and 

burial of plants, and reduction in favorable environmental conditions for seagrass bed growth. However, 

the incremental contribution of stress from a WPA proposed action to submerged vegetation is reduced by 

the implementation of proposed lease stipulations, mitigating measures currently in place, and the small 

probability of an oil spill.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of various printed and Internet sources was conducted for any recent information published 

regarding submerged vegetation. Sources investigated include BOEM, USDOC/NOAA, the USGS 

National Wetlands Research Center, the USGS Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science Data Information 

Management System, Seagrass Watch, Gulf of Mexico Alliance, State environmental agencies, USEPA, 

and coastal universities. Other websites from scientific publication databases (including Science Direct, 

Elsevier, CSA Illumina now ProQuest, and JSTOR) were checked for new information using general 

Internet searches based on major themes. No new information that would add to the analyses or change 
4-28 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

the conclusions was discovered since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS’s. 

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the previous conclusions from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS are still valid because no new information on seagrass communities pertinent to a WPA 

proposed action has been published since the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. With regards to the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill, BOEM extrapolated existing information using reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to 

come to the conclusion that oil did not reach the seagrass communities in the WPA. The NOAA has 

estimated that the westernmost extent of visible sheens related to oil from the Deepwater Horizon

explosion extended no farther than Cameron Parish, Louisiana, which is to the east of the WPA boundary 

(Figure 1-2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS), and data collected by OSAT indicate that the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill did not reach WPA waters or sediments (OSAT, 2010). In addition, BOEM 

has not identified any other data gaps in its evaluation of seagrasses and impacts to seagrasses as a result 

of a WPA proposed action. Therefore, BOEM has determined that there is no incomplete or unavailable 

information for seagrasses at this time.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for seagrass communities presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. With 

the understanding that no new information on seagrass communities has been published since the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, no new information was discovered that would alter the previously 

presented impact conclusion for seagrass communities. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.6. Topographic Features

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for topographic features (high relief features that provide habitat 

for corals and other hard bottom communities) presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the additional 

information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion 

for topographic features presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts 

discussed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of topographic features, along with the full analysis of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.6.1, 4.1.1.6.2, and 4.1.1.6.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is 

provided in Chapter 4.1.1.6 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is 

presented in Chapter 4.1.1.6.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.6 of the WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents were 

published is presented below.

Because of the recognized importance of the topographic features, BOEM proposes attaching the 

Topographic Features Stipulation (as described in NTL 2009-G39) to OCS oil and gas leases within the 

Topographic Feature Stipulation blocks. When applied, this stipulation would prevent most of the 

potential impacts on topographic features from bottom-disturbing activities (structure removal and 

emplacement) and operational discharges associated with a WPA proposed action through avoidance. In 

addition, it would distance topographic features from possible accidental events. The stipulation would 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-29

require that bottom-disturbing activities be located at least 152 m (500 ft) from a topographic feature’s No 

Activity Zone and that drill cuttings and fluids from wells within designated shunting zones must be 

shunted to the seafloor, although shunting requirements can vary among features.

The potential routine impact-producing factors on topographic features of the WPA could include 

bottom-disturbing activities like anchoring, infrastructure emplacement or removal, and drilling-effluent 

and produced-water discharges. These factors could result in crushing and smothering of sensitive 

organisms and exposure to concentrated discharges. If the Topographic Features Stipulation is applied, it 

will minimize the potential impacts to the topographic features by distancing bottom-disturbing activities 

from the sensitive habitat. The distancing eliminates the possibility of anchors, pipelines, and structures 

being placed on top of the features, and structure-removal activity will be distanced enough to minimize 

impacts to topographic features. If any contaminants reach topographic features, they would be diluted 

from their original concentration, and impacts that may occur should be minimal. In addition to the 

mitigations, discharges or activities that could harm topographic features are regulated by other agencies, 

including discharge permit restrictions from USEPA and essential fish habitat restrictions from NOAA. 

Furthermore, the high-energy environment and prevailing water currents associated with topographic 

features would help protect the features by enabling rapid turnover of the water column.

Adverse effects from accidental disturbances resulting from a WPA proposed action could include 

surface and subsurface oil spills and blowouts. Each has the potential to disrupt and alter the 

environmental, commercial, recreational, and aesthetic values of topographic features of the WPA 

through oiling and sedimentation. The proposed Topographic Features Stipulation would assist in 

preventing most of the possible accidental impacts on topographic feature communities by increasing the 

distance of such events from the topographic features. It is expected that the majority of subsurface oil 

released during an accidental event would rise rapidly to the surface and that the most heavily oiled 

sediments in the water column would likely be deposited on the seafloor before reaching the topographic 

features. In the event that diluted oil from a subsurface spill did reach the biota of a topographic feature, 

the effects would be primarily sublethal and impacts would be at the community level. Any turbidity, 

sedimentation, and oil adsorbed to sediment particles would also be at low concentrations by the time the 

topographic features were reached, likely resulting in primarily sublethal impacts. Impacts from a surface 

oil spill on topographic features are also lessened by the distance of the spill to the features, the depth of 

the features, and the prevailing water currents that sweep around the features.

The cumulative impact from routine OCS oil- and gas-related operations includes effects resulting 

from a WPA proposed action, as well as those resulting from past and future OCS leasing. These 

operations include anchoring, structure emplacement, muds and cuttings discharge, effluent discharge, 

blowouts, oil spills, and structure removal. Without mitigation, these factors could result in the crushing 

and smothering of organisms on topographic features or exposure to concentrated discharges or oil. Lowprobability catastrophic spills could also potentially cause damage to benthic biota (refer to Appendix B

for more details). Potential non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors include vessel anchoring, SCUBA 

diving, treasure-hunting activities, import tankering, heavy storms and hurricanes, the collapse of the tops 

of the topographic features due to dissolution of the underlying salt structure, and fishing activities. 

Many of these non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors may result in physical damage to topographic 

features as well. The OCS and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities causing mechanical disturbance 

represent the greatest threat to the topographic features. Impacts from OCS oil- and gas-related activities 

would, however, be mitigated by the continued application of the proposed Topographic Features 

Stipulation. This stipulation would preclude mechanical damage caused by oil and gas leaseholders from 

impacting the benthic communities of the topographic features and would protect them from operational 

discharges by establishing a buffer around the features. As such, little impact would be incurred by the 

biota of the topographic features as a result of OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The USEPA discharge 

regulations and permits would further reduce discharge-related impacts. With the application of 

stipulations and regulations, the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative 

impact is negligible when compared with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (e.g., the NOAA Gulf Spill Restoration Publications website, 

the Environmental Response Management Application [ERMA] Gulf Response website; NOAA’s 
4-30 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Deepwater Horizon Archive Publications and Factsheets; the Gulf of Mexico Sea Grant Deepwater 

Horizon Oil Spill Research and Monitoring Activities Database; RestoreTheGulf.gov website, and the 

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Portal) and public search engines to search published journal articles, 

Federal documents, and research reports was conducted to determine the availability of recent information 

on topographic features. The search revealed new information on the affected environment that is 

pertinent to this Supplemental EIS.

Newly published research related to the corals found a high degree of population connectivity among 

the Flower Garden Banks and other coral reefs in the Florida Reef Tract and the Caribbean (GoodbodyGringley et al., 2011; Serrano 2013). Genetic similarities for shallow-water Montastraea cavernosa

populations suggest that the Flower Gardens may be an important larval source and/or that there is an 

unidentified source providing larvae throughout the region. Differences among populations in appearance 

are phenotypic rather than genetic (Goodbody-Gringley et al., 2011; Serrano 2013). As such, if further 

research determines that the Flower Gardens Banks are a larval source for the Florida Reef Tract, then 

these source corals may be more important to the ecology of the Gulf of Mexico at the landscape scale 

than previously suggested.

For the Flower Gardens, BOEM has published a study, in conjunction with the Flower Garden Banks

National Marine Sanctuary, that monitored multiple species of vertebrates and invertebrates found on the 

topographic structures (Johnston et al., 2013). They found that the reefs are among the healthiest in the 

Gulf of Mexico, with high coral cover and high species diversity. They also state that the reefs have 

maintained this status throughout a time period when OCS development has occurred in nearby blocks.

Additionally, Nash et al. (2013) reviewed the species diversity at the topographic features located off 

the southern Texas coast and found that each of these banks exhibited a high degree of diversity, but that 

research on these features has not been updated in decades. They also noted that Southern Bank was a 

good surrogate for understanding trends in biodiversity among the other banks in the region and that it 

could be used as a sentinel site to detect landscape scale changes. They also suggest that these reefs may 

have a high degree of connectivity with the Tuxpan Reef System in Mexico, emphasizing their role in 

regional ecological processes.

At Stetson Bank, a topographic feature in the WPA, DeBose et al. (2012) found that the feature has 

undergone two shifts in population structure since 1999. The result is that the community has changed 

from a coral-sponge community to an algal-dominated community. The exact causes of the shifts are 

undetermined, but it is suggested that the increased hurricane activity in 2005 and a regionwide coral 

bleaching event may have been threshold events preventing recovery of the coral-sponge community. 

This study does not implicate development of any OCS oil- and gas-related resources as a potential cause 

of the community shifts.

With respect to the actual concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s) in the 

Macondo samples collected during the NRDA process, questions have been raised about the sampling 

methodology used during the NRDA sampling cruises. Sammarco et al. (2013) criticized the technique of 

using Niskin bottles to collect at discrete positions within the water column in favor of techniques that 

collected or filtered larger quantities of water using other sampling media. Their results suggest that PAH 

concentrations may be more prevalent and more concentrated than reported by NRDA. Although the only

topographic feature they sampled was in the CPA (Sackett Bank), if exposure was higher there, the 

possibility exists that exposure to other topographic feature in the CPA and WPA may have been greater 

than previously thought.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change the conclusions found in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. However, working in deep marine systems 

is complex and requires substantial resources; as such, research on these features has been limited. Thus, 

there is a substantial amount of information that remains unknown about these features. All analyses 

discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, are based on 

incomplete information. Because topographic features are not unique to the WPA, information collected 

throughout the GOM has been used in this analysis. For example, our understanding of the possible 

impacts of surface oil spills to topographic features in the GOM was determined by combining research 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-31

on the depth and concentration of physical mixing of surface oil with the known depths of WPA 

topographic features. These results suggest that, although oil measurements were not collected at every 

feature under every condition, topographic features exist at depths deeper than lethal concentrations of oil 

would be expected (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981; Tkalich and Chan, 2002; Rezak et al., 

1983; Wyers et al., 1986). Additionally, continuous monitoring of the Flower Garden Banks since the 

1970’s for impacts related to OCS development suggests that BOEM’s Topographic Features Stipulation 

may achieve the stated objective of minimizing damage to topographic features from OCS oil- and gasrelated activities (refer to Johnston et al., 2013, and references therein). At the Flower Garden Banks, 

corals have flourished while OCS development has occurred, and in some cases, activities have taken 

place just outside the No Activity Zone. Since corals are generally considered to be more fragile than 

most other organisms found in the WPA, it is reasonable to conclude that topographic features in the 

WPA with more resilient organisms than the Flower Garden Banks have not been negatively impacted by 

OCS development in the GOM.

With respect to unavailable information in relation to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil, spill, and 

response, the majority of this information cannot be obtained because it has not been released. Relevant 

data on the status of topographic features may take years to acquire and analyze. This unavailable 

information may be relevant to adverse effects because the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response may have caused changes to baseline conditions for topographic features in the Gulf of Mexico. 

While outstanding reports are not expected to reveal reasonably foreseeably significant effects, BOEM 

nonetheless determined that additional information could not be timely acquired and incorporated into the 

current analysis. For example, if sampling techniques show that oil concentration were greater at 

topographic features in the CPA (Sammarco, 2013), then it is possible that more oil reached the 

topographic features in the WPA than previously reported. However, until this information is made 

available, it is impossible to make this determination.

BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate 

from available information in completing this analysis and formulating the conclusions presented here. 

Although the body of available information is incomplete, the evidence currently available supports past 

analyses and does not indicate severe adverse impacts to topographic features. Therefore, BOEM has 

determined that the incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for topographic features presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/ 248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information provided above. The new information presented here would not alter the 

previous impact conclusion for topographic features. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.7. Sargassum Communities

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for Sargassum communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for Sargassum communities presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

A detailed description of Sargassum communities, along with the full analyses of the potential 

impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented 

in Chapters 4.1.1.7.1, 4.1.1.7.2, and 4.1.1.7.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.7 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.7.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.7 of 

the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis incorporated 

from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 
4-32 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those documents 

were published is presented below.

Impact-producing factors associated with routine events for a WPA proposed action that could affect 

Sargassum may include the following: drilling discharges (muds and cuttings); produced water and well 

treatment chemicals; operational discharges (deck drainage, sanitary and domestic water, bilge and ballast 

water); and physical disturbance from vessel traffic and the presence of exploration and production 

structures (i.e., rigs, platforms, and MODU’s). Because Sargassum, a pelagic algae, is widely distributed 

in the upper water column near the sea surface, it may be contacted by routine discharges from oil and gas 

operations, including drilling discharges, produced water, and operational discharges (e.g., deck runoff, 

bilge water, sanitary effluent, etc., from service vessels, working platforms, and drillships). However, the 

quantity and volume of these discharges are relatively small compared with the volume of water in the 

WPA (115,645 km2

; 44,651 mi2), and the discharges are highly regulated as well as diluted with distance 

from the source, therefore reducing possible toxicity. Transiting vessels may pass through Sargassum

mats, producing slight impacts to the Sargassum community from propellers and possible impingement 

on cooling water intakes. None of these impacts associated with a WPA proposed action are expected to 

have more than minor localized effects to Sargassum mats and limited effects to the Sargassum

community as a whole. Sargassum would be resilient to the minor effects predicted because it has a 

yearly cycle that promotes quick recovery from impacts. No measurable impacts are expected to the 

overall population of the Sargassum community.

Impact-producing factors associated with accidental events that may be associated with a WPA 

proposed action that could affect Sargassum and its associated communities include surface oil and fuel 

spills and underwater well blowouts, spill-response activities, and chemical spills. These impactproducing factors would have varied effects depending on the intensity of the spill and the presence of 

Sargassum in the area of the spill. All types of spills, including surface oil and fuel spills, underwater 

well blowouts, and chemical spills, could potentially contact Sargassum algae. The quantity and volume 

of most of these spills would be relatively small compared with the pelagic waters of the WPA (115,645 

km2

; 44,651 mi2). Therefore, most spills would only contact a very small portion of the Sargassum

population. Accidental spills would likely be diluted by the Gulf water and, therefore, concentrations of 

toxic components that could potentially contaminate or kill Sargassum tissues would also be reduced in 

this scenario. The impacts to Sargassum that are associated with a WPA proposed action are expected to 

have only minor effects to a small portion of the Sargassum community. In the case of a very large spill, 

the Sargassum algae community could result in the death of a large number of plants across a 

geographically large area in the northern Gulf. The Sargassum community lives in pelagic waters with 

generally high water quality and is expected to show good resilience to the predicted effects of spills. It 

has a yearly cycle that promotes quick recovery from impacts. No measurable impacts are expected to the 

overall population of the Sargassum community as a result of accidental events associated with a WPA 

proposed action.

The cumulative impact from routine oil and gas operations includes effects resulting from a WPA 

proposed action, as well as those resulting from past and future OCS leasing. The OCS oil- and gasrelated impact-producing factors that can affect Sargassum include impingement by structures and marine 

vessels, oil and gas drilling discharges, operational discharges, and accidental spills. Of the possible 

factors, impingement, routine discharges, and accidental spills are the primary pathway that populations 

could be effected from OCS oil- and gas-related activities. However, because Sargassum communities 

are scattered, patchy, and mobile with a widespread distribution, many activities associated with a WPA 

proposed action should only result in localized and short-term effects. A low-probability catastrophic 

spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, may also cause mortality to 

Sargassum communities (refer to Appendix B for more details).

Potential non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors include impingement or destruction from shipping 

traffic, hurricanes, and coastal water quality. Shipping traffic would be the largest non-OCS oil- and gasrelated activity to impact Sargassum. However, given the ephemeral nature of Sargassum at any given 

location, it is expected that habitat changes from ships is limited because patches break up and reform 

naturally and regularly. Destruction by ships is also not expected to result in death as Sargassum plants 

do not rely on root systems and can exist as fragments. The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed 

action to the overall cumulative impacts on Sargassum communities that would result from the OCS 

Program, environmental factors, and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities is expected to be minimal.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-33

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (e.g., the NOAA Gulf Spill Restoration Publications website, 

the Environmental Response Management Application [ERMA] Gulf Response website, NOAA’s 

Deepwater Horizon Archive Publications and Factsheets, the Gulf of Mexico Sea Grant Deepwater 

Horizon Oil Spill Research and Monitoring Activities Database, RestoreTheGulf.gov website, and the 

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Portal) and public search engines to search published journal articles, 

Federal documents, and research reports was conducted to determine the availability of recent information 

on topographic features. The search revealed new information on nursery areas for Sargassum, 

Sargassum’s suitability as habitat for other organisms, and impacts related to oil and dispersant exposure.

One of the primary publications relevant to this Supplemental EIS is the identification of the 

northwest Gulf of Mexico and the area near the mouth of the Amazon River as “nursery areas” for 

Sargassum in the Sargasso Sea. Estimates suggest that between 0.6 and 6 million metric tons of 

Sargassum are present annually in the Gulf of Mexico, with an additional 100 million metric tons 

exported to the Atlantic basin (Gower and King, 2008; Gower and King, 2011; Gower et al., 2013). This 

highlights the importance of the Gulf of Mexico in the global transport of Sargassum and that, even if 

there is a catastrophic spill in the GOM at the right place and time to severely retard Sargassum

populations, the GOM is not the only source for the Sargasso Sea.

In addition, Rooker et al. (2012) quantified the use of Sargassum by billfishes in the Gulf of Mexico 

and concluded that the Sargassum biomass was not a suitable habitat for most juvenile billfishes because 

it can concentrate predators. As such, small-scale losses of Sargassum may not negatively impact billfish 

populations because billfish that settle in Sargassum may have a naturally low survival rate due to the fact 

that Sargassum also concentrates animals that prey on billfish of this size.

Powers et al. (2013) suggests that exposure to oil and/or dispersants can result in direct, sublethal, and 

indirect effects to Sargassum, resulting in death or a decrease in Sargassum-related ecosystem services. 

Therefore, if Sargassum is exposed to oil at the surface, it is expected to experience sublethal impacts, 

such as some of the plant material dying back or no longer providing a suitable habitat for other 

organisms. The Power et al. results were variable with respect to the amount of time or the rate it took for 

the plant to die back or succumb. Under normal conditions in the GOM, both species of Sargassum coexist and conditions would never be identical as the static conditions found in mesocosms. Ultimately, 

damage may occur to Sargassum if exposed to oil or dispersant; however, effects would be localized and 

variable.

The NMFS recently designated Sargassum as a critical habitat for loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) 

in the Gulf of Mexico and the northwest Atlantic (Federal Register, 2014c). In the GOM, this includes 

all Sargassum between the 10-m (33-ft) depth contour and the outer boundary of the Exclusive Economic 

Zone. This designation could impact the commercial harvest of Sargassum; however, to our knowledge 

the commercial harvest of Sargassum does not occur in the GOM. Additionally, NMFS does not expect 

that this designation would add any risk factors or any conservation measures by BOEM because sea 

turtles and their required habitats are already adequately protected through the ESA Section 7 process.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS and in Chapter 4.1.1.7 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, BOEM has identified unavailable information regarding Sargassum in the WPA. This incomplete or

unavailable information includes information on the effects of in situ oil exposure and the movement 

patterns of Sargassum. BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific 

methodologies to extrapolate in completing this analysis. BOEM determined there are few foreseeable 

significant adverse impacts to the Sargassum population associated with routine or accidental OCS events 

using publications such as Gower and King (2011), Gower et al. (2013), and Powers et al. (2013). Gower 

and King (2011) and Gower et al. (2013) suggest that Sargassum is continually present in the west-central 

GOM and that it moves in a general west to east pattern during the growing season; however, movements 
4-34 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

at a finer temporal or spatial scale are more difficult to predict. Liu et al. (2014) noted that the toxicity or 

the presence of oil across the surface waters of the GOM was also variable at any given time, suggesting 

that it is difficult to predict the effects of coming in contact with surface oil. Additionally, Lindo-Atichati 

(2012) suggested that patterns of larval fish in the surface currents in the northern GOM were not 

consistent spatially or temporally and that they were highly dependent on mesoscale current structures 

like the Loop Current and associated eddies. Combined, these studies suggest that, as Sargassum is 

passively moved in the surface waters, its presence at any given location or at given any time is difficult 

to predict, especially as the population grows exponentially during the growing season. Powers et al. 

(2013) also suggest that there were adverse effects to Sargassum under the proper conditions, but the 

spatial or temporal extent of those effects remain unknown. It is expected that, for routine or accidental 

events, the probability of enough Sargassum coming in contact with oil and dying as a result of this 

contact are low, given that oil and Sargassum are each controlled by surface currents in differential 

manners. Ultimately, the cosmopolitan nature across the northern GOM and the reproductive capabilities 

of Sargassum provide a life history that is resilient towards localized or short-term deleterious effects, like 

those expected associated with routine OCS events and noncatastrophic spills. Therefore, BOEM has 

determined that the incomplete information on Sargassum is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives and the information used in lieu of the missing information is acceptable for this analysis.

BOEM recognizes that the incomplete information with respect to possible impacts to Sargassum in 

the WPA as a result of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may be relevant to the 

evaluation of impacts. Because of this, BOEM’s subject-matter experts have used available scientifically 

credible evidence in this analysis and applied it using accepted scientific methods and approaches to 

extrapolate in completing this analysis. Sargassum communities within the WPA were likely not 

significantly affected by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, based on the best 

available information and the WPA’s distance from the Macondo well. However, information related to 

the possible adverse impacts to Sargassum in the WPA as a result of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response cannot be obtained during the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this 

Supplemental EIS because data related to research and monitoring related to the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill has yet to be completed and made publicly available. During the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and 

response, Powers et al. (2013) documented a four-fold increase in Sargassum in the north-central GOM in 

the years following the spill; however, it is unknown if this was due to natural or anthropogenic causes. It 

is expected that, although this study was completed outside of the WPA, Sargassum in the WPA would 

respond similarly. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned 

choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for Sargassum communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented above. The new information does not alter the 

previous impact conclusion for Sargassum communities. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.8. Chemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for chemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities (e.g., 

tubeworms, mussels, and clams that make their own food through symbiosis with bacteria) presented in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for chemosynthetic communities presented in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246, and 248. A detailed description of chemosynthetic 

communities, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of routine activities and accidental 

events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 4.1.1.8.1, 4.1.1.8.2, and 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-35

4.1.1.8.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 

4.1.1.8 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA 

proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.8.4 of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.8 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS,

and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of 

the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information 

that has become available since those documents were published is presented below.

Considerable mechanical damage could be inflicted upon sensitive chemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities by routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action if mitigations are not applied to 

permits. Mitigations are based on protective measures described by NTL 2009-G40, “Deepwater Benthic 

Communities,” and include distancing requirements for wells (610 m; 2,000 ft), anchors, chains, and 

pipelines (76 m; 250 ft) from sensitive habitat. This distancing also helps prevent sedimentation on 

deepwater benthic communities as a result of an accidental seafloor blowout. BOEM reviews exploration 

and production plans and pipeline applications and applies mitigations to permits to prevent impacts to 

sensitive seafloor habitats from routine oil and gas activities. Impacts from bottom-disturbing activities 

are expected to be rare because of the application of mitigations.

The potential routine impact-producing factors on chemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities of 

the WPA are bottom-disturbing activities associated with anchoring, structure emplacement, pipelaying, 

and structure removal, as well as discharges of drill cuttings, muds, and produced water. Discharges of 

produced waters on the sea surface are regulated, and chemical spills and deck runoff would be diluted in 

surface waters, having little to no effect on seafloor habitats. If a high-density community is subjected to 

direct impacts by bottom-disturbing activities, potentially severe or catastrophic impacts could occur due 

to raking of the sea bottom by anchors and anchor chains, and partial or complete burial by muds and 

cuttings. The severity of such an impact is such that there would be incremental losses of productivity, 

reproduction, community relationships, and overall ecological functions of the local community, and 

incremental damage to ecological relationships with the surrounding benthos. However, impacts from 

bottom-disturbing activities directly on chemosynthetic communities are expected to be extremely rare 

because of the application of the required protective measures described by NTL 2009-G40, “Deepwater

Benthic Communities,” which distances bottom-disturbing activities from sensitive deepwater benthic 

communities. Because of the avoidance policies described in NTL 2009-G40, the risk of these physical 

impacts are greatly reduced by requiring the avoidance of potential chemosynthetic communities.

Accidental events that could impact chemosynthetic communities are primarily limited to seafloor 

blowouts and subsea oil spills. A blowout at the seafloor could create a crater and could resuspend and 

disperse large quantities of bottom sediments. This could bury organisms located within that distance to 

some degree, possibly eliminating some communities and preventing recolonization, depending on 

bottom-current conditions. The application of avoidance criteria for chemosynthetic communities 

described in NTL 2009-G40 precludes the placement of a well within 610 m (2,000 ft) of any suspected 

site of a chemosynthetic community, therefore distancing the chemosynthetic community from heavy 

sedimentation resulting from a possible blowout, with only light sediment components able to reach the 

communities in small quantities. Accidental impacts associated with a WPA proposed action would 

likely result in only minimal impacts to chemosynthetic communities. One exception would be in the 

case of a subsea oil spill combined with the application of dispersant or high-pressure ejection of oil. If 

dispersants are applied to an oil spill or if oil is ejected under high pressure, oil could mix into the water 

column, could be carried by underwater currents, and could eventually contact the seafloor in some form, 

either concentrated (near the source) or decayed (farther from the source), where it may impact patches of 

chemosynthetic community habitat in its path. The possible impacts, however, will be localized due to 

the directional movement of oil plumes by the water currents and because the sensitive habitats have a 

scattered, patchy distribution. Oil plumes that remain in the water column for longer periods would 

disperse and decay, having only minimal effect. The farther the dispersed oil travels, the more diluted the 

oil will become as it mixes with surrounding water. Therefore, accidental impacts associated with a WPA 

proposed action would likely result in only minimal impacts to chemosynthetic communities with 

adherence to the proposed biological stipulation and the guidelines described in NTL 2009-G40.

Cumulative factors considered to impact the deepwater benthic communities (>300 m; 984 ft) of the 

Gulf of Mexico include both OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities. 

Cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related impacts to deepwater communities in the Gulf of Mexico are 
4-36 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

considered negligible because of the application of BOEM’s avoidance criteria as described in NTL 

2009-G40. The most serious, impact-producing factor threatening chemosynthetic communities is 

physical disturbance of the seafloor, which could destroy the organisms of these communities. Such 

disturbance would most likely come from those OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with 

pipelaying, anchoring, structure emplacement, and seafloor blowouts. Drilling discharges and 

resuspended sediments have a potential to cause minor, mostly sublethal impacts to chemosynthetic 

communities, but substantial sediment accumulations could result in more serious impacts. Possible 

catastrophic oil spills (Appendix B) due to seafloor blowouts have the potential to devastate localized 

deepwater benthic habitats. However, these events are rare and would only affect a small portion of the 

sensitive benthic habitat in the Gulf of Mexico.

The non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors include activities such as commercial 

fishing, trawling, storm impacts, and climate change. Fishing and trawling could potentially crush, 

topple, and remove chemosynthetic communities in the path of the gear. Because of the water depths 

where chemosynthetic communities live (>300 m; 984 ft) and because of the low density of potentially 

commercially valuable fishery species, these activities are not expected to substantially impact deepwater

benthic communities. However, if trawling were to occur over a chemosynthetic community, the 

community may be devastated. Regionwide and even global impacts from CO2 build-up and proposed 

methods to sequester carbon in the deep sea (e.g., ocean fertilization) are not expected to have major 

impacts to deepwater habitats in the near future. This is because changes to water temperature and pH 

from the CO2 would not reach extremes at the water depths where chemosynthetic communities occur. 

Therefore, non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities are not expected to impact chemosynthetic 

communities. The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to cumulative impacts is expected 

to be slight and to result from the effects of the possible impacts caused by physical disturbance of the 

seafloor and minor impacts from sediment resuspension or drill cutting discharges. Adverse impacts will 

be limited but not completely eliminated by adherence to the guidelines described in NTL 2009-G40.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A broad Internet search for relevant new information and scientific journal articles made available 

since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS was conducted using a publicly available search engine. The 

websites for Federal and State agencies, as well as other organizations, were reviewed for newly released 

information. Sources investigated include the NOAA Ocean Exploration website, the Gulf of Mexico 

Alliance, USEPA, USGS, and coastal universities. The search did not reveal any new information that is 

relevant to this Supplemental EIS.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the previous conclusions from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS are still valid because no new information on chemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities pertinent to the proposed action has been published since the release of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental 

EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.8 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, there remains incomplete or unavailable 

information on the location of chemosynthetic communities in the GOM as well as the effects of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on chemosynthetic communities that could 

potentially be relevant to this analysis.

BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding the abundance and distribution 

of chemosynthetic communities in the GOM. To fill that data gap, BOEM’s subject-matter experts 

extrapolated existing data using accepted scientific methodologies. BOEM’s subject-matter experts use a 

database of 3D seismic data used to interpret the relationship between reflectivity of the seafloor (an 

indicator of hard substrate for attachment) and the occurrence of potential habitat for chemosynthetic 

communities. Similarly, sidescan-sonar data is also used to determine the presence of likely habitat. 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-37

These surveys are used when deepwater exploration and development plans are reviewed to ensure that 

chemosynthetic communities are not impacted by OCS oil- and gas-related activities as required in NTL 

2009-G40. This information is sufficient in assisting BOEM in identifying areas that should be avoided 

for OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The confirmed presence of chemosynthetic communities in areas 

predicted to have likely habitat via reflectivity or sidescan-sonar data indicates that BOEM is currently 

able to effectively protect these communities from OCS oil- and gas-related activities. Therefore, BOEM 

has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives because 

BOEM reviews plans on a case-by-case basis to reduce the possibility of impacting chemosynthetic 

communities and because existing information has shown that current survey interpretation provides for 

an appropriate means for protecting these communities.

BOEM has also identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding impacts to 

chemosynthetic communities from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Information 

on possible impacts to chemosynthetic communities in the WPA may be relevant to the affected 

environment because recent events such as the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may 

have caused changes to baseline conditions for such communities in the Gulf of Mexico. Information 

regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response upon deepwater 

chemosynthetic communities is being developed through the NRDA process, but this information is not 

yet available and cannot reasonably be obtained within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of 

this Supplemental EIS. In lieu of this incomplete information, BOEM extrapolated existing information 

using scientifically accepted methodologies. Existing information suggests that chemosynthetic 

communities did not experience significant adverse impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response. Numerous cruises using research ships, submersibles, and drift cameras investigated 

the seafloor in the area surrounding the well site (USDOC, NOAA, 2011a and 2011b). Damage to 

chemosynthetic communities in the vicinity of the Macondo well has not been reported to date (Shedd, 

2014). Furthermore, due to the distance of chemosynthetic communities within the WPA from the 

Macondo well, they were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response. Based on available information, it has not been demonstrated that the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response impacted or changed the baseline for 

chemosynthetic communities in the WPA. Therefore, based on the distance of the chemosynthetic 

communities in the WPA from the Macondo well and the data from surveys post-Macondo that do not 

show impacts to chemosynthetic communities, BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is 

not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for chemosynthetic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for chemosynthetic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated 

in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.9. Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for nonchemosynthetic communities (deep coral reefs and 

communities) presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No 

new information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for nonchemosynthetic 

communities presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of nonchemosynthetic communities, along with the full analyses of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are 
4-38 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

presented in Chapters 4.1.1.9.1, 4.1.1.9.2, and 4.1.1.9.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and 

updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.9 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.9.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 

4.1.1.9 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since 

those documents were published is also presented below.

Considerable mechanical damage could be inflicted upon sensitive nonchemosynthetic deepwater 

benthic communities by routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with a WPA proposed 

action if mitigations are not applied to permits. Mitigations are based on the protective measures 

described by NTL 2009-G40, “Deepwater Benthic Communities,” and include distancing requirements 

for wells (610 m; 2,000 ft), anchors, chains, and pipelines (76 m; 250 ft) from sensitive habitat. This 

distancing also helps prevent sedimentation and deposition of oil on deepwater benthic communities as a 

result of an accidental seafloor blowout. BOEM reviews exploration and production plans and pipeline 

applications, and applies mitigations to permits to prevent impacts to sensitive seafloor habitats from 

routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities. Impacts from routine and accidental events are expected to be 

rare because of the application of mitigations.

Routine bottom-disturbing activities (i.e., anchoring, structure and pipeline emplacement, and drill 

cuttings discharge) associated with a WPA proposed action could crush or smother deepwater benthic 

communities. Drilling discharges could bury sessile organisms. Structure and pipeline emplacement 

could destroy carbonate substrates crucial for the attachment of sessile organisms. However, these 

activities are expected to cause little to no damage to the ecological function or biological productivity of 

deepwater live bottom communities (deep coral reefs) due to the consistent application of BOEM’s 

protection policies as described in NTL 2009-G40. Information included in required hazards surveys for 

oil and gas activities depicts areas that could potentially harbor nonchemosynthetic communities. These 

data allow BOEM to require avoidance of any areas that are conducive to the growth of sensitive hard 

bottom communities. The same geophysical conditions associated with the potential presence of 

chemosynthetic communities (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.8) also results in the potential occurrence of hard 

carbonate substrate and other associated deepwater live bottom communities. Because of the distancing 

requirements for bottom-disturbing activities (i.e., anchoring, structure and pipeline emplacement, and 

drill cuttings discharges) published in BOEM’s NTL 2009-G40 guidelines, these communities are 

generally avoided in exploration and development planning. Therefore, impacts on sensitive deepwater 

communities from routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with a WPA proposed action 

would be minimal to none.

Accidental events that could impact nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities are primarily 

limited to seafloor blowouts and resultant subsea oil spills. A blowout at the seafloor could create a crater 

and could resuspend and disperse large quantities of bottom sediments within a 300-m (984-ft) radius 

from the blowout site. This could destroy any organisms located within that distance by burial or 

modification of narrow habitat quality requirements, depending on bottom-current conditions, and 

possibly prevent reestablishment. Rapid burial in sediment could be lethal for all benthic organisms. 

Subsea oil spills caused by blowouts could devastate local patches of habitat where a subsea oil plume 

physically contacts the seafloor. Any possible impacts would be localized due to the directional 

movement of an oil plume by the water currents and because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, 

patchy distribution. It is also possible that some corals may have a tolerance to limited oil exposure and 

may recover after exposure (Quattrini et al., 2013). However, the application of avoidance criteria for 

deepwater coral communities described in NTL 2009-G40 precludes the placement of a well within 

610 m (2,000 ft) of any suspected site of a deepwater coral community, therefore distancing the 

deepwater coral community from sedimentation and concentrated oil contact resulting from a possible 

blowout.

Cumulative factors considered to impact the deepwater benthic communities (>300 m; 984 ft) of the 

Gulf of Mexico include both OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with pipelaying, anchoring, structure emplacement, drilling 

discharges, and seafloor blowouts have the potential to impact nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities. The most serious, impact-producing factor threatening nonchemosynthetic communities is 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-39

physical disturbance of the seafloor, which could destroy the organisms of these communities. Such 

disturbance would most likely come from those OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with 

pipelaying, anchoring, and structure emplacement. Anchoring and pipeline and structure emplacement 

have the potential to crush deepwater benthic communities. Drilling discharges and resuspended 

sediments have a potential to cause minor, mostly sublethal impacts to nonchemosynthetic communities, 

but substantial accumulations could result in more serious impacts. Possible effects of an oil spill could 

be no discernible effect (for well-dispersed oil undergoing biodegradation), lack of growth, interruption 

of reproductive cycles, loss of gamete viability, tissue damage, death of affected organisms, and a 

reduction in the areas of distribution of species, depending on the amount and duration of contamination. 

Major impacts to localized benthic habitat are possible in the event of a low-probability catastrophic 

blowout on the seafloor (refer to Appendix B for more details). However, a low-probability catastrophic 

oil spill is not part of a WPA proposed action and is not likely expected to occur. Therefore, cumulative 

impacts to deepwater communities in the Gulf of Mexico are considered negligible because of the 

application of the avoidance criteria described in NTL 2009-G40, which distances bottom-disturbing 

activities from sensitive habitats.

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities include fishing and trawling at a relatively small scale; largescale factors include storm impacts and climate change, CO2 build-up, and proposed methods to sequester 

carbon in the deep sea. Among the activities unrelated to the OCS Program (non-OCS oil and gas 

impact-producing factors), fishing and trawling represent the greatest possible threat to 

nonchemosynthetic communities and associated fish communities as a result of habitat destruction and 

overfishing (Kaiser, 2004). The impacts on deepwater fisheries in the GOM associated with deepwater 

coral habitat as a result of trawling activity are unknown, but because of the water depths (>300 m; 

984 ft) and the low density of potentially commercially valuable fishery species in areas associated with 

these communities, fishing and trawling are not expected to severely impact deepwater benthic 

communities. Regionwide and even global impacts from climate change, CO2 build-up, and proposed 

methods to sequester carbon in the deep sea (e.g., ocean fertilization) are not expected to have major 

impacts to deepwater habitats in the near future. More distant scenarios could include severe impacts. 

Storms generally cause little to no impacts at the depths (>300 m; 984 ft) that nonchemosynthetic 

communities occur. A storm could potentially cause some type of accident that could then cause 

secondary impacts, such as shipwrecks that could crush nonchemosynthetic communities, but such 

occurrences would be rare. State oil and gas activities are not expected to impact deepwater benthic 

communities due to the great distance between such activities and water depths of >300 m (984 ft).

The OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impacts on deepwater coral or other high-density, hard 

bottom communities are expected to be negligible and to cause little damage to their overall ecological 

function or biological productivity because of BOEM’s biological review process and the policies 

described in NTL 2009-G40, which physically distances petroleum-producing activities from sensitive 

deepwater benthic communities. The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to cumulative 

impacts is expected to be slight and to result from the effects of the possible impacts caused by physical 

disturbance of the seafloor and minor impacts from sediment resuspension or drill cutting discharges. 

Adverse impacts will be limited but not completely eliminated by adherence to the guidelines described in 

NTL 2009-G40. Localized impacts of a blowout still may occur.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

Internet websites visited included four Federal agencies (USEPA, USGS, NOAA [including 

Deepwater Horizon Bibliography], and BOEM), five coastal universities or universities with coastal 

divisions (University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Louisiana State University, Texas A&M University, 

University of Texas at Austin Marine Science Institute College of Natural Sciences, and Florida State 

University), several various stakeholders (Sierra Club, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Nature 

Conservancy, Gulf of Mexico Alliance, and Gulf of Mexico Program), and Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium (“Effects of Offshore Oil and Gas Development: A Current Awareness Bibliography”). 

Where applicable, websites of subdivisions of many of these agencies, universities, and stakeholders were 

also searched. Environmental journal articles were also located online using four search engines (JSTOR, 

EBSCO, Google Advanced Scholar Search, and Google Advanced Book Search). Three of the search 

engines collectively searched all of the ecology journals of six major publishers (John Wiley and Sons, 
4-40 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Springer, Elsevier Science, Taylor and Francis Group, Cambridge University Press, and Oxford 

University Press). New information was found on habitat preferences for deepwater corals, as well as 

information on impacts from sedimentation and oil exposure.

Cold (deep) water corals generally require high-energy macroenvironments (relatively fast currents) 

for resuspending sediment food particles; subsequent delivery of food; provision of oxygen; and removal 

of waste, carbon dioxide, and sediment. Such macroenvironments are more likely to be found at 

topographic features on the seafloor that provide substrate for attachment. These macroenvironments 

were modeled by using state-of-the-art analyses of bathymetry data using ecological niche models 

incorporating the efficacious, well-vetted maximum entropy algorithm at scales that could be relevant 

(Quattrini et al., 2013). Quattrini et al. (2013) found that broken shells and coral rubble within soft 

bottom environments can provide sufficient substrate for settlement and growth of Callogorgia spp. 

(common octocorals). Quattrini et al. (2013) suggest that Callogorgia spp. attached to such substrates 

could recruit and grow on flat or even concave surfaces. The presence of topographic features did not 

appear to be a significant factor positively affecting the presence of the genus (Quattrini et al., 2013). 

This new information is important because it shows that some deepwater corals may attach to broken 

shells or rubble scattered within areas preferential for drilling (soft bottom environments) and could be 

impacted because small patches of substrate do not always show up on surveys conducted to find 

probable deepwater coral habitat because the substrate is smaller than the detection limits of the survey 

equipment. For more information on soft bottom benthic communities, refer to Chapter 4.1.1.10. 

Additional research has indicated that, if a well is located too close to deepwater coral habitat, 

damage may occur to the corals. Experiments with sediment and cold-water corals affirm possible lethal 

or sublethal impacts of anthropogenic sedimentation from drill cuttings (Allers et al., 2013). Branching 

coral varieties (e.g., Lophelia pertusa) have a structure that creates low-energy microenvironments inside 

the thickets, where experiments suggest the occurrence of lethal or sublethal impacts of drill cuttings 

(Allers et al., 2013). These studies reaffirm the necessity for distancing wells from deepwater coral 

habitats so that the corals are protected from the accumulation of drill cuttings.

A new study has investigated the association of deepwater corals with oil seeps from the seafloor 

(Quattrini et al., 2013). An investigation of octocorals of the genus Callogorgia (using ecological niche 

models) documented depth and seep activity as the most significant contributing factors on realized 

niches of these corals (Quattrini et al., 2013). Callogorgia gracilis was documented at the shallowest 

depths (222-317 m; 728-1,040 ft), followed by C. americana americana (361-364 m; 1,184-1,194 ft) and 

C. americana delta (403-914 m; 1,322-2,999 ft). Among these species, C. americana delta, the coral 

found at the deepest depths, was the only octocoral found in association with seep activity, indicating this 

coral could “possess mechanisms for dealing with natural levels of exposure to hydrocarbons” (Quattrini 

et al., 2013). This research indicates that such an adaptation could result in resilience after exposure to oil 

from a blowout. 

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or unavailable 

information. As discussed in this Supplement EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.9 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information for impacts related to the location of deepwater corals 

in the GOM, toxicity of oil to deepwater corals, impacts on deepwater fish communities due to impacts on 

nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities, and impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response. At present, the best available information does not provide data for a complete 

understanding of these four data gaps. BOEM used reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to 

extrapolate from existing information in completing this analysis and formulating the conclusions 

presented here.

BOEM’s database of known deepwater benthic communities is incomplete. This database is used 

when deepwater exploration and development plans are reviewed to ensure that deepwater corals are not 

impacted by OCS oil- and gas-related activities. In order to fill this data gap, BOEM’s subject-matter 

experts identify probable habitat for deepwater corals using a database of 3D seismic data, which provides 

the locations of 28,000 features that could represent such communities, in conjunction with side-scan 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-41

SONAR data and site-specific, high-resolution surveys to identify sensitive habitat and communities. 

BOEM’s database of 3D seismic anomalies is well suited to the identification of general areas in which 

favorable coral habitat may occur and is sufficient in assisting BOEM in identifying areas that should be 

avoided for OCS oil- and gas-related activities. However, these surveys may not be sufficiently high 

resolution for the identification of small, scattered hard substrate, as discussed by Quattrini et al. (2013). 

Small patches of shell and rubble substrate are commonly observed in soft bottom habitat near active and 

inactive seep sites, which frequently occur in areas targeted for OCS oil- and gas-related activities. If 

data are sparse or indicate additional detail is warranted, this data gap may be additionally filled by sitespecific video or photographic surveys to obtain this information. Despite these procedures, some 

communities scattered throughout predominantly soft bottom habitat may still be impacted if seafloor 

surveys do not suggest deepwater coral habitat is present. However, BOEM has determined that the 

incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives because BOEM reviews 

plans on a case-by-case basis to reduce the possibility of impacting deepwater coral habitat.

Information on the toxic impacts of oil on deepwater corals is unavailable. An investigation of 

several deepwater octocorals and their association with oil seeps indicated that one species was found in 

association with oil seeps. The results of this study indicate that this coral could “possess mechanisms for 

dealing with natural levels of exposure to hydrocarbons” (Quattrini et al., 2013). Such an adaptation 

could result in resilience after exposure to oil from a blowout. It is possible that, if this coral may be 

tolerant of oil exposure, there may be others as well; however, that information is not known at this time. 

BOEM has determined that the tolerance of deepwater corals to oil exposure is not essential to a reasoned 

choice among alternatives because BOEM requires that OCS oil- and gas-related activities are sufficiently 

distanced from wells and because exposure from accidental events is unlikely.

Harm to nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities as a result of bottom trawling would 

have an uncertain impact on deepwater bottom fisheries. In place of unavailable information on 

commercial fishing impacts on deepwater fisheries in areas of deepwater coral habitat, existing 

information on commercial fishing activity in the deep GOM shows that, unlike other areas in the Atlantic 

Ocean and in Europe, bottom-fishing and trawling efforts in the deeper water of the WPA are currently 

minimal, and areas where royal red shrimp are obtained are in soft bottom communities (CSA, 2002). 

The primary Gulf grounds are restricted to the upper continental slope off the Mississippi Delta (off 

Mississippi and Alabama) (CSA, 2002). Grounds there are blue-black terrigenous silt and greenish mud, 

and any known hard bottom (potential nonchemosynthetic communities) would not be trawled (CSA, 

2002). The monetary value of seafood is not worth the expense and trouble of deepwater trawling except 

to a few fishermen (CSA, 2002). The minimal fishery and minimal areal extent of potential 

nonchemosynthetic communities that are inside the outer boundaries of the fishery indicate that the 

footprint of the fishery would not likely overlap with the footprint of an impacted deepwater benthic 

community. Also, nonchemosynthetic communities are widely distributed in the Gulf, mostly outside the 

narrowly distributed area of royal red shrimp grounds. Therefore, impacts on such communities as a 

whole are expected to be negligible. In conclusion, available information consistent with acceptable 

scientific reasoning shows that commercial fishing impacts on nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities are expected to cause only negligible impacts on deepwater fisheries.

Nonchemosynthetic communities within the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree 

by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response because of the WPA’s distance from the 

Macondo well. Information on possible impacts to nonchemosynthetic communities in the WPA may be 

relevant to the affected environment because recent events such as the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response may have caused changes to baseline conditions for such communities in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Studies in the CPA have indicated that deepwater corals 7 mi (11 km) southeast of the spill 

location were damaged following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (White et al., 

2012). Additional information regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response on deepwater nonchemosynthetic communities is being developed through the NRDA process, 

but this information is not yet available and cannot reasonably be obtained within the timeline 

contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS, and the overall costs in time and money to 

collect these data are exorbitant. BOEM recognizes that the incomplete information with respect to longterm effects may be relevant to the evaluation of impacts on nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities. However, the distance of the WPA from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response and the lack of published information from this in the WPA makes it likely that the Deepwater 
4-42 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response had negligible impacts to the WPA. Therefore, BOEM has 

determined that the incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for nonchemosynthetic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for nonchemosynthetic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated 

in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248. Regarding incomplete information and the existing information 

used in its place, BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned 

choice among alternatives.

4.1.1.10.Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for soft bottom benthic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for soft bottom benthic communities presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS.

A detailed description of soft bottom benthic communities, along with the full analysis of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are 

presented in Chapters 4.1.1.10.1, 4.1.1.10.2, and 4.1.1.10.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.10 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.10.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.10 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since 

those documents were published is presented below.

A majority of the oil and gas exploration in the GOM is conducted on soft seafloor sediments, 

directly impacting soft bottom benthic communities. Routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities result in 

a number of impact-producing factors, including seafloor disturbances (e.g., anchoring, trenching, 

infrastructure emplacement, and infrastructure removal), waste discharge (e.g., drilling muds and cuttings 

from oil and gas operations), and resuspension of sediments (e.g., pipeline burial and decommissioning 

operations). Disturbances of soft bottom benthic communities cause localized disruptions to benthic 

community composition and an alteration in food sources for some large invertebrate and finfish species. 

Analysis of these routine activities has identified only localized and short-term impacts to soft bottom 

benthic communities. Any activity that may affect the soft bottom communities would only impact a 

small portion of the overall area of the seafloor of the Gulf of Mexico. Because the soft bottom substrate 

is ubiquitous throughout the Gulf of Mexico, there are no lease stipulations to avoid these communities; 

however, other routine practices restrict detrimental activities that could cause undue harm to benthic 

habitats (e.g., discharge restrictions, debris regulations, and NPDES permits).

Accidental oil spills or blowouts associated with OCS oil- and gas-related activities can disturb 

infaunal communities. Because of the proportionately small area that OCS oil- and gas-related activities 

occupy on the seafloor, only a very small portion of Gulf of Mexico’s soft bottom benthic communities 

would experience impacts as a result of blowouts and oil spills. The greatest impacts would likely occur 

closest to the source of the spill, and impacts would rapidly decrease with increased distance from the 

source. Contact with spilled oil outside the vicinity of the event would likely cause sublethal to negligible 

effects to benthic invertebrates and finfishes. Oil deposited on sediment communities could result in 

changes to local community structure. The organic enrichment of impacted sediments may result in 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-43

altered sediment communities as bacteria degrade deposited organic matter. This response can lead to 

hypoxic conditions and a series of altered community structures until the organic matter is depleted and 

surface sediments return to an oxygenated state (Neff, 2005). Although an oil spill may have some 

detrimental impacts, especially closest to the occurrence of the spill, the impacts may be no greater than 

natural fluctuations (Clark, 1982), and impacts would affect a relatively small portion of the seafloor.

The cumulative analysis considers activities that have occurred, are currently occurring, and could 

occur and adversely affect the soft bottoms of the Gulf of Mexico for the years 2012-2051. Long-term 

OCS oil- and gas- related activities are not expected to adversely impact the entire soft bottom 

environment of the GOM because the locally impacted areas are small in comparison with the entire area 

of the GOM. The OCS impacts from seafloor disturbances, discharge of drilling muds and cuttings, and 

resuspension of sediments may have locally devastating impacts, but impacted communities are 

repopulated relatively quickly and the cumulative effect on the overall seafloor and benthic communities 

would be negligible. Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities such as storms, sand mining, trawling, State 

oil and gas activities, and hypoxia are likely to impact the soft bottom communities more frequently than 

do OCS oil- and gas-related activities. In some areas, soft bottom benthic communities remain in an early 

successional stage due to the frequency of natural and anthropogenic disturbances. The incremental 

contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impact is expected to be minor.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM has examined newly available information for findings that may impact analyses of routine, 

accidental, and cumulative OCS activities and potentially alter previous conclusions. A search of Internet 

information sources and scientific journals was conducted to determine the availability of recent 

information (including NMFS databases, the NOAA Gulf Spill Restoration Publications website, the Gulf 

of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC) website, Science Direct, EBSCO, Elsevier, PLoS 

ONE, JSTOR, and BioOne). Since preparation of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, new information relevant to 

an analysis of the potential impacts of OCS oil- and gas-related activities on soft bottom benthic 

communities has been published.

Several new studies suggest that the community structure of microbial communities can be influenced 

by the presence of oil, the weathered state of oil, and the chemical composition of oil (Kimes et al., 2013; 

Liu and Liu, 2013; Mason et al., 2014). These studies also document shifts in community structure as the 

environment transitions from aerobic to anaerobic, such as may occur as a result of excessive aerobic 

biodegradation of hydrocarbons. Data also suggest that PAH’s are more persistent in deep-sea sediments 

and that degradation of these molecules may occur at a reduced rate when compared with other 

hydrocarbons (Kimes et al., 2013; Mason et al., 2014). The consequences of the slow breakdown of 

PAH’s on sediment communities remain unknown; however, these studies suggest that the microbial 

community exhibits a high degree of community resiliency and may revert to a structure similar to prespill conditions once the PAH’s are consumed. These findings support previous impact analyses because 

they indicate that lower-order soft bottom benthic communities’ structure may transition rapidly when 

exposed to changing environmental conditions, demonstrating significant resiliency. Our conclusions, 

which are based on new research, agree with earlier analyses indicating that only a small portion of the 

GOM seafloor and associated benthic organisms would be impacted by oil exposure and that populationlevel responses are not realistically expected.

An investigation of niche divergence among octocorals of the genus Callogorgia documented depth 

and the presence of hydrocarbon seep activity as the most significant contributing factors on niche 

preference (Quattrini et al., 2013). The study also noted that “flat or even concave surfaces with

broken/dead shells or coral rubble” provided sufficient substrate for settlement and growth of these corals 

(Quattrini et al., 2013). This new information is important because small patches of shell and rubble 

substrate are commonly observed in soft bottom habitat near active and inactive seep sites, which 

frequently occur in areas targeted for OCS oil- and gas-related activities. Shell and coral rubble were not 

previously considered suitable substrate for coral when analyzing the potential impacts to deepwater coral 

habitat. In addition, Allers et al. (2013) reported that the coral species Lophelia pertusa, if not completely 

buried by sediment, is capable of surviving episodic sedimentation from suspended sediment loads 

comparable to those expected from anthropogenic activities, such as intermittent drilling discharges. This 
4-44 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

information, along with the presence of some deepwater corals in association with cold seeps, indicates 

that some deepwater corals are may be more tolerant of hydrocarbon and sediment exposure than 

previously realized. For additional information on deepwater corals, refer to Chapter 4.1.1.9. Chapter 

4.1.1.9 also discusses the methodology used to identify habitat capable of supporting deepwater corals 

and the surveys and reviews conducted to help identify these small patches of deepwater corals that may 

be found scattered among soft bottom benthic communities.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or unavailable 

information. As discussed in Chapter 4.1.1.10 of the 2012-2017 Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete 

information for impacts related to the distribution and abundance of deepwater corals in areas of 

predominantly soft bottom habitat; the long-term effects of persistent PAH’s (Kimes et al., 2013; Liu and 

Liu, 2013; Mason et al., 2014), and the long-term effects of episodic sedimentation events (Allers et al., 

2013; Kimes et al., 2013; Liu and Liu, 2013; Mason et al., 2014).

Although the distribution and abundance of deepwater corals in areas of predominantly soft bottom

habitat is not known, BOEM uses reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from 

existing information when locating communities and suitable substrates potentially impacted by proposed 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities. Data produced using several seafloor survey methods are analyzed to 

identify potential deepwater coral habitat. Refer to Chapter 4.1.1.9 for more detail on these surveys and 

reviews. BOEM has determined the incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives because BOEM reviews plans and surveys on a case-by-case basis to reduce the possibility of 

impacting deepwater coral habitat.

The cumulative impacts of OCS oil and gas exploration and development may result in locally 

significant impacts to soft bottom benthic communities. However, soft bottom communities are abundant 

throughout the GOM and the area of the seafloor impacted by OCS oil- and gas-related activities is very 

small in comparison with the overall area of soft bottom habitat in the GOM. Analysis of available 

information did not identify any reasonably foreseeable impacts extending beyond localized responses to 

persistent PAH’s or sedimentation events among soft bottom inhabitants (Kimes et al., 2013; Liu and Liu, 

2013; Mason et al., 2014).

Soft bottom benthic communities within the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree 

by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response because of the WPA’s distance from the 

Macondo well. Although information on possible impacts to soft bottom benthic communities in the 

WPA may be relevant to the baseline conditions of the affected environment, incomplete information and 

other relevant data regarding the status and function of soft bottom benthic communities, including that 

being developed through the NRDA process, may take years to acquire and analyze and cannot be 

obtained in the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. BOEM used 

reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from existing information in completing the 

analysis of impacts to soft bottom benthic communities and subsequent recovery. The new information 

summarized above indicates that microbial communities transition rapidly when exposed to changing 

environmental conditions and demonstrate significant resiliency (Kimes et al., 2013; Liu and Liu, 2013; 

Mason et al., 2014). Although the body of available information is incomplete or long-term effects 

cannot yet be known, the evidence currently available supports past analyses and does not indicate severe 

adverse impacts to the soft bottom benthic communities of the WPA or entire GOM as a result of OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is not 

essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for soft bottom benthic communities based on the additional 

information provided above. The accumulated data used in this and previous analyses do not indicate 

significant population-level impacts to soft bottom benthic communities. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for soft bottom benthic communities presented in the 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-45

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.11.Marine Mammals

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for marine mammals presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for marine mammals presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of marine mammals, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.11.1, 4.1.1.11.2, and 4.1.1.11.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.11 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.11.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.11 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those 

documents were published is presented below.

Operators must adhere to certain NTL’s while conducting OCS oil- and gas-related activities in order 

to reduce impacts to marine mammals. The operator’s reaffirmed compliance with NTL 2012-JOINTG01 (“Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting”) and NTL 2012-BSEEG01 (“Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and Elimination”), as well as the limited scope, timing, and 

geographic location of a WPA proposed action, would result in negligible effects from the proposed 

drilling activities on marine mammals. In addition, NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, “Implementation of Seismic 

Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program,” minimizes the potential of harm 

from seismic operations to marine mammals. These mitigations include onboard observers, airgun shutdowns for whales in the exclusion zone, ramp-up procedures, and the use of a minimum sound source.

The routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 that could potentially 

affect marine mammals include the following: the degradation of water quality from operational 

discharges; noise generated by aircraft, vessels, operating platforms, and drillships; vessel traffic; 

explosive structure removals; seismic surveys; and marine debris from service vessels and OCS 

structures. Some routine activities related to a WPA proposed action have the potential to have adverse, 

but not significant, impacts to marine mammal populations in the Gulf of Mexico. Impacts from vessel 

traffic, structure removals, and seismic activity could negatively impact marine mammals and have the 

potential to harm or harass marine mammal species by increasing noise levels. These activities, when 

mitigated as required by BOEM and NMFS (through the requirements of ESA consultation), are not 

expected to have long-term impacts on the size and productivity of any marine mammal species or 

population. Mitigation reduces the risk of harassing or harming marine mammal species. Other routine 

activities such as; aircraft activity, drilling and production noise, discharges, and marine debris are 

expected to have negligible effects.

Impact-producing factors associated with accidental events that may be associated with a WPA 

proposed action that could affect marine mammals include blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response 

activities. Accidental events related to a WPA proposed action have the potential to have adverse, but not 

significant, impacts to marine mammal populations in the Gulf of Mexico. Characteristics of impacts 

(i.e., acute vs. chronic impacts) depend on the magnitude, frequency, location, and date of accidents; 

characteristics of spilled oil; spill-response capabilities and timing; and various meteorological and 

hydrological factors. Oil spills may cause chronic (long-term lethal or sublethal oil-related injuries) and 

acute (spill-related deaths occurring during a spill) effects on marine mammals. Long-term effects 
4-46 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

include decreases in prey availability and abundance because of increased mortality rates, change in ageclass population structure because certain year-classes were impacted more by oil, decreased reproductive 

rate, and increased rate of disease or neurological problems from exposure to oil (Harvey and Dahlheim, 

1994). The effects of cleanup activities are unknown, but increased human presence (e.g., vessels) could 

add to changes in marine mammal behavior and/or distribution, thereby additionally stressing animals and 

perhaps making them more vulnerable to various physiological and toxic effects.

Even after the spill is stopped, oiling or deaths of marine mammals would still occur due to oil and 

dispersants persisting in the water, past marine mammal/oil or dispersant interactions, and ingestion of 

contaminated prey. The animals’ exposure to hydrocarbons persisting in the sea may result in sublethal 

impacts (e.g., decreased health, reproductive fitness, and longevity; and increased vulnerability to disease) 

and some soft tissue irritation, respiratory stress from inhalation of toxic fumes, food reduction or 

contamination, direct ingestion of oil and/or tar, and temporary displacement from preferred habitats.

The cumulative impact analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to OCS oiland gas-related impacts, along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts of other commercial, military, 

recreational, offshore, and coastal activities that may occur and adversely affect marine mammals in the 

same general area of a WPA proposed action. The major impact-producing factors resulting from 

cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated with a WPA proposed action that may affect 

marine mammals and their habitats include ingestion and entanglement in marine debris; contaminant 

spills and spill-response activities; vessel strikes; and noise from multiple sources including seismic 

surveys and explosive structure removals. Noise in the ocean has become a worldwide topic of concern, 

particularly in the last two decades. Noises originate from a broad range of sources, both natural and 

anthropogenic (Richardson et al., 1995). Virtually all of the marine mammal species in the GOM have 

been exposed to OCS industrial noise due to the rapid advance into GOM deep oceanic waters by the oil 

and gas industry in recent years; whereas, 20 years ago, the confinement of industry to shallower coastal 

and continental shelf waters generally only exposed two species of marine mammals (the bottlenose 

dolphin and the Atlantic spotted dolphin) to industry activities and the related sounds. Most marine 

mammal species in the GOM, and particularly the deepwater mammals, rely on echolocation for basic 

and vital life processes, including feeding, navigation, and conspecific and mate communication. Noise 

levels that interfere with these basic marine mammal capabilities could have impacts on individuals as 

well as marine mammal populations. The OCS oil and gas industry’s operations contribute noise to the 

marine environment from several different operations, including G&G surveys, vessel noise, drilling, and 

explosive removals. 

Cumulative impacts on marine mammals are expected to result in a number of chronic and sporadic 

sublethal effects (i.e., behavioral effects and nonfatal exposure to or intake of OCS oil- and gas-related 

contaminants or discarded debris) that may stress and/or weaken individuals of a local group or 

population and predispose them to infection from natural or anthropogenic sources (Harvey and 

Dahlheim, 1994). Disturbance (noise from vessel traffic and drilling operations) and/or exposure to 

sublethal levels of toxins and anthropogenic contaminants may stress animals, weaken their immune 

systems, and make them more vulnerable to parasites and diseases that normally would not be fatal 

(Harvey and Dahlheim, 1994). The net result of any disturbance will depend upon the size and 

percentage of the population likely to be affected, the ecological importance of the disturbed area, the 

environmental and biological parameters that influence an animal’s sensitivity to disturbance and stress, 

or the accommodation time in response to prolonged disturbance (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980). 

Additionally, and as discussed in Appendix B, a low-probability, large-scale catastrophic event could 

also have population-level effects on marine mammals.

The effects of a WPA proposed action, when viewed in light of the effects associated with other past, 

present, and reasonably foreseeable future activities may result in more significant impacts to marine 

mammals, as compared with effects before the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response; 

however, the magnitude of those effects cannot yet be determined. Nonetheless, operators are required to 

follow all applicable lease stipulations and regulations, as clarified by NTL’s (i.e., NTL 2012-JOINTG01, NTL 2012-BSEE-G01, and NTL 2012-JOINT-G02), to minimize these potential interactions and 

impacts. Even when taking into consideration the potential effects of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response and the minimization of impacts through lease stipulations and regulations, no 

significant cumulative impacts to marine mammals would be expected as a result of the proposed 

exploration activities when added to the impacts of past, present, or reasonably foreseeable oil and gas 

development in the area, as well as other ongoing activities in the area.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-47

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities that may affect marine mammal populations include vessel 

traffic and related noise (including from commercial shipping and research vessels), State oil and gas 

activities, military operations, commercial fishing, pollution, scientific research, and natural phenomena.

Groups such as the military (i.e., U.S. Navy and USCG) and other Federal agencies (i.e., USEPA, 

COE, and NMFS), dredging companies, commercial fishermen, and recreational boaters operate vessels 

and aircraft and contribute to the overall noise level in the GOM. Pollution in the ocean comes from 

many point and nonpoint sources, including the drainage of the Mississippi River being discharged into 

the GOM. Tropical storms and hurricanes are normal occurrences in the GOM and along the Gulf Coast. 

Generally, the impacts from these storms have been localized and infrequent. The actual impacts of these 

storms on the animals in the GOM, and the listed species and critical habitat in particular, have not yet 

been determined and, for the most part, may remain difficult to quantify.

An unusual mortality event (UME) is defined under the MMPA as “a stranding that is unexpected; 

involves a significant die-off of any marine mammal population; and demands immediate response.” 

Infections, biotoxins, human interactions, and malnutrition are considered causes of UME’s. A UME for 

bottlenose dolphins occurred off the coast of Texas in 2011-2012 when 126 dolphins were stranded. 

While there is no known cause for the strandings, preliminary findings include infected lungs, poor body 

condition, discoloration of the teeth, and substance in the stomach in four of the animals (USDOC, 

NMFS, 2014a). Further, a UME for cetaceans that encompasses the entire northern GOM began in 

February 2010 and has continued into 2014. However, this UME is defined by the Florida panhandle 

west to the Louisiana-Texas border (USDOC, NMFS, 2014a). The relationship of these UME’s to the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response remains unclear, as the 2010 UME began before the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill (refer to the “Incomplete or Unavailable Information” section below).

The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impact is expected to be 

negligible. There are existing leases in the WPA with either ongoing or the potential for exploration, 

drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities discussed herein 

will continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed action. The potential for effects from 

changes to the affected environment (post-Deepwater Horizon), routine activities, accidental spills, lowprobability catastrophic spills (refer to Appendix B), which are not reasonably expected and not part of a 

WPA proposed action, and cumulative effects remains whether or not the No Action or Action alternative 

is chosen under this Supplemental EIS. Impacts on marine mammals from either smaller accidental 

events or low-probability catastrophic events would remain the same.

Within the WPA, there is a long-standing and well-developed OCS Program (more than 50 years); 

there are no data to suggest that activities from the preexisting OCS Program are significantly impacting 

marine mammal populations. Therefore, in light of a WPA proposed action and its impacts, the 

incremental effect of a WPA proposed action on marine mammal populations is not expected to be 

significant when compared with non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (NOAA’s website and the RestoreTheGulf.gov website), as 

well as recently published journal articles, was conducted to determine the availability of recent 

information on marine mammals. 

On December 13, 2010, NMFS declared an UME for cetaceans (whales and dolphins) in the Gulf of 

Mexico. An UME is defined under the MMPA as a “stranding that is unexpected, involves a significant 

die-off of any marine mammal population, and demands immediate response.” Evidence of the UME was 

first noted by NMFS as early as February 2010, before the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response occurred. As of March 30, 2014, a total of 1,156 cetaceans (5% stranded alive and 95% 

stranded dead) have stranded since the start of the UME, with a vast majority of these strandings between 

Franklin County, Florida, and the Louisiana/Texas border (Table 4-1). In addition to investigating all 

other potential causes, scientists are investigating what role Brucella plays in the northern Gulf of Mexico 

UME. As of March 9, 2014, 45 out of 141 dolphins tested were positive or suspected positive for 

Brucella. More detail on the UME can be found on NMFS’s website (USDOC, NMFS, 2014a). It is 

unclear at this time whether the increase in strandings is related partially, wholly, or not at all to the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.
4-48 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

A study recently published from the NRDA process began evaluating the possible effects of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on bottlenose dolphins in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, 

which received some degree of prolonged and heavy oiling, and compared them to bottlenose dolphins 

located in Sarasota Bay, Florida, where no oil was observed. Bottlenose dolphins in Barataria Bay 

exhibited an elevated occurrence of overall poor health and prevalence of poor body condition, disease, 

and abnormalities as compared with Sarasota bottlenose dolphins and dolphins from other U.S. coastal 

sites (Schwacke et al., 2013). While this information may ultimately be useful in expanding the available 

knowledge on baseline environmental conditions following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response, the results of this study do not provide enough information to draw specific conclusions 

regarding the current overall bottlenose dolphin population in the GOM.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does not 

change the conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or unavailable 

information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.16 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information for impacts on marine mammals from the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. The final determinations on damages to marine mammal 

resources from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response will ultimately be made through 

the NRDA process. The Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response will ultimately allow a 

better understanding of any realized effects from a low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not part of 

a WPA proposed action and not likely expected. However, even with recent publications such as 

Schwacke et al. (2013), the best available information on impacts to marine mammals does not yet 

provide a complete understanding of the effects of the oil spill and active response/cleanup activities from 

the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on marine mammals as a whole in the GOM and 

whether these impacts reach a population level. As identified above, unavailable information such as the 

anthropogenic impacts following an oil-spill response and population variation due to naturally occurring 

events such as hurricanes and UME’s provide challenges in understanding the baseline conditions and 

changes within marine mammal populations.

Here, BOEM concludes that the unavailable information from these events may be relevant but not 

necessarily essential to reasonably foreseeable significant adverse impacts to marine mammals from the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. In some specific cases, such as with bottlenose 

dolphins as noted above, the unavailable information may also be relevant to a reasoned choice among the 

alternatives based on the discussion below. The cost of obtaining data on the effects from the UME 

and/or Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response are exorbitant, are duplicative of efforts 

already being undertaken as part of the UME and NRDA, and would likewise take years to acquire and 

analyze through the existing NRDA and UME processes. The NMFS has jurisdiction for the 

investigation of marine mammal strandings and has only released raw data on stranding numbers to date. 

Therefore, it is not possible for BOEM to obtain this information within the timeline contemplated in the 

NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS, regardless of the cost or resources needed. In light of the 

incomplete or unavailable information, BOEM’s subject-matter experts have used available scientifically 

credible evidence, such as the scientific research evaluated in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS as 

well as new information such as the Schwacke et al. (2013) paper, in this analysis and applied it using 

accepted scientific methods and approaches. The majority of oil-spill effect data derived from the Exxon 

Valdez oil spill and limited exposure treatments (i.e., Waring et al., 2011; Geraci and St. Aubin, 1990; 

St. Aubin and Lounsbury, 1990) suggests that localized populations/species in the WPA are unlikely to 

have been affected Wider ranging species may have been exposed to the spill but they are unlikely to 

have experienced population-level effects due to their wide-ranging distributions and behavior (i.e., Davis 

et al., 2000; Jochens et al., 2008). Further, impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response may be difficult or impossible to discern from other factors. For example, even 20 years after 

the Exxon Valdez spill, long-term impacts to marine mammal populations were still being investigated 

(Matkin et al., 2008). Therefore, it is not possible for BOEM to obtain this information within the 

timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS regardless of the cost or resources 

needed. In light of the incomplete or unavailable information, BOEM’s subject-matter experts have used 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-49

available scientifically credible evidence in this analysis and applied it using accepted scientific methods 

and approaches. Nevertheless, a complete understanding of the missing information is not essential to a 

reasoned choice among alternatives for this Supplemental EIS (including the No Action and Action 

alternatives) for the three main reasons listed below.

(1) The WPA is an active oil and gas region with ongoing (or the potential for) 

exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS oil- and gasrelated activities will continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed 

action (i.e., fishing, military activities, and scientific research). The potential for 

effects from changes to the affected environment (post-Deepwater Horizon), routine 

activities, accidental spills (including low-probability catastrophic spills), and 

cumulative effects remains whether or not the No Action or an Action alternative is 

chosen under this Supplemental EIS. Impacts on marine mammals from either 

smaller accidental events or low-probability catastrophic events will remain the same.

(2) Some marine mammal populations in the WPA do not generally travel throughout 

areas affected by spilled oil from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, and they would 

not be subject to a changed baseline or cumulative effects from the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (e.g., coastal bottlenose dolphins that are 

resident in the WPA). Other marine mammals, such as Bryde’s whales and 

manatees, although potentially affected by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response do not typically occur in the WPA. Fertl et al. (2005) stated that a 

manatee was sighted in Mississippi Canyon in 2001, with a bottom depth greater than 

1,524 m (5,000 ft) around operating vessels. Since that time, BSEE has documented 

an additional four manatee sightings that have occurred in deepwater areas within the 

GOM. Manatees should be expected anywhere within the WPA, CPA, and EPA 

when GOM water temperatures are greater than 68oF.

(3) Other wide-ranging populations of marine mammals (e.g., sperm whales and killer 

whales) that may occur in the WPA and within areas affected by the spill are unlikely 

to have experienced population-level effects from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response given their wide-ranging distribution and behaviors.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for marine mammals presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for marine mammals presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because of the available 

scientifically credible evidence in this analysis and based upon accepted scientific methods and 

approaches. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and 

updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still 

apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.12.Sea Turtles

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for sea turtles presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact 

conclusion for sea turtles presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of sea turtles, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of routine 

activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.12.1, 4.1.1.12.2, and 4.1.1.12.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 
4-50 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.12 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.12.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.12 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those 

documents were published is presented below.

In order to minimize potential interactions and impacts to sea turtles, operators are required to follow 

all applicable lease stipulations and regulations, as clarified by NTL’s. The operator’s reaffirmed 

compliance with NTL 2012-JOINT-G01 (“Vessel-Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species 

Reporting”) and NTL 2012-BSEE-G01 (“Marine Trash and Debris Awareness Elimination”), as well as 

the limited scope, timing, and geographic location of a WPA proposed action, would result in negligible 

effects from a WPA proposed action on sea turtles. In addition, NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, “Implementation 

of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program,” minimizes the 

potential of harm from seismic operations to sea turtles and marine mammals; these mitigating measures 

include onboard observers, airgun shut-downs for whales in the exclusion zone, ramp-up procedures, the 

use of a minimum sound source, and delayed use of explosives when turtles or marine mammals are 

observed in the exclusion zone.

The routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 that could potentially 

affect sea turtles include the following: the degradation of water quality resulting from operational 

discharges; noise generated by helicopter and vessel traffic, platforms, drillships, and seismic exploration; 

noise and impact from explosive structure removals; vessel strikes; and marine debris generated by 

service vessels and OCS facilities. Noise disturbance and/or exposure to sublethal levels of toxins and 

anthropogenic contaminants may stress animals, weaken their immune systems, and make them more 

vulnerable to parasites and diseases that normally would not be fatal during their life cycle. Because of 

the mitigations (e.g., BOEM- and BSEE-proposed compliance with NTL’s) as described in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and summarized above, routine activities (e.g., operational discharges, noise, 

vessel traffic, and marine debris) related to a WPA proposed action are not expected to have long-term 

adverse effects on the size and productivity of any sea turtle species or populations in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. With the mitigations, few deaths are expected from chance collisions with OCS service vessels, 

ingestion of plastic material, and pathogens. To minimize impacts to sea turtles and marine mammals

from explosive structure removal, the use of explosives is delayed when turtles or marine mammals are 

observed in the exclusion zone. In addition, the best available scientific information indicates that sea 

turtles do not rely on acoustics; therefore, vessel noise and related activities (i.e., drilling, seismic 

exploration, and explosive structure removals) would have limited effect. Most routine OCS oil- and gasrelated activities are expected to have sublethal effects that are not expected to rise to the level of 

significance.

Accidental events including marine debris generated by service vessels and OCS facilities, blowouts, 

oil spills, contaminant spills, and spill-response activities that may be associated with a WPA proposed 

action have the potential to impact small to large numbers of sea turtles in the GOM, depending on the 

magnitude and frequency of accidents, the ability to respond to accidents, the location and time of year 

the accidents occur, and various meteorological and hydrological factors. Impacts from smaller 

accidental events may affect individual sea turtles in the area, but impacts are unlikely to rise to the level 

of population effects (or significance) given the size and scope of such spills. Population-level impacts 

are not anticipated based on the best available information. Further, the potential remains for smaller 

accidental spills to occur in a WPA proposed action area, regardless of any alternative selected under this 

Supplemental EIS, given that it is an active oil and gas region with either ongoing or the potential for 

exploration, drilling, and production activities.

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to OCS oil and gas 

along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts of other commercial, military, recreational, offshore, 

and coastal activities that may occur and adversely affect sea turtles in the same general area of a WPA 

proposed action. The major impact-producing factors resulting from cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities associated with a WPA proposed action that may affect loggerhead, Kemp’s ridley, hawksbill, 

green, and leatherback turtles and their habitats include marine debris, contaminant spills and spillresponse activities, vessel strikes, noise, seismic surveys, and explosive structure removals. Most routine 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-51

impacts are minimized by the operator’s requirement to follow all applicable lease stipulations and 

regulations, as clarified by NTL’s. Lease stipulations and regulations are in place to reduce vessel strike 

mortalities, as well as impacts from marine trash and debris and seismic surveys. In addition, most OCS 

oil- and gas-related impacts are expected to be sublethal and occur on an individual level (i.e., behavioral 

effects and nonfatal exposure to or intake of OCS oil- and gas-related contaminants or discarded debris) 

and not impact the GOM sea turtle population as a whole. However, as discussed in Appendix B, a lowprobability, large-scale catastrophic event, which is not reasonably foreseeable and not part of a WPA 

proposed action, could have population-level effects on sea turtles. The net result of any disturbance 

depends upon the size and percentage of the population likely to be affected, the ecological importance of 

the disturbed area, the environmental and biological parameters that influence an animal’s sensitivity to 

disturbance and stress, or the accommodation time in response to prolonged disturbance (Geraci and St. 

Aubin, 1980).

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities that may affect sea turtle populations include noise related to 

vessels (including commercial shipping and research vessels) and State drilling operations, military 

operations, commercial and recreational fishing, pollution, historic overexploitation (which led to listing 

of the species), coastal infrastructure and habitat loss, dredging, vessel strikes from jet skis and thrill craft, 

pathogens, increased runoff, and natural phenomena. Direct population effects are due to mortality, and 

indirect effects can be from failed reproduction, inability to nest, or weakened immunity due to stress.

The effects of a WPA proposed action, when viewed in light of the effects associated with other past, 

present, and reasonably foreseeable future OCS oil- and gas-related activities, may result in more 

significant impacts to sea turtles than before the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response; 

however, the magnitude of those effects cannot yet be determined. Nonetheless, operators are required to 

follow all applicable lease stipulations and regulations, as clarified by NTL’s, to minimize these potential 

interactions and impacts. The operator’s reaffirmed compliance with NTL 2012-JOINT-G01 (“VesselStrike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting”) and NTL 2012-BSEE-G01 (“Marine 

Trash and Debris Awareness Elimination”), as well as the limited scope, timing, and geographic location 

of a WPA proposed action, would result in negligible effects from the proposed drilling activities on sea 

turtles. In addition, NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, “Implementation of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures 

and Protected Species Observer Program,” minimizes the potential of harm from seismic operations to sea 

turtles. These mitigations include onboard observers, airgun shut-downs for whales in the exclusion zone, 

ramp-up procedures, the use of a minimum sound source, and delayed use of explosives when turtles are 

observed in the exclusion zone. Even when taking into consideration the potential effects of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response and the minimization of impacts through lease 

stipulations and regulations, no significant cumulative impacts to sea turtles would be expected as a result 

of the proposed exploration activities when added to the impacts of past, present, or reasonably 

foreseeable oil and gas development in the area, as well as other ongoing activities in the area.

No significant cumulative impacts to sea turtles would be expected as a result of a WPA proposed 

action. The potential for impacts is mainly focused on the individual, and population-level impacts are 

not anticipated. The effects of a WPA proposed action, when viewed in light of the effects associated 

with other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future OCS oil- and gas-related activities, may result 

in significant impacts to sea turtles as compared with effects before the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response; however, the magnitude of those effects cannot yet be determined. However, the 

incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action would not be likely to result in a significant increase 

of impacts to sea turtles within the WPA; in comparison, non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities, such as 

overexploitation, commercial fishing, and pollution, have historically proved to be a greater threat to sea 

turtles. Even when taking into consideration the potential effects of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response and the minimization of impacts through lease stipulations and regulations, no 

significant cumulative impacts to sea turtles would be expected as a result of the proposed exploration 

activities when added to the impacts of past, present, or reasonably foreseeable oil and gas development 

in the area, as well as other ongoing activities in the area.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (NOAA’s and FWS’s websites, Gulf of Mexico coastal State 

government websites, and the RestoreTheGulf.gov website), as well as recently published, peer-reviewed 
4-52 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

journal articles was conducted to determine the availability of recent information on sea turtles. New 

information for the affected environment was discovered, including information on sea turtle strandings 

and nests.

On April 17, 2014, NMFS published a proposed rule for Taking of Marine Mammals Incidental to 

Commercial Fishing Operations; Bottlenose Dolphin Take Reduction Plan; Sea Turtle Conservation; 

Modification to Fishing Activities (Federal Register, 2014d). The comment period ended on June 2, 

2014. The NOAA also published a correction to the July 18, 2013, proposed rule for the Endangered and 

Threatened Species: Designation of Critical Habitat for the Northwest Atlantic Ocean Loggerhead Sea 

Turtle Distinct Population Segment and Determination Regarding Critical Habitat for the North Pacific 

Ocean Loggerhead Distinct Population Segment on August 1, 2013 (Federal Register, 2013). 

Since January 1, 2011, a notable increase in sea turtle strandings has occurred in the northern GOM, 

primarily in Mississippi. While turtle strandings in this region typically increase in the spring, the recent 

increase is a cause for concern. The Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network is monitoring and 

investigating this increase. The network is part of the NOAA/FWS National Marine Mammal Health and 

Stranding Response Program and encompasses the coastal areas of the 18 states from Maine through 

Texas. There are many possible reasons for the increase in strandings in the northern GOM, both natural 

and human caused (USDOC, NMFS, 2014b). These sea turtle species include loggerhead, green, Kemp’s 

ridley, leatherback, hawksbill, and unidentified. As of August 25, 2013, NMFS has identified a total of 

203 strandings in Alabama, 473 strandings in Louisiana, 641 strandings in Mississippi and 219 strandings 

in Texas (upper Texas coast—Zone 18). Total strandings per year were 525 in 2011, 466 in 2012, and 

545 in 2013 for the previously identified states (USDOC, NMFS, 2014c). 

In 2013, loggerhead sea turtle nest counts on Florida’s beaches were close to the average of the 

previous 5 years, totaling 77,975 nests (9,952 west coast). Green sea turtle nest counts have increased 

exponentially from 267 nests in 1989 to 25,553 nests (207 west coast) in 2013 on Florida index beaches, 

peaking in 2013. Leatherback nests in 2013 were recorded on beaches in Florida, totaling 896 nests all on 

the east coast (State of Florida, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2014a). Similar to the nest 

counts for green turtles, leatherback nest counts have been increasing exponentially on Florida index 

beaches (State of Florida, Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2014b). The Alabama Gulf Coast 

turtle nesting in 2012 was a success with a record-breaking 149 nests and in 2013 there was a total of 

82 nests (Share the Beach, 2014). The 2013 season along the Alabama coastline resulted in a total of 

8,265 eggs in the sand with over 4,950 hatchlings entering the Gulf of Mexico. Texas coastline had a 

documented 153 Kemp’s ridleys, 13 loggerhead, and 15 green sea turtle nests in 2013 (Shaver, personal 

communication, 2014).

The new information presented in this chapter provides additional details on the baseline affected 

environment for sea turtles and does not change BOEM’s conclusions about the potential effects of a 

WPA proposed action on sea turtles.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed above, as well as in Chapter 4.2.1.13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM 

has identified incomplete information regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response on sea turtles in the WPA. BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted 

scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available information in completing the relevant analysis of 

potential oil exposure impacts to sea turtles using studies investigating evidence of oil and impacts 

stemming from exposure to oil (Witham, 1978; Vargo et al., 1986; Lutz and Lutcavage, 1989; Lutcavage 

et al., 1995; Plotkin and Amos, 1988). In addition, BOEM used information published on sea turtle nests 

and strandings to draw conclusions about sea turtle populations following the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response (USDOC, NMFS, 2014d and 2014e; State of Florida, Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Commission, 2014b; Share the Beach, 2014). Unavailable information on the effects to sea 

turtles from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (and thus changes to the sea turtle 

baseline in the affected environment) makes an understanding of the cumulative effects less clear. A 

large body of information is being developed though the NRDA process, but it is not yet available. 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-53

Relevant data on the status of sea turtle populations after the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response and increased sea turtle GOM strandings may take years to acquire and analyze, and impacts 

from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may be difficult or impossible to discern 

from other factors. BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to 

extrapolate from available information on sea turtle nests and strandings in completing the relevant 

analysis of sea turtle populations. None of these sources reveal reasonably foreseeable significant adverse 

impacts. Therefore, BOEM concludes that the unavailable information from these events may be relevant 

to foreseeable significant adverse impacts to sea turtles because the full extent of impacts on sea turtles is 

not known, but BOEM has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives for this Supplemental EIS (including the No Action and Action alternatives) for the two main 

reasons listed below:

(1) The WPA is an active oil and gas region with ongoing (or the potential for) 

exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS oil- and gasrelated activities will continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed 

action (i.e., fishing, military activities, scientific research, and shoreline 

development). The potential for effects from changes to the affected environment 

(post-Deepwater Horizon), routine activities, accidental spills (including lowprobability catastrophic spills), and cumulative effects remains whether or not the No 

Action or an Action alternative is chosen under this Supplemental EIS. Impacts on 

sea turtles from either smaller accidental events or low-probability catastrophic 

events will remain the same.

(2) All wide-ranging populations of sea turtles that may occur in the WPA and within 

areas affected by the spill are unlikely to have experienced population-level effects 

from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response given their wideranging distribution and behaviors.

Nevertheless, there are existing leases in the WPA with either ongoing or the potential for 

exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities will 

continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed action (i.e., fishing, military activities, and 

scientific research). The potential for effects from changes to the affected environment (post-Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response), routine activities, accidental spills (including low-probability 

catastrophic spills), and cumulative effects remains whether or not the No Action or Action alternative is 

chosen under this Supplemental EIS.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for sea turtles presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the 

additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact 

conclusion for sea turtles presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.13.Diamondback Terrapins

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for the Texas diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin 

littoralis) and Mississippi diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin pileata ) (referred to as 

diamondback terrapins in this Supplemental EIS) presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based on the additional 

information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion 

for diamondback terrapins presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.
4-54 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

A detailed description of diamondback terrapins, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts 

of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in 

Chapters 4.1.1.13.1, 4.1.1.13.2, and 4.1.1.13.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.13 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.13.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.13 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those 

documents were published is presented below.

The following routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 could 

potentially affect diamondback terrapins: ingestion of beach trash and debris generated by service vessels 

and OCS oil- and gas-related facilities; and injury from vessel traffic (boat propellers) with associated 

loss of habitat (coastal marsh) due to erosion. Adverse impacts due to routine activities resulting from a 

WPA proposed action are possible but unlikely. Because of the greatly improved handling of waste and 

trash by industry and because of the annual awareness training required by the marine debris mitigations, 

the plastics in the ocean are decreasing and the devastating effects on offshore and coastal marine life are 

minimized. Collisions with OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic is minimized by NTL 2012-JOINTG01, “Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting,” which provides 

guidelines on monitoring procedures related to vessel strike avoidance measures. Erosion to marshes can 

be indirectly attributed to OCS oil- and gas-related service traffic and onshore development, but it is 

expected to cause little to no damage to the physical integrity, species diversity, or biological productivity 

of terrapin habitat. Due to the distance from shore, most impacts are not expected to reach terrapins or 

their habitat. Impacts that may occur from routine activities of a WPA proposed action are unlikely to 

have significant adverse effects on the size and recovery of any terrapin species or population in the Gulf 

of Mexico because most routine, OCS oil- and gas-related activities are expected to have sublethal 

effects. Sublethal effects such as behavioral effects, nonfatal exposure to or intake of OCS oil- and gasrelated contaminants, or discarded debris may stress and/or weaken individuals of a local group or 

population and predispose them to infection from natural or anthropogenic sources. These effects are not 

expected to rise to the level of significance to the populations.

Impact-producing factors associated with accidental events that may be associated with a WPA 

proposed action that could affect diamondback terrapins include offshore and coastal oil spills and spillresponse activities. Behavioral effects and nonfatal exposure to or intake of OCS oil- and gas-related 

contaminants may stress and/or weaken individuals of a local group or population and predispose them to 

infection from natural or anthropogenic sources. Even after the oil is no longer visible, terrapins may still 

be exposed while they forage in the salt marshes lining the edges of estuaries where oil may have 

accumulated under the sediments and within the food chain (Burger, 1994; Roosenburg et al., 1999). 

Reproductive success may be reduced if nests are disturbed or destroyed by cleanup efforts. Hatching 

success studies at various oiled nesting sites of the Northern diamondback terrapin suggest that spills may 

result in a reduction in nest size and increased mortality of spring emergers at the oiled sites (Wood and 

Hales, 2001). However, research on the PAH exposure and toxicology of eggs in the vicinity of a spill 

site found no correlation to substrate PAH’s when compared with egg toxicology. The level of PAH’s 

found in the eggs may be the result of maternal transfer and represent the exposure level of the nesting 

female rather than environmental exposure to PAH’s from oil at the site of the nest (Holliday et al., 2008). 

Impacts on diamondback terrapins from smaller accidental events are likely to affect individual 

diamondback terrapins in the spill area, but they are unlikely to rise to the level of population effects (or a 

level of significance) given the probable size and scope of such spills. Further, the potential remains for 

smaller accidental spills to occur in a WPA proposed action area, regardless of any alternative selected 

under this Supplemental EIS, given that it is an active oil and gas region with either ongoing or the 

potential for exploration, drilling, and production activities.

The national and subnational conservation status rank of diamondback terrapins is vulnerable, at a 

moderate risk of extirpation in the jurisdiction due to a fairly restricted range, relatively few populations 

or occurrences, recent and widespread declines, threats, or other factors. “Species of concern” is an 

informal term that refers to those species that might be in need of concentrated conservation actions. 

Such conservation actions vary depending on the health of the populations and degree and types of 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-55

threats. At one extreme, there may only need to be periodic monitoring of populations and threats to the 

species and its habitat. At the other extreme, a species may need to be listed as a federally threatened or 

endangered species under the Endangered Species Act. Species of concern receive no legal protection 

above those already afforded the species under other laws, and the use of the term does not necessarily 

mean that the species will eventually be proposed for listing as a threatened or endangered species. At the 

present time, the diamondback terrapin is neither a listed species nor a candidate for listing under the 

Endangered Species Act.

The major OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors that may affect the diamondback 

terrapin include vessel traffic, exposure or intake of OCS oil- and gas-related contaminates or debris, and 

oil spills and spill response. To mitigate the potential impacts from OCS oil- and gas-related activities, 

operators are required to follow all applicable lease stipulations and regulations, as clarified by NTL’s, to 

minimize these potential interactions and impacts. The operator’s reaffirmed compliance with NTL 2012-

BSEE-G01 (“Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and Elimination”) and NTL 2012-JOINT-G01

(“Vessel Strike Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting”), as well as the limited scope, 

timing, and geographic location of a WPA proposed action, would result in minimal effects from the 

proposed drilling activities on diamondback terrapins. Most spills related to a WPA proposed action, as 

well as low-probability catastrophic spills (which are not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely 

expected [refer to Appendix B for more information]) and oil spills stemming from tankering and prior 

and future lease sales, are not expected to contact terrapins or their habitats. Most routine and accidental, 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities are expected to have sublethal effects, such as behavioral effects, that 

are not expected to rise to the level of significance to the populations as a whole. Therefore, the 

incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to cumulative impacts on terrapins is expected to be 

minimal.

Activities posing the greatest potential harm to terrapins are non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors, 

including habitat destruction, overharvesting and crab pot fishing, vessel traffic and road mortality, nest 

depredation, State oil- and gas-related activity, and natural processes. Spending most of their lives within 

their limited home ranges at the aquatic-terrestrial boundary in estuaries, terrapins are susceptible to 

habitat destruction (i.e., urban development, subsidence/sea-level rise, direct oil contact from non-OCS 

oil- and gas-related leasing program activities, and associated cleanup efforts). Habitat destruction, road 

construction, nest depredation, and drowning in crab traps are the most recent threats to diamondback 

terrapins. In the 1800’s, populations declined due to overharvesting for meat (Hogan, 2003). Tropical 

storms, hurricanes, and beach erosion threaten their preferred nesting habitats. Characteristics of terrapin 

life history render this species especially vulnerable to overharvesting and habitat loss. These 

characteristics include low reproductive rates, low survivorship, limited population movements, and nest 

site fidelity year after year. Inshore oil spills from non-OCS oil- and gas-related sources are potential 

threats to terrapins in their brackish coastal marshes.

The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action is expected to be minimal compared with 

non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The major impact-producing factors resulting from the 

cumulative activities associated with a WPA proposed action that may affect diamondback terrapins

include oil spills and spill-response activities, alteration and reduction of habitat, and consumption of 

trash and debris. Overall, within the WPA, there is a long-standing and well-developed OCS Program 

(more than 50 years); there are no data to suggest that activities from the preexisting OCS Programs are 

significantly impacting diamondback terrapin populations. Due to the extended distance from shore, 

impacts associated with activities occurring in the OCS Program are not expected to impact terrapins or 

their habitat. Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities will continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a 

proposed WPA lease sale (i.e., crabbing, fishing, military activities, scientific research, and shoreline 

development). Therefore, in light of the above analysis of a WPA proposed action and its impacts, the 

incremental effect of a WPA proposed action on diamondback terrapin populations is not expected to be 

significant when compared with historic and current non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities, such as 

habitat loss, overharvesting, crabbing, and fishing.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (NOAA’s and FWS’s websites, and the RestoreTheGulf.gov 

website), as well as recently published journal articles was conducted to determine the availability of 
4-56 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

recent information on diamondback terrapins. The search revealed no new information pertinent to this 

Supplemental EIS. No new information was found at this time that would alter the overall conclusions of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS that impacts on diamondback terrapins associated with a WPA proposed action are 

expected to be minimal.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the previous conclusions from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS are still valid because no new information on diamondback terrapins pertinent to the 

proposed action has been published since the publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, the 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is 

still incomplete or unavailable information on possible impacts to diamondback terrapins as a result of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.

Diamondback terrapins within the WPA were likely not affected to any discernible degree by the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, based on the best available information and the 

WPA’s distance from the Macondo well. However, BOEM has identified incomplete information 

regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on diamondback terrapins 

in the WPA because little information about Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response has 

been released as of the publication of this Supplement EIS. Through the NRDA process, ongoing 

research and analysis of the presence of contaminants in terrapin eggs following the Deepwater Horizon

oil spill is being conducted (USDOC, NOAA, 2012), but the results are not yet available. Relevant data 

on the status of diamondback terrapin populations after the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response may take years to acquire and analyze, and impacts may be difficult or impossible to discern 

from other factors. This incomplete information may be relevant to evaluating adverse effects because

the full extent of potential impacts on terrapins is not known. In place of the missing information, BOEM 

used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available 

information in completing the relevant analysis, such as studies investigating evidence of oil and impacts 

stemming from exposure to oil (Burger, 1994; Roosenburg et al., 1999; Holliday et al., 2008, Wood and 

Hales, 2001). The results of these studies indicate that impacts resulting from the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill have been largely indistinguishable from natural fluctuations or variability due to other 

anthropogenic activities. Although the body of available information is incomplete and long-term effects 

cannot yet be known, past analyses are not indicative of significant population-level responses. BOEM 

has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for diamondback terrapins presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for diamondback terrapins presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because 

of the available scientifically credible evidence in this analysis and based upon accepted scientific 

methods and approaches. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.14.Coastal and Marine Birds

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal and marine birds presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for coastal and marine birds presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-57

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed 

WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of coastal and marine birds, along with the full analyses of the potential 

impacts of routine activities and accidental events that may be associated with a WPA proposed action, 

are presented in Chapters 4.1.1.14.1, 4.1.1.14.2, and 4.1.1.14.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.14.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since 

those documents were published is presented below.

The majority of the effects resulting from routine activities of a WPA proposed action (Tables 3-2 

through 3-4) on threatened or endangered (Table 4-1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS) and 

nonthreatened and nonendangered coastal and marine birds are expected to be sublethal, primarily 

disturbance-related effects (Chapter 4.1.1.12.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Major 

potential impact-producing factors resulting from routine activities for marine birds in the offshore 

environment include the following:

• habitat loss and fragmentation from coastal facility construction and development 

and pipeline landfalls (Fahrig, 1997 and 1998);

• behavioral effects primarily due to disturbance from OCS helicopter and servicevessel traffic and associated noise (Habib et al., 2007; Bayne et al., 2008);

• mortality due to exposure and intake of OCS oil- and gas-related contaminants, e.g., 

produced waters (Wiese et al., 2001; Fraser et al., 2006);

• impacts from discarded debris (Robards et al., 1995);

• sublethal, chronic effects from air emissions (Newman, 1979; Newman and 

Schreiber, 1988); and

• mortality and energetic costs associated with structure presence and associated light 

(Russell, 2005; Montevecchi, 2006).

The major impact-producing factors resulting from the accidental events associated with a WPA 

proposed action that may affect the coastal and marine birds include oil spills, regardless of size, and 

oil-spill cleanup activities, including the release of rehabilitated birds. Oil spills (and disturbance impacts 

associated with cleanup activities) have the greatest impact on coastal and marine birds. Sometimes, the 

rehabilitation of birds may have benefits beyond wild bird condition because of veterinary care that wild 

birds do not receive. However, the handling of birds during rehabilitation may sometimes stress birds. 

Depending on the timing and location of the spill, even small spills can result in major avian mortality 

events (Piatt et al., 1990a and 1990b; Castège et al., 2007; Wilhelm et al., 2007). Small amounts of oil 

can affect birds, and mortality from oil spills is often related to numerous symptoms of toxicity (Burger 

and Gochfeld, 2001; Albers, 2006). Data from actual spills strongly suggest that impacts to a bird 

species’ food supply are typically delayed after initial impacts from direct oiling (e.g., Esler et al., 2002; 

Velando et al., 2005; Zabala et al., 2010). Sublethal, long-term effects of oil on birds have previously 

been documented (Esler et al., 2000; Alonso-Alvarez et al., 2007), including changes to sexual signaling 

(Pérez et al., 2010).

Oil-spill impacts on birds from a WPA proposed action are expected to be adverse, but not 

significant, given the number and relatively small size of spills expected over the 40-year life of a WPA 

proposed action (Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Impacts of oil-spill cleanup 

from a WPA proposed action are also expected to be adverse, but not significant, and may be negligible 

depending on the scope and scale of efforts.
4-58 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Cumulative impacts to coastal and marine birds include both OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities. The OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that 

could potentially impact coastal and marine birds include the following: 

• air pollution;

• pollution of coastal and offshore waters resulting from OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities, including platform and pipeline oil spills, produced waters, and any spillresponse activities;

• structure presence and lighting (e.g., OCS platforms);

• aircraft and vessel traffic and oil-spill cleanup associated noise and disturbance 

impacts, including OCS helicopter and service-vessels;

• habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation resulting from coastal facility construction 

and development;

• OCS pipeline landfalls; and

• trash and debris.

The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impact is considered 

adverse but not significant because the effects of the most probable impacts, such as lease sale-related 

operational discharges, air pollution, or trash and debris and helicopter and service-vessel noise and 

traffic, are expected to be sublethal; and some displacement of local individuals or flocks to other habitat 

may occur, if habitat is available. Overall carrying capacity may be reduced temporarily or permanently 

in habitats disturbed by OCS oil- and gas-related activities. These activities produce a net effect of 

habitat loss from oil spills, OCS pipeline landfalls, and maintenance and use of navigation waterways, as 

well as habitat loss and modification resulting from coastal facility construction and development. 

Nocturnal circulation events at platforms due to platform lighting have unknown impacts on migrating 

bird populations. Offshore oil and gas platform-related avian mortality, though representing an additional 

source of human-induced mortality, represents a small fraction compared with other sources of humaninduced mortality (Table 4-7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Impacts may occur to coastal 

and marine birds from a low-probability catastrophic oil spill; however, this is not part of a WPA 

proposed action and not likely expected. For additional information on a low-probability catastrophic 

spill, refer to Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that could potentially impact 

coastal and marine birds include the following:

• air pollution;

• pollution of coastal waters resulting from municipal, industrial, and agricultural 

runoff and discharge;

• tanker oil spills and spills related to oil and gas activities in State coastal waters and 

any spill-response activities;

• aircraft and military activities, including jet training overflights and sonic booms;

• nonconsumptive recreation, including bird-watching activities, all-terrain vehicle use, 

walking and jogging with pets, and other beach use;

• maintenance and use of navigation waterways;

• habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation associated with commercial and residential 

development;

• collisions of coastal and marine birds with various anthropogenic structures (e.g., 

buildings, power lines, cell phone towers, etc.);
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-59

• diseases;

• climate change and related impacts, including sea-level rise;

• storms and floods;

• fisheries interactions;

• predation;

• hunting;

• trash and debris;

• renewable energy;

• alternate use conversion; and

Impacts from non-OCS oil- and gas-related resources (including impacts from the State oil and gas 

program and associated structure collisions and spills, waste and debris, water pollution, and air pollution) 

on habitat and bird behavior operate in a way similar to the OCS oil- and gas-related impacts on each 

resource discussed previously in this chapter. Avian habitat loss, alteration, and fragmentation associated 

with commercial and residential development, and maintenance and use of navigation waterways is 

almost certainly occurring at a much faster pace and on a spatial scale far exceeding that compared with 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities, especially when compiled with the associated effects of climate 

change (including sea-level rise and the frequency and intensity of tropical storms). Overall mortality 

caused by collision with tall buildings is considerable (Drewitt and Langston, 2008), and window strikes 

may be the greatest cause of anthropogenic mortality in the United States (Table 4-7 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS), at least an order of magnitude greater than strikes with wind turbines, 

communication towers, tall buildings, and power lines (excluding distribution lines to residences and 

businesses) (Klem, 2009; Manville, 2005 and 2009). Mortality as a result of long migrations may also 

impact coastal and marine bird populations. Various passerine forest birds include a substantial migration 

(approximately tens of kilometers; Gauthreaux, 1975) over land at the end of their spring nonstop transGulf flight. Such a flight over land may also occur before crossing the Gulf itself. The mortality rates of 

species during nonstop flight due to exhaustion of energy reserves are unknown. However, the overall 

greatest mortality to birds (anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic) is considered predation by house cats 

(Table 4-7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). House cat predation is a threat mostly for 

passerines, which comprise most of the trans-Gulf migrants. Despite the number of waterfowl killed 

annually under Federal hunting laws, their populations remain strong. Sublethal effects on birds may also 

include interactions with commercial fisheries and noise disturbance from non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

air and vessel traffic.

A myriad of different anthropogenic (both OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gasrelated) and natural (e.g., disease, predation, exhaustion, and weather) mortality factors (Table 4-7 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) can negatively affect individuals of populations comprising the 

seven avian species groups found in the Gulf of Mexico (Tables 4-9, 4-10, and 4-11 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Of the OCS oil- and gas-related activities identified previously (Chapters 

4.1.1.14.2 and 4.1.1.14.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS), several are relevant to the 

discussion of their potential cumulative effects: habitat loss, alteration, or fragmentation; disturbancerelated effects (e.g., support vessels and helicopters); attraction to and collision with offshore platforms; 

nocturnal circulation (night flights) around them and the potential associated energetic demands; 

discharge of produced waters; oil spills; and chronic oil pollution. All but the latter two factors are 

associated with routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities. However, the incremental contribution of a 

WPA proposed action to the cumulative impact is considered adverse but not significant because the 

effects of the most probable impacts, such as lease sale-related operational discharges and helicopters and 

service-vessel noise and traffic, are expected to be sublethal; and some displacement of local individuals 

or flocks may occur to other habitat, if habitat is available. Collision mortality has been estimated at 

200,000-321,000 bird deaths/year over the entire platform archipelago, but offshore oil and gas platformrelated avian mortality, though representing an additional source of human-induced mortality, represents a 

small fraction compared with other sources of human-induced mortality. Of the various factors to 
4-60 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

consider for avian resources in the GOM associated with climate change (Møller et al., 2004; North 

American Bird Conservation Initiative, 2010), the factor with the greatest potential net negative impact, at 

least for the coastal breeding avian assemblage, would be sea-level rise (Galbraith et al., 2002; Erwin 

et al., 2006). Saltmarsh obligate species are extremely sensitive to loss of saltmarsh habitat from sealevel rise. Routine impacts, accidental impacts, and the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed 

action to the cumulative impact (which is considered in comparison with the impacts of non-OCS oil- and 

gas-related factors) is considered adverse but not significant.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A broad Internet search for relevant new information was performed. These include nonprofit 

organizations, consortias, and administrators of funds that are penalties resulting from the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Environmental journal articles were also located online using 

three search engines and the websites of six major journal publishers. New information was found for the 

affected environment regarding maximizing wetland coastal habitat.

A search of Internet information sources, including published journal articles, was conducted to 

determine the availability of recent information on coastal and marine birds. Internet websites visited 

included 4 Federal agencies (USEPA, USGS, NOAA [including Deepwater Horizon Bibliography], and 

BOEM); 12 State agencies (Texas Commission on Environmental Quality; Texas Parks and Wildlife 

Department; Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries; Louisiana Department of Natural 

Resources; Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality; Mississippi Department of Environmental 

Quality; Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks; Alabama Department of Conservation 

and Natural Resources; Alabama Department of Environmental Management; Alabama Wildlife and 

Freshwater Fisheries Division; Florida Department of Environmental Protection; and Florida Fish and 

Wildlife Conservation Commission); 5 coastal universities or universities with coastal divisions 

(University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Louisiana State University, Texas A&M University, University of 

Texas at Austin Marine Science Institute College of Natural Sciences, and Florida State University); 

several various stakeholders (Sierra Club, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Nature Conservancy, 

Gulf of Mexico Alliance, Gulf of Mexico Program, Barataria-Terrebonne National Estuary Program, 

National Audubon Society, Gulf Coast Ecosystem Task Force, and Gulf Coast Ecosystem Restoration 

Council), and Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium (“Effects of Offshore Oil and Gas Development: 

A Current Awareness Bibliography”). Where applicable, websites of subdivisions of many of these 

organizations were also consulted. Environmental journal articles were also located online using four 

search engines (JSTOR, EBSCO, Google Advanced Scholar Search, and Google Advanced Book Search). 

Three of the search engines collectively searched all of the ecology journals of six major publishers (John 

Wiley and Sons, Springer, Elsevier Science, Taylor and Francis Group, Cambridge University Press, and 

Oxford University Press).

New information on Louisiana’s Master Plan, which was partly designed for maximizing coastal 

wetlands, will likely do so for four selected waterbird species and for neotropical birds over the next 

50 years. These predictions are based on Habitat Suitability Index models and were controlled for other, 

nonhabitat environmental variables (Nyman et al., 2013). Therefore, wetland loss will probably not be an 

issue that would exacerbate other impacts of a WPA proposed action and other cumulative impacts. 

Otherwise, without the Master Plan, wetland loss could occur and eliminate coastal and marine bird 

habitat.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete 

or unavailable information. As discussed above, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information on avian mortality rates during 

migration, from both exhaustion and collisions with platforms. Various passerine forest birds include a 

substantial migration (approximately tens of kilometers; Gauthreaux, 1975) over land at the end of their 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-61

spring nonstop trans-Gulf flight. Such a flight over land may also occur before crossing the Gulf itself 

unless substantial forests are located near the shoreline. The mortality rates of species during nonstop 

flight due to exhaustion of energy reserves are unknown. This information may be relevant to the 

evaluation of adverse impacts from OCS oil- and gas-related activities because, at the present time, there 

is no way to discern if annual (>200,000) or long-term mortality from such activities, due mostly to 

collisions with platforms (over the life of newly installed platforms) for any of the affected trans-Gulf 

migrant species considered herein results in major population-level impacts (Russell, 2005, Chapters 17 

and 18). However, in lieu of this data gap, BOEM extrapolated existing information using accepted 

scientific methodologies to complete this analysis. Studies indicate that the numbers of birds successfully 

migrating across the Gulf in spring are so great (on the order of magnitude of hundreds of millions; 

Russell, 2005) that any mortality associated with exhaustion from migration or collision with platforms 

would likely not exacerbate any cumulative impacts of other mortality factors. Birds suffering from 

exhaustion would typically be sick or weak, and their mortality would be a case of natural selection where 

the populations would be strengthened (made more fit). The potential range of a bird adapted to fatten up 

enough to cross extensive barriers like the open ocean or Gulf of Mexico may be approximated by data on 

shorebirds, which may be an accurate proxy for the maximum possible flight range of forest songbirds 

that may traverse the GOM. The computed maximum nonstop range of a bar-tailed godwit leaving 

Alaska (based on a model of fuel load) was all the way to the South Pole (Pennycuick and Battley, 2003). 

Given what we know about the life history characteristics of many of these species (e.g., age at first 

reproduction, clutch size, and nest success), as well as the estimate of maximum nonstop flight range, the 

potential for such major population-level impacts as a result of migration mortality seems relatively low 

(Arnold and Zink, 2011, page 2). Additionally, the focus within this Supplemental EIS is on major 

(population- and ecosystem-level) impacts to bird management, protection, and conservation, as well as 

ecoregions and landscapes over the long term rather than impacts to individual birds and small sites over 

a short time. Therefore, although the body of available information on migratory mortality is incomplete 

and long-term effects are unknown, the evidence currently available supports past analyses The evidence 

does not indicate severe adverse impacts to coastal and marine bird populations as a result of migration 

mortality from collisions with platforms. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the incomplete 

information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for coastal and marine birds presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information provided above. No new information was discovered that would 

alter the impact conclusion for coastal and marine birds presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and 

potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease 

Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.15.Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for fish resources and essential fish habitat (EFH) presented in 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 2312 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for fish resources and EFH presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated 

in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of fish resources and EFH can be found in Chapter 4.1.1.15.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.15 of the WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Also, EFH is discussed in various 

chapters of this Supplemental EIS, including water quality (Chapters 4.1.1.2.1 and 4.1.1.2.2), wetlands

(Chapter 4.1.1.4), seagrass communities (Chapter 4.1.1.5), topographic features (Chapter 4.1.1.6), 
4-62 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Sargassum communities (Chapter 4.1.1.7), chemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities (Chapter 

4.1.1.8), nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities (Chapter 4.1.1.9), and soft bottom benthic 

communities (Chapter 4.1.1.10). The full analyses of the potential impacts of routine activities and 

accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action are presented in Chapters 4.1.1.15.2 and 

4.1.1.15.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 

4.1.1.15 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA 

proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.15.4 of

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.15 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS,

and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of 

the resource description and impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information 

that has become available since those documents were published is presented below.

Effects on fish resources and EFH from routine oil and gas activities associated with a WPA proposed 

action could result in coastal and marine environmental degradation as a result of construction activities 

(onshore facilities to well-site construction activities, including board roads, ring levees, and 

impoundments), pipeline trenching, offshore discharges of drilling muds and produced waters, anchor and 

anchor chain placement, and structure emplacement and removal. The OCS oil- and gas-related activities 

(e.g., anchoring and using anchor chains) could physically destroy live bottom fish habitat, but alternately 

the emplacement of structures and of artificial reefs can have a positive effect by providing habitat and/or 

food for reef fishes. Explosive structure removals can be detrimental to fish because blasts can kill or 

injure fish in close proximity. The removal of the structures would eliminate habitat in areas where 

natural hard bottom is rare, except when decommissioned platforms are used as artificial reef material. 

This practice is expected to increase over time. A more detailed discussion of decommissioning and the 

impacts of these activities on marine fishes can be found in Chapters 3.1.1.10 and 4.1.1.16 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, respectively. Environmental degradation may also result from turbidity 

associated with pipeline emplacement. With the number of pipelines estimated for the OCS Program 

(0-1), sediment would potentially be resuspended in the localized areas. Discharges from OCS oil- and 

gas-related activities, such as drill mud and produced water, also have an incremental effect on offshore 

water quality. 

Since the majority of fish species within the WPA are estuary dependent, any modification of the 

coastal environment resulting from a WPA proposed action has the potential to adversely affect EFH and 

fish resources through the loss of nursery habitat or functional impairment of existing habitat through 

decreased water quality by vessel traffic and routine dredging (Chambers, 1992; Stroud, 1992). Although 

there is potential for coastal and marine environmental degradation from a WPA proposed action, any 

possible degradation would have little effect on fish resources or EFH because many of the offshore 

EFH’s are protected under stipulations, regulations currently set in place, and case-by-case reviews of 

permit applications to prevent impacts to sensitive fish habitats. Bottom-disturbing activities (i.e., 

anchoring and structure emplacement) are mitigated by BOEM to prevent habitat loss, all discharges

(drilling muds and produced waters) are regulated by USEPA or State agencies, and regulations enforced 

for structure removal help to prevent loss of fish habitat. Because of the mitigations, regulations, and 

permit reviews, a WPA proposed action is expected to result in a minimal decrease in fish resources 

and/or standing stocks or in EFH.

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action that could impact fish resources and EFH

include blowouts and oil or chemical spills. If oil or chemical spills due to a WPA proposed action were 

to occur in open waters of the OCS proximate to mobile adult finfish, the effects would likely be nonfatal 

and the extent of damage would be reduced because adult fish have the ability to move away from a spill, 

metabolize hydrocarbons, and excrete both metabolites and parent compounds. Fish and shellfish eggs 

and larvae would be unable to avoid spills, and early development stages may be at greater risk. Fish 

populations may be impacted by an oil spill, but they will be primarily affected if the oil reaches the 

coastal and estuarine areas because these are the most productive areas and because many species reside 

in estuaries for at least part of their life cycle or are dependent on the nutrients exported from the estuaries 

to the shelf region. Weathered crude oil has been shown in laboratory experiments and field research to 

cause a range of sublethal effects, including malformation, genetic damage, and physiological impairment 

in different life history stages of different fish species (Carls et al., 1999; Whitehead et al., 2011; 

Incardona, 2014). Oil can be lethal to fish, especially in larval and egg stages, depending on the time of 

the year that the event happened. The effect of oil spills that may be associated with a WPA proposed 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-63

action on fish resources is expected to cause a minimal decrease in standing stocks of any population 

because the most common spill events would be small in scale and localized; therefore, they would affect 

generally only a small portion of fish populations. Historically, there have been no oil spills of any size in 

the GOM that have had a long-term impact on fishery populations. 

There are widespread anthropogenic and natural factors that impact EFH and fish populations in the 

GOM. These include OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors. The OCS oiland gas-related activities that could impact fish resources and EFH include construction, pipeline and 

structure emplacement, anchor and anchor chain placement, drilling and produced water discharges, 

structure removal, and oil spills. The routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities have the potential to 

impact fish and degrade EFH, but the activities would probably only have a minimal effect on fish 

resources and EFH because of the regulations, mitigations, and permit reviews that are applied for OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities. Oil spills, although considered rare events, can affect seagrass beds 

through physical oiling and destruction from oil spill cleanup. Low-probability catastrophic spills, which 

are not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, are analyzed in Appendix B. Overall, the 

incremental contribution of OCS oil- and gas-related activities to fish populations and EFH is small due 

to regulations, mitigations, and permit reviews.

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors that can impact fisheries and EFH include State oil and gas 

activity, inshore pollutants, dredging, coastal development, human population expansion, commercial and 

recreational fishing, overfishing, and natural phenomena. Inshore inputs of pollutants to estuaries from 

runoff and industry are contributors to wetland loss and degradation of water quality. Fish are known to 

avoid any area of adverse water quality, such as hypoxia (Wannamaker and Rice, 2000; Craig and 

Bosman, 2013). Canal dredging primarily accommodates commercial, residential, and recreational 

development, and increased population and commercial pressures on the Gulf Coast are also causing the 

expansion of ports and marinas. Resource management agencies, both State and Federal, set restrictions 

and issue permits in an effort to mitigate the effects of development projects and industry activities. The 

Federal and State governments are also funding research and coastal restoration projects; however, it may 

take decades of monitoring to ascertain the feasibility and the long-term effectiveness of these coastal 

restoration efforts.

Overfishing (including bycatch) has contributed to population effects seen with GOM fishes. The 

Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and its amendments address sustainable 

fisheries and set guidelines for protecting marine resources and habitat from fishing- and nonfishingrelated activities. Under this Act, fisheries management plans, including limits on catch and fishing 

seasons, are developed and proposed by the regional fisheries management councils for approval and 

implementation by NMFS. State agencies regulate inshore fishing seasons and limits.

Some natural phenomena can impact fish resources and EFH’s. Nearshore habitat can be affected 

through events such as severe storms and floods. These events can accelerate wetland loss or damage 

oyster reef habitat. Offshore resources such as biologically sensitive underwater features may be 

damaged or buried by events like storms or turbidity flows, potentially affecting fish resources. 

Additionally, variability in spawning success and juvenile survival directly affect Gulf of Mexico fish 

populations. These natural phenomena are all continual, integral elements of the ecosystem, and impacts 

attributed to these events are often exacerbated by anthropogenic activities.

While all of these events and activities cause some sort of effect on the different EFH’s and fish 

resources, many anthropogenic inputs, including a WPA proposed action, are now monitored, regulated, 

and mitigated by the permitting agency or State. A WPA proposed action would add a minimal amount 

to the overall cumulative effects.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

Various printed and Internet sources (including NMFS databases, the GMFMC website, EBSCO, 

Elsevier, PLoS ONE, and BioOne) were examined to assess recent information regarding this resource 

that may be pertinent to the WPA. New information relevant to an analysis of the potential impacts of 

OCS activities on fishes has been published. An investigation of the impacts of acute exposure to crude 

oil and dispersed oil on larval and juvenile spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) found that short-term 

growth was reduced during exposure (Brewton et al., 2013). Although the different life stages’ growth 

responses to crude oil and dispersed oil treatments differed, upregulation of cytochrome P-4501A 
4-64 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

(CYP1A) within life stages was consistent with the observed growth effects. These results, combined 

with the observation that juveniles recovered to the average total length of their cohort after 4 weeks of 

depuration, suggest the observed effects of acute exposure may not be long term and could be a result of 

higher metabolic costs associated with exposure to sublethal concentrations of crude oil and dispersed oil 

(Brewton et al., 2013). Similarly, Anderson et al. (2014) assessed the effects of acute exposure to crude 

oil water-accommodated fraction (WAF) treatments and dispersed oil treatments on juvenile Harris mud 

crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii). In this study, the majority of juvenile crab mortalities occurred within 

the initial 24 hours of exposure to chemically enhanced (dispersed) water-accommodated fraction 

(CEWAF) treatments; only one of the crabs exposed to WAF’s died. Surviving subjects of all treatments 

exhibited no long-term effects and there was no significant difference in post-exposure survival. 

However, the study results do indicate chemical dispersion of oil significantly increases the toxicity to 

juvenile Harris mud crabs (Anderson et al., 2014).

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

As discussed in Chapter 4.2.1.18 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete 

information regarding impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on fish 

resources and EFH in the Gulf of Mexico. A large body of information is being developed through the 

NRDA process and is not yet available. Few studies have been released showing impacts following the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. This information cannot be obtained by BOEM 

because the overall costs are exorbitant. This incomplete information may be relevant to evaluating 

adverse effects because the full extent of potential impacts on fish resources and EFH are not known. 

BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from 

available information in completing the relevant analysis such as studies investigating evidence of oil and 

impacts stemming from exposure to oil among pelagic fishes, coastal fishes, and marsh-associated nekton 

(Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Status Review Team, 2011; Fodrie and Heck, 2011; Soniat et al., 2011; 

Carmichael et al., 2012; Moody et al., 2013; Rooker et al., 2013). These references discuss the effects of 

PAH’s on different species and life history stages of fishes, as well as population distributions and status. 

These references found that, following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, there 

were no short-term effects on species compositions in marsh fishes; oysters did not contain PAH’s that 

would be passed to higher trophic levels; larvae, eggs, and adults are found throughout the GOM; and the 

populations status of bluefin tuna is still at a point where they do not need to be listed. Further, BOEM 

analyzed impacts based on the most conservative outcomes; therefore, while there are detailed studies 

regarding fish larvae and eggs and nonlethal impacts from PAH’s, BOEM assumed lethal results if larvae 

and eggs contacted oil. The results of these recent studies of fish resources (species and communities) 

indicate impacts resulting from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill have been largely indistinguishable from 

natural fluctuations or variability due to other anthropogenic activities. Although the body of available 

information is incomplete and long-term effects cannot yet be known, these early results support past 

analyses and are not indicative of significant population-level responses.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for fish resources and EFH presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information provided above. Various printed and Internet sources (including 

NMFS databases, the GMFMC website, EBSCO, Elsevier, PLoS ONE, and BioOne) were examined to 

assess recent information regarding this resource that may be pertinent to the WPA. No new information 

was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for fish resources and EFH presented in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The analysis, potential impacts, and conclusions described in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-65

4.1.1.16.Commercial Fisheries

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for commercial fisheries presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for commercial fisheries presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts discussed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, 

and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of commercial fisheries, along with a full analysis of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.16.1, 4.1.1.16.2, and 4.1.1.16.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.16 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.16.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.16 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since those 

documents were published is presented below.

Impact-producing factors with the potential to affect commercial fisheries in the WPA include 

seafloor-disturbing activities (e.g., pipeline installation, infrastructure emplacement, and dredging); waste 

discharge (e.g., drilling muds, cuttings, and produced waters); explosive severance operations (e.g., 

decommissioning and structure removal); and space-use conflicts (e.g., seismic surveys and structure 

emplacement). Some of these factors have the potential to indirectly impact commercial fisheries through 

degradation or loss of habitat. Healthy fish stocks depend on EFH, which is defined in the Sustainable 

Fisheries Act as “those waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, and/or 

growth to maturity.” Since the majority of commercially harvested species within the WPA are estuarydependent, coastal environmental degradation resulting from a WPA proposed action has the potential to 

adversely affect EFH and commercially valuable fishes. However, analysis of routine oil and gas 

activities, such as pipeline trenching, maintenance dredging, canal construction, and OCS discharge of 

drilling muds and produced water, has identified only short-term localized disturbances that minimally 

impact commercially valuable fish species and associated EFH. Resuspended sediments and offshore 

discharges settle or dissipate rapidly, limiting both the area affected and the duration of the effect. 

Additionally, regulations, mitigations, and current practices reduce the undesirable effects of construction 

and operational activities on coastal and offshore habitats. At the expected level of impact, the resultant 

influence on fish resources would be indistinguishable from natural fluctuations and other anthropogenic 

influences.

Fish mortality as a result of decommissioning operations is an example of OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities directly impacting fishes. However, a study of structure removals employing explosive 

severance methods found that associated mortality for three commercially important fishes did not 

significantly alter projected stocks (Gitschlag et al., 2000). To account for inherent variations in species 

composition and abundance among platforms (e.g., Stanley and Wilson, 1997; Gitschlag et al., 2000; 

Stanley and Wilson, 2000; Wilson et al., 2003), mortality estimates were doubled and stock estimates 

were recalculated. Although the study was limited and cannot be directly applied to all species or 

habitats, it is reasonable to assume that other commercially important fishes could respond similarly. At 

the projected rate of removal, these activities are not expected to have a substantial negative impact on 

stocks of commercially important fishes or, by extension, the associated fisheries. 

Space-use conflicts could result directly from OCS oil- and gas-related activities that restrict or 

prevent other users from accessing OCS resources. For example, seismic surveys and structure 

emplacement represent short-term and semi-permanent obstructions, respectively. Although studies have 

shown air guns can produce behavioral responses in fishes, possibly even resulting in species- or gearspecific effects on catch rate (Popper and Hastings, 2009; Fewtrell and McCauley, 2012; Lokkeborg 

et al., 2012), there is insufficient data to consistently predict responses and important variables, such as 

the duration of exposure and repeated exposure have not been fully addressed. The OCS structures 

present a minor space-use conflict when compared with the area available for commercial fishing. In 
4-66 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

addition, the current paradigm posits these structures act as both fish-attracting and production-enhancing 

devices, depending upon the species (Carr and Hixon, 1997; Gallaway et al., 2009; Shipp and Bortone, 

2009). The resultant assemblages frequently include commercially valuable fishes, such as tunas 

(Thunnus spp.), red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) and wahoo (Acanthocybium solanderi). Therefore, 

OCS structures may either enhance or obstruct commercial fishing, depending upon gear type (e.g., 

hydraulic reel, greenstick, trawl and long-line) and target species.

Accidental events that could impact commercial fisheries are very limited. Oil spills on the OCS that 

are >1 bbl due to a WPA proposed action are highly unlikely (Table 3-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS). If oil spills due to a WPA proposed action were to occur in open waters of the OCS 

proximate to mobile adult finfish, the effects would likely be nonfatal, and the extent of damage would be 

reduced because adult fish have the ability to avoid adverse water conditions. This behavioral mechanism 

allows mobile fishes to move away from the source of the hydrocarbons, thereby minimizing exposure. 

Although larval and juvenile life stages are typically more vulnerable than adults, species-specific 

response, duration of exposure, and hydrocarbon concentration are critical factors in determining shortand long-term effects. If a spill were to occur in coastal waters, oil could potentially impact critical 

nursery habitat. However, the great majority of coastal spills would be very small, would require a 

shorter response time than more remote incidents, and would be expected to affect a highly localized area 

with low-level impacts. The probability of an offshore spill impacting nearshore environments is low, 

and spilled oil would generally be volatilized or dispersed by currents in the offshore environment prior to 

impacting inshore nursery habitat. Overall, the commercial fish and shellfish populations have remained 

healthy in the Gulf of Mexico despite ongoing anthropogenic and natural disturbances.

The cumulative analysis considers activities that have occurred, are currently occurring, and could 

occur and adversely affect commercial fisheries by harming fishes and affecting landings, or the value of 

those landings, for the years 2012-2051. These activities include the effects of the OCS Program 

(proposed action and prior and future OCS lease sales) resulting from pipeline installation, channel 

dredging, waste discharge, decommissioning operations, seismic surveys, and structure emplacement. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors include State oil and gas activity, coastal development, natural 

phenomena, and commercial and recreational fishing. Although some OCS oil- and gas-related activities 

contribute incrementally to the degradation and loss of wetland habitat (Chapter 4.1.1.4), the cumulative 

impact is small in comparison with the combined effect of State oil and gas development, coastal 

commercial, residential and agricultural development, levees, river channelization, and episodic natural 

phenomena. The cumulative direct impact to commercial fisheries through a reduction in resources 

(fishable area and fish stocks) is negligible. In recent years, decommissioning operations have exceeded 

structure emplacements, resulting in a decrease in the total number of OCS platforms. BOEM expects 

this trend to continue throughout the OCS Program years, further reducing the potential for impacts to 

commercial fisheries through space-use conflicts. Although the decommissioning process frequently 

employs explosive severance methods that result in localized mortality of fishes, the cumulative impact to 

commercially valuable stocks is expected to be indistinguishable from natural fluctuations and the effects 

of commercial and recreational fishing activity.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM has examined newly available information for findings that may impact the analyses of 

routine, accidental, and cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related activities and potentially alter previous 

conclusions. A search of Internet information sources and scientific journals was conducted to determine 

the availability of recent information (including NMFS databases, the NOAA Gulf Spill Restoration 

Publications website, the GMFMC website, Science Direct, EBSCO, Elsevier, PLoS ONE, JSTOR, and 

BioOne). Since preparation of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, new information relevant to an analysis of 

the potential impacts of OCS oil- and gas-related activities on commercial fisheries has been published. 

The following studies investigate the impacts of acute hydrocarbon exposure on larval and juvenile life 

stages of species that may be used to extrapolate the potential effects to similar species of commercial 

interest. An investigation of the impacts of acute exposure to crude oil and dispersed oil on larval and 

juvenile spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) found that short-term growth was reduced during 

exposure (Brewton et al., 2013). Although the different life stages’ growth responses to crude oil and 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-67

dispersed oil treatments differed, upregulation of CYP1A within life stages was consistent with the 

observed growth effects. These results, combined with the observation that juveniles recovered to the 

average total length of their cohort after 4 weeks of depuration, suggest the observed effects of acute 

exposure may not be long term and could be a result of higher metabolic costs associated with exposure to 

sublethal concentrations of crude oil and dispersed oil (Brewton et al., 2013). Similarly, Anderson et al. 

(2014) assessed the effects of acute exposure to crude oil WAF treatments and dispersed oil treatments on 

juvenile Harris mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii). In this study, the majority of juvenile crab 

mortalities occurred within the initial 24 hours of exposure to CEWAF treatments; only one of the crabs 

exposed to WAF’s died. Surviving subjects of all treatments exhibited no long-term effects and there was 

no significant difference in post-exposure survival. However, the study results do indicate chemical 

dispersion of oil significantly increases the toxicity to juvenile Harris mud crabs (Anderson et al., 2014).

These studies serve to expand our understanding of the potential impacts an oil spill may have on 

valuable marine species and to reaffirm the conclusions reached in previous analyses. As already noted, 

adult fish have the ability to avoid adverse water conditions and are expected to experience reduced 

exposure due to their mobility and avoidance response. Larval and juvenile life stages are generally more 

vulnerable, but studies such as the ones above suggest some species may be more tolerant of exposure 

than others. Furthermore, these results suggest that, should unweathered oil impact critical nursery 

habitat, the effects of sublethal acute exposure for some species and life stages may be short term. The 

potential impact short-term effects may have on juvenile survival and recruitment is not known. Past 

research (Myers and Cadigan, 1993; Levin and Stuntz, 2005) suggests larval and juvenile survival rates 

strongly influence offshore adult populations, and a new model developed by Baker et al. (2014) indicates 

that the survival of juvenile white shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus) may factor more strongly than fishing 

pressure into population size.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.16 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 

248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information for impacts related to explosive 

structure removal, seismic surveys, acute oil exposure, and chronic oil exposure. Fish mortality resulting 

from explosive structure removal has not been fully studied across a wide range of water depths and 

environmental conditions. However, as stated above, existing information (e.g., Gitschlag et al., 2000) is 

sufficient for the purpose of analyzing the potential impacts of anticipated decommissioning activities. 

Specific responses by fishes to seismic survey activities cannot be predicted and are unknowable due to 

the many possible interactions among variables (e.g., species, environmental conditions, exposure history 

and duration, spawning status, presence of prey or predators, etc.) that could influence the response to 

sound. However, available information (Popper and Hastings, 2009; Fewtrell and McCauley, 2012; 

Lokkeborg et al., 2012) is sufficient, within the context of historical landings and with knowledge of 

anticipated survey frequency and distribution, to extrapolate an overall expectation of negligible impact to 

commercial fisheries. Information on the potential for juvenile survival to be impacted by acute exposure

to oil remains incomplete (Brewton et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 2014); however, recent studies suggest 

that fishes recruited near the time of the Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill may not have suffered 

catastrophic losses (Fodrie and Heck, 2011; Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Status Review Team, 2011; Rooker 

et al., 2013). As such, it is reasonable to extrapolate that short-term effects of the oil spill did not severely 

impact recruitment. In the long term, the effects of acute or chronic exposures to oil remain unknown. 

This information cannot reasonably be obtained because the long-term effects may not yet be detectable 

and the overall costs in time and money to determine this are exorbitant. BOEM recognizes that the 

incomplete information with respect to long-term effects may be relevant to the evaluation of impacts on 

commercial fisheries. 

BOEM used reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from existing information in 

completing this analysis and formulating the conclusions presented here. Although the body of available 

information is incomplete and long-term effects cannot yet be known, the evidence currently available 

supports past analyses and does not indicate severe adverse impacts to commercial fisheries. Therefore, 
4-68 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for commercial fisheries presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. The new information does not alter previous impact 

conclusions for commercial fisheries. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.17.Recreational Fishing

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for recreational fishing presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for recreational fishing presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of recreational fishing, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.17.1, 4.1.1.17.2, and 4.1.1.17.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.17 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.17.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.17 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. New information that has become available since publication of 

those documents is also discussed below.

Routine activities during the initial phases of a WPA proposed action, such as seismic surveying 

operations and other forms of vessel traffic, may lead to some minor space-use conflicts with recreational 

fishermen. Vessel traffic during subsequent infrastructure emplacement and production operations could 

also lead to some space-use conflicts with recreational fishing activities. The OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities could also affect the aesthetics of fishing in a particular location, which could dissuade anglers 

from fishing in specific locations. However, according to data provided by the Texas Parks and Wildlife 

Department, less than 2 percent of the annual recreational fishing effort occurs in waters of the Exclusive 

Economic Zone and the majority of recreational fishing targets species not closely associated with 

offshore oil and gas infrastructure (Fisher, official communication, 2014). Therefore, direct impacts from 

space-use conflicts are expected to be minimal.

Proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 may also lead to low-level environmental degradation of 

fish habitat (Chapter 4.1.1.15), e.g., construction activities and offshore discharges of drilling muds and 

produced waters, which could negatively impact recreational fishing activity. However, these minor 

negative effects would likely be outweighed by the beneficial role that oil platforms serve as artificial 

reefs for fish populations. The degree to which oil platforms will become a part of a particular State’s 

Rigs-to-Reefs program will be an important determinant of the degree to which a WPA proposed action 

may impact recreational fishing activity in the long term. As structures are scheduled for 

decommissioning, a higher level of a State’s participation in the Rigs-to-Reefs program may benefit 

fishermen through the retention of complex habitat and potentially enhanced production for some 

recreationally desirable species, as opposed to structure removals (particularly those that use explosives), 

which can negatively impact the recreational activity that depends on any particular platform. However, 

the vast majority of recreational fishing activity in the WPA occurs in non-Federal waters and thus would 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-69

not be impacted by structure removals. In aggregate, the impacts of a WPA proposed action on 

recreational fishing activity are expected to be minor.

Recreational fishing could also be impacted by accidental events, such as oil spills. Oil spills can 

arise from accidents with respect to vessels, pipelines, drilling operations, or production operations. An 

oil spill would likely lead to recreational fishing closures in the vicinity of the oil spill. Small-scale spills 

should not affect recreational fishing to a large degree due to the likely availability of substitute fishing 

sites in neighboring regions. The longer-term effects of an oil spill will be determined by its effects on 

fish populations (Chapter 4.1.1.15), as well as by its effects on people and firms that support recreational 

fishing activity.

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of the impact-producing factors related to OCS oil and 

gas, along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts, that may occur and adversely affect recreational 

fishing in the same general area of a WPA proposed action. The impacts of proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248 will contribute to the impacts of the broader OCS Program. This includes the space-use 

impacts arising from vessel traffic and construction operations, as well as the low-level environmental 

degradation to fish habitats that could occur. A proposed WPA lease sale will also incrementally add to 

the probabilities of oil spills, which could affect recreational fishing activity in the short term. Lowprobability catastrophic oil spills, which are not part of a WPA proposed action and not reasonably 

expected, could also impact recreational fishing and are described in Appendix B. Proposed WPA Lease 

Sales 246 and 248 could also have positive impacts to recreational fishing activity since OCS platforms 

often serve as reefs for fish populations, although removals of these platforms could have negative 

impacts on recreational fishing activity. However, these negative effects would be partially offset if some 

platforms are maintained through Rigs-to-Reefs programs.

Recreational fishing activity could also be influenced by a number of non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

factors, such as commercial, military, recreational, and industrial activities; natural processes; wetlands

loss; hypoxia events; fish kills; water quality degradation; fisheries management plans; hurricanes; State 

oil and gas activities; State artificial reef program; tourism (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.18); and other 

economic factors (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.20.3). Many of these impacts will be determined by the 

cumulative impacts to fish populations, which are discussed in Chapter 4.1.1.15. However, recreational 

fishing activity is driven by unique economic and tourism trends (refer to Chapters 4.1.1.18 and 

4.1.1.20.3). It can also be influenced by the quality of fishing grounds, such as wetland areas, which can 

be degraded by hurricanes. However, it is likely that Fisheries Management Plans of the Federal and 

State governments would serve to keep overall recreational fishing activity reasonably stable through 

time.

A WPA proposed action and the broader OCS Program have varied effects on recreational fishing

activity. The OCS Program has generally enhanced recreational fishing opportunities due to the role of 

oil platforms as artificial reefs. This effect is influenced by the decommissioning rate and the extent to 

which decommissioned platforms are redeployed as artificial reefs through participation in the States’ 

Rigs-to-Reefs programs. However, oil spills can have important negative consequences on recreational 

fishing activity due to the resultant fishing closures and longer-term effects oil spills can have on fish 

populations. These are discrete and rare events, however, and recreational fishing activity is largely 

driven by broader economic and tourism trends. Recreational fishing activity is also influenced by a 

number of non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities, such as economic and tourism trends, the quality of 

fishing grounds, hurricanes, and Fisheries Management Plans of Federal and State governments. The 

incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to these positive and negative cumulative effects 

would be minimal because of the relatively small amount of activity expected with a WPA proposed 

action.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM examined a variety of Internet sources, as well as known data providers, for new information 

regarding the impacts of a WPA proposed action on recreational fishing. New information was found on 

the affected environment, including recreational fisheries efforts and catches. The primary new data 

source is an annual update to recreational fishing data in Texas (Fisher, official communication, 2014). 

This update provides data on both the species caught and the amount of angler effort in 2013 (the data for 

prior years are unchanged). Table 4-2 provides data on the number of recreational fishing trips during 
4-70 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

each season of 2009-2013. Texas has historically divided its data into two fishing seasons: Season A 

(November 21-May 14) and Season B (May 15-November 20). Table 4-2 shows that there were 

1,041,027 angler trips in 2009; 987,537 angler trips in 2010; 1,125,400 angler trips in 2011; 

1,159,187 angler trips in 2012; and 1,149,597 angler trips in 2013. Thus, the total number of angler trips 

in 2013 was similar to the number of trips in prior years. The number of trips in the Exclusive Economic 

Zone and in Texas State waters in 2013 slightly increased from 2012 levels, while the number of trips in 

bays in 2013 slightly decreased. In 2013, the number of private trips increased while the number of 

charter trips decreased. Also, in 2013, the number of trips in Season B increased while the number of 

trips in Season A decreased.

Table 4-3 provides data regarding the individual species caught by anglers in Texas during 2009-

2013. Panel A presents overall catch data in Texas, while Panels B, C, and D present catch data for Texas 

bays, State waters, and the Exclusive Economic Zone. For most species, landings in 2013 fell from 2012 

levels. However, landings for some species, such as black drum (Pogonias cromis) and sheepshead 

(Archosargus probatocephalus), were unusually high in 2012. Therefore, the decrease in landings for 

some species in 2013 likely partially reflects returns to more normal levels of landings. Landings in 2013 

decreased from 2012 levels for all species that are generally caught in bays. However, landings of red 

snapper (Lutjanus campechanus) and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla), which are generally 

caught in Texas State waters and in the Exclusive Economic Zone, increased in 2013 from 2012 levels.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplement EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.17 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information related to recreational 

fishing. This information relates to the ultimate impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on fish 

populations that support recreational fishing activity. An analysis of this incomplete or unavailable 

information is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.18. As discussed in that chapter, this incomplete or

unavailable information is being developed through the NRDA process and is not yet available. There is 

also uncertainty regarding the extent to which recreational fishing is dependent upon OCS platforms. 

BOEM is planning to undertake a study project to examine this issue, although the results from this study 

project will not be released in the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. 

In lieu of this incomplete or unavailable information, BOEM used existing information and reasonably 

accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available information in completing the relevant 

analysis as described above. For example, BOEM has used data on recreational fishing activity provided 

by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (Fisher, official communication, 2014) to examine trends in 

recreational fishing activity off Texas over time. BOEM does not expect the incomplete or unavailable 

information to significantly change its estimates of the impacts of the OCS Program on recreational 

fishing activity because BOEM still has enough baseline data to reasonably estimate impacts. Therefore, 

BOEM has determined that the incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a reasoned 

choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for recreational fishing presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for recreational fishing presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because the new information 

was consistent with prior expectations. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-71

4.1.1.18.Recreational Resources

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for recreational resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for recreational resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of recreational resources, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts 

of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in 

Chapters 4.1.1.18.1, 4.1.1.18.2, and 4.1.1.18.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.18 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.18.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.18 

of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact analysis 

incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. New information that has become available since publication of 

those documents is presented below.

Routine OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the WPA have the potential to directly and indirectly 

impact recreational resources along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana. Marine debris, OCS oil and gas 

vessel noise, and visible OCS oil- and gas-related infrastructure can noticeably affect the aesthetic value 

of coastal areas, particularly beaches. Additionally, OCS oil- and gas-related vessel traffic can cause 

space-use conflicts with recreational activities such as boating, and the presence of OCS oil and gas 

platforms can enhance some recreational activities such as fishing and diving. Although, the long-term 

impacts of platforms depend on the nature of the decommissioning of the platform. The OCS oil- and 

gas-related activities can also change the composition of local economies through changes in 

employment, land use, and the demand for activities related to recreation and tourism. Despite these 

potential impacts, the small scale of a WPA proposed action relative to the scale of the existing OCS oil 

and gas industry suggests that the impacts on recreational resources are likely to be minimal.

Accidental spills most likely to result from a WPA proposed action will be small, of short duration, 

and not likely to impact Gulf Coast recreational resources. Should an oil spill occur and contact a beach 

area or other recreational resource, it will cause some disruption due to the physical oiling impact and 

cleanup phases of the spill. Beaches, nature parks, and wetland areas could be impacted during these 

phases of an oil spill. These disruptions could also have impacts on businesses and consumers that 

depend on the use of these resources. Media coverage and public perception regarding the extent of the 

oil damage can also influence the ultimate economic impacts of a spill (Chapter 4.1.1.20). However, all 

of these effects would likely be small in scale and of short duration.

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to OCS oil and gas 

along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts of other commercial, military, offshore and coastal 

activities, and natural processes that may occur and adversely affect recreational resources in the same 

general area of a WPA proposed action.

A WPA proposed action would contribute to the aesthetic impacts and space-use conflicts that arise 

due to the broader OCS Program. This includes impacts from vessel traffic, marine debris, and the 

presence or absence of OCS infrastructure. Vessel traffic can cause space-use conflicts with recreational 

activities such as boating. Marine debris can degrade the recreational value of resources such as beaches. 

The presence or absence of OCS oil- and gas-related infrastructure could impact activities such as 

recreational fishing or diving. Oil spills could also contribute to the overall degradation of beach and 

wetland-based recreational resources. Most accidental spills are not likely to impact Gulf Coast 

recreational resources because they are expected to be small and of short duration. If oil resulting from a 

spill were to contact a beach area or other recreational resource, disruption could occur from oiling and oil 

cleanup. However, these effects are also likely to be small in scale and of short duration. The impacts of 

a low-probability catastrophic oil spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely 

expected, on recreational resources are discussed in Appendix B. 
4-72 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Recreational resources along the Gulf Coast can also be impacted by similar non-OCS oil- and gasrelated aesthetic and space-use conflicts, as well as a variety of non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors, such 

as coastal erosion, beach disruptions, military activities, and economic factors. Coastal erosion negatively 

impacts recreational activities that depend on wetland and beach resources. Beach disruptions would 

arise from degradations of air and water quality, as well as by natural processes such as red tides. 

Military activities could cause aesthetic impacts and space-use conflicts with recreational activities. 

Recreational activities will also correlate with regional and national economic trends.

The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action is expected to be minimal in light of all OCS 

oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities. This is because of the small scale of a 

WPA proposed action, as well as the fact that most impacts to recreational resources will be temporary.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM conducted a search of Internet sources and known data providers for new information 

regarding the affected environment of recreational resources. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has released 

preliminary data regarding the scale of employment in various industries in the Gulf Coast States in 2013 

(U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Table 4-4 presents data on the levels of 

employment in leisure and hospitality industries in various Economic Impact Areas (EIA’s) and coastal 

areas. Leisure and hospitality employment was higher in 2013 than in any year from 2008 through 2012 

in all EIA’s and coastal areas. Source Strategies Inc. (2014) has released data regarding the levels of 

hotel rooms-nights sold and hotel prices in various regions in Texas in 2013. In Texas as a whole, roomnights sold increased 3.3 percent and prices increased by 5.1 percent in 2013 compared with 2012. In the 

Houston-Baytown-Sugar Land region, room-nights sold increased by 3.9 percent and prices increased by 

8.6 percent in 2013 compared with 2012. In the Corpus Christi region, room-nights sold increased by 

7.6 percent and prices increased by 4.4 percent in 2013 compared with 2012. The increases in economic 

activity shown by the Bureau of Labor Statistics’ employment data and by the hotel data provided by 

Source Strategies Inc. likely primarily reflect the gradual improvement in overall economic conditions 

since the recent economic recession.

Lowe and Stokes (2013) present a variety of information regarding the scale of wildlife tourism in 

various Gulf Coast areas. For example, this report finds that over 1,100 wildlife guide businesses support 

over 11,000 dining and lodging businesses. This report also estimates that wildlife tourism along the Gulf 

Coast supports over $19 billion in spending and generates over $5 billion in Federal, State, and local tax 

revenues. The three primary forms of wildlife tourism are fishing (which supports $8 billion in 

spending), wildlife watching (which supports $6.5 billion in spending), and hunting (which supports 

$5 billion in spending). Wildlife tourism supports the most spending in Florida ($8 billion) and Texas 

($5 billion); wildlife tourism supports approximately $2 billion in spending each in Louisiana, 

Mississippi, and Alabama. Lowe and Stokes (2013) enhances BOEM’s understanding of the affected 

environment.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete 

or unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.18 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 

248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding 

recreational resources in the WPA. This information relates to quantifying measures of recreation and 

tourism along the Gulf Coast, as well as information relating to the impacts of the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response on recreational resources. These information sources are related to 

recreation and tourism along the Gulf Coast and impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response, and assist in assessing the baseline environment for recreational resources. BOEM has 

funded a study that is attempting to improve its information regarding these issues; however, the study is 

not yet complete. BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to 

extrapolate from available information in completing the relevant analysis. For example, BOEM used 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-73

data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics using broader industry categories to estimate the scale of 

recreation-related activities in recent years (U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2013). 

BOEM also used data from Source Strategies Inc. (2014) and Lowe and Stokes (2013) to estimate the 

baseline environment for recreational resources. These sources provide sufficient baseline information 

from which to estimate the impacts of the OCS Program, particularly since the available data suggest that 

most recreational areas have recovered from the impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the incomplete or unavailable information is not 

essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for recreational resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for recreational resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because the new information 

was roughly consistent with prior expectations. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.19.Archaeological Resources

4.1.1.19.1. Historic

Historic archaeological resources on the OCS consist of historic shipwrecks and a single historic 

lighthouse, the Ship Shoal Light. A historic shipwreck is defined as a submerged or buried vessel or its 

associated components, at least 50 years old, that has foundered, stranded, or wrecked and that is 

currently lying on or is embedded in the seafloor. Ships are known to have traversed the waters of the 

WPA as early as Captain Alonso Alverez de Piñeda’s expedition in 1519. Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca 

is likely to have the dubious distinction of being the first European to be shipwrecked along the Texas 

coast, as early as 1528 (Francaviglia, 1998).

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for historic archaeological resources presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for historic archaeological resources presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated 

in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of historic archaeological resources, along with the full analyses of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are 

presented in Chapters 4.1.1.19.1, 4.1.1.19.1.2, and 4.1.1.19.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.19.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.19.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.19.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and 

impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become 

available since those documents were published is presented below.

Damage to archaeological resources as a result of offshore oil and gas activity can be minimized by 

pre-seabed-disturbance archaeological surveys. Archaeological surveys, where required prior to an 

operator beginning OCS oil and gas activities on a lease, are expected to be effective at identifying 

possible archaeological sites. The technical requirements of the archaeological resource reports are 

detailed in NTL 2005-G07, “Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports.” Under 30 CFR § 

550.194(c), lessees are required to immediately notify BOEM’s Regional Director of the discovery of any 

potential archaeological resources. Under 30 CFR § 250.194(c) and 30 CFR § 250.1010(c), lessees are 
4-74 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

also required to immediately notify BSEE’s Regional Director of the discovery of any potential 

archaeological resources. In addition, archaeological resources in the coastal environment are protected 

through Federal, State, and local agency permit review as well as Section 106 of the National Historic 

Preservation Act.

Routine impact-producing factors associated with a WPA proposed action that could affect historic 

archaeological resources include direct physical contact with a shipwreck site; the placement of drilling 

rigs and production systems on the seafloor; pile driving associated with platform emplacement; pipeline 

placement; dredging of new channels, as well as maintenance dredging of existing channels; anchoring 

activities; pipeline installation; post-decommissioning trawling clearance; and the masking from 

geophysical sensors of archaeological resources from industry-related debris. The greatest potential 

impact to an archaeological resource as a result of a WPA proposed action would result from direct 

contact between an offshore activity (i.e., platform or pipeline installation, drilling rig emplacement, 

dredging, and post-decommissioning trawling) and a historic site because of incomplete knowledge on the 

location of these sites in the Gulf of Mexico. The risk of contact to archaeological resources is greater in 

instances where archaeological survey data are inadequate or unavailable. Such an event could result in 

the disturbance or destruction of important archaeological information. Archaeological surveys provide 

the necessary information to develop avoidance strategies that reduce the potential for impacts on 

archaeological resources. Except for the projected 0-1 new gas processing facilities and 0-1 new pipeline 

landfalls, a WPA proposed action would require no new oil and gas coastal infrastructure. It is expected 

that archaeological resources would be protected through the review and approval processes of the 

various Federal, State, and local agencies involved in permitting onshore activities.

Impacts to documented and undocumented historic archaeological resources could occur as a result of 

an accidental oil spill and the associated cleanup operations. Detailed risk analyses of offshore oil spills

ranging from <1,000 bbl to ≥1,000 bbl and coastal spills associated with a WPA proposed action are 

provided in Chapters 3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.6, and 3.2.1.7 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapters 3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.6, 

and 3.2.1.7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. When oil is spilled in offshore areas, much of the 

oil volatilizes or is dispersed by currents, so it has a low probability of contacting coastal areas. However, 

should a spill contact a historic archaeological site (including submerged sites), damage might include 

contamination of materials, direct impact from oil-spill cleanup equipment, and/or looting. An additional 

major effect from an oil spill could be viewshed pollution of a historic coastal site, such as a fort or 

lighthouse. Although such effects may be temporary and reversible, cleaning oil from historic structures 

can be a complex, time-consuming, and expensive process, and the use of dispersants may result in longterm chemical contamination of submerged cultural heritage sites (e.g., Chin and Church, 2010). It is 

expected, however, that any spill cleanup operations would be considered a Federal undertaking for the 

purposes of Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act and would be conducted in such a way 

as to minimize impacts to historic archaeological resources.

Several OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors could potentially impact 

historic archaeological resources, including the following: (1) OCS Program routine and accidental 

impacts; (2) artificial rigs-to-reefs development; and (3) renewable energy and alternative use 

conversions. A detailed impact analysis of the cumulative impacts of OCS oil- and gas-related activities 

associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 on historic archaeological resources can be 

found in Chapter 4.1.1.19.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Historic archaeological resources on the OCS are vulnerable to the 

above OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors due to the associated bottomdisturbing activities. An impact could result from direct physical contact between historic shipwrecks 

located on the OCS and OCS Program oil and gas activities (i.e., pipeline and platform installations, 

drilling rig emplacement and operation, site decommissioning, rigs-to-reefs development, dredging, and 

anchoring activities). Permitting OCS oil- and gas-related development prior to requiring archaeological 

surveys has been documented to have impacted wrecks containing significant or unique historic 

information. Impacts may be reduced when preconstruction surveys are required by BOEM or the 

permitting agency prior to these activities. Impacts to historic resources may still occur in areas where a 

remote-sensing survey fails to resolve the location of partially or completely buried resources or when no 

pre-disturbance survey is required. Impacts to documented and undocumented historic archaeological 

resources could occur as a result of an accidental oil spill and the associated cleanup operations; however, 

the potential for spills is low, the effects would generally be localized, and the cleanup efforts would be 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-75

regulated. Low-probability catastrophic spills, which are not part of a WPA proposed action and not 

likely expected, are discussed in Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that could potentially impact 

historic archaeological resources include the following: (1) State oil and gas activity; (2) offshore LNG 

projects; (3) new channel dredging and maintenance dredging; (4) State renewable energy and alternative 

use conversions; (5) State artificial reefs and rigs-to-reefs development; (6) commercial fishing; (7) sport 

diving and commercial treasure hunting; and (8) natural processes, including wave action and hurricanes. 

As with the OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors, risks from the above non-OCS 

oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors are related to their associated bottom-disturbing 

activities. An impact could result from direct physical contact between historic shipwrecks and Staterelated oil and gas activities, sand borrowing, renewable energy activities, LNG facility construction,

artificial reef creation, new channel dredging, and maintenance dredging. With the exception of 

maintenance dredging, preconstruction surveys may be required for these activities. Impacts to historic 

resources may still occur in areas where a remote-sensing survey fails to resolve the location of partially 

or completely buried resources or when no pre-disturbance survey is required.

The effects of the various impact-producing factors discussed in this analysis have likely resulted in 

the localized loss of significant or unique archaeological information. In the case of factors related to past 

OCS Program activities within the cumulative activity area, it is reasonable to assume that most impacts 

would have occurred where development took place prior to any archaeological survey requirements. 

When surveys are not required, it is impossible to anticipate what might be embedded in or lying directly 

on the seafloor, and impacts to these sites are likely to be significant. When surveys are required, there is 

still the possibility of an unanticipated interaction between bottom-disturbing activity (i.e., rig 

emplacement, pipeline trenching, anchoring, and other ancillary activities) and a historic shipwreck, 

despite diligence in BOEM’s survey review process. However, the incremental contribution of a WPA 

proposed action is expected to be very small due to the efficacy of the remote-sensing survey and 

archaeological reporting requirements within the proposed lease sale area. Future OCS Program activity, 

including the bottom-disturbing activity permitted by BOEM and other agencies, may require 

preconstruction archaeological surveys that, when completed, are highly effective in identifying bottom 

anomalies that can be either avoided or investigated before bottom-disturbing activities begin.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/ CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

Various Internet sources were examined to assess recent information regarding impacts to 

archaeological resources or potential new threats to archaeological resources that may be pertinent to the 

WPA. These Internet sources included various online indexes to periodical literature, such as JSTOR, the 

National Technical Information Service’s National Technical Reports Library, and ScienceDirect. In 

addition, BOEM has conducted scientific research in the GOM. The research has identified new 

information on shipwrecks that is pertinent to this Supplemental EIS.

In July 2013 and April 2014, BOEM participated in a multi-agency investigation of three early19th century shipwrecks located approximately 7-10 nmi (8-12 mi; 13-19 km) east of the WPA/CPA 

border (USDOI, BOEM, 2014c). Preliminary analysis of the data indicates that these wooden-hulled 

sailing vessels share similarities in hull construction characteristics and artifact assemblages. 

Additionally, these shipwrecks are located within 4 nmi (5 mi; 7 km) of each other, suggesting that they 

may have been sailing together in convoy when they were caught and sunk by a violent storm. 

Regardless of whether these vessels were sailing together or on separate voyages, their discovery supports 

BOEM’s previous analysis that there is a high probability of historic shipwrecks being located in 

deepwater areas of the WPA along historic trading routes (Pearson et al., 2003; Lugo-Fernandez et al., 

2007).

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete 

or unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.19 of the 
4-76 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238, 246, and 

248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information regarding the location of historic 

archaeological resources in the WPA. This information cannot be obtained because the overall costs of 

obtaining it through survey of the entire WPA are exorbitant. This incomplete information may be 

relevant to adverse effects because the locations and integrity of many historic archaeological resources 

remain unknown. Nevertheless, this incomplete information is not likely to be available within the 

timeline contemplated in this NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. It would take several years before 

data confirming the presence (or lack thereof) of historic archaeological resources, and the status of each 

could be investigated, analyzed, and compiled. Historic archaeological sites within the WPA region have 

the potential to be buried, embedded in, or laying on the seafloor. The WPA covers an area of 

approximately 28.58 million acres and ranges in water depths from an estimated 10 to 3,420 m (33 to 

11,220 ft). It includes highly variable bathymetric and geophysical regimes, which differentially affect 

the ease and ability to identify, ground truth, and evaluate historic archaeological sites. This fact, 

combined with the scope of the acreage within the WPA, results in the aforementioned exorbitant costs 

and time factors.

BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific theories on archaeological site 

potential in the Gulf of Mexico to extrapolate from available information in completing the relevant 

analysis. In addition, future site-specific, remote-sensing surveys of the seafloor are required when 

deemed appropriate to establish the presence of potential resources (NTL 2005-G07). The results of these 

surveys are reviewed in tandem with credible scientific evidence from previously identified sites, regional 

sedimentology, and physical oceanography that is relevant to evaluating the adverse impacts on historic 

resources that are a part of the human environment. The required surveys are analyzed by industry and 

BOEM archaeologists prior to the authorization of any new or significant bottom-disturbing impacts and, 

if necessary, avoidance of potential archaeological resources is prescribed. Archaeological surveys are 

expected to be highly effective in identifying resources to allow for protection of the resource during OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities. A WPA proposed action is not a reasonably foreseeable significant impact 

because the BOEM’s evaluation of such impacts is based upon pre-disturbance and site-specific surveys, 

the results of which BOEM uses to require substantial avoidance of any potential historic resource that 

could be impacted by the proposed activity. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the information is not 

essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for historic archaeological resources presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for historic 

archaeological resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.19.2. Prehistoric

Prehistoric archaeological resources are any material remains of human life or activities associated 

with the earliest inhabitants of the Gulf Coast, predating European discovery and exploration of the area. 

Available evidence suggests that the first Americans arrived on the Gulf Coast as much as 12,000 years 

before present (B.P.) during a time when the continental shelf was exposed above sea level and open to 

habitation (Pearson et al., 1986).

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for prehistoric archaeological resources presented in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for prehistoric archaeological resources presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-77

A detailed description of prehistoric archaeological resources, along with the full analyses of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are 

presented in Chapters 4.1.1.19.2.1, 4.1.1.19.2.2 and 4.1.1.19.2.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.19.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.19.2.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.19.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and 

impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become 

available since those documents were published is presented below.

Prehistoric archaeological sites are thought to be preserved shoreward of the 45-m (148-ft) 

bathymetric contour, where the Gulf of Mexico continental shelf was subaerially exposed during the Late 

Pleistocene. Archaeological surveys, where required prior to an operator beginning OCS oil- and gasrelated activities on a lease, are expected to be somewhat effective at identifying submerged landforms 

that could support possible prehistoric archaeological sites. The NTL 2005-G07 recommends a 300-m 

(984-ft) maximum line spacing for remote-sensing surveys of leases within areas having a high potential 

for prehistoric sites. While surveys provide a reduction in the potential for a damaging interaction 

between an impact-producing factor and a prehistoric archaeological site, there is still a possibility of an 

OCS oil- and gas-related activity contacting an archaeological site. Should such impacts occur, there 

could be damage to or loss of significant and/or unique archaeological information.

Routine impact-producing factors associated with a WPA proposed action that could affect 

prehistoric archaeological resources include direct physical contact associated with the placement of 

drilling rigs and production systems on the seafloor; pile driving associated with platform emplacement; 

pipeline placement; dredging of new channels, as well as maintenance dredging of existing channels; 

anchoring activities; pipeline installation; and post-decommissioning trawling clearance.. This direct 

physical contact with a site could destroy fragile artifacts or site features and could disturb artifact 

provenance and site stratigraphy. The result would be the loss of archaeological data on prehistoric 

migrations, settlement patterns, subsistence strategies, and archaeological contexts for North America, 

Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The risk of contact to archaeological resources is 

greater in instances where archaeological survey data are inadequate or unavailable. Archaeological 

surveys provide the necessary information to develop avoidance strategies that reduce the potential for 

impacts on archaeological resources. Except for the projected 0-1 new gas processing facilities and 

0-1 new pipeline landfalls, a WPA proposed action would require no new oil and gas coastal 

infrastructure. It is expected that the protection of archaeological resources would be maximized through 

the review and approval processes of the various Federal, State, and local agencies involved in permitting 

onshore activities.

Impacts to documented (onshore) and undocumented (onshore and offshore) prehistoric 

archaeological resources could occur as a result of an accidental oil spill and the associated cleanup 

operations. Oil spills resulting from a well blowout in the WPA and related spill-response activities have

the potential to impact cultural resources near the spill site and landfall areas. Detailed risk analyses of 

offshore oil spills ranging from <1,000 bbl to ≥1,000 bbl and of coastal spills that may be associated with 

a WPA proposed action are provided in Chapters 3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.6, and 3.2.1.7 of this Supplemental EIS 

and Chapters 3.2.1.5, 3.2.1.6, and 3.2.1.7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Should a spill 

contact a prehistoric archaeological site, damage might include loss of radiocarbon-dating potential, direct 

impact from oil-spill cleanup equipment, and/or looting. However, when oil is spilled in offshore areas, 

much of the oil volatilizes or is dispersed by currents, so it has a low probability of contacting coastal and 

barrier island prehistoric sites as a result of a WPA proposed action. A WPA proposed action, therefore, 

is not expected to result in impacts to prehistoric archaeological sites.

Several OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that could potentially impact 

prehistoric archaeological resources include the following: (1) OCS Program routine and accidental 

impacts; (2) renewable energy and alternative use conversion; and (3) artificial rigs-to-reefs development. 

A detailed impact analysis of the cumulative impacts of OCS oil- and gas-related activities associated 

with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 on prehistoric archaeological resources can be found in 

Chapter 4.1.1.19.2.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.
4-78 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

The OCS oil- and gas-related activities that could impact prehistoric archaeological sites located on 

the OCS through contact include pipeline and platform installations, drilling rig emplacement and 

operation, site decommissioning, rigs-to-reefs development, dredging, and anchoring activities. 

Preconstruction surveys may be required by BOEM or the lead permitting agency prior to these activities. 

Impacts to prehistoric resources may still occur in areas where a remote-sensing survey fails to resolve the 

location of partially or completely buried resources or when no pre-disturbance survey is required. 

Development onshore as a result of a WPA proposed action could result in the direct physical contact 

between a prehistoric site and pipeline trenching. It is assumed that archaeological investigations prior to 

construction will serve to mitigate these potential impacts. Oil spills have the potential to impact coastal 

prehistoric sites directly or indirectly by physical impacts caused by oil-spill cleanup operations. The 

number and most likely spill sizes to occur in coastal waters in the future are expected to resemble the 

patterns that have occurred in the past, as long as the level of oil- and gas-related commercial and 

recreational activities remain the same. Low-probability catastrophic spills, which are not part of the 

proposed action and not likely expected, could also contact coastal prehistoric sites, and the effects of a 

spill that size would likely result in longer-lasting impacts that take longer to mitigate. Accidental spills 

as a result of a low-probability catastrophic spill are discussed in Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related cumulative impact-producing factors that could potentially impact 

prehistoric archaeological resources including the following: (1) State oil and gas activity; (2) new 

channel dredging and maintenance dredging; (3) State renewable energy and alternative use conversions; 

(4) State artificial reefs and rigs-to-reefs development; (5) OCS sand borrowing; (6) offshore LNG 

projects; (7) commercial fishing; and (8) natural processes, including wave action and hurricanes. 

These impact-producing factors all create associated bottom disturbances that may threaten 

prehistoric archaeological resources. An impact could result from contact between prehistoric resources 

and permitted activities such as State oil and gas activities, renewable energy activities, artificial reef

creation, new channel dredging, and maintenance dredging. With the exception of maintenance dredging, 

preconstruction surveys may be required for these activities. Impacts to prehistoric resources may still 

occur in areas where a remote-sensing survey fails to resolve the location of partially or completely buried 

resources or when no pre-disturbance survey is required. Oil and gas program wells, structures, and 

pipelines existing entirely in State waters are not under the jurisdiction of BOEM with respect to the 

archaeological resource protection requirements of the National Historic Preservation Act and would be 

the responsibility of the State and the permitting Federal agency. Prehistoric sites in shallow waters and 

on coastal beaches are exposed to the destructive effects of wave action and scouring currents. Overall, 

loss of data from prehistoric sites has probably occurred, and will continue to occur, in the northeastern 

Gulf from the effects of tropical storms.

The effects of the various impact-producing factors discussed in this analysis have likely resulted in 

localized losses of significant or unique prehistoric archaeological information. In the case of factors 

related to OCS Program activities in the cumulative activity area, it is reasonable to assume that most

impacts would have occurred where development took place prior to any archaeological survey 

requirements. The incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action is expected to be very small due 

to the efficacy of the required remote-sensing survey and concomitant archaeological report and 

clearance.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/ CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental SEIS 

Various Internet sources were examined to assess recent information regarding impacts to 

archaeological resources or potential new threats to archaeological resources that may be pertinent to the 

WPA. These Internet sources included various online indexes to periodical literature, such as JSTOR, the 

National Technical Information Service’s National Technical Reports Library, and ScienceDirect. This 

search did not identify any new information that would be pertinent to the analysis of the potential 

impacts of OCS oil- and gas-related activities on prehistoric archaeological resources.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

BOEM has determined that previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, the 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS are still valid because 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-79

no new information on prehistoric archaeological resources pertinent to a WPA proposed action has been 

published since the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or unavailable information on 

the location of prehistoric archaeological resources in the WPA. This information cannot be obtained 

because the overall costs of obtaining it through survey of the entire WPA are exorbitant. This 

incomplete information may be relevant to adverse effects because the locations and integrity of many 

prehistoric archaeological resources remain unknown. Nevertheless, this incomplete information is not 

likely to be available within the timeline contemplated by the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. It 

would take many years before data confirming the presence of prehistoric archaeological resources in a 

given location, and the status of each could be investigated, analyzed, and compiled. Most prehistoric 

sites within the WPA region are likely buried and would therefore be difficult to identify, resulting in the 

largest portion of aforementioned exorbitant costs and time factors.

BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific theories on prehistoric 

archaeological site potential in the Gulf of Mexico to extrapolate from available information in 

completing the relevant analysis. In place of the incomplete or unavailable information, BOEM used 

archaeological investigations, such as subbottom sonar survey, that are required for all areas shoreward of 

the 196-ft (60-m) bathymetric contour (NTL 2005-G07), which is understood to represent the Pleistocene 

shoreline when human beings migrated into the Gulf Coast. These surveys are reviewed in tandem with 

existing credible scientific evidence of site types, material remains and preservation potential from 

terrestrial archaeological sites (Rees, 2010, CEI, 1977), geology, and physical oceanography that is 

relevant to evaluating the adverse impacts on prehistoric resources that are a part of the human 

environment. The required surveys are analyzed by industry and BOEM archaeologists prior to the 

authorization of any new or significant bottom-disturbing impacts and, if necessary, avoidance of 

potential archaeological resources is prescribed. A WPA proposed action is not a reasonably foreseeable 

significant impact because BOEM’s evaluation of such impacts includes analysis of pre-disturbance and 

site-specific survey, the results of which BOEM uses to require substantial avoidance of any potential 

prehistoric resource that could be impacted by the proposed activity. Therefore, BOEM has determined 

that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion 

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for prehistoric archaeological resources presented in the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. No new information was discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for 

prehistoric archaeological resources presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

4.1.1.20.Human Resources and Land Use

4.1.1.20.1. Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for land use and coastal infrastructure presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that 

would alter the impact conclusion for land use and coastal infrastructure presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated 

in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of land use and coastal infrastructure, along with the full analyses of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are 

presented in Chapters 4.1.1.20.1.1, 4.1.1.20.1.2, and 4.1.1.20.1.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 
4-80 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.20.1.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and 

impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become 

available since those documents were published is presented below.

Impact-producing factors associated with a WPA proposed action that could affect land use and 

coastal infrastructure include the addition of gas processing facilities, pipeline landfalls, service bases, 

offshore supply vessel (OSV) day rates, navigation channels, and waste disposal facilities to the current 

infrastructure. Activities relating to the OCS Program are expected to minimally affect the current land 

use of the analysis area because most subareas have strong industrial bases and designated industrial 

parks to accommodate future growth in oil and gas businesses. There would be only minor infrastructure 

changes in the Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida EIA’s. This is primarily because the 

demand would be met with the existing infrastructure and facilities. Since the infrastructure is mature and 

not subject to rapid fluctuations and because BOEM only projects 0-1 new gas processing facilities and 

0-1 new pipeline landfalls for a WPA proposed action, the impacts of routine events associated with a 

WPA proposed action are expected to remain at historic activity levels. There may be a new increased 

demand for waste disposal services as a result of a WPA proposed action; however, the effects on land 

use and infrastructure would be limited, would occur on lands designated for such purposes, and would 

have minimal impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure. Because the projected addition to 

infrastructure is near zero, the routine activities associated with a WPA proposed action would have little 

effect on land use and existing coastal infrastructure, and there would be minimal impacts from any 

expansion of existing infrastructure.

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action that could affect land use and coastal 

infrastructure include oil spills, vessel collisions, and chemical/drilling-fluid spills. Accidental events 

associated with a WPA proposed action could occur at differing levels of severity, based in part on the 

location and size of the event. Spills can occur in coastal waters at shoreline storage, processing, and 

transport facilities supporting the OCS oil and gas industry. Coastal spills occur in State offshore waters 

and in navigation channels, rivers, and bays from barges and pipelines carrying OCS-produced oil. Refer 

to Chapter 3.2.1 for a detailed discussion of past OCS oil spills, oil-spill risk analysis, oil-spill response, 

and their impacts. Issues discussed in Chapter 3.2.1 that are related to spill response include offshore 

response, containment, and cleanup technology; and onshore response and cleanup. Typically, the impact 

of small-scale oil spills, vessel collisions, and chemical/drilling fluid spills are not likely to last long 

enough to adversely affect overall land use or coastal infrastructure in the analysis area.

The cumulative analysis considers both existing land use patterns and the effects of impact-producing 

factors from OCS oil- and gas-related and non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities. Impact-producing 

factors associated with OCS oil- and gas-related activities that could affect land use and coastal 

infrastructure include gas processing facilities, pipeline landfalls, service bases, navigation channels, 

waste disposal facilities, oil spills, vessel collisions, and chemical/drilling-fluid spills. Any service base 

expansion in the cumulative case would be limited, would occur on lands designated for such purposes, 

and would have minimal effects on land use and infrastructure. Impacts resulting from chemical or oil 

spills and vessel collisions can vary in location and severity, but they are not likely to last long enough to 

adversely affect overall land use or coastal infrastructure in the analysis area. A low-probability 

catastrophic spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, can result in 

impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure. For more information on a low-probability catastrophic 

spill event, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, refer to Appendix B. 

Therefore, the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impacts on land use 

and coastal infrastructure is also expected to be minor.

The non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors that can impact coastal infrastructure and land use consist of 

previous, current, and future State lease sales, as well as housing and other residential developments; 

macro and microeconomic trends; coastal land loss and subsidence; the establishment of private and 

publicly owned recreational facilities; the construction and maintenance of industrial facilities and 

transportation systems; urbanization; city planning and zoning; changes to public facilities such as water, 

sewer, educational, and health facilities; changes to military bases and reserves; changes in population 

density; changes in State and Federal land use regulations; changes in non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

demands for water transportation systems and ports; and natural processes. The Gulf of Mexico OCS 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-81

leasing program exists within a highly industrialized and economically diverse coastal region, which is 

itself the aggregate of past and present community, government, and business actions. How land has been 

traditionally used or will be used in the future is determined irrespective of a WPA proposed action. 

Coastal infrastructure associated with the OCS oil and gas industry is also utilized by State oil and gas as 

well as other industries. This short summary of land uses and land use categories is by no means 

comprehensive, but it should illustrate that OCS coastal land use and infrastructure comprises only a 

percentage of the total land use and allows us a bird’s eye view of the program within context of other 

impact-producing factors.

Land use categories are tied to existing infrastructure and historic uses and, for the purpose of this 

analysis, include the Economic Research Service’s own land-use inventories categories: State oil and gas 

activities; agriculture; forest, parks, and special use areas; urban areas; miscellaneous areas; and inland 

navigable waterways and ports. Land use patterns vary greatly by region, reflecting differences in soils, 

climate, topography, and patterns of population settlement. Changes in land use will largely depend upon 

local zoning and economic trends. For example, State oil and gas activities are expected to have similar 

impacts to OCS oil- and gas-related activities on land use and coastal infrastructure. State oil and gas 

activities and associated impacts will occur based on State leasing programs, geologic plays, economic 

trends, and local regulatory regimes. Non-OCS oil- and gas-related vessel collisions and rail car oil spills

can contribute substantially to the cumulative impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure (Lipinski, 

2014; Tate, 2014). As another example, agricultural land use may result in pesticide and nutrient runoff, 

competition for water consumption, and changes in hydrology and soil quality. Urbanization can lead to 

habitat fragmentation, transit choices, and air and water pollution. Urban areas are influenced by 

economics (Chapter 4.1.1.20.3), demographics (Chapter 4.1.1.20.2), and local ordinances and zoning. 

For more details on the cumulative impacts of non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts on land use and 

coastal infrastructure, refer to the Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the 2012-2017 Multisale EIS and Appendix D of 

the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The OCS support activities occur within a context of a well-established populated Texas coastal 

region, which is home to a diverse and robust economy. Many local and national industries, such as 

agricultural and industrial, utilize the same transportation systems and ports used by the OCS oil and gas 

industry. The OCS demands on land use are typically relegated to coastal or inland waterway industrial 

zones and represent a small fraction of how existing residential, recreational, agricultural, military, and 

industrial uses utilize and impact land use and coastal infrastructure. Because the vast majority of coastal 

infrastructure supports OCS and State offshore and land-based oil and gas production, as well as other 

land-based industrial uses, the coastal infrastructure supporting a WPA proposed action represents only a 

small portion of the coastal land use and infrastructure throughout the WPA and Gulf of Mexico, and 

because this is a shared resource, the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action is expected to 

have minimal impact overall. With 20 percent of the State’s land use devoted to cropland and 61 percent 

devoted to grassland pasture and range, 15 military bases, more than 10,000 mi (16,093 km) of railroad 

tracks, an interstate system with 79,696 centerline miles (128,258 km) (miles traveled in a one-way 

direction regardless of the number of lanes) of road that carries about 74 percent of the State’s vehicular 

traffic, and 4 percent of the State land area used for high population areas, non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

factors contribute significantly to the cumulative impacts on land use (Lubowski et al., 2006; State of 

Texas, Dept. of Agriculture, 2013; MilitaryBases.com, 2013a and 2013b; State of Texas, Comptroller of 

Public Accounts, 2013). Meanwhile, OCS oil- and gas-related coastal infrastructure and land use 

represent only an incremental contribution to total land use, and the cumulative impacts as a result of a 

WPA proposed action and the OCS Program as a whole on land use and coastal infrastructure are also 

expected to be minor.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

Additional research was conducted to investigate the availability of recent information affecting land 

use and coastal infrastructure since publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Various Internet sources 

were examined, including the websites of numerous Federal and State agencies (USDHS, Federal 

Emergency Management Agency; USDOC, Bureau of the Census; USDOC, NOAA; USDOE, Energy 

Information Administration; USDOT, Maritime Administration; USDOI, FWS; RestoreTheGulf.gov 
4-82 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

website; Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Portal; USEPA; Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality; 

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality; Louisiana Recovery Authority; and Louisiana Office of 

Community Development). Further information was sought from other organizations, recently published 

journal articles, and trade publications such as The Greater Lafourche Port Commission, LA1 Coalition, 

The Oil Drum, Rigzone, Oil and Gas Journal, Offshore Magazine, TOLLROAD News, and The Energy 

Journal. New information was found on the status of the affected environment and growing markets 

related to OCS oil- and gas-related activities, as well as the impacts from non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities.

There have been some changes to the spill-response equipment staging locations previously analyzed 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Due to these changes, it is expected that the oil-spill-response equipment 

needed to respond to an offshore spill as a result of a proposed WPA lease sale could be called out from 

one or more of the following oil-spill equipment base locations: New Iberia, Belle Chasse, Baton Rouge, 

Sulphur, Morgan City, Port Fourchon, Harvey, Leeville, Fort Jackson, Venice, Grand Isle, or Lake 

Charles, Louisiana; La Porte, Corpus Christi, Port Arthur, Aransas Pass, Ingleside, Galveston, or 

Houston, Texas; Kiln and Pascagoula, Mississippi; Mobile or Bayou La Batre, Alabama; and/or Panama 

City, Pensacola, Tampa, and/or Miami, Florida; and/or Ponce and San Juan, Puerto Rico (Clean Gulf 

Associates, 2014; Marine Spill Response Corporation, 2014; National Response Corporation, 2014).

The U.S. Federal Gulf of Mexico oil production averaged 1.27 MMbbl of oil per day in 2013, which 

is unchanged from 2012. The DOE’s Energy Information Administration forecasts 1.38 MMbbl of oil per 

day for GOM production in 2014 and 1.59 MMbbl of oil per day in 2015. Platform fabrication is highly 

dependent on the structural nature of the oil and gas industry, and projected production growth is 

anticipated to induce platform fabrication activity. There are 42 platform fabrication yards in the analysis 

area, with the highest concentration in Louisiana at 37; there are 4 in Mississippi, 1 in Alabama, and 0 in 

Florida (Dismukes, 2011). New reports have become available regarding supporting industries of 

offshore oil and gas activities. WorkBoat.com (2014b) provides an analysis of recent trends in day rates 

for offshore supply boats and crewboats. Because the Merchant Marine Act (Jones Act) requires all 

water-based commerce between different locations within the U.S. (i.e., U.S. port to OCS rig) be 

conducted in vessels that are American-owned and built, and crewed by U.S. mariners, most OSV’s are 

built at Gulf Coast shipyards. There are 137 shipyards in the analysis area, with the highest concentration 

in Louisiana at 64; there are 32 in Texas, 9 in Mississippi, 18 in Alabama, and 14 in Florida (Dismukes, 

2011). Day rates for crewboats (particularly the small classes of crewboats) increased between March 

2013 and December 2013; day rates for supply boats also increased during this time period. 

WorkBoat.com conducted a survey that found that lots at newbuild yards for OSV’s and crewboats 

remain tight. Major OSV companies continued to grow their fleets in 2013 through newbuilds and 

acquisitions. Crewboats under construction have risen from 6 vessels in the 2011 survey to 26 vessels in 

2012 and 51 vessels in 2013, and the number of supply boats under construction rose from 54 boats in the 

2012 survey to 72 boats in 2013. The Gulf Coast continues to be the busiest region in the U.S. secondtier shipyard market.

The WorkBoat.com (2014b) report has published information on two growing markets related to 

structure removal and well abandonment. This report found that BSEE’s “idle iron” regulations in NTL 

2010-G05 (30 CFR §§250.1703 and 250.1711) are driving structure-removal activities and growing the 

platform removal market. According to BSEE’s statistics, between 2012 and 2013, 471 offshore structure 

were removed, scrapped, or reefed (USDOI, BSEE, 2014c). The report speculates that the GOM idle 

platform removals would generate a dedicated market estimated to be worth $3 billion over the next 

5 years. In addition to platform removal, field abandonment requires the removal of surface and subsea 

well equipment and the sealing of the well bores to ensure continued integrity. Well abandonment, 

another growing market, generally requires drilling rig-equipped or well intervention vessels capable of 

controlling the well should well control issues arise during abandonment (WorkBoat.com, 2014c). These 

activities require the use of ports, scrap, and shipyards, among other coastal infrastructure types.

As described in Chapter 3.1.2.1 of this Supplemental EIS and in Chapter 3.1.2.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, onshore unconventional natural gas production has increased to the point that existing Gulf Coast 

LNG facilities are seeking to export natural gas to foreign consumers. New information since the 

publication of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS indicates that 12 additional project sponsors have 

applied to DOE for authorization to export domestically produced LNG to free trade agreement and non-
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-83

free trade agreement countries. In 2014, New Orleans-based Harvey Gulf International Marine broke 

ground on a Port Fourchon-based LNG terminal. The first of its kind in the United States, the LNG 

facility will provide LNG fuel to the growing supply of LNG-operated vessels servicing the OCS, as well 

as over-the-road vehicles fueled by LNG (WorkBoat.com, 2014a). BOEM will continue to monitor 

future development of this new coastal infrastructure category (LNG bunkering facility), but this one 

proposed plan would not be expected to, on its own, represent a significant development or change in land 

use. 

New information has become available regarding recent accidental events associated with non-OCS 

onshore activities. In February 2014, the E2MS 303 tank barge pushed by the towboat Hannah C. 

Settoon collided with another towboat near Vacherie, Louisiana (47 mi [76 km] west of New Orleans), by 

land spilling 31,500 gallons of light crude into the Mississippi River and temporarily closing the river to 

traffic (Lipinski, 2014). In March 2014, the cargo ship Genius Star VII and a barge loaded with 

840,000 gallons of #6 fuel collided in the Houston Ship Canal. Recreational boating and fishing 

remained open, but general mariners were not allowed to operate in the safety zone without permission 

due to portions of Galveston Bay and offshore areas experiencing floating oil. In total, 18.9 mi (30.4 km) 

of nonconsecutive shoreline was impacted, requiring 70 response vessels and 940 total personnel in the 

field (WorkBoat.com, 2014b-d). Both of these events were isolated, with temporary impacts to local 

coastal infrastructure. 

Recent analysis of data from the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration found that 

more than 1.15 million gallons of crude oil was spilled from rail cars in 2013 (Tate, 2014). By 

comparison, from 1975 to 2012, U.S. railroads spilled a combined 800 million gallons of crude oil. These 

spills constitute only a fraction of total shipments but show that many non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities contribute substantially to the cumulative impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure. 

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete information regarding the potential impacts of 

coastal land loss on land use and coastal infrastructure. It is not completely known how current 

subsidence and erosion is impacting industry or whether industry is making plans to mitigate current or 

future impacts. BOEM has proposed a study to evaluate these potential effects by surveying industry on 

current impacts and potential adaptation strategies, but as of the publication of this Supplemental EIS, it is 

unfunded and would take several years before data could be available. Therefore, this incomplete 

information is not likely to be available within the timeline contemplated by the NEPA analysis of this 

Supplemental EIS. However, this incomplete information may be relevant to adverse effects because a 

comprehensive understanding of the potential impacts of coastal land loss on coastal infrastructure and 

land use remains unknown. BOEM used reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate 

from existing information on dredged material use to mitigate for land loss in completing this analysis 

and formulating the conclusions presented here. For example, in the case of Port Fourchon, dredged 

material from navigation slips are used to fill in property and mitigation habitat areas for wildlife and to 

act as a barrier to protect Port Fourchon from storm surges (Volz, 2013). Like any industrial 

infrastructure improvements, future adaptations will likely occur on an as-needed basis or as new 

technologies become available. While coastal infrastructure is subject to the impacts of coastal land loss

and routine tropical storm activity, there is still considerable investment to expand, improve, and protect 

existing infrastructure. Although BOEM does not know when industrial infrastructure improvements, 

such as mitigation for land loss, may occur, the Port Fourchon example shows that industry may mitigate 

as necessary to protect existing and growing infrastructure. Therefore, while not completely known, 

current and future industry adaptation plans for coastal land loss are not essential to a reasoned choice 

among alternatives for this Supplemental EIS (including the No Action and an Action alternative). 

Therefore, BOEM has determined that the information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives.
4-84 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for land use and coastal infrastructure presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS, based on the additional information presented above. BOEM has determined that the additional 

information regarding OSV day rates, decommissioning activities, or the new LNG bunkering facility do 

not alter the impact conclusion for land use and coastal infrastructure presented in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS. Therefore, the analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS 

and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still 

apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.20.2. Demographics

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for demographics presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for demographics presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of demographics, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.20.1, 4.1.1.20.2.2, and 4.1.1.20.2.3 of 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.20.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.20.2.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 

4.1.1.20.2 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. New information that has become available since 

publication of those documents is also presented below.

In general, impact-producing factors that cause employment impacts, such as exploration and 

delineation activities, development and production activities, and coastal infrastructure development, can 

have some impacts on the demographic characteristics of a particular area. However, routine activities 

associated with a WPA proposed action are projected to minimally affect the demography of the analysis 

area. The projected impacts to population arising from a proposed lease sale are calculated by 

multiplying the employment estimates from the mathematical model MAG-PLAN (MMS Alaska-GOM 

Model Using IMPLAN) by an estimate of the number of members in a typical family. The projected 

population increases arising from a proposed lease sale are then divided by the population forecasts in 

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014), which yields the percentage impacts to population of a proposed 

lease sale. Population impacts from a WPA proposed action are projected to be minimal (<1% of the total 

population) for any EIA in the Gulf of Mexico region. This methodology yields estimates of the percent 

of the population of each EIA that will be dependent on the OCS Program in low-case and high-case 

scenarios for OCS oil- and gas-related activities. The baseline population patterns and distributions, as 

projected and described in Chapter 4.1.1.20.2.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, are unlikely 

to change as a result of a WPA proposed action. The increase in employment is expected to be met 

primarily with the existing population and available labor force, with the exception of some in-migration 

projected to occur in focal areas such as Port Fourchon, Louisiana.

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, such as oil or chemical spills, blowouts, 

and vessel collisions, would likely have no long-term effects on the demographic characteristics of the 

Gulf coastal communities. This is because accidental events typically cause only short-term population 

movements as individuals seek employment related to the event or have their existing employment 

displaced during the event.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-85

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to OCS oil- and 

gas-related activities along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors. The OCS oiland gas-related factors that could impact the demographics of any area consist of routine activities and 

accidental events arising from prior, current, and future OCS lease sales, including impact-producing 

factors that cause employment impacts (exploration and delineation activities, development and 

production activities, and coastal infrastructure development) as well as oil spills, blowouts, and vessel 

collisions. The impacts to population arising from a WPA proposed action are projected to be minimal 

(<1% of the total population) for any EIA in the Gulf of Mexico region based on the employment 

estimates from the mathematical model MAG-PLAN for low-case and high-case scenarios for OCS oiland gas-related activities. Accidental events should not have long-term effects on the demographic 

characteristics of the Gulf coastal communities because population movements are typically short-term. 

For a detailed discussion on the employment and demographic impacts of a low-probability catastrophic 

spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not reasonably expected, refer to Appendix B. 

There are numerous non-OCS oil- and gas-related factors that could impact demographics, including 

fluctuations in workforce, net migration, relative income, oil and gas activity in State waters, offshore 

LNG activity, trends in tourism activities (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.18), and other economic factors (refer to 

Chapter 4.1.1.20.3). Common approaches in analyzing cumulative effects begin by assembling a list of 

other projects and actions that will likely be associated with a WPA proposed action. However, no such 

list of future projects and actions could be assembled that would be sufficiently current and 

comprehensive to support a cumulative analysis for all 132 of the coastal counties and parishes in the 

analysis area over a 40-year period. Instead, this analysis uses the economic and demographic projections 

from Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014) as a reasonable approximation to define the contributions of 

other likely projects, actions, and trends to the cumulative case.

A WPA proposed action would contribute to the population impacts arising from the overall OCS 

Program. The Economic Impact Areas TX-3, TX-1, LA-2, and LA-3 are projected to have some 

increases in the levels of their populations as a result of an increase in demand for OCS labor from both a 

WPA proposed action and from the overall OCS Program. A WPA proposed action is projected to have 

an incremental contribution of less than 1 percent to the population level in any of the EIA’s, in 

comparison to other factors influencing population growth, such as the status of the overall economy, 

fluctuations in workforce, net migration, health trends, and changes in income. Given both the low levels 

of population growth and industrial expansion associated with a WPA proposed action, it is expected that 

the baseline age and racial distribution patterns will continue through the analysis period.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM conducted a search of Internet resources and known data sources related to demographics. 

New information was found for the affected environment. The primary source of new information is 

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014), which is an annual update of the data that were used in the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014) provides projections of 

economic and demographic variables at the county level. Table 4-5 provides projections of the evolution 

of the total population in all EIA’s in future years, while Table 4-5 provides projections of the evolution 

of total employment in the same areas. These projections assume the continuation of existing social, 

economic, and technological trends at the time of the forecast. In 2013, the total Gulf Coast population 

was 25.51 million. In 2013, the EIA’s with the largest populations were TX-3 (6.54 million), FL-4 

(6.43 million), and FL-3 (3.77 million). The EIA’s with the smallest populations were LA-1 (353,510), 

MS-1 (493,860), and LA-2 (603,940). For all EIA’s combined, it is expected that the total population 

will grow at a 1.27 percent rate between 2014 and 2055. The fastest population growth is expected in 

TX-3 (1.65%), TX-1 (1.46%), and FL-3 (1.28%); the slowest population growth is expected in LA-4 

(0.45%) and MS-1 (0.62%). The population growth in TX-3 will primarily be driven by growth in areas 

around Houston, while the population growth in TX-1 will primarily be driven by the population centers 

around Corpus Christi (Nueces County) and along the southern border of Texas (Cameron and Hidalgo 

Counties). Tables 4-6 through 4-18 provide projections of employment, income, wealth, business 

patterns, and racial composition for individual EIA’s. In general, the projections of these variables have 

not changed noticeably from the projections in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.
4-86 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Austin et al. (2014a and 2014b) is a recently completed, 2-volume study of the social impacts of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. This study employed an ethnographic 

methodology that entailed analyzing data sources, examining various sources of descriptive information, 

and conducting field interviews with people in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. This study 

documents the complex and varied impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response

during the 20 months subsequent to the spill. This study found that the impacts of the spill on a particular 

community depended on a number of factors, such as its proximity to the spill, its economic structure, its 

social and political dynamics, its organizational structure for dealing with disasters, and its ability to adapt 

to the structures of the oil cleanup and damage claims processes. This study also provides background 

information regarding the demographic structures of certain communities.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined the new information does not 

change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.20.2 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding demographics

in the WPA. This incomplete or unavailable information relates to translating employment impacts of 

OCS oil- and gas-related activities into estimated population impacts. This information cannot be 

obtained at this time due to data limitations and the complexity of methodologies needed to accurately 

estimate population impacts arising from OCS oil- and gas-related activities. BOEM plans to initiate a 

study project to analyze population impacts more fully, although this potential study project will not be 

completed in the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. BOEM used 

existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available 

information in completing the relevant analysis as described above. In place of the incomplete or

unavailable information, BOEM used the mathematical model MAG-PLAN and population forecasts in 

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014) to project the employment impacts to population arising from a 

proposed lease sale. This incomplete or unavailable information is unlikely to significantly impact 

BOEM’s estimates of the impacts of OCS lease sales on demographics because MAG-PLAN forecasts 

fairly limited population impacts and the nature of the employment associated with a WPA proposed 

action is similar to that of the existing OCS Program. In addition, increases in population arising from 

lease sales are generally positive, not adverse, impacts. Therefore, BOEM has determined that the 

incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for demographics presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for demographics presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because the new Woods & 

Poole Economic, Inc.’s data did not change much from what was presented in those documents. The 

analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed 

WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.20.3. Economic Factors

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for economic factors presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for economic factors presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-87

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 

246 and 248.

A detailed description of economic factors, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts of 

routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in Chapters 

4.1.1.20.3.1, 4.1.1.20.3.2, and 4.1.1.20.3.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and updated 

information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.20.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the cumulative 

impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.20.3.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, Chapter 

4.1.1.20.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and impact 

analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental 

EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become available since 

those documents were published is presented below.

Impact-producing factors such as exploration and delineation activities, development and production 

activities, and coastal infrastructure development can have some impacts on the economic characteristics, 

such as employment, of a particular area. The expected economic impacts of the OCS oil and gas 

industry are estimated using the mathematical model MAG-PLAN. The MAG-PLAN estimates the 

direct, indirect, and induced employment arising from a particular scenario for oil and gas exploration and 

development activities; these scenarios include estimates of activities such as drilling, platform 

installations, and structure removals. As a result of proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248, there would 

be only minor economic changes in the Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida EIA’s. This 

is partly because the demand would be met primarily with the existing population and labor force. Most 

of the employment related to proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 is expected to occur in Texas 

(primarily in the EIA TX-3) and in the coastal areas of Louisiana. A WPA proposed action, irrespective 

of whether one analyzes the high-case or low-case production scenario, would not cause employment 

effects of >0.1 percent in any EIA along the Gulf Coast.

Accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, such as an oil spill, can cause a number of 

disruptions to local economies. Many of these effects are due to industries that depend on damaged 

resources. However, the impacts of an oil spill can be somewhat broader if companies further along 

industry supply chains are affected. These effects depend on issues such as the duration, methods, and 

logistics of the cleanup operations and the responses of policymakers to a spill. However, the impacts of 

small- to medium-sized spills should be localized and temporary.

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors 

along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors that may occur and adversely affect 

economic factors in the same general area of a WPA proposed action. The expected economic impacts of 

the OCS oil and gas industry were estimated using the mathematical model MAG-PLAN to determine the 

direct, indirect, and induced employment arising from a particular scenario for oil and gas exploration and 

development activities (i.e., drilling, platform installations, and structure removals). A WPA proposed 

action would not cause employment effects of >0.1 percent in any EIA along the Gulf Coast. Oil spills 

can cause a number of disruptions to local economies; however, small- to medium-sized spills should 

have localized, temporary impacts. A low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not part of a WPA 

proposed action and not likely expected, would have more noticeable impacts to the economy. However, 

the likelihood of another spill of this scale is quite low. A detailed analysis of a low-probability 

catastrophic spill can be found in Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors that can affect economic trends in economic 

areas in the Gulf of Mexico region include commercial, military, recreation/tourism (refer to Chapter 

4.1.1.18), and numerous other offshore and coastal activities. To estimate the cumulative impacts to 

economic factors from non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors, BOEM employs the 

economic and demographic projections from Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. (2014). These projections 

are based on local, regional, and national trend data, as well as likely changes to local, regional, and 

national economic and demographic conditions. Therefore, the projections include employment

associated with the continuation of current patterns in OCS oil- and gas-related leasing activity, as well as 

the continuation of trends in other industries important to the region. For example, these forecasts include 

the contributions of State oil and gas activities, renewable energy activities, coastal land use, and tourismrelated activities.
4-88 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

The cumulative impacts of a WPA proposed action would be determined by the expected path of the 

economy and by the expected progression of the OCS oil and gas industry in upcoming years. The 

expected path of the overall economy is projected using the data provided by Woods & Poole Economics, 

Inc. (2014). The expected economic impacts of the OCS oil and gas industry in upcoming years are 

estimated using the mathematical model MAG-PLAN. The cumulative impacts of a WPA proposed 

action to the economies along the Gulf Coast are expected to be relatively small.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

BOEM conducted a search of Internet sources and known data sources regarding economic factors. 

New information was found for the affected environment. Table 4-19 presents updated data from the 

Office of Natural Resources Revenue (USDOI, Office of Natural Resources Revenue, 2014) regarding 

sales volumes, sales values, and government revenues received from Federal offshore energy activities in 

the Gulf of Mexico. Panel A of Table 4-19 presents annual data regarding the quantities of royaltybearing and nonroyalty-bearing sales volumes for natural gas, natural gas liquids (NGL), and oil. In 

FY 2013, royalty-bearing natural gas sales continued on a long-term downward trend, falling from

1.12 billion Mcf (thousand cubic feet) in FY 2012 to 970 million Mcf in FY 2013. Sales volumes of 

royalty-bearing NGL also continued on a steady downward trend in FY 2013, although sales volumes of 

nonroyalty-bearing NGL increased in FY 2013 compared with FY 2012. Sales volumes of royaltybearing oil increased in FY 2013, while sales volumes of nonroyalty-bearing oil decreased. Panel B of 

Table 4-19 presents the sales values of gas, NGL, and oil produced in Federal areas in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Sales values of oil and natural gas increased, while sales values of NGL decreased. The 

increase in the sales value of natural gas reflects the higher average price for natural gas in FY 2013 

compared with FY 2012. Panel C of Table 4-19 presents the Federal Government revenues received 

from offshore energy activities in the Gulf of Mexico. The Federal Government received $8.86 billion in 

revenue from Gulf of Mexico lease sales that occurred during FY 2013, which was larger than any 

amount received since 2008. This increased revenue reflects the higher energy prices that prevailed in 

FY 2013, as well as the large amount of bonus bid revenue received from offshore lease sales.

A report conducted by Smith (2014) provides an overview of the status of the oil and gas industries, 

with an emphasis on the status of Louisiana’s energy industry. This report describes how the large-scale 

development of onshore shale oil and gas activities will impact the competitive environment for offshore 

oil and gas activities. The report forecasts that nearshore natural gas production will continue to decline 

but that this decline will be partially offset by higher energy production in certain deepwater areas. This 

report also describes how the low price of natural gas is diverting development and production activities 

from extracting natural gas to extracting oil and NGL.

New reports have become available regarding certain industries that are involved with offshore oil 

and gas activities. Workboat.com (2014b) provides an analysis of recent trends in day rates for offshore 

supply boats and crew boats. Day rates for crew boats (particularly the small classes of crew boats) 

increased between March 2013 and December 2013; day rates for supply boats also increased during this 

time period. IHS Petrodata (2014) reports that, in April 2014, 80 of 86 marketed drilling rigs were under 

contract; 77 of 82 drilling rigs were under contract in April 2013. Kaiser et al. (2013) provide additional 

information regarding the structures of the various components of the offshore drilling industry in the 

Gulf of Mexico. For example, this report describes the trends, major firms, and determinants of activity 

levels in both the drilling service market and the rig newbuild market.

Austin et al. (2014a and 2014b) is a recently completed, 2-volume study of the social impacts of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. This study employed an ethnographic 

methodology that entailed analyzing data sources, examining various sources of descriptive information, 

and conducting field interviews with people in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. This study 

documents the complex and varied impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response 

during the 20 months subsequent to the spill. This study found that the impacts of the spill on a particular 

community depended on a number of factors, such as its proximity to the spill, its economic structure, its 

social and political dynamics, its organizational structure for dealing with disasters, and its ability to adapt 

to the structures of the oil cleanup and damage claims processes. This study also provides background 

information regarding the economic structures of certain communities.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-89

The impacts of a proposed WPA lease sale and the OCS Program should be viewed in the context of 

overall economic conditions. In Table 4-20, data from Woods and Poole Economics, Inc. (2014) is used 

to generate forecasts of overall employment in all EIA’s during the life of activities that would arise from 

a proposed WPA lease sale; these employment forecasts assume the continued progression of offshore oil 

and gas exploration and development activities. From 2014 to 2055, the fastest employment growth is 

expected in TX 3 (1.89%), TX-1 (1.73%), and FL-4 (1.64%); the slowest employment growth is expected 

in MS-1 (0.84%) and LA-4 (0.95%). The growth forecasts from Woods and Poole Economics, Inc. 

(2014) show slight increases in the growth forecasts compared with the 2013 data in all EIA’s except 

FL-2, whose forecasted employment growth slightly decreased compared with the 2013 data. Woods and 

Poole Economics, Inc. (2014) is also used to forecast various demographic variables; refer to Chapter 

4.1.1.20.2 for more information regarding demographics. In general, the projections of these variables 

have not changed noticeably from the projections in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change previous conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS, as well as in Chapter 4.1.1.20.3 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified incomplete or unavailable information regarding economic 

factors in the WPA. This information primarily relates to the onshore geographic distributions of 

economic impacts arising from the OCS Program. This information is difficult to obtain since most data 

sources do not adequately differentiate between onshore and offshore oil and gas activities. However, 

BOEM used existing information and reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from 

available information in completing the relevant analysis as described above. In particular, BOEM used 

the most recent version of the MAG-PLAN to estimate the impacts of a WPA proposed action and the 

OCS Program. BOEM also used the economic and demographic projections from Woods and Poole 

Economics, Inc. (2014). In addition, BOEM is planning to launch a study project to explore new avenues 

for improving BOEM’s information regarding onshore distributions, although this project will take time 

to pursue. However, any new information regarding onshore distributions of economic impacts is 

unlikely to significantly change BOEM’s estimates of the impacts of the OCS Program. In addition, the 

economic impacts arising from the OCS Program are generally positive, not adverse. Therefore, BOEM 

has determined that the incomplete or unavailable information is not essential to a reasoned choice among 

alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for economic factors presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS based on 

the additional information presented above. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for economic factors presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS because the new information 

was roughly in line with prior expectations. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.1.20.4. Environmental Justice

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for environmental justice presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented below. No new information was discovered that would alter the 

impact conclusion for environmental justice presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential 

impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 
4-90 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales

246 and 248.

A detailed description of environmental justice, along with the full analyses of the potential impacts 

of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, are presented in

Chapters 4.1.1.20.4.1, 4.1.1.20.4.2, and 4.1.1.20.4.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and 

updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.20.4 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. A WPA proposed action’s incremental contribution to the 

cumulative impacts is presented in Chapter 4.1.1.20.4.4 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

Chapter 4.1.1.20.4 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and Appendix D of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource description and 

impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. Any new information that has become

available since those documents were published is presented below.

The oil and gas industry and its associated support sectors are interlinked and widely distributed along 

the Gulf Coast. Offshore OCS oil- and gas-related industry operations within the WPA may utilize 

onshore facilities located within the WPA, CPA, or both. This analysis focuses on the potential impacts 

to low-income and minority populations living onshore. BOEM conducts a county-level analysis to 

determine the concentration of minority and low-income populations located in the same counties as oiland gas- related onshore coastal infrastructure (refer to Chapter 4.2.1.23.4.1 and Figures 4-26 through 

4-35 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS).

BOEM provides numerous opportunities for public input during the NEPA process. Minority and 

low-income populations are provided the same opportunities as other populations to engage in the 

decisionmaking process. Some of the numerous avenues for public outreach employed by BOEM include 

specific types of notices that are (1) mailed to public libraries; interest groups; industry; ports and docks; 

local, State, and Federal agencies; and Tribal Nations; (2) published in local newspapers; (3) posted on 

the Internet; and (4) published in the Federal Register. These notices reflect the stages of the NEPA 

process and include the Notice of Intent to Prepare a Supplemental EIS (NOI) and Notice of Availability 

(NOA) for the Draft and Final Supplemental EIS’s. A series of specified time periods after the NOI and 

NOA allow for public comments, all of which are considered and addressed. The formal scoping process 

is initiated by the NOI, and public scoping meetings are held in several geographically separate cities to 

allow the public to submit comments and to identify all stakeholders’ concerns. All public comments and 

responses to comments are published in the Draft and Final Supplemental EIS’s. A detailed discussion of 

the complete scoping process can be found in Chapter 1.4. A summary of the scoping comments for this 

Supplemental EIS can be found in Chapter 5.3.2. 

The following routine activities associated with proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 could 

potentially affect environmental justice: potential infrastructure changes/expansions including fabrication 

yards, support bases, and onshore disposal sites for offshore waste; increased commuter and truck traffic; 

and employment changes and immigration. Because of the existing extensive and widespread support 

system for OCS oil- and gas-related industry and associated labor force, the effects of routine events 

related to a WPA proposed action are expected to be widely distributed and to have little impact. Routine 

activities related to a single WPA lease sale are not expected to significantly change the existing 

conditions, such as traffic or the amount of infrastructure. Impacts related to a WPA proposed action on 

minority and low-income populations are expected to be primarily economic in nature and to have a 

limited but positive effect because a WPA proposed action would contribute to the sustainability of 

current industry, related support services, and associated employment, especially in Louisiana where an 

extensive concentration of OCS oil- and gas-related infrastructure is located, e.g., Port Fourchon in 

Lafourche Parish. BOEM’s county-level analysis found that, given the existing extensive distribution of 

the industry, associated widespread support system and the limited concentrations of minority and lowincome peoples adjacent to oil and gas infrastructure, a WPA proposed action is not expected to have a 

disproportionate effect on these populations.

Accidental events with impact-producing factors that may be associated with a WPA proposed action) 

and that could affect environmental justice include, but are not limited to, oil spills, vessel collisions, and 

chemical/drilling-fluid spills. These factors could affect minority and low-income populations through 

direct exposure to oil, dispersants, degreasers, and other chemicals that can affect human health; 

temporary interference with subsistence activities due to temporary waterway closures; decreased access 

to natural resources due to environmental damages, fisheries closures, or wildlife contamination; and 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-91

proximity to onshore disposal sites used in support of oil and chemical spill cleanup efforts. Oil, 

chemical, and drilling fluid spills may be associated with exploration, production, or transportation 

activities that result from a WPA proposed action. Low-income and minority populations might be more 

sensitive to spills in coastal waters than is the general population because of their potentially higher 

dietary reliance on wild coastal resources, reliance on these resources for other subsistence purposes such 

as sharing and bartering, limited flexibility in substituting wild resources with purchased ones, and 

likelihood of participating in cleanup efforts and other mitigating activities.

As studies of past oil spills have highlighted, different cultural groups can possess varying capacities 

to cope with these types of events (Palinkas et al., 1992). Some low-income and/or minority groups may 

be more reliant on natural resources and/or less equipped to substitute contaminated or inaccessible 

natural resources with private market offerings than higher income level and/or nonminority groups. 

Because lower-income and/or minority populations may live near and may be directly involved with spill 

cleanup efforts, the vectors of exposure can be higher for them than for the general population, increasing 

the potential risks of long-term health effects. Accidental events that could result from a proposed WPA 

action may affect low-income and/or minority populations more than the general population, at least in 

the shorter term. These higher-risk groups may lack financial or social resources and may be more 

sensitive and less equipped to cope with the disruption that these events pose. These smaller events, 

however, are not likely to significantly affect minority and low-income populations in the long term 

because of the small scale and size of these events. Therefore, the impacts of accidental oil spills, vessel 

collisions, and chemical/drilling fluid spills are not likely to be of sufficient duration to have adverse and 

disproportionate long-term effects for low-income and minority communities in the analysis area.

The cumulative analysis considers the effects of impact-producing factors related to OCS oil and gas 

activities along with non-OCS oil- and gas-related activities that may occur and adversely affect minority 

and low-income populations in the same general area of a WPA proposed action.

The OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors that could impact environmental justice issues 

include OCS leasing, exploration, development, and production activities. These impact-producing 

factors may result in potential infrastructure changes/expansions, including fabrication yards, support 

bases, and onshore disposal sites for offshore waste; increased commuter and truck traffic; and 

employment changes and immigration. Accidental events arising from these OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities (i.e., oil spills, vessel collisions, and chemical/drilling-fluid spills), as well as the resultant 

cleanup may temporarily impact low-income populations who may experience direct exposure to 

contaminants through subsistence and cleanup activities. However, this exposure is expected to be small 

scale and short term and not result in disproportionate long-term effects. A low-probability catastrophic 

spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action and not likely expected, may also impact minority and 

low-income populations. A detailed analysis of a low-probability catastrophic event, can be found in 

Appendix B. In general, the cumulative OCS oil- and gas-related effects are expected to be economic, 

widely distributed, and to have a limited but positive effect on low-income and minority populations. In 

Louisiana, these positive economic effects are expected to be greater because of the existence of an 

extensive and widespread support system for OCS oil- and gas-related activities and the associated labor 

force, especially in Lafourche Parish where Port Fourchon is located. Given the existing distribution of 

the OCS oil- and gas-related industry and the limited concentrations of minority and low-income 

populations near oil and gas infrastructure and based on the county-level analysis, a WPA proposed action 

and the cumulative OCS Program are not expected to have disproportionate high/adverse environmental 

or health effects on minority or low-income populations.

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing factors cover a wide range of potential impactproducing factors including all human activities, natural events, and processes that are not related to OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities in Federal waters. Some of the human activities that may disproportionately 

affect minority and low-income populations include, but are not limited to, the following: State oil and 

gas activities onshore and in State waters; urbanization; pollution (air, light, noise, garbage dumping, and 

contaminated runoff); commercial/residential/agricultural development; zoning ordinances; community 

development strategies (multi-purpose, single-use); expansions to the Federal, State, and local highway 

systems; expansions to regional port facilities; military activities; demographic shifts (in-migration, outmigration); economic shifts on the national, State and local levels (job creation and job losses); military 

activities; educational systems (quality, availability, expansions, or contractions); family support systems 

(availability, proximity and quality of mental health services, foster care, charity hospital systems, 

addictive disorders rehabilitation centers, family planning services, early-learning programs, etc.); 
4-92 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

governmental functions (municipal waterworks systems, sewage systems, tax structures, revenue 

collection, law enforcement, fire protection, traffic control, voting processes, legislative processes, court 

procedures and processes, real estate property assessments, construction permits, environmental 

protection services, land-use permits, etc.); contraction or expansion of the tourism industry; financial 

system (banking and investment services); State renewable energy activities; river channelization; 

dredging of waterways; State oil and gas activity; and existing infrastructure associated with downstream 

activities such as petrochemical processing; and public health.

While human activities are extensive and nearly all-encompassing, there are a substantial number of 

natural events and processes that may be classified as non-OCS oil- and gas-related impact-producing 

factors that may disproportionally affect low-income and minority populations, including the following: 

oyster reef degradation; saltwater intrusion; sedimentation of rivers; sediment deprivation; barrier island 

migration and erosion; fish kills; red tide; beach strandings; coastal erosion/subsidence; sea-level rise; and 

coastal storms. Both human-induced and natural factors, unrelated to OCS oil- and gas-related activities, 

could affect minority and low-income populations through exposure to high levels of pollution, job loss, 

reduced social services, adverse infrastructure siting, decreased tourism, public health issues, coastal 

erosion, land loss and erosion, reduced opportunities for subsistence activities, and vulnerability of coastal 

communities to name a few. For a detailed discussion of these non-OCS oil- and gas-related impacts to 

low income populations, see Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

To summarize, cumulative effects will be concentrated in coastal areas, particularly in Louisiana. 

Most OCS Program effects are expected to make a positive contribution to minority and low-income

populations by helping to maintain current employment levels and contributing to economic stimulation. 

The contribution of the cumulative OCS Program to the cumulative impacts of all factors affecting 

environmental justice is expected to be minor; therefore, the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed 

action to the cumulative impacts would also be minor. State offshore leasing programs have similar, 

although more limited, effects due to their smaller scale. Cumulative effects from onshore infrastructure, 

including waste facilities, is also expected to be minor because existing infrastructure is regulated, 

because little new infrastructure is expected to result in the cumulative case, and because any new 

infrastructure will be subject to relevant permitting requirements. Other human activities and natural 

events and processes, as noted above, also may raise environmental justice issues, as described in 

Appendix D of the WPA 238/246/246 Supplemental EIS. When added to existing State and Federal 

leasing programs, the associated onshore infrastructure, and all of the non-OCS oil- and gas-related 

impact-producing factors, a single WPA lease sale will make only minor contributions to the cumulative 

effects on environmental justice issues.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of various Internet information sources and trade publications (U.S. Department of Health 

and Human Services, National Institutes of Health; USEPA; USDOC, Bureau of the Census and Bureau 

of Labor Statistics; USDHS, Federal Emergency Management Agency; RestoreTheGulf.gov website; 

Deepwater Horizon Claims Center; Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Portal; Louisiana Department of 

Environmental Quality; Texas Commission on Environmental Quality; Louisiana Recovery Authority; 

Louisiana Office of Community Development; The Greater Lafourche Port Commission; LA1 Coalition; 

Rigzone; Oil and Gas Journal; and The Oil Drum), as well as recently published journal articles, was 

conducted to determine the availability of recent information on environmental justice. The search 

revealed the following new information on claims and human health impacts from the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response. This information is important because it expands our knowledge of the 

baseline environment following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.

The remaining Deepwater Horizon medical claims that were on appeal before the U.S. Court of 

Appeals for the Fifth Circuit were dismissed on February 11, 2014, and the effective date of the 

Deepwater Horizon Medical Benefits Settlement is February 12, 2014 (Deepwater Horizon CourtSupervised Settlement Program 2014). An Advisory regarding the Economics & Property Damages 

Settlement was issued. Even though the deadline to file claims in the Seafood Compensation Program 

was January 22, 2013, the Claims Administrator developed a “Procedure for Handling Untimely Seafood 

Claims,” which will allow the submittal of late claims with deadline extension requests. The procedure is 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-93

located in the “Alerts” section of the Deepwater Horizon economic settlement website (Deepwater 

Horizon Claims Center, 2014).

The Deepwater Horizon Research Consortia, headed by the National Institute for Environmental 

Health Sciences, developed university-community partnerships to address health effects resulting from 

the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. The intent is that the Consortia’s research 

findings will inform community preparedness and disaster response, thereby limiting disaster-related 

health impacts, e.g., exposure to contaminants, emotional distress, and diet changes (National Institute of 

Environmental Health Sciences, 2014a). The funding allocation of $25.2 million is being spread across 

the Gulf region to fund numerous studies through several universities, covering several kinds of research 

topics. A few examples include the following: oil-spill impacts to the health of women and their 

children; Gulf resilience and women’s health; oil-spill impacts on pregnant women; seafood safety; 

individual, family, and community resilience along the Gulf Coast; social capital and resilience; and 

community/individual network building (Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, School of 

Public Health, 2014; Tulane University, 2014; Center for Gulf Coast Environmental Health, 2014; 

University of Florida, 2014; and Weiss, 2014). 

The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences’ ongoing GuLF Study (Gulf Long-term 

Follow-up Study) has completed Phase 1 and has started Phase 2 as of April, 2014. Of the 33,000 

participants, preliminary findings from the first health exam indicated that cleanup workers were about 

30 percent more likely to report moderate to severe depression, anxiety, and stress than participants who 

did no cleanup work. Researchers stated that it is unclear whether these mental health impacts were the 

result of exposure to spilled oil and/or dispersants or some other factor of the oil-spill experience and its 

aftermath. Cleanup workers also reported more physical symptoms, such as coughing, wheezing, and 

shortness of breath, than did those who were not cleanup workers. Some of the workers still reported 

these symptoms 3 years after the spill. However, it is too early to determine if cleanup exposures will 

lead to chronic diseases such as cancer or lung disease. Researchers stressed the importance of 

participants continuing in the 10-year study so that any potential long-term health impacts may be 

discovered (National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 2014b).

A new study published in April 2014, The Coastal Index: The Problem and Possibility of Our Coast, 

developed new indicators to measure progress toward sustainability in southeast Louisiana (Hobor et al., 

2014). Population shifts in coastal areas were tracked, and the study analyzed whether water management 

activities may diversify the regional economy toward a more positive trajectory. The study establishes a 

baseline from which social change may be measured in the future. As many people have been moving 

farther from the coast to avoid land loss, flooding, and coastal subsidence, low-income populations have 

not been able to relocate as readily, especially in areas such as Theriot and Dulac, Louisiana, where the 

poverty rates are over 40 percent. The study suggests that increases in water management activities such 

as diversions, hydraulic restoration, marsh creation, and barrier island restoration will produce positive 

economic benefits that will affect everyone, including low-income and minority populations (Hobor et al., 

2014).

A recently released BOEM-funded study, Offshore Oil and Deepwater Horizon: Social Effects on 

Gulf Coast Communities – Volume I: Methodology, Timeline, Context, and Communities; and Volume II: 

Key Economic Sectors, NGOs, and Ethnic Groups (Austin et al. 2014a and 2014b) researched the social 

impacts of the Deepwater Horizon from April 2010 through December 2012. The study sought to 

accurately describe and document how the Deepwater Horizon disaster was experienced and understood 

by the people it affected most directly, as the events surrounding the spill unfolded. As an ethnographic 

approach with several field workers in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama coastal communities, the 

study did not attempt to quantify economic losses. The study found that the spill affected many different 

groups of people and individuals across the Gulf region. The economic effects were felt in the offshore 

oil and gas industry, and commercial and recreational fishing industries and tourism industries, as well as 

oil and gas support sector services and other businesses from caterers to retail outlets and restaurants. 

Local and State governments and nongovernmental and community-based organizations were affected by 

the loss of revenues and by the need to respond to the economic needs of the people in the region. 

Programs, such as British Petroleum’s Vessels of Opportunity and claims processes, aiming to mitigate 

negative economic conditions had mixed results, with positive impacts distributed in a seemingly random 

manner through the communities. Most importantly, the failure to distinguish the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response from other regional disasters exacerbated, and in some cases created, 

some of its effects. The disaster did not generate the sorts of volunteer opportunities that follow 
4-94 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

hurricanes. The ability of individuals and communities to secure resources depended on their political 

and legal status. Environmental justice-focused nongovernmental organizations found that funding 

resources after the spill were scarce because the spill was not designated a Federal disaster. With 

disasters such as hurricanes, the allocation of funds for social services is outlined explicitly in the Stafford 

Act, establishing a mechanism to help nonprofit organizations respond as needed, but there is no 

provision for social services to help people recover under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (Austin et al.,

2014a and 2014b).

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

Even after evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the new information does 

not change the conclusions from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in this Supplemental EIS and in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM 

has identified unavailable information regarding the impacts of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response to environmental justice. This information cannot be obtained because long-term 

health impact studies, subsistence studies, and the NRDA process are ongoing, and data from these efforts 

will be unavailable and unobtainable until the studies and NRDA process are complete. In its place, 

BOEM’s subject-matter experts have used credible existing information and applied it using accepted 

socioeconomic methodologies. In order to fill this data gap, BOEM used existing information and 

reasonably accepted scientific methodologies to extrapolate from available information in completing the 

relevant analysis including limited information that has been released after the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response and studies of past oil spills which indicate that a low-probability, 

catastrophic oil spill, which is not part of a WPA proposed action or likely expected, may have significant 

adverse impacts on lower-income and minority communities. To date, there has been little concrete 

evidence that subsistence effects have occurred (Brown et al., 2011; Dickey, 2012; King and Gibbons, 

2011; Middlebrook et al., 2011; U.S. Dept. of Labor, OSHA, 2010a and 2010b), although there is some 

dispute in the scientific community about proper risk assessment standards in seafood contamination 

research (Rotkin-Ellman et al., 2012; Rotkin-Ellman and Soloman, 2012). In addition, some studies have 

shown that different cultural groups can possess varying levels of coping capacities (Palinkas, 1992), and 

impacts to social cohesion, including increased distrust in government and other institutions, contributed 

to community anxiety (Tuler et al., 2009). Also, because lower-income and/or minority populations may 

live near and be involved directly with spill cleanup efforts, the vectors of exposure can be higher for 

them than for the general population, increasing the potential risks of long-term health effects. Therefore, 

because long-term health impacts to low-income and minority populations is unknown, this information 

may be relevant to the evaluation of impacts from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response to environmental justice. However, long-term health studies are pending and will not be 

available within the timeline contemplated in the NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS. BOEM will 

continue to seek additional information as it becomes available and bases the previous analysis on the best 

information currently available. Although long-term health impacts to low-income and minority 

populations may be relevant to this analysis, BOEM has determined that the incomplete information is 

not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives based on the information discussed above.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for environmental justice presented in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, based 

on the additional information presented above. BOEM has determined that the additional information 

does not alter the impact conclusion because the information is currently inconclusive with regard to 

environmental justice issues and will remain so for an indefinite period of time. Therefore, the analysis 

and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA 

Lease Sales 246 and 248.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-95

4.1.1.21.Species Considered due to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Concerns

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for species considered due to FWS concerns presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented below. The species considered are the 

Gulf Coast jaguarundi, ocelot, South Texas ambrosia, Texas prairie dawn-flower, Texas ayenia, black 

lace cactus, and slender rush-pea. BOEM has only focused on species within coastal counties because 

those are the species that could be potentially impacted by oil and gas development activities, including 

an accidental OCS oil spill. Some species considered due to FWS concerns are discussed in other 

chapters of this Supplemental EIS. The conclusions for the following species can be found in their 

respective chapters: West Indian manatee (Chapter 4.1.1.11 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS,

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS); green, hawksbill, 

Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, and loggerhead sea turtles (Chapter 4.1.1.12 of this Supplemental EIS and 

Chapter 4.1.1.12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS); and red knot (Calidris canutus rufa), Attwater’s greater prairiechicken, northern aplomado falcon, piping plover, whooping crane, and mountain plover (Chapter 

4.1.1.14 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS). No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for species considered due to FWS concerns presented 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

A detailed description of species considered due to FWS concerns, along with the full analyses of the 

potential impacts of routine activities and accidental events associated with a WPA proposed action, can 

be found in Chapters 4.1.1.21.1, 4.1.1.21.2, and 4.1.1.21.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

and updated information is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.21 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and 

WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The following information is a summary of the resource 

description and impact analysis incorporated from the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. New information that has 

become available since publication of those documents is also presented below.

Adverse impacts due to routine activities resulting from a WPA proposed action, such as operational 

discharges, noise, and marine debris, are possible but unlikely. Lethal effects could occur from ingestion 

of released plastic materials from OCS oil- and gas-related vessels and facilities. However, there have 

been no reports to date on such incidences. Because of the mitigating measures that may be implemented 

(Chapter 2.3.1.3), routine activities (e.g., operational discharges, noise, and marine debris) related to a 

WPA proposed action are not expected to have long-term adverse effects on the size and productivity of 

any of the above-mentioned species or populations (2 mammal species and 5 plant species) in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Greatly improved handling of waste and trash by industry and annual awareness training 

required by the marine debris mitigations are reducing the amount of plastics in the ocean, and therefore 

minimizing the devastating effects on offshore and coastal marine life. The routine activities of a WPA 

proposed action are unlikely to have significant adverse effects on the size and recovery of any of the 

above-mentioned species or population in the GOM due to the distance of most activities, the heavy 

regulation of infrastructure and pipelines, and permitting and siting requirements.

Accidental blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response activities resulting from a WPA proposed action 

have the potential to impact small to large areas in the Gulf of Mexico with physical oiling and habitat 

destruction, depending on the magnitude and frequency of accidents, the ability to respond to accidents, 

the location and date of accidents, and various meteorological and hydrological factors (including tropical 

storms). Adverse impacts due to accidental events are also likely to be minimal because the habitats for 

the above-mentioned species are far from OCS oil- and gas-related activities and are inland. Therefore, a

WPA proposed action would be expected to have little or no effect on these species of concern.

The cumulative analysis considers activities that have occurred, are currently occurring, and could 

occur and adversely affect species considered due to FWS concerns. The OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities that could impact species considered due to FWS concerns include operational discharges, 

noise, marine debris, blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response activities. Routine activities are not 

anticipated to impact these species because of the mitigations and regulations implemented by BOEM, 
4-96 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

and accidental events are expected to be minimal to these species because these habitats are far from OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities and are inland. A low-probability catastrophic spill, which is not part of a 

WPA proposed action and not likely expected, could impact species considered due to FWS concerns and 

is discussed in Appendix B. 

Non-OCS oil- and gas-related activity that could impact species considered due to FWS concerns

include State oil and gas activities, other governmental and private projects and activities, hurricanes, and 

natural processes and events that may occur that adversely affect wetland habitat. Non-OCS oil- and gasrelated activities posing the greatest potential harm to species considered due to FWS concerns are factors 

such as habitat loss and ecological competition. These factors have historically proved to be of greater 

threat to these species of concern. Impacts may also occur to these species if a hurricane passes over an 

oil spill or causes spills itself. However, at this time, there is no known record of a hurricane crossing the 

path of a large oil spill; the impacts of such have yet to be determined. The experience from Hurricanes 

Katrina and Rita in 2005 was that the oil released during the storms widely dispersed as far as the surge 

reached, reducing impacts from concentrated oil exposure (USDOC, NOAA, 2010).

Activities outside of BOEM’s oil and gas activity have a greater potential to impact species 

considered in this chapter than the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management’s OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities, especially those factors that contribute to habitat loss. Because the species considered due to 

FWS concerns rely on terrestrial habitats to carry out their life-history functions at a considerable distance 

from the GOM, the activities of a WPA proposed action are unlikely to have significant adverse effects on 

the size and recovery of any of the above-mentioned mammal and plant species or populations in Texas. 

Therefore, the incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action would not be likely to result in a 

significant incremental impact on these mammal and plant species within the WPA.

New Information Available Since Publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS 

A search of Internet information sources (FWS’s website), as well as recently published journal 

articles, was conducted to determine the availability of recent information on species considered due to 

FWS concerns. The search revealed no new information pertinent to this Supplemental EIS.

Incomplete or Unavailable Information

After evaluating the information above, BOEM has determined that the previous conclusions from the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS are still valid because no new information on species considered due to FWS concerns

has been published since the publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS; nevertheless, there is still incomplete or

unavailable information. As discussed in Chapter 4.1.1.21 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, 

WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, BOEM has identified 

incomplete information on the impacts to species considered due to FWS concerns as a result of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response because little data have been released to the public. 

As data continue to be gathered and impact assessments completed, a better characterization of the full 

scope of impacts to populations in the GOM from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response will be available. Relevant data on the status of populations after the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response may take years to acquire and analyze, and impacts from the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may be difficult or impossible to discern from other factors. 

Therefore, it is not possible for BOEM to obtain this information within the timeline contemplated in the 

NEPA analysis of this Supplemental EIS, regardless of the cost or resources needed. In light of the 

incomplete or unavailable information, BOEM’s subject-matter experts have extrapolated available 

scientifically credible evidence in this analysis. Based on life histories of these species and the fact that 

they live inland, BOEM has determined that the two mammal species and five plant species within the 

WPA were not affected to any discernible degree by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response. In addition, given that the boundary of the WPA is more than 300 mi (483 km) from the 

Macondo well and that the westernmost extent of the plume and sheen did not reach the WPA, it appears 

that these mammal and plant species would not have been impacted by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response. Although the body of available information is incomplete, the information 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-97

extrapolated from the life history of the species and the distance of the Macondo well from their habitats 

was sufficient to draw reasonable conclusions that they should not have been impacted by the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response; therefore, BOEM has determined that the incomplete 

information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives.

Summary and Conclusion

BOEM has reexamined the analysis for species considered due to FWS concerns presented in the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS, based on the additional information presented above. No new information was 

discovered that would alter the impact conclusion for species considered due to FWS concerns presented 

in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The analysis and potential impacts detailed in the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS and updated in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS still apply for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248.

4.1.2. Alternative B—Exclude the Unleased Blocks Near Biologically Sensitive 

Topographic Features

Description of the Alternative

Alternative B differs from Alternative A (a proposed action) by not offering unleased blocks that are 

possibly affected by the proposed Topographic Features Stipulation (Chapter 2.3.1.3.1 of this 

Supplemental EIS and Chapter 2.3.1.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Blocks subject to 

the Topographic Features Stipulation include any unleased block in which a No Activity Zone or 

Shunting Zone surrounding a topographic feature is located. There are 159 blocks (776,653 ac) in the 

WPA in which the Topographic Features Stipulation may be applied (Figure 2-2). These unleased blocks 

will not be available for lease under Alternative B. The number of unleased blocks that would not be 

offered under Alternative B represents only a small percentage of the total number of blocks to be offered 

under Alternative A; therefore, it is assumed that the levels of activity for Alternative B would be 

essentially the same as those projected for a WPA proposed action (refer to Chapter 2.3.2 for further 

details). The estimated amount of resources projected to be developed under Alternative B is within the 

same scenario range as for Alternative A, i.e., 0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas.

All of the assumptions, including the four other potential mitigating measures (i.e., the Military Areas 

Stipulation, Protected Species Stipulation, Law of the Sea Convention Royalty Payment Stipulation, and 

Transboundary Stipulation, as described in Chapter 2.2.1.3), are the same as for a WPA proposed action 

(Alternative A). A description of Alternative A is presented in Chapter 2.3.1.1. The Topographic 

Features Stipulation would not be applicable with Alternative B because the blocks that could be affected 

by the Topographic Features Stipulation would not be offered for lease.

Because the incremental contribution of Alternative A (the Proposed Action) to the cumulative 

impacts on topographic features is expected to be slight and because negative impacts should be restricted 

by the implementation of the Topographic Features Stipulation and site-specific mitigations, the depths of 

the features, and water currents in the topographic feature area, Alternative A is not expected to result in 

adverse impacts greater than Alternative B. Therefore, since both Alternatives A and B minimize the 

potential for adverse impacts to Topographic Features, but since Alternative A better meets the purpose 

and need by providing a greater level of flexibility when considering oil and gas exploration, 

development, and production activities, Alternative A is BOEM’s preferred alternative. 

Effects of the Alternative

The following analyses are based on the scenario for a WPA proposed action (Alternative A). The 

scenario provides assumptions and estimates on the amounts, locations, and timing for OCS oil and gas 

exploration, development, and production operations and facilities, both offshore and onshore. These are 

estimates only and not predictions of what would happen as a result of holding proposed WPA Lease 

Sales 246 and 248. A detailed discussion of the scenario and related impact-producing factors is 

presented in Chapter 3.1 of this Supplemental EIS and Chapter 3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 
4-98 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Multisale EIS, and updated information is provided in Chapter 3.1 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

The analyses of impacts to the various resources under Alternative B are similar to those for 

Alternative A. The reader should refer to the appropriate discussions under Alternative A for more 

detailed information regarding impact-producing factors and their expected effects on the various 

resources. Impacts under Alternative B are expected to be the same as those under a WPA proposed 

action (Chapter 4.1.1) for the following resources:

— Air Quality

— Water Quality

— Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated

Dunes

— Wetlands

— Seagrass Communities

— Sargassum Communities

— Chemosynthetic and Nonchemosynthetic

Deepwater Benthic Communities

— Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

— Marine Mammals

— Sea Turtles

— Diamondback Terrapins

— Coastal and Marine Birds

— Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat

— Commercial Fisheries

— Recreational Fishing

— Recreational Resources

— Archaeological Resources

— Human Resources and Land Use

The impacts to some Gulf of Mexico resources under Alternative B would be slightly different from 

the impacts expected under a WPA proposed action (Alternative A). These impacts are described below.

Impacts on Topographic Features

The potential routine impact-producing factors to the topographic features of the WPA are anchoring 

and structure emplacement or removal, and drilling-effluent and produced-water discharges. Under 

Alternative A, impacts associated with routine OCS oil- and gas-related activity are minimized by the 

application of the Topographic Features Stipulation, which distances bottom-disturbing activity (e.g., the 

drilling of wells, anchor and ground tackle placement, and pipeline emplacement) from topographic 

features. Distancing bottom-disturbing activity from topographic features also minimizes impacts from 

discharges by allowing for dilution and because the discharges are restricted by through USEPA permits. 

The possible accidental impact-producing factors to the topographic features of the WPA are surface and 

subsurface oil spills and blowouts. The application of the Topographic Features Stipulation under 

Alternative A distances the topographic features from possible oil spills, allowing for dilution as well as 

allowing for any oil released below the water’s surface to float to the surface, reducing the possibility of 

physical contact. A more detailed discussion of these potential impact-producing factors and the 

appropriate mitigating measures that are applied under Alternative A to prevent routine impacts to the 

topographic features is presented in Chapters 2.3.1.3.1 and 4.1.1.6 of this Supplemental EIS and in 

Chapters 2.3.1.3.1 and 4.1.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Under Alternative B, the routine impacts associated with OCS oil- and gas-related activity would be 

farther distanced from topographic features because the blocks to which the Topographic Features 

Stipulation could be applied would not be offered for lease. There are 159 blocks (776,653 ac) in the 

WPA in which the Topographic Features Stipulation may be applied (Figure 2-2). All bottom-disturbing 

activity associated with OCS oil- and gas-related activity under Alternative B would occur outside of the 

blocks in which the Topographic Features Stipulation could be applied. The blocks in which the 

Topographic Features Stipulation could be applied would be any block in which a topographic feature, a 

No Activity Zone surrounding a topographic feature, or a Shunting Zone (i.e., 1,000-Meter, 1-Mile, 

3-Mile, and/or 4-Mile Zone) surrounding a topographic feature is located. Routine impacts from OCS 

oil- and gas-related activities would be eliminated because no activity would occur in blocks in which 

topographic features are located. Accidental impacts would be minimized by allowing for greater 

distance for oil to dilute before possibly reaching a topographic feature.

The reduction of impacts to topographic features associated with Alternative B is essentially the same 

as the reduction of impacts associated with Alternative A. While the unleased blocks subject to the 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-99

Topographic Features Stipulation would not be leased under Alternative B, and therefore all potential 

routine impacts would be completely removed and potential accidental impacts would be further 

distanced from any topographic feature, the application of the Topographic Features Stipulation under 

Alternative A also sufficiently minimizes the potential impacts of routine OCS oil- and gas-related

activities by requiring bottom-disturbing activity to be distanced from topographic features in order to 

diminish physical impacts to them.

Impacts of Routine and Accidental Events

All 21 protected topographic features of the WPA are located within water depths less than 200 m 

(656 ft) and occupy a small portion of the WPA. Of the potential impact-producing factors that may 

affect the topographic features, anchoring and structure emplacement or removal would be eliminated by 

the adoption of this alternative. Effluent discharge and blowouts would not be a significant threat to the 

topographic features because blocks near enough to the banks for these events to have an impact on the 

biota of the banks would have been excluded from leasing under this alternative. Thus, the only impactproducing factors remaining would be blowouts and oil spills that could occur from operations in blocks 

other than those blocks excluded from leasing under Alternative B. The potential impacts from blowouts 

and oil spills are summarized below and are discussed further in Chapters 3.2.1 and 4.1.1.6 of this 

Supplemental EIS and in Chapters 3.2.1 and 4.1.1.6 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 

233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. 

Topographic features should be protected from surface oil because the crests of the features are 

deeper than the physical mixing ability of surface oil (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981; 

Tkalich and Chan, 2002; Rezak et al., 1983). Topographic features would be unaffected by subsurface 

spills unless they come into contact with the oil. Oil from a subsurface spill is expected to rise to the sea 

surface, based on the specific gravity of GOM oil. An exception to this could occur if oil is released at 

the seafloor under high pressure, having the effect of atomizing the oil into micro-droplets that have very 

little buoyancy. Under these conditions, a subsea oil plume could form and travel laterally with the 

prevailing currents. This can also happen if chemical dispersants are used underwater, forming a plume. 

If a subsea oil plume does form, the oil is expected to be swept clear of the banks because prevailing 

currents travel around the banks rather than over them (Rezak et al., 1983). As the oil travels in the water 

column, it will become diluted from its original concentration. Transient concentrations of oil below 

20 parts per million are not expected to result in lasting harm to a coral reef (Shigenaka, 2001). In 

addition, any subsea oil plume that formed in deep water would not be expected to impact topographic 

features because deepwater currents do not typically transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and

Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 2008). The fact that the topographic features are widely dispersed in the 

WPA, combined with the random nature of spill events, would serve to limit the likelihood of a spill 

occurring near a topographic feature. In addition, the exclusion of blocks adjacent to topographic features 

(i.e., those blocks in which a topographic feature, No Activity Zone surrounding a topographic feature, or 

1,000-Meter, 1-Mile, 3-Mile, and/or 4-Mile Shunting Zone surrounding a topographic feature are located) 

from a proposed WPA lease sale would further distance potential spills from the habitat. Chapter 

4.1.1.6.3 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS discusses the risk of spills interacting with 

topographic features, especially the Flower Garden Banks, in more detail, and updated information is 

provided in the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS. The 

currents that move around the banks would likely steer any spilled oil around the banks rather than 

directly upon them, lessening impact severity. In the unlikely event that oil from a subsurface spill does 

reach the biota of a topographic feature, the effects should be sublethal for most of the adult sessile biota. 

Lethal effects would probably be limited to a few coral colonies (CSA, 1992 and 1994). If oil from a 

subsurface spill contacted a coral-covered area, the areal extent of coral mortality would be limited, but 

long-lasting sublethal effects may be incurred by organisms surviving the initial effects of a spill (Jackson 

et al., 1989). Stress resulting from the oiling of reef coral colonies could affect their resilience to natural 

disturbances (e.g., elevated water temperature and diseases) and may hamper their ability to reproduce. A 

complete recovery of such an affected area could take in excess of 10 years.
4-100 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Cumulative Impacts

With the exception of the topographic features, the cumulative impacts of Alternative B on the 

environmental and socioeconomic resources of the WPA would be identical to Alternative A. The 

incremental contribution of a WPA proposed action to the cumulative impacts on topographic features is 

expected to be slight, and negative impacts should be restricted by the implementation of the Topographic 

Features Stipulation and site-specific mitigations, the depths of the features, and water currents in the 

topographic feature area.

Summary and Conclusion

Alternative B, if adopted, would prevent any OCS oil- and gas-related activity in blocks containing 

topographic features or their surrounding protective zones; thus, it would eliminate any potential direct 

impacts to the biota of those blocks from routine oil and gas activities, which otherwise would be 

conducted within the blocks according to lease stipulations. In the unlikely event that oil from a 

subsurface spill contacts the biota of a topographic feature, the effects would be localized and primarily 

sublethal for most of the adult sessile biota. Some lethal effects could occur upon oil contacting coral 

colonies, and recovery from such an event is anticipated to take in excess of 10 years. 

The environmental impacts of Alternative B would be almost indistinguishable from Alternative A 

with the Topographic Features Stipulation in place. There would be an economic impact to the extent that 

economic returns from the excluded lease blocks would not be realized. While the unleased blocks 

subject to the Topographic Features Stipulation would not be leased under Alternative B, and therefore all 

potential routine impacts would be completely removed and potential accidental impacts would be further 

distanced from any topographic feature, the application of the Topographic Features Stipulation under 

Alternative A also sufficiently minimizes the potential impacts of routine OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities by requiring bottom-disturbing activity to be distanced from topographic features in order to 

diminish physical impacts to them.

4.1.3. Alternative C—No Action

Description of the Alternative

Alternative C is the cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale. If this alternative is chosen, the 

opportunity for development of the estimated 0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas that could 

have resulted from a proposed WPA lease sale would be precluded during the current 2012-2017 FiveYear Program, but it could again be contemplated as part of another proposed lease sale in the current or 

future Five-Year Program. The No Action alternative encompasses the same potential impacts as a 

decision to delay a proposed WPA lease sale to a later scheduled lease sale under the Five-Year Program, 

when another decision on whether to hold that future lease sale is made. Delay of a proposed WPA lease 

sale was not considered as a separate alternative from Alternative C because the potential impacts are the 

same, namely that most impacts related to Alternative A would not occur as described below. Any 

potential environmental impacts resulting from a proposed WPA lease sale would not occur or would be 

postponed to a future lease sale decision.

Effects of the Alternative

This Agency published a report that examined previous exploration and development activity 

scenarios (USDOI, MMS, 2007b). This Agency compared forecasted activity with the actual activity 

from 14 WPA and 14 CPA lease sales. The report shows that many lease sales contribute to the present 

level of OCS activity, and any single lease sale accounts for only a small percentage of the total OCS oiland gas-related activities. In 2006, leases from 92 different lease sales contributed to Gulf of Mexico 

production, while an average WPA lease sale contributed to 3 percent of oil production and 3 percent of 

gas production in the WPA. In 2006, leases from 15 different lease sales contributed to the installation of 

production structures in the Gulf of Mexico, while an average WPA lease sale contributed to 6 percent of 

the installation of production structures in the WPA. In 2006, leases from 70 different lease sales 

contributed to wells drilled in the Gulf of Mexico, while an average WPA lease sale contributed to 

6 percent of the wells drilled in the WPA.
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-101

As in the past, a proposed WPA lease sale would contribute to maintaining the present level of OCS 

oil- and gas-related activity in the Gulf of Mexico. Exploration and development activity, including 

service-vessel trips, helicopter trips, and construction, that would result from a proposed WPA lease sale 

would replace activity resulting from existing leases that have reached, or are near the end of, their 

economic life. 

In the short term, however, it is important to note that activities under previous lease sales would 

continue in the Gulf of Mexico, including exploration, development, production, and decommissioning 

activities. As a decision on a proposed WPA lease sale will not affect those preexisting leases and 

activities related to them, there may still be environmental impacts occurring in the Gulf in the short term, 

even if a proposed WPA lease sale is cancelled.

Environmental Impacts

If a proposed WPA lease sale would be cancelled, the resulting development of oil and gas would 

most likely be postponed to a future lease sale; therefore, the overall level of OCS activity in the WPA 

would only be reduced by a small percentage, if any. Therefore, the cancellation of a proposed WPA 

lease sale would not significantly change the environmental impacts of overall OCS oil- and gas-related

activity in the long term. The environmental impacts expected to result from a WPA proposed action, 

which are described above, would not occur in the short term, but they would likely be postponed to any 

future lease sale decision.

Economic Impacts 

Although environmental impacts may be reduced or postponed by cancelling a proposed WPA lease 

sale, the economic impacts of cancelling a scheduled lease sale should be given consideration. Chapter 

4.1.1.20.3 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.20.3.2 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and 

Chapter 4.1.1.20.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS discuss the potential economic impacts of a WPA proposed action. In the event that a proposed WPA 

lease sale is cancelled or postponed, there may be impacts to employment along the Gulf Coast, but these 

impacts are not expected to be significant (e.g., less than 1% of total employment) or long term given the 

existing OCS infrastructure. 

Federal, State, and local governments would have to forgo the revenue that would have been received 

from a proposed WPA lease sale. There could be minor impacts on global energy prices from cancelling 

a proposed WPA lease sale, along with minor changes in energy consumption patterns that would result 

from these price changes.

Other factors may minimize or exacerbate the economic impacts of cancelling a proposed WPA lease 

sale. For example, the longer-term economic impacts of cancelling a proposed WPA lease sale could be 

minimized if they were offset by a larger lease sale at a later date. The economic impacts may be 

exacerbated if additional lease sales are cancelled. The OCS oil and gas industry is dependent on high 

capital investment costs and there may be long lags between the lease sale and the majority of production 

activities. Therefore, firms’ investment and spending decisions are dependent on their confidence that the 

OCS Program will be maintained in the future. In addition, while firms in the OCS oil and gas industry 

are generally likely to be able to weather the cancellation of a single lease sale, the cancellation of

multiple lease sales could lead to broader damage to firms and workers in the industry or to decisions to 

operate in areas other than the Gulf. These economic impacts would be particularly damaging to the 

coastal counties/parishes in Texas and Louisiana for which the OCS industry as a whole is an important 

component of their economies.

Summary and Conclusion

Cancelling a proposed WPA lease sale may eliminate the effects described for Alternatives A and B 

(Chapter 4.1.1); however, any single lease sale accounts for only a small percentage of the total OCS oiland gas-related activities. If a proposed WPA lease sale would be cancelled, the resulting development of 

oil and gas would most likely be postponed to a future lease sale; therefore, the overall level of OCS oiland gas-related activity in the WPA would only be reduced by a small percentage, if any. Therefore, the 

cancellation of a proposed WPA lease sale would not significantly change the environmental impacts of 

overall OCS oil- and gas-related activity in the long term.
4-102 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Federal, State, and local governments would have to forgo the revenue that would have been received 

from a proposed WPA lease sale. There could be minor impacts on global energy prices from cancelling 

a proposed WPA lease sale, along with minor changes in energy consumption patterns that would result 

from these price changes. Other factors may minimize or exacerbate the economic impacts of cancelling 

a proposed WPA lease sale.

4.2. UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS OF THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

Unavoidable adverse impacts associated with a WPA proposed action are expected to be primarily 

short term and localized in nature and are summarized below. Adverse impacts from low-probability 

catastrophic events, which are not part of the proposed action and not likely expected, could be of longer 

duration and extend beyond the local area. All OCS oil- and gas-related activities involve temporary and 

exclusive use of relatively small areas of the OCS over the lifetimes of specific projects. Lifetimes for 

these activities can be days, as in the case of seismic surveys; or decades, as in the case of a production 

structure or platform. No activities in the OCS Program involve the permanent or temporary use or 

“taking” of large areas of the OCS on a semicontinuous basis. Cumulatively, however, a multitude of 

individual projects results in a major use of OCS space.

Air Quality: Unavoidable short-term impacts on air quality could occur after large oil spills and 

blowouts because of evaporation and volatilization of the lighter components of crude oil, combustion 

from surface burning, and aerial spraying of dispersant chemicals. Mitigation of long-term effects from 

offshore engine combustion during routine operations would be accomplished through existing 

regulations and the development of new control emission technology. Short-term effects from spill 

events are uncontrollable and are likely to be aggravated or mitigated by the time of year the spills take 

place.

Water Quality: Routine offshore operations would cause some unavoidable adverse impacts to 

varying degrees on the quality of the surrounding water. Drilling, construction, overboard discharges of 

drilling mud and cuttings, and pipelaying activities would cause an increase in the turbidity of the affected 

waters for the duration of the activity periods. This, however, would only affect water in the immediate 

vicinity of the construction activity or in the vicinity of offshore structures, rigs, and platforms. 

Accidental spills from platforms and the discharge of produced waters could result in increases of 

hydrocarbon levels and trace metal concentrations in the water column in the vicinity of the platforms. 

Spilled oil from a tanker collision would affect the water surface in combination with dispersant

chemicals used during spill response. A subsurface blowout would subject the surface, water column, and 

near-bottom environment to spilled oil and gas released from solution, dispersant chemicals, or emulsions 

of dispersed oil droplets and dispersant chemicals.

Unavoidable impacts to onshore water quality would occur as a result of chronic point- and nonpointsource discharges such as runoff and effluent discharges from existing onshore infrastructure used in 

support of lease sale activities. Vessel traffic contributes to the degradation of water quality by chronic 

low-quantity oil leakage, treated sanitary and domestic waste, bilge water, and contaminants known to 

exist in ship paints. Regulatory requirements of the State and Federal water authorities and some local 

jurisdictions would be applicable to point-source discharges from support facilities such as refineries and 

marine terminals.

Sensitive Coastal Habitats: If an oil spill contacts beaches or barrier islands, the removal of beach 

sand during cleanup activities could result in adverse impacts if the sand is not replaced, and a beach 

could experience several years of small surface residue balls (also called tarballs) washing ashore over 

time, causing an aesthetic impact. Sand borrowing on the OCS for coastal restorations involves the 

taking of a quantity of sand from the OCS and depositing it onshore, essentially moving small products of 

the deltaic system to another location. If sand is left where it is, it would eventually be lost to the deltaic 

system by redeposition or burial by younger sediments; if transported onshore, it would be lost to burial 

and submergence caused by subsidence and sea-level rise.

If an oil spill contacts coastal wetlands, adverse impacts could be high in localized areas. In more 

heavily oiled areas, wetland vegetation could experience suppressed productivity for several years; in 

more lightly oiled areas, wetland vegetation could experience die-back for one season. Epibionts on 

wetland vegetation and grasses in the tidal zone could be killed, and the productivity of tidal marshes for 

the vertebrates and invertebrates that use them to spawn and develop could be impaired. Much of the 

wetland vegetation would recover over time, but some wetland areas could be converted to open water. 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-103

Some unavoidable impacts could occur during pipeline and other related coastal construction, but 

regulations are in place to avoid and minimize these impacts to the maximum extent practicable. 

Unavoidable impacts resulting from dredging, wake erosion, and other secondary impacts related to 

channel use and maintenance would occur as a result of a WPA proposed action.

Sensitive Coastal and Offshore Biological Habitats: Unavoidable adverse impacts would take place 

if an oil spill occurred and contacted sensitive coastal and offshore biological habitats, such as Sargassum

at the surface; fish, turtles, and marine mammals in the water column; or benthic habitats on the bottom. 

There could be some adverse impacts on organisms contacted by oil, dispersant chemicals, or emulsions 

of dispersed oil droplets and dispersant chemicals that, at this time, are not completely understood, 

particularly in subsurface environments.

Threatened and Endangered Species: Because the proposed WPA lease sales do not in and of 

themselves make any irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources that would foreclose the 

development or implementation of any reasonable and prudent measures to comply with the Endangered 

Species Act, BOEM may proceed with publication of this Supplemental EIS and finalize a decision 

among these alternatives even if consultation is not complete, as described in Section 7(d) of the ESA 

(also refer to Chapter 5.6). Irreversible loss of individuals that are ESA-listed species may occur after a 

large oil spill from the acute impact of being oiled or the chronic impact of oil having eliminated, 

reduced, or rendered suboptimal the food species upon which they were dependent.

Nonendangered and Nonthreatened Marine Mammals: Unavoidable adverse impacts to 

nonendangered and nonthreatened marine mammals would be those that also affect endangered and 

threatened marine mammal species. Routine operation impacts (such as seismic surveys, water quality

and habitat degradation, helicopter disturbance, vessel collision, and discarded trash and debris) would be 

negligible or minor to a population, but they could be lethal to individuals as in the case of a vessel 

collision. A large oil spill would temporarily degrade habitat if spilled oil, dispersant chemicals, or 

emulsions of dispersed oil droplets and dispersant chemicals contact free-ranging pods or spawning 

grounds.

Coastal and Marine Birds: Unavoidable adverse impacts from routine operations on coastal birds 

could result from helicopter and OCS service-vessel traffic, facility lighting, and floating trash and debris. 

Marine birds could be affected by noise, platform lighting, aircraft disturbances, and trash and debris 

associated with offshore activities. Cross-Gulf migrating species could be affected by lighted platforms, 

helicopter and vessel traffic, and floating trash and debris. If a large oil spill occurs and contacts coastal 

or marine bird habitats, some birds could experience lethal and sublethal impacts from oiling, and birds 

feeding or resting in the water could be oiled and die. Coastal birds coming into contact with oil may 

migrate more deeply into marsh habitats, out of reach from spill responders seeking to count them or 

collect them for rehabilitation. Oil spills and oil-spill cleanup activities could also affect the food species 

for coastal, marine, and migratory bird species. Depending on the time of year, large oil spills could 

decrease the nesting success of species that concentrate nests in coastal environments due to direct effects 

of the spill and also disruption from oil-spill cleanup activities.

Fish Resources, Essential Fish Habitat, Commercial Fisheries, and Recreational Fishing: 

Unavoidable adverse impacts from routine operations are loss of open ocean or bottom areas desired for 

fishing by the presence or construction of OCS oil- and gas-related facilities and pipelines. Loss of gear 

could occur from bottom obstructions around platforms and subsea production systems. Routine 

discharges from vessels and platforms are minor given the available area for fish habitat. If a large oil 

spill occurs, the oil, dispersant chemicals, or emulsions of oil droplets and dispersant chemicals could 

temporarily displace mobile fish species on a population or local scale. There could also be impacts on 

prey and sublethal effects on fish. It is unlikely that fishermen would want, or be permitted, to harvest 

fish in the area of an oil spill, as spilled oil could coat or contaminate commercial fish species, rendering 

them unmarketable.

Recreational Beaches: Unavoidable adverse impacts from routine operations may result in the 

accidental loss overboard of some floatable debris that may eventually come ashore on frequented 

recreational beaches. A large oil spill could make landfall on recreational beaches, leading to local or 

regional economic losses and stigma effects, causing potential users to avoid the area after acute impacts 

have been removed. Some recreational beaches become temporarily soiled by weathered crude oil, and 

small surface residue balls (also called tarballs) may come ashore long after stranded oil has been cleaned 

from shoreline areas. Impacts on recreational beaches from a large oil spill may, at the time, seem 

irreversible, but the impacts are generally temporary. Beaches fouled by a large oil spill would be 
4-104 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

temporarily unavailable to the people who would otherwise frequent them, but only during the period 

between landfall and cleanup of the oil, followed by an indefinite lag period during which stigma effects 

recede from public consciousness.

Archaeological Resources: Unavoidable adverse impacts from routine operations could lead to the 

loss of unique or significant archaeological information if unrecognized at the time an area is disturbed. 

Required archaeological surveys significantly reduce the potential for this loss by identifying potential 

archaeological sites prior to an interaction occurring, thereby making avoidance or mitigation of impacts 

possible. A large oil spill could make landfall on or near protected archaeological landmarks to cause 

temporary aesthetic or cosmetic impacts until the oil is cleaned or degrades.

Economic Activity: Net economic, political, and social benefits to the U.S. accrue from the 

production of hydrocarbon resources. Once these benefits become routine, unavoidable adverse impacts 

from routine operations follow trends in supply and demand based on the commodity prices for oil, gas, 

and refined hydrocarbon products. Declines in oil and gas prices can lead to activity ramp downs by 

operators until prices rise. A large oil spill would cause temporary increases in economic activity 

associated with spill-response activity. An increase in economic activity from the response to a large spill 

could be offset by temporary work stoppages that are associated with spill-cause investigations and would 

involve a transfer or displacement of demand to different skill sets. Routine operations affected by new 

regulations that are incremental would not have much effect on the baseline of economic activity; 

however, temporary work stoppages or the introduction of several new requirements at one time, which 

are costly to implement, could cause a drop-off of activity as operators adjust to new expectations or use 

the opportunity to move resources to other basins where they have interests.

4.3. IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENT OF RESOURCES

Irreversible or irretrievable commitment of resources refers to impacts or losses to resources that 

cannot be reversed or recovered. Examples are when a species becomes extinct or when wetlands are 

permanently converted to open water. In either case, the loss is permanent.

Wetlands: An irreversible or irretrievable loss of wetlands and associated biological resources could 

occur if wetlands are permanently lost because of impacts caused by dredging and construction activities 

that displace existing wetlands or from oil spills severe enough to cause permanent die-back of vegetation 

and conversion to open water. Construction and emplacement of onshore pipelines in coastal wetlands 

displace coastal wetlands in disturbed areas that are then subject to indirect impacts like saltwater 

intrusion or erosion of the marsh soils along navigation channels and canals. Ongoing natural and 

anthropogenic processes in the coastal zone, only one of which is OCS oil- and gas-related activity, can 

result in direct and indirect loss of wetlands. Natural losses as a consequence of the coastal area 

becoming hydrologically isolated from the Mississippi River that built it, sea-level rise, and subsidence of 

the delta platform in the absence of new sediment added to the delta plain appear to be much more 

dominant processes impacting coastal wetlands.

Sensitive Nearshore and Offshore Biological Resources: An irreversible loss or degradation of 

ecological habitat caused by cumulative activity tends to be incremental over the short term. Irretrievable 

loss may not occur unless or until a critical threshold is reached. It can be difficult or impossible to 

identify when that threshold is, or would be, reached. Oil spills and chronic low-level pollution can injure 

and kill organisms at virtually all trophic levels. Mortality of individual organisms can be expected to 

occur, and possibly a reduction or even elimination of a few small or isolated populations. The proposed 

biological stipulations, however, are expected to eliminate most of these risks.

Threatened and Endangered Species: Irreversible loss of individuals that are protected species may 

occur after a large oil spill from the acute impact of being oiled or the chronic impact of oil having 

eliminated, reduced, or rendered suboptimal the food species upon which they were dependent.

Fish Resources and Commercial Fisheries: Irreversible loss of fish and coral resources, including 

commercial and recreational species, are caused by structure removal using explosives. Fish in proximity 

to an underwater explosion can be killed. Without the structure to serve as habitat area, sessile, attached 

invertebrates and the fish that live among them are absent. Removing structures eliminates these special 

and local habitats and the organisms living there, including such valuable species as red snapper. 

Continued structure removal, regardless of the technique used, would reduce the net benefits to 

commercial fishing due to the presence of these structures. 
Description of the Environment and Impact Analysis 4-105

Archaeological Resources: Irreversible loss of a prehistoric or historic archaeological resource can 

occur if bottom-disturbing activity takes place without the surveys, where required, to demonstrate its 

absence before work proceeds. A resource can be completely destroyed, severely damaged, or the 

scientific context badly impaired by well drilling, subsea completions, and platform and pipeline 

installation, or sand borrowing.

Oil and Gas Development: Leasing and subsequent development and extraction of hydrocarbons as a 

result of a WPA proposed action represents an irreversible and irretrievable commitment by the removal 

and consumption of nonrenewable oil and gas resources. The estimated amount of resources to be 

recovered as a result of a WPA proposed action is presented in Table 3-1. 

Loss of Human and Animal Life: The OCS oil and gas exploration, development, production, and 

transportation are carried out under comprehensive, state-of-the-art, enforced regulatory procedures 

designed to ensure public and work place safety and environmental protection. Nevertheless, some loss 

of human and animal life may be inevitable from unpredictable and unexpected acts of man and nature 

(i.e., unavoidable accidents, accidents caused by human negligence or misinterpretation, human error, 

willful noncompliance, and adverse weather conditions). Some normal and required operations, such as 

structure removal, can kill sea life in proximity to explosive charges or by removal of the structure that 

served as the framework for invertebrates living on it and the fish that lived with it.

4.4. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SHORT-TERM USE OF MAN’S ENVIRONMENT 

AND THE MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

The short-term effects on various components of the environment in the vicinity of a WPA proposed 

action are related to long-term effects and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity.

Short-Term Use

Short-term refers to the total duration of oil and gas exploration and production activities. Extraction 

and consumption of offshore oil and natural gas is a short-term benefit. Discovering and producing 

domestic oil and gas now reduces the Nation’s dependency on foreign imports. Depleting a 

nonrenewable resource now removes these domestic resources from being available for future use. The 

production of offshore oil and natural gas as a result of a WPA proposed action would provide short-term 

energy, and as it delays the increase in the Nation’s dependency on foreign imports, it can also allow 

additional time for ramp-up and development of long-term renewable energy sources or substitutes for 

nonrenewable oil and gas. Economic, political, and social benefits would accrue from the availability of 

these natural resources.

The principle short-term use of the leased areas in the Gulf of Mexico would be for the production of 

0.116-0.200 BBO and 0.538-0.938 Tcf of gas from a typical WPA proposed action. The cumulative 

impacts scenario in this Supplemental EIS extends approximately from 2012 to 2051. The 40-year time 

period is used because it is the approximate longest life span of activities conducted on an individual

lease. The 40 years following a proposed WPA lease sale is the period of time during which the activities 

and impacting factors that follow as a consequence of a proposed WPA lease sale would be influencing 

the environment.

The specific impacts of a WPA proposed action vary in kind, intensity, and duration according to the 

activities occurring at any given time (Chapter 3). Initial activities, such as seismic surveying and 

exploration drilling, result in short-term, localized impacts. Development drilling and well workovers 

occur sporadically throughout the life of a WPA proposed action but also result in short-term, localized 

impacts. Activities during the production life of a platform may result in chronic impacts over a longer 

period of time (over 25 years), potentially punctuated by more severe impacts as a result of accidental 

events or a spill. Platform removal is also a short-term activity with localized impacts, including removal 

of the habitat for encrusting invertebrates and fish living among them. Many of the effects on physical, 

biological, and socioeconomic resources discussed in Chapter 4.1.1 are considered to be short term 

(being greatest during the construction, exploration, and early production phases). These impacts would 

be further reduced by the mitigating measures discussed in Chapter 2.2.2. 

The OCS development off Texas and Louisiana has enhanced recreational and commercial fishing

activities, which in turn has stimulated the manufacture and sale of larger private fishing vessels and 

specialized recreational fishing equipment. Commercial enterprises such as charter boats have become 
4-106 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

heavily dependent on offshore structures for satisfying recreational customers. A WPA proposed action 

could increase these incidental benefits of offshore development. Offshore fishing and diving has 

gradually increased in the past three decades, with offshore structures and platforms becoming the focus 

of much of that activity. As mineral resources become depleted, platform removals would occur and may 

result in a decline in these activities.

The short-term exploitation of hydrocarbons for the OCS Program in the Gulf of Mexico may lead to

long-term impacts on biologically sensitive coastal and offshore resources and areas if a large oil spill

occurs. A spill and spill-response activity could temporarily interfere with commercial and recreational 

fishing, beach use, and tourism in the area where the spill makes landfall and in a wider area based on 

stigma effects. The proposed leasing may also result in onshore development and population increases 

that could cause very short-term adverse impacts to local community infrastructure, particularly in areas 

of low population and minimal existing industrial infrastructure (Chapter 4.1.1.20.1 of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS, and WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS). 

Relationship to Long-Term Productivity

Long-term refers to an indefinite period beyond the termination of oil and gas production. Over a 

period of time after peak oil production has occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, a gradual easing of the 

specific impacts caused by oil and gas exploration and production would occur as the productive 

reservoirs in the Gulf have been discovered and produced, and have become depleted. The Oil Drum 

(2009) showed a graphic demonstrating that peak oil production in the Gulf occurred in June 2002 at 

1.73 MMbbl/day. Whether or not this date is correct can only be known in hindsight and only after a 

period of years while production continues. At this time, however, the trend is fairly convincing (The Oil 

Drum, 2009). There is disagreement on what future production trends may be in the Gulf of Mexico after 

several operators, British Petroleum among them, announced discoveries over the last 5 years (Oil and 

Gas Journal, 2009) in the Lower Tertiary in ultra-deepwater (>5,000 ft; 1,524 m) with large projected 

reserves. These claims are as yet unproven and there are questions as to the difficulties that may be 

encountered producing these prospects because of their geologic age; burial depth and high-temperature, 

high-pressure in-situ conditions; lateral continuity of reservoirs; and the challenges of producing from 

ultra-deepwater water depths.

The Gulf of Mexico’s large marine ecosystem is considered a Class II, moderately productive 

ecosystem (mean phytoplankton primary production 150-300 gChlorophyll a/m2

-yr [The Encyclopedia of 

Earth, 2008]) based on Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) global primary productivity 

estimates (USDOC, NASA, 2003). After the completion of oil and gas production, a gradual ramp-down 

to economic conditions without OCS oil- and gas-related activity would be experienced, while the marine 

environment is generally expected to remain at or return to its normal long-term productivity levels that, 

in recent years, has been described as stressed (The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2008). The Gulf of Mexico’s 

large marine ecosystem shows signs of ecosystem stress in bays, estuaries, and coastal regions (Birkett 

and Rapport, 1999). There is shoreline alteration, pollutant discharge, oil and gas development, and 

nutrient loading. The overall condition for the U.S. section of this large marine ecosystem, according to 

USEPA’s seven primary indicators (Jackson et al., 2000), is good dissolved oxygen, fair water quality, 

poor coastal wetlands, poor eutrophic condition, and poor sediment, benthos, and fish tissue (The 

Encyclopedia of Earth, 2008).

To help sustain the long-term productivity of the Gulf of Mexico ecosystem, the OCS Program 

provides structures to be used as site-specific artificial reefs and fish-attracting devices for the benefit of 

commercial and recreational fishermen and for sport divers and spear fishers. Approximately 10 percent 

of the oil and gas structures removed from the OCS are eventually used for State artificial reef programs. 

Additionally, the OCS Program continues to improve the knowledge and mitigation practices used in 

offshore development to enhance the safe and environmentally responsible development of OCS oil and 

gas resources. 
CHAPTER 5 

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

Consultation and Coordination 5-3 

5. CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

5.1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROPOSED ACTIONS

This Supplemental EIS addresses two proposed Federal OCS oil and gas lease sales, i.e., Lease Sales

246 and 248 in the WPA of the Gulf of Mexico OCS, as scheduled in the Five-Year Program (USDOI, 

BOEM, 2012a). BOEM conducted early coordination with appropriate Federal and State agencies and 

other concerned parties to discuss and coordinate the prelease process for the proposed WPA lease sales 

and this Supplemental EIS. Key agencies and organizations included the NOAA, NOAA’s National 

Marine Fisheries Service, FWS, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Department of Defense, USEPA, State 

governors’ offices, Tribal Nations, industry, and nongovernmental organizations. 

5.2. CALL FOR INFORMATION AND NOTICE OF INTENT TO PREPARE A 

SUPPLEMENTAL EIS

On July 9, 2012, the Call for Information (Call) for proposed WPA Lease Sales 233, 238, 246, and 

248 was published in the Federal Register (2012b). The comment period closed on August 8, 2012. 

BOEM received two comment letters in response to the Call. These comments are summarized below in 

Chapter 5.3.1. 

On April 4, 2014, the Notice of Intent to Prepare a Supplemental EIS (NOI) for the proposed WPA 

lease sales was published in the Federal Register (2014b). Additional public notices were distributed via 

the U.S. Postal Service, local newspapers, and the Internet. A 30-day comment period was provided; it 

closed on May 5, 2014. Federal, State, and local governments, Tribal Nations, nongovernmental 

organizations, and other interested parties were invited to send written comments to the Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region on the scope of the Supplemental EIS. BOEM received five comment letters in response to 

the NOI. These comments are summarized below in Chapter 5.3.2. 

5.3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRAFT SUPPLEMENTAL EIS

Scoping for the Draft Supplemental EIS was conducted in accordance with CEQ regulations for 

implementing NEPA. Scoping provides those with an interest in the OCS Program an opportunity to 

provide comments on the proposed actions. In addition, scoping provides BOEM an opportunity to 

update the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s environmental and socioeconomic information base. Public 

scoping meetings were held in Texas and Louisiana on the following dates and at the times and locations 

indicated below:

Tuesday, April 22, 2014

1:00 p.m. CDT

Springhill Suites – Corpus Christi

4331 South Padre Island Drive

Corpus Christi, Texas 78411

0 registered attendees

0 speakers

0 verbal comments received

0 written comments received

Thursday, April 24, 2014

1:00 p.m. CDT

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region

1201 Elmwood Park Boulevard

New Orleans, Louisiana 70123

1 registered attendee

0 speakers

0 verbal comments received

0 written comments received

5.3.1. Summary of Comments Received in Response to the Call for Information

In response to the Call, BOEM received two comment letters: one letter from the Louisiana 

Department of Natural Resources and one letter from the American Petroleum Institute. The Louisiana 

Department of Natural Resources hopes that BOEM will be more attentive to the State of Louisiana’s 

comments during the prelease planning phase, believes that a better appraisal of coastal effects is 

necessary, and believes that BOEM must more efficiently revisit reviews of earlier OCS lease sales to 
5-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

determine whether the models and predictive techniques used were accurate. The American Petroleum 

Institute states that annual, predictable lease sales in these planning areas are needed to help ensure 

continued offshore exploration and production in the future because production from lease sales will take 

many years to develop. The American Petroleum Institute further encourages BOEM to pursue 

legislation that will allow the entry into force of the “Agreement between the United States of America 

and the United Mexican States Concerning Transboundary Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in the Gulf of 

Mexico” (Agreement). This Agreement, which was signed after issuance of the Call and entered into 

force on July 18, 2014, governs the development of reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas straddling the 

U.S.-Mexico maritime and continental shelf boundary in the Gulf of Mexico.

5.3.2. Summary of Scoping Comments

Five comments were received in response to the NOI from Federal agencies, interest groups, industry, 

and the general public on the scope of the Supplemental EIS, significant issues that should be addressed, 

alternatives that should be considered, and mitigating measures. All scoping comments received, which 

were appropriate for a lease sale NEPA document, were considered in the preparation of the Draft 

Supplemental EIS. Comments received included the following:

• the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians requested to have Section 106 Consultation once 

the Draft Supplemental EIS is published;

• support for the 2012-2017 Five-Year Program and its unaltered implementation for 

proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 as a means to reduce oil imports, increase 

energy independence, and reduce environmental risks of transoceanic oil tankering;

• support for the more thorough documentation of methods and sources as seen in 

recent Supplemental EIS’s; request that BOEM revisit specific predictions made for 

earlier lease sales and collect data to evaluate the accuracy of models and predictive 

techniques; request that BOEM be more proactive in its approach to help conserve 

Louisiana’s coastal wetlands through its assessment of impacts, particularly direct, 

indirect, and cumulative impacts; and support for the expansion of exploration and 

development of Gulf energy resources;

• BOEM must focus EIS analyses on currently available, new information, and should 

not speculate on future results from ongoing studies; BOEM should also take into 

consideration the new safety and regulatory improvements since the Deepwater

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response as a part of the new information analyzed; 

suggest that this Supplemental EIS be designed specifically for use as a tiering 

document for future environmental reviews; and data from the best-available, peerreviewed scientific literature should be the basis of environmental analyses, and not 

speculation; and

• opposition to drilling until all studies of the effects of the British Petroleum oil spill

are fully addressed and understood. 

5.3.3. Additional Scoping Opportunities

Although the scoping process is formally initiated by the publication of the NOI and Call, scoping 

efforts and other coordination meetings have proceeded and will continue to proceed throughout this 

NEPA process. The Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Information Transfer Meetings provide an 

opportunity for BOEM’s analysts to attend technical presentations related to OCS Program activities and 

to meet with representatives from Federal, State, and local agencies, industry, BOEM contractors, and 

academia. Scoping and coordination opportunities were also available during BOEM’s requests for 

information, comments, input, and review of its other NEPA documents, including the following:

• scoping for and draft review of the Five-Year Program EIS;

• scoping for and draft review of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS;
Consultation and Coordination 5-5 

• scoping for and draft review of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS; and

• scoping for and draft review of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

5.3.4. Cooperating Agency

According to Part 516 of the DOI Departmental Manual, BOEM must invite eligible government 

entities to participate as cooperating agencies when developing an EIS in accordance with the 

requirements of NEPA and CEQ regulations. BOEM must also consider any requests by eligible 

government entities to participate as a cooperating agency with respect to a particular EIS, and then to 

either accept or deny such requests.

The NOI, which was published on April 4, 2014, included an invitation to other Federal agencies and 

State, Tribal, and local governments to consider becoming cooperating agencies in the preparation of this 

Supplemental EIS. No Federal, State, or local government agencies or Tribal Nations requested to 

participate as a cooperating agency.

5.4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DRAFT SUPPLEMENTAL EIS FOR REVIEW AND 

COMMENT

BOEM will send copies of the Draft Supplemental EIS to the government, public, and private 

agencies and groups listed below. Local libraries along the Gulf Coast will be provided copies of this 

document; a list of these libraries is available on BOEM’s Internet website at http://www.boem.gov/

nepaprocess/. 

Federal Agencies

Congress

Congressional Budget Office

House Resources Subcommittee on Energy 

and Mineral Resources

Senate Committee on Energy and Natural 

Resources

Department of Commerce

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration

National Marine Fisheries Service

Department of Defense

Department of the Air Force

Department of the Army

Corps of Engineers

Department of the Navy

Naval Mine and Anti-Submarine 

Warfare Command

Department of Energy

Strategic Petroleum Reserve PMD

Department of Homeland Security

U.S. Coast Guard

Department of State

Bureau of Oceans and International 

Environmental and Scientific Affairs

Department of the Interior

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management

Fish and Wildlife Service

Geological Survey

National Park Service

Office of Environmental Policy and 

Compliance

Office of the Solicitor

Department of Transportation

Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety 

Administration

Office of Pipeline Safety

Environmental Protection Agency

Region 4

Region 6

Marine Mammal Commission

State and Local Agencies

Louisiana

Governor’s Office

City of Grand Isle

City of Morgan City

City of New Orleans

Department of Culture, Recreation, and 

Tourism

Department of Environmental Quality

Department of Natural Resources

Department of Transportation and 

Development

Department of Wildlife and Fisheries

Houma-Terrebonne Chamber of Commerce

Jefferson Parish Director

Jefferson Parish President

Lafourche Parish CZM

Lafourche Parish Water District #1
5-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Louisiana Geological Survey

South Lafourche Levee District

St. Bernard Planning Commission

State House of Representatives, Natural 

Resources Committee

State Legislature, Natural Resources 

Committee

Texas

Governor’s Office

Aransas Pass Public Library

Attorney General of Texas

Chambers County Library System

City of Lake Jackson

General Land Office

Southeast Texas Regional Planning 

Commission

State Legislature Natural Resources 

Committee

State Senate Natural Resources Committee

Texas Historical Commission

Texas Legislation Council

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department

Texas Sea Grant

Texas State Library and Archives

Texas Water Development Board

Tribal Nations or Organizations 

Alabama-Coushatta Tribes of Texas

Caddo Nation

Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana

Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma

Coushatta Indian Tribe

Jena Band of Choctaw Indians

Miccosukee Indian Tribe of Florida

Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians 

Poarch Band of Creek Indians

Seminole Tribe of Florida

Seminole Nation of Oklahoma

Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe of Louisiana

Industry

American Petroleum Institute

Area Energy LLC

Baker Atlas

Chevron U.S.A. Inc.

Coastal Conservation Association

Coastal Environments, Inc.

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc.

Ecology and Environment

Energy Partners, Ltd.

EOG Resources, Inc.

Exxon Mobil Production Company

Freeport-McMoRan, Inc.

Gulf of Mexico Newsletter

Horizon Marine, Inc.

Industrial Vehicles International, Inc.

J. Connor Consultants

John Chance Land Surveys, Inc.

Marine Safety Office

Newfield Exploration Company

Seneca Resources Corporation

Shell Exploration & Production Company

Stone Energy Corporation

Strategic Management Services-USA

T. Baker Smith, Inc.

Texas Geophysical Company, Inc.

The Washington Post

W & T Offshore, Inc.

WEAR-TV

Special Interest Groups

American Cetacean Society

Audubon Louisiana Nature Center

Capital Region Planning Commission

Center for Marine Conservation

Clean Gulf Associates

Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana

Coastal Conservation Association

Concerned Shrimpers of America

Earthjustice

Gulf and South Atlantic Fisheries

Foundation, Inc.

Gulf Restoration Network

Houma-Terrebonne Chamber of Commerce

LA 1 Coalition, Inc.

Louisiana Wildlife Federation

Marine Mammal Commission

Natural Resources Defense Council

Nature Conservancy

Offshore Operators Committee

Restore or Retreat

Roffers Ocean Fishing Forecast Service

Ports/Docks

Louisiana

Abbeville Harbor and Terminal District

Grand Isle Port Commission

Greater Baton Rouge Port Commission

Greater Lafourche Port Commission

Lake Charles Harbor and Terminal 

District

Plaquemines Port, Harbor and Terminal 

District
Consultation and Coordination 5-7 

Port of Baton Rouge

Port of Iberia District

Port of New Orleans

Twin Parish Port Commission

St. Bernard Port, Harbor and Terminal 

District

West Cameron Port Commission

Texas

Brownsville Navigation District—Port of 

Brownsville

Port Freeport

Port Mansfield/Willacy County 

Navigation District

Port of Beaumont

Port of Corpus Christi Authority

Port of Galveston

Port of Houston Authority

Port of Isabel—San Benito Navigation 

District

Port of Port Arthur Navigation District

Educational Institutions/Research Laboratories

Abilene Christian University

Louisiana Sea Grant College Program

Louisiana State University

Louisiana Tech University

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium

Loyola University

McNeese State University

Nicholls State University

Tulane University

University of New Orleans

University of Texas at Arlington

University of Texas at Austin

University of Texas Law School

University of Texas Libraries

5.5. COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ACT

If a Federal agency’s activities or development projects within or outside of the coastal zone will have 

reasonably foreseeable coastal effects in the coastal zone, then the activity is subject to a Federal 

Consistency Determination (CD). A consistency review will be performed pursuant to the Coastal Zone 

Management Act (CZMA) and CD’s will be prepared for each CZMA State prior to each of the proposed 

WPA lease sales. To prepare the CD’s, BOEM reviews each CZMA State’s Coastal Management Plan 

and analyzes the potential impacts as outlined in this Supplemental EIS, new information, and applicable 

studies as they pertain to the enforceable policies of each CMP. The CZMA requires that Federal actions 

that are reasonably likely to affect any land or water use or natural resource of the coastal zone be 

“consistent to the maximum extent practicable” with relevant enforceable policies of the State’s federally 

approved coastal management program (15 CFR part 930 subpart C).

Based on these and other analyses, BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Regional Director makes 

an assessment of consistency, which is then sent to the States of Louisiana and Texas for proposed WPA 

lease sales. If a State concurs, BOEM can proceed with the proposed lease sale. A State’s concurrence 

may be presumed when a State does not provide a response within the 60-day review period. A State may 

request an extension of time to review the CD within the 60-day period, which the Federal agency shall 

approve for an extension of 15 days or less. If a State objects, it must do the following under the CZMA: 

(1) indicate how BOEM’s prelease proposal is inconsistent with their CMP and suggest alternative 

measures to bring BOEM’s proposal into consistency with their CMP; or (2) describe the need for 

additional information that would allow a determination of consistency. In the event of an objection, the 

Federal and State agencies should use the remaining portion of the 90-day review period to attempt to 

resolve their differences (15 CFR § 930.43(b)). At the end of the 90-day review period, the Federal 

agency shall not proceed with the activity over a State agency’s objection unless the Federal agency 

concludes that, under the “consistent to the maximum extent practicable” standard described in 15 CFR § 

930.32, consistency with the enforceable policies of the CMP is prohibited by existing law applicable to 

the Federal agency and the Federal agency has clearly described, in writing, to the State agency the legal 

impediments to full consistency; or, the Federal agency has concluded that its proposed action is fully 

consistent with the enforceable policies of the CMP, though the State agency objects. Unlike the 

consistency process for specific OCS plans and permits, there is no procedure for administrative appeal to 

the Secretary of Commerce for a Federal CD for prelease activities. In the event that there is a serious 

disagreement between BOEM and a State, either agency may request mediation. Mediation is voluntary, 

and the Secretary of Commerce would serve as the mediator. Whether there is mediation or not, the final 
5-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

CD is made by DOI, and it is the final administrative action for the prelease consistency process. Each 

Gulf State’s CMP is described in Appendix F of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

5.6. ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) (16 U.S.C. §§ 1531 et seq.) establishes a national policy 

designed to protect and conserve threatened and endangered species and the ecosystems upon which they 

depend. BOEM and BSEE are currently in consultation with NMFS and FWS regarding the OCS oil and 

gas program in the Gulf of Mexico, including as it relates to a WPA proposed action. BOEM is acting as 

the lead agency in the ongoing consultation, with BSEE’s assistance and involvement. The programmatic 

consultation, which was reinitiated in 2010, was expanded in scope after the reinitiation of consultation 

by BOEM following the Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill, and it will include both existing and 

future OCS oil and gas leases in the Gulf of Mexico over a 10-year period. This consultation also 

considers any changes in baseline environmental conditions following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response. The programmatic consultation will also include postlease activities associated 

with OCS oil- and gas-related activities in the Gulf of Mexico, including G&G and decommissioning 

activities. While the programmatic Biological Opinion is in development, BOEM and NMFS have 

agreed to interim consultations on postlease approvals.

With consultation ongoing, BOEM and BSEE will continue to comply with all reasonable and 

prudent measures and the terms and conditions under the existing consultations, along with implementing 

the current BOEM- and BSEE-required mitigation, monitoring, and reporting requirements. Based on the 

most recent and best available information at the time, BOEM and BSEE will also continue to closely 

evaluate and assess risks to listed species and designated critical habitat in upcoming environmental 

compliance documentation under NEPA and other statutes.

5.7. MAGNUSON-STEVENS FISHERY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ACT

Pursuant to Section 305(b) of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, 

Federal agencies are required to consult with NMFS on any action that may result in adverse effects to 

EFH. The NMFS published the final rule implementing the EFH provisions of the Magnuson-Stevens 

Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (50 CFR part 600) on January 17, 2002. Certain OCS oiland gas-related activities authorized by BOEM may result in adverse effects to EFH, and therefore, 

require EFH consultation.

Following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, NMFS requested a 

comprehensive review of the existing EFH consultation in a response letter dated September 24, 2010. In 

light of this request, Regional staff of BOEM and NMFS agreed on procedures that would incorporate a 

new programmatic EFH consultation into each prepared Five-Year Program EIS and that began with the 

2012-2017 Five-Year Program. BOEM has an EFH Assessment (Appendix D of the 2012-2017 

WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) that describes the OCS proposed activities, analyzes the effects of the proposed 

activities on EFH, and identifies proposed mitigating measures. The programmatic EFH consultation, 

which covers proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248, was initiated with the distribution and review of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and with the subsequent written communications between 

BOEM and NMFS. These documents formalized the conservation recommendations put forth by NMFS 

and by BOEM’s acceptance and response to these recommendations. While the necessary components of 

the EFH consultation are complete (as per BOEM’s June 8, 2012, response letter to NMFS), there is 

ongoing coordination among NMFS, BOEM, and BSEE. This coordination includes annual reports from 

BOEM to NMFS, meetings with Regional staff, and discussions of mitigation and relevant topics. All 

agencies will continue to communicate for the duration of the Five-Year Program.

5.8. NATIONAL HISTORIC PRESERVATION ACT

In accordance with the National Historic Preservation Act (16 U.S.C. § 470 et seq.), Federal agencies 

are required to consider the effect of their undertakings on historic properties. The implementing 

regulations for Section 106 of the National Historical Preservation Act (16 U.S.C. § 470f), issued by the 

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (16 CFR part 800), specify the required review process. In 

addition,
Consultation and Coordination 5-9 

BOEM initiated a request for comment on the NOI for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 via a 

formal letter on April 3, 2014. That letter was addressed to each of the affected Gulf Coast States and 

Tribal Nations, including the Alabama-Coushatta Tribes of Texas, Caddo Nation, Chitimacha Tribe of 

Louisiana, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Coushatta Indian Tribe, Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, 

Miccosukee Indian Tribe of Florida, Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, Poarch Band of Creek 

Indians, Seminole Tribe of Florida, Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, and Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe of

Louisiana. A response timeline of 30 days was provided and one Tribal response was received.

The Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, in a letter dated April 28, 2014, expressed interest in initiating 

Section 106 Consultation and offered to host a meeting with BOEM representatives about the project’s

details once the Draft Supplemental EIS is published. No further responses were received beyond the 

30-day timeline and no additional requests for consultation were received. BOEM will continue to 

impose mitigating measures and monitoring and reporting requirements to ensure that historic properties 

are not affected by the proposed undertakings. BOEM will reinitiate the consultation process with the 

affected parties should such circumstances warrant further consultation.

5.9. GOVERNMENT-TO-GOVERNMENT

In accordance with Executive Order 13175, “Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal 

Governments,” Federal agencies are required “to establish regular and meaningful consultation and 

collaboration with Tribal officials in the development of Federal policies that have Tribal implications, to 

strengthen the United States’ government-to-government relationships with Indian tribes, and to reduce 

the imposition of unfunded mandates upon Indian tribes.” BOEM initiated a request for comment with 

12 federally recognized Tribal Nations on the NOI for proposed WPA Lease Sales 246 and 248 via a 

formal letter on April 3, 2014. One Tribal Nation, the Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, requested a 

Section 106 Consultation once the Draft Supplemental EIS is published.

CHAPTER 6 

REFERENCES CITED

References Cited 6-3 

6. REFERENCES CITED

Albers, P.H. 2006. Birds and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews 

17:125-140.

Allers, E., R.M.M. Abed, L.M. Wehrmann, T. Wang, A.I. Larsson, A. Purser, and D. de Beer. 2013. 

Resistance of Lophelia pertusa to coverage by sediment and petroleum drill cuttings. Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 74:132-140.

Alonso-Alvarez, C., I. Munilla, M. Lopez-Alonso, and A. Velando. 2007. Sublethal toxicity of the 

Prestige oil spill on yellow-legged gulls. Environment International 33:773-781.

American Petroleum Institute. 2014. Standard for subsea production control systems. Standard (Std) 

17F. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.

Anderson, C., M. Mayes, and R. Labelle. 2012. Update of occurrence rates for offshore oil spills. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and Bureau of Safety and 

Environmental Enforcement, Herndon, VA. 87 pp. OCS Report BOEM 2012-069 or BSEE 

2012-069.

Anderson, J.A., A.J. Kuhl, and A.N. Anderson. 2014. Toxicity of oil and dispersed oil on juvenile mud 

crabs, Rhithropanopeus harrisii. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 

92(4):375-380.

Arnold, T.W. and R.M. Zink. 2011. Collision mortality has no discernible effect on population trends of 

North American birds. PLoS ONE 6(9), 6 pp. Internet website: http://www.plosone.org/article/info

%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0024708. Accessed September 12, 2011.

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna Status Review Team. 2011. Status review report of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus 

thynnus). Report to the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northeast 

Regional Office. March 22, 2011. 104 pp.

Austin, D., B. Marks, K. McClain, T. McGuire, B. McMahan, V. Phaneuf, P. Prakash, B. Rogers, 

C. Ware, and J. Whalen, J. 2014a. Offshore oil and Deepwater Horizon: Social effects on Gulf 

Coast communities. Volume I: Methodology, timeline, and context. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study 

BOEM 2014-617. 265 pp.

Austin, D., S. Dosemagen, B. Marks, T. McGuire, P. Prakash, and B. Rogers. 2014b. Offshore oil and 

Deepwater Horizon: Social effects on Gulf Coast communities. Volume II: Key economic sectors, 

NGOs, and ethnic groups. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2014-618. 207 pp.

Baker, R., M. Fujiwara, and T.J. Minello. 2014. Juvenile growth and mortality effects on white shrimp 

Litopenaeus setiferus population dynamics in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Fisheries Research 

155:74-82.

Bayne, E.M., L. Habib, and S. Boutin. 2008. Impacts of chronic anthropogenic noise from energy-sector 

activity on abundance of songbirds in the boreal forest. Conservation Biology 22:1186-1193.

Berry, A. S. Fahey, and N. Meyers. 2013. Changing of the guard: Adaptation options that maintain 

ecologically resilient sandy beach ecosystems. Journal of Coastal Research 29(4):899-908. Internet 

website: http://www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-12-00150.1. 

Bik H.M., K.M. Halanych, J. Sharma, and W.K. Thomas. 2012. Dramatic shifts in benthic microbial 

eukaryote communities following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. PLoS ONE 7(6):e38550.

Birkett, S.H. and D.J. Rapport. 1999. A stress-response assessment of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico 

ecosystem. In: Kumpf, H., K. Steidinger, and K. Sherman, eds. The Gulf of Mexico large marine 

ecosystem: Assessment, sustainability, and management. Malden, MA: Blackwell Science, Inc. 

Pp. 438-458.
6-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Boehm, P., D. Turton, A. Raval, D. Caudle, D. French, N. Rabalais, R. Spies, and J. Johnson. 2001. 

Deepwater program: Literature review, environmental risks of chemical products used in Gulf of 

Mexico deepwater oil and gas operations. Volume I: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 

2001-011. 326 pp.

Brewton, R.A., R. Fulford, and R.J. Griffitt. 2013. Gene expression and growth as indicators of effects 

of the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill on spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus). Journal of 

Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 76:1198-1209.

Brown, A., K. Xia, K. Armbrust, G. Hagood, J. Jewell, D. Diaz, N. Gatian, and H. Folmer. 2011. 

Monitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seafood in Mississippi in response to the 

Gulf oil spill. Gulf Oil Spill SETAC Focused Topic Meeting, Pensacola, FL, April 26-28, 2011. 

Internet website: http://gulfoilspill.setac.org/sites/default/files/abstract-book-1.pdf. Accessed 

March 13, 2012.

Burger, J. 1994. Immediate effects of oils spills on organisms in the Arthur Kill. In: Burger, J., ed. 

Before and after an oil spill: The Arthur Kill. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 

Pp. 115-130.

Burger, J. and M. Gochfeld. 2001. Effects of chemicals and pollution on seabirds. In: Schreiber, E.A. 

and J. Burger, eds. Biology of marine birds. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Pp. 254-263.

Carls, M.G., S.D. Ricem, and J. Hose. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part I. 

Low-level exposure during incubations causes malformations, genetic damage, and mortality in larval 

Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18(3):481-493.

Carmichael, R.H., A.L. Jones, H.K. Patterson, W.C. Walton, A. Pérez-Huerta, E.B. Overton, M. Dailey, 

and K.L. Willett. 2012. Assimilation of oil-derived elements by oysters due to the Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill. Environmental Science & Technology 46:12787-12795.

Carr, M.H. and M.A. Hixon. 1997. Artificial reefs: The importance of comparisons with natural reefs. 

Fisheries 22(4):28-3.

Castège, I., Y. Lalanne, V. Gouriou, G. Hèmery, M. Girin, F. D’Amico, C. Mouchès, J. D’Elbèe, 

L. Soulier, J. Pensu, D. Lafitte, and F. Pautrizel. 2007. Estimating actual seabirds mortality at sea 

and relationship with oil spills: Lesson from the “Prestige” oil spill in Aquitaine (France). Ardeola 

54:289-307.

Center for Gulf Coast Environmental Health. 2014. Participate in a study to determine the effects of the 

oil spill on pregnant women (3/26/2014). Internet website: http://

www.gulfcoastenvironmentalhealth.com/news/12. Accessed May 19, 2014.

Chambers, J.R. 1992. Coastal degradation and fish population losses. In: Proceedings of the National 

Symposium of Fish Habitat Conservation, March 7-9, 1991, Baltimore, MD. 38 pp.

Chin, C.S. and J. Church. 2010. Field report: Fort Livingston, Grand Terre Island (September 9-10, 

2010). National Center for Preservation Technology and Training, Natchitoches, LA. Internet 

website: http://www.ncptt.nps.gov/2011/field-report-fort-livingston-grand-terre-island/. Accessed 

March 18, 2011.

Clark, R.B. 1982. The impact of oil pollution on marine populations, communities, and ecosystems: A 

summing up. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 297:433-443.

Clean Gulf Associates. 2014. Equipment locations. Internet website: http://www.cleangulfassoc.com/

locations.html. Accessed May 20, 2014.

Climate Science Watch. Fracking boom spews toxic air emissions on Texas residents. Internet website: 

http://www.climatesciencewatch.org/2014/02/18/texas-fracking-boom-spews-toxic-air-emissions/. 

Accessed May 15, 2014.

Coastal Environments, Inc. (CEI). 1977. Cultural resources evaluation of the northern Gulf of Mexico 

continental shelf. Prepared for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service, Office of 
References Cited 6-5 

Archaeology and Historic Preservation, Interagency Archaeological Services, Baton Rouge, LA. 

4 vols.

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA). 1992. Preliminary report of potential effects of oil spilled 

from Texaco’s proposed pipeline from Platform A in Garden Banks Block 189 to the subsea tie-in 

with High Island Pipeline System’s (HIPS) existing pipeline in High Island Area Block A-377 

(modified route). Prepared for Texaco Pipeline, Inc., Jupiter, FL.

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA). 1994. Analysis of potential effects of oil spilled from 

proposed structures associated with Oryx’s High Island Block 384 unit on the biota of the East 

Flower Garden Bank and on the biota of Coffee Lump Bank. Prepared for Oryx Energy Company, 

Jupiter, FL.

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA). 2002. Deepwater program: Bluewater fishing and OCS 

activity, interactions between the fishing and petroleum industries in deep waters of the Gulf of 

Mexico. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, 

New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2002-078. 193 pp. + apps.

Craig, J.K. and S.M. Bosman. 2013. Small spatial scale variation in fish assemblage structure in the 

vicinity of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico hypoxic zone. Estuaries and Coasts 36:268-285.

Dance, M.A., W.F. Patterson, and D.T. Addis. 2011. Fish community and trophic structure at artificial 

reef sites in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Bulletin of Marine Science 87(3):301-324.

Davis, C. 2014. Mississippi offshore drilling plan rejected as inadequate. Internet website: http://

www.naturalgasintel.com/articles/98782-mississippi-offshore-drilling-plan-rejected-as-inadequate. 

Published June 20, 2014. Accessed June 30, 2014.

Davis, R.W., W.E. Evans, and B. Würsig, eds. 2000. Cetaceans, sea turtles, and seabirds in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico: Distribution, abundance, and habitat association. Prepared by Texas A&M 

University at Galveston and the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, USGS/BRD/CR-1999-0005 

and Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study 

MMS 2000-002. 27 pp.

Daylander, P.S., J.W. Long, N.G. Pratt, and D.M. Thompson. 2014. Assessing mobility and 

redistribution patterns of sand and oil agglomerates in the surf zone. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

80:200-209.

DeBose, J.L., M.F. Nuttall, E.L. Hickerson, and G.P. Schmahl. 2012. A high-latitude coral community 

with an uncertain future: Stetson Bank, northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Coral Reefs. 

doi:10.1007/s00338-012-0971-3.

de Gouw, J.A., A.M. Middlebrook, C. Warneke, R. Ahmadov, E.L. Atlas, R. Bahreini, D.R. Blake, 

C.A. Brock, J. Brioude, D.W. Fahey, F.C. Fehsenfeld, J.S. Holloway, M. Le Henaff, R.A. Lueb, 

S.A. McKeen, J.F. Meagher, D.M. Murphy, C. Paris, D.D. Parrish, A.E. Perring, I.B. Pollack, 

A.R. Ravishankara, A.L. Robinson, T.B. Ryerson, J.P. Schwarz, J.R. Spackman, A. Srinivasan, and 

L.A. Watts. 2011. Organic aerosol formation downwind from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

Science 331(6022):1273-1274.

Deepwater Horizon Claims Center. 2014. Seafood claims advisory. Internet website: http://

www.deepwaterhorizoneconomicsettlement.com/. Accessed April 29, 2014.

Deepwater Horizon Court-Supervised Settlement Program. 2014. February 12, 2014, update. Internet 

website: http://www.deepwaterhorizonsettlements.com/#. Accessed April 29, 2014.

Dickey, R.W. 2012. FDA risk assessment of seafood contamination after the BP oil spill. 

Environmental Health Perspectives 120(2), February 2012. Internet website: http://

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3279456/pdf/ehp.1104539.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2013.

Dismukes, D.E. 2011. OCS-related infrastructure fact book. Volume I: Post-hurricane impact 

assessment. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS 
6-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2011-043 and 2011-044. 372 pp. and 163 pp., 

respectively.

Dismukes, D.E. 2013a. Unconventional resources and Louisiana’s manufacturing development 

renaissance. Louisiana State University, Center for Energy Studies, Baton Rouge, LA. January 11, 

2013.

Dismukes, D.E. 2013b. Official communication. Email regarding scenario projections. Associate 

Director, Louisiana State University. Louisiana State University, Center for Energy Studies, Baton 

Rouge, LA. May 21, 2013.

Drewitt, A.L. and R.H.W. Langston. 2008. Collision effects of wind-power generators and other 

obstacles on birds. New York Academy of Sciences 1134:233-266.

Environment Canada. 2013. Environmental Technology Centre. Oil properties database. Internet 

website: http://www.etc-cte.ec.gc.ca/databases/OilProperties/Default.aspx. Accessed April 24, 2013.

Erwin, R.M., G.M. Sanders, D.J. Prosser, and D.R. Cahoon. 2006. High tides and rising seas: Potential 

effects on estuarine waterbirds. Studies in Avian Biology 32:214-228.

Esler, D., J.A. Schmutz, R.L. Jarvis, and D.M. Mulcahy. 2000. Winter survival of adult female harlequin 

ducks in relation to history of contamination by the “Exxon Valdez” oil spill. Journal of Wildlife 

Management 64(3):839-847.

Esler, D., T.D. Bowman, K.A. Trust, B.E. Ballachey, T.A. Dean, S.C. Jewett, and C.E. O’Clair. 2002. 

Harlequin duck population recovery following the Exxon Valdez oil spill: Progress, process and 

constraints. Marine Ecology Progress Series 241:271-286.

Fahrig, L. 1997. Relative effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on population extinction. Journal of 

Wildlife Management 61:603-610.

Fahrig, L. 1998. When does fragmentation of breeding habitat affect population survival? Ecological 

Modelling 105:273-292.

Federal Register. 2006. Oil and gas and sulphur operations in the outer continental shelf—incident 

reporting requirements. Final rule. 71 FR 73, pp. 19640-19646. April 17, 2006.

Federal Register. 2008. Record of decision for the final programmatic environmental impact statement 

for alternative energy development and production and alternate use of facilities on the outer 

continental shelf. 73 FR 7, pp. 1894-1895. January 10, 2008.

Federal Register. 2009. Renewable energy and alternate uses of existing facilities on the outer 

continental shelf. Final rule. 74 FR 81, pp. 19638-19871. April 29, 2009.

Federal Register. 2012a. Oil and gas and sulphur operations on the outer continental shelf—Increased 

safety measures for energy development on the outer continental shelf. Final rule. 77 FR 163, 

pp. 50856-50901. August 22, 2012.

Federal Register. 2012b. Outer continental shelf, oil and gas lease sales in the Central Gulf of Mexico 

Planning Area (CPA) and the Western Gulf of Mexico Planning Area (WPA), beginning with WPA 

Sale 233 in 2013 and subsequent sales through 2017. Call for Information and Nominations. 

77 FR 131, pp. 40376-40380. July 9, 2012.

Federal Register. 2013. Endangered and threatened species; designation of critical habitat for the 

northwest Atlantic Ocean loggerhead sea turtle distinct population segment (DPS) and determination 

regarding critical habitat for the north Pacific Ocean Loggerhead DPS. Proposed rule. 78 FR 138, 

pp. 43005-43054. July 18, 2013.

Federal Register. 2014a. MMAA104000; Timing requirements for the submission of a site assessment 

plan (SAP) or general activities plan (GAP) for a renewable energy project on the outer continental 

shelf (OCS). 79 FR 74, pp. 21617-21626. April 17, 2014. 

Federal Register. 2014b. Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare a supplemental environmental impact 

statement (EIS) and an announcement of scoping meetings and comment period for proposed Gulf of 
References Cited 6-7 

Mexico OCS oil and gas Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248. 79 FR 65, 

pp. 18930-18931. April 4, 2014.

Federal Register. 2014c. Endangered and threatened species: Critical habitat for the northwest Atlantic 

Ocean loggerhead sea turtle distinct population segment (DPS) and determination regarding critical 

habitat for the North Pacific Ocean loggerhead DPS. Final rule (50 CFR 256). 79 FR 39855, 

pp. 39855-39912.

Federal Register. 2014d. Taking of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations; 

bottlenose dolphin take reduction plan; sea turtle conservation; modification to fishing activities. 

Proposed rule by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. April 17, 2014.

Fertl, D., A.J. Shiro, G.T. Regan, C.A. Beck, N. Adimey, L. Price-May, A. Amos, G.A.J. Worthy, and 

R. Crossland. 2005. Manatee occurrence in the northern Gulf of Mexico, west of Florida. Gulf and 

Caribbean Research 17:69-94.

Fewtrell, J. and R. McCauley. 2012. Impact of air gun noise on the behavior of marine fish and squid. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin 64:984-993.

Fingas, M., F. Ackerman, P. Lambert, K. Li, Z. Wang, J. Mullin, L. Hannon, D. Wang, A. Steenkammer, 

R. Hiltabrand, R. Turpin, and P. Campagna. 1995. The Newfoundland offshore burn experiment: 

Further results of emissions measurement. In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth Arctic and Marine 

Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, Volume 2, June 14-16, 1995, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Pp. 915-995.

Fisher, M. 2014. Official communication. Email regarding fishing effort and catch data. Texas Parks 

and Wildlife Department, Rockport Marine Laboratory, Rockport, TX. April 16, 2014.

Fodrie, F.J. and K.L. Heck, Jr. 2011. Response of coastal fishes to the Gulf of Mexico oil disaster. PLoS 

ONE 6(7):e21609. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0021609.

Francaviglia, R.V. 1998. From sail to steam. University of Texas Press, Austin. 324 pp.

Fraser, G.S., J. Russell, and W.M. von Zharen. 2006. Produced water from offshore oil and gas 

installations on the Grand Banks, Newfoundland and Labrador: Are the potential effects to seabirds 

sufficiently known? Marine Ornithology 34:147-156.

Galbraith, H., R. Jones, R. Park, J. Clough, S. Herrod-Julius, B. Harrington, and G. Page. 2002. Global 

climate change and sea level rise: Potential losses of intertidal habitat for shorebirds. Waterbirds 

25:173-183.

Gallaway, B., S. Szedlmayer, and W. Gazey. 2009. A life history review for red snapper in the Gulf of 

Mexico with an evaluation of the importance of offshore petroleum platforms and other artificial 

reefs. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17(1):48-67.

Gauthreaux, S.A., Jr. 1975. Coastal hiatus of spring trans-gulf bird migration. In: McIntire, W.G., 

M.J. Hershman, R.D. Adams, K.D. Midboe, and B.B. Barrett, eds. A rationale for determining 

Louisiana’s coastal zone. Louisiana State University, Center for Wetland Resources, Baton Rouge, 

LA. Coastal Zone Management Series Report No. 1. Pp. 85-91.

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin. 1980. Offshore petroleum resource development and marine mammals: 

A review and research recommendations. Marine Fisheries Review 42:1-12.

Gitschlag, G., M. Schirripa, and J. Powers. 2000. Estimation of fisheries impacts due to underwater 

explosives used to sever and salvage oil and gas platforms in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. Final report. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, 

LA. OCS Study MMS 2000-087. 80 pp.

Glick, P., J. Clough, A. Polaczyk, B. Couvillion, and B. Nunley. 2013. Potential effects of sea-level rise 

on coastal wetlands in southeastern Louisiana. In: Brock, J.C., J.A. Barras, and S.J. Williams, eds., 

Understanding and predicting change in the coastal ecosystems of the northern Gulf of Mexico. 

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 63, pp. 211-233. Internet website: http://

www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/SI63-0017.1. 
6-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Goodbody-Gringley, G., R.M. Woollacott, and G. Giribet. 2011. Population structure and connectivity 

in the Atlantic scleractinian coral Montastraea cavernosa (Linneaus, 1767). Marine Ecology 

31(1):32-48. Internet website: http://flowergarden.noaa.gov/document_library/scidocs/

goodbodygringley2011.pdf. 

Gower, J. and S. King. 2008. Satellite images show the movement of floating Sargassum in the Gulf of 

Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. Nature Precedings. Internet website: http://precedings.nature.com/

documents/1894/version/1/files/npre20081894-1.pdf. 

Gower, J.F.R. and S.A. King. 2011. Distribution of floating Sargassum in the Gulf of Mexico and the 

Atlantic Ocean mapped using MERIS. International Journal of Remote Sensing 32(7):1917-1929.

Gower, J., E. Young, and S. King. 2013. Satellite images suggest a new Sargassum source region in 

2011. Remote Sensing Letters 4(8):764-773.

Habib, L.E., M. Bayne, and S. Boutin. 2007. Chronic industrial noise affects pairing success and age 

structure of ovenbirds Seiurus aurocapilla. Journal of Animal Ecology 44:176-184.

Harvey, J.T. and M.E. Dahlheim. 1994. Cetaceans in oil. In: Loughlin, T.R., ed. Marine mammals and 

the Exxon Valdez. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Pp. 257-264.

Hausfather, Z. 2013. IPCC’s new estimates for increased sea-level rise. Internet website: http://

www.yaleclimateconnections.org/2013/10/ipccs-new-estimates-for-increased-sea-level-rise/. Posted 

October 23, 2013. Accessed on July 2, 2014.

Helman, C. 2013. How Cheniere energy got first in line to export America’s natural gas. Forbes 

Magazine. May 6, 2013. Internet website: http://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2013/04/

17/first-mover-how-cheniere-energy-is-leading-americas-lng-revolution/. Accessed May 23, 2013.

Hobor, G., A. Plyer, and B. Horwitz. 2014. The coastal index: The problem and possibility of our coast. 

The Data Center. Internet website: http://www.datacenterresearch.org/reports_analysis/the-coastalindex/. Accessed April 28, 2014.

Hogan, J.L. 2003. Occurrence of the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin littoralis) at South 

Deer Island in Galveston Bay, Texas, April 2001-May 2002. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological 

Survey, Austin, TX. Open-File Report 03-022. 30 pp.

Holliday, D.K., W.M. Roosenburg, and A.A. Elskus. 2008. Spatial variation on polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbon concentrations in eggs of diamondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, from the 

Patuxent River, Maryland. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 80:119-122.

IHS Petrodata. 2014. Weekly rig count. Internet website: http://www.ihs.com/products/oil-gas/ei/

drilling-rigs/offshore-weekly-data.aspx. Accessed April 23, 2014.

Incardona, J.P., L.D. Gardner, T.L. Linbo, T.L. Brown, A.J. Esbaugh, E.M. Mager, J.D. Stieglitz, 

B.L. French, J.S. Labenia, C.A. Laetz, M. Tagal, C.A. Sloan, A. Elizur, D.D. Benetti, M. Grosell, 

B.A. Block, and N.L. Scholz. 2014. Deepwater Horizon crude oil impacts the developing hearts of 

large predatory pelagic fish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 

111(15):E1510-E1518. Internet website: http://www.pnas.org/content/111/15/E1510.full.pdf. 

Inoue, M., S.E. Welsh, L.J. Rouse, Jr., and E. Weeks. 2008. Deepwater currents in the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico: Observations at 25.5oN and 87oW. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2008-001. 95 pp.

Jackson, J.B.C., J.D. Cubit, B.D. Keller, V. Batista, K. Burns, H.M. Caffey, R.L. Caldwell, S.D. Garrity, 

C.D. Getter, C. Gonzalez, H.M. Guzman, K.W. Kaufmann, A.H. Knap, S.C. Levings, M.J. Marshall, 

R. Steger, R.C. Thompson, and E. Weil. 1989. Ecological effects of a major oil spill on Panamanian 

coastal marine communities. Science 243:37-44.

Jackson, L.E., J.C. Kurtz, and W.S. Fisher. 2000. Evaluation guidelines for ecological indicators. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA/620/R-99/005. 109 pp. 

Internet website: http://www.epa.gov/emap/html/pubs/docs/resdocs/ecol_ind.pdf. 
References Cited 6-9 

Ji, Z.-G., W.R. Johnson, Z. Li, R.E. Green, S.E. O’Reilly, and M.P. Gravois. 2012. Oil spill risk 

analysis: Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) lease sales, Central and Western Planning 

Areas, 2012-2017, and Gulfwide OCS Program, 2012-2051. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, Environmental Division, Herndon, VA. 

OCS Report BOEM 2012-066. 77 pp.

Ji, Z.-G., Z. Li, R. Green, S.E. O’Reilly, M.P. Gravois, and C. Murphy, eds. 2013. Oil spill risk analysis: 

Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf (OCS) lease sales, Eastern Planning Area, 2012-2017, and 

Eastern OCS Program, 2012-2051. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 

Regulation and Enforcement, Environmental Division, Herndon, VA. OCS Report BOEM 2013-

0110. 62 pp.

Jochens, A., D. Biggs, K. Benoit-Bird, D. Engelhaupt, J. Gordon, C. Hu, N. Jaquet, M. Johnson, 

R. Leben, B. Mate, P. Miller, J. Ortega-Ortiz, A. Thode, P. Tyack, and B. Würsig. 2008. Sperm 

whale seismic study in the Gulf of Mexico: Synthesis report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2008-006. 

341 pp.

Johnston, M.A., M.F. Nuttall, R.J. Eckert, J.A. Embesi, N.C. Slowey, E.L. Hickerson, and G.P. Schmahl. 

2013. Long-term monitoring at the East and West Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, 

2009–2010. Volume 1: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2013-214. 

219 pp.

Judy, C.R., S.A. Graham, Q. Lin, A. Hou, and I.A. Mendelssohn. 2014. Impacts of Macondo oil from 

Deepwater Horizon spill on the growth response of the common reed Phragmites australis: A 

mesocosm study. Marine Pollution Bulletin 79:69-76.

Kaiser, M.J. 2004. Fish in deep-water coral habitats. Science 304:1595. Internet website: http://

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.77.9643&rep=rep1&type=pdf. 

Kaiser, M.J., B. Snyder, and A.G. Pulsipher. 2013. Offshore drilling industry and rig construction 

market in the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study BOEM 2013-0112. 367 pp.

Khanna S, M.J. Santos, S.L. Ustin, A. Koltunov, R.F. Kokaly, and D.A. Roberts. 2013. Detection of salt 

marsh vegetation stress and recovery after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in Barataria Bay, Gulf of 

Mexico using AVIRIS data. PLoS ONE 8(11):e78989. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078989. 

Kimes, N.E., A.V. Callaghan, D.F. Aktas, W.L. Smith, J. Sunner, B.T. Golding, M. Drozdowska, 

T.C. Hazen, J.M. Suflita., and P.J. Morris. 2013. Metagenomic analysis and metabolite profiling of 

deep-sea sediments from the Gulf of Mexico following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Frontiers in 

Microbiology 4(50):1-17.

King, B.S. and J.D. Gibbons. 2011. Health hazard evaluation of Deepwater Horizon response workers. 

Health hazard evaluation report HETA 2010-0115 & 2010-0129-3138. National Institute for 

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). August 2011. Internet website: http://www.cdc.gov/

niosh/hhe/reports/pdfs/2010-0115-0129-3138.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2013.

Klem, Jr., D. 2009. Avian mortality at windows: The second largest human source of bird mortality on 

earth. In: Rich, T.D., C. Arizmendi, D.W. Demarest, and C. Thompson, eds. Tundra to tropics: 

Connecting birds, habitats and people. Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight 

Conference, 13-16 February 2008, McAllen, TX, USA. Pp. 244-251. Internet website: http://

www.pwrc.usgs.gov/pif/pubs/McAllenProc/articles/PIF09_Anthropogenic%20Impacts/

Klem_PIF09.pdf. Accessed September 13, 2011.

Kostka, J.E., O. Prakash, W.A. Overholt, S.J. Green, G. Freyer, A. Canion, J. Delgardio, N. Norton, 

T.C. Hazen, and M. Huettel. 2011. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria and the bacterial community 

response in Gulf of Mexico beach sands impacted by the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Applied and 

Environmental Microbiology 77(22):7962-7974.
6-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Lange, R. 1985. A 100-ton experimental oil spill at Halten Bank, off Norway. In: Proceedings, 1985 

Oil Spill Conference, February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, CA. Washington, DC: American 

Petroleum Institute.

Levin, P.S. and G.W. Stuntz. 2005. Habitat triage for exploited fishes: Can we identify essential 

“essential fish habitat?” Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 64:70-78.

Lindo-Atichati, D.F. Bringas, G. Goni, B. Muhling, and F.E. Muller-Karg. 2012. Varying mesoscale 

structures influence larval fish distribution in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 463:245-257.

Lipinski, J. 2014. Mississippi River back open after oil spill. Internet website: http://www.nola.com/

business/index.ssf/2014/02/portions_of_the_mississippi_ri.html. Accessed May 22, 2014.

Liu, Z. and J. Liu, 2013. Evaluating bacterial community structures in oil collected from the sea surface 

and sediment in the northern Gulf of Mexico after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

MicrobiologyOpen 2(3):492-504.

Liu, Z., J. Liu, W.S. Gardner, G.C. Shank, and E.O. Nathaniel. 2014. The impact of Deepwater Horizon

oil spill on petroleum hydrocarbons in surface waters of the northern Gulf of Mexico. Deep-Sea 

Research II: Topical studies in oceanography. Internet website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/

j.dsr2.2014.01.013.

Lokkeborg, S., E. Ona, A. Vold, and A. Salthaug. 2012. Sounds from seismic air guns: Gear- and 

species-specific effects on catch rates and fish distribution. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and 

Aquatic Sciences 69:1278-1291.

Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans. School of Public Health. 2014. 

WaTCH: Women and Their Children’s Health Study. Internet website: http://sph.lsuhsc.edu/

watch#.U2eAxXfLJzIv. Accessed May 2, 2014.

Lowe, M. and S. Stokes. 2013. Wildlife tourism and the Gulf Coast economy. 57 pp. Internet website: 

http://www.daturesearch.com/wp-content/uploads/WildlifeTourismReport_FINAL.pdf. 

Lubowski, R.N., M. Vesterby, S. Bucholtz, A. Baez, and M. Roberts. 2006. Major uses of land in the 

United States, 2002. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Economic Information 

Bulletin No. (EIB-14). 54 pp. Internet website: http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economicinformation-bulletin/eib14.aspx#.U8hRJ_ldX3Q. Accessed January 16, 2013.

Lugo-Fernandez, A., D.A. Ball, M. Gravois, C. Horrell, and J.B. Irion. 2007. Analysis of the Gulf of 

Mexico’s Veracruz-Havana route of La Flota de la Nueva España. Journal of Maritime Archaeology

2(1):24-47.

Lutcavage, M.E., P.L. Lutz, G.D. Bossart, and D.M. Hudson. 1995. Physiologic and clinicopathologic 

effects of crude oil on loggerhead sea turtles. Archives of Environmental Contamination and 

Toxicology 28:417-422.

Lutz, P.L. and M. Lutcavage. 1989. The effects of petroleum on sea turtles: Applicability to Kemp’s 

ridley. In: Caillouet, C.W., Jr. and A.M. Landry, Jr., eds. Proceedings of the First International 

Symposium on Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle Biology, Conservation and Management. Texas A&M 

University Sea Grant College Program, Galveston. TAMU-SG-89-105. Pp. 52-54.

Manville, A.M., II. 2005. Bird strikes and electrocutions at power lines, communication towers, and 

wind turbines: State of the art and state of the science—next steps toward mitigation. U.S. Dept. of 

Agriculture, Forest Service. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-191. Pp. 1051-1064.

Manville, A.M., II. 2009. Towers, turbines, power lines, and buildings--steps being taken by the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to avoid or minimize take of migratory birds at these structures. In: 

Rich, T.D., C. Arizmendi, D.W. Demarest, and C. Thompson, eds. Tundra to tropics: Connecting 

birds, habitats and people. Proceedings of the Fourth International Partners in Flight Conference, 

13-16 February 2008, McAllen, TX. Pp. 262-272. Internet website: http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/pif/

pubs/McAllenProc/articles/PIF09_Anthropogenic%20Impacts/Manville_PIF09.pdf. Accessed 

January 26, 2011.
References Cited 6-11

Marine Spill Response Corporation. 2014. MSRC’s major equipment list. Internet website: https://

www.msrc.org/services/oil-spill-response/equipment/MSRC_Major_Equipment_List.pdf. 

Mason, O.U., T.C. Hazen, S. Borglin, P.S.G. Chain, E.A. Dubinsky, J.L. Fortney, J. Han, 

H-Y.N. Holman, J. Hultman, R. Lamendella, R. Mackelprang, S. Malfatti, L.M. Tom, S.G. Tringe, 

T. Woyke, J. Zhou, E.M. Rubin, and J.K. Jansson. 2012. Metagenome, metatranscriptome and 

single-cell sequencing reveal microbial response to Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The ISME Journal 

6:1715-1727. Internet website: http://hazenlab.utk.edu/files/pdf/2012Mason_etal_ismej.pdf. 

Mason, O.U., N.M. Scott, A. Gonzalez, A. Robbins-Pianka, J. Bælum, J. Kimbrel, N.J. Bouskill, E. 

Prestat, S. Borglin, D.C. Joyner, J.L. Fortney, D. Jurelevicius, W.T. Stringfellow, L. Alvarez-Cohen, 

T.C. Hazen, R. Knight, J.A. Gilbert, and J.K. Jansson. 2014. Metagenomics reveals sediment 

microbial community response to Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The ISME Journal:1-12.

Matkin, C.O., E.L. Saulitis, G.M. Ellis, P. Olesiuk, and S.D. Rice. 2008. Ongoing population-level 

impacts on killer whales Orcinus orca following the “Exxon Valdez” oil spill in Prince William 

Sound, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series 356:269-281.

McAuliffe, C.D., A.E. Smalley, R.D. Groover, W.M. Welsh, W.S. Pickle, and G.E. Jones. 1975. 

Chevron Main Pass Block 41 oil spill: Chemical and biological investigation. In: Proceedings, 1975 

Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution, March 25-27, 1975, San Francisco, CA. 

Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.

McAuliffe, C.D., B.L. Steelman, W.L. Leek, D.E. Fitzgerald, J.P. Ray, and C.D. Baker. 1981. The 1979 

southern California dispersant treated research oil spills. In: Proceedings 1981 Oil Spill Conference 

. . . March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, GA. Washington DC: American Petroleum Institute. Pp. 269-282.

Michel, J. and N. Rutherford. 2014. Impacts, recovery rates, and treatment options for spilled oil in 

marshes. Marine Pollution Bulletin 82(1-2):19-25.

Middlebrook, A.M., D.M. Murphy, R. Ahmadov, E.L. Atlas, R. Bahreini, D.R. Blake, J. Frioud, 

J.A. deGouw, F.C. Fehsenfeld, G.J. Frost, J.S. Holloway, D.A. Lack, J.M. Langridge, R.A. Lueb, 

S.A. McKeen, J.F. Meagher, S. Meinardi, J.A. Neuman, J.G. Nowak, D.D. Parrish, J. Peischl, 

A.E. Perring, I.B. Pollack, J.M. Roberts, T.B. Ryerson, J.P. Schwarz, J.R. Spackman, C. Warneke, 

and A.R. Ravishankara. 2011. Air quality implications of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Early edition, December 2011. Internet website: 

http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2011/12/23/1110052108.full.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2013.

MilitaryBases.com. 2013a. Military bases in Texas. Internet website: http://militarybases.com/texas/. 

Accessed August 1, 2013.

MilitaryBases.com. 2013b. Military bases in Louisiana. Internet website: http://militarybases.com/

louisiana/. Accessed August 1, 2013.

Mississippi Development Authority. 2012. Official communication. Summary of minutes from 

meetings between BOEM and the State of Mississippi regarding the State instating a lease sale 

program in the future in State waters.

Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce. 2011. Tomorrow’s great energy center for the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico. Internet website: http://www.offshorealabama.com/. Accessed June 30, 2011.

Møller, A.P., W. Fiedler, and P. Berthold, eds. 2004. Advances in ecological research. Volume 35: 

Birds and climate change. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Montevecchi, W.A. 2006. Influences of artificial light on marine birds. In: Rich, C. and T. Longcore, 

eds. Ecological consequences of ecological night lighting. Washington, DC: Island Press. 

Pp. 94-11.

Moody R.M., J. Cebrian, and K.L. Heck, Jr. 2013. Interannual recruitment dynamics for resident and 

transient marsh species: Evidence for a lack of impact by the Macondo oil spill. PLoS ONE 

8(3):e58376.
6-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Moridis, G.J., T.S. Collett, R. Boswell, M. Kurihara, M.T. Reagan, C. Koh, and E.D. Sloan. 2008. 

Toward production from gas hydrates: Current status, assessment of resources, and simulation-based 

evaluation of technology and potential. Society of Petroleum Engineers, Unconventional Reservoirs 

Conference, Keystone, CO, February 10-12, 2008. 43 pp. Internet website: http://web.archive.org/

web/20121209115621/http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/publications/Hydrates/reports/

G308_SPE114163_Feb08.pdf. 

Mulabagal V., F. Yin, G.F. John, J.S. Hayworth, and T.P. Clement. 2013. Chemical fingerprinting of 

petroleum biomarkers in Deepwater Horizon oil spill samples collected from Alabama shoreline. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin 70:147-154.

Myers, R.A. and N.G. Cadigan. 1993. Density-dependent juvenile mortality in marine demersal fish. 

Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 50:1576-1590.

Nash, H.L., S.J. Furiness, and J.W. Tunnell, Jr. 2013. What is known about species richness and 

distribution on the outer-shelf south Texas banks? Gulf and Caribbean Research 25:9-18.

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2014a. Deepwater Horizon Research Consortia. 

Internet website: http://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/dert/programs/gulfconsortium/. 

Accessed May 2, 2014.

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2014b. GuLF Study gears up for second round of 

health exams. Internet website: http://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsroom/releases/2014/april11/

index.cfm. Accessed May 2, 2014.

National Research Council (NRC). 1983. Drilling discharges in the marine environment. Panel on 

Assessment of Fates and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings in the Marine Environment. Marine 

Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National Research Council. 

Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pp. 18-21.

National Research Council (NRC). 2003. Oil in the sea III: Inputs, fates, and effects (Committee on Oil 

in the Sea: J.N. Coleman, J. Baker, C. Cooper, M. Fingas, G. Hunt, K. Kvenvolden, J. McDowell, 

J. Michel, K. Michel, J. Phinney, N. Rabalais, L. Roesner, and R.B. Spies). Washington, DC: The 

National Academies Press. 265 pp. Internet website: http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id10388. Accessed January 8, 2011.

National Response Corporation (NRC). 2014. NRC major equipment list. Internet website: http://

www.nrcc.com/Services/SiteAssets/Website.pdf. 

Navigant Consulting, Inc. 2013. Offshore wind market and economic analysis: Annual market 

assessment. Internet website: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/wind/pdfs/offshore_wind_market_

and_economic_analysis.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2014.

Neal Adams Firefighters Inc. 1991. Joint industry program for floating vessel blowout control. Prepared 

for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. TA&R Project 150. Internet 

website: http://www.bsee.gov/Research-and-Training/Technology-Assessment-and-Research/

tarprojects/100-199/150AA/. 

Neff, J.M. 2005. Composition, environmental fates, and biological effects of water based drilling muds

and cuttings discharged to the marine environment: A synthesis and annotated bibliography. 

Prepared for the Petroleum Environmental Research Forum and American Petroleum Institute. 

Duxbury, MA: Battelle. 83 pp. Internet website: http://www.perf.org/images/

API_PERF_drilling_mud_report.pdf. 

Newman, J.R. 1979. Effects of industrial air pollution on wildlife. Biological Conservation 15:181-190.

Newman, J.R. and R.K. Schreiber. 1988. Air pollution and wildlife toxicology: An overlooked problem. 

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 7:381-390.

Newton R.J., S.M. Huse, H.G. Morrison, C.S. Peake, M.L. Sogin, and S.L. McLellan. 2013. Shifts in the 

microbial community composition of Gulf Coast beaches following beach oiling. PLoS ONE 

8(9):e74265. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074265. 
References Cited 6-13

North American Bird Conservation Initiative. 2010. The state of the birds: 2010 report on climate 

change—United States of America. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, 

Washington, DC. 32 pp. Internet website: http://www.stateofthebirds.org/2010/pdf_files/State%20

of%20the%20Birds_FINAL.pdf. Accessed January 13, 2011.

Nyman, J.A., D.M. Baltz, M.D. Kaller, P.L. Leberg, C.P. Richards, R.P. Romaire, and T.M. Soniat. 

2013. Likely changes in habitat quality for fish and wildlife in coastal Louisiana during the next fifty

years. In: Peyronnin, N. and D. Reed, eds. Louisiana’s 2012 coastal master plan technical analysis. 

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 67:60-74. Internet website: http://www.jcronline.org/

doi/abs/10.2112/SI_67_5. 

Oil and Gas Journal. 2009. BP finds oil in multiple Lower Tertiary reservoirs. Internet website: http://

www.ogfj.com/index/article-display/5015598529/articles/oil-gas-financial-journal/volume-6/

Issue_10/Upstream_News/BP_finds_oil_in_multiple_Lower_Tertiary_reservoirs.html. Posted 

October 1, 2009. Accessed January 11, 2011.

Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT). 2010. Summary report for sub-sea and sub-surface oil and 

dispersant detection: Sampling and monitoring. Unified Area Command, New Orleans, LA. Internet 

website: http://www.restorethegulf.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/OSAT_Report_

FINAL_17DEC.pdf. Released December 17, 2010. Accessed March 14, 2011.

Orth, R.J., T.J.B. Carruthers, W.C. Dennison, C.M. Duarte, J.W. Fourqurean, K.L. Heck, Jr., 

A.R. Hughes, G.A. Kendrick, W.J. Kenworthy, S. Olyarnik, F.T. Short, M. Waycott, and 

S.L. Williams. 2006. A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems. BioScience 56(12):987-996.

Palinkas, L.A., A.J. Russell, M.A. Downs, and J.S. Petterson. 1992. Ethnic-differences in stress, coping, 

and depressive symptoms after the Exxon Valdez oil-spill. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 

180:287-295.

Passow, U., K. Ziervogel, V. Asper, and A. Diercks. 2012. Marine snow formation in the aftermath of 

the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Environmental Research Letters 7(3):035301. 

Internet website: http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/7/3/035301/pdf/1748-9326_7_3_035301.pdf. 

PCCI Marine and Environmental Engineering. 1999. Oil spill containment, remote sensing and tracking 

for deepwater blowouts: status of existing and emerging technologies. Report prepared for the U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. TA&R Project 311. 66 pp. + apps. Internet 

website: http://www.bsee.gov/Research-and-Training/Technology-Assessment-and-Research/

tarprojects/300-399/311AA.aspx. Accessed December 19, 2013.

Pearson, C.E., D.B. Kelley, R.A. Weinstein, and S.W. Gagliano. 1986. Archaeological investigations on 

the outer continental shelf: A study within the Sabine River valley, offshore Louisiana and Texas. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Reston, VA. OCS Study MMS 86-0119. 

314 pp.

Pearson, C.E., S.R. James, Jr., M.C. Krivor, S.D. El Darragi, and L. Cunningham. 2003. Refining and 

revising the Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf region high-probability model for historic 

shipwrecks: Final report. Volume I-III. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-060, 2003-061, and 

2003-062. 13, 338, and 138 pp., respectively.

Peele, R.H., J.I. Snead, and W. Feng. 2002. Outer continental shelf pipelines crossing the Louisiana 

coastal zone: A geographic information system approach. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans LA. OCS Study MMS 2002-038. 

24 pp.

Pendleton, E.A., J.A. Barras, S.J. Williams, and D.C. Twichell. 2010. Coastal vulnerability assessment 

of the northern Gulf of Mexico to sea-level rise and coastal change: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Open-File Report 2010-1146. Internet website: http://

pubs.usgs.gov/of/2010/1146/pdf/ofr2010-1146.pdf. 
6-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Pennycuick, C.J. and P.F. Battley. 2003. Burning the engine: A time-marching computation of fat and 

protein consumption in a 5420-km non-stop flight by great knots, Calidris tenuirostris. Oikos

103(2):323-332. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12124.x.

Pérez, C., I. Munilla, M. Lopez-Alonso, and A. Velando. 2010. Sublethal effects on seabirds after the 

Prestige oil-spill are mirrored in sexual signals. Biological Letters 6:33-35.

Piatt, J.F., H.R. Carter, and D.N. Nettleship. 1990a. Effects of oil pollution in marine bird populations. 

In: White, J., ed. The effects of oil on wildlife: Research, rehabilitation and general concerns. 

Proceedings of the Oil Symposium, Herndon, VA, October 16-18, 1990. Hanover, PA: Sheridan 

Press. Pp. 125-141.

Piatt, J.F., C.J. Lensink, W. Butler, M. Kendziorek, and D.R. Nysewander. 1990b. Immediate impact of 

the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill on seabirds. Auk 107:387-397.

Plotkin, P. and A.F. Amos. 1988. Entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris by sea turtles stranded 

along the South Texas coast. In: Proceedings, 8th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and 

Biology. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-214.

Pond, S. and G.L. Pickard. 1983. Introductory dynamical oceanography, 2nd ed. New York, NY: 

Pergamon Press. 329 pp.

Popper, A.N. and M.C. Hastings. 2009. The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes. 

Journal of Fish Biology 75:455-489.

Powers, S.P., F.J. Hernandez, R.H. Condon, J.M. Drymon, and C.M. Free. 2013. Novel pathways for 

injury from offshore oil spills: Direct, sublethal and indirect effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil 

spill on pelagic Sargassum communities. PLoS ONE 8(9):e74802. 

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074802.

Quattrini, A.M., S.E. Georgian, L. Byrnes, A. Stevens, R. Falco, and E.E. Cordes. 2013. Niche 

divergence by deep-sea octocorals in the genus Callogorgia across the continental slope of the Gulf 

of Mexico. Molecular Ecology 22:4123-4140.

Rees, M.A. 2010. Paleoindian and early archaic. In: Rees, M.A., ed. Archaeology of Louisiana. Baton 

Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. Pp. 34-62.

Rezak, R., T.J. Bright, and D.W. McGrail. 1983. Reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico: 

Their geological, biological, and physical dynamics. Final Technical Report No. 83-1-T.

Richardson, W.J., C.R. Greene, Jr., C.I. Malme, and D.H. Thomson. 1995. Marine mammals and noise. 

San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 576 pp.

Rigzone. 2013. Heavier crude feedstocks: Gaining respect. Internet website: http://www.rigzone.com/

training/heavyoil/insight.asp?i_id=284. Accessed August 9, 2013.

Robards, M.D., J.F. Piatt, and K.D. Wohl. 1995. Increasing frequency of plastic particles ingested by 

seabirds in the subarctic North Pacific. Marine Ecology Progress Series 30:151-157.

Rooker, J.R., J.R. Simms, R.J.D. Wells, S.A. Holt, G.J. Holt, J.E. Graves, and N.B. Furey. 2012. 

Distribution and habitat associations of billfish and swordfish larvae across mesoscale features in the 

Gulf of Mexico. PLoS ONE 7(4):e34180. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034180. 

Rooker, J., L. Kitchens, M. Dance, R. Wells, B. Falterman, and M. Cornic. 2013. Spatial, temporal, and 

habitat-related variation in abundance of pelagic fishes in the Gulf of Mexico: Potential implications 

of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. PLoS ONE 8(10):e76080.

Roosenburg, W.M., K.L. Haley, and S. McGuire. 1999. Habitat selection and movements of the 

diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin, in a Maryland estuary. Chelonian Conservation and 

Biology 3:425-429.

Rotkin-Ellman, M. and G. Soloman. 2012. FDA risk assessment of seafood contamination after the BP 

oil spill: Rotkin-Ellman and Soloman respond. Environmental Health Perspectives 120(2), February 

2012. Internet website: http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/fetchArticle.action;jsessionid=
References Cited 6-15

DC38892D6D62B962BC4A8C42BEBDA24A?articleURI=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%

2Fehp.1104539R. Accessed June 25, 2013.

Rotkin-Ellman, M., K. Wong, and G. Soloman. 2012. Seafood contamination after the BP Gulf oil spill 

and risks to vulnerable populations: A critique of the FDA risk assessment. Environmental Health 

Perspectives 120(2), February 2012. Internet website: http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info%3Adoi

%2F10.1289%2Fehp.1103695. Accessed June 25, 2013.

Russell, R.W. 2005. Interactions between migrating birds and offshore oil and gas platforms in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico: Final report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2005-009. 327 pp.

Sammarco, P.W., S.R. Kolian, R.A. Warby, J.L. Bouldin, W.A. Subra, and S.A. Porter. 2013. 

Distribution and concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons associated with the BP/Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill, Gulf of Mexico. Marine Pollution Bulletin 73(1):129-143.

Schwacke, L.H., C.R. Smith, F.I. Townsend, R.S. Wells, L.B. Hart, B.C. Balmer, T.K. Collier, 

S. De Guise, M.M. Fry, L.J. Guillette, Jr., S.V. Lamb, S.M. Lane, W.E. McFee, N.J. Place, 

M.C. Tumlin, G.M. Ylitalo, E.S. Zoman, and T.K. Rowles. 2013. Health of common bottlenose 

dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

Environmental Science & Technology 48-93-103. Internet website: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ipdf/

10.1021/es403610f. Accessed January 2, 2014.

Serrano, X.M. 2013. Horizontal vs. vertical connectivity in Caribbean reef corals: Identifying potential 

sources of recruitment following disturbance. University of Miami, Open Access Dissertations, Paper 

1101.

Shaffer, G.P., J.W. Day, S. Mack, G.P. Kemp, I. van Heerden, M.A. Poirrier, K.A. Westphal, 

D. FitzGerald, A. Milanes, C.A. Morris, R. Bea, and P.S. Penland. 2009. The MRGO navigation 

project: A massive human-induced environmental, economic, and storm disaster. Journal of Coastal 

Research: Special issue 54:206-224. Internet website: http://www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/

SI54-004.1

Share the Beach. 2014. Nesting season statistics. Internet website: http://www.alabamaseaturtles.com/

nesting-season-statistics/. Accessed April 22, 2014.

Shaver, D. 2014. Official communication. Email authorizing the use of 2013 turtle nesting data from 

Texas. Chief of the Division of Sea Turtle Science and Recovery at Padre Island National Seashore, 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Park Service. April 29, 2014.

Shedd, W. 2014. Official communication. Email regarding studies of the seafloor in the vicinity of the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. March 10, 2014. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA.

Shigenaka, G. 2001. Toxicity of oil to reef-building corals: A spill response perspective. U.S. Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA. NOAA Technical 

Memorandum NOS OR&R 8. 95 pp. Internet website: http://archive.orr.noaa.gov/book_shelf/

1_coral_tox.pdf. 

Shipp, R. and S. Bortone. 2009. A perspective of the importance of artificial habitat on the management 

of red snapper in the Gulf of Mexico. Reviews in Fisheries Science 17(1):41-47.

Smith, C.B., C.N. Johnson, and G.M. King. 2012. Assessment of polyaromatic hydrocarbon degradation 

by potentially pathogenic environmental Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates from coastal Louisiana, 

USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin 64:138-143.

Smith, E. 2014. Louisiana—The status of the State: A report on the impact of energy activity on the 

State’s economy. Internet website: http://www.noia.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/

Future_of_Energy_FINAL-GNO-INc.pdf. 

Soniat, T.M., S.M. King, M.A. Tarr, and M.A. Thorne. 2011. Chemical and physiological measures on 

oysters (Crassostrea virginica) from oil-exposed sites in Louisiana. Journal of Shellfish Research 

30(3):713-717.
6-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Source Strategies Inc. 2014. Texas hotel report: 2013. Internet website: http://

www.sourcestrategies.org/texas/. Accessed April 21, 2014.

Spalding, E.A. and M.W. Hester. 2007. Effects of hydrology and salinity on oligohaline plant species 

productivity: Implications of relative sea-level rise. Estuaries and Coasts 30(2):214-225.

Sreekumar, A. 2013. What does the future hold for Canada’s oil sands? Internet website: http://

www.dailyfinance.com/2013/06/28/what-does-the-future-hold-for-canadas-oil-sands/. Accessed 

August 9, 2013.

St. Aubin, D.J. and V. Lounsbury. 1990. Chapter 11. Oil effects on manatees: Evaluating the risks. In: 

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. San Diego, CA: 

Academic Press, Inc. Pp. 241-251.

Stanley, D.R. and C.A. Wilson. 1997. Seasonal and spatial variation in the abundance and size 

distribution of fishes associated with a petroleum platform in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Canadian 

Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 54:1166-1176.

Stanley, D.R. and C.A. Wilson. 2000. Variation in the density and species composition of fishes 

associated with three petroleum platforms using dual beam hydroacoustics. Fisheries Research 

47(2000):161-172.

State of Florida. Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2014a. 2013 statewide nesting totals. 

Internet website: http://myfwc.com/research/wildlife/sea-turtles/nesting/statewide/. Accessed 

April 22, 2014.

State of Florida. Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2014b. Index nesting beach survey totals 

(1989-2013). Internet website: http://myfwc.com/research/wildlife/sea-turtles/nesting/beach-surveytotals/. Accessed April 22, 2014.

State of Texas. Comptroller of Public Accounts. 2013. Texas in focus: A statewide view of 

opportunities. Infrastructure: Transportation. Internet website: http://www.window.state.tx.us/

specialrpt/tif/transportation.html. Accessed August 1, 2013.

Staszak, L.A. and A.R. Armitage. 2013. Evaluating salt marsh restoration success with an index of 

ecosystem integrity. Journal of Coastal Research 29(2):410-418. Internet website: http://

www.jcronline.org/doi/abs/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-12-00075.1. 

State of Louisiana. Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority (CPRA). 2012. Integrated ecosystem 

restoration and hurricane protection: Louisiana’s comprehensive master plan for a sustainable coast. 

Louisiana Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority, Baton Rouge, LA. Internet website: http://

issuu.com/coastalmasterplan/docs/coastal_master_plan-v2?e=3722998/2447530. Accessed July 5, 

2013.

State of Louisiana. Dept. of Natural Resources. 2014. State lease sale and fiscal year totals; April 12, 

2014. Internet website: http://dnr.louisiana.gov/assets/news_releases/April.2014.

State.Lease.Sale.pdf. 

State of Texas. Dept. of Agriculture. 2013. Texas Ag stats. Internet website: http://

texasagriculture.gov/About/TexasAgStats.aspx. Accessed August 1, 2013.

State of Texas. General Land Office. 2014. Notice for bids: January 7, 2014, oil and gas lease bid 

application. Internet website: http://www.glo.texas.gov/what-we-do/energy-and-minerals/_

documents/sealed-bids/bid01-07-14/web-notice-01-14.pdf. Accessed January 21, 2014.

Stephens, E.L., V. Molina, K.M. Cole, E. Laws, and C.N. Johnson. 2013. In situ and in vitro impacts of 

the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Marine Pollution Bulletin 75:90-97.

Stone, R.B. 1974. A brief history of artificial reef activities in the United States. In: Proceedings: 

Artificial Reef Conference, Houston, TX. Pp. 24-27.

Stone, R.B., W. Pratt, R.O. Parker, and G. Davis. 1979. A comparison of fish populations on an artificial 

and natural reef in the Florida Keys. Marine Fisheries Review 41(9):1-24.
References Cited 6-17

Stroud, R.H. 1992. Stemming the tide of coastal fish habitat loss. In: Proceedings of a Symposium on 

Coastal Fish Habitat, March 7-9, 1991, Baltimore, MD. National Coalition for Marine Conservation, 

Inc., Savannah, GA. Pp. 73-79.

Tao, Z., S. Bullard, and C. Arias. 2011. High numbers of Vibrio vulnificus in tar balls collected from 

oiled areas of the north-central Gulf of Mexico following the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

Ecohealth 8(4):507-511.

Tate, C. 2014. More oil spilled from trains in 2013 than in previous 4 decades, federal data show. 

Internet website: http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2014/01/20/215143/more-oil-spilled-from-trainsin.html. Accessed May 20, 2014.

Texas Commission on Environmental Quality. 2014. Revisions to the State of Texas air quality 

implementation plan concerning regional haze: Five-year regional haze project report. Project 

Number 2013-013-SIP-NR. 99 pp. Internet website: http://www.tceq.texas.gov/assets/public/

implementation/air/sip/haze/13012SIP_ado.pdf. Accessed May 15, 2014.

The Encyclopedia of Earth. 2008. Gulf of Mexico large marine ecosystem. Internet website: http://

www.eoearth.org/article/Gulf_of_Mexico_large_marine_ecosystem?topic=49522. Updated 

December 28, 2010. Accessed January 11, 2011.

The Oil Drum. 2009. USA Gulf of Mexico oil production forecast update. Internet website: http://

www.theoildrum.com/node/5081. Posted February 9, 2009. Accessed January 4, 2011.

Tkalich, P. and E.S. Chan. 2002. Vertical mixing of oil droplets by breaking waves. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 44:1219-1229.

Tulane University. 2014. Gulf Resilience on Women’s Health (GROWH). Mary Amelia DouglasWhited Community Women’s Health Education Center. Internet website: http://

womenshealth.tulane.edu/pages/detail/159/Gulf-Resilience-on-Womens-Health-GROWH. Accessed 

May 2, 2014.

Tuler, S., T. Webler, K. Dow, and F. Lord. 2009. Human dimensions impacts of oil spills: Brief 

summaries of human impacts of oil and oil spill response efforts. Social and Environmental Research 

Institute. Project funded by the Coastal Response Research Center.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 2003. SeaWiFS Project—

detailed description. Internet website: http://oceancolor.gsfc.nasa.gov/SeaWiFS/BACKGROUND/

SEAWIFS_970_BROCHURE.html. Updated July 30, 2003. Accessed January 11, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014a. NOAA declares 2011-2012 

bottlenose dolphin unusual mortality event in Texas. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/

health/mmume/bottlenosedolphins_texas.htm. Updated March 10, 2014. Accessed June 17, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014b. 2010-2014 cetacean unusual 

mortality event in northern Gulf of Mexico. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/

mmume/cetacean_gulfofmexico2010.htm. Updated June 15, 2014. Accessed June 17, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014c. Brucella and 2010-2014 cetacean 

unusual mortality event in northern Gulf of Mexico. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/

health/mmume/cetacean_gulfofmexico2010_brucella.htm. Updated June 17, 2014. Accessed 

June 17, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014d. FAQs on sea turtles, dolphins and 

whales and the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Fisheries, Office of 

Protected Resources. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/oilspill/faq.htm. 

Accessed April 21, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014e. Sea turtle strandings in the Gulf of 

Mexico. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources. Internet 

website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/gulfofmexico.htm. Accessed April 21, 2014.
6-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010. NOAA’s oil spill 

response: Hurricanes and the oil spill. Internet website: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/

hurricanes_oil_factsheet.pdf. Accessed August 29, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011a. NRDA Tier I 

sampling plan. AUV reconnaissance Survey II of potential hard-ground megafaunal communities in 

the vicinity of the Deepwater Horizon spill site. Internet website: http://

www.gulfspillrestoration.noaa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/AUV-Reconnaissance-Survey-ofPotential-Megafaunal-Communities-in-Vicinity-of-Spill-Site4-23-2011.redacted21.pdf. Accessed 

May 15, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011b. Study plan for 

NRDA-Phase II Project: Deepwater sediment sampling to assess post-spill benthic impacts from the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Internet website: http://www.gulfspillrestoration.noaa.gov/wp-content/

uploads/2011/09/DeepBenthicSedimentSampling_5-20-2011-allsigned.redacted-1.pdf. Accessed 

May 15, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2012. Natural resource 

damage assessment; April 2012; Status update for the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. U.S. Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Gulf Spill Restoration. 91 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. Ship data: 

Deepwater Horizon support. Internet website: http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/deepwaterhorizon/

specialcollections.html. Accessed November 15, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. 2011. A national offshore wind strategy: Creating an offshore wind energy 

industry in the United States. Internet website: http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/12/f5/

national_offshore_wind_strategy.pdf. Accessed May 14, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2013a. Consumption of petroleum and other 

liquids by sector, 1990-2040 (million barrels per day). Internet website: http://www.eia.gov/

forecasts/aeo/excel/fig93_data.xls. Accessed May 2, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2013b. Number and capacity of operable 

petroleum refineries by PAD district and state as of January 1, 2013. Internet website: http://

www.eia.gov/petroleum/refinerycapacity/table1.pdf. Accessed May 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014a. Short-term energy outlook; 

U.S. petroleum and other liquids; July 8, 2014. Internet website: http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/

report/us_oil.cfm. Accessed July 10, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014b. Total natural gas production, 

consumption, and imports in reference case, 1990-2040 (trillion cubic feet). Internet website: http://

www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/excel/figmt42_data.xls. Accessed July 10, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014c. Consumption of petroleum and other 

liquids by sector in the reference case, 1990-2040 (million barrels per day). Internet website: http://

www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/excel/figmt50_data.xls. Accessed May 28, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014d. Net import share of U.S. petroleum 

and other liquid fuels consumption in five cases, 1990-2040 (percent). Internet website: http://

www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/excel/figmt55_data.xls. Accessed May 28, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014e. U.S. imports by country of origin, 

total crude oil and products. Internet website: http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/

pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_epc0_im0_mbblpd_a.htm. Accessed July 10, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014f. Motor gasoline consumption, diesel 

fuel consumption, and petroleum product exports in the reference case, 2012-40 (million barrels per 

day). Internet website: http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/excel/figmt57_data.xls. Accessed May 28, 

2014.
References Cited 6-19

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Energy Information Administration. 2014g. U.S. natural gas imports by country. 

Internet website: http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_a.htm. Accessed on July 10, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Energy. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. 2013. North American LNG 

import/export terminals. April 17, 2013. Internet website: http://www.ferc.gov/industries/gas/indusact/lng/LNG-proposed-potential.pdf. Accessed May 23, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2013. Quarterly census of employment and wages. 

Internet website: http://www.bls.gov/cew/. Accessed October 23-24, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2014. Quarterly census of employment and wages. 

Internet website: http://www.bls.gov/cew/. Accessed July 8-9, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 2010a. OSHA statement on 

2-butoxyethanol & worker exposure. July 9, 2010. Internet website: https://www.osha.gov/oilspills/

oilspill-statement.html. Accessed June 25, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 2010b. General health and safety 

information for the Gulf oil spill. August 19, 2010. Internet website: https://www.osha.gov/oilspills/

deepwater-oil-spill-factsheet-ppe.pdf. Accessed June 25, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of the Army. Corps of Engineers. 1992. Planning assistance to States program, Section 22 

report, inlets along the Texas Gulf Coast. Galveston District, Southwestern Division, August 1992. 

56 pp. Internet website: http://cirp.usace.army.mil/pubs/archive/Inlets_Along_TX_Gulf_Coast.pdf. 

U.S. Dept. of the Army. Corps of Engineers. 2010. Ocean disposal database. Internet website: http://

el.erdc.usace.army.mil/odd/. Stated as current through 2010. Accessed June 17, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. 2010. Increased safety measures for energy development on the outer 

continental shelf. Internet website: http://www.doi.gov/deepwaterhorizon/loader.cfm?csModule=

security/getfile&PageID=33598. Accessed May 15, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012a. Proposed final outer 

continental shelf oil & gas leasing program: 2012-2017. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management, Herndon, VA. 223 pp.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012b. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 246, and 248; Central 

Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247—final environmental impact statement. 

3 vols. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2012-019.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012c. Outer continental shelf oil and 

gas leasing program: 2012-2017—final environmental impact statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Herndon, VA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2012-030.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2013a. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area Lease 

Sales 231—final supplemental environmental impact statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 

2013-0118.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2013b. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and

gas lease sales: 2014 and 2016; Eastern Planning Area Lease Sales 225 and 226—final 

environmental impact statement. 2 vols. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2013-200. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2013c. Exploration and development 

plans online query. Internet website: http://www.data.boem.gov/homepg/data_center/plans/plans/

master.asp. Accessed May 14, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2014a. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2014-2016; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248-final supplemental 
6-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

environmental impacts statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 

Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2014-009.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2014b. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2015-2017; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 235, 241, and 247—draft 

supplemental environmental impact statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Gulf of Mexico Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2014-010.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2014c. Gulf of Mexico expedition 

discovers amazing historic shipwreck and more with ongoing exploration. Internet website: http://

www.boem.gov/Gulf-of-Mexico-Expedition-Discovers-Amazing-Historic-Shipwreck/. Accessed 

May 14, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement and 

U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, Coast Guard, Joint Investigation Team. 2013. Report of 

investigation into the circumstances surrounding the explosion, fire, sinking and loss of eleven crew 

members aboard the mobile offshore drilling unit: Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico, 

April 20-22, 2010. Internet website: https://homeport.uscg.mil/mycg/portal/ep/contentView.do?

contentId=323899&pageTypeId=13489&contentType=EDITORIAL. Accessed April 16, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2013. Loss of well 

control—statistics and summaries. Internet website: http://www.bsee.gov/Inspection-andEnforcement/Accidents-and-Incidents/Loss-of-Well-Control/ Accessed February 11, 2014.U.S. Dept. 

of the Interior. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2014a. Oil spill response research 

(OSRR) program: Effective daily recovery (EDRC) project. Internet website: http://www.bsee.gov/

Research-and-Training/Oil-Spill-Response-Research/Projects/Project-673/. Accessed March 18, 

2014. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2014b. Loss of well 

control—statistics and summaries. Internet website: http://www.bsee.gov/Inspection-andEnforcement/Accidents-and-Incidents/Loss-of-Well-Control/. Accessed March 18, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2014c. Statistics for 

decommissioned platforms on the OCS. Internet website: http://www.bsee.gov/Exploration-andProduction/Decomissioning/Idle-Iron-Statistics/. Accessed April, 15 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2007a. Final programmatic environmental 

impact statement for alternative energy development and production and alternate use of facilities on 

the outer continental shelf. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Herndon, VA. 

OCS EIS/EA 2007-046.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2007b. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and gas 

scenario examination: Exploration and development activity. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Report MMS 2007-052. 

14 pp.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Office of Natural Resources Revenue. 2014. Statistical information online 

query. Internet website: http://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspx. Accessed April 28, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Transportation. Maritime Administration (MARAD). 2012. North American cruises, key 

statistics (capacity and traffic in thousands). Internet website: http://www.marad.dot.gov/documents/

north_america_cruise_summary_data.xls. Accessed June 19, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Transportation. Maritime Administration (MARAD). 2013a. Vessel calls at U.S. ports by 

vessel type. Internet website: http://www.marad.dot.gov/documents/

US_Port_Calls_by_Vessel_Type.xls. Current as of March 28, 2013. Accessed June 19, 2013.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010a. Air monitoring on Gulf coastline (monitoring air quality 

along the Gulf Coast, 2011). Internet website: http://www.epa.gov/BPSpill/air.html. Accessed 

June 29, 2010.
References Cited 6-21

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2013a. Vessel discharges frequently asked questions: What 

changes are in the 2013 draft VGP? Internet website: http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/faqs.cfm?

program_id=350#472. Accessed May 2013.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2014. Emergency response: National contingency plan 

subpart J. Internet website: http://www2.epa.gov/emergency-response/national-contingency-plansubpart-j. Accessed March 18, 2014.

U.S. National Response Team. 2013. Environmental monitoring for atypical dispersant operations: 

Including guidance for subsea application and prolonged surface application. Internet website: 

http://www.nrt.org/production/NRT/NRTWeb.nsf/AllAttachmentsByTitle/SA-1086NRT_Atypical_

Dispersant_Guidance_Final_5-30-2013.pdf/$File/NRT_Atypical_Dispersant_Guidance_Final_5-30-

2013.pdf. 

University of Florida. 2014. Healthy Gulf healthy communities. Internet website: http://

healthygulfcoast.org/. Accessed May 2, 2014.

Urbano M., V. Elango, and J.H. Pardue. 2013. Biogeochemical characterization of MC252 oil: Sand 

aggregates on a coastal headland beach. Marine Pollution Bulletin 77:183-191.

Vargo, S., P. Lutz, D. Odell, E. Van Vleet, and G. Bossart. 1986. Study of the effects of oil on marine 

turtles, a final report. Volume II: Technical report. 3 vols. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Atlantic OCS Region, Washington, DC. OCS Study MMS 86-0070. 181 pp.

Velando, A., I. Munilla, and P.M. Leyenda. 2005. Short-term indirect effects of the Prestige oil spill on 

European shags: Changes in availability of prey. Marine Ecology Progress Series 302:263-274.

Volz, D. 2013. Port Fourchon completes dredging as part of big expansion project. Professional 

Mariner. Internet website: http://www.professionalmariner.com/April-2013/Port-Fourchoncompletes-dredging-as-part-of-big-expansion-project/. Accessed May 29, 2014.

Wannamaker, C.M. and J.A. Rice. 2000. Effects of hypoxia on movements and behavior of selected 

estuarine organisms from the southeastern United States. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology 

and Ecology 249:145-163.

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, K. Maze-Foley, and P.E. Rosel, eds. 2011. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico marine mammal stock assessments—2010. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-219. 598 pp. Internet 

website: http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/tm/tm219/. 

Waycott M., C.M. Duarte, T.J.B. Carruthers, R.J. Orth, W.C. Dennison, S. Olyarnik, A. Calladine, 

J.W. Fourqurean, K.L. Heck, Jr., A.R. Hughes, G.A. Kendrick, W.J. Kenworthy, F.T. Short, and 

S.L. Williams. 2009. Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106:12377-12381.

Weiss, A. 2014. Community resilience and disaster response in the U.S. Gulf Coast. Environmental 

Factor, April 2014. Internet website: http://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsletter/2014/4/scienceresilience/. Accessed May 2, 2014.

White, H.K., P. Hsing, W. Cho, T.M. Shank, E.E. Cordes, A.M. Quattrini, R.K. Nelson, R. Camilli, 

A.W.J. Demopoulos, C.R. German, J.M. Brooks, H.H. Roberts, W. Shedd, C.M. Reddy, and 

C.R. Fisher. 2012. Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep-water coral community in 

the Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of 

America, PNAS Early Edition, Special Feature, March 27, 2012. 6 pp.

Whitehead, A., B. Dubansky, C. Bodinier, T.I. Garcia, S. Miles, C. Pilley, V. Raghunathan, J.L. Roach, 

N. Walker, R.B. Walter, C.D. Rice, and F. Galvez. 2011. Genomic and physiological footprint of the 

Deepwater Horizon oil spill on resident marsh fishes. Proceedings of the National Academy of 

Sciences 108(15):6193-6198.

Wiese, F.K., W.A. Montevecchi, G.K. Davoren, F. Huettmann, A.W. Diamond, and J. Linke. 2001. 

Seabirds at risk around offshore oil platforms in the north-west Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

42:1285-1290.
6-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Wilhelm, S.I., G.J. Robertson, P.C. Ryan, and D.C. Schneider. 2007. Comparing an estimate of seabirds 

at risk to a mortality estimate from the November 2004 Terra Nova FPSO oil spill. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 54:537-544.

Wilson, C.A., A. Pierce, and M.W. Miller. 2003. Rigs and reefs: A comparison of the fish communities 

at two artificial reefs, a production platform, and a natural reef in the northern Gulf of Mexico; final 

report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-009. 94 pp.

Wilson, D., R. Billings, R. Oommen, B. Lange, J. Marik, S. McClutchey, and H. Perez. 2010. Year 

2008: Gulfwide emission inventory study. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Regulation and Enforcement, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS 

Study BOEMRE 2010-045. 186 pp.

Witham, R. 1978. Does a problem exist relative to small sea turtles and oil spills? In: Proceedings, 

Conference on Assessment of Ecological Impacts of Oil Spills, 14-17 June 1978, Keystone, CO. 

AIBS, pp. 629-632.

Wood, R.C. and L.S. Hales. 2001. Comparison of northern diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin 

terrapin) hatching success among variably oiled nesting sites along the Patuxent River following the 

Chalk Point Oil Spill of April 7, 2000: Final report. 16 pp.

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 2014. The 2014 complete economic and demographic data source 

(CEDDS) on CD-ROM.

WorkBoat.com. 2014a. Harvey Gulf breaks ground on LNG facility. February 17, 2014. Internet 

website: http://www.workboat.com/newsdetail.aspx?id=23605. Accessed February 18, 2014.

WorkBoat.com. 2014b. The WorkBoat OSV day rate report. 40 pp.

WorkBoat.com. 2014c. Coast Guard investigates cause of collision in Houston Ship Channel. Internet 

website: https://www.WorkBoat.com/Online-Features/2014/Coast-Guard-investigates-cause-ofcollision-in-Houston-Ship-Channel/. Accessed May 22, 2014.

WorkBoat.com. 2014d. Oil spill in Houston Ship Channel after barge collision. Internet website: http://

www.WorkBoat.com/Online-Features/2014/Oil-spill-in-Houston-Ship-Channel-after-barge-collision/. 

Accessed May 22, 2014.

Wyers, S.C., H.R. Frith, R.E. Dodge, S.R. Smith, A.H. Knap, and T.D. Sleeter. 1986. Behavioral effects 

of chemically dispersed oil and subsequent recovery in Diploria strigosa. Marine Ecology 7:23-42.

Yang, T., L.M. Nigro, T. Gutierrez, L. D’Ambrosio, S.B. Joye, R. Highsmith, and A. Teske. 2014. 

Pulsed blooms and persistent oil-degrading bacterial populations in the water column during and after 

the Deepwater Horizon blowout. Deep-Sea Research II: Topical studies in oceanography. Internet 

website: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2014.01.014. 

Zabala, J., I. Zuberogoitia, J.A. Martinez-Climent, and J. Etxezarreta. 2010. Do long lived seabirds 

reduce the negative effects of acute pollution on adult survival by skipping breeding? A study with 

European storm petrels (Hydrobates pelagicus) during the “Prestige” oil-spill. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 62:109-115.

Zengel, S., B. Bernik, N. Rutherford, Z. Nixon, J. Michel, and F. Csulak. 2014. Salt marsh remediation 

and the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: The role of planting in ecological recovery. Gulf of Mexico Oil 

Spill & Ecosystem Science Conference, 26-29 January 2004, Mobile, AL, USA. 

Zhou, Z., Z. Liu, and L. Guo. 2013. Chemical evolution of Macondo crude oil during laboratory 

degradation as characterized by fluorescence EEMs and hydrocarbon composition. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 66:164-175.
CHAPTER 7 

PREPARERS

Preparers 7-3 

7. PREPARERS

Gary D. Goeke, Chief, Environmental Assessment Section

Lissa Lyncker, Unit Supervisor, Environmental Protection Specialist

Tershara Matthews, Unit Supervisor, Environmental Protection Specialist

Michelle K. Nannen, NEPA Coordinator, Environmental Scientist

Ross Del Rio, NEPA Co-Coordinator, Environmental Scientist

Ariel White, NEPA Co-Coordinator, Environmental Scientist

Stephanie Fiori, Headquarters’ Coordinator, Environmental Protection Specialist

Pat Adkins, Information Management Specialist

Bruce Baird, Biologist

Mark Belter, Marine Biologist

Darice K. Breeding, Environmental Protection Specialist

Brian Cameron, Environmental Scientist

Sindey Chaky, Environmental Protection Specialist

Leonard Coates, Supervisor, Mapping and Automation Section

Kasey Couture, Program Analyst

Thierry DeCort, Chief, Geological and Geophysical Section

Chris DuFore, Oceanographer

Stephanie Gambino, Chief, Biological/Social Sciences Section

Donald (Tre) W. Glenn III, Protected Species Biologist

Mike Gravois, Geographer

Allison Hernandez, Protected Species Biologist

Jose Hernandez, Physical Scientist

Chin (Chester) Hua Huang, Meteorologist

Mark Jensen, Economist

Matthew Johnson, Marine Biologist

Jack Irion, Unit Supervisor, Marine Archaeologist

Doug Jones, Marine Archaeologist

Agatha-Marie Kaller, Unit Supervisor, Marine Biologist

Carla Langley, Geographer

Jessica Mallindine, Protected Species Biologist

Charles (Jay) McCreery, Physical Scientist 

Margaret Metcalf, Chief, Physical/Chemical Sciences Section

Deborah Miller, Technical Editor

Megan Milliken, Economist

Michael Miner, Geologist

David P. Moran, Biologist

Christopher Oos, Geographer

S. Erin O’Reilly, Physical Scientist

Catherine Rosa, Environmental Assessment Program Specialist

Shane Stradley, Geographer

CHAPTER 8 

GLOSSARY

Glossary 8-3 

8. GLOSSARY

Acute—Sudden, short term, severe, critical, 

crucial, intense, but usually of short duration.

Anaerobic—Capable of growing in the absence of 

molecular oxygen.

Annular preventer—A component of the 

pressure control system in the BOP that forms 

a seal in the annular space around any object 

in the wellbore or upon itself, enabling well 

control operations to commence.

Anthropogenic—Coming from human sources, 

relating to the effect of humankind on nature.

API gravity—A standard adopted by the 

American Petroleum Institute for expressing 

the specific weight of oil.

Aromatic—Class of organic compounds 

containing benzene rings or benzenoid 

structures.

Attainment area—An area that is shown by 

monitored data or by air-quality modeling 

calculations to be in compliance with primary 

and secondary ambient air quality standards 

established by USEPA.

Barrel (bbl)—A volumetric unit used in the 

petroleum industry; equivalent to 42 U.S. 

gallons or 158.99 liters.

Benthic—On or in the bottom of the sea.

Biological Opinion—The FWS or NMFS 

evaluation of the impact of a proposed action 

on endangered and threatened species, in 

response to formal consultation under 

Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.

Block—A geographical area portrayed on official 

BOEM protraction diagrams or leasing maps 

that contains approximately 2,331 ha (9 mi2

). 

Blowout—An uncontrolled flow of fluids below 

the mudline from appurtenances on a wellhead 

or from a wellbore.

Blowout preventer (BOP)—One of several 

valves installed at the wellhead to prevent the 

escape of pressure either in the annular space 

between the casing and drill pipe or in open 

hole (i.e., hole with no drill pipe) during 

drilling completion operations. Blowout 

preventers on jackup or platform rigs are 

located at the water’s surface; on floating 

offshore rigs, BOP’s are located on the 

seafloor.

Bottom kill—A wild well-control procedure 

involving the intersection of an uncontrolled 

well with a relief well for the purpose of 

pumping heavy mud or cement into the wild 

well to stanch the flow of oil or gas (the wellcontrol strategy for the Macondo spill 

deployed in mid-July 2010 that resulted in the 

successful capping of the well).

Cetacean—Aquatic mammal of the order Cetacea, 

such as whales, dolphins, and porpoises.

Chemosynthetic—Organisms that obtain their 

energy from the oxidation of various inorganic 

compounds rather than from light 

(photosynthetic).

Coastal waters—Waters within the geographical 

areas defined by each State’s Coastal Zone 

Management Program.

Coastal wetlands—forested and nonforested 

habitats, mangroves, and marsh islands 

exposed to tidal activity. These areas directly 

contribute to the high biological productivity 

of coastal waters by input of detritus and 

nutrients, by providing nursery and feeding 

areas for shellfish and finfish, and by serving 

as habitat for birds and other animals.

Coastal zone—The coastal waters (including the 

lands therein and thereunder) and the adjacent 

shorelands (including the waters therein and 

thereunder) strongly influenced by each other 

and in proximity to the shorelines of several 

coastal states; the zone includes islands, 

transitional and intertidal areas, salt marshes, 

wetlands, and beaches, and it extends seaward 

to the outer limit of the United States 

territorial sea. The zone extends inland from 

the shorelines only to the extent necessary to 

control shorelands, the uses of which have a 

direct and significant impact on the coastal 

waters. Excluded from the coastal zone are 

lands the use of which is by law subject to the 

discretion of or which is held in trust by the 

Federal Government, its officers, or agents. 

See also State coastal zone boundaries.

Completion—Conversion of a development well 

or an exploration well into a production well.

Condensate—Liquid hydrocarbons produced with 

natural gas; they are separated from the gas by 

cooling and various other means. Condensates 

generally have an API gravity of 50°-120°. 
8-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Continental margin—The ocean floor that lies 

between the shoreline and the abyssal ocean 

floor, includes the continental shelf, 

continental slope, and continental rise.

Continental shelf—General term used by 

geologists to refer to the continental margin 

province that lies between the shoreline and 

the abrupt change in slope called the shelf 

edge, which generally occurs in the Gulf of 

Mexico at about the 200-m (656-ft) water 

depth. The continental shelf is characterized 

by a gentle slope (about 0.1°). This is 

different from the juridical term used in 

Article 76 of the Convention on the Law of the 

Sea (see the definition of Outer Continental 

Shelf). 

Continental slope—The continental margin 

province that lies between the continental 

shelf and continental rise, characterized by a 

steep slope (about 3°-6°). 

Critical habitat—Specific areas essential to the 

conservation of a protected species and that 

may require special management 

considerations or protection.

Crude oil—Petroleum in its natural state as it 

emerges from a well or after it passes through 

a gas-oil separator, but before refining or 

distillation. An oily, flammable, bituminous 

liquid that is essentially a complex mixture of 

hydrocarbons of different types with small 

amounts of other substances.

Delineation well—A well that is drilled for the 

purpose of determining the size and/or volume 

of an oil or gas reservoir.

Demersal—Living at or near the bottom of the 

sea.

Development—Activities that take place 

following discovery of economically 

recoverable mineral resources, including 

geophysical surveying, drilling, platform 

construction, operation of onshore support 

facilities, and other activities that are for the 

purpose of ultimately producing the resources.

Development and Production Plan (DPP)—A 

document that must be prepared by the 

operator and submitted to BOEM for approval 

before any development and production 

activities are conducted on a lease or unit in 

any OCS area other than the western Gulf of 

Mexico.

Development Operations Coordination 

Document (DOCD)—A document that must be 

prepared by the operator and submitted to BOEM 

for approval before any development or 

production activities are conducted on a lease in 

the western Gulf of Mexico.

Development well—A well drilled to a known 

producing formation to extract oil or gas; a 

production well; distinguished from a wildcat 

or exploration well and from an offset well.

Direct employment—Consists of those workers 

involved the primary industries of oil and gas 

exploration, development, and production 

operations (Standard Industrial Classification 

Code 13—Oil and Gas Extraction).

Discharge—Something that is emitted; flow rate 

of a fluid at a given instant expressed as 

volume per unit of time.

Dispersant—A suite of chemicals and solvents 

used to break up an oil slick into small 

droplets, which increases the surface area of 

the oil and hastens the processes of weathering 

and microbial degradation.

Dispersion—A suspension of finely divided 

particles in a medium.

Drilling mud—A mixture of clay, water or 

refined oil, and chemical additives pumped 

continuously downhole through the drill pipe 

and drill bit, and back up the annulus between 

the pipe and the walls of the borehole to a 

surface pit or tank. The mud lubricates and 

cools the drill bit, lubricates the drill pipe as it 

turns in the wellbore, carries rock cuttings to 

the surface, serves to keep the hole from 

crumbling or collapsing, and provides the 

weight or hydrostatic head to prevent 

extraneous fluids from entering the well bore 

and to downhole pressures; also called drilling 

fluid.

Economically recoverable resources—An 

assessment of hydrocarbon potential that takes 

into account the physical and technological 

constraints on production and the influence of 

costs of exploration and development and 

market price on industry investment in OCS 

exploration and production.

Effluent—The liquid waste of sewage and 

industrial processing.

Effluent limitations—Any restriction established 

by a State or the USEPA on quantities, rates, 

and concentrations of chemical, physical, 
Glossary 8-5 

biological, and other constituents discharged 

from point sources into U.S. waters, including 

schedules of compliance.

Epifaunal—Animals living on the surface of hard 

substrate.

Essential habitat—Specific areas crucial to the 

conservation of a species and that may 

necessitate special considerations.

Estuary—Coastal semienclosed body of water 

that has a free connection with the open sea 

and where freshwater meets and mixes with 

seawater.

Eutrophication—Enrichment of nutrients in the 

water column by natural or artificial methods 

accompanied by an increase of respiration, 

which may create an oxygen deficiency.

Exclusive Economic Zone—The maritime region 

extending 200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) from the 

baseline of the territorial sea, in which the 

United States has exclusive rights and 

jurisdiction over living and nonliving natural 

resources.

Exploration Plan (EP)—A plan that must be 

prepared by the operator and submitted to 

BOEM for approval before any exploration or 

delineation drilling is conducted on a lease.

Exploration well—A well drilled in unproven or 

semi-proven territory to determining whether 

economic quantities of oil or natural gas 

deposit are present.

False crawls—Refers to when a female sea turtle 

crawls up on the beach to nest (perhaps) but 

does not and returns to the sea without laying 

eggs.

Field—An accumulation, pool, or group of pools 

of hydrocarbons in the subsurface. A 

hydrocarbon field consists of a reservoir in a 

shape that will trap hydrocarbons and that is 

covered by an impermeable, sealing rock.

Floating production, storage, and offloading 

(FPSO) system—A tank vessel used as a 

production and storage base; produced oil is 

stored in the hull and periodically offloaded to 

a shuttle tanker for transport to shore.

Gathering lines—A pipeline system used to bring 

oil or gas production from a number of 

separate wells or production facilities to a 

central trunk pipeline, storage facility, or 

processing terminal.

Geochemical—Of or relating to the science 

dealing with the chemical composition of and 

the actual or possible chemical changes in the 

crust of the earth.

Geophysical survey—A method of exploration in 

which geophysical properties and relationships 

are measured remotely by one or more 

geophysical methods.

Habitat—A specific type of environment that is 

occupied by an organism, a population, or a 

community.

Hermatypic coral—Reef-building corals that 

produce hard, calcium carbonate skeletons and 

that possess symbiotic, unicellular algae 

within their tissues.

Harassment—An intentional or negligent act or 

omission that creates the likelihood of injury 

to wildlife by annoying it to such an extent as 

to significantly disrupt normal behavior 

patterns that include, but are not limited to, 

feeding or sheltering.

Hydrocarbons—Any of a large class of organic 

compounds containing primarily carbon and 

hydrogen. Hydrocarbon compounds are 

divided into two broad classes: aromatic and 

aliphatics. They occur primarily in petroleum, 

natural gas, coal, and bitumens.

Hypoxia—Depressed levels of dissolved oxygen 

in water, usually resulting in decreased 

metabolism.

Incidental take—Takings that result from, but are 

not the purpose of, carrying out an otherwise 

lawful activity (e.g., fishing) conducted by a 

Federal agency or applicant (see Taking).

Indirect employment—Secondary or supporting 

oil- and gas-related industries, such as the 

processing of crude oil and gas in refineries, 

natural gas plants, and petrochemical plants.

Induced employment—Tertiary industries that 

are created or supported by the expenditures of 

employees in the primary or secondary 

industries (direct and indirect employment), 

including consumer goods and services such 

as food, clothing, housing, and entertainment.

Infrastructure—The facilities associated with oil 

and gas development, e.g., refineries, gas 

processing plants, etc.

Jack-up rig—A barge-like, floating platform with 

legs at each corner that can be lowered to the 
8-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

sea bottom to raise the platform above the 

water.

Kick—A deviation or imbalance, typically sudden 

or unexpected, between the downward 

pressure exerted by the drilling fluid and the 

upward pressure of in-situ formation fluids or 

gases.

Landfall—The site where a marine pipeline 

comes to shore.

Lease—Authorization that is issued under 

Section 8 or maintained under Section 6 of the 

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act and that 

authorizes exploration for, and development 

and production of, minerals.

Lease sale—The competitive auction of leases 

granting companies or individuals the right to 

explore for and develop certain minerals under 

specified conditions and periods of time.

Lease term—The initial period for oil and gas 

leases, usually a period of 5, 8, or 10 years 

depending on water depth or potentially 

adverse conditions.

Lessee—A party authorized by a lease, or an 

approved assignment thereof, to explore for 

and develop and produce the leased deposits in 

accordance with regulations at 30 CFR part 

250 and 30 CFR part 550.

Lower marine riser package—The head 

assembly of a subsurface well at the point 

where the riser connects to a blowout 

preventer.

Macondo—Prospect name given by BP to the 

Mississippi Canyon Block 252 exploration 

well that the Deepwater Horizon rig was 

drilling when a blowout occurred on April 20, 

2010.

Macondo spill—The name given to the oil spill 

that resulted from the explosion and sinking of 

the Deepwater Horizon rig from the period 

between April 24, 2010, when search and 

recovery vessels on site reported oil at the sea 

surface, and September 19, 2010, when the 

uncontrolled flow from the Macondo well was 

capped.

Marshes—Persistent, emergent, nonforested 

wetlands characterized by predominantly 

cordgrasses, rushes, and cattails.

Military warning area—An area established by 

the U.S. Department of Defense within which 

military activities take place.

Minerals—As used in this document, minerals 

include oil, gas, sulphur, and associated 

resources, and all other minerals authorized by 

an Act of Congress to be produced from 

public lands as defined in Section 103 of the 

Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 

1976.

Naturally occurring radioactive materials 

(NORM)—naturally occurring material that 

emits low levels of radioactivity, originating 

from processes not associated with the 

recovery of radioactive material. The 

radionuclides of concern in NORM are 

Radium-226, Radium-228, and other isotopes 

in the radioactive decay chains of uranium and 

thorium.

Nepheloid—A layer of water near the bottom that 

contains significant amounts of suspended 

sediment.

Nonattainment area—An area that is shown by 

monitoring data or by air-quality modeling 

calculations to exceed primary or secondary 

ambient air quality standards established by 

USEPA.

Nonhazardous oil-field wastes (NOW)—Wastes 

generated by exploration, development, or 

production of crude oil or natural gas that are 

exempt from hazardous waste regulation under 

the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

(Regulatory Determination for Oil and Gas 

and Geothermal Exploration, Development 

and Production Wastes, dated June 29, 1988, 

53 FR 25446; July 6, 1988). These wastes 

may contain hazardous substances.

Offloading—Unloading liquid cargo, crude oil, or 

refined petroleum products.

Operational discharge—Any incidental 

pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying, or 

dumping of wastes generated during routine 

offshore drilling and production activities.

Operator—An individual, partnership, firm, or 

corporation having control or management of 

operations on a leased area or portion thereof. 

The operator may be a lessee, designated 

agent of the lessee, or holder of operating 

rights under an approved operating agreement.

Organic matter—Material derived from living 

plants or animals.

Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)—All submerged 

lands that comprise the continental margin 
Glossary 8-7 

adjacent to the United States and seaward of 

State offshore lands.

Pelagic—Of or pertaining to the open sea; 

associated with open water beyond the direct 

influence of coastal systems.

Plankton—Passively floating or weakly motile 

aquatic plants (phytoplankton) and animals 

(zooplankton).

Platform—A steel or concrete structure from 

which offshore development wells are drilled.

Play—A prospective subsurface area for 

hydrocarbon accumulation that is 

characterized by a particular structural style or 

depositional relationship.

Primary production—Organic material produced 

by photosynthetic or chemosynthetic 

organisms.

Produced water—Total water discharged from 

the oil and gas extraction process; production 

water or production brine.

Production—Activities that take place after the 

successful completion of any means for the 

extraction of resources, including bringing the 

resource to the surface, transferring the 

produced resource to shore, monitoring 

operations, and drilling additional wells or 

workovers.

Province—A spatial entity with common geologic 

attributes. A province may include a single 

dominant structural element such as a basin or 

a fold belt, or a number of contiguous related 

elements.

Ram—The main component of a blowout 

preventer designed to shear casing and tools in 

a wellbore or to seal an empty wellbore. A 

blind shear ram accomplishes the former and a 

blind ram the latter.

Recoverable reserves—The portion of the 

identified hydrocarbon or mineral resource 

that can be economically extracted under 

current technological constraints.

Recoverable resource estimate—An assessment 

of hydrocarbon or mineral resources that takes 

into account the fact that physical and 

technological constraints dictate that only a 

portion of resources can be brought to the 

surface.

Recreational beaches—Frequently visited, sandy 

areas along the Gulf of Mexico shorefront that 

support multiple recreational activities at the 

land-water interface. Included are National 

Seashores, State Park and Recreational Areas, 

county and local parks, urban beachfronts, and 

private resorts.

Refining—Fractional distillation of petroleum, 

usually followed by other processing (e.g., 

cracking).

Relief—The difference in elevation between the 

high and low points of a surface.

Reserves—Proved oil or gas resources.

Rig—A structure used for drilling an oil or gas 

well.

Riser insertion tube tool—A “straw” and gasket 

assembly improvised during the Macondo spill 

response that was designed to siphon oil and 

gas from the broken riser of the Deepwater 

Horizon rig lying on the sea bottom (an early 

recovery strategy for the Macondo spill in 

May 2010).

Royalty—A share of the minerals produced from 

a lease paid in either money or “in-kind” to the

landowner by the lessee.

Saltwater intrusion—Saltwater invading a body 

of freshwater.

Sciaenids—Fishes belonging to the croaker family 

(Sciaenidae).

Seagrass beds—More or less continuous mats of 

submerged, rooted, marine, flowering vascular 

plants occurring in shallow tropical and 

temperate waters. Seagrass beds provide 

habitat, including breeding and feeding 

grounds, for adults and/or juveniles of many 

of the economically important shellfish and 

finfish. 

Sediment—Material that has been transported and 

deposited by water, wind, glacier, 

precipitation, or gravity; a mass of deposited 

material.

Seeps (hydrocarbon)—Gas or oil that reaches the 

surface along bedding planes, fractures, 

unconformities, or fault planes.

Sensitive area—An area containing species, 

populations, communities, or assemblages of 

living resources, that is susceptible to damage 

from normal OCS oil- and gas-related 

activities. Damage includes interference with 

established ecological relationships.

Shear ram—The component in a BOP that cuts, 

or shears, through the drill pipe and forms a 
8-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

seal against well pressure. Shear rams are 

used in floating offshore drilling operations to 

provide a quick method of moving the rig 

away from the hole when there is no time to 

trip the drill stem out of the hole.

Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Team—The 

on-the-scene responders for post-spill 

shoreline protection who established priorities, 

standardized procedures, and terminology.

Spill of National Significance—Designation by 

the USEPA Administrator under 40 CFR § 

300.323 for discharges occurring in the inland 

zone and the Commandant of the U.S. Coast 

Guard for discharges occurring in the coastal 

zone, authorizing the appointment of a 

National Incident Commander for spillresponse activity.

State coastal zone boundary—The State coastal 

zone boundaries for each CZMA-affected 

State are defined at http://

coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/mystate/docs/

StateCZBoundaries.pdf. 

Structure—Any OCS facility that extends from 

the seafloor to above the waterline; in 

petroleum geology, any arrangement of rocks 

that may hold an accumulation of oil or gas.

Subarea—A discrete analysis area.

Subsea isolation device—An emergency 

disconnection and reconnection assembly for 

the riser at the seafloor.

Supply vessel—A boat that ferries food, water, 

fuel, and drilling supplies and equipment to an 

offshore rig or platform and returns to land 

with refuse that cannot be disposed of at sea.

Taking—To harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, 

wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect any 

endangered or threatened species, or to 

attempt to engage in any such conduct 

(including actions that induce stress, adversely 

impact critical habitat, or result in adverse 

secondary or cumulative impacts). 

Harassments are the most common form of 

taking associated with OCS Program 

activities.

Tension-leg platform (TLP)—A production 

structure that consists of a buoyant platform 

tethered to concrete pilings on the seafloor 

with flexible cable.

Total dissolved solids—The total amount of 

solids that are dissolved in water.

Total suspended particulate matter—The total 

amount of suspended solids in water.

Total suspended solids—The total amount of 

suspended solids in water.

Trunkline—A large-diameter pipeline receiving 

oil or gas from many smaller tributary 

gathering lines that serve a large area; 

common-carrier line; main line.

Turbidity—Reduced water clarity due to the 

presence of suspended matter.

Volatile organic compound (VOC)—Any 

organic compound that is emitted to the 

atmosphere as a vapor.

Water test areas—Areas within the eastern Gulf 

where U.S. Department of Defense research, 

development, and testing of military planes, 

ships, and weaponry take place.

Weathering (of oil)—The aging of oil due to its 

exposure to the atmosphere, causing marked 

alterations in its physical and chemical 

makeup.
FIGURES

Figures Figures-3

Figure 1-1. Gulf of Mexico Planning Areas, Proposed WPA Lease Sale Area, and Locations of Major Cities.
Figures-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Figure 2-1. Location of Proposed Stipulations and Deferrals.
Figures Figures-5

Figure 2-2. Military Warning Areas and Eglin Water Test Areas in the Gulf of Mexico.
Figures-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Figure 3-1. Offshore Subareas in the Gulf of Mexico.
TABLES

Tables Tables-3 

Table 3-1

Projected Oil and Gas in the Gulf of Mexico OCS

Typical Lease Sale OCS Cumulative

(2012-2051)

Western Planning Area

 Reserve/Resource Production

 Oil (BBO) 0.116-0.200 2.510-3.696

 Gas (Tcf) 0.538-0.938 12.539-18.434

Central Planning Area

 Reserve/Resource Production

 Oil (BBO) 0.460-0.894 15.825-21.733

 Gas (Tcf) 1.939-3.903 63.347-92.691

Eastern Planning Area

 Reserve/Resource Production

 Oil (BBO) 0-0.071 0-0.211

 Gas (Tcf) 0-0.162 0.0502

BBO = billion barrels of oil.

Tcf = trillion cubic feet. 
Tables-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 3-2

Offshore Scenario Information Related to a Typical Lease Sale in the Western Planning Area

 

Offshore Subareas1

Total WPA2

0-60 m 60-200 m 200-800 m 800-1,600 m 1,600-2,400 m >2,400 m

Wells Drilled

Exploration and Delineation Wells 23-38 7-12 9-16 8-13 3-5 3-5 53-89

 Development and Production Wells 30-49 11-17 13-21 11-18 6-8 6-8 77-121

 Producing Oil Wells 4-6 2 8-13 7-11 3-4 3-4 27-40

 Producing Gas Wells 22-37 7-12 3-5 2-4 1-2 1-2 36-62

Production Structures

 Installed 10-17 1-2 1 1 1 1 15-23

 Removed Using Explosives 7-12 1 0 0 0 0 7-13

 Total Removed 9-16 1-2 1 1 1 1 14-22

Method of Transportation3

 Percent Piped >99% >99% >99% >99% 83->99% 94->99%

 Percent Barged <1% 0% 0% 0% 0% <1%

 Percent Tankered4 0% 0% 0% 0% 0-17% 0-5%

Length of Installed Pipelines (km)5 71-182 NA NA NA NA NA 237-554

Service-Vessel Trips (1,000’s round trips) 21-33 2-3 2-3 17 16-17 16-17 64-75

Helicopter Operations (1,000’s operations) 194-448 19-54 19-24 19-24 19-24 19-24 290-605

1 See Figure 3-1. 2 Subareas totals may not add up to the planning area total because of rounding. 3 100% of gas is assumed to be piped. 4 Tankering is forecasted to occur only in water depths >1,600 m. 5 Projected length of pipelines does not include length in State waters.

NA = not available.
Table 3-3 Offshore Scenario Information Related to OCS Program Activities in the Gulf of Mexico (WPA, CPA, and EPA) for 2012-2051 Offshore Subareas1 

0-60 m 60-200 m 200-800 m 800-1,600 m 1,600-2,400 m >2,4

Wells Drilled Exploration and Delineation Wells 2,730-3,900 990-1,390 920-1,350 700-960 770-1,030 790-

Development and Production Wells 3,380-4,820 1,240-1,730 1,130-1,670 860-1,190 950-1,280 970-

Producing Oil Wells 520-701 215-278 704-1,030 574-783 663-873 620

Producing Gas Wells 2,510-3,629 885-1,272 306-470 196-287 187-267 250

Production Structures Installed 1,210-1,720 110-160 26-40 25-30 32-33 32

Removed Using Explosives 796-1,139 69-104 3-4 0 0 Total Removed 1,090-1,560 100-150 24-34 20-28 23-30 22

Method of Transportation3 Percent Piped >99% >99% >99% >99% 87->99% 

Percent Barged <1% 0% 0% 0% 0% Percent Tankered4 0% 0% 0% 0% 0-13% 

Length of Installed Pipelines (km)5 10,482-21,121 NA NA NA NA NService-Vessel Trips (1,000’s round trips) 1,366-1,942 196-280 111-162 466-619 584-626 587Helicopter Operations (1,000’s operations) 24,221-47,322 2,297-4,444 595-1,174 574-1,111 676-1,287 888-1 See Figure 3-1. 2 Subareas totals may not add up to the planning area total because of rounding. 3 100% of gas is assumed to be piped. 4 Tankering is forecasted to occur only in water depths >1,600 m. 5 Projected length of pipelines does not include length in State waters. NA = not available. 
Tables-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 3-4

Offshore Scenario Information Related to OCS Program Activities

in the Western Planning Area for 2012-2051

 

Offshore Subareas1

Total WPA2

0-60 m 60-200 m 200-800 m 800-1,600 m 1,600-2,400 m >2,400 m

Wells Drilled

Exploration and Delineation Wells 500-740 170-230 220-320 160-230 70-90 60-80 1,180-1,690

 Development and Production Wells 620-920 220-290 270-400 190-290 80-120 70-100 1,450-2,120

 Producing Oil Wells 74-109 27-38 170-255 125-191 54-77 45-67 495-737

 Producing Gas Wells 476-711 163-222 70-105 45-69 16-23 15-23 785-1,153

Production Structures

 Installed 220-330 20-30 6-10 5-8 2-3 2-3 255-384

 Removed Using Explosives 146-219 14-21 1 0 0 0 160-240

 Total Removed 200-300 20-30 6-8 4-7 2-3 1-2 233-350

Method of Transportation3

 Percent Piped >99% >99% >99% >99% 50->99% 84->99%

 Percent Barged <1% 0% 0% 0% 0% <1%

 Percent Tankered4 0% 0% 0% 0% 0-50% 0-15%

Length of Installed Pipelines (km)5 1,967-4,128 NA NA NA NA NA 5,224-12,339

Service-Vessel Trips (1,000’s round trips) 249-372 35-50 26-36 95-150 38-57 38-56 481-720

Helicopter Operations (1,000’s operations) 4,489-8,987 418-836 125-272 104-209 42-84 42-84 5,220-10,450

1 See Figure 3-1. 2 Subareas totals may not add up to the planning area total because of rounding. 3 100% of gas is assumed to be piped. 4 Tankering is forecasted to occur only in water depths >1,600 m. 5 Projected length of pipelines does not include length in State waters.

NA = not available.
Tables Tables-7 

Table 3-5 

Annual Volume of Produced Water Discharged by Depth

(millions of bbl)

Year Shelf

0-60 m

Shelf

60-200 m

Slope

200-400 m

Deepwater

400-800 m

Deepwater

800-1,600 m

UltraDeepwater

1,601-2,400 m

UltraDeepwater

>2,400 m

Total

2000 370.6 193.1 35.5 25.6 12.2 0.0 0.0 637.0

2001 364.2 185.2 35.0 32.0 16.6 0.0 0.0 633.0

2002 344.6 180.4 32.5 35.2 21.4 0.0 0.0 614.1

2003 359.4 182.9 31.2 39.0 35.5 0.2 0.0 648.2

2004 346.7 160.5 29.3 36.9 39.2 1.9 0.0 614.5

2005 270.1 113.5 23.1 33.5 43.0 5.8 0.0 489.0

2006 260.3 99.7 20.6 35.1 61.5 12.4 0.0 489.6

2007 307.0 139.4 22.2 40.0 70.3 15.5 0.1 594.5

2008 252.7 118.6 15.9 32.7 60.1 16.5 0.1 496.6

2009 263.9 108.3 19.9 39.2 65.3 25.0 0.1 521.7

2010 275.8 115.7 20.9 40.7 56.7 32.5 0.1 542.4

2011 271.3 116.9 20.5 39.7 67.7 32.2 0.1 548.4

2012 237.2 109.0 20.8 35.0 71.3 31.8 0.1 505.2

2013 242.0 103.0 19.9 31.8 75.4 35.3 0.3 507.7

Source: Langley, official communication, 2014.

Table 4-1 

Unusual Mortality Event Cetacean Data for the Northern Gulf of Mexico

Cetaceans Stranded Phase of Oil-Spill Response Dates

114 cetaceans stranded Prior to the response phase for the 

oil spill

February 1, 2010-April 29, 2010

121 cetaceans stranded or 

were reported dead offshore

During the initial response phase to 

the oil spill

April 30, 2010-November 2, 2010

993 cetaceans stranded* After the initial response phase 

ended

November 3, 2010-June 15, 2014**

Note: Numbers are preliminary and may be subject to change. As of June 15, 2014, the unusual mortality event 

involves 1,228 cetacean “strandings” in the northern Gulf of Mexico (USDOC, NMFS, 2014).

 * This number includes six dolphins that were killed incidental to fish-related scientific data collection and one 

dolphin that was killed incidental to trawl relocation for a dredging project.

** The initial response phase ended for all four states on November 3, 2010, but then reopened for eastern and 

central Louisiana on December 3, 2010, and closed again on May 25, 2011.
Tables-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-2

Number of Angler Trips in 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013

2009

Season A Season B Annual Total

Area Private Charter Total Private Charter Total Private Charter Total

Bay 291,400 33,256 324,655 573,978 82,242 656,220 865,377 115,498 980,875

TTS 3,804 431 4,235 29,060 2,394 31,454 32,864 2,825 35,689

EEZ 252 0 252 20,874 3,336 24,211 21,127 3,336 24,463

Total 295,456 33,687 329,143 623,912 87,972 711,885 919,368 121,659 1,041,027

2010

Season A Season B Annual Total

Area Private Charter Total Private Charter Total Private Charter Total

Bay 255,995 23,570 279,565 567,522 93,650 661,171 823,517 117,220 940,737

TTS 3,250 2,187 5,437 22,837 2,052 24,888 26,087 4,239 30,326

EEZ 744 0 744 14,129 1,602 15,731 14,873 1,602 16,475

Total 259,989 25,758 285,747 604,487 97,303 701,791 864,476 123,061 987,537

2011

Season A Season B Annual Total

Area Private Charter Total Private Charter Total Private Charter Total

Bay 330,461 29,842 360,303 576,735 122,855 699,590 907,196 152,697 1,059,893

TTS 14,830 4,779 19,609 24,372 2,988 27,360 39,202 7,767 46,969

EEZ 1,424 850 2,274 15,138 1,126 16,264 16,562 1,976 18,538

Total 346,715 35,471 382,186 616,245 126,969 743,214 962,960 162,440 1,125,400

2012

Season A Season B Annual Total

Area Private Charter Total Private Charter Total Private Charter Total

Bay 331,889 87,696 419,585 563,656 134,502 698,158 895,545 222,198 1,117,743

TTS 7,563 1,172 8,735 15,375 1,622 16,997 22,938 2,794 25,732

EEZ 1,270 0 1,270 12,668 1,774 14,442 13,938 1,774 15,712

Total 340,722 88,868 429,590 591,699 137,898 729,597 932,421 226,766 1,159,187

2013

Season A Season B Annual Total

Area Private Charter Total Private Charter Total Private Charter Total

Bay 350,918 39,054 389,972 613,508 101,135 714,643 964,426 140,189 1,104,615

TTS 5,193 111 5,304 18,559 2,269 20,828 23,752 2,380 26,132

EEZ 989 575 1,564 15,695 1,592 17,286 16,684 2,166 18,850

Total 357,100 39,740 396,840 647,761 104,996 752,757 1,004,861 144,735 1,149,597

Notes: (1) Season A is November 21 - May 14 and Season B is May 15 - November 20.

(2) These data are presented in terms of person-trips. This means that, if multiple people go fishing at the 

same time on the same boat, it is counted as multiple trips.

EEZ = Exclusive Economic Zone.

TTS = Texas Territorial Sea.

Source: Fisher, official communication 2014.
Tables Tables-9 

Table 4-3

Top Species Landed by Recreational Fisherman

Panel A: Total Landings Panel B: Landings in Bays

Species 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Species 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Atlantic Croaker 117 124 156 157 152 Atlantic Croaker 117 124 154 156 151

Black Drum 98 165 129 256 150 Black Drum 97 164 127 256 150

King Mackerel 16 6 9 9 10 King Mackerel -- -- -- -- --

Red Drum 285 264 347 323 269 Red Drum 277 261 344 321 266

Red Snapper 31 33 36 34 47 Red Snapper -- -- -- -- --

Sand Seatrout 111 127 226 177 151 Sand Seatrout 108 126 220 169 150

Sheepshead 34 49 57 143 84 Sheepshead 34 49 57 143 84

Southern Flounder 47 30 92 96 92 Southern Flounder 47 30 92 96 92

Spotted Seatrout 810 732 1,137 810 795 Spotted Seatrout 789 721 1,119 798 789

Panel C: Landings in State Waters Panel D: Landings in EEZ

Species 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Species 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Atlantic Croaker -- -- 2 1 -- Atlantic Croaker -- -- -- -- 1

Black Drum 1 -- 2 -- -- Black Drum -- 1 -- -- --

King Mackerel 7 5 5 4 4 King Mackerel 9 1 4 5 6

Red Drum 8 -- 3 2 2 Red Drum 1 3 -- -- 1

Red Snapper 13 12 22 21 30 Red Snapper 19 21 14 13 17

Sand Seatrout 2 1 5 8 1 Sand Seatrout 1 1 1 -- --

Sheepshead -- -- -- -- -- Sheepshead -- -- -- -- --

Southern Flounder -- -- -- -- -- Southern Flounder -- -- -- -- --

Spotted Seatrout 14 -- 18 11 6 Spotted Seatrout 8 10 -- 1 --

Notes: (1) Fish landings are presented in thousands of fish.

 (2) The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department presents data in terms of two seasons: Season A is 

November 21 - May 14 and Season B is May 15 - November 20. Therefore, the annual data reflect 

combined catch for Seasons A and B. For example, the catch data for 2013 reflects catch from 

November 21, 2012, to November 20, 2013.

EEZ = Exclusive Economic Zone.

Source: Fisher, official communication, 2014.
Tables-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-4

Employment in the Leisure/Hospitality Industry in Selected Geographic Regions

Region 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Panel A: Economic Impact Area (EIA)

TX-1 54,551 53,772 54,750 56,753 60,670 62,260

TX-2 16,883 16,718 16,934 18,197 19,915 20,384

TX-3 240,231 240,425 244,821 253,071 267,390 280,953

LA-1 14,295 14,214 13,979 14,489 14,635 14,693

LA-2 21,364 20,675 20,618 21,345 22,137 23,054

LA-3 46,037 44,414 44,796 47,121 48,930 50,014

LA-4 68,605 68,161 72,757 76,552 78,978 80,842

MS-1 27,702 26,904 26,981 27,826 28,409 29,064

AL-1 26,516 25,872 26,925 27,300 28,307 29,867

FL-1 40,001 41,002 42,550 45,160 46,720 48,519

FL-2 22,502 21,689 22,111 22,466 23,579 24,424

FL-3 146,368 142,302 145,324 148,103 158,030 166,107

FL-4 283,359 279,839 289,247 304,093 319,912 333,866

TX EIA total 311,665 310,915 316,505 328,021 347,975 363,597

LA EIA total 150,301 147,464 152,150 159,507 164,680 168,603

MS EIA total 27,702 26,904 26,981 27,826 28,409 29,064

AL EIA total 26,516 25,872 26,925 27,300 28,307 29,867

FL EIA total 492,230 484,832 499,232 519,822 548,241 572,916

EIA total 1,008,414 995,987 1,021,793 1,062,476 1,117,612 1,164,047

Panel B: Coastal

TX 67,087 67,818 68,260 71,041 75,895 77,772

LA 45,545 45,418 49,432 51,742 53,802 55,479

MS 25,575 25,055 25,186 25,900 26,353 27,015

AL 24,319 23,825 24,816 25,145 25,941 27,354

FL 386,892 383,959 396,485 415,379 437,509 454,677

Coastal total 549,418 546,075 564,179 589,207 619,500 1,164,047

Panel C: Statewide

TX 995,445 982,840 1,006,277 1,039,839 1,094,916 1,137,190

LA 194,905 190,589 194,387 202,704 208,284 213,627

MS 121,033 115,868 116,204 117,874 120,472 123,294

AL 168,413 165,953 165,230 166,671 170,854 176,078

FL 922,534 896,383 929,448 962,616 1,011,874 1,050,263

State total 2,402,330 2,351,633 2,411,546 2,489,704 2,606,400 2,700,452

Notes: (1) The EIA’s are defined in Figure 4-20 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.

 (2) The “Coastal” category refers to the counties/parishes within the EIA’s that are directly along the coast 

of the U.S.

 (3) The “Statewide” category refers to the number of employees within the borders of the entire state.

 (4) The leisure/hospitality industry is defined according to the North American Industrial Classification 

System (NAICS). 

 (5) The employment figure for any given year corresponds to the total number of employees in December 

of that year.

 (6) Data for 2013 are preliminary.

Source: U.S. Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014.
Tables Tables-11

Table 4-5

Baseline Population Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area

Calendar

Year TX-1 TX-2 TX-3 LA-1 LA-2 LA-3 LA-4 MS-1 AL-1 FL-1 FL-2 FL-3 FL-4 Total

2010 1,799.29 626.91 6,202.21 346.02 585.06 1,142.41 1,242.69 482.30 725.87 882.80 659.96 3,626.40 6,170.12 24,492.03

2011 1,827.28 633.41 6,309.03 346.51 588.41 1,147.53 1,260.01 486.36 727.78 889.79 661.80 3,663.94 6,273.04 24,814.88

2012 1,856.04 642.00 6,421.63 349.98 596.10 1,162.47 1,267.26 490.07 734.42 900.02 669.64 3,716.36 6,352.84 25,158.82

2013 1,885.42 650.77 6,536.83 353.51 603.94 1,177.70 1,274.66 493.86 741.19 910.45 677.64 3,769.85 6,434.20 25,510.00

2014 1,915.39 659.71 6,654.44 357.09 611.91 1,193.18 1,282.17 497.70 748.05 921.04 685.77 3,824.28 6,516.92 25,867.66

2015 1,945.76 668.77 6,773.88 360.70 619.95 1,208.79 1,289.69 501.55 754.94 931.71 693.97 3,879.31 6,600.40 26,229.40

2016 1,976.53 677.92 6,895.11 364.32 628.07 1,224.52 1,297.18 505.40 761.85 942.45 702.22 3,934.90 6,684.57 26,595.04

2017 2,007.70 687.19 7,018.20 367.96 636.25 1,240.39 1,304.67 509.25 768.79 953.27 710.54 3,991.09 6,769.48 26,964.77

2018 2,039.30 696.57 7,143.18 371.61 644.52 1,256.39 1,312.15 513.12 775.75 964.17 718.93 4,047.88 6,855.15 27,338.71

2019 2,071.28 706.06 7,269.96 375.28 652.85 1,272.50 1,319.60 516.98 782.72 975.13 727.37 4,105.22 6,941.47 27,716.42

2020 2,103.58 715.61 7,398.25 378.95 661.22 1,288.68 1,326.97 520.81 789.68 986.10 735.84 4,162.92 7,028.15 28,096.76

2021 2,135.87 725.16 7,526.82 382.55 669.51 1,304.66 1,334.05 524.53 796.47 996.93 744.21 4,220.25 7,113.95 28,474.96

2022 2,168.66 734.83 7,657.62 386.18 677.90 1,320.85 1,341.17 528.27 803.33 1,007.88 752.67 4,278.36 7,200.81 28,858.52

2023 2,201.95 744.63 7,790.70 389.85 686.40 1,337.24 1,348.33 532.04 810.24 1,018.94 761.23 4,337.28 7,288.72 29,247.53

2024 2,235.76 754.56 7,926.09 393.55 695.00 1,353.83 1,355.52 535.84 817.21 1,030.13 769.88 4,397.01 7,377.71 29,642.07

2025 2,270.08 764.62 8,063.83 397.29 703.71 1,370.62 1,362.75 539.66 824.24 1,041.44 778.64 4,457.56 7,467.78 30,042.22

2026 2,303.74 774.46 8,199.25 400.82 712.11 1,386.74 1,369.29 543.19 830.83 1,052.24 787.03 4,516.22 7,554.49 30,430.40

2027 2,337.89 784.42 8,336.94 404.39 720.60 1,403.06 1,375.85 546.75 837.47 1,063.16 795.52 4,575.65 7,642.20 30,823.90

2028 2,372.55 794.51 8,476.95 407.99 729.20 1,419.56 1,382.44 550.32 844.17 1,074.19 804.10 4,635.86 7,730.93 31,222.78

2029 2,407.73 804.73 8,619.31 411.62 737.89 1,436.26 1,389.07 553.93 850.92 1,085.34 812.77 4,696.86 7,820.70 31,627.13

2030 2,443.43 815.09 8,764.06 415.28 746.69 1,453.15 1,395.73 557.55 857.73 1,096.60 821.53 4,758.67 7,911.50 32,037.01

2031 2,478.42 825.19 8,906.20 418.73 755.15 1,469.33 1,401.68 560.87 864.08 1,107.33 829.92 4,818.43 7,998.73 32,434.07

2032 2,513.92 835.42 9,050.64 422.21 763.70 1,485.69 1,407.66 564.21 870.48 1,118.16 838.39 4,878.94 8,086.92 32,836.35

2033 2,549.93 845.78 9,197.43 425.72 772.35 1,502.22 1,413.67 567.56 876.92 1,129.10 846.95 4,940.22 8,176.08 33,243.94
Tables-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-5. Baseline Population Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area (continued).

Calendar

Year TX-1 TX-2 TX-3 LA-1 LA-2 LA-3 LA-4 MS-1 AL-1 FL-1 FL-2 FL-3 FL-4 Total

2034 2,586.45 856.27 9,346.60 429.26 781.10 1,518.95 1,419.70 570.94 883.42 1,140.15 855.59 5,002.26 8,266.22 33,656.90

2035 2,623.50 866.88 9,498.19 432.83 789.95 1,535.86 1,425.76 574.34 889.96 1,151.30 864.33 5,065.08 8,357.36 34,075.32

2036 2,660.18 877.35 9,648.20 436.24 798.54 1,552.22 1,431.30 577.50 896.15 1,162.06 872.78 5,126.41 8,445.87 34,484.81

2037 2,697.38 887.95 9,800.57 439.68 807.22 1,568.76 1,436.88 580.69 902.39 1,172.92 881.32 5,188.48 8,535.33 34,899.56

2038 2,735.09 898.67 9,955.36 443.14 816.00 1,585.48 1,442.47 583.89 908.67 1,183.87 889.94 5,251.30 8,625.73 35,319.62

2039 2,773.34 909.53 10,112.59 446.63 824.88 1,602.38 1,448.08 587.10 915.00 1,194.93 898.64 5,314.89 8,717.09 35,745.07

2040 2,812.12 920.51 10,272.30 450.15 833.85 1,619.45 1,453.72 590.34 921.37 1,206.10 907.43 5,379.25 8,809.42 36,175.99

2041 2,851.44 931.63 10,434.53 453.69 842.92 1,636.71 1,459.38 593.59 927.78 1,217.36 916.31 5,444.38 8,902.73 36,612.44

2042 2,891.31 942.88 10,599.33 457.27 852.08 1,654.15 1,465.06 596.86 934.24 1,228.74 925.27 5,510.30 8,997.02 37,054.50

2043 2,931.73 954.27 10,766.73 460.87 861.35 1,671.78 1,470.76 600.15 940.74 1,240.22 934.32 5,577.02 9,092.31 37,502.25

2044 2,972.73 965.79 10,936.77 464.50 870.72 1,689.59 1,476.49 603.46 947.29 1,251.80 943.46 5,644.55 9,188.62 37,955.76

2045 3,014.29 977.46 11,109.50 468.16 880.19 1,707.59 1,482.24 606.79 953.88 1,263.50 952.69 5,712.90 9,285.94 38,415.11

2046 3,056.44 989.26 11,284.95 471.84 889.76 1,725.79 1,488.01 610.13 960.52 1,275.30 962.01 5,782.07 9,384.29 38,880.38

2047 3,099.18 1,001.21 11,463.18 475.56 899.44 1,744.18 1,493.80 613.49 967.21 1,287.22 971.41 5,852.09 9,483.69 39,351.64

2048 3,142.51 1,013.30 11,644.22 479.31 909.22 1,762.77 1,499.61 616.87 973.94 1,299.24 980.92 5,922.95 9,584.13 39,828.99

2049 3,186.45 1,025.54 11,828.12 483.08 919.11 1,781.55 1,505.45 620.27 980.72 1,311.38 990.51 5,994.66 9,685.65 40,312.49

2050 3,231.01 1,037.93 12,014.93 486.88 929.10 1,800.54 1,511.31 623.69 987.55 1,323.63 1,000.20 6,067.25 9,788.23 40,802.24

2051 3,276.18 1,050.46 12,204.68 490.72 939.21 1,819.72 1,517.19 627.13 994.42 1,336.00 1,009.98 6,140.71 9,891.91 41,298.32

2052 3,321.99 1,063.15 12,397.44 494.58 949.42 1,839.11 1,523.10 630.58 1,001.34 1,348.48 1,019.86 6,215.07 9,996.68 41,800.81

2053 3,368.44 1,075.99 12,593.23 498.48 959.75 1,858.71 1,529.03 634.06 1,008.31 1,361.07 1,029.84 6,290.32 10,102.56 42,309.80

2054 3,415.54 1,088.98 12,792.12 502.41 970.19 1,878.52 1,534.98 637.55 1,015.33 1,373.79 1,039.91 6,366.49 10,209.56 42,825.37

2055 3,463.30 1,102.13 12,994.15 506.36 980.74 1,898.54 1,540.95 641.06 1,022.40 1,386.62 1,050.08 6,443.58 10,317.70 43,347.62

2014/2055 

growth

1.46% 1.26% 1.65% 0.86% 1.16% 1.14% 0.45% 0.62% 0.76% 1.00% 1.04% 1.28% 1.13% 1.27%

Notes: Actual Woods & Poole data for 2010 through 2020, 2025, 2030, 2035, and 2040.

Missing estimates through 2040 calculated using average annual growth rate for the 5-year period; projections after 2040 calculated using the average annual growth 

rate from 2035 to 2040.

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-13

Table 4-6

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area AL-1 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 692.65 725.87 727.78 734.42 741.19 748.05 754.94 782.72 824.24 857.73 921.37

Age under 19 years 28.1% 27.1% 26.7% 26.6% 26.5% 26.4% 26.3% 26.2% 25.9% 25.5% 24.6%

Age 20 to 34 18.7% 18.6% 18.8% 18.8% 18.7% 18.6% 18.4% 17.5% 16.7% 16.4% 16.9%

Age 35 to 49 21.3% 19.7% 19.3% 19.0% 18.8% 18.6% 18.5% 18.5% 18.6% 18.5% 17.4%

Age 50 to 64 18.3% 20.1% 20.4% 20.5% 20.6% 20.6% 20.7% 20.1% 18.6% 17.8% 18.5%

Age 65 and over 13.5% 14.4% 14.7% 15.1% 15.5% 15.8% 16.2% 17.6% 20.2% 21.8% 22.6%

Median Age of Population (years) 38.2 39.9 40.2 40.5 40.8 41.0 41.2 41.8 43.0 43.8 45.1

White Population (in thousands) 66.2% 65.2% 65.0% 65.0% 64.9% 64.8% 64.7% 64.4% 63.7% 63.2% 62.2%

Black Population (in thousands) 29.6% 29.6% 29.6% 29.6% 29.5% 29.5% 29.5% 29.5% 29.5% 29.5% 29.2%

Native American Population (in thousands) 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

1.2% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.6% 1.8% 1.9% 2.1%

Hispanic or Latino Population (in thousands) 1.9% 2.7% 2.8% 2.9% 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.4% 3.9% 4.3% 5.4%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.3% 48.4% 48.4% 48.4% 48.4% 48.4% 48.4% 48.5% 48.5% 48.5% 48.4%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 363.84 374.37 375.73 381.01 386.35 391.77 397.25 419.86 455.94 488.10 558.68

Farm Employment 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.2% 1.1% 1.0%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8%

Mining 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Utilities 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3%

Construction 8.5% 7.4% 6.3% 6.3% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.0% 5.8% 5.7% 5.3%

Manufacturing 8.7% 7.2% 7.5% 7.4% 7.2% 7.1% 7.0% 6.5% 5.9% 5.4% 4.5%

Wholesale Trade 3.5% 3.0% 3.2% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.0% 2.9% 2.8% 2.6%

Retail Trade 12.4% 11.8% 11.9% 11.9% 11.8% 11.8% 11.7% 11.6% 11.3% 11.0% 10.5%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.7% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.5% 3.3% 3.2% 3.0%

Information Employment 1.3% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8%

Finance and Insurance 3.4% 3.8% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.2% 4.1%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 4.4% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.0% 5.0%

Professional and Technical Services 4.4% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.8% 5.0% 5.1% 5.3%
Tables-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-6. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area AL-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Management 0.2% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6%

Administrative and Waste Services 6.4% 7.2% 7.1% 7.2% 7.2% 7.3% 7.3% 7.6% 7.9% 8.2% 8.8%

Educational Services 1.4% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.2% 2.4% 2.6%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.5% 9.4% 9.5% 9.6% 9.7% 9.8% 10.0% 10.4% 11.1% 11.7% 12.9%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4%

Accommodation and Food Services 6.8% 7.3% 7.6% 7.7% 7.8% 7.8% 7.9% 8.2% 8.7% 9.1% 9.8%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 7.7% 8.1% 8.1% 8.2% 8.3% 8.3% 8.4% 8.7% 9.1% 9.4% 10.1%

Federal Civilian Government 0.9% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6%

Federal Military 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8%

State and Local Government 12.0% 11.6% 11.4% 11.3% 11.2% 11.1% 11.0% 10.6% 10.1% 9.6% 8.7%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 14,014.96 14,966.90 15,143.01 15,422.61 15,761.05 16,106.59 16,459.36 17,945.78 20,419.98 22,730.96 28,142.17

Farm 0.8% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 1.0% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9%

Mining 0.4% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7%

Utilities 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8%

Construction 8.9% 8.6% 6.9% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.7% 6.4% 6.0% 5.6% 5.0%

Manufacturing 13.6% 12.4% 13.1% 13.0% 12.9% 12.7% 12.6% 12.0% 11.1% 10.4% 9.1%

Wholesale Trade 5.2% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.7% 4.7% 4.6% 4.4%

Retail Trade 8.9% 8.1% 8.1% 8.1% 8.0% 7.9% 7.8% 7.5% 7.0% 6.5% 5.8%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.8% 5.3% 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.3% 5.1% 4.9% 4.7% 4.2%

Information 1.6% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3%

Finance and Insurance 4.9% 4.2% 6.0% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.3% 6.4% 6.4%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.3% 2.1% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 1.9%

Professional and Technical Services 5.5% 5.7% 5.7% 5.8% 5.9% 5.9% 6.0% 6.2% 6.6% 6.9% 7.6%

Management 0.3% 0.5% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.8% 0.9% 1.2%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.7% 4.3% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.4% 4.7% 4.9% 5.5%

Educational Services 0.9% 1.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.3% 1.4% 1.7%

Health Care and Social Assistance 9.8% 10.9% 10.8% 11.0% 11.2% 11.3% 11.5% 12.1% 13.1% 14.0% 15.8%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Accommodation and Food Services 3.2% 3.4% 3.5% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 3.7% 3.9% 4.1% 4.3% 4.7%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 4.8% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.2% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4% 5.7% 5.9% 6.3%
Tables Tables-15

Table 4-6. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area AL-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Federal Civilian Government 2.2% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.1% 2.0%

Federal Military 1.8% 1.7% 1.7% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5%

State and Local Government 13.8% 14.6% 14.1% 14.1% 14.0% 14.0% 13.9% 13.7% 13.3% 13.0% 12.2%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

29,183 31,525 32,073 32,315 32,647 33,020 33,425 35,293 38,730 42,084 50,167

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

68.7 73.2 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.6 72.7

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

74,227 80,979 82,094 83,334 83,643 84,101 84,687 88,368 96,803 105,827 128,090

Number of Households (in thousands) 272.33 282.58 284.33 284.79 289.29 293.70 297.97 312.61 329.76 341.10 360.86

Income <$10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

11.7% 12.0% 11.7% 11.4% 11.4% 11.2% 11.1% 10.5% 9.2% 8.1% 6.3%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 14.3% 14.4% 14.5% 14.4% 14.3% 14.1% 13.9% 13.2% 11.7% 10.4% 8.2%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.7% 12.9% 12.8% 12.9% 12.9% 12.7% 12.6% 12.0% 10.8% 9.6% 7.7%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 16.3% 15.6% 15.7% 15.4% 15.4% 15.3% 15.2% 14.8% 13.6% 12.4% 9.9%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 13.0% 12.9% 12.7% 12.8% 12.9% 13.0% 13.1% 13.5% 14.2% 14.0% 12.0%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.0% 9.2% 9.7% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.0% 10.6% 11.9% 13.2% 14.8%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 10.4% 10.3% 10.3% 10.5% 10.6% 10.7% 10.8% 11.4% 12.9% 14.5% 18.4%

Income $100,000 or more 12.6% 12.7% 12.6% 12.8% 12.9% 13.0% 13.2% 14.0% 15.8% 17.8% 22.7%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-7

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-1 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 861.80 882.80 889.79 900.02 910.45 921.04 931.71 975.13 1,041.44 1,096.60 1,206.10

Age Under 19 Years 26.1% 25.0% 24.5% 24.3% 24.2% 24.1% 24.1% 24.3% 24.5% 24.3% 23.6%

Age 20 to 34 20.1% 20.5% 20.9% 21.1% 21.1% 21.1% 20.9% 19.8% 18.0% 17.4% 18.6%

Age 35 to 49 22.3% 20.1% 19.5% 18.9% 18.4% 18.0% 17.8% 17.9% 19.1% 19.7% 17.4%

Age 50 to 64 18.2% 20.1% 20.6% 20.7% 20.8% 20.9% 21.0% 20.4% 18.3% 16.4% 17.9%

Age 65 and over 13.3% 14.3% 14.6% 15.0% 15.5% 15.8% 16.2% 17.5% 20.1% 22.2% 22.6%

Median Age of Population (years) 39.5 40.3 40.5 40.6 40.7 40.8 40.8 41.1 41.7 42.4 42.7

White Population (in thousands) 79.1% 77.2% 76.8% 76.6% 76.4% 76.2% 76.0% 75.1% 73.8% 72.6% 70.1%

Black Population (in thousands) 13.5% 14.0% 14.2% 14.2% 14.2% 14.3% 14.3% 14.5% 14.7% 14.9% 15.1%

Native American Population 

(in thousands)

0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

2.5% 2.8% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 3.0% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

4.0% 5.1% 5.4% 5.6% 5.7% 5.9% 6.0% 6.7% 7.7% 8.7% 10.9%

Male Population (in thousands) 50.1% 50.2% 50.2% 50.2% 50.3% 50.3% 50.3% 50.4% 50.7% 50.8% 51.1%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 487.45 474.27 481.21 487.94 494.78 501.71 508.69 537.52 583.42 624.20 713.24

Farm Employment 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Mining 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Utilities 0.3% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Construction 9.0% 6.1% 5.8% 5.8% 5.8% 5.7% 5.7% 5.6% 5.4% 5.3% 4.9%

Manufacturing 3.4% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.4% 2.1% 1.9% 1.5%

Wholesale Trade 2.6% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.7%

Retail Trade 12.0% 11.2% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.2% 11.0% 10.9% 10.5%

Transportation and Warehousing 1.8% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7%

Information Employment 1.9% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1%

Finance and Insurance 3.6% 4.2% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.6%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 5.5% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.7% 5.7% 5.7% 5.7%
Tables Tables-17

Table 4-7. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Professional and Technical Services 5.2% 5.8% 5.8% 5.9% 6.0% 6.0% 6.1% 6.4% 6.8% 7.2% 8.0%

Management 0.5% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 1.0% 1.1% 1.3%

Administrative and Waste Services 7.0% 6.6% 6.8% 6.9% 6.9% 7.0% 7.0% 7.3% 7.6% 7.9% 8.5%

Educational Services 1.0% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6% 1.8%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.9% 10.3% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 10.6% 11.0% 11.3% 11.8%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.7% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.2% 2.3% 2.4% 2.6%

Accommodation and Food Services 8.8% 9.4% 10.0% 10.1% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.4% 10.7% 10.9% 11.3%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

6.2% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 6.0% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.3% 6.3% 6.5%

Federal Civilian Government 3.5% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8% 3.6% 3.4% 3.2% 2.9%

Federal Military 6.9% 7.0% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.6% 6.5% 6.2% 5.8% 5.4% 4.8%

State and Local Government 9.1% 9.6% 9.4% 9.3% 9.2% 9.2% 9.1% 8.8% 8.3% 7.9% 7.2%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 20,751.11 20,572.00 20,811.53 21,392.36 21,898.20 22,415.45 22,944.36 25,181.93 28,935.09 32,468.98 40,831.98

Farm 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Utilities 0.5% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0%

Construction 8.1% 5.4% 5.3% 5.2% 5.1% 5.0% 5.0% 4.7% 4.4% 4.1% 3.6%

Manufacturing 4.8% 4.2% 4.1% 4.0% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.5% 3.2% 2.9% 2.4%

Wholesale Trade 3.0% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.5% 2.3%

Retail Trade 7.9% 7.0% 7.1% 7.0% 6.9% 6.9% 6.8% 6.5% 6.1% 5.7% 5.0%

Transportation and Warehousing 1.8% 1.7% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6%

Information 2.4% 1.9% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6%

Finance and Insurance 3.9% 3.9% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.8% 3.8% 4.0% 4.0% 4.2%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.1% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7%

Professional and Technical Services 6.6% 7.4% 7.6% 7.7% 7.8% 7.9% 8.0% 8.5% 9.3% 10.0% 11.4%

Management 0.8% 0.3% 0.5% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.6% 1.8% 2.4%

Administrative and Waste Services 4.5% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.5% 4.8% 5.0% 5.4%

Educational Services 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1%

Health Care and Social Assistance 10.0% 11.7% 11.6% 11.6% 11.7% 11.8% 11.9% 12.2% 12.7% 13.1% 13.8%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9%
Tables-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-7. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Accommodation and Food Services 4.6% 4.5% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.4% 4.1% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0%

Federal Civilian Government 6.8% 8.3% 8.4% 8.3% 8.3% 8.3% 8.2% 8.1% 7.9% 7.7% 7.4%

Federal Military 14.5% 17.1% 17.1% 17.0% 16.9% 16.9% 16.9% 16.7% 16.4% 16.1% 15.6%

State and Local Government 10.5% 11.3% 10.9% 10.8% 10.7% 10.7% 10.6% 10.4% 10.0% 9.6% 8.9%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

33,680 35,157 35,821 36,140 36,444 36,802 37,200 39,089 42,648 46,133 54,499

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

85.9 87.6 87.2 87.3 87.2 87.1 87.0 86.7 86.4 86.3 86.1

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

85,186 89,563 90,928 92,459 92,646 93,020 93,549 97,201 105,968 115,420 138,697

Number of Households (in thousands) 340.73 346.54 350.54 351.79 358.14 364.40 370.50 392.14 419.13 438.31 473.92

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

7.3% 7.6% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.4% 7.3% 6.9% 6.1% 5.4% 4.3%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 11.5% 11.9% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 11.8% 11.7% 11.0% 9.8% 8.7% 6.9%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.1% 11.6% 11.4% 11.6% 11.6% 11.5% 11.3% 10.7% 9.5% 8.5% 6.8%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 17.4% 16.6% 17.8% 17.5% 17.4% 17.2% 17.1% 16.2% 14.4% 12.9% 10.3%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 14.3% 13.7% 13.7% 13.4% 13.4% 13.5% 13.6% 13.9% 13.7% 12.9% 10.3%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 10.8% 11.1% 11.1% 11.2% 11.3% 11.4% 11.5% 12.2% 13.6% 14.7% 14.9%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 11.9% 12.2% 11.6% 12.0% 12.1% 12.2% 12.4% 13.1% 14.8% 16.5% 20.7%

Income $100,000 or more 14.7% 15.2% 15.0% 14.7% 14.8% 15.0% 15.1% 16.1% 18.2% 20.4% 25.8%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-19

Table 4-8

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-2 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 861.80 882.80 889.79 900.02 910.45 921.04 931.71 975.13 1,041.44 1,096.60 1,206.10

Age Under 19 Years 26.1% 25.0% 24.5% 24.3% 24.2% 24.1% 24.1% 24.3% 24.5% 24.3% 23.6%

Age 20 to 34 20.1% 20.5% 20.9% 21.1% 21.1% 21.1% 20.9% 19.8% 18.0% 17.4% 18.6%

Age 35 to 49 22.3% 20.1% 19.5% 18.9% 18.4% 18.0% 17.8% 17.9% 19.1% 19.7% 17.4%

Age 50 to 64 18.2% 20.1% 20.6% 20.7% 20.8% 20.9% 21.0% 20.4% 18.3% 16.4% 17.9%

Age 65 and over 13.3% 14.3% 14.6% 15.0% 15.5% 15.8% 16.2% 17.5% 20.1% 22.2% 22.6%

Median Age of Population (years) 39.5 40.3 40.5 40.6 40.7 40.8 40.8 41.1 41.7 42.4 42.7

White Population (in thousands) 79.1% 77.2% 76.8% 76.6% 76.4% 76.2% 76.0% 75.1% 73.8% 72.6% 70.1%

Black Population (in thousands) 13.5% 14.0% 14.2% 14.2% 14.2% 14.3% 14.3% 14.5% 14.7% 14.9% 15.1%

Native American Population 

(in thousands)

0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

2.5% 2.8% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 3.0% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

4.0% 5.1% 5.4% 5.6% 5.7% 5.9% 6.0% 6.7% 7.7% 8.7% 10.9%

Male Population (in thousands) 50.1% 50.2% 50.2% 50.2% 50.3% 50.3% 50.3% 50.4% 50.7% 50.8% 51.1%

Total Employment 

(in thousands of jobs)

487.45 474.27 481.21 487.94 494.78 501.71 508.69 537.52 583.42 624.20 713.24

Farm Employment 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Mining 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Utilities 0.3% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Construction 9.0% 6.1% 5.8% 5.8% 5.8% 5.7% 5.7% 5.6% 5.4% 5.3% 4.9%

Manufacturing 3.4% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.4% 2.1% 1.9% 1.5%

Wholesale Trade 2.6% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.7%

Retail Trade 12.0% 11.2% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.2% 11.0% 10.9% 10.5%

Transportation and Warehousing 1.8% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7%

Information Employment 1.9% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1%

Finance and Insurance 3.6% 4.2% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.6%
Tables-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-8. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 5.5% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.7% 5.7% 5.7% 5.7%

Professional and Technical Services 5.2% 5.8% 5.8% 5.9% 6.0% 6.0% 6.1% 6.4% 6.8% 7.2% 8.0%

Management 0.5% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 1.0% 1.1% 1.3%

Administrative and Waste Services 7.0% 6.6% 6.8% 6.9% 6.9% 7.0% 7.0% 7.3% 7.6% 7.9% 8.5%

Educational Services 1.0% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6% 1.8%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.9% 10.3% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 10.6% 11.0% 11.3% 11.8%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.7% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.2% 2.3% 2.4% 2.6%

Accommodation and Food Services 8.8% 9.4% 10.0% 10.1% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.4% 10.7% 10.9% 11.3%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

6.2% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 6.0% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.3% 6.3% 6.5%

Federal Civilian Government 3.5% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8% 3.6% 3.4% 3.2% 2.9%

Federal Military 6.9% 7.0% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.6% 6.5% 6.2% 5.8% 5.4% 4.8%

State and Local Government 9.1% 9.6% 9.4% 9.3% 9.2% 9.2% 9.1% 8.8% 8.3% 7.9% 7.2%

Total Earnings 

(in millions of 2005 dollars)

20,751.11 20,572.00 20,811.53 21,392.36 21,898.20 22,415.45 22,944.36 25,181.93 28,935.09 32,468.98 40,831.98

Farm 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Utilities 0.5% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0%

Construction 8.1% 5.4% 5.3% 5.2% 5.1% 5.0% 5.0% 4.7% 4.4% 4.1% 3.6%

Manufacturing 4.8% 4.2% 4.1% 4.0% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.5% 3.2% 2.9% 2.4%

Wholesale Trade 3.0% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.5% 2.3%

Retail Trade 7.9% 7.0% 7.1% 7.0% 6.9% 6.9% 6.8% 6.5% 6.1% 5.7% 5.0%

Transportation and Warehousing 1.8% 1.7% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6%

Information 2.4% 1.9% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6%

Finance and Insurance 3.9% 3.9% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.8% 3.8% 4.0% 4.0% 4.2%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.1% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7%

Professional and Technical Services 6.6% 7.4% 7.6% 7.7% 7.8% 7.9% 8.0% 8.5% 9.3% 10.0% 11.4%

Management 0.8% 0.3% 0.5% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.6% 1.8% 2.4%

Administrative and Waste Services 4.5% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.5% 4.8% 5.0% 5.4%
Tables Tables-21

Table 4-8. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Educational Services 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1%

Health Care and Social Assistance 10.0% 11.7% 11.6% 11.6% 11.7% 11.8% 11.9% 12.2% 12.7% 13.1% 13.8%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9%

Accommodation and Food Services 4.6% 4.5% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.4% 4.1% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0%

Federal Civilian Government 6.8% 8.3% 8.4% 8.3% 8.3% 8.3% 8.2% 8.1% 7.9% 7.7% 7.4%

Federal Military 14.5% 17.1% 17.1% 17.0% 16.9% 16.9% 16.9% 16.7% 16.4% 16.1% 15.6%

State and Local Government 10.5% 11.3% 10.9% 10.8% 10.7% 10.7% 10.6% 10.4% 10.0% 9.6% 8.9%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

33,680 35,157 35,821 36,140 36,444 36,802 37,200 39,089 42,648 46,133 54,499

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth 

Index (U.S. = 100)

85.9 87.6 87.2 87.3 87.2 87.1 87.0 86.7 86.4 86.3 86.1

Persons per Household 

(in number of people)

2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

85,186 89,563 90,928 92,459 92,646 93,020 93,549 97,201 105,968 115,420 138,697

Number of Households (in thousands) 340.73 346.54 350.54 351.79 358.14 364.40 370.50 392.14 419.13 438.31 473.92

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

7.3% 7.6% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.4% 7.3% 6.9% 6.1% 5.4% 4.3%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 11.5% 11.9% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 11.8% 11.7% 11.0% 9.8% 8.7% 6.9%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.1% 11.6% 11.4% 11.6% 11.6% 11.5% 11.3% 10.7% 9.5% 8.5% 6.8%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 17.4% 16.6% 17.8% 17.5% 17.4% 17.2% 17.1% 16.2% 14.4% 12.9% 10.3%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 14.3% 13.7% 13.7% 13.4% 13.4% 13.5% 13.6% 13.9% 13.7% 12.9% 10.3%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 10.8% 11.1% 11.1% 11.2% 11.3% 11.4% 11.5% 12.2% 13.6% 14.7% 14.9%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 11.9% 12.2% 11.6% 12.0% 12.1% 12.2% 12.4% 13.1% 14.8% 16.5% 20.7%

Income $100,000 or more 14.7% 15.2% 15.0% 14.7% 14.8% 15.0% 15.1% 16.1% 18.2% 20.4% 25.8%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-9 

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-3 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 3,435.22 3,626.40 3,663.94 3,716.36 3,769.85 3,824.28 3,879.31 4,105.22 4,457.56 4,758.67 5,379.25

Age Under 19 Years 23.9% 23.2% 22.8% 22.7% 22.7% 22.6% 22.6% 22.5% 22.6% 22.6% 22.9%

Age 20 to 34 18.5% 18.6% 18.9% 19.0% 19.1% 19.2% 19.2% 19.1% 18.4% 18.0% 18.4%

Age 35 to 49 21.3% 19.8% 19.4% 18.9% 18.5% 18.2% 17.9% 17.5% 17.8% 18.3% 17.7%

Age 50 to 64 18.5% 20.2% 20.6% 20.7% 20.7% 20.8% 20.8% 20.3% 18.5% 16.8% 16.8%

Age 65 and over 17.8% 18.2% 18.3% 18.6% 18.9% 19.2% 19.5% 20.6% 22.7% 24.2% 24.1%

Median Age of Population (years) 41.7 42.9 43.3 43.5 43.7 43.8 43.9 44.3 44.7 45.0 45.1

White Population (in thousands) 73.9% 70.0% 69.4% 68.9% 68.3% 67.8% 67.2% 65.0% 61.8% 59.0% 53.3%

Black Population (in thousands) 11.4% 12.0% 12.3% 12.4% 12.4% 12.5% 12.6% 12.8% 13.1% 13.4% 13.8%

Native American Population 

(in thousands)

0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

Asian and Pacific Islander 

Population (in thousands)

2.6% 3.1% 3.2% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.5% 3.8% 4.3% 4.7% 5.5%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

11.8% 14.5% 14.8% 15.2% 15.6% 16.0% 16.4% 18.1% 20.6% 22.7% 27.2%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.6% 48.6% 48.6% 48.6% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.8% 48.9% 48.9% 48.9%

Total Employment 

(in thousands of jobs)

1,944.15 1,832.29 1,846.30 1,875.79 1,905.67 1,935.91 1,966.53 2,092.90 2,294.56 2,474.26 2,867.83

Farm Employment 1.0% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Mining 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Utilities 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Construction 7.3% 5.1% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 5.1% 5.2% 5.4%

Manufacturing 5.0% 4.1% 4.2% 4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.7% 3.4% 3.2% 2.8%

Wholesale Trade 3.4% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.0%

Retail Trade 11.4% 11.2% 11.3% 11.3% 11.3% 11.4% 11.4% 11.5% 11.7% 11.8% 11.9%

Transportation and Warehousing 2.3% 2.2% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.4%

Information Employment 2.2% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7% 1.6%

Finance and Insurance 5.8% 6.5% 6.8% 6.8% 6.8% 6.8% 6.7% 6.7% 6.6% 6.6% 6.4%
Tables Tables-23

Table 4-9. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 4.5% 4.5% 4.6% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.4% 4.3% 4.1% 3.9%

Professional and Technical Services 6.4% 7.2% 7.3% 7.3% 7.3% 7.3% 7.3% 7.3% 7.2% 7.2% 7.1%

Management 0.8% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6%

Administrative and Waste Services 10.8% 7.9% 7.5% 7.6% 7.7% 7.8% 7.8% 8.1% 8.6% 9.0% 9.8%

Educational Services 1.3% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.2% 2.5% 2.7% 3.3%

Health Care and Social Assistance 10.3% 12.4% 12.5% 12.6% 12.6% 12.7% 12.8% 13.0% 13.3% 13.5% 14.0%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.0% 2.4% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5%

Accommodation and Food Services 6.8% 7.1% 7.2% 7.2% 7.1% 7.1% 7.1% 7.0% 6.8% 6.7% 6.4%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

5.9% 5.9% 6.0% 6.0% 6.0% 6.0% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.2% 6.3%

Federal Civilian Government 1.3% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.1%

Federal Military 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

State and Local Government 9.9% 10.6% 10.4% 10.3% 10.2% 10.1% 10.1% 9.7% 9.2% 8.9% 8.1%

Total Earnings 

(in millions of 2005 dollars)

85,752.60 82,664.03 83,293.04 85,719.91 87,934.35 90,200.08 92,518.16 102,336.23 118,829.95 134,369.43 171,103.77

Farm 0.5% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 0.3% 0.1% 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Utilities 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

Construction 7.5% 4.8% 4.6% 4.6% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.4% 4.3% 4.2% 4.1%

Manufacturing 6.8% 5.9% 5.8% 5.8% 5.7% 5.6% 5.6% 5.4% 5.0% 4.7% 4.2%

Wholesale Trade 4.9% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7%

Retail Trade 8.3% 7.8% 7.9% 7.8% 7.8% 7.7% 7.7% 7.5% 7.1% 6.9% 6.3%

Transportation and Warehousing 2.2% 2.1% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0%

Information 3.3% 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.2%

Finance and Insurance 8.0% 8.0% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.4% 8.3% 8.3% 8.3% 8.1%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.3% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6%

Professional and Technical Services 8.1% 9.7% 9.7% 9.7% 9.7% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.1% 10.2% 10.4%

Management 1.6% 2.2% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.8% 3.1% 3.4% 4.2%

Administrative and Waste Services 7.1% 5.0% 4.8% 4.8% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.2% 5.6% 5.9% 6.6%

Educational Services 0.8% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.8% 2.0% 2.5%
Tables-24 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-9. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Health Care and Social Assistance 12.1% 14.8% 14.8% 14.8% 14.9% 15.0% 15.0% 15.3% 15.7% 16.1% 16.7%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.5% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7%

Accommodation and Food Services 3.9% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.5% 3.5% 3.4% 3.3% 3.2%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.0% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8%

Federal Civilian Government 2.7% 3.5% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.3% 3.3% 3.2% 3.1%

Federal Military 1.2% 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.4%

State and Local Government 11.8% 13.1% 12.7% 12.6% 12.5% 12.4% 12.4% 12.1% 11.7% 11.4% 10.7%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

35,810 35,952 36,280 36,533 36,788 37,105 37,466 39,232 42,635 45,972 53,929

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth 

Index (U.S. = 100)

78.9 79.4 78.7 78.7 78.6 78.6 78.5 78.2 77.8 77.5 76.9

Persons per Household 

(in number of people)

2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5

Mean Household Total Personal 

Income (in 2005 dollars)

84,866 87,077 87,589 88,922 89,017 89,311 89,765 93,124 101,406 110,345 132,237

Number of Households (in thousands) 1,449.50 1,497.25 1,517.61 1,526.86 1,557.98 1,588.81 1,619.14 1,729.47 1,874.15 1,982.57 2,193.76

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

7.6% 8.1% 8.6% 8.6% 8.5% 8.5% 8.4% 7.9% 7.0% 6.3% 5.1%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 12.6% 13.0% 13.1% 13.2% 13.1% 13.0% 12.8% 12.2% 10.7% 9.6% 7.8%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 13.0% 13.1% 12.9% 13.2% 13.1% 13.0% 12.9% 12.2% 10.8% 9.6% 7.8%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 17.3% 17.5% 17.5% 17.3% 17.2% 17.1% 17.0% 16.3% 14.4% 12.9% 10.4%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 13.5% 13.1% 13.4% 13.5% 13.5% 13.6% 13.8% 14.3% 15.0% 14.6% 12.1%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.6% 9.9% 9.8% 9.6% 9.7% 9.8% 9.9% 10.4% 11.9% 13.3% 15.0%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 10.8% 10.6% 10.5% 10.6% 10.6% 10.7% 10.8% 11.4% 13.0% 14.5% 18.1%

Income $100,000 or more 15.6% 14.7% 14.1% 14.1% 14.1% 14.3% 14.5% 15.2% 17.2% 19.2% 23.8%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-25

Table 4-10

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-4 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 5,934.95 6,170.12 6,273.04 6,352.84 6,434.20 6,516.92 6,600.40 6,941.47 7,467.78 7,911.50 8,809.42

Age Under 19 Years 24.4% 23.3% 23.0% 22.8% 22.7% 22.5% 22.4% 22.3% 22.1% 21.9% 21.6%

Age 20 to 34 18.4% 18.3% 18.6% 18.7% 18.7% 18.8% 18.8% 18.5% 17.9% 17.4% 17.3%

Age 35 to 49 22.2% 21.1% 20.7% 20.3% 19.9% 19.5% 19.2% 18.5% 18.2% 18.5% 17.6%

Age 50 to 64 17.8% 19.4% 19.7% 19.8% 19.9% 20.1% 20.2% 20.1% 19.2% 17.6% 16.8%

Age 65 and over 17.1% 17.9% 18.1% 18.4% 18.7% 19.0% 19.3% 20.6% 22.7% 24.6% 26.6%

Median Age of Population (years) 44.0 45.5 45.9 46.0 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.9 46.9 46.8 46.5

White Population (in thousands) 45.8% 42.3% 42.1% 41.5% 41.0% 40.5% 40.0% 38.1% 35.3% 33.1% 29.2%

Black Population (in thousands) 16.7% 16.7% 16.8% 16.8% 16.8% 16.9% 16.9% 16.9% 17.1% 17.1% 17.2%

Native American Population 

(in thousands)

0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

2.0% 2.2% 2.2% 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.7% 2.9% 3.2%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

35.3% 38.6% 38.7% 39.2% 39.7% 40.1% 40.6% 42.3% 44.7% 46.7% 50.4%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.6% 48.6% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.6% 48.3%

Total Employment 

(in thousands of jobs)

3,395.35 3,367.36 3,430.32 3,489.82 3,550.17 3,611.37 3,673.45 3,930.55 4,343.66 4,714.39 5,533.20

Farm Employment 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Mining 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Utilities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1%

Construction 8.0% 5.0% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0%

Manufacturing 3.6% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4% 2.1% 1.9% 1.6%

Wholesale Trade 4.5% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.2% 4.2% 4.1% 4.0% 3.8% 3.6%

Retail Trade 11.2% 11.0% 11.1% 11.2% 11.2% 11.2% 11.2% 11.2% 11.2% 11.1% 11.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8%

Information Employment 2.0% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3%

Finance and Insurance 5.0% 5.7% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9%
Tables-26 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-10. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-4 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 6.0% 6.5% 6.5% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4%

Professional and Technical Services 6.5% 7.1% 7.1% 7.1% 7.2% 7.2% 7.2% 7.2% 7.3% 7.3% 7.4%

Management 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

Administrative and Waste Services 9.0% 8.1% 8.1% 8.2% 8.3% 8.3% 8.4% 8.7% 9.0% 9.4% 10.1%

Educational Services 1.8% 2.4% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.8% 2.9% 3.2%

Health Care and Social Assistance 9.1% 10.7% 10.7% 10.7% 10.8% 10.8% 10.9% 11.0% 11.3% 11.5% 11.9%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.2% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5%

Accommodation and Food Services 7.2% 7.7% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.8% 7.8%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

7.7% 8.1% 8.2% 8.2% 8.2% 8.3% 8.3% 8.4% 8.6% 8.8% 9.1%

Federal Civilian Government 1.0% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8%

Federal Military 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3%

State and Local Government 9.0% 9.0% 8.7% 8.6% 8.5% 8.4% 8.3% 8.0% 7.5% 7.1% 6.3%

Total Earnings 

(in millions of 2005 dollars)

158,627.01 149,490.08 151,501.99 155,403.01 159,468.65 163,630.35 167,890.18 185,951.93 216,353.63 245,046.34 312,977.23

Farm 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Utilities 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4%

Construction 9.4% 5.5% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.1% 5.0% 4.8% 4.7% 4.5%

Manufacturing 4.4% 3.5% 3.6% 3.5% 3.5% 3.4% 3.4% 3.2% 2.9% 2.7% 2.4%

Wholesale Trade 6.8% 7.0% 7.2% 7.2% 7.2% 7.1% 7.1% 7.0% 6.9% 6.7% 6.5%

Retail Trade 8.5% 8.2% 8.4% 8.3% 8.3% 8.2% 8.1% 7.9% 7.5% 7.2% 6.6%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.0% 3.9% 3.8%

Information 3.6% 3.0% 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1%

Finance and Insurance 6.9% 7.1% 7.2% 7.1% 7.2% 7.2% 7.2% 7.2% 7.3% 7.4% 7.5%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.7% 3.0% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7%

Professional and Technical Services 8.3% 9.5% 9.7% 9.7% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.1% 10.5% 10.8% 11.3%

Management 1.3% 1.6% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9% 2.1% 2.2% 2.6%

Administrative and Waste Services 6.2% 4.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 5.1% 5.1% 5.3% 5.6% 5.8% 6.4%

Educational Services 1.5% 2.0% 2.1% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.3% 2.5% 2.7% 3.0%
Tables Tables-27

Table 4-10. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area FL-4 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Health Care and Social Assistance 9.5% 12.1% 12.1% 12.2% 12.2% 12.3% 12.4% 12.7% 13.1% 13.4% 14.1%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.6% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7%

Accommodation and Food Services 4.3% 4.5% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.2% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.9% 5.0%

Federal Civilian Government 2.2% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.4% 2.4%

Federal Military 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6%

State and Local Government 11.8% 13.1% 12.6% 12.5% 12.4% 12.3% 12.3% 11.9% 11.4% 11.0% 10.1%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

40,637 40,179 40,450 40,704 41,055 41,486 41,976 44,366 49,014 53,636 64,938

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth 

Index (U.S. = 100)

118.7 115.8 114.7 114.6 114.5 114.5 114.6 115.1 116.6 118.1 121.3

Persons per Household 

(in number of people)

2.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6

Mean Household Total Personal 

Income (in 2005 dollars)

102,546 104,107 104,480 106,007 106,300 106,859 107,629 112,733 124,847 137,930 170,766

Number of Households (in thousands) 2,351.92 2,381.27 2,428.65 2,439.31 2,484.99 2,530.07 2,574.19 2,731.85 2,931.79 3,076.48 3,350.01

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

7.6% 8.2% 8.6% 8.7% 8.7% 8.6% 8.5% 7.9% 7.1% 6.4% 5.1%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 11.2% 12.2% 12.6% 12.6% 12.5% 12.4% 12.3% 11.5% 10.3% 9.3% 7.4%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 11.3% 11.9% 12.0% 12.2% 12.1% 12.0% 11.9% 11.1% 10.0% 9.0% 7.2%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 15.5% 16.1% 16.3% 16.2% 16.1% 16.0% 15.9% 14.9% 13.3% 12.1% 9.6%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 13.2% 12.8% 12.7% 12.6% 12.7% 12.8% 12.8% 13.2% 13.1% 12.3% 9.8%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.8% 9.8% 10.0% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.0% 10.7% 12.0% 13.0% 13.0%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 11.7% 10.9% 10.6% 10.7% 10.8% 10.9% 11.0% 11.8% 13.2% 14.7% 18.4%

Income $100,000 or more 19.8% 18.1% 17.2% 17.1% 17.2% 17.3% 17.5% 18.7% 21.0% 23.3% 29.4%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-28 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-11

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-1 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 338.48 346.02 346.51 349.98 353.51 357.09 360.70 375.28 397.29 415.28 450.15

Age Under 19 Years 29.3% 28.5% 28.0% 28.2% 28.3% 28.3% 28.3% 28.7% 28.9% 28.5% 27.5%

Age 20 to 34 21.6% 21.3% 21.5% 21.2% 20.9% 20.7% 20.4% 18.8% 17.8% 18.2% 19.5%

Age 35 to 49 20.9% 19.3% 19.0% 18.8% 18.6% 18.5% 18.5% 19.1% 19.4% 18.5% 16.6%

Age 50 to 64 16.4% 18.5% 18.9% 18.9% 19.1% 19.2% 19.2% 18.7% 17.3% 16.8% 18.0%

Age 65 and over 11.8% 12.4% 12.6% 12.9% 13.1% 13.3% 13.5% 14.7% 16.7% 17.9% 18.3%

Median Age of Population (years) 34.9 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 36.8 37.4 38.0 38.2 38.4

White Population (in thousands) 74.8% 73.4% 73.0% 72.8% 72.7% 72.6% 72.5% 72.0% 71.2% 70.5% 69.1%

Black Population (in thousands) 20.7% 21.4% 21.6% 21.6% 21.6% 21.6% 21.6% 21.6% 21.6% 21.7% 21.7%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.7% 0.9% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population (in thousands) 1.0% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.6% 1.7% 1.9%

Hispanic or Latino Population (in thousands) 2.7% 3.1% 3.3% 3.4% 3.5% 3.6% 3.7% 4.1% 4.6% 5.2% 6.4%

Male Population (in thousands) 50.0% 50.0% 49.9% 49.9% 50.0% 50.0% 50.0% 50.1% 50.1% 50.1% 50.1%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 171.65 177.97 179.50 181.84 184.23 186.63 189.07 199.12 215.11 229.33 260.40

Farm Employment 1.9% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6% 1.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

Mining 1.1% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5%

Utilities 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

Construction 8.7% 8.0% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 7.9% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 7.9%

Manufacturing 6.7% 6.5% 6.4% 6.3% 6.2% 6.1% 5.9% 5.5% 4.9% 4.4% 3.5%

Wholesale Trade 2.2% 2.1% 2.2% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 1.9% 1.8% 1.6%

Retail Trade 11.0% 10.2% 10.1% 10.2% 10.2% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 10.6% 10.8% 11.0%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.2% 2.8% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1%

Information Employment 1.0% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6%

Finance and Insurance 2.5% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 2.9% 2.8% 2.7%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.4% 3.0% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.2% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4%

Professional and Technical Services 4.7% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.7% 4.9% 5.1% 5.4%
Tables Tables-29

Table 4-11. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Management 0.7% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.8% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.6% 4.9% 5.1% 5.6%

Educational Services 1.0% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Health Care and Social Assistance 9.5% 10.3% 10.3% 10.4% 10.6% 10.7% 10.8% 11.4% 12.2% 12.9% 14.4%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.1%

Accommodation and Food Services 7.9% 7.8% 7.9% 8.0% 8.0% 8.1% 8.1% 8.3% 8.5% 8.7% 9.1%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.3% 6.4% 6.4% 6.6% 6.9% 7.2% 7.7%

Federal Civilian Government 2.1% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 2.0% 1.8% 1.8% 1.6%

Federal Military 5.7% 6.3% 6.4% 6.3% 6.3% 6.2% 6.1% 5.8% 5.4% 5.1% 4.5%

State and Local Government 14.0% 14.2% 13.9% 13.8% 13.7% 13.6% 13.4% 13.0% 12.3% 11.8% 10.7%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 7,449.88 8,254.72 8,481.64 8,757.57 8,945.94 9,138.23 9,334.50 10,160.97 11,534.46 12,814.51 15,798.99

Farm 0.5% 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6%

Mining 1.7% 1.4% 1.5% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0%

Utilities 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6%

Construction 7.6% 8.6% 8.4% 8.2% 8.2% 8.2% 8.1% 8.0% 7.7% 7.5% 7.0%

Manufacturing 14.6% 14.0% 14.2% 13.8% 13.6% 13.3% 13.1% 12.2% 11.0% 10.1% 8.3%

Wholesale Trade 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4% 2.3% 2.2%

Retail Trade 6.3% 5.6% 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.3% 5.1% 5.0% 4.7%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.6% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3%

Information 2.6% 1.0% 0.9% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2%

Finance and Insurance 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Professional and Technical Services 5.4% 5.0% 5.0% 5.0% 5.1% 5.1% 5.2% 5.5% 5.9% 6.3% 7.0%

Management 1.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9%

Administrative and Waste Services 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.4% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.6% 2.9% 3.1% 3.5%

Educational Services 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.7% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 10.5% 10.7% 10.9% 11.5% 12.6% 13.5% 15.5%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.5% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Accommodation and Food Services 3.7% 3.8% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.8% 3.8% 3.9% 4.1% 4.2% 4.4%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 3.7% 3.6% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 3.9% 4.1% 4.4%
Tables-30 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-11. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Federal Civilian Government 3.8% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.7% 3.7% 3.7% 3.6% 3.5%

Federal Military 10.6% 13.2% 14.1% 14.0% 14.0% 14.0% 14.0% 14.1% 14.2% 14.3% 14.4%

State and Local Government 13.8% 14.1% 13.4% 13.2% 13.1% 13.1% 13.0% 12.8% 12.4% 12.1% 11.4%

Total Personal Income per Capita (in 2005 dollars) 29,511 32,958 34,005 34,470 34,772 35,111 35,480 37,175 40,274 43,278 50,426

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

69.2 81.0 81.4 81.8 81.8 81.8 81.8 81.6 81.3 80.9 80.3

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

77,937 88,001 90,444 92,356 92,519 92,834 93,279 96,428 104,035 112,254 132,305

Number of Households (in thousands) 128.17 129.59 130.28 130.62 132.86 135.06 137.19 144.68 153.80 160.11 171.57

Income < $10,000 (thousands of households, 2000$) 10.4% 9.4% 9.6% 9.4% 9.3% 9.2% 9.1% 8.7% 7.9% 7.1% 5.8%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 15.0% 14.3% 14.0% 13.9% 13.9% 13.7% 13.6% 12.9% 11.7% 10.5% 8.6%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.8% 12.8% 13.4% 13.3% 13.2% 13.1% 13.0% 12.4% 11.1% 10.1% 8.2%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 17.5% 16.5% 16.3% 15.9% 15.8% 15.7% 15.6% 14.9% 13.5% 12.1% 9.9%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 12.5% 12.7% 12.3% 12.4% 12.4% 12.6% 12.7% 13.2% 13.7% 13.5% 11.3%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.1% 9.9% 9.7% 9.7% 9.8% 9.9% 10.0% 10.5% 11.6% 12.7% 14.4%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 10.6% 10.9% 11.1% 11.2% 11.2% 11.4% 11.5% 12.1% 13.5% 15.0% 18.3%

Income $100,000 or more 12.0% 13.5% 13.5% 14.2% 14.3% 14.5% 14.6% 15.4% 17.1% 19.0% 23.3%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-31

Table 4-12

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-2 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 558.42 585.06 588.41 596.10 603.94 611.91 619.95 652.85 703.71 746.69 833.85

Age Under 19 Years 30.0% 29.0% 28.6% 28.5% 28.5% 28.5% 28.5% 28.6% 28.5% 28.1% 26.9%

Age 20 to 34 20.6% 21.1% 21.4% 21.3% 21.2% 21.0% 20.7% 19.4% 17.9% 17.9% 19.0%

Age 35 to 49 21.8% 19.5% 19.1% 18.7% 18.4% 18.2% 18.2% 18.5% 19.7% 19.4% 17.5%

Age 50 to 64 16.1% 18.6% 19.0% 19.3% 19.5% 19.6% 19.6% 19.3% 17.3% 16.4% 18.3%

Age 65 and over 11.5% 11.9% 12.0% 12.2% 12.5% 12.7% 13.0% 14.1% 16.6% 18.1% 18.4%

Median Age of Population (years) 35.0 35.7 35.7 35.8 36.0 36.1 36.2 37.0 38.1 38.9 39.2

White Population (in thousands) 69.3% 67.6% 67.4% 67.2% 67.1% 66.9% 66.8% 66.2% 65.2% 64.4% 62.6%

Black Population (in thousands) 27.1% 27.9% 27.9% 28.0% 28.0% 28.0% 28.0% 28.1% 28.3% 28.4% 28.7%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.3% 0.3% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

1.2% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

2.1% 2.8% 3.0% 3.1% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4% 3.8% 4.4% 5.1% 6.4%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.7% 48.8% 48.8% 48.8% 48.8% 48.8% 48.9% 49.0% 49.1% 49.1% 49.2%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 297.51 328.88 333.42 339.08 344.80 350.61 356.48 380.77 419.58 454.23 530.17

Farm Employment 1.9% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 1.4% 1.3% 1.1%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Mining 6.9% 7.8% 8.1% 8.0% 7.9% 7.9% 7.8% 7.5% 7.1% 6.8% 6.2%

Utilities 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Construction 6.7% 6.3% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 6.0% 5.9% 5.8%

Manufacturing 6.1% 5.8% 6.2% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 5.9% 5.6% 5.2% 4.9% 4.3%

Wholesale Trade 3.7% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.4% 3.3% 3.1%

Retail Trade 11.5% 10.8% 10.8% 10.8% 10.8% 10.8% 10.8% 10.9% 10.9% 10.9% 10.9%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.5% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 3.0% 3.1%

Information Employment 1.5% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1%

Finance and Insurance 3.4% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.5% 3.4% 3.3% 3.2% 2.9%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 4.0% 4.5% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.7% 4.7%
Tables-32 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-12. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Professional and Technical Services 4.7% 5.2% 5.2% 5.2% 5.3% 5.3% 5.3% 5.3% 5.4% 5.5% 5.6%

Management 1.1% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Administrative and Waste Services 4.6% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.9% 5.1% 5.2% 5.3%

Educational Services 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5%

Health Care and Social Assistance 11.2% 12.0% 12.2% 12.4% 12.5% 12.7% 12.9% 13.5% 14.5% 15.4% 17.1%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.5% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9% 2.0% 2.1%

Accommodation and Food Services 6.4% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.3% 6.4% 6.5% 6.6%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

7.0% 6.7% 6.5% 6.6% 6.6% 6.7% 6.7% 6.9% 7.2% 7.4% 7.9%

Federal Civilian Government 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3%

Federal Military 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6% 0.5%

State and Local Government 10.8% 10.4% 9.9% 9.9% 9.8% 9.7% 9.7% 9.4% 9.0% 8.6% 7.9%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 12,447.44 15,056.94 15,441.31 15,733.44 16,146.69 16,569.39 17,001.76 18,831.45 21,898.55 24,779.07 31,546.99

Farm 0.8% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

Mining 13.7% 14.1% 14.5% 14.2% 14.1% 14.1% 14.0% 13.7% 13.3% 13.0% 12.2%

Utilities 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Construction 7.1% 7.4% 7.4% 7.3% 7.2% 7.2% 7.1% 6.9% 6.6% 6.3% 5.8%

Manufacturing 7.5% 7.8% 8.6% 8.5% 8.4% 8.4% 8.3% 8.1% 7.8% 7.5% 7.0%

Wholesale Trade 4.7% 4.7% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.7% 4.6% 4.6% 4.4%

Retail Trade 7.9% 6.8% 6.9% 6.9% 6.8% 6.8% 6.7% 6.5% 6.2% 5.9% 5.4%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.6% 4.3% 4.1% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8%

Information 1.7% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3%

Finance and Insurance 4.1% 2.9% 2.8% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.4%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.5% 3.6% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8%

Professional and Technical Services 6.0% 6.4% 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 6.9% 6.9% 7.2% 7.5% 7.8% 8.3%

Management 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.1% 3.2% 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.2% 3.4% 3.5% 3.7%

Educational Services 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 1.1%

Health Care and Social Assistance 11.3% 12.6% 12.2% 12.5% 12.7% 12.9% 13.0% 13.8% 14.9% 15.9% 17.9%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.6%
Tables Tables-33

Table 4-12. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Accommodation and Food Services 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.7% 2.8%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.5% 4.6% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.5% 4.5% 4.6% 4.8% 5.0% 5.3%

Federal Civilian Government 1.2% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.7%

Federal Military 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

State and Local Government 11.3% 11.2% 10.6% 10.6% 10.6% 10.5% 10.5% 10.3% 10.1% 9.8% 9.3%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

30,899 36,282 37,161 37,038 37,371 37,748 38,158 40,046 43,488 46,795 54,565

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

72.9 84.2 84.3 83.5 83.5 83.5 83.4 83.2 82.8 82.4 81.6

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.6

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

81,039 95,267 97,212 97,581 97,754 98,095 98,577 101,968 110,105 118,808 139,762

Number of Households (in thousands) 212.92 222.81 224.93 226.26 230.88 235.47 239.98 256.40 277.94 294.10 325.54

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

13.9% 12.3% 12.2% 11.5% 11.4% 11.2% 11.1% 10.7% 9.6% 8.7% 7.1%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 15.5% 15.5% 15.7% 15.6% 15.5% 15.3% 15.2% 14.5% 13.0% 11.8% 9.6%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.6% 12.0% 11.4% 11.8% 11.7% 11.6% 11.5% 11.0% 9.9% 9.0% 7.4%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 15.4% 15.0% 15.4% 14.9% 14.8% 14.8% 14.7% 14.4% 13.2% 12.0% 9.9%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 11.7% 11.6% 11.6% 11.8% 11.8% 11.9% 12.0% 12.4% 13.1% 13.0% 11.4%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 8.7% 9.2% 9.2% 8.9% 8.9% 9.0% 9.1% 9.5% 10.5% 11.6% 13.2%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 9.7% 10.2% 10.1% 10.9% 11.0% 11.1% 11.2% 11.7% 12.9% 14.3% 17.4%

Income $100,000 or more 12.6% 14.3% 14.3% 14.7% 14.9% 15.0% 15.2% 15.8% 17.6% 19.6% 24.0%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-34 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-13

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-3 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 1,051.06 1,142.41 1,147.53 1,162.47 1,177.70 1,193.18 1,208.79 1,272.50 1,370.62 1,453.15 1,619.45

Age Under 19 Years 29.6% 28.3% 28.0% 27.9% 27.9% 27.9% 27.9% 27.9% 28.0% 27.6% 26.6%

Age 20 to 34 22.3% 22.8% 22.9% 22.8% 22.7% 22.5% 22.2% 20.7% 18.8% 18.4% 19.1%

Age 35 to 49 21.5% 19.6% 19.2% 18.9% 18.7% 18.5% 18.4% 19.0% 20.1% 20.0% 17.8%

Age 50 to 64 16.4% 18.3% 18.6% 18.7% 18.9% 18.9% 19.0% 18.4% 16.9% 16.3% 18.4%

Age 65 and over 10.3% 11.0% 11.3% 11.6% 11.9% 12.2% 12.6% 13.9% 16.2% 17.6% 18.0%

Median Age of Population (years) 34.6 35.7 35.8 36.0 36.2 36.4 36.5 37.5 38.9 39.9 40.5

White Population (in thousands) 65.3% 62.4% 62.2% 61.9% 61.7% 61.5% 61.2% 60.3% 59.0% 57.9% 55.5%

Black Population (in thousands) 29.4% 31.1% 31.1% 31.2% 31.3% 31.4% 31.4% 31.7% 32.2% 32.5% 33.0%

Native American Population (in thousands) 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

1.5% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 2.0% 2.1% 2.2% 2.5%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

2.6% 3.7% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 4.3% 4.4% 4.9% 5.5% 6.2% 7.9%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.7% 48.9% 48.8% 48.8% 48.8% 48.9% 48.9% 48.9% 49.0% 49.0% 49.1%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 606.81 674.25 681.06 691.34 701.78 712.40 723.17 767.88 840.17 905.55 1,051.77

Farm Employment 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Mining 1.5% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 1.3%

Utilities 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Construction 9.8% 8.9% 8.9% 8.8% 8.8% 8.7% 8.6% 8.4% 8.0% 7.6% 7.0%

Manufacturing 6.8% 6.2% 6.4% 6.3% 6.2% 6.1% 6.0% 5.7% 5.2% 4.7% 4.0%

Wholesale Trade 3.2% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7% 2.6% 2.5% 2.3%

Retail Trade 10.9% 10.3% 10.2% 10.2% 10.1% 10.1% 10.0% 9.8% 9.5% 9.2% 8.5%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.4% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5%

Information Employment 1.4% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9%

Finance and Insurance 3.5% 3.9% 4.1% 4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.8% 3.5%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.6% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2%
Tables Tables-35

Table 4-13. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Professional and Technical Services 4.8% 5.2% 5.1% 5.2% 5.2% 5.3% 5.3% 5.5% 5.7% 5.9% 6.3%

Management 1.0% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3%

Administrative and Waste Services 5.8% 6.2% 6.3% 6.4% 6.5% 6.7% 6.8% 7.2% 7.9% 8.5% 9.8%

Educational Services 1.1% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.7% 1.8% 2.0%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.0% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 11.0% 11.8% 12.5% 13.9%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.3% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.9%

Accommodation and Food Services 6.6% 6.3% 6.6% 6.7% 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 7.0% 7.2% 7.5% 7.9%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

6.7% 6.9% 6.8% 6.9% 7.0% 7.0% 7.1% 7.4% 7.9% 8.3% 9.0%

Federal Civilian Government 0.6% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Federal Military 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6%

State and Local Government 15.6% 14.5% 14.0% 13.8% 13.7% 13.5% 13.4% 12.8% 11.9% 11.2% 9.8%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 26,073.66 31,814.85 32,091.25 32,704.47 33,455.43 34,223.77 35,009.88 38,340.94 43,948.74 49,252.34 61,885.78

Farm 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 2.6% 3.0% 2.7% 2.8% 2.8% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4% 2.1%

Utilities 0.7% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Construction 10.3% 11.0% 11.0% 10.7% 10.5% 10.4% 10.3% 9.8% 9.0% 8.4% 7.3%

Manufacturing 12.4% 11.7% 12.3% 12.4% 12.2% 12.1% 11.9% 11.4% 10.5% 9.9% 8.5%

Wholesale Trade 4.4% 3.9% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.8% 3.7% 3.5%

Retail Trade 7.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.1% 6.0% 5.9% 5.6% 5.2% 4.8% 4.2%

Transportation and Warehousing 6.0% 7.3% 7.5% 7.7% 7.7% 7.7% 7.7% 7.8% 7.8% 7.8% 7.7%

Information 1.7% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4%

Finance and Insurance 4.3% 4.2% 4.5% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.2%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.1% 2.3% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 2.0% 1.9%

Professional and Technical Services 6.0% 6.4% 6.3% 6.5% 6.5% 6.6% 6.7% 7.1% 7.7% 8.1% 9.1%

Management 1.4% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.9% 2.0% 2.2% 2.4% 2.8%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.5% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 4.2% 4.6% 5.3% 5.8% 7.1%

Educational Services 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 1.1%

Health Care and Social Assistance 9.2% 9.6% 9.6% 9.8% 10.0% 10.2% 10.3% 11.0% 12.1% 12.9% 14.7%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7%
Tables-36 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-13. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Accommodation and Food Services 2.7% 2.5% 2.6% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.8% 3.0% 3.1% 3.3%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.3% 4.6% 4.8% 5.2%

Federal Civilian Government 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0%

Federal Military 0.9% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

State and Local Government 17.5% 16.5% 15.8% 15.7% 15.6% 15.5% 15.4% 15.0% 14.4% 13.8% 12.6%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

32,957 36,886 37,501 37,603 37,902 38,242 38,616 40,361 43,609 46,795 54,473

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

78.2 89.3 89.2 88.6 88.5 88.5 88.4 88.1 87.7 87.4 87.2

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

87,838 98,809 100,044 101,039 101,133 101,396 101,805 104,964 112,932 121,677 143,312

Number of Households (in thousands) 394.36 426.46 430.14 432.63 441.37 450.02 458.52 489.30 529.27 558.86 615.56

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

10.7% 9.7% 9.7% 9.2% 9.2% 9.1% 9.0% 8.6% 7.7% 7.0% 5.8%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 13.1% 13.4% 13.4% 13.5% 13.4% 13.3% 13.2% 12.5% 11.3% 10.3% 8.5%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 11.6% 11.3% 11.3% 11.2% 11.2% 11.1% 10.9% 10.4% 9.4% 8.6% 7.1%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 15.6% 14.9% 15.1% 14.6% 14.6% 14.5% 14.4% 13.8% 12.5% 11.4% 9.5%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 12.3% 12.1% 11.9% 11.8% 11.8% 11.9% 11.9% 12.1% 12.1% 11.4% 9.5%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.6% 9.7% 9.9% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 10.0% 10.5% 11.5% 12.3% 12.5%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 11.6% 11.6% 11.5% 12.2% 12.2% 12.3% 12.5% 13.1% 14.5% 15.9% 19.2%

Income $100,000 or more 15.6% 17.3% 17.2% 17.7% 17.8% 18.0% 18.1% 19.0% 21.0% 23.0% 27.9%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-37

Table 4-14

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-4 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 1,431.31 1,242.69 1,260.01 1,267.26 1,274.66 1,282.17 1,289.69 1,319.60 1,362.75 1,395.73 1,453.72

Age Under 19 Years 28.0% 26.1% 25.8% 25.8% 25.7% 25.7% 25.7% 26.0% 26.0% 25.7% 24.8%

Age 20 to 34 20.6% 21.3% 21.5% 21.4% 21.3% 21.1% 20.8% 19.1% 17.2% 17.3% 18.5%

Age 35 to 49 22.2% 20.1% 19.6% 19.3% 19.1% 19.0% 18.9% 19.6% 20.8% 20.3% 17.3%

Age 50 to 64 17.9% 20.3% 20.6% 20.7% 20.7% 20.8% 20.8% 20.0% 18.1% 17.5% 19.7%

Age 65 and over 11.4% 12.3% 12.5% 12.8% 13.1% 13.4% 13.8% 15.3% 17.8% 19.3% 19.6%

Median Age of Population (years) 36.0 36.7 36.8 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 38.1 39.3 39.8 40.0

White Population (in thousands) 53.7% 54.8% 54.5% 54.3% 54.1% 53.8% 53.6% 52.8% 51.5% 50.4% 48.4%

Black Population (in thousands) 38.1% 34.5% 34.6% 34.6% 34.6% 34.5% 34.5% 34.4% 34.1% 33.9% 33.2%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population (in thousands) 2.4% 2.8% 2.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 3.0% 3.1% 3.4% 3.6% 3.8%

Hispanic or Latino Population (in thousands) 5.4% 7.6% 7.7% 7.9% 8.1% 8.3% 8.5% 9.3% 10.5% 11.6% 14.2%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.1% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.7% 48.8% 48.8% 48.9% 48.9% 49.0% 49.0%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 740.50 750.90 758.43 766.12 773.87 781.67 789.50 821.31 870.47 912.81 1,001.64

Farm Employment 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Mining 1.3% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.2% 1.0%

Utilities 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2%

Construction 6.2% 6.6% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 6.4% 6.4% 6.3% 6.1% 6.0% 5.7%

Manufacturing 5.6% 5.0% 4.8% 4.7% 4.6% 4.5% 4.4% 4.1% 3.6% 3.3% 2.6%

Wholesale Trade 3.6% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.2%

Retail Trade 10.0% 9.4% 9.5% 9.5% 9.5% 9.5% 9.4% 9.4% 9.3% 9.3% 9.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.1% 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9%

Information Employment 1.6% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1%

Finance and Insurance 3.9% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.2% 4.2% 4.0% 3.8% 3.6% 3.3%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 4.0% 4.5% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.6% 4.7% 4.7% 4.7%

Professional and Technical Services 5.7% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 6.5% 6.4% 6.4% 6.4% 6.2%

Management 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%
Tables-38 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-14. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-4 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Administrative and Waste Services 6.4% 6.7% 6.6% 6.6% 6.7% 6.7% 6.8% 7.0% 7.3% 7.5% 8.1%

Educational Services 3.1% 3.2% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.6% 3.6% 3.8%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.8% 9.3% 9.4% 9.5% 9.6% 9.7% 9.8% 10.2% 10.8% 11.4% 12.6%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.8% 2.9% 3.1%

Accommodation and Food Services 8.8% 9.0% 9.4% 9.4% 9.5% 9.5% 9.6% 9.8% 10.1% 10.3% 10.7%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 6.5% 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 6.9% 6.9% 7.0% 7.2% 7.5% 7.8% 8.4%

Federal Civilian Government 2.1% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.4%

Federal Military 1.4% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9%

State and Local Government 11.9% 11.0% 10.5% 10.4% 10.3% 10.2% 10.1% 9.8% 9.2% 8.7% 7.9%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 36,490.43 38,052.69 38,259.52 39,141.19 39,862.24 40,594.91 41,339.39 44,439.04 49,474.55 54,052.90 64,373.74

Farm 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 4.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.2% 3.1% 2.9% 2.6%

Utilities 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8%

Construction 6.5% 7.4% 7.5% 7.6% 7.5% 7.4% 7.4% 7.1% 6.6% 6.3% 5.6%

Manufacturing 8.6% 9.2% 9.0% 8.7% 8.6% 8.5% 8.3% 7.8% 7.0% 6.5% 5.4%

Wholesale Trade 5.3% 5.1% 5.2% 5.2% 5.2% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4% 5.5% 5.6% 5.7%

Retail Trade 6.2% 5.7% 5.8% 5.7% 5.7% 5.6% 5.6% 5.4% 5.1% 4.9% 4.4%

Transportation and Warehousing 5.1% 5.3% 5.4% 5.4% 5.3% 5.3% 5.2% 5.1% 4.9% 4.7% 4.3%

Information 1.7% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.5% 1.5%

Finance and Insurance 5.1% 4.4% 4.6% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.7% 4.6% 4.4% 4.2% 3.9%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6%

Professional and Technical Services 8.0% 9.5% 9.6% 9.7% 9.7% 9.8% 9.8% 10.0% 10.2% 10.4% 10.6%

Management 1.8% 1.8% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.1% 2.2% 2.3% 2.4% 2.7%

Administrative and Waste Services 4.0% 4.3% 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.4% 4.7% 5.0% 5.6%

Educational Services 2.2% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.9% 3.0% 3.3%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.7% 9.5% 9.5% 9.6% 9.7% 9.8% 10.0% 10.5% 11.3% 12.0% 13.4%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.1% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.2%

Accommodation and Food Services 4.4% 4.5% 4.7% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 5.0% 5.1% 5.3% 5.6%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 3.7% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.1% 4.2% 4.4% 4.6% 4.9%

Federal Civilian Government 4.2% 3.6% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.6% 3.7% 3.7% 3.9%
Tables Tables-39

Table 4-14. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area LA-4 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Federal Military 1.8% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8%

State and Local Government 12.1% 12.3% 11.7% 11.6% 11.6% 11.5% 11.5% 11.3% 10.9% 10.7% 10.1%

Total Personal Income per Capita (in 2005 dollars) 34,100 41,089 41,125 41,603 41,989 42,430 42,914 45,159 49,294 53,302 62,818

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index (U.S. = 100) 77.3 93.7 91.3 90.1 89.9 89.8 89.7 89.1 88.4 87.8 86.7

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

91,188 105,654 105,247 107,289 107,566 108,042 108,686 112,963 122,998 133,719 159,824

Number of Households (in thousands) 535.25 483.28 492.35 491.40 497.57 503.54 509.23 527.53 546.16 556.36 571.38

Income < $10,000 (thousands of households, 2000$) 10.8% 9.8% 10.7% 10.6% 10.5% 10.4% 10.3% 9.7% 8.6% 7.7% 6.2%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 13.8% 13.2% 13.3% 13.4% 13.4% 13.2% 13.1% 12.4% 11.1% 10.0% 8.2%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 12.3% 11.9% 11.8% 12.0% 12.0% 11.9% 11.7% 11.2% 10.1% 9.1% 7.6%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 16.0% 15.1% 15.4% 14.9% 14.9% 14.8% 14.7% 14.3% 13.1% 12.0% 10.0%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 12.0% 12.0% 11.9% 11.8% 11.8% 11.9% 12.0% 12.2% 12.3% 12.0% 10.5%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 8.8% 9.5% 9.4% 9.2% 9.2% 9.3% 9.4% 9.9% 10.9% 11.6% 11.9%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 10.6% 11.0% 10.8% 11.0% 11.1% 11.2% 11.3% 11.9% 13.3% 14.7% 17.6%

Income $100,000 or more 16.1% 17.5% 16.7% 17.0% 17.1% 17.3% 17.5% 18.5% 20.7% 22.9% 27.9%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-40 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-15

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area MS-1 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 483.49 482.30 486.36 490.07 493.86 497.70 501.55 516.98 539.66 557.55 590.34

Age Under 19 Years 28.4% 27.7% 27.4% 27.3% 27.2% 27.2% 27.2% 27.6% 27.6% 27.2% 26.4%

Age 20 to 34 19.8% 19.9% 20.1% 20.1% 20.0% 19.8% 19.6% 18.4% 17.6% 17.6% 18.6%

Age 35 to 49 22.0% 20.3% 19.9% 19.6% 19.3% 19.1% 18.9% 19.0% 19.1% 18.9% 17.5%

Age 50 to 64 17.8% 19.4% 19.7% 19.8% 19.9% 20.1% 20.1% 19.7% 18.4% 17.5% 18.1%

Age 65 and over 12.0% 12.7% 12.9% 13.2% 13.6% 13.8% 14.2% 15.3% 17.3% 18.8% 19.3%

Median Age of Population (years) 36.4 37.4 37.5 37.7 37.8 37.9 38.0 38.5 39.0 39.6 39.7

White Population (in thousands) 75.8% 73.9% 73.2% 73.0% 72.8% 72.7% 72.5% 71.8% 70.7% 69.7% 67.9%

Black Population (in thousands) 18.7% 19.3% 19.8% 19.9% 19.9% 20.0% 20.0% 20.3% 20.7% 21.0% 21.5%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

2.0% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

3.0% 4.2% 4.4% 4.5% 4.6% 4.7% 4.8% 5.3% 5.9% 6.6% 7.9%

Male Population (in thousands) 49.7% 49.9% 49.9% 49.9% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.7%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 238.83 241.07 237.96 240.09 242.26 244.42 246.60 255.42 269.01 280.64 304.84

Farm Employment 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

Mining 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2%

Utilities 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7%

Construction 7.5% 8.0% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.4% 7.3% 7.2%

Manufacturing 9.5% 9.4% 8.7% 8.6% 8.5% 8.3% 8.2% 7.7% 7.1% 6.5% 5.6%

Wholesale Trade 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3%

Retail Trade 10.9% 10.3% 10.5% 10.5% 10.6% 10.6% 10.6% 10.6% 10.7% 10.7% 10.7%

Transportation and Warehousing 2.4% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2%

Information Employment 1.4% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%

Finance and Insurance 2.5% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.1% 3.4% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 3.8% 3.9% 4.0%
Tables Tables-41

Table 4-15. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area MS-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Professional and Technical Services 3.8% 4.1% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.5% 4.6% 4.8%

Management 0.5% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Administrative and Waste Services 5.4% 6.7% 6.4% 6.5% 6.5% 6.6% 6.7% 7.1% 7.6% 8.1% 9.1%

Educational Services 0.5% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 1.2% 1.3% 1.7%

Health Care and Social Assistance 6.3% 6.4% 6.6% 6.7% 6.7% 6.8% 6.9% 7.1% 7.5% 7.8% 8.4%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.5% 2.6%

Accommodation and Food Services 12.0% 10.4% 11.0% 10.9% 10.9% 10.8% 10.8% 10.6% 10.4% 10.1% 9.6%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

5.5% 5.0% 5.1% 5.1% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4% 5.7% 6.1% 6.5% 7.4%

Federal Civilian Government 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.7% 3.5% 3.4% 3.2%

Federal Military 5.7% 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.3% 5.3% 5.2% 5.1% 4.9% 4.7% 4.3%

State and Local Government 12.3% 12.9% 12.9% 12.8% 12.8% 12.7% 12.7% 12.4% 12.0% 11.7% 11.0%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 10,100.79 10,982.84 10,749.28 10,953.83 11,146.80 11,342.69 11,541.49 12,366.85 13,699.64 14,902.96 17,585.88

Farm 0.3% 0.0% 0.0% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5%

Mining 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Utilities 2.1% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0%

Construction 6.0% 8.1% 7.7% 7.7% 7.6% 7.6% 7.5% 7.3% 7.0% 6.7% 6.2%

Manufacturing 15.4% 16.6% 16.0% 15.7% 15.5% 15.3% 15.2% 14.4% 13.4% 12.5% 10.9%

Wholesale Trade 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.5%

Retail Trade 7.0% 6.2% 6.4% 6.3% 6.3% 6.3% 6.2% 6.0% 5.8% 5.5% 5.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0% 1.9%

Information 1.4% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0%

Finance and Insurance 2.1% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.4% 2.4% 2.4%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.1%

Professional and Technical Services 4.6% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 5.1% 5.1% 5.2% 5.4% 5.7% 6.0% 6.6%

Management 0.6% 0.6% 0.9% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9% 1.0%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.1% 3.9% 3.5% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 3.7% 3.9% 4.3% 4.6% 5.2%

Educational Services 0.3% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8% 1.1%

Health Care and Social Assistance 6.7% 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 6.9% 7.0% 7.1% 7.4% 7.8% 8.2% 8.9%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.5% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4%
Tables-42 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-15. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area MS-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Accommodation and Food Services 7.9% 5.9% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 5.9% 5.8% 5.7% 5.4%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

3.3% 3.2% 3.2% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.6% 3.9% 4.1% 4.6%

Federal Civilian Government 8.4% 7.9% 8.1% 8.1% 8.1% 8.1% 8.1% 8.2% 8.3% 8.3% 8.4%

Federal Military 10.2% 9.9% 9.8% 9.8% 9.8% 9.9% 9.9% 10.0% 10.2% 10.4% 10.7%

State and Local Government 13.2% 14.4% 14.5% 14.5% 14.5% 14.5% 14.4% 14.3% 14.2% 14.0% 13.7%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

29,738 32,644 32,301 32,500 32,751 33,038 33,352 34,810 37,493 40,086 46,208

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

67.8 74.6 71.8 71.8 71.7 71.7 71.6 71.1 70.2 69.5 67.9

Persons per Household 

(in number of people)

2.6 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.7

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

78,314 87,120 85,836 87,060 87,186 87,453 87,845 90,693 97,647 105,151 123,335

Number of Households (in thousands) 183.59 180.72 183.02 182.95 185.52 188.02 190.43 198.43 207.21 212.55 221.17

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

9.5% 8.9% 9.3% 9.3% 9.3% 9.2% 9.1% 8.7% 7.8% 7.0% 5.6%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 13.4% 13.5% 13.5% 13.8% 13.8% 13.7% 13.5% 13.0% 11.7% 10.6% 8.5%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 13.0% 12.5% 12.9% 12.7% 12.6% 12.5% 12.4% 11.8% 10.6% 9.5% 7.6%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 17.9% 16.3% 16.2% 16.2% 16.2% 16.0% 15.9% 15.3% 13.6% 12.3% 9.8%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 13.8% 13.4% 13.5% 13.2% 13.2% 13.4% 13.5% 14.0% 14.6% 14.3% 11.9%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.5% 10.6% 10.6% 10.4% 10.4% 10.5% 10.6% 11.1% 12.4% 13.8% 15.7%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 10.7% 11.4% 10.9% 11.4% 11.5% 11.6% 11.7% 12.3% 13.7% 15.3% 19.3%

Income $100,000 or more 12.3% 13.3% 13.1% 13.0% 13.0% 13.2% 13.3% 13.9% 15.6% 17.3% 21.6%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-43

Table 4-16

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-1 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 1,643.97 1,799.29 1,827.28 1,856.04 1,885.42 1,915.39 1,945.76 2,071.28 2,270.08 2,443.43 2,812.12

Age Under 19 Years 35.4% 34.9% 34.7% 34.5% 34.3% 34.2% 34.1% 33.7% 32.6% 32.2% 31.1%

Age 20 to 34 21.4% 20.5% 20.6% 20.5% 20.5% 20.4% 20.3% 20.0% 20.4% 20.2% 20.2%

Age 35 to 49 18.9% 18.7% 18.5% 18.5% 18.4% 18.2% 18.1% 17.9% 17.0% 16.8% 16.9%

Age 50 to 64 13.7% 15.1% 15.1% 15.2% 15.3% 15.4% 15.4% 15.4% 15.4% 15.2% 14.5%

Age 65 and over 10.6% 10.9% 11.1% 11.3% 11.5% 11.8% 12.0% 13.0% 14.6% 15.7% 17.2%

Median Age of Population (years) 33.8 35.7 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 36.2 36.7 37.0 37.4

White Population (in thousands) 18.2% 16.1% 15.8% 15.5% 15.3% 15.0% 14.8% 13.8% 12.5% 11.5% 9.8%

Black Population (in thousands) 1.2% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.2% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

0.9% 1.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

79.5% 81.6% 81.7% 82.0% 82.3% 82.5% 82.8% 83.7% 85.1% 86.1% 87.9%

Male Population (in thousands) 48.8% 48.8% 48.9% 48.9% 48.9% 48.9% 48.8% 48.8% 48.7% 48.6% 48.3%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 728.91 806.89 820.21 834.82 849.66 864.76 880.09 943.92 1,047.62 1,141.91 1,354.68

Farm Employment 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.1% 1.0% 0.7%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9%

Mining 1.8% 2.2% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.5% 2.4% 2.2% 2.0% 1.8%

Utilities 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Construction 7.2% 6.3% 6.0% 6.0% 5.9% 5.9% 5.8% 5.6% 5.4% 5.1% 4.7%

Manufacturing 4.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.0% 3.0% 2.9% 2.9% 2.7% 2.4% 2.1% 1.8%

Wholesale Trade 2.8% 2.6% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4% 2.3% 2.0%

Retail Trade 12.0% 11.6% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.5% 11.4%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4%

Information Employment 1.2% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8%

Finance and Insurance 3.1% 3.7% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.0% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.0% 3.0% 2.9%
Tables-44 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-16. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Professional and Technical Services 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.5% 3.6%

Management 0.2% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Administrative and Waste Services 5.4% 5.6% 5.7% 5.8% 5.8% 5.9% 5.9% 6.1% 6.3% 6.5% 6.8%

Educational Services 0.9% 1.0% 1.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3%

Health Care and Social Assistance 15.6% 17.4% 17.6% 17.8% 18.0% 18.3% 18.5% 19.4% 20.8% 22.0% 24.5%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0%

Accommodation and Food Services 7.2% 7.4% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.5% 7.6% 7.6% 7.8% 7.8% 7.9%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

6.5% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.2% 6.3% 6.4%

Federal Civilian Government 1.7% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 1.3%

Federal Military 1.3% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6%

State and Local Government 15.1% 14.9% 14.5% 14.4% 14.3% 14.2% 14.1% 13.7% 13.1% 12.6% 11.5%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 26,195.82 30,353.80 31,195.76 31,890.93 32,754.54 33,640.93 34,550.73 38,436.40 45,079.92 51,469.18 67,061.12

Farm 1.6% 1.2% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8% 0.7% 0.5%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Mining 3.6% 4.5% 5.7% 5.5% 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.2% 4.9% 4.6% 4.1%

Utilities 0.6% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7%

Construction 7.5% 7.1% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.6% 6.5% 6.2% 5.6% 5.2% 4.4%

Manufacturing 5.9% 4.9% 5.0% 5.0% 4.9% 4.8% 4.7% 4.4% 4.0% 3.7% 3.1%

Wholesale Trade 4.2% 3.8% 4.1% 4.1% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 3.9% 3.8% 3.7% 3.4%

Retail Trade 8.8% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 7.9% 7.8% 7.6% 7.2% 6.8% 6.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.6% 4.3% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.4% 4.3% 4.3% 4.1%

Information 1.5% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.3%

Finance and Insurance 3.4% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.1% 3.2% 3.2% 3.4%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1%

Professional and Technical Services 4.6% 3.8% 3.7% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.9% 4.0% 4.2% 4.3% 4.6%

Management 0.1% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.3%

Administrative and Waste Services 3.0% 3.2% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.5% 3.7% 3.9% 4.0% 4.4%

Educational Services 0.6% 0.7% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.8% 0.8% 0.9%

Health Care and Social Assistance 14.9% 17.0% 16.6% 17.0% 17.2% 17.5% 17.8% 18.9% 20.7% 22.2% 25.4%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%
Tables Tables-45

Table 4-16. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-1 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Accommodation and Food Services 3.4% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.5% 3.6% 3.7% 3.7%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

4.5% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.4% 4.5%

Federal Civilian Government 4.9% 5.4% 5.4% 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.3% 5.1% 4.9% 4.6%

Federal Military 2.8% 2.4% 2.3% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.2% 2.1% 2.1% 2.0%

State and Local Government 17.8% 18.4% 17.6% 17.6% 17.6% 17.6% 17.6% 17.5% 17.2% 17.0% 16.4%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

22,661 25,356 25,749 25,916 26,191 26,491 26,810 28,248 30,827 33,327 39,329

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

67.9 76.7 79.3 78.6 79.0 79.3 79.5 80.5 81.4 82.1 83.1

Persons per Household (in number of people) 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

72,965 82,534 83,514 84,735 85,117 85,625 86,245 89,976 98,320 107,222 129,227

Number of Households (in thousands) 510.57 552.77 563.40 567.67 580.16 592.58 604.86 650.28 711.76 759.46 855.84

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

15.0% 14.5% 14.3% 13.7% 13.6% 13.5% 13.3% 12.6% 11.1% 9.9% 8.0%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 18.0% 17.9% 17.7% 17.3% 17.1% 16.9% 16.7% 15.8% 13.9% 12.4% 10.0%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 14.5% 13.6% 13.7% 13.6% 13.5% 13.4% 13.2% 12.6% 11.0% 9.8% 7.8%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 15.4% 16.0% 16.1% 16.1% 16.1% 16.2% 16.3% 16.4% 15.9% 14.5% 11.7%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 11.0% 11.2% 11.1% 11.2% 11.2% 11.4% 11.5% 12.1% 13.6% 14.7% 14.8%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 7.6% 8.0% 8.4% 8.5% 8.6% 8.7% 8.8% 9.2% 10.6% 11.8% 14.4%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 8.2% 8.1% 7.9% 8.5% 8.6% 8.7% 8.8% 9.2% 10.5% 11.8% 14.6%

Income $100,000 or more 10.3% 10.6% 10.7% 11.1% 11.2% 11.3% 11.4% 12.0% 13.6% 15.1% 18.7%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-46 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-17

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-2 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 581.75 626.91 633.41 642.00 650.77 659.71 668.77 706.06 764.62 815.09 920.51

Age Under 19 Years 29.6% 29.1% 29.0% 29.0% 29.0% 29.0% 29.1% 29.3% 29.3% 29.2% 29.1%

Age 20 to 34 18.6% 18.3% 18.5% 18.4% 18.4% 18.3% 18.3% 17.9% 18.5% 18.9% 19.8%

Age 35 to 49 22.3% 20.6% 20.1% 19.8% 19.4% 19.2% 19.0% 18.6% 17.5% 17.2% 17.4%

Age 50 to 64 17.1% 19.2% 19.4% 19.6% 19.6% 19.7% 19.7% 19.0% 17.4% 16.4% 15.3%

Age 65 and over 12.4% 12.8% 13.0% 13.2% 13.5% 13.8% 14.0% 15.2% 17.2% 18.3% 18.5%

Median Age of Population (years) 39.1 40.5 40.5 40.6 40.6 40.5 40.4 40.2 39.2 38.2 36.4

White Population (in thousands) 58.3% 54.0% 53.3% 52.6% 52.0% 51.3% 50.7% 48.2% 44.4% 41.3% 35.2%

Black Population (in thousands) 9.3% 10.2% 10.3% 10.4% 10.4% 10.5% 10.6% 10.8% 11.2% 11.6% 12.5%

Native American Population (in thousands) 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population (in thousands) 2.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.5% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 4.0% 4.3% 4.6% 5.0%

Hispanic or Latino Population (in thousands) 29.6% 32.1% 32.6% 33.2% 33.7% 34.2% 34.7% 36.7% 39.7% 42.2% 47.0%

Male Population (in thousands) 50.2% 50.2% 50.2% 50.2% 50.1% 50.1% 50.1% 50.1% 50.0% 49.9% 49.6%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 287.61 305.43 312.06 316.94 321.93 326.99 332.14 353.64 388.77 420.92 493.98

Farm Employment 7.4% 6.9% 6.6% 6.6% 6.5% 6.5% 6.4% 6.2% 5.8% 5.6% 5.0%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8%

Mining 2.4% 3.2% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.7% 3.8% 3.9% 4.0% 4.2%

Utilities 1.0% 1.0% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7%

Construction 9.6% 8.9% 9.2% 9.2% 9.3% 9.3% 9.3% 9.5% 9.6% 9.8% 10.1%

Manufacturing 9.8% 8.7% 8.9% 8.8% 8.7% 8.6% 8.5% 8.1% 7.6% 7.2% 6.3%

Wholesale Trade 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8% 2.8%

Retail Trade 11.3% 11.1% 10.9% 10.9% 10.9% 10.9% 10.9% 11.0% 11.0% 11.1% 11.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 2.8% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.7% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4%

Information Employment 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Finance and Insurance 3.4% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.4% 4.5% 4.7% 4.9% 5.3%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 3.4% 3.7% 3.8% 3.8% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 4.1% 4.3%

Professional and Technical Services 3.9% 4.1% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.4% 4.5%

Management 0.2% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5%
Tables Tables-47

Table 4-17. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Administrative and Waste Services 4.6% 4.2% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.4% 4.4% 4.5% 4.7% 4.8% 5.1%

Educational Services 0.9% 1.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4%

Health Care and Social Assistance 7.4% 8.2% 8.0% 8.1% 8.2% 8.3% 8.4% 8.7% 9.2% 9.6% 10.5%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2%

Accommodation and Food Services 5.6% 5.9% 6.1% 6.1% 6.2% 6.2% 6.2% 6.4% 6.7% 6.9% 7.4%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 6.5% 6.0% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.8% 5.7%

Federal Civilian Government 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.2%

Federal Military 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3%

State and Local Government 12.9% 13.0% 12.5% 12.4% 12.2% 12.1% 12.0% 11.6% 11.0% 10.4% 9.4%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 11,144.90 12,256.96 12,903.46 13,073.11 13,410.85 13,757.68 14,113.81 15,636.58 18,246.55 20,763.13 26,920.43

Farm 3.5% 1.7% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.8% 1.7% 1.6% 1.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5%

Mining 4.3% 4.6% 5.2% 5.3% 5.4% 5.4% 5.5% 5.7% 6.0% 6.3% 6.9%

Utilities 2.7% 2.8% 2.4% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.7% 2.8%

Construction 11.7% 11.7% 12.3% 12.2% 12.2% 12.2% 12.1% 12.0% 11.7% 11.5% 11.0%

Manufacturing 20.2% 18.5% 19.0% 19.0% 18.8% 18.6% 18.4% 17.7% 16.6% 15.7% 13.9%

Wholesale Trade 3.5% 4.3% 4.3% 3.8% 3.8% 3.8% 3.9% 4.0% 4.1% 4.3% 4.5%

Retail Trade 8.1% 8.1% 7.8% 7.8% 7.8% 7.7% 7.6% 7.4% 7.0% 6.7% 6.1%

Transportation and Warehousing 3.2% 3.4% 3.5% 3.1% 3.1% 3.0% 3.0% 2.9% 2.8% 2.7% 2.5%

Information 0.8% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Finance and Insurance 3.0% 2.9% 2.9% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.2% 3.4% 3.6% 3.9% 4.4%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 1.5% 1.7% 2.0% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0%

Professional and Technical Services 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 3.9% 4.0% 4.0% 4.2% 4.4% 4.6% 5.0%

Management 0.1% 0.2% 0.2% 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8%

Administrative and Waste Services 2.5% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.7% 2.9% 3.1% 3.4%

Educational Services 0.4% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7%

Health Care and Social Assistance 6.8% 8.1% 7.7% 7.8% 8.0% 8.1% 8.2% 8.7% 9.5% 10.1% 11.5%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.4% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4%

Accommodation and Food Services 2.2% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.5% 2.6% 2.8% 2.9% 3.2%

Other Services, Except Public Administration 5.2% 4.9% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 4.7%
Tables-48 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-17. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-2 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Federal Civilian Government 0.9% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6%

Federal Military 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

State and Local Government 13.9% 14.7% 13.8% 13.9% 13.9% 13.8% 13.8% 13.6% 13.3% 13.0% 12.4%

Total Personal Income per Capita (in 2005 dollars) 32,034 35,398 36,450 36,559 36,972 37,417 37,889 40,006 43,822 47,528 56,453

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index (U.S. = 100) 78.4 86.3 87.2 87.2 87.5 87.7 88.0 89.0 90.7 92.2 95.5

Persons per Household (in number of people) 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

88,006 98,664 101,206 102,374 102,941 103,653 104,498 109,413 120,299 131,909 160,791

Number of Households (in thousands) 211.75 224.92 228.13 229.27 233.73 238.15 242.49 258.17 278.53 293.69 323.19

Income < $10,000 (thousands of households, 2000$) 7.6% 7.0% 7.0% 6.9% 6.8% 6.8% 6.7% 6.2% 5.5% 5.0% 4.0%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 12.3% 11.9% 11.8% 12.1% 12.0% 11.8% 11.7% 10.9% 9.6% 8.7% 6.9%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 11.7% 11.2% 11.2% 10.9% 10.8% 10.7% 10.6% 9.9% 8.8% 8.0% 6.3%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 15.2% 14.3% 14.4% 14.1% 14.1% 14.0% 13.8% 13.0% 11.6% 10.6% 8.6%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 12.7% 12.4% 12.8% 13.0% 13.0% 13.0% 13.0% 13.1% 12.7% 11.8% 9.4%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.9% 10.1% 10.0% 9.9% 9.9% 10.0% 10.1% 10.5% 11.0% 11.3% 10.6%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 12.4% 12.2% 11.7% 11.9% 12.0% 12.1% 12.2% 13.0% 14.5% 15.8% 18.6%

Income $100,000 or more 18.2% 20.8% 21.0% 21.3% 21.4% 21.7% 21.9% 23.3% 26.2% 28.7% 35.6%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-49

Table 4-18

Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-3 

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Total Population (in thousands) 5,518.20 6,202.21 6,309.03 6,421.63 6,536.83 6,654.44 6,773.88 7,269.96 8,063.83 8,764.06 10,272.30

Age Under 19 Years 30.7% 30.3% 30.1% 30.1% 30.1% 30.1% 30.1% 30.1% 29.7% 29.5% 29.1%

Age 20 to 34 22.2% 21.8% 21.8% 21.7% 21.6% 21.5% 21.4% 20.8% 21.0% 21.1% 21.3%

Age 35 to 49 22.8% 21.3% 21.0% 20.8% 20.5% 20.4% 20.3% 20.1% 19.2% 18.7% 18.4%

Age 50 to 64 15.8% 17.5% 17.7% 17.8% 17.9% 17.9% 17.9% 17.4% 16.4% 15.9% 15.4%

Age 65 and over 8.5% 9.1% 9.3% 9.6% 9.8% 10.1% 10.4% 11.6% 13.6% 14.7% 15.7%

Median Age of Population (years) 37.4 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.5 38.5 38.6 38.7 38.7 38.3

White Population (in thousands) 45.8% 41.7% 41.3% 40.6% 39.9% 39.3% 38.6% 36.1% 32.5% 29.8% 24.9%

Black Population (in thousands) 17.6% 17.8% 17.6% 17.5% 17.4% 17.3% 17.2% 16.7% 16.0% 15.4% 14.2%

Native American Population 

(in thousands)

0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

Asian and Pacific Islander Population 

(in thousands)

5.7% 6.5% 6.5% 6.7% 6.8% 6.9% 7.1% 7.6% 8.4% 9.0% 10.1%

Hispanic or Latino Population 

(in thousands)

30.6% 33.8% 34.2% 34.9% 35.5% 36.2% 36.8% 39.3% 42.8% 45.5% 50.5%

Male Population (in thousands) 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.8% 49.7% 49.6% 49.5% 49.2%

Total Employment (in thousands of jobs) 3,218.66 3,598.02 3,682.63 3,752.42 3,823.50 3,895.93 3,969.75 4,279.26 4,789.21 5,260.12 6,344.46

Farm Employment 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4% 0.4%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2% 0.2%

Mining 2.8% 3.2% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.5% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6%

Utilities 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.5% 0.4%

Construction 8.0% 7.5% 7.3% 7.3% 7.3% 7.4% 7.4% 7.4% 7.4% 7.5% 7.5%

Manufacturing 7.4% 6.8% 7.0% 6.9% 6.8% 6.7% 6.6% 6.2% 5.7% 5.3% 4.6%

Wholesale Trade 4.5% 4.4% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5% 4.5%

Retail Trade 10.2% 9.5% 9.4% 9.4% 9.4% 9.4% 9.3% 9.2% 9.1% 9.0% 8.7%

Transportation and Warehousing 4.3% 4.2% 4.2% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.1% 4.0% 3.9% 3.8% 3.5%

Information Employment 1.5% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.1% 1.0% 0.9% 0.8%

Finance and Insurance 4.5% 5.1% 5.2% 5.2% 5.2% 5.3% 5.3% 5.3% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4%
Tables-50 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-18. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 4.1% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.3% 4.2% 4.2% 4.2%

Professional and Technical Services 7.8% 7.9% 7.9% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 8.2% 8.3% 8.5% 8.7%

Management 0.6% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9% 0.9%

Administrative and Waste Services 7.4% 7.3% 7.6% 7.6% 7.7% 7.7% 7.8% 7.9% 8.2% 8.4% 8.8%

Educational Services 1.6% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.7% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8%

Health Care and Social Assistance 8.2% 9.2% 9.2% 9.3% 9.4% 9.5% 9.6% 10.1% 10.9% 11.5% 12.7%

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 1.5%

Accommodation and Food Services 6.5% 6.6% 6.7% 6.8% 6.8% 6.8% 6.9% 7.0% 7.2% 7.3% 7.6%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

6.0% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 5.9% 6.0% 6.1% 6.2% 6.2%

Federal Civilian Government 1.0% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.5%

Federal Military 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

State and Local Government 10.3% 9.9% 9.5% 9.4% 9.4% 9.3% 9.2% 8.8% 8.4% 8.0% 7.2%

Total Earnings (in millions of 2005 dollars) 202,185.34 226,898.60 237,509.70 244,420.42 251,920.11 259,653.01 267,626.35 302,075.94 362,333.17 421,701.96 571,319.56

Farm 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Forestry, Fishing, Related Activities 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1% 0.1%

Mining 12.3% 9.6% 10.5% 10.3% 10.3% 10.4% 10.4% 10.5% 10.7% 10.8% 10.8%

Utilities 1.6% 1.9% 1.8% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 1.9% 2.0% 2.0% 2.1%

Construction 8.2% 8.3% 8.0% 8.0% 8.0% 7.9% 7.9% 7.6% 7.3% 7.0% 6.5%

Manufacturing 11.7% 10.8% 11.0% 10.9% 10.7% 10.6% 10.4% 9.8% 8.9% 8.3% 7.0%

Wholesale Trade 6.2% 6.7% 6.9% 7.0% 7.0% 7.1% 7.1% 7.2% 7.3% 7.5% 7.7%

Retail Trade 5.2% 4.8% 4.8% 4.7% 4.7% 4.6% 4.6% 4.3% 4.0% 3.7% 3.2%

Transportation and Warehousing 5.6% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.1% 6.0% 6.0% 5.7% 5.4% 5.1% 4.6%

Information 1.7% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2%

Finance and Insurance 5.5% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.4% 5.5% 5.6% 5.7% 5.8% 6.0%

Real Estate/Rental and Lease 2.4% 1.9% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.8% 1.7% 1.7%

Professional and Technical Services 10.8% 11.5% 11.4% 11.5% 11.6% 11.7% 11.9% 12.3% 12.9% 13.4% 14.5%

Management 0.6% 1.2% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.4% 1.5% 1.6% 1.7% 2.1%

Administrative and Waste Services 4.4% 4.4% 4.7% 4.7% 4.8% 4.8% 4.8% 5.0% 5.3% 5.5% 5.9%

Educational Services 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 1.1% 1.1% 1.2% 1.2%

Health Care and Social Assistance 6.5% 7.6% 7.4% 7.5% 7.6% 7.8% 7.9% 8.3% 9.0% 9.6% 10.8%
Tables Tables-51

Table 4-18. Demographic and Employment Baseline Projections for Economic Impact Area TX-3 (continued).

2005 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2020 2025 2030 2040

Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.6%

Accommodation and Food Services 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.4% 2.4% 2.5% 2.6%

Other Services, Except Public 

Administration

3.1% 3.4% 3.3% 3.3% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4% 3.4%

Federal Civilian Government 1.7% 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.4% 1.4% 1.4% 1.3% 1.2% 1.1% 1.0%

Federal Military 0.3% 0.4% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3% 0.3%

State and Local Government 8.3% 8.9% 8.3% 8.3% 8.2% 8.2% 8.1% 8.0% 7.7% 7.5% 7.0%

Total Personal Income per Capita 

(in 2005 dollars)

42,471 43,854 45,374 46,029 46,517 47,060 47,647 50,340 55,300 60,188 72,156

Woods & Poole Economics Wealth Index 

(U.S. = 100)

84.6 93.3 93.5 93.6 93.6 93.7 93.7 93.6 93.5 93.5 93.7

Persons per Household 

(in number of people)

2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9

Mean Household Total Personal Income 

(in 2005 dollars)

116,971 124,887 128,705 131,731 132,446 133,388 134,530 141,237 156,159 172,160 212,416

Number of Households (in thousands) 2,003.61 2,177.90 2,224.21 2,243.83 2,295.85 2,347.73 2,399.14 2,591.20 2,855.59 3,063.95 3,489.41

Income < $10,000 

(thousands of households, 2000$)

7.0% 7.3% 7.5% 7.3% 7.3% 7.2% 7.1% 6.7% 6.0% 5.5% 4.3%

Income $10,000 to $19,999 10.4% 11.0% 11.0% 10.8% 10.7% 10.6% 10.5% 9.8% 8.8% 8.1% 6.4%

Income $20,000 to $29,999 10.6% 11.0% 10.7% 10.9% 10.8% 10.7% 10.6% 10.0% 9.0% 8.2% 6.6%

Income $30,000 to $44,999 14.5% 14.9% 15.0% 14.7% 14.7% 14.6% 14.4% 13.5% 12.2% 11.2% 9.0%

Income $45,000 to $59,999 12.4% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 12.0% 11.8% 11.0% 10.2% 8.2%

Income $60,000 to $74,999 9.5% 9.6% 9.9% 9.7% 9.7% 9.8% 9.9% 10.4% 11.1% 11.3% 9.8%

Income $75,000 to $99,999 12.5% 11.7% 11.7% 12.0% 12.1% 12.2% 12.3% 13.1% 14.4% 15.5% 17.8%

Income $100,000 or more 23.0% 22.6% 22.2% 22.5% 22.6% 22.9% 23.1% 24.7% 27.5% 30.0% 37.9%

Notes: Median Age and The Wealth Index are defined using averages of the original Woods & Poole values for the counties in the EIA; income per capita calculated using 

personal income/total population for the EIA; persons per household calculated using total population/number of households for the EIA. 

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables-52 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-19

Sales Volumes, Sales Values, and Revenues

Fiscal Year

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Panel A: Sales Volumes

Gas (royalty) (Mcf) 2,143,025,840 1,728,872,720 1,685,736,473 1,386,890,198 1,117,174,582 969,558,880

Gas (non-royalty) (Mcf) 319,971,195 462,806,700 359,380,589 274,566,212 228,879,954 197,898,700

NGL (royalty) (gal) 2,045,198,057 1,746,719,986 2,033,407,631 1,794,328,667 1,564,235,458 1,506,799,338

NGL (non-royalty) (gal) 164,425,802 155,790,669 376,697,377 336,415,238 282,395,427 326,089,182

Oil (royalty) (bbl) 274,769,555 393,068,662 413,843,666 358,198,122 336,215,213 357,383,873

Oil (non-royalty) (bbl) 162,507,054 125,837,700 177,500,611 137,919,150 121,710,533 96,283,955

Panel B: Sales Values

Gas ($) 19,783,276,001 7,895,954,197 7,894,516,113 5,942,396,884 3,252,264,280 3,593,682,083

NGL ($) 3,067,687,538 1,268,806,694 2,069,278,438 2,814,128,996 1,738,915,377 1,302,281,476

Oil ($) 29,407,481,996 21,080,156,402 31,052,123,264 35,322,996,383 36,839,364,707 38,009,687,312

Other Products ($) 423,743 173,955 84,219 60,125 48,228 66,780

Total Sales Value ($) 52,258,869,278 30,245,091,247 41,016,002,033 44,079,582,388 41,830,592,592 42,905,717,650

Panel C: Revenues

Gas ($) 2,873,950,871 1,110,388,831 1,112,167,319 840,978,575 457,248,784 509,506,758

NGL ($) 287,868,515 120,258,451 243,292,473 280,174,746 216,595,485 157,812,075

Oil ($) 4,057,786,252 2,766,270,473 4,090,113,535 4,795,103,633 5,022,322,667 5,186,978,444

Rents ($) 231,517,822 228,450,250 238,557,438 217,625,912 218,313,871 236,572,594

Bonus ($) 6,817,546,915 1,174,069,762 986,997,466 37,054,282 606,446,360 2,732,922,142

Other Revenues ($) 3,245,974 -30,044,645 46,794,397 4,371,526 5,124,807 34,414,627

Total Revenues ($) 14,271,916,347 5,369,393,121 6,717,922,628 6,175,308,674 6,526,051,974 8,858,206,640

Note: Data in this table refer to the years in which sales occurred (not to the years in which government revenues were received).

bbl = barrel.

gal = gallon.

Mcf = thousand cubic feet.

NGL = natural gas liquids.

Source: USDOI, Office of Natural Resources Revenue, 2014.
Tables Tables-53

Table 4-20

Baseline Employment Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area

Calendar

Year TX-1 TX-2 TX-3 LA-1 LA-2 LA-3 LA-4 MS-1 AL-1 FL-1 FL-2 FL-3 FL-4 Total

2010 806.89 305.43 3,598.02 177.97 328.88 674.25 750.90 241.07 374.37 474.27 320.53 1,832.29 3,367.36 13,252.22

2011 820.21 312.06 3,682.63 179.50 333.42 681.06 758.43 237.96 375.73 481.21 320.83 1,846.30 3,430.32 13,459.65

2012 834.82 316.94 3,752.42 181.84 339.08 691.34 766.12 240.09 381.01 487.94 324.64 1,875.79 3,489.82 13,681.85

2013 849.66 321.93 3,823.50 184.23 344.80 701.78 773.87 242.26 386.35 494.78 328.48 1,905.67 3,550.17 13,907.48

2014 864.76 326.99 3,895.93 186.63 350.61 712.40 781.67 244.42 391.77 501.71 332.38 1,935.91 3,611.37 14,136.55

2015 880.09 332.14 3,969.75 189.07 356.48 723.17 789.50 246.60 397.25 508.69 336.34 1,966.53 3,673.45 14,369.05

2016 895.67 337.37 4,044.98 191.54 362.44 734.10 797.39 248.79 402.81 515.77 340.34 1,997.53 3,736.39 14,605.11

2017 911.50 342.70 4,121.61 194.03 368.47 745.18 805.31 250.99 408.42 522.94 344.38 2,028.94 3,800.21 14,844.68

2018 927.59 348.13 4,199.69 196.56 374.58 756.44 813.30 253.19 414.11 530.18 348.47 2,060.72 3,864.92 15,087.90

2019 943.92 353.64 4,279.26 199.12 380.77 767.88 821.31 255.42 419.86 537.52 352.62 2,092.90 3,930.55 15,334.76

2020 960.54 359.26 4,360.32 201.70 387.03 779.48 829.39 257.66 425.70 544.94 356.83 2,125.50 3,997.07 15,585.39

2021 977.35 364.98 4,442.91 204.31 393.33 791.25 837.44 259.89 431.58 552.43 361.09 2,158.28 4,064.10 15,838.95

2022 994.46 370.78 4,527.06 206.96 399.74 803.21 845.58 262.14 437.55 560.02 365.40 2,191.57 4,132.26 16,096.73

2023 1,011.88 376.69 4,612.81 209.64 406.25 815.34 853.79 264.41 443.59 567.71 369.76 2,225.38 4,201.56 16,358.81

2024 1,029.59 382.68 4,700.18 212.36 412.86 827.66 862.09 266.70 449.73 575.51 374.18 2,259.70 4,272.02 16,625.26

2025 1,047.62 388.77 4,789.21 215.11 419.58 840.17 870.47 269.01 455.94 583.42 378.64 2,294.56 4,343.66 16,896.16

2026 1,065.83 395.00 4,879.89 217.88 426.29 852.86 878.77 271.29 462.20 591.35 383.19 2,329.42 4,415.40 17,169.39

2027 1,084.36 401.33 4,972.29 220.69 433.11 865.74 887.16 273.60 468.54 599.40 387.79 2,364.82 4,488.32 17,447.15

2028 1,103.22 407.75 5,066.44 223.54 440.04 878.81 895.63 275.93 474.98 607.55 392.45 2,400.75 4,562.45 17,729.52

2029 1,122.40 414.28 5,162.37 226.42 447.08 892.08 904.18 278.28 481.50 615.82 397.16 2,437.23 4,637.80 18,016.58

2030 1,141.91 420.92 5,260.12 229.33 454.23 905.55 912.81 280.64 488.10 624.20 401.93 2,474.26 4,714.39 18,308.39

2031 1,161.64 427.70 5,359.67 232.27 461.37 919.22 921.38 282.99 494.76 632.61 406.78 2,511.31 4,791.08 18,602.79

2032 1,181.71 434.58 5,461.10 235.25 468.62 933.09 930.04 285.36 501.51 641.14 411.69 2,548.92 4,869.01 18,902.03

2033 1,202.13 441.58 5,564.46 238.27 475.98 947.17 938.78 287.75 508.35 649.79 416.66 2,587.09 4,948.21 19,206.22
Tables-54 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table 4-20. Baseline Employment Projections (in thousands) by Economic Impact Area (continued).

Calendar

Year TX-1 TX-2 TX-3 LA-1 LA-2 LA-3 LA-4 MS-1 AL-1 FL-1 FL-2 FL-3 FL-4 Total

2034 1,222.90 448.69 5,669.77 241.33 483.46 961.46 947.60 290.16 515.28 658.55 421.69 2,625.83 5,028.70 19,515.43

2035 1,244.03 455.92 5,777.07 244.42 491.06 975.97 956.50 292.59 522.31 667.43 426.78 2,665.15 5,110.50 19,829.74

2036 1,265.41 463.29 5,886.34 247.54 498.64 990.68 965.36 295.00 529.39 676.35 431.97 2,704.51 5,192.38 20,146.85

2037 1,287.16 470.78 5,997.67 250.69 506.34 1,005.61 974.31 297.43 536.57 685.39 437.21 2,744.45 5,275.56 20,469.17

2038 1,309.29 478.39 6,111.11 253.89 514.16 1,020.77 983.33 299.88 543.84 694.55 442.53 2,784.97 5,360.08 20,796.79

2039 1,331.79 486.12 6,226.69 257.13 522.10 1,036.15 992.44 302.35 551.21 703.83 447.90 2,826.10 5,445.95 21,129.78

2040 1,354.68 493.98 6,344.46 260.40 530.17 1,051.77 1,001.64 304.84 558.68 713.24 453.34 2,867.83 5,533.20 21,468.24

2041 1,377.97 501.97 6,464.46 263.72 538.35 1,067.62 1,010.92 307.36 566.25 722.77 458.85 2,910.18 5,621.85 21,812.27

2042 1,401.65 510.09 6,586.73 267.08 546.67 1,083.72 1,020.29 309.89 573.93 732.43 464.42 2,953.15 5,711.91 22,161.95

2043 1,425.74 518.33 6,711.30 270.49 555.11 1,100.05 1,029.74 312.44 581.71 742.22 470.06 2,996.76 5,803.42 22,517.38

2044 1,450.25 526.72 6,838.24 273.94 563.68 1,116.63 1,039.28 315.02 589.59 752.14 475.77 3,041.01 5,896.40 22,878.66

2045 1,475.18 535.23 6,967.58 277.43 572.39 1,133.46 1,048.91 317.61 597.58 762.19 481.55 3,085.92 5,990.86 23,245.89

2046 1,500.53 543.89 7,099.36 280.96 581.23 1,150.55 1,058.63 320.23 605.68 772.38 487.40 3,131.49 6,086.84 23,619.16

2047 1,526.32 552.68 7,233.63 284.55 590.20 1,167.89 1,068.43 322.87 613.89 782.70 493.32 3,177.73 6,184.35 23,998.57

2048 1,552.56 561.62 7,370.45 288.17 599.32 1,185.49 1,078.33 325.53 622.21 793.16 499.32 3,224.65 6,283.43 24,384.24

2049 1,579.24 570.70 7,509.85 291.85 608.58 1,203.36 1,088.32 328.21 630.65 803.76 505.38 3,272.27 6,384.10 24,776.26

2050 1,606.39 579.92 7,651.89 295.57 617.97 1,221.50 1,098.41 330.92 639.19 814.50 511.52 3,320.59 6,486.37 25,174.74

2051 1,634.00 589.30 7,796.62 299.33 627.52 1,239.91 1,108.58 333.64 647.86 825.39 517.73 3,369.62 6,590.29 25,579.79

2052 1,662.08 598.83 7,944.08 303.15 637.21 1,258.59 1,118.86 336.39 656.64 836.42 524.02 3,419.38 6,695.87 25,991.53

2053 1,690.65 608.51 8,094.33 307.01 647.05 1,277.56 1,129.22 339.16 665.54 847.60 530.39 3,469.87 6,803.14 26,410.05

2054 1,719.71 618.35 8,247.43 310.93 657.04 1,296.82 1,139.68 341.96 674.56 858.93 536.83 3,521.11 6,912.14 26,835.48

2055 1,749.27 628.35 8,403.42 314.89 667.19 1,316.37 1,150.24 344.78 683.70 870.41 543.35 3,573.11 7,022.87 27,267.94

2014-2055 

growth

1.73% 1.61% 1.89% 1.28% 1.58% 1.51% 0.95% 0.84% 1.37% 1.35% 1.21% 1.51% 1.64% 1.62%

Notes: Actual Woods & Poole data for 2010 through 2020, 2025, 2030, 2035, and 2040.

Missing estimates through 2040 calculated using average annual growth rate for the 5-year period; projections after 2040 calculated using the average annual growth rate 

from 2035 to 2040.

Source: Woods & Poole Economics, Inc., 2014.
Tables Tables-55

References

Fisher, M. 2014. Official communication. Email regarding fishing effort and catch data. Texas Parks 

and Wildlife Department, Rockport Marine Laboratory, Rockport, TX. April 16, 2014.

Langley, C. 2014. Official communication. E-mail regarding updated produced water data through 

2013. March 18, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. 2010-2014 cetacean unusual 

mortality event in northern Gulf of Mexico. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/

mmume/cetacean_gulfofmexico2010.htm. Updated June 15, 2014. Accessed June 17, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2014. Quarterly census of employment and wages. 

Internet website: http://www.bls.gov/cew/. Accessed July 8-9, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Office of Natural Resources Revenue. 2014. Statistical information online 

query. Internet website: http://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspx. Accessed April 28, 2014.

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 2014. The 2014 complete economic and demographic data source 

(CEDDS) on CD-ROM.

APPENDIX A 

 

COMMONLY APPLIED MITIGATING MEASURES

Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures A-3 

A. COMMONLY APPLIED MITIGATING MEASURES

Postlease mitigating measures have been implemented for over 40 years in the Gulf of Mexico region, 

as they relate to OCS plans and pipeline applications. These mitigating measures have been amended 

over time to address changes in regulations, new technology, and new methods of operating. Many of 

these mitigating measures have been adopted and incorporated into regulations and/or guidelines 

governing OCS exploration, development, and production activities. All plans for OCS oil- and gasrelated activities (e.g., exploration and development plans, pipeline applications, geological and 

geophysical activities, and structure-removal applications) go through rigorous BOEM review and 

approval to ensure compliance with established laws and regulations. Existing mitigating measures must 

be incorporated and documented in plans submitted to BOEM. Operational compliance of the mitigating 

measures is enforced through the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement’s (BSEE’s) onsite 

inspection program.

Mitigating measures are a standard part of BOEM’s program to ensure that postlease operations are 

always conducted in an environmentally sound manner (with an emphasis on minimizing any adverse 

impact of routine operations on the environment). For example, post-activity surveys are carried out to 

ensure that a site has been cleared of potential snags to commercial fishing gear, and pre-activity surveys 

seek to avoid archaeological sites and biologically sensitive areas such as pinnacles, topographic features, 

and chemosynthetic communities.

Some BOEM-identified mitigating measures are incorporated into OCS operations through 

cooperative agreements or efforts with industry and State and Federal agencies. These mitigating 

measures include the National Marine Fisheries Service’s (NMFS’s) Observer Program to protect marine 

mammals and sea turtles during explosive removals, labeling operational supplies to track possible 

sources of debris or equipment loss, development of methods of pipeline landfall to eliminate impacts to 

beaches or wetlands, and beach cleanup events.

Site-specific mitigating measures are also applied by BOEM during plan and permit reviews. BOEM 

realized that many of these site-specific mitigations were recurring and developed a list of “standard” 

mitigations. There are currently over 120 standard mitigations. The wording of a standard mitigation is 

developed by BOEM in advance and may be applied whenever conditions warrant. Standard mitigation 

text is revised as often as is necessary (e.g., to reflect changes in regulatory citations, agency/personnel 

contact numbers, and internal policy). Site-specific mitigation “categories” include the following: air 

quality; archaeological resources; artificial reef material; chemosynthetic communities; Flower Garden 

Banks; topographic features; hard bottoms/pinnacles; military warning areas and Eglin Water Test Areas 

(EWTA’s); hydrogen sulfide (H2S); drilling hazards; remotely operated vehicle surveys; geophysical 

survey reviews; and general safety concerns. Site-specific mitigation “types” include the following: 

advisories; conditions of approval; hazard survey reviews; inspection requirements; notifications; postapproval submittals; and safety precautions. In addition to standard mitigations, BOEM may also apply 

nonrecurring mitigating measures that are developed on a case-by-case basis.

Following a lease sale, an applicant seeks approvals to develop their lease by preparing and 

submitting OCS plans. The OCS plans are reviewed by BOEM and, depending on what is proposed to 

take place in a specific place, BOEM may assign conditions of approval (COA). The COA’s pass on to 

an applicant’s environmental protections, requirements that maintain conformance with law, the 

requirements of other agencies having jurisdiction, or safety precautions.

Some of BOEM’s conditions of approval are as follows: 

(1) other approvals prerequisite to BOEM’s approval (e.g., the Coastal Zone 

Management Act); 

(2) safety precautions (e.g., H2S present);

(3) post-approval submittals (e.g., surveys and interpretive reports);

(4) inspection requirements (e.g., pipeline pressure testing);

(5) pre-deployment notifications (e.g., U.S. Dept. of Defense space use & Military 

Warning Areas); and
A-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

(6) reduce or avoid environmental impacts on resources originating from NEPA or 

other laws (e.g., the National Historic Preservation Act) (These are mitigations that 

are applied in COA’s). 

BOEM is continually revising applicable mitigations to allow the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region to 

more easily and routinely track mitigation compliance and effectiveness. A primary focus of this effort is 

requiring post-approval submittal of information within a specified timeframe or after a triggering event 

(e.g., end of operations reports for plans, construction reports for pipelines, and removal reports for 

structure removals).

Table A-1 provides a list and description of standard postlease mitigating measures that may be 

required by BOEM as a result of plan and permit review processes for the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-5

Table A-1

Commonly Applied or “Standard” Mitigating Measures

Mitigation 

Number Mitigating Measure Title Description of Mitigation

0.0 Non-Recurring Mitigation A non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

Boat Traffic Mitigations

1.04 Seismic Vessels (protected species 

requirements)

The applicant will comply with Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) 2012-JOINT-G02, 

“Implementation of Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer 

Program.” Additionally, the applicant will comply with the guidance under this NTL when 

operating in all water depths (not just in water depths >200 m [656 ft] or in the Eastern Planning 

Area), and the NTL’s “Shut-Down Conditions” will be applied towards manatees.

1.05 Seismic Vessels (vessel-strike 

avoidance/reporting) 

The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-JOINT-G01, “Vessel Strike 

Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting.” This provides guidance on how a 

seismic applicant should implement monitoring programs to minimize the risk of vessel strikes to 

protected species and report observations of injured or dead protected species. In lieu of a formal 

observer program, NTL 2012-JOINT-G01 provides specific guidelines that should be followed to 

identify and avoid injury to marine mammals and sea turtles.

1.06 Progressive-Transport/“Hopping”

(structure removals)

In accordance with the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) requirements (30 CFR § 

250.1727(g)), if at any point in the decommissioning schedule progressive-transport/“hopping” 

activities are required to section the jacket assembly or support material barge loading, a prior 

written request must be submitted and approval must be obtained from the Bureau of Safety and 

Environmental Enforcement’s (BSEE’s) Regional Supervisor, Field Operations. The applicant’s 

request to use progressive-transport must include a detailed procedural narrative and separate 

location plat for each “set-down” site, showing pipelines, anchor patterns for the derrick barge, and 

any known archaeological and/or potentially sensitive biological features. The diagram/map of the 

route to be taken from the initial structure location along the transport path to each site must also be 

submitted with the request. If the block(s) that the applicant intends to use as “set-down” sites have 

not been surveyed as per NTL 2009-G39, “Biologically-Sensitive Underwater Features and Areas,” 

and NTL 2005-G07, “Archaeological Resource Surveys and Reports,” the applicant may be 

required to conduct the necessary surveys/reporting prior to mobilizing on site and conducting any 

seafloor-disturbing activities.

1.07 Seismic Vessels (notification 

requirements)

In accordance with 30 CFR § 550.208(b)(2), the applicant is hereby required to notify other users of 

the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) before conducting the proposed ancillary activities. Prior to 

commencing the survey(s), the applicant must inform the operators of all leases affected by the 

proposed activities of when and where the applicant intends to conduct the vessel operations to 

ensure that proper navigation and safety protocol are observed.
A-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Air Quality Mitigations

2.05 Fuel Usage or Run Time 

Documentation

The projected nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions amounts in the plan were calculated using historic 

(insert fuel consumption rates, run times). Maintain monthly records of the total annual (insert fuel 

consumption, run times) for the (specify the affected vessels or equipment) with a limit of (insert 

limit in gallons/year, limit in hours/year) and provide the information to the Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management’s (BOEM’s) Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section 

annually by February 1st of each year, beginning in the year (insert year). If no activities were 

conducted during a calendar year, provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required records. 

If at any time during the applicant’s activities these records indicate that the NOx annual emissions 

may exceed the annual limit approved in your plan or the total annual (insert fuel consumption, run 

time) limit, the applicant must immediately prepare a revised plan pursuant to 30 CFR § 550.283 to 

include the recalculated emissions amounts. The applicant will not proceed with the actions that 

could cause the potential annual increase in emissions until the revised plan has been submitted to 

and approved by BOEM.

2.08 Potential to Exceed SO2

Significance Levels (flaring)

Should hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentrations greater than (insert number) ppm be encountered, the 

3- and 24-hour sulphur oxides (SO2) onshore ambient air concentration significance levels as 

prescribed by 30 CFR § 550.303(e) could be exceeded during the proposed well test flaring. 

Therefore, the applicant is advised that, should H2S concentrations greater than (insert number) 

ppm be encountered, they shall use the graph included in their plan to determine the maximum 

allowable flow rate for the flaring operation. The applicant is responsible for ensuring that their 

maximum emission concentrations remain below the aforementioned significance levels. In 

accordance with 30 CFR § 250.1164(c), the applicant is hereby required to submit monthly reports 

that contain the following: (1) the daily volume and duration (number of hours) of each flaring 

episode; (2) the H2S concentration (ppm) in the flared gas; and (3) the calculated amount of SO2

emitted.

2.11 Using Ultra-Low Sulfur Content 

Fuel

As proposed, use ultra-low sulfur content diesel fuel (sulfur concentration 0.0015% or less by 

weight) while conducting these operations. Sulfur content records must be maintained on the 

platform and made available to authorized BSEE personnel upon request.

2.12 Verification of Emissions Factors

(clean burn engines)

The rating, manufacturer, and type of engine(s) proposed in the applicant’s plan will be operated 

and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Using a U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (USEPA)-approved or equivalent method, perform an emissions stack test on 

the subject engine(s) within 60 days following installation and at least every 3 years thereafter. 

These tests will be performed at loads representing 25, 50, 75, and 100 percent of the rated capacity 

or at minimum, average, and highest operational loads to verify that the emission factors are not 

exceeding those used in calculating the proposed emissions in the plan.

Prepare a report of the results of each stack test and submit it to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, 

Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section within 45 days of the test. During engine operation, the 

applicant will maintain the baseline parameters (such as air-fuel rations) established during the most 

recent successful stack test. The applicant must monitor and record these parameters daily to 

ensure consistency with those observed during the most recent successful stack test. Records of 

these parameters must be maintained on the platform and made available to authorized BSEE 

personnel upon request. In addition, the applicant must submit this information to BOEM’s

Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section annually by February 1st of each 
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-7

year, beginning in the year (insert year). If no activities were conducted during a calendar year, 

provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required records.

2.13 Monitoring of NOx Emissions

(catalytic converters)

The rating, manufacturer, and type, and catalytic converter(s) proposed in the plan must be operated 

and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Using a USEPA-approved or 

equivalent method, perform an emissions stack test on the subject engine(s) and catalytic 

converter(s) within 60 days following installation and at least every 3 years thereafter. These tests 

will be performed at loads representing 25, 50, 75, and 100 percent of the rated capacity or at 

minimum, average, and highest operational loads to verify that the emissions factors are not 

exceeding those used in calculating the proposed emissions in the plan. The applicant must contact 

BSEE at least 30 days prior to conducting the test to determine proper protocol for the stack test 

and also to have the BSEE representative witness the test. Prepare a report of the results of each 

stack test and submit it to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section 

within 45 days of the test.

During operation, the applicant will maintain the baseline parameters, such as air-fuel ratios for the 

engine(s) and the pressure drop and temperature increase across the catalytic converter(s) 

established during the most recent successful stack test. The applicant must monitor and record 

these parameters daily to ensure they remain consistent with those observed during the most recent 

successful stack test. The records of these parameters will be maintained on the platform and made 

available to authorized BSEE personnel upon request. In addition, the applicant must submit this 

information to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section annually 

by February 1st of each year, beginning in the year (insert year). If no activities were conducted 

during a calendar year, the applicant must provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required 

records.

2.15 Sulfur Recovery Unit, Flaring 

Episodes, Production Curtailment

If a shutdown of the sulfur recovery unit necessitates diverting the acid gas stream and if the 

resulting increased emissions would cause the SO2 onshore ambient air concentration significance 

levels as prescribed by 30 CFR § 550.303(e) to be exceeded, begin curtailing production within 

6 hours of the onset of the increased emissions. If curtailment is necessary, the appropriate reduced 

production rate will be reached no later than 8 hours from the onset of the increased emissions and 

will continue until such time that normal operation of the sulfur recovery unit can resume.

2.16 Monitoring of SO2 Emissions

(sulfur recovery units)

The amine unit and the (specify name of sulfur recovery unit) proposed in the plan must be 

operated and maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Using a USEPAapproved or equivalent method, perform an emissions stack test on the subject sulfur recovery unit 

within 60 days following installation. This test will be performed at loads representing 25, 50, 75, 

and 100 percent of the rated capacity of the amine unit or at minimum, average, and highest 

operational loads of the amine unit to verify that the emission factors are not exceeding those used 

in calculating the proposed emissions in the plan. Contact BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement 

Division at least 30 days prior to conducting the test to determine proper protocol for the stack test 

and also to have the BSEE representative witness the test. Prepare a report of the results of each 

stack test and submit it to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section 

within 45 days of the test.

The applicant must monitor and record these parameters daily to ensure they remain consistent with 

the approved baseline parameters from the most recent successful stack test. Records of these 
A-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

parameters must be maintained on the platform and made available to authorized BSEE personnel 

upon request. In addition, the applicant must submit this information to BOEM’s Regional 

Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section annually by February 1st of each year, 

beginning in the year (insert year). If no activities were conducted during a calendar year, provide a 

statement to that effect in lieu of the required records.

2.17 Verification of Emissions Factors 

(general)

The rating, manufacturer, and type of engine(s) proposed in the plan will be operated and 

maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Using a USEPA-approved or 

equivalent method, perform an emissions stack test on the subject engine(s) within 60 days 

following installation and at least every 3 years thereafter. These tests will be performed at loads 

representing 25, 50, 75, and 100 percent of the rated capacity or at minimum, average, and highest 

operational loads to verify that the emission factors are not exceeding those used in calculating the 

proposed emissions in the plan. Contact BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement Division at least 30 

days prior to conducting the test to determine proper protocol for the stack test and also to have the 

BSEE representative witness the test.

Prepare a report of the results of each stack test and submit it to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, 

Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section within 45 days of the test. During engine operation, the 

applicant will maintain the baseline parameters (such as air-fuel rations) established during the most 

recent successful stack test. The applicant must monitor and record these parameters daily to 

ensure consistency with those observed during the most recent successful stack test. Records of 

these parameters must be maintained on the platform and made available to authorized BSEE 

personnel upon request. In addition, the applicant must submit this information to BOEM’s

Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section annually by February 1st of each 

year, beginning in the year (insert year). If no activities were conducted during a calendar year, 

provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required records.

2.18 Alternative Monitoring of NOx

Emissions (catalytic converters)

Using your established baseline parameters listed below, monitor the performance of the engine(s) 

and catalytic converter(s) and record daily to ensure that performance remains consistent. Air to 

fuel ratio for engine: (insert baseline parameters); pressure drop across catalytic converter: (insert 

baseline parameters); and temperature increase across catalytic converter: (insert baseline 

parameters). 

Records of these parameters must be maintained on the platform and made available to authorized 

BSEE personnel upon request. In addition, the applicant must submit a summary of these data to 

BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section annually by February 1st 

of each year, beginning in the year (insert year). The summary will report minimum, average, and 

maximum values for the above-listed parameters, on a monthly basis, for the year. If no activities 

were conducted during a calendar year, provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required 

records. Notify BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section as soon 

as practical but no later than 24 hours after the event, whenever the engine(s) or catalytic 

converter(s) exceed these parameters for periods greater than a day. File a detailed report with this 

office within 5 days of the termination of any such event. At a minimum, this report will include a 

chronology of the event, NOx emissions rates in pounds per hour, total NOx emissions for the 

duration of the event, and any measures taken to regain operation within these parameters or to 

prevent a recurrence of similar events. If exceeding the above parameters results in increased 

emissions that would cause onshore NOx concentration to exceed BOEM significance levels 
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-9

(30 CFR § 550.303(e)), curtail the use of the (identify equipment associated with catalytic 

converter) within 2 days of the onset of the increased emissions and continue curtailment until such 

time that normal operation of the catalytic converter can resume.

Archaeology Mitigations

3.00 Archaeology Non-Recurring 

Mitigation

A non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

3.02 Buried Channels (pipeline 

applications)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of buried channel margin 

features that may contain significant archaeological resources. In accordance with 30 CFR § 

250.1007(a)(5), the applicant must either (1) conduct an underwater archaeological investigation 

(diver and/or remotely operated vehicle (ROV) investigations) prior to commencing activities to 

determine whether these features represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that the depth of 

the pipeline trench in the vicinity of these features does not exceed 3 ft and that all other seafloordisturbing actions resulting from the proposed activities avoid the subject channel margins (see the 

enclosed map depicting the avoidance area in the application). If the applicant conducts an 

underwater archaeological investigation prior to commencing operations, the applicant should 

contact BOEM, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, Office of Environment, and BSEE, Environmental 

Enforcement Branch at least 2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain the investigation 

methodology. If the applicant chooses to avoid the features, then the applicant should submit 

anchor position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with differential global positioning system 

(DGPS) accuracy, with your pipeline construction report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b). These 

plats must depict the “as-placed” location of all anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, and cables on 

the seafloor (including sweep) and demonstrate that the features were not physically impacted by 

the construction activities. If the applicant chooses to avoid the features and no anchoring activities 

were conducted during pipeline construction, provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the 

required anchor position plats. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

3.03 Buried Channels (plans) BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of buried channel margin

features that may contain significant archaeological resources. In accordance with 30 CFR § 

550.194, the applicant must either (1) conduct an underwater archaeological investigation (diver 

and/or ROV investigations) prior to commencing activities to determine whether these features 

represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing actions resulting from 

the proposed activities avoid the subject features (see the enclosed map depicting the avoidance 

area in the application). If the applicant conducts an underwater archaeological investigation prior 

to commencing operations, contact BOEM’s Office of Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region 

least 2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain the investigation methodology.

If the applicant chooses to avoid the features, then submit an as-built map at a scale of 1 in = 

1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, showing the location of all seafloor disturbances (e.g., the rig or 

platform, anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, etc.) relative to these features, to BOEM’s

Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time that the applicant 

submits its (specify submittal type).

3.04 and 

3.05

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (pipeline 

applications - multiple features)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of the unidentified (insert 

magnetic anomalies, side-scan sonar targets, magnetic anomalies and side-scan sonar targets) listed 

in the enclosure, features that may represent significant archaeological resources. In accordance 

with 30 CFR § 250.1007(a)(5), the applicant must either (1) conduct an underwater archaeological 
A-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (pipeline 

application – singular feature)

investigation (diver and/or ROV investigations) prior to commencing activities to determine 

whether these features represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing 

actions resulting from the proposed activities avoid the unidentified features by a distance greater 

than that listed in the enclosure. If the applicant conducts an underwater archaeological 

investigation prior to commencing operations, then the applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of 

Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region at least 2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain 

the investigation methodology. If the applicant chooses to avoid the features, then submit anchor 

position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, with the pipeline construction 

report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b). These plats must depict the “as-placed” location of all 

anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, and cables on the seafloor (including sweep) and demonstrate 

that the features were not physically impacted by the construction activities. If the applicant 

chooses to avoid the features and no anchoring activities were conducted during pipeline 

construction, then provide a statement to that effect in lieu of the required anchor position plats. 

This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

3.06 and 

3.07

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (plans – 

multiple features)

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (plans – 

singular feature)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of the unidentified (insert 

magnetic anomalies, side-scan sonar targets, magnetic anomalies and side-scan sonar targets) listed 

in the enclosure of the application, features that may represent significant archaeological resources. 

In accordance with 30 CFR § 550.194, the applicant must either (1) conduct an underwater 

archaeological investigation (diver and/or ROV investigations) prior to commencing the activities 

to determine whether these features represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all 

seafloor-disturbing actions resulting from the proposed activities avoid the subject features by a 

distance greater than that listed in the enclosure of the application. If the applicant conducts an 

underwater archaeological investigation, then the applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of 

Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region at least 2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain 

the investigation methodology. If the applicant chooses to avoid the features, submit an as-built 

map at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, showing the location of all seafloor 

disturbances (e.g., the rig or platform, anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, etc.) relative to 

these features to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the 

same time the applicant submits the plan.

3.08 Buried Channels (lease block 

survey review

BOEM’s review of the archaeological assessment indicates that there are buried channel margin 

features that may contain significant archaeological resources in the lease block(s). The enclosed 

map in the application identifies the areas to be avoided during any future development within the 

block(s). In accordance with 30 CFR § 550.194, the applicant must either (1) conduct an 

underwater archeological investigation (diver and/or ROV investigations) to determine whether 

these features represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing actions 

required by future exploration or development will avoid the subject features. If the applicant 

chooses to conduct an underwater archaeological investigation, then the applicant must contact 

BOEM’s Office of Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region at least 2 weeks prior to performing 

operations to obtain the investigation methodology.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-11

3.09 and 

3.10

Magnetic Anomaly and/or SideScan Sonar Target (survey review – 

single feature)

Magnetic Anomaly and/or SideScan Sonar Target (survey review – 

multiple features)

BOEM’s review of the archaeological assessment indicates the presence of the unidentified 

magnetic anomaly(ies), side-scan sonar target(s), or magnetic anomaly(ies) and side-scan sonar 

target(s) listed in the enclosure of the application, features that may represent significant 

archaeological resources. In accordance with 30 CFR § 550.194, the applicant must either (1) 

conduct an underwater archaeological investigation (diver and/or ROV investigations) to determine 

whether these features represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing 

actions required by future exploration and development avoid the unidentified features by a 

distance greater than that listed in the enclosure of the application. If the applicant conducts an 

underwater archaeological investigation, then the applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of 

Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region at least 2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain 

the investigation methodology.

3.11 Unsurveyed Area (plans) Avoid impacts to the seafloor in the unsurveyed area approximately (insert number) feet to the 

(insert direction) of the proposed (specify Well X, Wells X and Y, Platform X, etc.). This area has 

been identified as requiring a (insert 50-meter or 300-meter) line spacing archaeological resource 

survey to determine the potential for archaeological resources. BOEM has no archaeological 

resource assessment on file for this area and, therefore, cannot determine the potential effects to 

archaeological resources outside of the applicant’s survey coverage. Submit an as-built map at a 

scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, showing the location of all seafloor disturbances (e.g., 

the rig or platform, anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, etc.) relative to the unsurveyed area 

to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the 

applicant submits the plan.

3.12 and 

3.13

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (structure 

removals – multiple features)

Magnetic Anomalies and/or SideScan Sonar Targets (structure 

removals – single feature)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of the unidentified 

magnetic anomaly(ies), side-scan sonar target(s), or magnetic anomaly(ies) and side-scan sonar 

target(s) listed in the table in the application, a feature that may represent a significant 

archaeological resource. In accordance with 30 CFR § 250.194(c), the applicant must either 

(1) conduct an underwater archaeological investigation (diver and/or ROV investigations) prior to 

commencing activities to determine whether this feature represents an archaeological resource or 

(2) ensure that all anchoring operations (e.g., anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, etc.) avoid 

the unidentified feature by a distance greater than that listed in the table in the application. If the 

applicant plans to conduct an underwater archaeological investigation prior to commencing 

operations, then the applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS

Region to obtain the investigation methodology at least 2 weeks prior to performing operations and 

contact BOEM, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, Office of Environment, and BSEE, Environmental 

Enforcement Branch. If the applicant chooses to avoid the feature, then include in the post-removal 

report as-built plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, the position of anchors, 

anchor chains, wire ropes, and cables deployed during the structure removal relative to the feature. 

In addition, supply a copy of ALL vessel logs related to the removal operations (e.g., anchor 

handling vessels, lift boats, dive vessels, and tug boats). This mitigation may be applied by BSEE 

at the post-approval stage.

3.16 ROV Surveys (plans) The proposed operations are in an area designated by BOEM’s Regional Director as having a high 

potential for the location of historic shipwrecks. In accordance with 30 CFR § 550.194(a)(2), prior 

to commencing the operations, conduct an ROV investigation (using video, sector-scanning sonar, 

or multibeam bathymetry) of the seafloor areas that could be disturbed by the operations (e.g., the 

rig or platform, anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, etc.) to ensure that the applicant will 
A-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

avoid harming potentially significant archaeological sites. The applicant must contact BOEM’s

Office of Environment, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region at least 2 weeks prior to performing 

operations to obtain the investigation methodology. The applicant must submit a report of this 

investigation prepared by a qualified marine archaeologist, along with an “as-placed” anchor plat 

and copies of the ROV video and acoustic recordings of the investigation to BOEM’s Regional 

Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the 

plan. If the applicant discovers any potential archaeological resource (i.e., cannot be definitively 

identified as modern debris or refuse) while conducting this investigation or future operations, the 

applicant must immediately halt any seafloor-disturbing activities and report the discovery to 

BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Environment.

3.17 Conditional Approval for ROV 

Surveys (plans)

Drilling permits will not be issued for proposed well(s) and well name(s) until the applicant submits 

an archaeological report to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans 

Section and receives approval. This report must be based on an ROV investigation (using video, 

sector-scanning sonar, or multibeam bathymetry) of the seafloor areas that could be disturbed by 

the operations. The report must be prepared by a qualified marine archaeologist and must include 

copies of the ROV video and acoustic recordings of the investigation, along with an “as-placed” 

anchor plat. If the applicant discovers any potential archaeological resource (i.e., cannot be 

definitively identified as modern debris or refuse) while conducting this investigation, the applicant 

must immediately halt any seafloor-disturbing activities and report the discovery to BOEM’s

Regional Supervisor, Office of Environment. The applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of 

Environment at least 2 weeks prior to performing this survey to obtain the investigation 

methodology.

3.18 Buried Channels (structure

removal)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of buried channel margin 

features that may contain significant archaeological resources. In accordance with 30 CFR § 

250.194(c), the applicant must either (1) conduct an underwater archaeological investigation (diver 

and/or ROV investigations) prior to commencing activities to determine whether these features 

represent archaeological resources or (2) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing actions resulting from 

the proposed activities (e.g., site-clearance trawling, anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, cables, 

etc.) avoid the subject features (see the enclosed map depicting the avoidance area in the 

application). If the applicant plans to conduct an underwater archaeological investigation prior to 

commencing operations, then the applicant must contact BOEM’s Office of Environment at least 

2 weeks prior to performing operations to obtain the investigation methodology and contact BOEM, 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, Office of Environment, and BSEE, Environmental Enforcement 

Branch. If the applicant chooses to avoid the features, then include in the Post- removal Report asbuilt plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, the position of anchors, anchor chains, 

wire ropes, and cables deployed during the structure removal relative to these features. In addition, 

supply a copy of ALL vessel logs related to the removal operations (e.g., anchor handling vessels, 

lift boats, dive vessels, and tug boats). This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the postapproval stage.

3.20 Avoidance of Potential 

Archaeological Resources

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed operations have the potential to impact submerged 

archaeological resources that could be in the area of potential effect, which encompasses all 

portions of the seafloor where bottom-disturbing activities are to occur. Before conducting any 

authorized, bottom-disturbing activities, the company will follow the guidance provided at 

http://www.boem.gov/Environmental-Stewardship/Archaeology/Gulf-of-Mexico-Archaeological-
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-13

Information.aspx, which includes minimum survey recommendations, requisite certification 

submittals, and post-activity reporting standards needed to ensure compliance with the regulations 

under 30 CFR § 550.194. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

3.21 and 

3.22

Side-Scan Sonar Targets (site 

clearance – single features)

Side-Scan Sonar Targets (site 

clearance – multiple features)

BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed activities are in the vicinity of the unidentified sidescan sonar target(s) listed in the table in the application, features that may represent significant 

archaeological resources. In accordance with 30 CFR § 250.194(c), the applicant must conduct an 

underwater archaeological investigation (diver and/or ROV investigation) under the supervision of 

a professional archaeologist to determine whether these features represent archaeological resources 

potentially eligible to the National Register of Historic Places prior to conducting site-clearance 

trawling activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

3.23 Protection of Potential 

Archaeological Resources (all 

structure removals)

Per 30 CFR § 250.194(c) and clarified in 2005-G07, if, during site clearance operations the 

applicant discovers any object of potential archaeological significance, the applicant is required to 

immediately halt operations. In addition, the applicant must immediately report this discovery to 

BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement Branch. Additional guidance will be provided to the applicant 

as to what steps will be needed to protect any potentially submerged archaeological resources. In 

order for BSEE to ensure compliance with 30 CFR § 250.194(c) and as specified under 30 CFR § 

250.1743, the applicant is required to provide the trawling logs for both heavy-duty nets and 

verification nets, with descriptions of each item recovered. Should the applicant only pull siteclearance verification nets, the applicant must clearly state this within the body of the Site 

Clearance Report. The applicant is also requested to provide the following as an appendix in the 

Site Clearance Report: a CD or DVD of all digital photographs of the items recovered during the 

use of both the heavy-duty trawl nets and the site-clearance verification trawl nets. This mitigation 

may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

Artificial Reef Material Mitigations

4.01 Louisiana (artificial reef area) The proposed anchoring operations are located within 500 ft of an artificial reef permit area 

established by the State of Louisiana. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting anchoring operations 

(including the use of anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) that could disturb the seafloor within 

500 ft (152 m) of an artificial reef permit area, the applicant must contact the Louisiana Artificial 

Reef Coordinator to ensure that the proposed anchoring operations do not damage reefal material. 

Prior to conducting anchoring operations, the applicant must send an email to BSEE’s

Environmental Enforcement Branch confirming that the Louisiana Artificial Reef Coordinator has 

been contacted.

If the anchoring operations intersect or cross-over the artificial reef permit area, then submit anchor 

position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, depicting the “as-placed” location 

of all anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, and cables (including sweep if applicable) on the seafloor 

relative to the reefal material. For plans, submit the plats to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office 

of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations 

Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office 

and/or notification of platform installation date and final as-built location data as directed in 

30 CFR § 250.900(e). For pipelines, submit the plats with the pipeline construction report required 

by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b). For structure removals, submit the plats with the post-removal report. 

This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.
A-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

4.02 Texas (artificial reef general permit 

area)

The proposed operations are located within an artificial reef General Permit Area established by the 

State of Texas. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting operations (including the use of anchors, 

anchor chains, and wire ropes) that could disturb the seafloor within the artificial reef General 

Permit Area, contact the Texas Artificial Reef Coordinator to ensure that the proposed operations 

do not damage reefal material. Prior to conducting operations, the applicant must send an email to 

BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement Branch confirming that the Texas Artificial Reef Coordinator 

has been contacted. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

4.021 Texas (artificial reef permit area –

anchoring)

The proposed anchoring operations are located within 1,000 ft of an artificial reef permit area 

established by the State of Texas. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting anchoring operations 

(including the use of anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) that could disturb the seafloor within 

1,000 ft of the artificial reef permit area, contact the Texas Artificial Reef Coordinator to ensure 

that the proposed anchoring operations do not damage reefal material. Prior to conducting 

anchoring operations, the applicant must send an email to BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement 

Branch confirming that the Texas Artificial Reef Coordinator has been contacted.

If the anchoring operations intersect or cross-over the artificial reef permit area, submit anchor 

position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, depicting the “as-placed” location 

of all anchors, anchor chains, wire ropes, and cables (including sweep if applicable) on the seafloor 

relative to the reefal material. For plans, submit the plats to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office 

of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations 

Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office 

and/or notification of platform installation date and final as-built location data as directed in 

30 CFR § 250.900(e). For pipelines, submit the plats with the pipeline construction report required 

by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b). For structure removals, submit the plats with the post-removal report. 

This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

4.03 Mississippi (artificial reef area) The proposed anchoring operations are located within 500 ft (152 m) of an artificial reef permit area 

established by the State of Mississippi. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting anchoring operations 

(including the use of anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) that could disturb the seafloor within 

500 ft (152 m) of an artificial reef structure or an artificial reef permit area, contact the Mississippi 

Artificial Reef Coordinator to ensure that the proposed anchoring operations do not damage reefal 

material. Prior to conducting anchoring operations, the applicant must send an email to BSEE’s

Environmental Enforcement Branch confirming that the Mississippi Artificial Reef Coordinator has 

been contacted. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

4.04 Alabama (artificial reef general 

permit area)

The proposed operations are in a General Permit Area established by the State of Alabama for the 

placement of artificial reef material. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting operations, contact the 

Alabama Artificial Reef Coordinator to ensure that the proposed operations do not damage reefal 

material. Prior to conducting operations, the applicant must send an email to BSEE’s

Environmental Enforcement Branch confirming that the Alabama Artificial Reef Coordinator has 

been contacted. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-15

4.05 Florida (artificial reef general 

permit area)

The proposed operations are in a General Permit Area established by the State of Florida for the 

placement of artificial reef material. At least 2 weeks prior to conducting operations, contact the 

Florida Artificial Reef Coordinator to ensure that the proposed operations do not damage reefal 

material. Prior to conducting operations, the applicant must send an email to BSEE’s

Environmental Enforcement Branch confirming that the Florida Artificial Reef Coordinator has 

been contacted. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

4.06 Post-Reefing Survey Requirements BOEM’s review indicates that the structure proposed for decommissioning will be abandoned-inplace as an artificial reef under the Rigs-to-Reefs Program. In order to verify compliance with 

OCSLA reefing (30 CFR § 250.1727(g)) and obstruction clearance requirements (30 CFR § 

250.1740(a)(2)), the applicant is required to conduct a high-resolution sonar survey (500 kHz or 

greater) of the permitted reefal material. The applicant must design the line spacing (for side-scan) 

or sonar drops (for sector-scanning) and the display range to ensure that 100 percent of the material 

permitted under this action is covered and that it is demonstrated that the associated seabed is clear 

of all obstructions apart from the reefal material. The applicant is required to submit the sonar 

data/survey report to BSEE’s Environmental Enforcement Branch at the same time as the postremoval report. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

Chemosynthetic Communities Mitigations

5.00 Chemosynthetic Communities 

Non-Recurring Mitigation

A non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

5.01 Anchor Positioning (GPS) (plans) The proposed activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support high-density deepwater 

benthic communities. Use a state-of-the-art positioning system (e.g., DGPS) on the anchor 

handling vessel to ensure that any seafloor disturbance resulting from the use of anchors (including 

that caused by the anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) does not occur within 250 ft (76 m) of 

such areas (see the enclosed map/Map xxx [specify map by name], submitted with the survey 

report, which depicts the areas). Submit plats for Well(s) (insert number[s] or name[s]), which 

depict the “as-placed” location of all anchors and any associated anchor chains and wire ropes on 

the seafloor, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, 

Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the End of 

Operations Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region,

District Office to demonstrate that the features were not physically impacted by these anchoring 

activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

5.02 Conventional Pipeline Laying 

Vessels (GPS) (pipeline 

applications)

The proposed pipeline construction activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support highdensity deepwater benthic communities. Use a state-of-the-art positioning system (e.g., DGPS) on 

the pipeline laying vessel and the anchor handling vessels to ensure that any seafloor disturbance 

(including that caused by anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) during pipeline construction 

activities does not occur within 250 ft of such areas (see the enclosed map/Map xxx [specify map 

by name], submitted with the pipeline application, which depicts the areas). Additionally, include 

lay barge anchor position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, with the pipeline 

construction report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b), which depict the “as-placed” location of all 

anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor and which demonstrate that the features were 

not physically impacted by the construction activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at 

the post-approval stage.
A-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

5.03 Anchor Positioning (ROV) (plans) The proposed activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support high-density deepwater 

benthic communities. Use an ROV to ensure that any seafloor disturbance resulting from the use of 

anchors (including that caused by the anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) does not occur within 

250 ft of such areas (see the enclosed map/Map xxx [specify map by name], submitted with your 

survey report which depicts the areas). Submit plats for Well(s) (insert number[s] or name[s]),

which depict the “as-placed” location of all anchors and any associated anchor chains and wire 

ropes on the seafloor, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, along with the highresolution ROV video on disc or removable drive, to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of 

Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations 

Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office 

to demonstrate that the features were not physically impacted by these anchoring activities. The 

ROV video screen should show time, date, depth, heading, and location coordinates. Observational 

notes and a corresponding map showing the ROV heading shall also be provided. If still images are 

collected, include the same information in the images’ integrated data. This mitigation may be 

applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

5.04 Conventional Pipeline Laying 

Vessels (ROV) (pipeline 

applications)

The proposed pipeline construction activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support highdensity deepwater benthic communities. Use an ROV to ensure that any seafloor disturbance 

(including that caused by the anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) during pipeline construction 

activities does not occur within 250 ft of such areas (see the enclosed map/Map “xxx” [specify map 

by name], submitted with the pipeline application, which depicts the areas). Submit lay barge 

anchor position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, with the pipeline 

construction report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b), which depict the “as-placed” location of all 

anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor and which demonstrate that the features were 

not physically impacted by the construction activities. Additionally, submit the high-resolution 

ROV video on disc or removable drive. The ROV video screen should show time, date, depth, 

heading, and location coordinates. Observational notes and a corresponding map showing the ROV 

heading shall also be provided. If still images are collected, include the same information in the 

images’ integrated data. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

5.05 Dynamically Positioned Pipeline 

Laying Vessels (GPS) (pipeline 

applications)

The proposed pipeline construction activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support highdensity deepwater benthic communities. Use a state-of-the-art positioning system (e.g., DGPS) on 

the dynamically positioned pipeline laying vessel to ensure that any seafloor disturbance resulting 

from the pipeline construction activities does not occur within 250 ft of such areas (see the enclosed 

map/Map “xxx” [specify map by name], submitted with the pipeline application, which depicts the 

areas). Additionally, include “as-built” location plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS 

accuracy, with the pipeline construction report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b), which depict the 

location of the pipeline(s) relative to these features to demonstrate that the features were not 

physically impacted by the construction activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the 

post-approval stage.

5.06 Well Positioning (ROV) (plans) BOEM’s review indicates that the applicant has stated in the plan that the proposed activities are in 

the vicinity of areas that could support high-density chemosynthetic communities. Use an ROV to 

ensure that any seafloor disturbance resulting from the activities does not occur in such areas that 

are within 1,500 ft of your proposed location (see the enclosed map/Map “xxx” [specify map by 

name], submitted with the survey report which depicts these areas). Submit plats for Wells(s) 

(insert number[s] or name[s]), which depict the “as-drilled” location of the well(s), at a scale of 1 in 
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-17

= 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, at the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations report 

(Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office to 

demonstrate that the features were not physically impacted. This mitigation may be applied by 

BSEE at the post-approval stage.

5.07 Anchor Positioning (GPS and ROV) The proposed activities are in the vicinity of areas that could support high-density deepwater 

benthic communities. Use a state-of-the-art positioning system (e.g., DGPS) on the anchor 

handling vessel and use an ROV to ensure that any seafloor disturbance resulting from the use of 

anchors (including that caused by the anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes) does not occur within 

250 ft of such areas. Submit plats for Well(s) (insert number[s] or name[s]), which depict the 

“as-placed” location of all anchors and any associated anchor chains and wire ropes on the seafloor, 

at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, along with the high-resolution ROV video on disc 

or removable drive, to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at 

the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the 

appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office to demonstrate that the features 

were not physically impacted by these anchoring activities. The ROV video screen should show 

time, date, depth, heading, and location coordinates. Observational notes and a corresponding map 

showing the ROV heading shall also be provided. If still images are collected, include the same 

information in the images’ integrated data. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the postapproval stage.

5.08 Well Placement Variance (plans) There is an area capable of supporting high-density deepwater benthic communities within 2,000 ft 

of the proposed well(s), also known as the chemosynthetic well parameter. The proposed well(s) 

is/are (insert chemosynthetic distance parameter) from the area capable of supporting high-density 

deepwater benthic communities, which in this case provides adequate protection from muds and 

cuttings during operations. The actual well(s) shall not be placed closer than (CHEMO 

DISTANCE PARAMETER 1) from the potential habitat (see the chemosynthetic map parameter, 

which depicts the area). Provide a map showing the final as-placed well(s), potential habitat, and 

distance of the well(s) from the potential habitat to BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of 

Leasing and Plans, Plans Section at the same time the applicant submits the End of Operations 

Report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, District Office 

to demonstrate that the feature(s) were not physically impacted by the drilling activity. This 

mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

5.09 Well Placement Variance – “Zero 

Discharge” (plans)

There is an area capable of supporting high-density deepwater benthic communities within 2,000 ft 

of the proposed well(s) (insert chemosynthetic wells parameter). Since this area is (insert 

chemosynthetic distance parameter) from your well site(s), chemosynthetic reason parameter, 

BSEE permits the activity with the following mitigations added.

1. Do not move the well(s) any closer to the area capable of supporting high-density 

deepwater benthic communities (see chemosynthetic map parameter, which depicts the 

area).

2. Follow “zero discharge” practices (i.e., no muds or cuttings shall be discharged near the 

sea surface in the vicinity of the permitted activity).
A-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

3. In this instance, it is understood that the discharge of muds and cuttings will occur on or 

near the seafloor for the riserless portion of the drilling operations ONLY as part of the 

“zero discharge” practice.

4. No muds or cuttings shall be discharged near the seafloor or at the sea surface once the 

blowout preventer and marine riser have been installed. No additional or excess muds 

or cuttings beyond those necessary to properly accomplish the riserless portion of the 

drilling activity shall be discharged on or near the seafloor.

5. Perform an assessment survey after the drilling of the well(s) is complete. (a) Conduct 

an ROV survey to assess sedimentation and its effects on the area capable of supporting 

high-density deepwater benthic communities (see chemosynthetic map parameter 1, 

which depicts the area. Transects must be run no more than 50 ft apart). (b) Ensure 

that the imagery in the ROV survey is high enough quality to adequately assess drilling 

effects. (This can be accomplished by employing the use of high-resolution still 

photography, high-resolution video, and/or lower resolution imaging through the use of 

close-up photography.) (c) The surveyed areas shall be recorded and documented on 

disc or removable drive for review, and the screen should show time, date, depth, 

heading, and location coordinates.

This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

Coastal Zone Management Mitigations

6.01 Texas (Coastal Zone Management) Drilling permits cannot be issued for the proposed wells until concurrence with the coastal zone 

management consistency certification has been received by BOEM’s Office of Environment from 

the Texas General Land Office or until concurrence with the certification has been conclusively 

presumed.

6.02 Louisiana (Coastal Zone 

Management)

Drilling permits cannot be issued for the proposed wells until concurrence with the coastal zone 

management consistency certification has been received by BOEM’s Office of Environment from 

the Louisiana Department of Natural Resources or until concurrence with the certification has been 

conclusively presumed.

6.03 Alabama (Coastal Zone 

Management)

Drilling permits cannot be issued for the proposed wells until concurrence with the coastal zone 

management consistency certification has been received by BOEM’s Office of Environment from 

the Alabama Department of Environmental Management or until concurrence with the certification 

has been conclusively presumed.

6.04 Mississippi (Coastal Zone 

Management)

Drilling permits cannot be issued for the proposed wells until concurrence with the coastal zone 

management consistency certification has been received by BOEM’s Office of Environment from 

the Mississippi Department of Marine Resources or until concurrence with the certification has 

been conclusively presumed.

6.05 Florida (Coastal Zone Management) Drilling permits cannot be issued for the proposed wells until concurrence with the coastal zone 

management consistency certification has been received by BOEM’s Office of Environment from 

the Florida Department of Environmental Protection or until concurrence with the certification has 

been conclusively presumed.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-19

Flower Garden Banks Mitigations

7.07 Environmental Monitoring Plan Develop a plan for the early initiation of environmental monitoring of the effects of a hydrocarbon 

spill that may occur as a result of the proposed activities on the resources of the Flower Garden 

Banks National Marine Sanctuary, including water quality, pelagic fish, and benthic communities.

7.09 Pressure Sensor Testing High- and low-pressure sensors protecting the proposed pipeline will be tested at least once 

bi-weekly with no more than 3 weeks elapsing between each test. The applicant will maintain these 

records on the platform and will make them available to BSEE personnel upon request.

7.10 Pressure Sensor Setting The low-pressure sensor protecting the proposed pipeline will be set no lower than 10 percent 

below the lower limit of the normal operating pressure range.

Hydrogen Sulfide Mitigations

8.01, 8.02, 

and 8.03

H2S Present (plans)

H2S Unknown (plans)

H2S Absent (plans)

In response to the request accompanying your plan for a hydrogen sulfide (H2S) classification, the 

area in which the proposed drilling operations are to be conducted is hereby classified, in 

accordance with 30 CFR § 250.490(c), as “H2S present,” “H2S unknown,” or “H2S absent.” 

Accordingly, comply with the appropriate requirements of 30 CFR § 250.490 if H2S is present or 

unknown.

8.04 H2S Concentration Deviation The plan indicates that the applicant anticipates H2S at a concentration of approximately (specify 

the ppm). Should the applicant actually encounter H2S at a concentration greater than 500 ppm, 

revise the plan in accordance with 30 CFR § 550.285 to include toxic modeling and an analysis of 

any potential environmental impacts. Contact BOEM’s Office of Environment to obtain the 

methodology for modeling an H2S plume. The applicant must receive approval of the revised plan 

before additional permits filed under the plan will be approved.

8.05 Corrosion Inspections (H2S

pipelines)

Inspect the pipeline(s) bi-annually, annually, or biennially for an indication of corrosion or other 

flaws. Report the results of these inspections to BSEE’s Office of Field Operations within 30 days 

of completion. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

8.07 National Ocean Service Notification 

(H2S pipelines)

When the applicant provides the National Ocean Service, Nautical Data Section with a copy of the 

pipeline construction report plat, the applicant must also request that the National Ocean Service, 

Nautical Data Section include the pipeline(s) on their navigation charts and identify it/them as (an) 

H2S or toxic sour gas pipeline(s).

8.08 USCG Notification (H2S pipelines) Immediately after the applicant begins operation of the pipeline(s), the applicant must notify the 

U.S. Coast Guard Commander, Eighth Coast Guard District, that the pipeline(s) is/are in operation 

and request that the USCG publish information about the pipeline(s), including the fact that it is or 

they are transporting natural gas with a high concentration of H2S, in the Eighth District Local 

Notice to Mariners, Gulf of Mexico.

8.09 H2S Concentration Deviation 

(pipeline applications)

The application indicated that the applicant anticipates the H2S concentration of the product to be 

transported in the proposed pipeline is approximately (specify the ppm). Should the applicant 

determine at some future date that the H2S concentration is greater than 500 ppm, immediately 

submit an application to modify the pipeline in accordance with 30 CFR § 250.1007(b) to include 

toxic modeling and an analysis of any potential environmental impacts. Contact BOEM’s Office of 

Environment to obtain the methodology for modeling an H2S plume.

8.10 Notification to Federal Aviation 

Administration

Prior to initiating operations approved in your plan or pipeline application, the applicant shall 

update their emergency notification list in their H2S contingency plan to include the Federal 

Aviation Administration (FAA: Houston Air Traffic Control/Traffic Management Control Desk). 

In the event of an above-water or below-water sour gas release greater than 100 standard cubic feet, 
A-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

notify the FAA that air traffic (except evacuation and medical aircraft) should be routed safely 

away from the site until further notice. For purposes of avoidance recommendations to the FAA, a 

distance of 10 nautical miles and an altitude of 4000 ft, as minimal, shall be used. In the case of a 

release of H2S (that constitutes an emergency), notify all facilities that might be exposed to 

atmospheric concentrations of 20 ppm or more of H2S (i.e., all facilities located within [insert 

number] miles of the H2S release). The applicant must also assist in the removal of all personnel as 

well as any other persons observed within the affected area.

8.11 H2S Absent and H2S Present or 

Unknown below Certain Depths 

(plans)

In response to the request accompanying the plan for a H2S classification, the area in which the 

proposed drilling operations are to be conducted above (specify depth) is hereby classified, in 

accordance with 30 CFR § 250.490(c), as H2S absent. However, the area in which the proposed 

drilling operations are to be conducted below (specify depth) is hereby classified, in accordance 

with 30 CFR § 250.490(c), as H2S present or unknown. Accordingly, comply with the appropriate 

requirements of 30 CFR § 250.490.

Live Bottom Areas

9.00 Hard Bottoms/Pinnacles/Potentially 

Sensitive Biological Features NonRecurring Mitigation

A non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

9.01 Hard Bottoms/Pinnacles/Potentially 

Sensitive Biological Features 

(conventional lay barge) (pipeline 

applications)

BOEM’s analysis indicates that there are hard bottoms/pinnacles/potentially sensitive biological 

features (PSBF’s) that likely provide habitat for biological assemblages located within the scope of 

the anchor array of the pipeline lay barge. The pipeline construction activities (including the use of 

anchors, chains, and wire ropes) must avoid these hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s as depicted on 

the enclosed map(s) in the application by a distance of at least 100 ft. Include lay barge anchor 

position plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, with the pipeline construction 

report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b), which depict the “as-placed” location of all anchors, 

anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor and which demonstrate that the features were not 

physically impacted by the construction activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the 

post-approval stage.

9.03 Hard Bottoms/Pinnacles/Potentially 

Sensitive Biological Features 

(plans)

BOEM’s analysis indicates that there are hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s located in the vicinity of 

the activities proposed in the plan that likely provide habitat for biological assemblages. Any 

bottom-disturbing activities associated with the activities proposed in the plan must avoid these 

hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s as depicted on the enclosed map(s) in the application by a distance 

of at least 100 ft. Submit to BSEE’s Office of Field Operations at the same time you submit your 

End of Operations report (Form BSEE-0125) to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico OCS 

Region, District Office an as-built map at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, showing 

the location of any seafloor disturbance (e.g., jack-up rig, barge anchors, etc.) relative to these 

features. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

9.04 Hard Bottoms/Pinnacles/Potentially 

Sensitive Biological Features (DP 

lay barge) (pipeline applications)

BOEM’s analysis indicates that there are hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s that likely provide habitat 

for biological assemblages located on or near the proposed pipeline route. The pipeline 

construction activities must avoid these hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s as depicted on the enclosed 

map(s) in the application by a distance of at least 100 ft. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE 

at the post-approval stage.

9.05 Hard Bottoms/Pinnacles/Potentially 

Sensitive Biological Features 

(structure removal)

BOEM’s review of the application indicates that there are hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s located 

in the vicinity of the activities proposed in the application that likely provide habitat for biological 

assemblages. Any bottom-disturbing activities associated with the activities proposed in the 
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-21

application must avoid these hard bottoms/pinnacles/PSBF’s as depicted on the enclosed map(s) in 

the application by a distance of at least 100 ft. Include in the post-removal report the as-built plats, 

at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, which depict the “as-placed” location of all 

anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor deployed during the structure removal 

relative to these features. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

9.10 ROV Survey Required NonRecurring MitigationA non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

Military Mitigations

10.09 Naval Coastal Systems Center Please be reminded of the lease stipulation requires the applicant to enter into an agreement with the 

Coastal Test and Evaluation Division, Coastal System Station/Code E21, Panama City, Florida 

32407, concerning the control of your electromagnetic emissions and use of boats and aircraft in the 

Naval Coastal Systems Center Area.

11.11 Military Warning Area (all) BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed pipeline route and/or the routes to be taken by boats 

and aircraft in support of the proposed activities are located in or could traverse Military Warning 

Area W-(insert number) or Eglin Water Test Area EWTA-(insert number) (see BOEM’s Internet 

website at http://www.boem.gov/MWA-Boundaries/ for a map of the areas). Contact the 

appropriate individual military command headquarters (see BOEM’s Internet website at http://

www.boem.gov/Military-Contacts-for-Warning-and-Water-Test-Areas/ for a list of the contacts) 

concerning the control of electromagnetic emissions and the use of boats and aircraft in this area(s) 

before commencing such traffic.

12.01 Unexploded Ordnance The proposed operations are located in an area that was used until 1970 by the U.S. Department of 

Defense as an explosives dumping area. Please be advised that precautions should therefore be 

taken while conducting operations that involve any disturbance of the seafloor in order to avoid 

possible unexploded ordnance.

12.02 Naval Mine Warfare Area

(MU 732, 733, and 734)

The proposed operations are located within a stipulated area designated by the Naval Mine Warfare 

Command for mine operations. Therefore, surface structures for exploration activities are subject 

to approval by BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Regional Director after consultation with 

the Commander, Mine Warfare Command. No permanent structures or debris of any kind will be 

allowed in the area during exploration operations. Plans for any above seafloor development 

operations within the designated area must be coordinated with the Commander, Mine Warfare 

Command, 325 Fifth Street, SE, Corpus Christi, Texas 78491-5032.

Shallow Drilling Hazards Mitigations (Plans)

14.01 Shallow Gas and/or Water Flow Exercise caution while drilling due to indications of shallow gas (and/or faulting) (and/or possible 

water flow).

14.02 Seafloor Instability Exercise caution during drilling rig placement due to indications of seafloor instability.

14.03 Insufficient Information Exercise caution during drilling rig placement due to insufficient information regarding seafloor 

foundation integrity.

Shallow Hazards Mitigations

15.01 and 

15.02

Multiple Hazards (plans)

Single Hazard (plans)

BOEM’s review indicates that there are pipeline(s), unidentified magnetic anomaly(ies), 

unidentified side-scan sonar contact(s), or other specified hazard(s) in the vicinity of (insert name of 

platform(s) or well(s)) that may pose a hazard to the proposed operations. Therefore, take 

precautions in accordance with NTL 2008-G05, Section VI.B, prior to performing operations.
A-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

15.05 and 

15.06

Multiple Hazards (plans/pipelines) 

(anchoring activities)

Single Hazard (plans) (anchoring)

BOEM’s review indicates that there is a pipeline(s), unidentified magnetic anomaly(ies), 

unidentified side-scan sonar contact(s), or other specified hazard(s) in the vicinity of (insert name of 

platform(s) or well(s)) that may pose a hazard due to anchoring activities associated with the 

proposed operations. If any of these activities will take place within 150 m (490 ft) of the potential 

hazard, take precautions in accordance with NTL 2008-G05, Section VI.B, prior to performing 

operations.

15.07 Pipeline Spanning BOEM’s review indicates areas of seafloor relief in the vicinity of the proposed pipeline route, 

which may cause spanning problems for the pipeline. Use an ROV in conjunction with the pipeline 

construction activities to ensure that these areas are avoided to the extent possible. Additionally, 

include a report with the pipeline construction report, which is required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b)

and which analyzes the as-laid pipeline with respect to spanning and describes the protective 

measures taken to ensure pipeline integrity for those portions of the pipeline where the areas of 

seafloor relief could not be avoided. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval 

stage.

15.08 Conflict with Anchors Please be advised that exploration activities have been approved or are pending approval for (insert 

lease, block, area), which could potentially interfere with the proposed activities. Therefore, the 

applicant should contact (insert contact name, company, address, phone number) prior to 

commencement of the activities in order to avoid any potential conflicts.

Topographic Features Mitigations

16.00 Topographic Features NonRecurring MitigationA non-recurring mitigation is a mitigation measure that is used for a unique, special, one-time-only 

mitigation that is added to certain plans.

16.01 Shunting All Wells (plans) The proposed activities are within the “4-mile, 3-mile, 1-mile, or 1,000-meter zone” of (insert name 

of topographic feature). Shunt all drill cuttings and drilling fluids to the seafloor through a 

downpipe that terminates an appropriate distance, but no more than 10 m, from the bottom.

16.02 Shunting Some Wells (plans) Some of the proposed activities are within the “4-mile, 3-mile, 1-mile, or 1,000-meter zone” of 

(insert name of topographic feature). For (insert name of wells to be shunted”, shunt all drill 

cuttings and drilling fluids to the seafloor through a downpipe that terminates an appropriate 

distance, but no more than 10 m, from the bottom.

16.03 No Activity Zone (right-of-way

pipeline applications)

BOEM’s analysis indicates that the “no activity zone(s)” of the biologically sensitive feature(s) 

shown on the enclosed map(s) in the application may be located within the scope of the anchor 

array of the pipeline lay barge. Anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes associated with the 

proposed pipeline construction activities must avoid this/these “no activity zone(s)” by a distance of 

at least 500 ft. Include lay barge anchor positions plats, at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS 

accuracy, with the pipeline construction report required by 30 CFR § 250.1008(b), which depict the 

“as-placed” location of all anchors, anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor, and which 

demonstrate that the “no activity zone(s)” was/were not physically impacted by the construction 

activities. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-23

16.04 No Activity Zone (plans) Bottom-disturbing activities associated with the activities proposed in the plan must avoid the “no 

activity zone” of the biologically sensitive feature shown on the enclosed map in the application by 

a distance of at least 500 ft. Submit to BSEE’s Office of Field Operations, at the same time the End 

of Operations report (Form BSEE-0125) is submitted to the appropriate BSEE, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region, District Office, an as-built map at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, 

showing the location of any seafloor disturbance (e.g., jack-up rig placement, rig anchors, 

construction barge anchors, etc.) to demonstrate that the “no activity zone(s)” was not physically 

impacted. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

16.05 No Activity Zone (structure 

removal)

Bottom-disturbing activities associated with the activities proposed in the application must avoid 

the “no activity zone” of the biologically sensitive feature shown on the enclosed map in the 

application by a distance of at least 500 ft. Include in the post-removal report an as-built plat, at a 

scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft with DGPS accuracy, depicting the “as-placed” location of all anchors, 

anchor chains, and wire ropes on the seafloor deployed during the structure-removal activities to 

show that the “no activity zone” was not physically impacted. This mitigation may be applied by 

BSEE at the post-approval stage.

Non-Plan and Pipeline Mitigations

17.02 Fish (structure removals using 

explosives)

Under the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act, 50 CFR § 600.725 

prohibits the use of explosives to take reef fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone. Consequently, 

those involved in explosive structure removals must not take such stunned or killed fish on board 

their vessels. Should this happen, they could be charged by the National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) with violation of the Act.

17.04 Site-Clearance Trawling Reporting If trawling is used to comply with the site-clearance verification requirements under 30 CFR §§ 

250.1740-1743, which mandates that turtle excluder devices (TED) be removed from the trawl nets 

to facilitate the collection of seabed debris, the applicant must abide by maximum trawl times of 

30 minutes, allowing for the removal of any captured sea turtles. If, during trawling activities, the 

applicant captures a sea turtle in the nets, the applicant must (1) contact BSEE’s Environmental 

Enforcement Branch and the National Marine Fisheries Services’ (NMFS’s) Southeast Regional 

Office immediately, (2) resuscitate and release any captured sea turtles as per NMFS’s guidelines 

found online at http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/turtles/TM_NMFS_SEFSC_580_2010.pdf (refer to 

page 3-6, Plate 3-1), and (3) photograph the turtle and complete a sea turtle stranding form for each 

sea turtle caught in the nets. The form can be found at http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/species/turtles/

strandings.htm and submitted to NMFS and BSEE.

Conservation Information Document Mitigations

18 Self-Burial Approval BOEM hereby concurs with the determination that the subject pipeline will be installed in an area 

that is prone to self-burial. However, in the future, should it be determined that the pipeline(s) 

constitute(s) a hazard to navigation or commercial fishing operations or unduly interferes(s) with 

other uses of the OCS, the applicant will be required to bury it (them).

18.01 Conservation Information 

Document – Condition of Approval

Within 15 days after the proposed well is or wells are completed and logged, submit a revision to 

the plan consisting of the information required for a Conservation Information Document in 

accordance with NTL 2000-N05.

18.02 Conservation Information 

Document – Operations Approval

At the applicant’s request, we are approving your development operation coordination document 

(DOCD) prior to the completion of our review of the accompanying Conservation Information 

Document (CID). However, please be advised that, if the CID review indicates that any of the 
A-24 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

proposed activities do not conform to sound conservation, engineering, and economic practices as 

cited in 30 CFR §§ 550.202(a) and 550.1101(a), we will, in accordance with 30 CFR § 

550.281(4)(b), require such revisions to the DOCD as are necessary to make the activities conform 

to such practices.

ROV Survey Mitigations

19.01 ROV Survey Required –

Exploration Plans (EP)

In accordance with NTL 2008-G06, the applicant must conduct the two ROV surveys proposed in 

the plan. The first survey will be for the first well location approved under this plan which is 

actually drilled. The post-drilling survey can be conducted at the time the applicant is preparing to 

leave this location. The applicant must submit both survey reports within 60 days after the rig 

leaves the well location. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

19.02 ROV Survey Required – DOCD In accordance with NTL 2008-G06, the applicant must conduct the ROV surveys proposed in the 

plan for the facility location approved under this plan. The applicant must submit the pre- and postinstallation survey reports within 60 days after the facility installation is completed. This mitigation 

may be applied by BSEE at the post-approval stage.

19.03 ROV Survey Not Required In accordance with NTL 2008-G06, BOEM has determined that the applicant will not need to 

conduct the two ROV surveys proposed in the plan. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the 

post-approval stage.

Surveys Mitigations

21.01 Archaeology Assessment Not 

Acceptable

BOEM’s review has determined that the archaeological analysis included in the survey report does 

not meet current BOEM requirements.

21.02 Archaeology Assessment 

Acceptable

BOEM’s review has determined that the archaeological analysis included in the survey report meets 

current BOEM requirements.

21.03 Geophysical Review Acceptable BOEM’s review has determined that the subject survey report complies with the provisions of NTL 

2008-G05 and, based on available data regarding any man-made hazards that may have been 

present at the time the survey was conducted, contains sufficient information to prepare an 

acceptable shallow hazards analysis for specific drilling or platform sites that the applicant may 

propose in future EP’s or DOCD’s. However, prior to submitting any such EP’s or DOCD’s, the 

applicant should update the accompanying anomaly map, if appropriate, to indicate the location of 

any man-made hazards, e.g., pipelines, abandoned wells, etc., that did not exist at the time the 

survey was performed. Additionally, please be reminded that under the guidelines of NTL 

2008-G04, the applicant should submit high-resolution survey data from the line closest to any 

proposed well or platform location, with one copy of each such EP or DOCD.

21.04 Geophysical Survey Report Not

Acceptable

BOEM’s review has also determined the subject survey report does not comply with the provisions 

of NTL 2008-G05.

21.05 3D Survey Waiver Use of three-dimensional (3D) seismic data in lieu of high-resolution survey data as per NTL 

2008-G05 is acceptable for the requested locations.

Pipeline Section Mitigations and Conditions

22 Concrete Mats The applicant’s request to install protective concrete mats over the pipeline crossings in water less 

than 200 ft deep is hereby approved pursuant to 30 CFR § 250.141.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-25

25 Pipeline High-Pressure (PSH) 

Higher Than 15%

The applicant’s request to set the PSH higher than 15 percent above the normal operating pressure 

range is hereby approved pursuant to 30 CFR § 250.142. The pipeline PSH shall be set no more 

than 5 percent above the latest shut-in tubing pressure of the well and will not be set above the 

maximum allowable operating pressure of the pipeline.

26 Denied Self-Burial BOEM cannot concur with the applicant’s determination that the subject pipeline will be installed 

in an area that is prone to self-burial. BOEM will only allow self-burial in areas with a soil strength 

that does not exceed 200 pounds per square foot. Therefore, the portions of the pipeline in water 

depths less than or equal to 200 ft shall be buried.

28 Hydrostatic Head to Raise 

Maximum Allowable Operating 

Pressure

The applicant’s request to determine the internal design pressure of the submerged portion of the 

pipeline by considering the effects of the external hydrostatic pressure, in lieu of using the standard 

formula outlined in 30 CFR § 250.1002(a), is hereby approved pursuant to 30 CFR § 250.141(a).

National Marine Fisheries Service Mitigations

28.001 Species Protective Measures The applicant must comply with the following species protective measures in all activities 

conducted pursuant to the plan: NTL 2012-JOINT-G01, “Vessel Strike Avoidance and 

Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting”; NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, “Implementation of Seismic 

Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program”; and NTL 2012-BSEE-G01, 

“Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and Elimination.” These measures are designed to promote 

environmental protection, consistent environmental policy, compliance with environmental laws, 

and safety.

29 Oil Spill Financial Responsibility 

(OSFR) Coverage

BOEM’s review of the application indicates that, per 30 CFR §§ 553.3(1)-(3), the proposed rightof-way pipeline is classified as a covered offshore facility (COF) and requires oil-spill financial 

responsibility (OSFR) coverage. At this time, BSEE’s records do not indicate that the required 

OSFR coverage is in place. The applicant is advised that they may begin construction of the 

proposed pipeline immediately. However, in accordance with 30 CFR § 553.15(b), the applicant

may not begin operation of the pipeline until they have submitted an application showing evidence 

of OSFR coverage and that demonstration has been approved by BSEE.

99 Department of Transportation 

Right-of-Way Pipeline

The applicant shall construct, operate, and maintain the pipeline in accordance with the appropriate 

U.S. Department of Transportation regulations.

110 Spanning Potential There are several fault scarps along with the proposed pipeline route. Include with the construction 

report a listing of the location and length of any pipeline “spanning,” resulting from laying the 

pipeline over these fault scarps. Also include a description of any remedial action necessary to 

minimize “spanning” and prevent pipeline damage. This mitigation may be applied by BSEE at the 

post-approval stage.

Office of Structural Technical Support Mitigations

120.1 Reminder of NTL 2008-G05 If there are pipelines within the immediate proximity of the proposed platform site, precautions 

outlined in NTL 2008-G05, “Shallow Hazards Program,” shall be taken while conducting 

operations.

120.15 Notify National Imagery and 

Mapping

In order to assure publication of onsite activity as it affects marine navigation safety, the applicant

must notify the National Imagery and Mapping Agency in advance of commencement of platform 

installation.

120.2 Send Report to Office of Structural 

and Technical Support (OSTS)

Written notification shall be submitted to the Office of Structural and Technical Support (OSTS) 

and the Pipeline Section within 15 calendar days of completion of the platform installation 

operations, at which time the applicant will be provided with the “Complex Identification Number”
A-26 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

(CPXID) that has been assigned to this structure. The CPXID should be included with other 

pertinent information (i.e., the right-of-way number, area code, block number, platform name, etc.) 

in all future correspondence related to this structure. Should significant problems occur during 

structure installation operations, please inform OSTS immediately. If for any reason the applicant 

decides not to install this structure, they shall submit a written cancellation letter.

120.7 Downhole Well Plugging In accordance with 30 CFR § 250.1710, the applicant must downhole plug and abandon all wells on 

(insert area/block platform name) (except [insert well names]), no later than (insert date). However, 

the applicant will not be required to sever the casings, remove the wellhead, or clear the site until 

the right-of-use expires.

Geological and Geophysical Mitigations (deep-penetration applications)

(no assigned mitigation numbers)

Vessel-Strike Avoidance/Reporting The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-JOINT-G01, “Vessel Strike 

Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting.” The NTL 2012-JOINT-G01 provides 

guidance on how a seismic operator should implement monitoring programs to minimize the risk of 

vessel strikes to protected species and should report observations of injured or dead protected 

species. In lieu of a formal observer program, this NTL provides specific guidelines that should be 

followed to identify and avoid injury to marine mammals and sea turtles.

Seismic Survey Operation, Monitoring, and 

Reporting Guidelines

The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, “Implementation of 

Seismic Survey Mitigation Measures and Protected Species Observer Program.” Additionally, the 

applicant will comply with the guidance under this NTL when operating in all water depths (not 

just in water depths >200 m or in the Eastern Planning Area), and the NTL’s “shut-down 

conditions” will be applied towards manatees.

Pre-Activity Sound-Source and Array Calibration 

Verification

Prior to conducting survey activities, the applicant will verify in writing that the proposed airgun 

arrays to be used are of the lowest sound intensity level that still achieves the survey goals. The 

written verification must include confirmation that the airgun array has been calibrated/tuned to 

maximize subsurface illumination and minimize, to the extent practicable, horizontal propagation of 

noise.

Mandatory Separation Buffer between Survey 

Operations

The applicant will be required to maintain, to the extent it can practicably and safely do so, a 

minimum separation distance of 30 km from any other vessels concurrently conducting deeppenetration seismic surveys and 40 km when operating within an Area of Concern. To assist in 

implementation of this measure, BOEM will provide the applicant with contact information for all 

deep-penetration seismic applicants concurrently permitted/authorized to operate within or near the 

proposed survey area.

Supplemental Reporting Requirements In addition to the reporting requirements under NTL 2012-JOINT-G02, the applicant is required to 

submit bi-weekly reports containing the information listed below. The reporting periods end on the 

1st and 15th of each month. These bi-weekly reports are required for the total duration of the 

permit. When applicable, the reports must be submitted with survey navigation data for the 2-week 

reporting period. BOEM has a suggested format for the written report. If BOEM’s suggested 

written format is not used, the following information must be submitted along with the navigation 

data: (1) the dates, locations, and duration of any deep-penetration seismic operations conducted 

during the reporting period (the navigation data provides this information); (2) any circumstances 

that caused the total energy output of the airgun source array to exceed that set forth in the permit 

application; (3) confirmation that the permittee maintained, to the extent they could practicably and 

safely do so, the minimum separation distance (If applicable, submit a written explanation of why 
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-27

the minimum separation distance was not maintained.); and (4) confirmation that the permittee 

complied with the other terms of Section V of the Settlement Agreement.

Military Warning Area Coordination BOEM’s review indicates that the routes to be taken by boats in support of the applicant’s activities 

traversed Military Warning Areas W-92, W-147AB, and W-602. The applicant shall contact the 

appropriate individual military command headquarters concerning the control of electromagnetic 

emissions and use of boats in each of the areas before commencing the operations.

Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination

The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-BSEE-G01, “Marine Trash and 

Debris Awareness and Elimination.” The NTL 2012-BSEE-G01 provides information on reducing, 

if not eliminating, trash intentionally jettisoned into the Gulf of Mexico. The programs described in 

the NTL to assist in the reduction of marine trash and debris are the marine trash and debris 

placards, marine trash and debris awareness training, and the marine trash and debris awareness 

training and certification process.

Geological and Geophysical Mitigation

Natural Resource Defense Council Area of Concern (equal to or greater than 20-m water depth)

(no assigned mitigation numbers)

Seismic Survey Restriction Period BOEM’s review indicates that the proposed survey area falls within a portion of an unusual 

mortality event area declared/established by the National Marine Fisheries Service for cetaceans 

(whales and dolphins). The applicant shall adhere to a restriction period between March 1 and 

April 30 (primary bottlenose dolphin calving season) for deep penetration seismic surveys on the 

Federal Outer Continental Shelf in coastal waters out to the 20-m isobath in the Northern Gulf of 

Mexico to avoid potential impacts to dolphins in regards to behavioral disruptions to mother/calf 

bonding or masking of important acoustic cues. No airgun use, including the use of mitigation 

guns, is permitted during the restriction period.

Geological and Geophysical Mitigation

Natural Resource Defense Council Area of Concern (equal to or greater than 100-m water depth)

(no assigned mitigation numbers)

Required Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) BOEM requires that the applicant use passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) in water depths of 100 m 

or greater at times of reduced visibility (darkness, rain, fog, etc.) as part of their protected species 

observer program. The PAM will be monitored at all times of reduced visibility. Applicants will 

be required to provide BSEE with a description of the passive acoustic system, the software used, 

and the monitoring plan prior to its use. Additionally, after survey completion, the applicant will 

provide an assessment of the usefulness, effectiveness, and problems encountered with the use of 

PAM for marine mammal detection to BSEE for review.

Mitigation for High-Resolution Surveys

Vessel-Strike Avoidance/Reporting The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-JOINT-G01, “Vessel Strike 

Avoidance and Injured/Dead Protected Species Reporting.” The NTL 2012-JOINT-G01 provides 

guidance on how a seismic operator should implement monitoring programs to minimize the risk of 

vessel strikes to protected species and should report observations of injured or dead protected 

species. In lieu of a formal observer program, this NTL provides specific guidelines that should be 

followed to identify and avoid injury to marine mammals and sea turtles.

Marine Trash and Debris Awareness and 

Elimination

The applicant will follow the guidance provided under NTL 2012-BSEE-G01, “Marine Trash and 

Debris Awareness and Elimination.” The NTL 2012-BSEE-G01 provides information on reducing, 
A-28 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

if not eliminating, trash intentionally jettisoned into the Gulf of Mexico. The programs described in 

the NTL to assist in the reduction of marine trash and debris are the marine trash and debris 

placards, marine trash and debris awareness training, and the marine trash and debris awareness 

training and certification process.

Geological and Geophysical Non-Recurring Mitigations

Benthic Communities Review of BOEM’s 3D seismic database of water bottom anomalies identified both confirmed 

deepwater benthic communities and features that could potentially support communities within the 

area of the proposed activities. Based on BOEM’s review of exploration activities proposed in the 

applicant’s application, the following non-recurring mitigations are applied to the area encompassed 

by the plan:

1. BOEM’s 3D seismic database of water bottom anomalies and confirmed communities 

shall be used to identify features for the purpose of applying this mitigation.

2. The following nine water bottom anomaly categories will be considered as supporting 

or potentially supporting deepwater benthic communities, unless proved otherwise 

through high- resolution surveys: anom_conf_coral;, anom_conf_mvol;, 

anom_conf_orgs,; anom_poss_oil_pos,; wb_anom_lith,; wb_anom_mvol,; 

wb_anom_neg,; wb_anom_pock,; and wb_anom_pos.

3. These shape files may be downloaded from http://www.boem.gov/Oil-and-Gas-EnergyProgram/Mapping-and-Data/Map-Gallery/Seismic-Water-Bottom-Anomalies-MapGallery.aspx. 

4. Features shall be either avoided or surveyed to confirm the presence or absence of 

deepwater benthic communities.

5. Per NTL 2009-G40, a minimum separation of 250 ft must be maintained between 

documented communities or features that could potentially support high-density 

deepwater benthic communities and bottom-disturbing activities (e.g., sensors deployed 

on the seafloor).

a. Therefore, a minimum distance of separation for planned sensor deployment 

sites from any feature or community documented in BOEM’s water bottom 

anomaly database must be at least 250 ft.

b. If at any time it is determined that a node has landed within 250 ft of any 

feature or community documented in BOEM’s water bottom anomaly database, 

an ROV must be used to document the seafloor surrounding the landing 

location. The seafloor beneath the node and arms must be surveyed visually 

with an ROV for damages. All images collected during this survey, showing 

the area within the footprint of the node, must be returned to BOEM’s Gulf of 

Mexico OCS Region, Biological Sciences Unit for evaluation.
Commonly Applied Mitigating Measures

A-29

6. As required by NTL 2009-G40, for bottom-disturbing activities occurring within 500 ft 

of a high-density deepwater benthic community, the operator must provide BOEM with 

an as-placed plat showing the actual location of the disturbance on the seafloor, in 

relation to documented anomalies and communities. This requirement will apply to 

sensors placed within 500 ft of a documented anomaly or community, as shown in 

BOEM’s 3D seismic database.

For sensor deployments requiring as-placed plats, prepare at a scale of 1 in = 1,000 ft and submit to 

BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Resource Evaluation, Data Acquisition and Special 

Projects Unit.

Tethered Ocean Bottom Node Surveys Acoustic buoy releases, tethered acoustic pingers, and nodal tethering lines pose an entanglement 

risk to sea turtles and other marine life. Implementing the following measures act to reduce the risk 

of entanglement and ensure proper reporting of entanglement situations. Reasonable measures are 

available to applicants using this deployment technique to reduce the risk of entanglement. These 

measures include the following: (1) shortening the acoustic buoy line and tethered acoustic pinger 

line to the shortest length practical; and (2) replacing tether rope lines equal to or greater than 1⁄4-in 

diameter with a thicker, more rigid tether line, modifying the line by tying knots in the line to 

increase the diameter and rigidness in order to minimize the risk of entanglement. Additional 

measures include ensuring that a Protected Species Observer (PSO) is onboard each vessel during 

tethered node retrieval operations. The PSO’s will document any entanglement of marine species 

in the nodal gear, specifically noting the location where entanglement occurred (e.g., pinger tether, 

acoustic buoy line, etc.). If a marine protected species becomes entangled, specifically a sea turtle, 

the PSO will immediately begin resuscitation procedures as described in the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s guidelines that can be found at http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/Assets/

Observer-Program/pdf/Shrimp_Reef_fish_Manual_9_22_10.pdf. The PSO must also contact the 

sea turtle stranding network’s State coordinator to report the incident, condition of the turtle, and 

request additional instructions to reduce risk of injury or mortality, including rehabilitation and 

salvage techniques.

Topographic Features The applicant must adhere to the provisions of the topographic features lease stipulation and the 

policy described in NTL 2009-G39, which restrict any bottom-disturbing activities within 152 m of 

the designated “no activity zone” of a topographic feature, as well as all applicable requirements 

described in the NTL.

Potential Archaeological Resource Protection BOEM’s review of the application indicates that numerous targets identified by existing remotesensing data are located in the project area where the ocean bottom cables (OBC’s) are proposed to be 

deployed. Therefore, in order to demonstrate compliance with 30 CFR § 551.6(a)(5), the applicant 

will either (1) ensure that all seafloor-disturbing actions required for the OBC deployment avoid the 

features by a distance greater than that listed in the tables or (2) conduct an underwater archaeological 

investigation prior to cable deployment to determine whether the feature represents an archaeological 

resource. If the applicant chooses to avoid the feature, they will be required to submit a plat, at a scale 

of 1 in = 1000 ft with DGPS accuracy, with their final report as required by 30 CFR § 551.8(c)(2), 

which demonstrates the feature was not physically impacted by the OBC deployment and retrieval or 

by any other associated bottom disturbances. If the applicant chooses to conduct an underwater 

archaeological investigation, they will be required to comply with the investigation methodology and 

reporting guidelines found on BOEM’s website at http://www.boem.gov/gom-archaeology/.
A-30 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

This is only a partial list of potential archaeological sites within the project area, based on existing 

remote-sensing data. There are significant portions of the project area within the OCS that have 

received either limited or no previous archaeological survey, and these areas are likely to contain 

additional archaeological materials that may be impacted by the proposed operations. If the 

applicant discovers additional man-made debris that appears to indicate the presence of a shipwreck 

(e.g., a sonar image or visual confirmation of an iron, steel, or wooden hull; wooden timbers; 

anchors; concentrations of man-made objects such as bottles or ceramics; and piles of ballast rock) 

within or adjacent to the proposed action area during the proposed survey operations, they will be 

required to immediately halt operations, take steps to ensure that the site is not disturbed in any 

way, and contact BOEM’s Regional Supervisor, Office of Environment within 48 hours of its 

discovery. They must cease all operations within 1,000 ft (305 m) of the site until BOEM’s 

Regional Director instructs you on what steps you must take to assess the site’s potential historic 

significance and what steps you must take to protect it. If an OBC becomes snagged on any 

submerged object, divers are required to un-snag and retrieve the OBC, and the applicant must 

submit a report detailing each instance of this activity. This report should include the coordinates 

of the snag (to DGPS accuracy), the diver’s description of the submerged object creating the snag, 

any damage that may have resulted from the OBC placement or retrieval operations, and any 

photographic or video imagery that is collected. The applicant must submit a report of any data 

collected as a result of these investigations.
APPENDIX B 

 

CATASTROPHIC SPILL EVENT ANALYSIS: 

HIGH-VOLUME, EXTENDED-DURATION OIL SPILL

RESULTING FROM LOSS OF WELL CONTROL 

ON THE GULF OF MEXICO OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF

Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-3 

B. CATASTROPHIC SPILL EVENT ANALYSIS: HIGH-VOLUME, 

EXTENDED-DURATION OIL SPILL RESULTING FROM LOSS 

OF WELL CONTROL ON THE GULF OF MEXICO OUTER 

CONTINENTAL SHELF

B.1. INTRODUCTION

In 1986, the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) regulations were amended to rescind the 

requirement to prepare a “worst-case analysis” for an environmental impact statement (EIS) (refer to 

40 CFR § 1502.22(b)(4)). The regulation, as amended, states that catastrophic, low-probability impacts 

must be analyzed if the analysis is “supported by credible scientific evidence, is not based on pure 

conjecture, and is within the rule of reason.”

The August 16, 2010, CEQ report, prepared following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response in the Gulf of Mexico, recommended that the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management 

(BOEM), formerly the Minerals Management Service (MMS) and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 

Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE), should “ensure that National Environmental Policy Act 

(NEPA) documents provide decisionmakers with a robust analysis of reasonably foreseeable impacts, 

including an analysis of reasonably foreseeable impacts associated with low-probability catastrophic 

spills for oil and gas activities on the Outer Continental Shelf” (CEQ, 2010). This evaluation is a robust

analysis of the impacts from low-probability catastrophic spills and will be made available to all 

applicable decisionmakers including, but not limited to, the Secretary of the Department of the Interior 

(USDOI) for the National Five-Year Program, the Assistant Secretary of Land and Minerals Management 

for an oil and gas lease sale, and the Regional Supervisors of the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region’s Office of 

Environment and Office of Leasing and Plans.

It should be noted that the analysis presented here is intended to be a general overview of the 

potential effects of a catastrophic spill in the Gulf of Mexico. As such, the Catastrophic Spill Event 

Analysis should be read with the understanding that further detail about accidental oil impacts on a 

particular resource may be found in the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014-2016, 

Western Planning Area Lease Sales 238, 246, and 248, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact 

Statement (WPA 238, 246, and 248 Supplemental EIS) analysis or previous relevant NEPA analyses (e.g., 

the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 

233, 238, 246, and 248; Central Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247, Final 

Environmental Impact Statement [2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS]; USDOI, BOEM, 2012; the Gulf 

of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central 

Planning Area Lease Sale 231, Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement [WPA 233/CPA 231 

Supplemental EIS]; USDOI, BOEM, 2013a; and the Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2014 

and 2016, Eastern Planning Area Lease Sales 225 and 226, Final Environmental Impact Statement

[EPA 225/226 EIS]; USDOI, BOEM, 2013b).

B.1.1. What is a Catastrophic Event?

As applicable to NEPA, Eccleston (2008) defines a catastrophic event as “large-scale damage 

involving destruction of species, ecosystems, infrastructure, or property with long-term effects, and/or 

major loss of human life.” For oil and gas activities on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), a catastrophic 

event is a high-volume, extended-duration oil spill regardless of the cause, whether natural disaster (i.e., 

hurricane) or manmade (i.e., human error and terrorism). This high-volume, extended-duration oil spill, 

or catastrophic spill, has been further defined by the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution 

Contingency Plan as a “spill of national significance” or “a spill which, because of its severity, size, 

location, actual or potential impact on the public health and welfare or the environment, or the necessary 

response effort, is so complex that it requires extraordinary coordination of Federal, State, local, and 

responsible party resources to contain and cleanup the discharge” (40 CFR part 300, Appendix E).

Each oil-spill event is unique; its outcome depends on several factors, including time of year and 

location of release relative to winds, currents, land, and sensitive resources; specifics of the well (i.e., 

flow rates, hydrocarbon characteristics, and infrastructure damage); and response effort (i.e., speed and 
B-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

effectiveness). For this reason, the severity of impacts from an oil spill cannot be predicted based on 

volume alone, although a minimum volume of oil must be spilled to reach catastrophic impacts.

Though large spills may result from a pipeline rupture, such events will not result in a catastrophic 

spill because the ability to detect leaks and shut off pipelines limits the amount of the spill to the contents 

of the pipeline. The largest, non-blowout-related spill on the Gulf of Mexico OCS occurred in 1967, a 

result of internal pipeline corrosion following initial damage by an anchor. In 13 days, 160,638 barrels 

(bbl) of oil leaked (USDOI, BSEE, 2012); however, no significant environmental impacts were recorded 

as a result of this spill.

Although loss of well control is defined as the uncontrolled flow of reservoir fluid that may result in 

the release of gas, condensate, oil, drilling fluids, sand, or water, it is a broad term that includes very 

minor well control incidents as well as the most severe well control incidents. Historically, loss of well 

control incidents occurred during development drilling operations, but loss of well control incidents can 

occur during exploratory drilling, production, well completions, or workover operations. These losses of 

well control incidents may occur between formations penetrated in the wellbore or at the seafloor.

Prior to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, the two largest spills resulting from 

a loss of well control in U.S. waters of the Gulf of Mexico occurred in 1970 and released 30,000 and 

53,000 bbl of oil, respectively (USDOI, BSEE, 2012). These incidents resulted in four human fatalities. 

Although these incidents occurred only 8-14 miles (mi) (13-26 kilometers [km]) from shore, there was 

minor shoreline contact with oil (USDOC, NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration, 2010a and 

2010b). In 1987, a blowout of the Mexican exploratory oil well, YUM II, resulted in a spill of 58,640 bbl 

and 75 mi (121 km) of impacted shoreline (USDOC, NOAA, Hazardous Materials Response and 

Assessment Division, 1992). However, none of these spills met the previously described definitions of a 

catastrophic event or spill.

A blowout is a more severe loss of well control incident that creates a greater risk of a large oil spill 

and serious human injury. Two blowouts that resulted in catastrophic spills have occurred in U.S. and 

Mexican waters of the Gulf of Mexico. On June 3, 1979, the Ixtoc I well blowout in shallow water (water 

depth of 164 feet [ft] [50 meters [m]] and 50 mi [80 km] offshore in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico) 

spilled 3.5 million barrels (MMbbl) of oil in 10 months (USDOC, NOAA, Office of Response and 

Restoration, 2010c; USDOC, NOAA, Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division, 1992; 

ERCO, 1982). On April 20, 2010, the Macondo well blowout (Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response) in deep water (4,992 ft; 1,522 m) 48 mi (77 km) offshore in Mississippi Canyon Block 252, 

spilled an estimated 4.9 MMbbl of oil until it was capped approximately 3 months later. Due to being 

classified as catastrophic, the Ixtoc I and Macondo well blowouts and spills were utilized to develop the 

catastrophic spill event scenario in this analysis.

B.1.2. Methodology

Two general approaches are utilized to analyze a catastrophic event under NEPA. The first approach 

is a bounding analysis for each individual resource category (e.g., marine mammals and sea turtles). A 

bounding analysis involves selecting and evaluating a different set of factors and scenarios for each 

resource in the context of a worst-case analysis. The second approach involves the selection of a single 

set of key circumstances that, when combined, result in catastrophic consequences. The second approach 

is used for a site-specific analysis and, consequently, its possible application is more limited. 

Accordingly, this analysis combines the two approaches, relying on a generalized scenario while 

identifying site-specific severity factors for individual resources. This combined approach allows for the 

scientific investigation of a range of possible, although not necessarily probable, consequences of a 

catastrophic blowout and oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.

B.1.2.1. Geographic Scope

The Gulf of Mexico is a semi-enclosed basin with an extensive history of oil and gas activities and 

unique environmental conditions and hydrocarbon reservoir properties; consequently, this analysis is only 

applicable to the Gulf of Mexico OCS and is not intended for other OCS regions.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-5 

B.1.2.2. Impact-Producing Factors and Scenario

A hypothetical, yet feasible, scenario (Chapter B.2) was developed to provide a framework for 

identifying the impacts of an extended oil spill from an uncontrolled blowout. Unless noted, this scenario 

is based on the large magnitude, blowout-related oil spills that have occurred in the Gulf of Mexico, i.e., 

Ixtoc I and Macondo well blowouts and spills (discussed in Chapter B.1.1). As noted above, because 

each spill event is unique, its outcome depends on many factors. Therefore, the specific impacts from 

future spills cannot be predicted based on this scenario.

B.1.2.3. OSRA Catastrophic Run

A special Oil-Spill Risk Analysis (OSRA) model run was conducted to estimate the impacts of a 

possible future catastrophic or high-volume, extended-duration oil spill. This analysis emphasized 

modeling a spill that continued for 90 consecutive days by launching spills on each of 90 consecutive 

days, with each trajectory tracked for up to 60 days. The OSRA was conducted for only the trajectories 

of oil spills from hypothetical spill locations to various onshore and offshore environmental resources. 

Data from two hypothetical spill locations located in the Western Planning Area (WPA) (Figure B-1) 

were included and are intended for use as examples of this type of exercise. Information on previous 

catastrophic OSRA runs for the WPA can be found in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS.

The probability of an oil spill contacting a specific resource within a given time of travel from a spill 

point is termed a conditional probability; the condition being that a spill is assumed to have occurred. 

Each trajectory was allowed to continue for as long as 60 days. However, once a hypothetical spill 

contacts land, the spill trajectory is terminated and the contact is recorded. Although, overall OSRA is 

designed for use as a risk-based assessment, for this analysis, only the conditional probability, the 

probability of contact to the resource, was calculated. The probability of a catastrophic spill occurring 

was not calculated; thus, the combination of the probability of a spill and the probability of contact to the 

resources from the hypothetical spill locations were not calculated. Results from this trajectory analysis 

provide input to the final product by estimating where spills might travel on the ocean’s surface and what 

environmental resources might be contacted if and when another catastrophic spill occurs, but it does not 

provide input on the probability of another catastrophic spill occurring. Further detail on this catastrophic 

OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

B.1.2.4. Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts

This analysis evaluates the impacts to the Gulf of Mexico’s biological, physical, and socioeconomic 

resources from a catastrophic blowout, oil spill, and associated cleanup activities.

Although the most recent EIS’s prepared by this Agency for oil and gas lease sales in the Gulf of 

Mexico analyze the potential impacts from smaller oil spills that are more reasonably foreseeable 

(USDOI, MMS, 2007 and 2008), this analysis focuses on the most likely and most significant impacts 

created by a high-volume, extended-duration spill. Because catastrophic consequences may not occur for 

all resources, factors affecting the severity of impacts are identified by the individual resource.

B.1.3. How to Use This Analysis

The purpose of this technical analysis is to assist BOEM in meeting CEQ requirements that require a 

discussion of impacts from catastrophic events. This analysis, based on credible scientific evidence, 

identifies the most likely and most significant impacts from a high-volume blowout and oil spill that 

continues for an extended period of time. The scenario and impacts discussed in Chapters B.2 and B.3

should not be confused with the scenario and impacts anticipated to result from routine activities or the 

more reasonably foreseeable accidental events of a WPA proposed action.

Chapter B.2 is intended to clearly describe the scenario presented for all four phases of a catastrophic 

blowout event and identify the impact-producing factors associated with each phase. Chapter B.3 is 

intended to analyze the impacts of each phase of a catastrophic blowout on various environmental 

resources. These chapters can be used to differentiate the conditions of a catastrophic spill from the 

routine activities and accidental events described in this Supplemental EIS.
B-6 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

This technical analysis is designed to be incorporated by reference in future NEPA documents and 

consultations. Therefore, factors that affect the severity of impacts of a high-volume, extended-duration 

spill on individual resources are highlighted for use in subsequent site-specific analyses.

To analyze a hypothetical catastrophic event in an area such as the Gulf of Mexico, several 

assumptions and generalizations were made. However, future project-specific analyses should also 

consider specific details such as potential flow rates for the specific proposed activity, the properties of 

the targeted reservoir, and the proximity to environmental resources of the proposed activities.

B.2. IMPACT-PRODUCING FACTORS AND SCENARIO (PHASES 1-4)

For the purposes of this analysis, an event similar to the Ixtoc I well blowout and spill that occurred in 

1979 in 160-ft (50-m) water depth will be used as the basis for a shallow water spill and an event similar 

to the Macondo well blowout and spill that occurred in 2010 in the Mississippi Canyon area in 5,000-ft 

(1,524-m) water depth will be used to represent a deepwater spill.

B.2.1. Phase 1—Initial Event

Phase 1 of the scenario is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout incident. While most of the 

environmental and socioeconomic impacts of a catastrophic blowout would occur during the ensuing 

high-volume, extended-duration spill (refer to Chapter B.3), it is important to acknowledge the deadly 

events that could occur in the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout. The following scenario was 

developed to provide a framework for identifying the most likely and most significant impacts during the 

initial phase.

Impacts, response, and intervention depend on the spatial location of the blowout and release. While 

there are several points where a blowout could occur, four major distinctions that are important to the 

analysis of impacts are described in Table B-1. 

For this analysis, an explosion and subsequent fire are assumed to occur. If a blowout associated with 

the drilling of a single exploratory well occurs, a fire could result that would burn for 1 or 2 days. If a 

blowout occurs on a production platform, other wells could feed the fire, allowing it to burn for over a 

month (USDOC, NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration, 2010b). The drilling rig or platform may 

sink. If the blowout occurs in shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate 

vicinity; if the blowout occurs in deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away, beyond 

avoidance zones. For example, when the drilling rig Deepwater Horizon sank, it landed 1,500 ft (457 m) 

away on the seafloor. Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and 

rescue vessels and aircraft, such as United States Coast Guard (USCG) cutters, helicopters, and rescue 

planes.

B.2.2. Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters.

B.2.2.1. Duration of Spill

The duration of the offshore spill from a blowout depends on the time needed for intervention and the 

time the remaining oil persists offshore. If a blowout occurs and the damaged surface facilities preclude 

well reentry operations, a relief well may be needed to regain control. The time required to drill the relief 

well depends on the complexity of the intervention, the location of a suitable rig, the type of operation 

that must be terminated to release the rig (e.g., casing may need to be run before releasing the rig), and the 

logistics in mobilizing personnel and equipment to the location. A blown-out well may also be 

successfully capped prior to completion of relief wells, as occurred in the Macondo well blowout. In 

terms of persistence of spilled oil on surface waters, oil from the Macondo well blowout did not persist 

for more than 30 days (OSAT, 2010). However, based on BOEM’s weathering modeling (refer to 

Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS), it is assumed that oil could persist on surface 

waters for as long as 1-2 months, depending on the season and year.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-7 

B.2.2.1.1. Shallow Water

If a blowout occurs in shallow water, it is estimated that the entire well intervention effort including 

drilling relief wells, if deemed necessary, could take 2 weeks to 3 months. This estimate would include 

1-3 weeks to transport the drilling rig to the well site. Spilled surface oil is not expected to persist more 

than 1-2 months (depending upon the season and environmental conditions) after the flow is stopped. 

Spilled oil is more likely to persist in the offshore environment during colder weather and during wind 

and hydrodynamic conditions that keep the oil offshore. Therefore, the estimated spill duration resulting 

from a shallow water blowout is 11⁄2-5 months (approximately 2 weeks to 3 months for active spillage and 

1-2 months for oil persistence in the environment).

B.2.2.1.2. Deep Water

If a blowout occurs in deep water, it is estimated that it would take 2-4 weeks to remove debris and to 

install a capping stack or a cap and flow system on a well, if conditions allow this type of intervention. 

The entire intervention effort, if it required drilling relief wells, could take 3-4 months (USDOI, MMS, 

2000; Regg, 2000). This includes 2-4 weeks to transport the drilling rig to the well site. Spilled surface 

oil is not expected to persist more than 1-2 months (depending upon the season and environmental 

conditions) after the flow is stopped. Spilled oil is more likely to persist in the offshore environment 

during colder weather and during wind and hydrodynamic conditions that keep the oil offshore. 

Therefore, the estimated spill duration from a deepwater blowout is 11⁄2-6 months (approximately 2 weeks

to 4 months for active spillage and 1-2 months for oil persistence in the environment).

B.2.2.2. Area of Spill

When oil reaches the sea surface, it spreads. The speed and extent of spreading depends on the type 

and volume of oil that is spilled. However, a catastrophic spill would likely spread to hundreds of square 

miles. Also, the oil slick may break into several smaller slicks, depending on local wind patterns that 

drive the surface currents in the spill area.

Subsurface oil observed during both the Ixtoc I and Macondo well blowouts and spills could also

spread to significant distances depending on environmental conditions (such as hydrodynamics), oil 

chemistry and weathering, and the application of subsea dispersants or mechanical conditions at the 

release point that would diffuse the oil.

B.2.2.3. Volume of Spill

After 50 years of oil and gas exploration and development activity on the continental shelf of the Gulf 

of Mexico, most of the largest oil and natural gas reservoirs thought to exist in shallow-water areas of the 

GOM at drill depths less than 15,000 ft (4,572 m) subsea have been identified. Large undiscovered 

hydrocarbon reservoirs are still thought to exist in shallow-water areas. However, results taken from 

BOEM’s most recent resource assessment study and a review of the more recent shallow-water drilling 

and leasing activity suggest that future discoveries of large reservoirs in the shallow-water areas of the 

GOM are likely to exist greater than 15,000 ft (4,572 m) below sea level where geologic conditions are 

more favorable for natural gas reservoirs to exist than oil reservoirs. In contrast to the shallow-water 

areas of the GOM where the discovery of a new, large, prolific oil reservoir is considered a lowprobability event, the results from BOEM’s resource assessment study pertaining to the deeper water 

areas of the GOM suggest that there is a high probability that many large oil and gas reservoirs have yet 

to be discovered in deep water. BOEM’s forecast for deep water has support from other public and 

private sector resource studies. The forecast is also supported by the results of BOEM’s analysis of 

deepwater leasing and drilling activity, which indicates that the industry is leasing acreage in deepwater 

areas of the GOM where large prospects can be identified and where the majority of exploration and 

development drilling activity targets potentially thick oil reservoirs capable of achieving the high 

production rates necessary to offset the high costs associated with deep water oil development in the 

GOM.
B-8 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

B.2.2.3.1. Shallow Water

For this analysis, an uncontrolled flow rate of 30,000 bbl per day is assumed for a catastrophic 

blowout in shallow water. This assumption is based upon the results of well tests in shallow water and 

the maximum flow rate from the 1979 Ixtoc I well blowout, which occurred in shallow water. Using this 

flow rate, the total volume of oil spilled from a catastrophic blowout in shallow water is estimated at 

900,000 bbl to 3 MMbbl from spillage occurring over 1-3 months. In addition to the flow rate, it is 

assumed that any remaining diesel fuel from a sunken drilling rig or platform would also leak.

B.2.2.3.2. Deep Water

For the purposes of this analysis, an uncontrolled flow rate of 30,000-60,000 bbl per day is assumed 

for a catastrophic blowout in deep water. This flow rate is based on the assumption in Chapter B.2.2.3.1

above, well test results, and the maximum flow rate estimated for the Macondo well blowout and spill 

occurred in deep water. Therefore, the total volume of oil spilled is estimated to be 0.9-7.2 MMbbl over 

1-4 months. In addition, deepwater drilling rigs or platforms hold a large amount of diesel fuel 

(10,000-20,000 bbl). Therefore, it is assumed that any remaining diesel fuel from a sunken structure 

would also leak and add to the spill.

B.2.2.4. Oil in the Environment: Properties and Persistence

The fate of oil in the environment depends on many factors, such as the source and composition of the 

oil, as well as its persistence (NRC, 2003). Persistence can be defined and measured in different ways 

(Davis et al., 2004), but the National Research Council (NRC) generally defines persistence as how long 

oil remains in the environment (NRC, 2003; page 89). Once oil enters the environment, it begins to 

change through physical, chemical, and biological weathering processes (NRC, 2003). These processes 

may interact and affect the properties and persistence of the oil through the following:

• evaporation (volatilization);

• emulsification (the formation of a mousse);

• dissolution;

• oxidation (including respiration); and

• transport processes (NRC, 2003; Scholz et al., 1999).

Horizontal transport takes place via spreading, advection, dispersion, and entrainment while vertical 

transport takes place via dispersion, entrainment, Langmuir circulation, sinking, overwashing, 

partitioning, and sedimentation (NRC, 2003). The persistence of an oil slick is influenced by the 

effectiveness of oil-spill response efforts and affects the resources needed for oil recovery (Davis et al., 

2004). The persistence of an oil slick may also affect the severity of environmental impacts as a result of 

the spilled oil.

Crude oils are not a single chemical, but instead are complex mixtures with varied compositions. 

Thus, the behavior of the oil and the risk the oil poses to natural resources depends on the composition of 

the specific oil encountered (Michel, 1992). Generally, oils can be divided into three groups of 

compounds: (1) light-weight; (2) medium-weight; and (3) heavy-weight components. On average, these 

groups are characterized as outlined in Table B-2. 

Of the oil reservoirs sampled in the Gulf of Mexico OCS, the majority fall within the light-weight 

category, while less than one quarter are considered medium-weight and a small portion are considered 

heavy-weight. Oil with an API gravity of 10.0 or less would sink and has not been encountered in the 

Gulf of Mexico OCS; therefore, it is not analyzed in this Appendix (USDOI, BOEMRE, 2010a).

Heavy-weight oil may persist in the environment longer than the other two types of oil, but the 

medium-weight components within oil present the greatest risks to organisms because, with the exception 

of the alkanes, these medium-weight components are persistent, bioavailable, and toxic (Michel, 1992).

Previous studies (e.g., Johansen et al., 2001) supported the theory that most, if not all, released oil 

would reach the surface of the water column. However, data and observations from the Macondo well 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-9 

blowout and spill challenge that theory. While analyses are in their preliminary stages, it appears that 

measurable amounts of hydrocarbons (dispersed or otherwise) were detected in the water column as 

subsurface “plumes” and on the seafloor in the vicinity of the release. While not all of these 

hydrocarbons have been definitively traced back to releases from the Macondo well, these early 

measurements and results warrant a reassessment of previous theories of the ultimate fate of hydrocarbons 

from unintended subsurface releases. It is important to note that the North Sea experiment (Johansen 

et al., 2001) did not include the use of dispersants at or near the source of the subsea oil discharge.

B.2.2.5. Release of Natural Gas

The quality and quantity of components in natural gas vary widely by the field, reservoir, or location 

from which the natural gas is produced. Although there is not a “typical” makeup of natural gas, it is 

primarily composed of methane (NaturalGas.org, 2012). Thus, if natural gas were to leak into the 

environment, methane may be released into the environment. Limited research is available for the 

biogeochemistry of hydrocarbon gases in the marine environment (Patin, 1999, page 233). Theoretically, 

methane could stay in the marine environment for long periods of time (Patin, 1999, page 237) as 

methane is highly soluble in seawater at the high pressures and cold temperatures found in deepwater 

environments (NRC, 2003, page 108). Methane diffusing through the water column would likely be 

oxidized in the aerobic zone and would rarely reach the air-water interface (Mechalas, 1974, page 23). 

Methane is a carbon source and its introduction into the marine environment could result in diminished 

dissolved oxygen concentrations due to microbial degradation.

The Macondo well blowout and spill resulted in the emission of an estimated 9.14 x 109 to 1.29 x 1010

moles of methane from the wellhead (Kessler et al., 2011; Valentine et al., 2010) with maximum 

subsurface methane concentrations of 183-315 micromoles measured in May/June 2010 (Valentine et al., 

2010; Joye et al., 2011). This methane release corresponded to a measurable decrease in oxygen in the 

subsurface plume due to respiration by a community of methanotrophic bacteria. During the Macondo

well blowout and spill, methane and oxygen distributions were measured at 207 stations throughout the 

affected region (Kessler et al., 2011). Based on these measurements, it was concluded that within 

~120 days from the onset of release ~3.0 x 1010 to 3.9 x 1010 moles of oxygen were respired, primarily by 

methanotrophs, and left behind a residual microbial community containing methanotrophic bacteria. The 

researchers further suggested that a vigorous deepwater bacterial bloom respired nearly all the released 

methane within this time and that by analogy, large-scale releases of methane from hydrates in the deep 

ocean are likely to be met by a similarly rapid methanotrophic response. However, hypoxic conditions 

were never reached (OSAT, 2010). Hypoxic conditions are generally agreed to occur when dissolved 

oxygen falls below 2 milligrams/liter (1.4 milliliter/liter) (OSAT, 2010). Note that methane released from 

the Macondo well blowout and spill was generally confined to the subsurface, with minimal amounts 

reaching the atmosphere (Kessler et al., 2011; Ryerson et al., 2011).

B.2.2.6. Deepwater Subsea Containment

To address the new improved containment systems’ expectations to rapidly contain a spill as a result 

of a loss of well control from a subsea well as addressed in Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTL) 2010-

BSEE-N10, the Marine Well Containment Company (MWCC) and Helix Well Containment Group 

(HWCG) initiated the development of new, rapid response systems. These systems are designed to fully 

contain oil flow in the event of a potential future underwater blowout and to address a variety of 

scenarios. The systems consist of specially designed equipment constructed, tested, and available for 

rapid response. Both the MWCC and HWCG systems are anticipated to be fully operational within days 

to weeks after a spill event occurs. The availability of these systems can significantly reduce the length of 

time a blowout continues, thereby reducing the amount of oil potentially spilled during a catastrophic 

spill. However, this assumes that a particular blowout situation lends itself to the use of this subsea 

containment technology, whereas there are some situations that may delay or make its use improbable, 

such as the location of debris resulting from the blowout and the condition of the well.

The MWCC system is designed to operate in up to a 10,000-ft (3,048-m) water depth and adds 

containment capability of 60,000 bbl of oil per day. In November 2013, the MWCC announced that the 

single ram capping stack, which is part of the company’s interim containment system, can now cap a well 

that has fluids with temperatures up to 350 oF (177 oC). The MWCC is the only well containment 
B-10 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

provider that has this industry-first capping stack capable of handling temperatures of 350 o F (177 oC) at 

pressures up to 15,000 pounds per square inch (Marine Well Containment Company, 2014). The HWCG 

system focuses on the utilization of the Helix Producer I and the Q4000 vessels. Each of these vessels 

played a role in the Macondo well blowout and spill response, and each of these vessels are continually 

working in the Gulf. The HWCG system has the ability to fully operate in up to 10,000 ft (3,048 m) of 

water and has intervention equipment to cap and contain a well with the mechanical integrity to be 

shut-in. The HWCG system also has the ability to capture and process 57,000 bbl of oil per day and

72,000 bbl of liquid per day at 10,000 pounds per square inch (Helix Energy Solutions Group, 2014).

In addition, industry has a multitude of vendors available within the GOM region that can provide the 

services and supplies necessary for debris removal capability, dispersant injection capability, and top-hat 

deployment capability. Many of these vendors are already cited for use by MWCC and HWCG.

The BSEE has indicated to BOEM that, it will not allow an operator to begin drilling operations until 

adequate subsea containment and collection equipment, as well as subsea dispersant capability is 

determined by BSEE to be available to the operator and is sufficient for use in response to a potential 

incident from the proposed well(s) (refer to NTL 2010-N10). The BSEE conducted a successful 

deployment drill of the MWCC’s subsea containment capping stack in the summer of 2012. A successful 

deployment drill of the HWCG’s subsea containment capability was conducted in the spring of 2013. 

The HWCG was required to lower its capping stack through some 5,047 ft (1,538 m) of water to the 

seafloor by wire and then latch it to a test wellhead and pressurize the system. These types of exercises 

assist BSEE by spotlighting potential problems before an emergency and by identifying lessons that can 

be shared with the oil and gas industry to protect the environment and improve the safety of offshore 

operations. For instance, during the test of the MWCC equipment, it was discovered that a containment 

response should have “mud mats” on hand to ensure a stable platform for heavy equipment that otherwise 

might sink into soft seabed.

B.2.2.7. Offshore Cleanup Activities

As demonstrated by the Ixtoc I and Macondo well blowouts and spills, a large-scale response effort is 

certain to follow a catastrophic blowout. The number of vessels and responders would steadily increase 

as the spill continued. In the event of a spill, particularly a loss of well control, there is no single method 

of containment and removal that would be 100 percent effective. Removal and containment efforts to 

respond to an ongoing spill offshore would likely require multiple technologies, including source 

containment, mechanical cleanup, in-situ burning of the slick, and chemical dispersants. Even with the 

deployment of all of these spill-response technologies, it is likely that, with the operating limitations of 

today’s spill-response technology, not all of the oil could be contained and removed offshore.

B.2.2.7.1. Shallow Water

The following are estimates for the deployment of equipment and personnel during a shallow-water 

spill response. Within the first week of an oil spill originating in shallow water, 25 vessels are estimated 

to respond, which would steadily increase to over 3,000 by the end of the spill. This includes about 

25 skimmers in the vicinity of the well at any given time. In addition, recovered oil may be barged to 

shore from recovery vessels. Within the first week, over 500 responders are estimated to be deployed to a 

spill originating in shallow water, which would steadily increase up to 25,000 before the well is capped or 

killed within 2-4 months. Up to 25 planes and 50 helicopters are estimated to respond per day by the end 

of a shallow-water spill. Response to an oil spill in shallow water is expected to involve over 10,000 ft 

(3,048 m) of boom within the first week and would steadily increase up to 5 million feet (~950 mi; 

~1,520 km) for use offshore and nearshore; the amount is dependent upon the location of the potentially 

impacted shoreline, environmental considerations, and agreed upon protection strategies involving the 

local potentially impacted communities.

Dispersant use must be in accordance with the Regional Response Team’s (RRT) Preapproved 

Dispersant Use Manual and with any conditions outlined within an RRT’s site-specific, dispersant 

approval given after a spill event. Consequently, dispersant use would be in accordance with the 

restrictions for specific water depths, distances from shore, and monitoring requirements. At this time, 

this manual does not give preapproval for the application of dispersant use subsea. Aerial dispersants 

would likely be applied from airplanes as a mist, which settles on the oil on the water’s surface. Along 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-11

the Gulf Coast, surface dispersants are presently preapproved for use greater than 3 nautical miles (nmi) 

(3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from shore and in water depths greater than 33 ft (10 m), with the exception of Florida 

(U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, CG, 2010). At this time, pursuant to a letter from the Florida 

Department of Environmental Protection dated May 5, 2011, sent to USCG, preapproval for dispersant 

use is not approved for any Florida State waters. However, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(USEPA) is presently revisiting these RRT preapprovals in light of the dispersant issues, such as subsea 

application that arose during the Macondo well blowout and spill response. In addition, revisions are 

presently being made to the RRT IV and VI’s Preapproved Dispersant Use Manuals. The USEPA issued 

a letter dated December 2, 2010, that provided interim guidance on the use of dispersants for major spills 

that are continuous and uncontrollable for periods greater than 7 days and for expedited approval of 

subsurface applications. This letter outlined the following exceptions to the current preapprovals until 

they are updated:

• dispersants may not be applied to major spills that are continuous in nature and 

uncontrollable for a period greater than 7 days;

• additional dispersant monitoring protocols and sampling plans may be developed that 

meet the unique needs of the incident; and

• subsurface dispersants may be approved on an incident-specific basis as requested by 

the USCG On-Scene Commander.

More robust documentation of dispersant usage may be required. This documentation would include 

daily reports that contain the products used, the specific time and locations of application, equipment used 

for each application, spotter aircraft reports, photographs, vessel data, and analytical data. In addition to 

dispersants, controlled burns may also occur. It is estimated that 5-10 controlled burns would be 

conducted per day in suitable weather. About 500 burns in all would remove 5-10 percent of the oil.

B.2.2.7.2. Deep Water

The following are estimates for the deployment of equipment and personnel during a deepwater spill 

response. Within the first week of an oil spill originating in deep water, 50 vessels are estimated to 

respond, which would steadily increase to over 7,000 by the end of the spill. This includes about 

25 skimmers in the vicinity of the well at a time. In addition, recovered oil may be shuttle tankered to 

shore from recovery vessels. For an oil spill in deep water, over 1,000 responders are estimated to be 

deployed within the first week, which would steadily increase up to 50,000 before capping or killing the 

well within 4-5 months. Over 20,000 ft (6,096 m) of boom is estimated to be deployed within the first 

week of a deepwater spill, which would steadily increase up to 13.5 million feet (~2,257 mi; ~4,115 km)

offshore and nearshore. The amount of boom would be dependent upon the location of the potentially 

impacted shoreline, environmental considerations, and agreed upon protection strategies involving the 

local potentially impacted communities. Up to 50 planes and 100 helicopters are estimated to respond per 

day by the end of a deepwater spill.

With the exception of special Federal management areas or designated exclusion areas, dispersants 

have been preapproved in the vicinity of a deepwater blowout (U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security, CG, 

2010). However, USEPA is presently examining these preapprovals, and restrictions are anticipated 

regarding the future use of dispersants as a result. No preapproval presently exists for the use of subsea 

dispersants, and approval must be obtained before each use of this technology. The use of subsea 

dispersants depends on the location of the blowout, as discussed in Table B-1. Aerial dispersants are 

usually applied from airplanes as a mist, which settles on the oil on the water’s surface. Major spills that 

are continuous and uncontrollable for periods greater than 7 days and the approval of subsurface 

dispersant application are presently subject to the guidance outlined in USEPA’s letter dated December 2, 

2010. This letter provides interim guidance on the use of dispersants for major spills and outlines 

exceptions to the current preapprovals until they are updated, as discussed more fully in Chapter 

B.2.2.7.1. For a deepwater spill, dispersant application may be a preferred response in the open-water 

environment to prevent oil from reaching a coastal area, in addition to mechanical response. However, 

the window of opportunity for successful dispersant application may be somewhat narrower for some 

deepwater locations depending on the physical and chemical properties of the oil, which tend to be 
B-12 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

somewhat heavier or more likely to emulsify than those found closer to shore. A significant reduction in 

the window of opportunity for dispersant application may render this response option ineffective.

In addition to dispersants, controlled burns may also occur. It is estimated that 5-10 controlled burns 

would be conducted per day in suitable weather. About 500 burns in all would remove 5-10 percent of 

the oil.

B.2.2.7.3. Vessel Decontamination Stations

To avoid contaminating inland waterways, multiple vessel decontamination stations may be 

established offshore in Federal and State waters. The selected locations to conduct decontamination of 

oiled vessels will, due to the unique aspects of each spill response, be decided by the Unified Command 

during the spill response effort. Since the Unified Command includes representatives of the affected 

state(s), the states will have a prominent voice regarding whether a location in State waters will be 

acceptable.

Vessels responding to the spill and commercial and recreational vessels passing through the spill 

would anchor, awaiting inspection. If decontamination is required, work boats would use fire hoses to 

clean oil from the sides of the vessels. This could result in some oiling of otherwise uncontaminated 

waters. While these anchorage areas would be surveyed for buried pipelines that could be ruptured by 

ship anchors, they may not be surveyed adequately for benthic communities or archaeological sites. 

Therefore, some damage to benthic communities or archaeological sites may occur because of vessel 

decontamination activities associated with an oil spill (Alabama State Port Authority, 2010; State of 

Florida, Office of the Governor, 2010; Nodar, 2010; Unified Incident Command, 2010a-c; USDOC, 

NOAA, 2010a; USEPA, 2012).

B.2.2.8. Severe Weather

A hurricane could accelerate biodegradation, increase the area affected by the spill, and slow or stop 

the response effort. The movement of oil would depend on the track, wind speed, and size of a hurricane. 

The official Atlantic hurricane season runs from June 1st through November 30th, with a peak of 

hurricane probability in September. In an average Atlantic season, there are 11 named storms, 

6 hurricanes, and 2 Category 3 or higher storms (USDOC, NOAA, National Weather Service, 2010). As 

a result of a hurricane, high winds and seas would mix and weather the oil from an oil spill. This can help 

accelerate the biodegradation process (USDOC, NOAA, National Weather Service, 2012). The high 

winds may distribute oil over a wider area (USDOC, NOAA, National Weather Service, 2012).

Weather has been recognized as one of the most important factors in predicting oil-spill fate and 

behavior and in predicting the success of an oil-spill response. During an oil spill, booms, skimmers, oil 

burn, and the use of dispersants have been used to remove oil from the water surface. Adverse weather 

conditions will affect the use, performance, and effectiveness of booms and skimmers. Skimmers work 

best in calm wind; for wave heights greater than 1 m (3 ft), some skimmers will not work effectively. 

Conventional booms will not work at a current velocity of 0.5 meters per second (m/sec) (1.6 feet per 

second [ft/sec]) or greater. For oil burn, ignition cannot be carried out at wind speeds greater than 

10 m/sec (33 ft/sec). The minimum wind speed for dispersant use is about 5 m/sec (16 ft/sec), and the 

maximum wind speed for the limit of dispersant applications is about 12-14 m/sec (39-46 ft/sec) (Fingas, 

2004).

There are tradeoffs in deciding where and when to place boom because, once deployed, boom is time 

consuming to tend and to relocate. As previously noted, booming operations are sensitive to wind, wave, 

and currents, and those sections of boom need to be tethered and secured to keep them from moving. 

Furthermore, it was discovered during the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response that hard 

boom often did more damage than anticipated in the marsh it was intended to protect after weather 

conditions ended up stranding the boom back into the marsh. Due to time constraints prior to a hurricane 

event, it is therefore unlikely that much effort could be expended to move large amounts of deployed 

boom, particularly given the effort that would be required to move skimming equipment to safer locations 

inland and to move large numbers of response personnel to safer areas. However, since the conditions for 

each spill response are unique, these considerations would be examined and a site-specific hurricane 

response plan developed during the actual spill response effort by the Unified Command at the beginning 

of the official hurricane season.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-13

In addition, adverse weather would reduce ability to respond to the spill and could result in delayed 

transport and placement of the capping stack. The action of wind on the water surface will generate 

waves. Typically, waves greater than 3 ft (1 m) will prevent smaller vessels from skimming in offshore 

waters; waves greater than 5 ft (1.5 m) will prevent even the larger vessels from getting offshore to skim. 

The new high-speed skimmers under development are very promising; some skimmers have recovered oil 

with wave heights of up to 10 ft (3 m) with corresponding winds of up to 15 m/sec (49 ft/sec).

In the event of a hurricane, vessels would evacuate the area, delaying response efforts, including the 

drilling of relief wells and any well capping or collection efforts. Severe weather, such as a hurricane, 

would delay the transport and placement of the capping stack. If a cap is applied and oil is flowed to a 

collection vessel, severe weather would cause the collection vessel to vacate its location and the oil would 

flow until the collection vessel could return and resume collection. Severe weather could also require that 

response assets be relocated inland. The response would be delayed because following the severe weather 

event the assets would need to be transported back to the staging areas. The speed with which the assets 

could be brought back to the locations would depend upon on the condition of the roads and bridges for 

traffic resumption and the amount of debris potentially blocking the roads.

B.2.3. Phase 3—Onshore Contact

B.2.3.1. Duration

The duration of shoreline oiling is measured from initial shoreline contact until the well is capped or 

killed and the remaining oil dissipates offshore. The time needed to cap or kill a well may vary, 

depending on, among other things, the well’s water depth, its location, the well and geologic formation 

characteristics, and the associated debris. Depending on the spill’s location in relation to winds and 

currents and the well’s distance to shore, oil could reach the coast within 1 week to 1 month, based on 

evidence from previous spills in the Gulf of Mexico OCS (e.g., it was nearly 4 weeks after the Macondo

well blowout and spill). While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil would dissipate offshore 

within 30-60 days of stopping the flow, some oil may remain in coastal areas for some time after a spill, 

as was observed along the Gulf Coast following the Macondo well blowout and spill.

B.2.3.1.1. Shallow Water

Due to the distance from shore, oil spilled as a result of a blowout in shallow water could reach shore 

within 1-3 weeks and could continue until the well is killed or capped and the oil dissipates offshore. 

Therefore, it is estimated that initial shoreline oiling would likely occur for 2-5 months following a 

catastrophic blowout. Some shoreline areas could be re-oiled during this timeframe dependent upon the 

weather conditions at the time of the spill as well as the persistence of the spilled oil.

B.2.3.1.2. Deep Water

Intervention is more difficult and would take longer in deeper water, in part, because at these water 

depths these intervention efforts are conducted by remotely operated vehicles. In general, most of the 

deep water in the Gulf of Mexico is located farther from shore and, therefore, it is assumed that oil would 

reach shore within 2-4 weeks. However, for the few deepwater areas that are located closer to shore, such 

as in the Mississippi Canyon Area, the amount of estimated time until shoreline contact could be the same 

as the shallow-water scenario above (1-3 weeks). The length of shoreline oiled would continue to 

increase and previously oiled areas could be re-oiled until the well is killed or capped (3-4 months) and 

the oil dissipates offshore (1-2 months). Therefore, initial shoreline oiling could occur from 3 months up 

to 6 months following a catastrophic blowout. Persistent shoreline oiling is discussed in Chapter B.2.4

(Phase 4) below.

B.2.3.2. Volume of Oil Contacting Shore

In the event of a catastrophic spill, not all of the oil spilled would contact shore. The amount of oil 

recovered and chemically or naturally dispersed would vary. For example, the following are recovery and 

cleanup rates from previous high-volume, extended spills:
B-14 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

• 10-40 percent of oil recovered or cleaned up (including burned, chemically dispersed, 

and skimmed);

• 25-40 percent of oil naturally dispersed, evaporated, or dissolved; and

• 20-65 percent of the oil remains available for offshore or inshore contact.

In the case of the Macondo well blowout and spill, the “expected” scenario, developed by the Oil 

Budget Calculator Science and Engineering Team of The Federal Interagency Solutions Group, suggests 

that more than one quarter (29%) was naturally or chemically dispersed into Gulf waters, while burning, 

skimming, and direct recovery from the wellhead removed one quarter (25%) of the oil released. Less 

than one quarter (23%) of the total oil naturally evaporated or dissolved. The residual amount, just under 

one quarter (23%), remained in the Gulf of Mexico as a light sheen or as tarballs that have washed ashore 

or are buried in sand and other sediments (The Federal Interagency Solutions Group, 2010).

For planning purposes, USCG estimates that 5-30 percent of oil will reach shore in the event of an 

offshore spill (33 CFR part 154, Appendix C, Table 2). Using the USCG assumptions, a catastrophic spill 

could result in a large amount of oil reaching shore.

B.2.3.3. Length of Shoreline Contacted

While larger spill volumes increase the chance of oil reaching the coast, other factors that influence 

the length and location of shoreline contacted include the duration of the spill and the well’s location in 

relation to winds, currents, and the shoreline. Depending upon winds and currents throughout the spill 

event, already impacted areas could be re-oiled. As seen with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, as the spill 

continued, the length of oiled shoreline at any one time increased by orders of magnitude as follows:

Duration of Spill Length of Shoreline Oiled1

30 days 0-50 miles

60 days 50-100 miles

90 days 100-1,000 miles

120 days >1,000 miles2

1 Not cumulative.

2 Length was extrapolated.

Source: USDOC, NOAA, 2011a.

B.2.3.3.1. Shallow Water

While a catastrophic spill from a shallow-water blowout is expected to be lower in volume than a 

deepwater blowout, as explained in Chapter B.2.2.3, the site would typically be closer to shore, allowing 

less time for oil to be weathered, dispersed, and recovered. This could result in a more concentrated and 

toxic oiling of the shoreline.

B.2.3.3.2. Deep Water

While a catastrophic spill from a deepwater blowout is expected to have a much greater volume than 

a shallow-water blowout (refer to Chapter B.2.2.3), the site would typically be farther from shore, 

allowing more time for oil to be weathered, dispersed, and recovered. This could result in broader, 

patchier oiling of the shoreline.

Translocation of the spilled oil via winds and currents is also a factor in the length of shoreline 

contacted. For example, oil could enter the Loop Current and then the Gulf Stream. However, the longer 

it takes oil to travel, the more it would degrade, disperse, lose toxicity, and break into streamers and 

tarballs (USDOC, NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration, 2010d).
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-15

B.2.3.4. Severe Weather

The official Atlantic hurricane season runs from June 1st through November 30th, with a peak in 

hurricane probability in September. In an average Atlantic season, there are 11 named storms, 

6 hurricanes, and 2 Category 3 or higher storms (USDOC, NOAA, National Weather Service, 2010). In 

the event of a hurricane, vessels would evacuate the area, delaying response efforts, including the drilling 

of relief wells. The storm surge may push oil to the coastline and inland as far as the surge reaches, or the 

storm surge may remove the majority of oil from shore, as seen in some of the previous spills reviewed.

Movement of oil during a hurricane would depend greatly on the track of the hurricane in relation to 

the slick. A hurricane’s winds rotate counter-clockwise. In general, a hurricane passing to the west of the 

slick could drive oil to the coast, while a hurricane passing to the east of the slick could drive the oil away 

from the coast.

Severe weather may distribute spilled oil over a wide area. Storm surge may carry oil into the coastal 

and inland waters and shore. Debris resulting from severe weather may be contaminated by oil. Thus, 

the responders need to take proper precautions if weathered oil is present. Weather that results in waves 

greater than 3 ft (1 m) prevents skimming in coastal waters so there is greater likelihood of contact with 

the shoreline. Severe weather would also displace or destroy shoreline boom so that oil could come into 

contact with the shoreline until responders put the boom back in place. Severe weather could require that 

assets be relocated inland. The response would be delayed because following the severe weather event 

the assets would need to be transported back to the staging areas. The speed with which the assets could 

be brought back to the locations would depend upon on the condition of the roads and bridges for traffic 

resumption and the amount of debris potentially blocking the roads.

The USEPA, USCG, other Federal response agencies, and applicable State agencies would work 

together to address oil spills reported to the National Response Center or reported by emergency 

responders before, during, or after a hurricane occurs. Response personnel will cleanup significant spills 

and take other actions appropriate to protect public health and the environment. This response would 

cover any OCS spills that may occur as a result of the hurricane or preexisting at the time of the 

hurricane. Response activities may be interrupted or complicated during a hurricane event. Oil from an 

ongoing OCS spill event may be washed ashore during a hurricane event; could be weathered, diluted, or 

washed farther inland; and could be mixed with other contaminants from other sources released during a 

hurricane event (e.g., heating oil or industrial chemicals). For example, onshore sources account for most 

of the oil spilled during the past few hurricane seasons that has resulted in oiled property. After 

Hurricane Sandy, some oil heating tanks flooded and caused oiling of a property owner’s own building(s). 

As such, depending on circumstances, a hurricane event during an OCS spill event could complicate and 

exacerbate spill impacts and response operations, but could also increase weathering and dilution.

B.2.3.5. Onshore Cleanup Activities

A large-scale response effort would be expected for a catastrophic blowout. The number of vessels 

and responders would increase steadily as the spill continued. In addition to the response described in 

Chapter B.2.2.7, the following response is also estimated to occur once the spill contacts the shore.

B.2.3.5.1. Shallow Water

• There would be 5-10 staging areas established.

• Weathering permitting, about 200-300 skimmers could be deployed near shore to 

protect coastlines.

B.2.3.5.2. Deep Water

• There would be 10-20 staging areas established.

• Weather permitting, about 500-600 skimmers could be deployed near shore to protect 

coastlines. As seen in Louisiana following the Macondo well blowout and spill, a 
B-16 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

few hundred coastal skimmers could still be in operation a few months after the well 

is capped or killed (State of Louisiana, 2010).

B.2.3.5.3. Response Considerations for Sand Beaches for Both Shallow-Water and 

Deepwater Spills

• No mechanical techniques allowed in some areas.

• Surface residence balls (SRB’s), also commonly known as tarballs, and surface 

residence patties (SRP’s) are subject to smearing during the day; therefore, much of 

the beach cleanup can be expected to be conducted at night, if the weather is warm.

• There are marked differences in the sediments on the central Louisiana coast as 

compared with the Gulf beaches of Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi; therefore, no 

single technique will be universally applicable for cleaning sand beaches.

• Typically, sand sieving, shaking, and sifting beach cleaning machines will be 

utilized. The depth of cut below the sand surface can be expected to typically range 

from 0 to 12 inches (in) (0 to 30 centimeters [cm]) when using this equipment.

• It is anticipated that the responders will be instructed that no disturbance will be 

allowed below 18 in (46 cm). However, oil can be expected down to a depth of 

24-26 in (61-66 cm) below the sand surface.

• Repetitive tilling and mixing may be used at beaches such as Grand Isle, using 

agriculture plows and discs in combination with beach cleaning machines. Sand 

washing treatment also may take place at beaches such as Grand Isle’s beach. Sand 

washing includes a sand sieve/shaker to remove debris and large oil particles and a 

heated washing system. Average daily throughput for these systems would be 

290 cubic yards per day. Sand treated in this manner is typically treated by sediment 

relocation, which is where the sand is moved to an active intertidal zone

B.2.3.5.4. Response Considerations for Marshes for Both Shallow-Water and 

Deepwater Spills

• Lightly oiled marsh may be allowed to recover naturally; the oil may be allowed to 

degrade in place or to be removed by tidal or wave action.

• Moderately or heavily oiled marsh could be cleaned by vacuuming or skimming from 

boats in conjunction with flushing to enhance oil recovery rates, low pressure 

flushing (with water comparable to marsh type), manual removal by hand or 

mechanized equipment, or vegetation cutting.

• In some heavily oiled areas, in-situ burning may be an option if water covers the 

sediment surface. This technique is only considered when the source is contained 

due to potential re-oiling of the area. Surface washing agents are also a technique 

that might be utilized.

• Bioremediation may be utilized but mostly as a secondary treatment after bulk 

removal.

B.2.3.5.5. Response Considerations for Nearshore Waters for Both Shallow-Water 

and Deepwater Spills

• Nearshore submerged oil is difficult to recover and hard to locate; vacuums and 

snares could be used.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-17

• In the vicinity of marsh areas, skimming techniques with flushing could be utilized 

where warranted. In areas too shallow to use skimmers, oil removal could be 

accomplished using vacuum systems, in conjunction with flushing as needed. 

Booming could also be used to temporarily contain mobile slicks until they are 

recovered.

B.2.4. Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery

During the final phase of a catastrophic blowout and spill, it is presumed that the well has been 

capped or killed and that cleanup activities are concluding. While it is assumed that the majority of 

spilled oil floating on surface waters would be dissipated within 30-60 days of stopping the flow, oil has 

the potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event and has been detected in sediment 

30 years after a spill dependent upon the impacted environment (USDOI, FWS, 2004). On sandy 

beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments. In tidal flats and salt marshes, oil may seep into the muddy 

bottoms (USDOI, FWS, 2010a).

The multiple-year response required for the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response

provided one example of a long-term recovery to a catastrophic spill in the Gulf of Mexico. After the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, a multi-agency Operational Science Advisory 

Team (OSAT), under the direction of the USCG, was convened to provide information to help guide 

response activities and to provide a better understanding of the potential environmental and health risks 

after the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. A summary of the OSAT findings include

the following: 

• OSAT, issued in December 2010, concluded that no recoverable Macondo oil 

remained in the water column. In addition, none of the roughly 17,000 water samples 

collected and analyzed exceeded the USEPA’s benchmarks for protection of human 

health.

• OSAT-2, issued in February 2011, found that residual oil in nearshore and sandy 

shoreline areas was highly weathered, and concentrations of constituents of concern 

were well below levels of concern for human health (OSAT-2, 2011). 

• The OSAT Ecotoxicity Addendum, issued in July 2011, found that, with respect to 

the indicators considered in the OSAT (2010) report, the results discussed in this 

addendum are consistent with the OSAT conclusions that “no exceedances of the 

USEPA’s dispersant benchmarks were observed” and that “since 3 August 2010 (last 

day with potentially recoverable oil on the ocean surface), <1% of water samples and 

~1% of sediment samples exceeded EPA’s aquatic life benchmarks for polycyclic 

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH’s).” In addition, results of the toxicity tests support the 

conclusions of the OSAT report regarding the distribution of actionable (i.e., 

amenable to removal actions) oil and dispersant-related constituents (OSAT 

Addendum, 2011).

• OSAT-3, finalized in early 2014, used a sophisticated scientific approach to identify 

potential discrete pockets of subsurface material. The OSAT-3 information was used 

to locate and recover potential subsurface material (British Petroleum, 2014a). The 

OSAT-3 report also identified actions to be taken for reducing the potential 

recurrence of oil along the northeastern shores of the Gulf of Mexico. In addition, 

the report evaluated the feasibility of each action taken to recover or remove 

Macondo oil and the net environmental benefit of employing each recovery technique 

recommended. This scientific support was provided to the Federal On-Scene 

Coordinator with shoreline segment-specific information to facilitate the operational 

decisionmaking process to recover residual Macondo oil (OSAT-3, 2013).

If a shoreline is oiled, the selection of the type of shoreline remediation to be used will depend on the 

following: (1) the type and amount of oil on the shore; (2) the nature of the affected coastline; (3) the 

depth of oil penetration into the sediments; (4) the accessibility and the ability of vehicles to travel along 
B-18 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

the shoreline; (5) the possible ecological damage of the treatment to the shoreline environment; 

(6) weather conditions; (7) the current state of the oil; and (8) jurisdictional considerations. To determine 

which cleanup method is most appropriate during a spill response, decisionmakers must assess the 

severity and nature of the injury using Shoreline Cleanup and Assessment Team survey observations. 

These onsite decisionmakers must also estimate the time it will take for an area to recover in the absence 

of cleanup (typically considering short term to be 1-3 years, medium term to be 3-5 years, and long term 

greater than 5 years) (National Response Team, 2010). 

B.2.4.1. Response Considerations for Sand Beaches, Marshes, and Nearshore 

Waters for both Shallow-Water and Deepwater Spills 

Once oiled, it can be expected that the shoreline response techniques employed in the initial phase of 

a response will become more extensive and continue for some time (Chapters B.2.3.5.3, B.2.3.5.4, and 

B.2.3.5.5). For example, spill response post-Macondo continued for years in some of the more heavily 

oiled areas in Louisiana and in other areas, such as Florida, Mississippi, and Alabama, which experienced 

periodic re-oiling from submerged oil mats that lie in the inshore surf zone in troughs between the sand 

bars or from buried oil onshore that resurfaces. The three types of oil residue that were identified as 

challenging or potentially damaging to the environment if removed includes the following: (1) supra-tidal 

buried oil (buried below the 6-in [15-cm] surface cleaning depth restriction near sensitive habitats); 

(2) small surface residual balls, which are oil residue left behind after beaches are cleaned; and (3) surf 

zone submerged oil mats. Active shoreline cleanup ended in June 2013 for the States of Florida, 

Mississippi, and Alabama. Active shoreline cleanup for Louisiana ended on April 15, 2014 (British 

Petroleum, 2014a). However, efforts will continue to clean up any reported re-oiled shoreline in the 

GOM area as it is reported to the USCG. Although the re-oiling of some areas was anticipated to 

sporadically continue, it was determined that a better and more efficient long-term cleanup effort at this 

stage could be handled through the USCG. As of April 15, 2014, aerial reconnaissance flights were flown 

across approximately 14,000 mi (22,531 km) of shoreline during this spill response effort. Nearly 

4,400 mi (7,081 km) were ground-surveyed, with teams identifying 1,104 mi (1,777 km) that experienced 

some level of oiling and 778 mi (1,252 km) that required some measure of cleaning (British Petroleum, 

2014a). 

Amenity beaches were generally cleaned to depths of up to 5 ft (1.5 m) using mechanical equipment 

that sifts out residual oil and other debris from below the beach surface while returning clean sand to the 

beach. Nonrecreational beaches and environmentally sensitive areas were generally hand-cleaned to 

depths of up to 6 in (15 cm), but they were cleaned deeper if it was ecologically safe and approved by the 

USCG, stakeholders, and others. Multiple techniques were used to treat oiled marsh areas, with the goal 

of promoting natural attenuation without causing further damage. A scientific effort was launched in 

mid-2012 to locate and remove potential pockets of subsurface material in Louisiana. During this effort, 

more than 40,000 holes and pits were excavated across seven barrier islands. The vast majority either had 

no visible oil or levels so low that treatment was not appropriate or required. For example, just 3 percent 

of the more than 16,000 auger holes had oiling levels that required cleanup and less than 2 percent of the 

over 24,000 pits had heavy or moderate oiling. Assessment teams continuously surveyed the shoreline 

and recommended treatment options. More than 100,000 tons of material were collected from the 

cleanup efforts. The total consists of not only the mixed residual material, which was typically 

10-15 percent residual oil and 85-90 percent sand, shells, and water, but, during the first year of 

operations, it also included other solid material such as debris and protective clothing (British Petroleum, 

2014a). Additional information regarding shoreline response considerations can be found in Chapter 

3.2.1.9. 

B.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND IMPACT ANALYSIS

B.3.1. Long Duration—Large Volume Spill within the Gulf of Mexico 

The following resource descriptions and impact analyses examined only the applicable portions of the 

scenario (described fully in Chapter 3 and summarized in Table B-4). 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-19

B.3.1.1. Air Quality

Phase 1—Initial Event

A catastrophic blowout close to the water surface would initially emit large amounts of methane and 

other gases into the atmosphere. If high concentrations of sulfur are present in the produced gas, 

hydrogen sulfide (H2S) could present a hazard to personnel. The natural gas H2S concentrations in the 

Gulf of Mexico OCS are generally low; however, there are areas such as the Norphlet formation in the 

northeastern Gulf of Mexico, for example, that contain levels of H2S up to 9 percent. Ignition of the 

blowout gas and subsequent fire would result in emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), 

carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC’s), particulate matter (PM10), and fine 

particulate matter (PM2.5). The fire could also produce PAH’s, which are known to be hazardous to 

human health. The pollutant concentrations would decrease with downwind distance. A large plume of 

black smoke would be visible at the source and may extend a considerable distance downwind. However,

with increasing distance from the fire, the gaseous pollutants would undergo chemical reactions, resulting 

in the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) that includes nitrates, sulfates, and organic matter. The 

PM2.5 concentrations in the plume would have the potential to temporarily degrade visibility in any 

affected Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Class I areas (i.e., National Wilderness Areas and 

National Parks) and other areas where visibility is of significant value. Organic aerosols formed 

downwind from the Macondo well blowout and spill (de Gouw et al., 2011), during which the lightest 

compounds, the VOC’s, in the oil from the Macondo well blowout and spill evaporated within hours and 

during which the heavier compounds took longer to evaporate, contributing to the formation of air 

pollution particles downwind.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

In the Gulf of Mexico, evaporation from the oil spill would result in concentrations of VOC’s in the 

atmosphere, including chemicals that are classified as being hazardous. The VOC concentrations would 

occur anywhere where there is an oil slick, but they would be highest at the source of the spill because the 

rate of evaporation depends on the volume of oil present at the surface. The VOC concentrations would 

decrease with distance as the layer of oil gets thinner. The lighter compounds of VOC’s would be most 

abundant in the immediate vicinity of the spill site. The heavier compounds would be emitted over a 

longer period of time and over a larger area. Some of the compounds emitted could be hazardous to 

workers in close vicinity of the spill site. The hazard to workers can be reduced by monitoring and using 

protective gear, including respirators, as well as limiting exposure through limited work shifts, rotating 

workers in close vicinity of the spill site. The hazard to workers can be reduced by monitoring and using 

protective gear, including respirators, as well as limiting exposure through limited work shifts, rotating 

workers out of high exposure areas, and pointing vessels into the wind. During the Macondo well 

blowout and spill, air samples collected by individual offshore workers of British Petroleum (BP), the 

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and USCG showed levels of benzene, toluene, 

ethylbenzene, and xylene that were mostly under detection levels. All samples had concentrations below 

the OSHA permissible exposure limits and the more stringent ACGIH (American Conference of 

Governmental Industrial Hygienists) threshold limit values (U.S. Dept. of Labor, OSHA, 2010a).

The VOC emissions that result from the evaporation of oil contribute to the formation of particulate 

matter (PM2.5) in the atmosphere. In addition, VOC’s could cause an increase in ozone levels, especially 

if the release were to occur on a hot, sunny day with sufficient concentrations of NOx present in the lower 

atmosphere. However, because of the distance of the proposed WPA lease sale area from shore, the oil 

slick would not likely have any effects on onshore ozone concentrations; however, if there were any 

effects to onshore ozone concentrations, they would be likely only be temporary in nature and last at most 

the length of time of the spill duration.

It is assumed that response efforts would include hundreds of in-situ or controlled burns, which would 

remove an estimated 5-10 percent of the volume of oil spilled. This could be as much as 720,000 bbl of 

oil for a spill of 60,000 bbl per day for 90 days. In-situ burning would result in ambient concentrations of 

CO, NOx, SO2, PM10, and PM2.5 very near the site of the burn and would generate a plume of black 

smoke. The levels of PM2.5 could be a hazard to personnel working in the area, but this could be 

effectively mitigated through monitoring and relocating vessels to avoid areas of highest concentrations. 

In an experiment of an in-situ burn off Newfoundland, it was found that CO, SO2, and NO2 were 
B-20 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

measured only at background levels and were frequently below detection levels (Fingas et al., 1995). 

Limited amounts of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were measured, but concentrations were close to 

background levels. Measured values of dioxins and dibenzofurans were at background levels. 

Measurements of PAH in the crude oil, the residues, and the air indicated that the PAH in the crude oil are 

largely destroyed during combustion (Fingas et al., 1995).

While containment operations may be successful in capturing some of the escaping oil and gas, 

recovery vessels may not be capable of storing the crude oil or may not have sufficient storage capacity. 

In this case, excess oil would be burned; captured gas cannot be stored or piped to shore so it would be 

flared. For example, in the Macondo well blowout and spill, gas was flared at the rate of 100-200 million 

cubic feet per day and oil burned at the rate of 10,000-15,000 bbl per day. The estimated NOx emissions 

are about 13 tons per day. The SO2 emissions would be dependent on the sulfur content of the crude oil. 

For crude oil with a sulfur content of 0.5 percent, the estimated SO2 emissions are about 16 tons per day. 

Particulate matter in the plume would also affect visibility. Flaring or burning activities upwind of a PSD 

Class I area, e.g., the Breton National Wilderness Area, could adversely affect air quality there because of 

increased levels of SO2, PM10, and PM2.5, and because of reduced visibility.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

As the spill nears shore, there would be low-level concentrations of odor-causing pollutants 

associated with evaporative emissions from the oil spill. These may cause temporary eye, nose, or throat 

irritation, nausea, or headaches, but the doses are not thought to be high enough to cause long-term harm 

(USEPA, 2010a). However, responders could be exposed to levels higher than OSHA occupational 

permissible exposure levels (U.S. Department of Labor, OSHA, 2010b). During the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response, USEPA took air samples at various onshore locations along the length 

of the Gulf coastline. All except three measurements of benzene were below 3 parts per billion (ppb). 

The highest level was 91 ppb. Emissions of benzene to the atmosphere result from gasoline vapors, auto 

exhaust, and chemical production and user facilities. Ambient concentrations of benzene up to and 

greater than 5 ppb have been measured in industrial areas such as Houston, Texas; in various urban areas 

during rush hour; and inside the homes of smokers (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, 2007). 

The following daily median benzene air concentrations were reported in the Volatile Organic Compound 

National Ambient Database (1975-1985): remote (0.16 ppb); rural (0.47 ppb); suburban (1.8 ppb); urban 

(1.8 ppb); indoor air (1.8 ppb); and workplace air (2.1 ppb). The outdoor air data represent 300 cities in 

42 states, while the indoor air data represent 30 cities in 16 states (Shah and Singh, 1988).

During the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, air samples collected by BP, 

OSHA, and USCG near shore showed levels of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene that were 

mostly under detection levels. Among the 28,000 personal benzene samples taken by BP, there was only 

1 sample where benzene exceeded the OSHA occupational permissible exposure limits, and 6 additional 

validated constituents were in excess of the ACGIH threshold limit value. All other sample 

concentrations were below the more stringent ACGIH threshold limit values (U.S. Department of Labor, 

OSHA, 2010a). All measured concentrations of toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene were well within the 

OSHA occupational permissible exposure levels and ACGIH threshold limit values.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

There would be some residual air quality impacts after the well is capped or killed. As most of the oil 

would have been burned, evaporated, or weathered over time, air quality would return to pre-oil spill 

conditions. While impacts to air quality are expected to be localized and temporary, adverse effects that 

may occur from the exposure of humans and wildlife to air pollutants could have long-term consequences.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

The OCS oil- and gas-related catastrophic event could include the release of oil, condensate, or 

natural gas or chemicals used offshore or pollutants from the burning of these products. The air pollutants 

include criteria National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) pollutants, volatile and semi-volatile 

organic compounds, H2S, and methane. If a fire was associated with the event, it would produce a broad 

array of pollutants, including all NAAQS-regulated primary pollutants, including NO2, CO, SOx, VOC, 

PM10, and PM2.5. Response activities that could impact air quality include in-situ burning, the use of 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-21

flares to burn gas and oil, and the use of dispersants applied from aircraft. Measurements taken during an 

in-situ burning show that a major portion of compounds was consumed in the burn; therefore, pollutant 

concentrations would be expected to be within the NAAQS. In a recent analysis of air in coastal 

communities, low levels of dispersant components, which are also used in everyday household products, 

were identified. These response activities are temporary in nature and occur offshore; therefore, there are 

little expected impacts from these actions to onshore air quality. Catastrophic events involving high 

concentrations of H2S could result in deaths as well as environmental damage. Regulations and NTL’s 

mandate safeguards and protective measures, which are in place, to protect workers from H2S releases. 

Other emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere from catastrophic events are not projected to have 

significant impacts on onshore air quality because of the prevailing atmospheric conditions, emissions 

height, emission rates, and the distance of these emissions from the coastline.

Overall, since loss of well-control events, blowouts, and fires are rare events and of short duration, 

potential impacts to air quality are not expected to be significant except in the rare case of a catastrophic 

event. To date, air monitoring conducted following the Macondo well blowout and spill, has not found 

any pollutants at levels expected to cause long-term harm (USEPA, 2010b). 

B.3.1.2. Water Quality

Phase 1—Initial Event

Offshore Water Quality

During the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout, water quality impacts include the disturbance of 

sediments and the release and suspension of oil and natural gas (primarily methane) into the water 

column. These potential impacts are discussed below. As this chapter deals with the immediate effects of 

a blowout that would be located at least 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from shore, it is assumed that there would 

be no impacts on coastal water quality during this initial stage.

Disturbance of Sediments

A catastrophic blowout below the seafloor, outside the wellbore (Table B-1) has the potential to 

resuspend sediments and disperse potentially large quantities of bottom sediments. Some sediment could 

travel several kilometers, depending on particle size and subsea current patterns. In the deep Gulf of 

Mexico, surficial sediments are mostly composed of silt and clay, and, if resuspended, could stay in the 

water column for several hours to days. Bottom current measurements in the deep Gulf of Mexico were 

synthesized as part of the MMS Deepwater Reanalysis study and have been measured to reach 

90 centimeters/second (cm/sec) (35.4 inches/second [in/sec]) with mean flows of 0.4-21 cm/sec 

(0.2-8.3 in/sec) (Nowlin et al., 2001). At these mean flow rates, resuspended sediment could be 

transported 0.3-18 km per day (0.2-11 mi per day).

Sediment resuspension can lead to a temporary change in the oxidation-reduction chemistry in the 

water column, including a localized and temporal release of any formally sorbed metals, as well as 

nutrient recycling (Caetano et al., 2003; Fanning et al., 1982). Sediments also have the potential to 

become contaminated with oil components.

A subsea release also has the potential to destabilize the sediments and create slumping or larger scale 

sediment movements along depth gradients. These types of events would have the potential to move 

and/or damage any infrastructure in the affected area.

Release and Suspension of Oil into the Water Column

A subsea release of hydrocarbons at a high flow rate has the potential to disperse and suspend plumes 

of oil droplets (chemically dispersed or otherwise) within the water column and to induce large patches of 

sheen and oil on the surface. These dispersed hydrocarbons may adsorb onto marine detritus (marine 

snow), suspended sediments, or may be mixed with drilling mud and deposited near the source. 

Mitigation efforts such as burning may introduce hydrocarbon byproducts into the marine environment, 

which would be distributed by surface currents. The acute and chronic sublethal effects of these dilute 

suspended “plumes” are not well understood and require future research efforts.
B-22 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

As a result of the Macondo well blowout and spill, a subsurface oil and gas plume was discovered in 

deep waters between ~1,100 and 1,300 m (3,609 and 4,265 ft) (e.g., Diercks et al., 2010) in addition to the 

surface slick. Measurable amounts of hydrocarbons (dispersed or otherwise) were detected in the 

subsurface plumes and on the seafloor in the vicinity of the release (e.g., Diercks et al., 2010; OSAT, 

2010). In the Macondo well blowout and spill subsurface plume, half-lives were estimated for petroleum 

hydrocarbons and n-alkanes on the order of 1 month and several days, respectively, indicating the impacts 

of various weathering processes (Reddy et al., 2011 and references therein). After the Ixtoc I well 

blowout and spill in 1979, which was located 50 mi (80 km) offshore in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico, 

some subsurface oil was also observed dispersed within the water column (Boehm and Fiest, 1982); 

however, the scientific investigations were limited (Reible, 2010). The water quality of offshore waters 

would be affected by the dissolved components and oil droplets that are small enough that they do not rise 

to the surface or are mixed down by surface turbulence. In the case of subsurface oil plumes, it is 

important to remember that these plumes would be affected by subsurface currents, dilution, and natural 

physical, chemical, and biological degradation processes including weathering.

Large quantities of oil put into offshore water may alter the chemistry of the sea with unforeseeable 

results. The properties and persistence of oil, including oil in the Gulf of Mexico, is further discussed in 

Chapter B.2.2.4. The VOC’s, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (also referred to as 

BTEX), are highly soluble and can have acutely toxic effects; however, VOC’s are light-weight oil 

components and tend to evaporate rather than persist in the environment (Michel, 1992). Middle-weight 

organic components tend to pose the greatest risk in the environment because they are more persistent in 

the environment, are more bioavailable, and include PAH’s, which have high toxicities (Michel, 1992). 

To determine the overall toxicity of PAH’s in water or sediment, the contributions of every individual 

PAH compound in the petroleum mixture must be included (USEPA, 2011). This approach was used 

during the Macondo well blowout, spill and response in determining the potential risk of PAH’s in both 

water and sediment to humans or animals in the environment (OSAT, 2010). Heavier components of 

crude oil tend to pose less risk of toxicity because they are not very soluble in water and therefore are less 

bioavailable.

The oil that entered the Gulf of Mexico from the Macondo well blowout and spill was a South 

Louisiana sweet crude oil (i.e., low in sulfur) (USDOC, NOAA, 2010b). This oil is less toxic than other 

crude oils in general because this oil is lower in PAH’s than many other crude oils. Studies indicate that 

the oil contained approximately 3.9 percent PAH’s by weight, which results in an estimated release of 

2.1 x 1010 grams of PAH’s (Reddy et al., 2011; Reddy, official communication, 2012). The oil was also 

fairly high in alkanes (organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen and single bonds, 

sometimes called paraffin or aliphatic compounds) (USDOC, NOAA, 2010b). Because alkanes are 

simple hydrocarbons, these oils are likely to undergo biodegradation more easily (USDOC, NOAA, 

2010b).

Release of Natural Gas (Methane) into the Water Column

A catastrophic blowout could release natural gas into the water column; the amount of gas released is 

dependent upon the water depth, the natural gas content of the formation being drilled, and its pressure. 

Methane is the primary component of natural gas. Methane may stay in the marine environment for long 

periods of time (Patin, 1999; page 237), as methane is highly soluble in seawater at the high pressures and 

cold temperatures found in deepwater environments (NRC, 2003; page 108). However, methane 

diffusing through the water column would likely be oxidized in the aerobic zone and would rarely reach 

the air-water interface (Mechalas, 1974; page 23). In addition to methane, natural gas contains smaller 

percentages of other gases such as ethane, propane, and to a much lesser degree H2S (NaturalGas.org, 

2012), which can be toxic in the environment. The majority of natural gas components including methane 

are carbon sources, and their introduction into the marine environment could result in reducing the 

dissolved oxygen levels because of microbial degradation potentially creating hypoxic or “dead” zones. 

Unfortunately, little is known about methane toxicity in the marine environment, but there is concern as to 

how methane in the water column might affect fish. Further discussion of natural gas released during the 

Macondo well blowout and spill is given in Chapter B.2.2.5.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-23

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Offshore Water Quality

The water offshore of the Gulf’s coasts can be divided into two regions: the continental shelf and 

slope (<1,000 ft; 305 m) and deep water (>1,000 ft; 305 m). Waters on the continental shelf and slope are 

heavily influenced by the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers, the primary sources of freshwater, 

sediment, nutrients, and pollutants from a huge drainage basin encompassing 55 percent of the continental 

U.S. (Murray, 1998). Lower salinities are characteristic nearshore where freshwater from the rivers mix 

with Gulf waters. The presence or extent of a nepheloid layer, a body of suspended sediment at the sea 

bottom (Kennett, 1982, page 524), affects water quality on the shelf and slope. Deep waters east of the 

Mississippi River are affected by the Loop Current and associated warm-core (anti-cyclonic) eddies, 

which flush the area with clear, low-nutrient water (Muller-Karger et al., 2001) (Figure B-2). However, 

cold-core cyclonic eddies (counter-clockwise rotating) also form at the edge of the Loop Current and are 

associated with upwelling and nutrient-rich, high-productivity waters, although the extent of this flushing 

can vary seasonally.

While response efforts would decrease the fraction of oil remaining in Gulf waters, significant 

amounts of oil would remain. Natural processes will physically, chemically, and biologically aid the 

degradation of oil (NRC, 2003). The physical processes involved include evaporation, emulsification, 

and dissolution, while the primary chemical and biological degradation processes include photo-oxidation

and biodegradation (i.e., microbial oxidation). Water quality would not only be impacted by the oil, gas, 

and their respective components, but also to some degree, from cleanup and mitigation efforts, such as 

from increased vessel traffic and the addition of dispersants and methanol to the marine environment.

In the case of a catastrophic subsea blowout in deep water, it is assumed that large quantities of 

subsea dispersants would be used. The positive effect of using dispersants is that the oil, once dispersed, 

may be more available to be degraded (however, we note that contrary findings for beached oil were 

presented by Hamdan and Fulmer, 2011). The negative effect is that the oil, once dispersed, is also more 

bioavailable to have toxic effects to microorganisms as well. The toxicity of dispersed oil in the 

environment would depend on many factors, including the effectiveness of the dispersion, temperature, 

salinity, degree of weathering, type of dispersant, and degree of light penetration in the water column 

(NRC, 2005). The toxicity of dispersed oil is primarily because of the toxic components of the oil itself 

(Australian Maritime Safety Authority, 2010).

As a result of the use of dispersants, it would be more likely for clouds or plumes of dispersed oil to 

occur near the blowout site as was seen during the Macondo well blowout and spill. Dissolved oxygen 

levels are a concern with any release of a carbon source, such as oil and natural gas, and became a 

particular concern during the Macondo well blowout and spill since dispersants were used in deep waters 

for the first time. In areas where plumes of dispersed oil were previously found, dissolved oxygen levels 

decreased by about 20 percent from long-term average values in the GOM of ~6.9 milligrams/liter (spring 

climatological mean at 1,500-m [4,921 -ft] depth); however, scientists reported that these levels stabilized 

and were not low enough to be considered hypoxic (Joint Analysis Group, 2010; USDOC, NOAA, 

2010c). The drop in oxygen, which did not continue over time, has been attributed to microbial 

degradation of the oil.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Coastal Water Quality 

Water quality governs the suitability of waters for plant, animal, and human use. Water quality is 

important in the bays, estuaries, and nearshore coastal waters of the Gulf because these waters provide 

feeding, breeding, and/or nursery habitat for many invertebrates and fishes, as well as sea turtles, birds, 

and marine mammals. A catastrophic spill would significantly impact coastal water quality in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Water quality prior to the Macondo well blowout and spill was rated as fair while sediment 

quality was rated as poor (USEPA, 2008). In addition, the coastal habitat index, a rating of wetlands 

habitat loss, was also rated as poor. Both the sediment quality and the coastal habitat index affect water 

quality.

Though response efforts would decrease the amount of oil remaining in Gulf waters and reduce the 

amount of oil contacting the coastline, significant amounts of oil would remain. Coastal water quality 
B-24 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

would be impacted not only by the oil, gas, and their respective components but also to some degree from 

cleanup and mitigation efforts. Increased vessel traffic, hydromodification, and the addition of 

dispersants and methanol in an effort to contain, mitigate, or clean up the oil may also tax the 

environment.

The use of dispersants as a response tool involves a tradeoff. The purpose of chemical dispersants is 

to facilitate the movement of oil into the water column in order to encourage weathering and biological 

breakdown of the oil (i.e., biodegradation) (NRC, 2005; Australian Maritime Safety Authority, 2010). 

Thus, the tradeoff is generally considered to be oiling of the shoreline and surface of the water versus the

water column and benthic resources (NRC, 2005). If the oil moves into the water column and is not on 

the surface of the water, it is less likely to reach sensitive shore areas (USEPA, 2010a). Since sea birds 

are often on the surface of the water or in shore areas, dispersants are also considered to be very effective 

in reducing the exposure of sea birds to oil (Australian Maritime Safety Authority, 2010). In addition to 

dispersion being enhanced by artificial processes, oil may also be dispersed from natural processes 

including both (bio)chemical and physical processes. For instance, microbial metabolism of crude oil 

results in the dispersion of oil (Bartha and Atlas, 1983), and conditions at the source of the oil/gas leak 

(e.g., orifice size and shape) may cause physical dispersion of the oil. Dispersion has both positive and 

negative effects. The positive effect is that the oil, once dispersed, is more available to be degraded. The 

negative effect is that the oil, once dispersed, is also more bioavailable to have toxic effects to 

microorganisms as well. For example, a recent study using mesocosm experiments suggested that 

dispersed oil could disrupt coastal microbial foodwebs in the northern Gulf of Mexico, reducing the flow 

of carbon to higher trophic levels (Ortmann et al., 2012). The toxicity of dispersed oil in the environment 

will depend on many factors, including the effectiveness of the dispersion, temperature, salinity, the 

degree of weathering, type of dispersant, and the degree of light penetration in the water column (NRC, 

2005). The toxicity of dispersed oil is primarily because of the toxic components of the oil itself 

(Australian Maritime Safety Authority, 2010).

Oxygen and nutrient concentrations in coastal waters vary seasonally. The zone of hypoxia (depleted 

oxygen) on the Louisiana-Texas shelf occurs seasonally and is affected by the timing of freshwater 

discharges from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers. The hypoxic conditions continue until local 

wind-driven circulation mixes the water again. The 2010 hypoxic zone could not be linked to the 

Macondo well blowout and spill in either a positive or a negative manner (Louisiana Universities Marine 

Consortium, 2010). Nutrients from the Mississippi River nourished phytoplankton and contributed to the 

formation of the hypoxic zone.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The leading source of contaminants that impairs coastal water quality in the Gulf of Mexico is urban 

runoff. It can include suspended solids, heavy metals, pesticides, oil, grease, and nutrients (such as from 

lawn fertilizer). Urban runoff increases with population growth, and the Gulf Coast region has 

experienced a 109 percent population growth since 1970, with an additional expected 15 percent increase 

expected by 2020 (USDOC, NOAA, 2011b). Other pollutant source categories include (1) agricultural 

runoff, (2) municipal point sources, (3) industrial sources, (4) hydromodification (e.g., dredging), and 

(5) vessel sources (e.g., shipping, fishing, and recreational boating). The NRC (2003, Table I-4, 

page 237) estimated that, on average, approximately 26,324 bbl of oil per year entered Gulf waters from 

petrochemical and oil refinery industries in Louisiana and Texas. The Mississippi River introduced 

approximately 3,680,938 bbl per year (NRC, 2003, Table I-9, page 242) into the waters of the Gulf. 

Hydrocarbons also enter the Gulf of Mexico through natural seeps in the Gulf at a rate of approximately 

980,392 bbl per year (a range of approximately 560,224-1,400,560 bbl per year) (NRC, 2003, page 191). 

Produced water (formation water) is, by volume, the largest waste stream from the oil and gas industry 

that enters Gulf waters (e.g., Table B-3). The NRC has estimated the quantity of oil in produced water 

entering the Gulf per year to be 473,000 bbl (NRC, 2003, page 200, Table D-8).1

 These sources total 

about 5.5 MMbbl of oil per year that routinely enters Gulf of Mexico waters. In comparison, a 

catastrophic spill of 30,000-60,000 bbl per day for 90-120 days would spill a total of 2.7-7.2 MMbbl of 

 1 These numbers were generated from converting the units reported in the noted reference and do not imply any 

level of significance.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-25

oil. When added to the other sources of oil listed above, this would result in a 48- to 129-percent increase 

in the volume of oil entering the water during the year of the spill. In addition, the oil from a catastrophic 

spill will be much more concentrated in some locations than the large number of other activities that 

release oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Chapter B.2.2.4 discusses the properties and persistence of oil in the 

environment.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

During Phase 1 of the catastrophic blowout scenario, impacts are not expected to coastal water 

quality. Instead, the initial impacts will include degradation of offshore water quality, disturbance and 

degradation of sediments, and the release and suspension of oil and natural gas into the water column, 

including the possible formation of plumes. Fine sediments could be transported away from the spill site.

As the spill continues during Phase 2, response efforts and natural degradation processes would 

decrease the amount of oil in the Gulf, but significant amounts of oil would remain to impact water and 

sediment quality. Water and sediment quality would not only be impacted by the oil, gas, and their 

respective components but also to some degree from cleanup and mitigation efforts. The use of 

dispersants as a response tool may make the oil more available to degradation, but it can also make the oil 

more bioavailable to have toxic effects on microorganisms as well. Furthermore, dispersed oil is more 

likely to form a plume.

Onshore contact is made during Phase 3, so coastal sediment and water quality will be significantly 

impacted during this phase despite response efforts. Response efforts may even tax the coast to some 

degree. Natural and chemical dispersion may reduce the contact of oil with the shoreline but result in 

more oil in the water column and greater bioavailability of the dispersed oil.

The long-term recovery (Phase 4) of the water and sediment quality of the Gulf will depend on the 

properties and persistence of the oil as noted in Chapter B.2.2.4. Though the spill will increase the 

amount of oil entering the Gulf of Mexico, oil regularly enters the Gulf through sources such as oil 

refineries, the Mississippi River, produced water, and natural seeps. However, oil from a spill will be 

more concentrated than the oil input from these other sources.

B.3.1.3. Coastal Barrier Beaches and Associated Dunes

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes as a result 

of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a 

catastrophic spill event because these resources would not be contacted until the oil reached the shoreline.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

There would likely be no adverse impacts to coastal barrier beaches and associated dunes as a result 

of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a 

catastrophic spill event because these resources would not be contacted until the oil reached the shoreline.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Barrier islands make up more than two-thirds of the northern Gulf of Mexico shore. Each of the 

barrier islands is either high profile or low profile, depending on the elevations and morphology of the 

island (Morton et al., 2004). The distinguishing characteristics of the high- and low-profile barriers relate 

to the width of the islands along with the continuity of the frontal dunes. Low-profile barriers are narrow 

with discontinuous frontal dunes easily overtopped by storm surge, which makes the island susceptible to 

over wash and erosion. This over wash can create channels to bring sand onto the island or into lagoons 

formed on these islands. High-profile barrier islands are generally wider than the low-profile islands and 

have continuous, vegetated, frontal dunes with elevations high enough to prevent over wash from major 

storm surge and, therefore, are less susceptible to erosion. The sand stored in these high-profile dunes 

allows the island to withstand prolonged erosion and therefore prevents breaching, which could result in 

damaging the island core.
B-26 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

The effects from oil spills depend on the geographic location, volume, and rate of the spill; type of 

oil; oil-slick characteristics; oceanic conditions and season at the time of the spill; and response and 

cleanup efforts. The effects could include changes in plant species diversity that could result in changes 

in forage areas for species using microfauna as a food base (Teal and Howarth, 1984). Further detail on 

this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

As a result of a catastrophic spill, many of the barrier islands and beaches would receive varying 

degrees of oiling. Oil disposal on sand and vegetated sand dunes was shown in experiments by Webb 

(1988) to have little deleterious effects on the existing vegetation or on the recolonization of the oiled 

sands by plants. However, other studies have documented toxic effects of oil on barrier beach vegetation 

(Ko and Day, 2004). The depth of oiling would be variable, based on the wave environment and 

sediment source at a particular beach head. Layering of oil and sand could occur if it was not cleaned 

before another tidal cycle. However, most areas of oiling are expected to be light, and sand removal 

during cleanup activities should be minimized. The severity of oiling dictates the appropriate cleanup 

method to be utilized (refer to Table B-4). 

In areas designated as natural wilderness areas (e.g., Breton National Wildlife Refuge and Gulf 

Islands National Seashore), land managers may require little to no disruption of the natural system. In 

these environments, it is preferred to let the oil degrade naturally without aggressive and intrusive cleanup 

procedures. Manual rather than mechanized removal techniques would be used in these areas and only if 

heavy oiling has occurred. Thus, these areas may not be treated as thoroughly as other shorelines. Oil 

would remain in place longer, weathering gradually while continuing to contaminate habitat, though 

mechanical disturbance would be minimized.

Once oil has reached the beaches and barrier islands and becomes buried or sequestered, it becomes 

difficult to treat. During wave events when the islands and beaches erode, the oil can become 

remobilized and transported. Thus, the fate of oil is not as simple as either reaching land, becoming 

sequestered, or being treated; but, it must be considered in terms of a continuing process of sequestration, 

remobilization, and transport.

For spilled oil to move onto beaches or across dunes, strong southerly winds must persist for an 

extended time prior to or immediately after the spill to elevate water levels. Strong winds, however, 

could reduce the impact severity at a landfall site by accelerating the processes of oil-slick dispersal, spill 

spreading, and oil weathering.

Bik et al. (2012) found that, despite the disappearance of visible surface oil on heavily oiled Gulf 

beaches impacted by the Macondo well blowout and spill, microbial communities showed significant 

changes in community structure, with a decrease in diversity and a shift toward dominance by fungal taxa, 

particularly known hydrocarbon-degrading genera. Likewise, nematode communities showed decreased 

diversity and increased dominance by predatory and scavenger taxa alongside an increased abundance of 

juveniles.

Due to the distance of beaches from deepwater blowouts and the combination of weathering and 

dispersant treatment of the oil offshore, the toxicity and quantity of the oil reaching shore should be 

greatly reduced, thereby minimizing the chances of irreversible damage to the impacted areas. A blowout 

in shallower waters near shore may have equal or greater impacts because of a shorter period of 

weathering and dispersion prior to shoreline contact, even though a smaller volume of spilled oil would 

be expected.

Vessel traffic in close proximity to barrier islands has been shown to move considerably more bottom 

sediment than tidal currents, thus increasing coastal and barrier island erosion rates. If staging areas for 

cleanup of a catastrophic spill are in close proximity to these islands, recovery time of the barrier islands 

could be greatly extended because of the large number of response vessels.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Oil or its components that remain in the sand after cleanup may be (1) released periodically when 

storms and high tides resuspend or flush beach sediments, (2) decomposed by biological activity, or 

(3) volatilized and dispersed. While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil would be dissipated 

offshore within 1-2 months (depending on season and temperature) of stopping the flow, oil has the 

potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event. For example on sandy beaches, oil can sink 

deep into the sediments. As stranded oil weathers, some oil may become buried through natural beach 

processes and appear as surface residual balls (SRB’s; <10 cm [4 in]) or as surface residual patties 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-27

(SRP’s; 10 cm to 1 m [4 in to 3 ft]) (Table B-4). Such balls continue to provide a source of 

contamination with accompanying toxic effects.

The cleanup impacts of a catastrophic spill could result in short-term (up to 2 years) adjustments in 

beach profiles and configurations as a result of sand removal and disturbance during cleanup operations. 

Some oil contact to lower areas of sand dunes is expected. This contact would not result in significant 

destabilization of the dunes. The long-term stressors to barrier beach communities caused by the physical 

effects and chemical toxicity of an oil spill may lead to decreased primary production, plant dieback, and 

hence, further erosion (Ko and Day, 2004).

The protection once afforded to inland marshes by coastal barrier beaches has been greatly reduced 

because of decreased elevations and the continued effect of subsidence, sea-level rise, and saltwater 

intrusion. A catastrophic spill has the potential to contribute to this reduction through increased erosion 

as a result of plant dieback and cleanup efforts.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

As a result of a catastrophic spill, many of the barrier islands and beaches would receive varying 

degrees of oiling. However, most areas of oiling are expected to be lightly oiled, and sand removal 

during cleanup activities should be minimal. The long-term stressors to barrier beach communities 

caused by the physical effects and chemical toxicity of an oil spill may lead to decreased primary 

production, plant dieback, and hence, further erosion.

B.3.1.4. Wetlands

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to wetlands as a result of the events and the potential 

impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event because these 

resources would not be contacted until the oil reached the shoreline.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

There would likely be no adverse impacts to wetlands as a result of the events and the potential 

impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill event because these 

resources would not be contacted until the oil reached the shoreline.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Coastal wetland habitats in the Gulf of Mexico occur as bands around waterways; broad expanses of 

saline, brackish, and freshwater marshes; mud and sand flats; and forested wetlands of cypress-tupelo 

swamps and bottomland hardwoods. Offshore oil spills would have a low probability of contacting and 

damaging any wetlands along the Gulf Coast, except in the case of a catastrophic event. This is because 

of the distance of the spill to the coast, the likely weathered condition of oil (through evaporation, 

dilution, and biodegradation) should it reach the coast, and because wetlands are generally protected by 

barrier islands, peninsulas, sand spits, and offshore currents.

While a catastrophic spill from a shallow-water blowout is expected to be lower in volume than a 

deepwater blowout, a potential shallow-water site could be closer to shore, allowing less time for oil to be 

weathered, dispersed, and recovered before it impacted coastal resources. A spill from a catastrophic 

blowout could oil a few to several hundred acres of wetlands depending on the depth of inland penetration 

(Burdeau and Collins, 2010). This would vary from moderate to heavy oiling. One study of the impacts 

of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response to salt marshes in Louisiana estimated the 

area affected to be between 350 and 400 km2 (135 and 154 mi2

) (Mishra et al., 2012). Further detail on 

the catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The NOAA Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) ranks shorelines according to their sensitivity to 

oil, the natural persistence of oil, and the expected ease of cleanup after an oil spill. These factors cause 

oil to persist in coastal and estuarine areas (USDOI, MMS, 2010). According to the ESI, the most 

sensitive shoreline types (i.e., sheltered tidal flats, vegetated low banks, salt/brackish-water marshes, 
B-28 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

freshwater marshes/swamps, and scrub-shrub wetlands) tend to accumulate oil and are difficult to clean, 

thus causing oil to persist in these coastal and estuarine areas (USDOI, MMS, 2010).

In the case of catastrophic spills in the GOM, preemptive oil-response strategies would be initiated 

and include the deployment of oil booms, skimmer ships, and barge barriers to protect the beaches and 

adjacent wetlands. Boom deployment must also include plans for monitoring and maintaining the 

protective boom systems to assure that these systems are installed and functioning properly and that they 

are not damaging the wetlands they are trying to protect. In most cases, the beach face would take the 

most oil; however, in areas where the marsh is immediately adjacent to the beach face or embayments, or 

in the case of small to severe storms, marshes would be oiled. For example, in Alabama, Mississippi, and 

Florida, severe weather could push oil into the tidal pools and back beach areas that support tidal marsh 

vegetation.

The primary factors that affect vegetation responses to oil are toxicity of the oil and extent of plant 

coverage, amount of contact with and penetration of the soil, plant species affected, oiling frequency, 

season, and cleanup activities (Mendelssohn et al., 2012). Previous studies of other large spills have 

shown that, when oil has a short residence time in the marsh and it is not incorporated into the sediments, 

the marsh vegetation has a high probability of survival, even though aboveground die-off of marsh 

vegetation may occur (Lin et al., 2002). However, if re-oiling occurs after the new shoots from an initial

oiling are produced, such that the new shoots are killed, then the marsh plants may not have enough 

stored energy to produce a second round of new shoots. Other studies noted the utilization of dispersants 

in the proper dosages results in a reduction in marsh damage from oiling (Lin and Mendelssohn, 2009). 

The works of several investigators (Webb et al., 1981 and 1985; Alexander and Webb, 1983 and 1987; 

Lytle, 1975; Delaune et al., 1979; Fischel et al., 1989) evaluated the effects of potential spills to area 

wetlands. For wetlands along the central Louisiana coast, the critical oil concentration is assumed to be 

0.025 gallons per ft2 (1.0 liter per m2

) of marsh. Concentrations less than this may cause diebacks for one 

growing season or less, depending upon the concentration and the season during which contact occurs. 

The duration and magnitude of a spill resulting from a catastrophic blowout could result in concentrations 

above this critical level and would result in longer term effects to wetland vegetation, including some 

plant mortality and loss of land.

Due to the distance of deep water from shore, the possibility of a spill from a deepwater blowout 

reaching coastal wetlands with the toxicity to significantly impact the coastal wetlands is low because of 

the response procedures implemented during a catastrophic spill. (It is assumed that oil would reach 

shore within 2-4 weeks.) Therefore, a spill from a shallow-water blowout is more likely to contribute to 

wetland damage. However, for the few deepwater areas that are located closer to shore, such as in the 

Mississippi Canyon Area, the amount of time before shoreline contact could occur could be estimated to 

be the same as the estimate given for the shallow-water scenario, i.e., 1-3 weeks.

Offshore skimming, burning, and dispersal treatments for the oil near the spill site would result in 

capture, detoxification, and dilution of the majority of oil spilled. The utilization of nearshore booming 

protection for beaches and wetlands could also help to reduce oiling of these resources, if done correctly. 

Booms deployed adjacent to marsh shorelines can be lifted by wave action onto marsh vegetation, 

resulting in plant mortality under the displaced booms. The activity of oil cleanup can result in additional 

impacts on wetlands if not done properly. During the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response, aggressive onshore and marsh cleanup methods (such as the removal by mechanized equipment, 

in-situ burning, etc.) were not extensively utilized. The severity of oiling is the main factor that dictates 

the appropriate marsh cleanup method to be utilized (refer to Table B-4). 

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Wetlands serve a number of important ecological functions. For example, Louisiana’s coastal 

wetlands support more than two-thirds of the wintering waterfowl population of the Mississippi Flyway 

(State of Louisiana, Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries, 2012). Therefore, loss of wetlands would also 

impact a significant portion of the waterfowl population. Another important ecological function of 

wetlands is their use as a nursery for estuarine-dependent species of fish and shellfish. Wetland loss 

would reduce the available nursery habitat.

The duration and magnitude of a spill resulting from a catastrophic blowout could result in high 

concentrations of oil that would result in long-term effects to wetland vegetation, including some plant 

mortality and loss of land. Silliman et al. (2012) found that after the Macondo well blowout and spill, oil 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-29

coverage of Louisiana salt marshes was primarily concentrated on their seaward edges. Oil-driven plant 

death on the edges of these marshes more than doubled the rates of shoreline erosion, further driving 

marsh platform loss that is likely to be permanent. Eighteen months after the Macondo well blowout and 

spill, in previously oiled, noneroded areas, marsh grasses had largely recovered, and the elevated 

shoreline retreat rates observed at oiled sites had decreased to levels at reference marsh sites. Studies of 

impacted wetlands have demonstrated that wetlands can recover from the impacts of oil spills, but the 

recovery process varies from extremely slow in mangrove swamps (Burns et al., 1993 and 1994) to 

relatively rapid in grass-dominated marshes subject to in-situ burning of oil (Baustian et al., 2010).

Land loss caused by the oiling of wetlands would add to continuing impacts of other factors, such as 

hurricanes, subsidence, saltwater intrusion, and sea-level rise. The wetlands along the Gulf Coast have 

already been severely damaged by the 2005 and 2008 hurricane seasons, leaving the mainland less 

protected. It was estimated in 2000 that coastal Louisiana would continue to lose land at a rate of 

approximately 2,672 hectares/year (10 mi2

/year) over the next 50 years. Further, it was estimated that an 

additional net loss of 132,794 hectares (512 mi2

) may occur by 2050, which is almost 10 percent of 

Louisiana’s remaining coastal wetlands (Barras et al., 2003). Barras (2006) indicated an additional 

562 km2 (217 mi2

) of land lost during the 2005 hurricane season. A catastrophic spill occurring nearshore 

would contribute further to this landloss. Following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, another series of 

hurricanes (Gustav and Ike) made landfall along the Louisiana and Texas coasts in September 2008. 

Hurricane Gustav made landfall as a Category 2 storm near Cocodrie, Louisiana, pushing large surges of 

saline water into the fresh marshes and coastal swamps of Louisiana from Grand Isle westward. While 

Hurricane Gustav did not impact the quantity of wetlands that Hurricanes Katrina and Rita impacted, it 

did have a severe and continuing effect on the coastal barrier islands and the wetlands associated with 

backshore (back of the island) and foreshore (front of the island). While Hurricane Gustav affected the 

eastern portion of the Louisiana coast closer to Grand Isle and Houma, Hurricane Ike concentrated on 

Louisiana’s western coast. The Texas coast received the brunt of Hurricane Ike where it made landfall 

slightly east of Galveston. The storm surge heavily eroded the dune systems and significantly lowered 

the beach elevations along the eastern portion of the Texas coast near Galveston and the Bolivar 

Peninsula. The erosion and wash-over associated with Hurricane Ike’s tidal surge breeched beach ridges 

and opened the inland freshwater ponds and their associated wetlands to the sea. As a result of the four 

successive storms, the Louisiana and Texas coasts have lost protective elevations, barrier islands, and 

wetlands, and they now have the potential for transitioning to a less productive salt-marsh system in areas 

where fresh-marsh systems once existed. In addition, the loss of these protective elevations has increased 

the vulnerability of coastal wetlands to catastrophic oil-spill events.

A poorly executed oil cleanup can result in additional impacts. Aggressive onshore and marsh 

cleanup methods (such as removal by mechanized equipment, in-situ burning, marsh cutting, and foot 

entry into the marsh for manual removal) probably would not be initiated until the oil spill has been 

stopped. Depending on the marsh remediation methods used, further impacts to the wetlands may occur 

from cleanup activities. Boat traffic in marsh areas from the thousands of response vessels associated 

with a catastrophic spill would produce an incremental increase in erosion rates, sediment resuspension, 

and turbidity (i.e., an adverse but not significant impact to coastal wetland and seagrass habitats).

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

A spill from a catastrophic blowout could impact a few to several hundred square kilometers of 

wetlands depending on the depth of inland penetration (Burdeau and Collins, 2010; Mishra et al., 2012). 

This would vary from moderate to heavy oiling. Impacts to wetlands would vary according to the 

severity of the oiling. The duration and magnitude of the spill could result in severe oiling of wetlands in 

some areas, causing long-term effects to wetland vegetation, including some plant mortality and loss of 

land.

B.3.1.5. Seagrass Communities

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to submerged vegetation as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event 

because of the likely distance from the spill event to the nearest submerged vegetation beds.
B-30 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

There would likely be no adverse impacts to submerged vegetation as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill because of 

the likely distance from the spill event to the nearest submerged vegetation beds.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

According to the most recent and comprehensive data available, approximately 500,000 hectares 

(1.25 million acres; 505,857 hectares) of submerged seagrass beds are estimated to exist in exposed, 

shallow coastal waters and embayments of the northern Gulf of Mexico, and over 80 percent of this area 

is in Florida Bay and Florida coastal waters (calculated from Handley et al., 2007). Submerged 

vegetation distribution and composition depend on an interrelationship among a number of environmental 

factors that include water temperature, depth, turbidity, salinity, turbulence, and substrate suitability 

(Kemp, 1989; Onuf, 1996; Short et al., 2001). Marine seagrass beds generally occur in shallow, relatively 

clear, protected waters with predominantly sand bottoms (Short et al., 2001). Freshwater submerged 

aquatic vegetation (SAV) species occur in the low-salinity waters of coastal estuaries (Castellanos and 

Rozas, 2001). Seagrasses and freshwater SAV’s provide important nursery and permanent habitat for 

sunfish, killifish, immature shrimp, crabs, drum, trout, flounder, and several other nekton species, and 

they provide a food source for species of wintering waterfowl and megaherbivores (Rozas and Odum, 

1988; Rooker et al., 1998; Castellanos and Rozas, 2001; Heck et al., 2003; Orth et al., 2006). Further 

detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS.

If oil comes into areas with submerged beds, increased water turbulence from waves, storms, or 

vessel traffic could break apart the surface oil sheen and disperse some oil into the water column or mix 

oil with sediments that would settle and coat an entire plant. Coating of the plat from the oil and sediment 

mixture would cause reduced chlorophyll production and could lead to a decrease in vegetation (Teal and 

Howarth, 1984; Burns et al., 1994; Erftemeijer and Lewis, 2006). This coating situation also happens 

when oil is treated with dispersants because the dispersants break down the oil and it sinks into the water 

column (Thorhaug et al., 1986; Runcie et al., 2004). However, as reviewed in Runcie et al. (2004), oil 

mixed with dispersants has shown an array of effects on seagrass depending on the species and dispersant 

used. With a greater distance from shore, there is a greater chance of the oil being weathered by natural 

and mechanical processes by the time it reaches the nearshore habitat.

Depending on the species and environmental factors (e.g., temperature and wave action), seagrasses 

may exhibit minimal impacts, such as localized loss of pigmentation, from a spill; however, communities 

residing within the beds could accrue greater negative outcomes (den Hartog and Jacobs, 1980; Jackson 

et al., 1989; Kenworthy et al., 1993; Taylor et al., 2006). Community effects could range from either 

direct mortality due to smothering or indirect mortality from loss of food sources and habitat to a decrease 

in ecological performance of the entire system depending on the severity and duration of the spill event 

(Zieman et al., 1984).

Prevention and cleanup efforts could also affect the health of submerged vegetation communities 

(Zieman et al., 1984). Many physical prevention methods such as booms, barrier berms, and diversions 

can alter hydrology, specifically changing salinity and water clarity. These changes would harm certain 

species of submerged vegetation because they are tolerant to specific salinities and light levels (Zieman 

et al., 1984; Kenworthy and Fonseca, 1996; Frazer et al., 2006). With cleanup, there is increased boat and 

human traffic in these sensitive areas that generally are protected from this degree of human disturbance 

prior to the response. Increased vessel traffic would lead to elevated water turbidity and increased 

propeller scarring. While the elevated levels of water turbidity from vessels would be short-term and the 

possible damages from propellers could be longer, both events would be localized during the prevention 

and cleanup efforts (Zieman, 1976; Dawes et al., 1997).

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

According to the most recent and comprehensive data available, approximately 500,000 hectares 

(1.25 million acres; 505,857 hectares) of submerged seagrass beds are estimated to exist in exposed, 

shallow coastal waters and embayments of the northern Gulf of Mexico, and over 80 percent of this area 

is in Florida Bay and Florida coastal waters (calculated from Handley et al., 2007). Submerged 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-31

vegetation distribution and composition depend on an interrelationship among a number of environmental 

factors that include water temperature, depth, turbidity, salinity, turbulence, and substrate suitability 

(Kemp, 1989; Onuf, 1996; Short et al., 2001). Seagrasses and freshwater SAV’s provide important 

nursery and permanent habitat for sunfish, killifish, immature shrimp, crabs, drum, trout, flounder, and 

several other nekton species, and they provide a food source for species of wintering waterfowl and 

megaherbivores (Rozas and Odum, 1988; Rooker et al., 1998; Castellanos and Rozas, 2001; Heck et al., 

2003; Orth et al., 2006).

A source of potential long-term impacts to submerged beds from a catastrophic spill event is the 

possibility of buried or sequestered oil becoming resuspended after a disturbance, which would have 

similar effects as the original oiling event. This could occur in the event of hurricane impacts, which 

exacerbate the problem with numerous other short-terms stresses, such as turbidity, abrasion, breakage, 

uprooting SAV and seagrasses, and the alteration of bottom profiles and hydrology. Because different 

species have different levels of sensitivity to oil, it is difficult to compare studies and extrapolate what 

variables caused the documented differences in vegetation and community health (Thorhaug et al., 1986; 

Runcie et al., 2004). In general, studied seagrasses did not show significant negative effects from an oil 

spill (den Hartog and Jacobs, 1980; Kenworthy et al., 1993; Taylor et al., 2006 and 2007).

If bays and estuaries accrue oil, there is an assumption that there would be a decrease in seagrass 

cover and negative community impacts. Submerged vegetation serves important ecological functions. 

For example, seagrasses and freshwater SAV’s provide important habitat and are a food source for a wide 

range of species in multiple life history stages (Castellanos and Rozas, 2001; Short and Coles, 2001; 

Caldwell, 2003). Therefore, loss of submerged vegetation would adversely impact these species with a 

loss of valuable habitat and food.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Because of the likely distance of an initial catastrophic spill event to submerged vegetation 

communities, there would be no adverse impacts to submerged vegetation resulting from the initial event 

(Phase 1). Also, with regards to an offshore spill event, there would likely be no adverse impacts to 

submerged vegetation before the spill reaches shore (Phase 2). An estimated probability of oil contacting 

its coastline from the WPA example OSRA run can be found in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS (Phase 3). It is assumed when these coastlines are contacted with oil, all associated 

habitat are considered oiled. If oil comes into areas with submerged beds, oil mixed with sediments or 

with dispersants could settle and coat an entire plant and could cause reduced chlorophyll production and 

could lead to a decrease in vegetation. Depending on the species and environmental factors (e.g., 

temperature and wave action), seagrasses may exhibit minimal impacts, such as localized loss of 

pigmentation, from an oil spill; however, communities residing within the beds could accrue greater 

negative outcomes. Increased vessel traffic from cleanup efforts would lead to elevated water turbidity 

and increased propeller scarring. A source of potential long-term impacts to submerged beds from a 

catastrophic spill event is the possibility of buried or sequestered oil becoming resuspended after a 

disturbance, which would have similar effects as the original oiling event (Phase 4). While there are 

impacts on submerged vegetation from an oiling event, the probabilities of an event to occur and contact 

coastlines are generally low and any impacts that can occur depend on a variety of factors (e.g., plant 

species, oil type, current environmental conditions, etc.). In general, studied seagrasses did not show 

significant negative effects from a spill (den Hartog and Jacobs, 1980; Kenworthy et al., 1993; Taylor 

et al., 2006 and 2007).

B.3.1.6. Live Bottoms (Pinnacle Trend and Low Relief)

The Gulf of Mexico has hard-bottom features upon which encrusting and epibenthic organisms attach 

on the continental shelf in water depths less than 300 m (984 ft). Live bottom features occur in the 

northeastern portion of the CPA and in the EPA. The Pinnacle Trend is located in the northeastern 

portion of the central Gulf of Mexico at the outer edge of the Mississippi-Alabama shelf between the 

Mississippi River and De Soto Canyon. Live bottom (Pinnacle Trend) features are defined in NTL 

2009-G39 as “small, isolated, low to moderate relief carbonate reefal features or outcrops of unknown 

origin or hard substrates exposed by erosion that provide area for the growth of sessile invertebrates and 

attract large numbers of fish.” Fish are attracted to outcrops that provide hard substrate for sessile 
B-32 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

invertebrates to attach. BOEM does not allow bottom-disturbing activities to occur within 30 m (98 ft) of 

any hard bottoms/pinnacles in 74 lease blocks in the CPA (each block is typically 3 mi x 3 mi).

Live bottom (low relief) features are defined in NTL 2009-G39 as “seagrass communities; areas that 

contain biological assemblages consisting of sessile invertebrates living upon and attached to naturally 

occurring hard or rocky formations with rough, broken, or smooth topography; and areas where hard 

substrate and vertical relief may favor the accumulation of turtles, fishes, or other fauna”. These features 

also include the reef communities like those found on the Florida Escarpment. BOEM has stipulations to 

protect these features from impacts, including bottom-disturbing activity. This chapter discusses the hard 

substrate, as seagrasses are covered in Chapter B.3.1.5. 

Phase 1—Initial Event

A blowout from an oil well could result in a catastrophic spill event. A catastrophic blowout would 

result in released oil rapidly rising to the sea surface because all known reserves in the GOM have 

specific gravity characteristics that would preclude oil from sinking immediately after release at a 

blowout site. The oil would surface almost directly over the source location. However, if the oil is 

ejected under high pressure, micro-droplets of oil may form and become entrained in the water column 

(Boehm and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). The upward movement of the oil may be reduced if 

methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy (Adcroft 

et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, formed by vigorous 

turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant in the water column, 

creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). Dispersed oil in the water 

column begins to biodegrade and may flocculate with particulate matter, promoting sinking of the 

particles. Subsea plumes or sinking oil on particulates may contact live bottom features.

A catastrophic blowout outside the well casing and below the seafloor or at the seafloor-water 

interface could resuspend large quantities of bottom sediments and create a large crater, destroying many 

organisms within a few hundred meters of the wellhead. Some fine sediment could travel up to a few 

thousand meters before redeposition, negatively impacting a localized area of benthic communities. If a 

blowout were to occur close enough to a live bottom feature, suspended sediment may impact the 

organisms living on the feature.

A catastrophic blowout that occurs above the seabed (at the rig, along the riser between the seafloor 

and sea surface, or through leak paths on the BOP/wellhead) would not disturb the sediment.

The use of subsea dispersants would increase the exposure of offshore benthic habitats to dispersed 

oil droplets in the water column, as well as the chemicals used in the dispersants. The use of subsea 

dispersants is not likely to occur for seafloor blowouts outside the well casing.

Impacts to Live Bottom Features

Impacts that occur to benthic organisms on live bottom features as a result of a blowout would depend 

on the type of blowout, distance from the blowout, relief of the biological feature, and surrounding 

physical characteristics of the environment (e.g., turbidity). The distancing of bottom-disturbing activities 

from Pinnacle and live bottom, low-relief features helps to prevent blowouts in the immediate vicinity of 

a live bottom feature or its associated biota. Much of the oil released from a blowout would rise to the sea 

surface, therefore minimizing the impact to benthic communities by direct oil exposure. However, small 

droplets of oil that are entrained in the water column for extended periods of time may migrate into areas 

that have live bottom features. Although these small oil droplets will not sink themselves, they may 

attach to suspended particles in the water column and then be deposited on the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 

1975). The resultant long-term impacts, such as reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and 

reduced coral or other epibenthic cover, as a result of impaired recruitment, are discussed in Phase 4 

(“Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response”). Also, if the blowout were to occur beneath the 

seabed, suspension and subsequent deposition of disturbed sediment may smother localized areas of live 

bottom communities.

Following a catastrophic, subsurface blowout, benthic communities on a live bottoms exposed to 

large amounts of resuspended and then deposited sediments could be subject to sediment suffocation, 

exposure to resuspended toxic contaminants and to reduced light availability. Impacts to fauna found on 

hard bottoms as a result of sedimentation would vary based on species, the height to which the organism 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-33

grows, degree of sedimentation, length of exposure, burial depth, and the organism’s ability to clear the 

sediment. Impacts may range from sublethal effects (such as reduced or slower growth, alteration in 

form, and reduced recruitment and productivity) to suffocation and death (Rogers, 1990; Fucik et al., 

1980).

The initial blowout impact would be greatest to communities located in clear waters that experience 

heavy sedimentation. The most sensitive organisms are typically elevated above soft sediments, making 

them less likely to be buried, and it is unlikely that corals would experience heavy sedimentation because 

they are located within Live Bottom (Low Relief) Stipulation blocks that distance bottom-disturbing 

activity from the features. None of the Live Bottom Stipulation blocks were included in the current 

proposed lease sale, farther distancing oil and gas activity from live bottoms. In addition, BOEM 

conducts case-by-case reviews of plans submitted by operators to ensure that the proposed activity will 

not impact sensitive seafloor features. It is possible, however, for some live bottoms to experience some 

turbidity or sedimentation impacts from a blowout if they are downstream of a current transporting 

sediment. Corals may experience discoloration or bleaching as a result of sediment exposure, although 

recovery from such exposure may occur within 1 month (Wesseling et al., 1999).

Initial impacts would be much less extreme in a turbid environment (Rogers, 1990). For example, the 

Pinnacle Trend community exists in a relatively turbid environment, starting just 65 km (37 mi) east of 

the mouth of the Mississippi River and trending to the northeast, and many low-relief live bottoms are 

frequently covered with a thin sand veneer that moves with waves and bottom currents, exposing and 

covering up areas with movement (Phillips et al., 1990; Gittings et al., 1992). Sediment from a blowout, 

if it occurred nearby, may have a reduced impact on these communities compared with an open-water reef 

community, as these organisms are more tolerant of suspended sediment (Gittings et al., 1992). Many of 

the organisms that predominate in this community also grow tall enough to withstand the sedimentation 

that results from their turbid environment or have flexible structures that enable the passive removal of 

sediments (Gittings et al., 1992). Those organisms that have a lesser relief could experience 

sedimentation, abrasion, and suffocation. However, many organisms present in the lower relief, live 

bottom habitat are motile, can burrow in the sediment, or have mechanisms for dealing with turbidity and 

can be tolerant of short-term high turbidity events. For example, bivalves can reduce their filtration rates 

if the suspended sediment concentrations become elevated and can reject excess sediment through 

pseudofeces (Clarke and Wilber, 2000). Many crustaceans are able to tolerate high levels of suspended 

sediment; for example, crabs and shrimp spend a portion of their lives in estuaries and nearshore waters 

that are turbid (Wilber et al., 2005). These organisms are also able to move away from turbid areas that 

have sediment concentrations that become too high (Clarke and Wilber, 2000; Wilber et al., 2005). 

Oysters, on the other hand, are not able to move away from turbidity, but they are tolerant of this 

environmental factor as they tend to live near the mouths of rivers that deposit sediment into their habitat 

(Wilber et al., 2005). Many of these organisms can also rapidly repopulate an area affected by 

sedimentation (Fucik et al., 1980).

A portion or the entire rig may sink to the seafloor as a result of a blowout. The benthic features and 

communities upon which the rig settles would be destroyed or smothered. Encrusting organisms would 

be crushed by a rig if it lands on a live bottom feature. A settling rig may suspend sediments, which may 

smother nearby benthic communities if the sediment is redeposited on sensitive features. The habitats 

beneath the rig may be permanently lost; however, the rig itself may become an artificial reef upon which 

epibenthic organisms may settle. The surrounding benthic communities that were smothered by sediment 

would repopulate from nearby stocks through spawning recruitment and immigration if the hard substrate 

upon which they live was not physically destroyed. Destruction of a live bottom community by a sinking 

rig is highly unlikely because BOEM requires infrastructure to be distanced from live bottoms.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

A spill from a shallow-water blowout could impact benthic communities on the continental shelf 

because of the blowout’s proximity to these habitats. The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill on 

the continental shelf is assumed to last 2-5 months and to release 30,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 

0.9-3.0 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange paraffinic sweet crude oil could be released, which will float 

(APIo >10). An anticipated 35,000 bbl of dispersant may be applied to the surface waters. 

A spill from a deepwater blowout could also impact shelf communities if surface oil is transported to 

these areas. The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill in deep water is assumed to last 4-6 months 
B-34 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

and to release 30,000-60,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 2.7-7.2 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange 

paraffinic sweet crude oil will be released, which will float (APIo >10). Oil properties may change as it 

passes up the well and through the water column, and it may become emulsified. An anticipated 

33,000 bbl of dispersant may be applied to the surface waters and 16,500 bbl may be applied subsea. 

Weathering and dilution of the oil will also occur as it travels from its release point. It is unlikely that a 

subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact shelf communities. The oil is anticipated to 

remain in deep water and to be directed by water currents in the deep water. These currents do not 

typically transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 2008).

Impacts to Live Bottom Features

Impacts from Surface Oil

Sensitive live bottom communities can flourish on hard bottoms in the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern 

Gulf of Mexico contains scattered, low-relief live bottoms, including areas of flat limestone shelf rock 

and the Pinnacle Trend area, located on the Mississippi Alabama continental shelf, which includes lowand high-relief features that are 60-120 m (197-394 ft) below the sea surface. The depth at which 

Pinnacles and most live bottom, low-relief features flourish below the sea surface helps to protect these 

habitats from a surface oil spill. Rough seas may mix the oil into subsurface water layers, where it may 

impact sessile biota. The longer the seas are rough, the greater the amount of oil from a surface slick 

would be mixed into the water column. Measurable amounts of oil have been documented to mix from 

the surface down to a 10-m (33-ft) depth, although modeling exercises have indicated such oil may reach 

a depth of 20 m (66 ft). At this depth, however, the oil is found at concentrations several orders of 

magnitude lower than the amount shown to have an effect on corals and other benthic organisms (Lange, 

1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981a; Knap et al., 1985; Scarlett et al., 2005; Hemmer et al., 2010; 

George-Ares and Clark, 2000). Low-relief, live bottom habitats located in shallow coastal water may be 

at greater risk of surface oil mixing to the depth where their active growth occurs; however, because oil 

and gas activities currently take place far from the coastlines where nearshore live bottoms are located, 

the surface oil will be well dispersed and diluted by the time it reaches waters above the shallow live 

bottoms. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Impacts from Subsurface Oil

The presence of a subsurface oil plume on the continental shelf from a shallow-water blowout may 

affect benthic communities on live bottom features. A majority of oil released is expected to rise rapidly 

to the sea surface above the release point because of the specific gravity characteristics of the oil reserves 

in the GOM, thus not impacting sensitive benthic communities. If oil is ejected under high pressure, oil 

droplets may become entrained in the water column (Boehm and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). The 

upward movement of the oil may be reduced if methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water 

column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy (Adcroft et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea 

surface, but smaller droplets, formed by vigorous turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, 

may remain neutrally buoyant in the water column, creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; 

Joint Analysis Group, 2010). Dispersed oil in the water column begins to biodegrade and may flocculate 

with particulate matter, promoting sinking of the particles. Subsurface plumes generated by high-pressure 

dissolution of oil may come in contact with live bottom habitats. A sustained spill would continuously 

create surface slicks and possibly subsurface spill plumes. Some of the oil in the water column will 

become diluted or evaporated over time, reducing any localized transport to the seafloor (Vandermeulen, 

1982). In addition, microbial degradation of the oil occurs in the water column so that the oil would be 

less toxic as it travels from the source (Hazen et al., 2010). However, a sustained spill may result in 

elevated exposure concentrations to benthic communities if the plume reaches them. The longer the spill 

takes to stop, the longer the exposure time and the higher the exposure concentration may be.

Live bottom, low-relief features have a greater chance of being impacted by subsea plumes than some 

Pinnacle features because currents may sweep around the larger features, as they do with topographic 

features (Rezak et al., 1983; McGrail, 1982). The lower relief live bottoms (including low-relief features 

in the Pinnacle Trend) may fall in the path of the plume because the feature is not large enough to divert a 

current. Low-level exposures of organisms to oil from a subsea plume may result in chronic or temporary 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-35

impacts. For example, feeding activity or reproductive ability may be reduced when coral is exposed to 

low levels of oil; however, impacts may be temporary or unable to be measured over time. Experiments 

indicated that oil exposure reduced the normal feeding activity of coral, and oiled reefs produced smaller 

gonads than unoiled reefs, resulting in reproductive stress (Lewis, 1971; Guzmán and Holst, 1993). In 

addition, photosynthesis and growth may be reduced with oil exposure, and petroleum may be 

incorporated into coral tissue (Cook and Knap, 1983; Dodge et al., 1984; Burns and Knap, 1989; Knap 

et al., 1982; Kennedy et al., 1992). Sublethal responses of other marine invertebrates on live bottoms may 

result in population level changes (Suchanek, 1993) at concentrations as low as 1-10 ppb (Hyland and 

Schneider, 1976). Sublethal impacts may include reduced feeding rates, reduced ability to detect food, 

erratic movement, ciliary inhibition, tentacle retraction, reduced movement, decreased aggression, and 

altered respiration (Scarlett et al., 2005; Suchanek, 1993). Embryonic life stages of benthic organisms 

may experience toxic effects at lower levels than adult stages (Fucik et al., 1995; Suchanek, 1993; Beiras 

and Saco-Álvarez, 2006; Byrne, 1989). 

It is unlikely that a subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact live bottom shelf 

communities. The oil is anticipated to remain in deep water and be directed by water currents in the deep 

water. These currents do not typically transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; 

Inoue et al., 2008).

Impacts from Dispersed Oil

If dispersants are used at the sea surface, oil may mix into the water column. If applied subsea, they 

can travel with currents through the water, and they may contact or settle on sensitive features. Note that, 

as indicated above, a deepwater plume would not travel onto the continental shelf, but a plume formed on 

the continental shelf could impact live bottom features. If near the source, the dispersed oil could be 

concentrated enough to harm the community. If the oil remains suspended for a longer period of time, it 

would be more dispersed and present at lower concentrations. Reports on dispersant usage on surface oil 

indicate that a majority of the dispersed oil remains in the top 10 m (33 ft) of the water column, with 

60 percent of the oil in the top 2 m (6 ft) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Dispersant usage also reduces the 

oil’s ability to stick to particles in the water column, minimizing oil adhering to sediments and traveling 

to the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). However, after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, there was the 

formation of a dense layer of marine snow that aggregated and collected everything that it came in contact 

with it as it fell through the water column and settled on the seafloor (Passow et al., 2012).

Dispersed oil reaching live bottoms in the Gulf of Mexico would be expected to occur at very low 

concentrations (<1 part per million [ppm]) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Such concentrations would not be 

life threatening to larval or adult stages at this depth below the sea surface based on experiments 

conducted with benthic organisms. Any dispersed oil in the water column that comes in contact with live 

bottoms may evoke short-term negative responses by the organisms (Wyers et al., 1986; Cook and Knap, 

1983; Dodge et al., 1984; Scarlett et al., 2005; Renzoni, 1973).

The impact of dispersants on benthic organisms is dependent on the dispersant used, length of 

exposure, and the physical barriers the organism has to protect itself from the dispersant. Organisms with 

shells appear to be more tolerant of dispersants than those with only a tissue barrier (Scarlett et al., 2005). 

In addition, organisms that produce mucus, such as coral, have an elevated tolerance for oil exposure 

(Mitchell and Chet, 1975; Ducklow and Mitchell, 1979). Concentrations of 100 ppm and 1,000 ppm oil 

plus dispersant in a ratio of 4:1 were necessary for oyster and mussel fertilization and development to 

become reduced when the larvae was exposed to the mixture (Renzoni, 1973). After 48 hours of 

exposure to dispersants, the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) died at dispersant concentrations of 250 ppm, 

although reduced feeding rates were observed at 50 ppm (Scarlett et al., 2005). The snakelocks anemone 

(Anemonia viridis), which does not have a protective shell, was much more sensitive to dispersants. It 

retracted its tentacles and failed to respond to stimuli after 48 hours of exposure to 40 ppm dispersant 

(Scarlett et al., 2005). Corals exposed to dispersed oil showed mesenterial filament extrusion, extreme 

tissue contraction, tentacle retraction, localized tissue rupture, and reduced photosynthesis (Wyers et al., 

1986; Cook and Knap, 1983). Respiratory damage to organisms does not appear to be reversible; 

however, if the exposure is short enough, nervous system damage may be reversed and organisms may 

recover (Scarlett et al., 2005). Experiments using both anemones and corals showed recovery after 

exposure to dispersants (Scarlett et al., 2005; Wyers et al., 1986). 
B-36 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Concentrations used in historical experiments are generally much higher than the exposure that would 

occur in the field (Renzoni, 1973; George-Ares and Clark, 2000). Although historical experiments seem 

to indicate that the toxicity of oil increases with the addition of the dispersant, the toxicity of the oil 

actually remains the same as it was when it was not dispersed, but exposure increases due to the dispersed 

components of the oil (George-Ares and Clark, 2000). However, the increase of oil into the water column 

with the addition of dispersants is temporary, as the dispersed oil is more easily diluted with the 

surrounding water and biodegraded by bacteria (George-Ares and Clark, 2000). Therefore, concentrated 

dispersants are not anticipated to reach live bottoms, and any impacts that do occur should be sublethal 

and temporary.

Impacts from Oil Adhering to Sediments

BOEM’s policy, described in NTL 2009-G39, prevents wells from being placed immediately adjacent 

to sensitive communities. In the event of a seafloor blowout, however, some oil could be carried to live 

bottoms as a result of oil droplets adhering to suspended particles in the water column. Oiled sediment 

that settles to the seafloor may affect organisms attached to hard-bottom substrates. Impacts may include 

reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and reduced benthic cover as a result of impaired 

recruitment. Experiments have shown that the presence of oil on available substrate for larval coral 

settlement has inhibited larval metamorphosis and larval settlement in the area. Oil exposure also 

increased the number of deformed polyps after metamorphosis occurred (Kushmaro et al., 1997). In 

addition, exposure to oiled sediment has also been shown to reduce the growth rate of clams (Dow, 1975).

The majority of organisms exposed to sedimented oil are expected to experience low-level 

concentrations because as oiled sediments settle to the seafloor they become widely dispersed. Many 

organisms on live bottoms will be able to protect themselves from low levels of oiled sediment that may 

settle out of the water column. Organisms with shells will not experience direct contact with the oil, and 

mobile organisms will be able to move away from areas where oiled sediment has accumulated. Coral 

may also be able to protect itself from low concentrations of sedimented oil that settles from the water 

column through mucus that will not only act as a barrier to protect coral from the oil in the water column 

but which also been shown to aid in the removal of oiled sediment on coral surfaces (Bak and 

Elgershuizen, 1976). In addition, because many organisms in live bottom habitats are tolerant of turbidity 

and sedimentation, slight addition of sediment to the area should not impact survival.

Impacts from Oil-Spill Response Activity

Oil-spill-response activity may also impact sessile benthic features. Booms anchored to the seafloor 

are sometimes used to control the movement of oil at the water surface. Boom anchors can physically 

impact sessile benthic organisms, especially when booms are moved around by waves (USDOC, NOAA, 

2010d). Vessel anchorage and decontamination stations set up during response efforts may also break or 

kill live bottoms that have unmapped locations if anchors are set on the habitat. Injury to live bottom 

habitat as a result of anchor impact may result in long-lasting damage or failed recovery. Effort should be 

made to keep vessel anchorage areas as far from sensitive benthic features as possible to minimize 

impact.

Drilling muds comprised primarily of barite may be pumped into a well to stop a blowout. If a “kill” 

is not successful, the mud (possibly tens of thousands of barrels) may be forced out of the well and 

deposited on the seafloor near the well site. Any organisms beneath the extruded drilling mud would be 

buried. Based on stipulations as described in NTL 2009-G39, a well should be far enough away from a 

Pinnacle feature to prevent extruded drilling muds from smothering sensitive benthic communities. 

However, if drilling muds were to travel far enough or high enough in the water column to contact a 

sensitive community, the fluid would smother the existing community. Burial may lead to the elimination 

of a live bottom community.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

There would likely be no adverse impacts to live bottom features as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 3 of a catastrophic spill because the 

live bottom features are located offshore.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-37

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Live bottoms exposed to large amounts of resuspended sediments following a catastrophic, 

subsurface blowout could be subject to sediment suffocation, exposure to resuspended toxic 

contaminants, and reduced light penetration. The greatest impacts would occur to communities that exist 

in clear water with very low turbidity, such as the live bottoms off Florida. The consequences of a 

blowout near one of these features could be long lasting, although the occurrence of a blowout near such 

sensitive communities is unlikely because of stipulations described in NTL 2009-G39, which distances 

bottom-disturbing activity from live bottom features. In addition, BOEM conducts case-by-case reviews 

of submitted plans and pipelines so that sensitive seafloor habitat is avoided. Impacts to a community in 

more turbid waters, such as those on the Mississippi-Alabama Shelf, would be greatly reduced, as the 

species are tolerant of suspended sediments, and recovery would occur quicker. Recovery time from 

sediment exposure would depend on the amount of sediment an organism was exposed to, if an entire 

population was demolished, and the extent of the loss.

Impacts may also occur from low-level or long-term oil exposure. This type of exposure has the 

potential to impact live bottom communities, resulting in impaired health. Long-term impacts such as 

reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and reduced organism cover as a result of impaired 

recruitment may occur. Recovery may be fairly rapid from brief, low-level exposures, but it could be 

much longer if acute concentrations of oil contact organisms. Recovery time would then depend on 

recruitment from outside populations that were not affected by oiling.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

A catastrophic spill on the continental shelf would have a greater impact on live bottom features than 

a deepwater spill. Surface oil from a deepwater spill would be weathered and diluted by the time it 

reaches the surface waters over live bottom features (if it ever reaches them), and it would be unlikely,

except in shallow coastal waters, that it would mix to the depth of the live bottoms in concentrations that 

could cause toxicity. Subsea plumes formed in deep water would not travel onto the continental shelf 

because deep-sea currents do not travel up a slope.

A catastrophic blowout and spill on the continental shelf has a greater chance to impact live bottom 

features. If a blowout on the continental shelf occurs close enough to sensitive features, the organisms 

may be smothered by settling sediment that is displaced by the blowout. The farther a feature is from the 

blowout, the lower its chance of being covered with settling sediment or sediment upon which oil 

adhered. The distancing of oil and gas activity from live bottom features helps to prevent heavy 

sedimentation, as well as features being crushed by a sinking rig.

In most cases, the impacts from oil would be sublethal. Surface oil is not expected to mix to the zone 

of active growth, and any oil components that do reach that depth would be at sublethal concentrations. 

Subsea plumes may contact the live bottom features; however, because currents tend to travel around 

instead of over large seafloor features, the Pinnacle features should be protected from subsea plumes, 

while lower relief live bottoms may be impacted. The current oil and gas activity in the GOM, however, 

is distanced from low-relief live bottoms because no live bottom, low-relief blocks have been leased with 

the current proposed lease sales. Overall impacts of dispersed oil would be similar to subsea plumes. 

Spill response activity may impact low-relief, live bottom features if they are unmarked on nautical charts 

and vessels anchor on the features, but it is doubtful that a vessel would anchor on a marked Pinnacle 

feature.

Overall, a catastrophic spill would have a fairly low probability of impacting live bottom features 

because the bottom-disturbing activities of oil and gas activities are distanced from live bottom features 

within the Live Bottom Stipulation blocks, as described in NTL 2009-G39, and because BOEM conducts 

a case-by-case review of all plans to ensure that activities do not impact these seafloor features. In 

addition, the Live Bottom Stipulation blocks have not been leased as part of these proposed lease sales, 

creating farther distance between oil and gas activities and live bottoms. Also, live bottom features are 

protected by the limited mixing depth of surface oil compared with the depth of the live bottom features, 

currents sweeping around larger features, and the weathering and dispersion of oil that would occur with 

distance from the source as it travels toward the features. Low-relief features could have impacts from a 

blowout as their relief would not divert currents. In addition, the locations of these features are not all 

known so accidental anchor impacts may result in breakage of the features and possibly destruction. 
B-38 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

These low-relief features, however, would be protected by the regulated distance of current oil and gas 

activities, which increases the chance of oil becoming well dispersed before it reaches the features.

B.3.1.7. Topographic Features

The Gulf of Mexico has a series of topographic features (banks or seamounts) on the continental shelf 

in water depths less than 300 m (984 ft). Topographic features are isolated areas of moderate to high 

relief that provide habitat for hard-bottom communities of high biomass and moderate diversity. These 

features support prolific algae, invertebrate, and fish communities, and they provide shelter and food for 

large numbers of commercially and recreationally important fish. There are 37 named topographic 

features in the Gulf of Mexico with specific BOEM protections, including the Flower Garden Banks. 

BOEM has created “No Activity Zones” around topographic features in order to protect these habitats 

from disruption by oil and gas activities. A “No Activity Zone” is a protective perimeter drawn around 

each feature that is associated with a specific isobath (depth contour) surrounding the feature in which 

structures, drilling rigs, pipelines, and anchoring are not allowed. These “No Activity Zones” are areas 

where activity is prohibited based on BOEM’s policy. NTL 2009-G39 recommends that drilling should 

not occur within 152 m (500 ft) of a “No Activity Zone” of a topographic feature.

Potentially sensitive biological features (PSBF’s) are features that have moderate to high relief (8 ft 

[2 m] or higher), provide hard surface for sessile invertebrates, and attract fish, but they are not located 

within the “No Activity Zone” of topographic features. These features are frequently located near 

topographic features. No bottom-disturbing activities that may cause impact to these features are 

permitted.

Phase 1—Initial Event

A blowout from an oil well could result in a catastrophic spill event. A catastrophic blowout would 

result in released oil rapidly rising to the sea surface because all known reserves in the GOM have 

specific gravity characteristics that would preclude oil from sinking immediately after release at a 

blowout site. The oil would surface almost directly over the source location. However, if the oil is 

ejected under high pressure, micro-droplets of oil may form and become entrained in the water column 

(Boehm and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). The upward movement of the oil may be reduced if 

methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy and slowing 

its rise to the surface (Adcroft et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller 

droplets, formed by vigorous turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally 

buoyant in the water column, creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 

2010). Dispersed oil in the water column begins to biodegrade and may flocculate with particulate 

matter, promoting sinking of the particles. Subsea plumes or sinking oil on particulates may contact 

topographic features.

A catastrophic blowout outside the well casing and below the seafloor or at the seafloor-water 

interface could resuspend large quantities of bottom sediments and create a large crater, destroying many 

organisms within a few hundred meters of the wellhead. Fine sediment could travel up to a few thousand 

meters before redeposition, negatively impacting a localized area of benthic communities. If a blowout 

were to occur near a topographic feature, suspended sediment may impact the organisms living on the 

lower levels of the topographic feature (since water currents flow around the banks rather than traveling 

uphill).

A catastrophic blowout that occurs above the seabed (at the rig, along the riser between the seafloor 

and sea surface, or through leak paths on the BOP/wellhead) would not disturb the sediment.

The use of subsea dispersants would increase the exposure of offshore benthic habitats to dispersed 

oil droplets in the water column, as well as the chemicals used in the dispersants. The use of subsea 

dispersants is not likely to occur for seafloor blowouts outside the well casing.

Impacts to Topographic Features

Impacts that occur to benthic organisms on topographic features as a result of a blowout would 

depend on the type of blowout, distance from the blowout, relief of the biological feature, and 

surrounding physical characteristics of the environment (e.g., turbidity). The NTL 2009-G39 

recommends the use of buffers to prevent blowouts in the immediate vicinity of a topographic feature or 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-39

its associated biota. Much of the oil released from a blowout would rise to the sea surface, therefore 

minimizing the impact to benthic communities by direct oil exposure. However, small droplets of oil that 

are entrained in the water column for extended periods of time may migrate into No Activity Zones that 

surround the topographic feature. In addition, they may come in contact with PSBF’s. Although these 

small oil droplets will not sink themselves, they may attach to suspended particles in the water column 

and then be deposited on the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 1975). The resultant long-term impacts, such as 

reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and reduced coral cover as a result of impaired recruitment, 

are discussed in Phase 4 (Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response). Also, if the blowout were to 

occur beneath the seabed, suspension and subsequent deposition of disturbed sediment may smother 

localized areas of benthic communities, possibly including organisms within No Activity Zones or on 

PSBF’s.

Benthic communities on a topographic feature or PSBF exposed to large amounts of resuspended and 

deposited sediments following a catastrophic, subsurface blowout could be subject to sediment 

suffocation, exposure to resuspended toxic contaminants, and reduced light availability. Impacts to corals 

as a result of sedimentation would vary based on coral species, the height to which the coral grows, 

degree of sedimentation, length of exposure, burial depth, and the coral’s ability to clear the sediment. 

Impacts may range from sublethal effects such as reduced growth, alteration in form, and reduced 

recruitment and productivity to slower growth or death (Rogers, 1990). Corals may also experience 

discoloration or bleaching as a result of sediment exposure, although recovery from such exposure may 

occur within 1 month (Wesseling et al., 1999).

The initial blowout impact would be greatest to communities located in clear waters with little 

suspended sediment that experience heavy sedimentation as a result of the blowout. Reef-building corals 

are sensitive to turbidity and may be killed by heavy sedimentation (Rogers, 1990; Rice and Hunter, 

1992). However, it is unlikely that reef-building corals would experience heavy sedimentation as a result 

of a blowout because drilling activity is not allowed near sensitive organisms in the No Activity Zones 

based on the lease stipulations as described in NTL 2009-G39. The most sensitive organisms are also 

typically elevated above soft sediments, making them less likely to be buried. The lower levels of 

topographic banks and the PSBF’s, which are generally small features with only a few meters of relief, 

typically experience turbid conditions. Vigorous bottom currents (often generated by storms) frequently 

resuspend bottom sediments and bathe these features in turbid waters, which results in sedimentation. As 

a result, the organisms that live in this environment near the seafloor are those adapted to frequent 

sedimentation.

Initial impacts would be much less extreme in a turbid environment (Rogers, 1990). For example, the 

South Texas Banks exist in a relatively turbid environment (the Nepheloid Zone). They generally have 

lower relief than the farther offshore banks at the shelf edge, may have a sediment cover, and exhibit 

reduced biota. Sediment from a blowout, if it occurred nearby, may have a reduced impact on these 

communities compared with an open-water reef community, as these organisms are more tolerant of 

suspended sediment (Gittings et al., 1992). Many of the organisms that predominate in this community 

also grow tall enough to withstand the sedimentation that results from their turbid environment or have 

flexible structures that enable the passive removal of sediments (Gittings et al., 1992).

A portion or the entire rig may sink to the seafloor as a result of a blowout. The benthic features and 

communities upon which the rig settles would be destroyed or smothered. Encrusting organisms would 

be crushed by a rig if it lands on a topographic feature or PSBF. A settling rig may suspend sediments, 

which may smother nearby benthic communities if the sediment is redeposited on sensitive features. The 

habitats beneath the rig may be permanently lost; however, the rig itself may become an artificial reef 

upon which epibenthic organisms may settle. The surrounding benthic communities that were smothered 

by sediment would repopulate from nearby stocks through spawning recruitment and immigration if the 

hard substrate upon which they live was not physically destroyed.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

A spill from a shallow-water blowout could impact benthic communities on the continental shelf 

because of the blowout’s proximity to these habitats. The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill on 

the continental shelf is assumed to last 2-5 months and to release 30,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 

0.9-3.0 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange paraffinic sweet crude oil could be released, which will float 

(APIo >10). An anticipated 35,000 bbl of dispersant may be applied to the surface waters.
B-40 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

A spill from a deepwater blowout could also impact shelf communities if surface oil is transported to 

these areas. The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill in deep water is assumed to last 4-6 months 

and to release 30,000-60,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 2.7-7.2 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange 

paraffinic sweet crude oil will be released, which will float (APIo >10). Oil properties may change as it 

passes up the well and through the water column, and it may become emulsified. An anticipated 

33,000 bbl of dispersant may be applied to the surface waters and 16,500 bbl may be applied subsea. 

Weathering and dilution of the oil will also occur as it travels from its release point. It is unlikely that a 

subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact shelf communities. The oil is anticipated to 

remain in deep water and be directed by water currents in the deep water. These currents do not typically 

transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 2008).

Impacts to Topographic Features

Impacts from Surface Oil

Sensitive reef communities flourish on topographic features and PSBF’s in the Gulf of Mexico. Their 

depth below the sea surface helps to protect these habitats from a surface oil spill. Rough seas may mix 

the oil into subsurface water layers, where it may impact sessile biota. The longer the amount of time the 

seas are rough, the greater the amount of oil from a surface slick would be mixed into the water column. 

Measurable amounts of oil have been documented to mix from the surface down to a 10-m (33-ft) water 

depth, although modeling exercises have indicated such oil may reach a water depth of 20 m (66 ft). At 

this depth, however, the oil is found at concentrations several orders of magnitude lower than the amount 

shown to have an effect on corals (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981a; Knap et al., 1985). 

None of the topographic features or PSBF’s in the GOM are shallower than 10 m (33 ft), and only the 

Flower Garden Banks are shallower than 20 m (66 ft). Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is 

contained in Appendix C of the WPA238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Impacts from Subsurface Oil

The presence of a subsurface oil plume on the continental shelf from a shallow-water blowout may 

affect benthic communities on topographic features and PSBF’s. A majority of the oil released is 

expected to rise rapidly to the sea surface above the release point because of the specific gravity 

characteristics of the oil reserves in the GOM, thus not impacting sensitive benthic communities. If the 

oil is ejected under high pressure, oil droplets may become entrained in the water column (Boehm and 

Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). The upward movement of the oil may be reduced if methane mixed 

with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy and slowing its rise to the 

surface (Adcroft et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, 

formed by vigorous turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant 

in the water column, creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). 

Dispersed oil in the water column begins to biodegrade and may flocculate with particulate matter, 

promoting sinking of the particles. Subsurface plumes generated by high-pressure dissolution of oil may 

come in contact with topographic features and PSBF’s. A sustained spill would continuously create 

surface slicks and possibly subsurface spill plumes. Some of the oil in the water column will become 

diluted or evaporated over time, reducing any localized transport to the seafloor (Vandermeulen, 1982). 

In addition, microbial degradation of the oil occurs in the water column so that the oil would be less toxic 

as it travels from the source (Hazen et al., 2010). However, a sustained spill may result in elevated 

exposure concentrations to benthic communities if the plume reaches them. The longer the spill takes to 

stop, the longer the exposure time and higher the exposure concentration may be.

The PSBF’s have a greater chance of being impacted by subsea plumes than topographic features 

because currents tend to sweep around topographic features (Rezak et al., 1983; McGrail, 1982). The 

lower relief PSBF’s may fall in the path of the plume because the feature is not large enough to divert a 

current. Low-level exposures of corals to oil from a subsea plume may result in chronic or temporary 

impacts. For example, feeding activity or reproductive ability may be reduced when coral is exposed to 

low levels of oil; however, impacts may be temporary or unable to be measured over time. Experimental 

simulations of exposure indicated that normal feeding activity of Porites porites and Madracis asperula

were reduced when exposed to 50 ppm oil (Lewis, 1971). In addition, reefs of Siderastrea siderea that 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-41

were oiled in a spill produced smaller gonads than unoiled reefs, resulting in reproductive stress (Guzmán 

and Holst, 1993).

Elevated concentrations of oil may be necessary to measure reduced photosynthesis or growth in 

corals. Photosynthesis of the zooxanthellae in Diplora strigosa exposed to approximately 18-20 ppm 

crude oil for 8 hours was not measurably affected, although other experiments indicate that 

photosynthesis may be impaired at higher concentrations (Cook and Knap, 1983). Measurable growth of 

Diploria strigosa exposed to oil concentrations up to 50 ppm for 6-24 hours did not show any reduced 

growth after 1 year (Dodge et al., 1984).

Corals exposed to subsea oil plumes may incorporate petroleum hydrocarbons into their tissue. 

Records indicate that Siderastrea siderea, Diploria strigosa, and Montastrea annularis accumulate oil 

from the water column and incorporate petroleum hydrocarbons into their tissues (Burns and Knap, 1989; 

Knap et al., 1982; Kennedy et al., 1992). Most of the petroleum hydrocarbons are incorporated into the 

coral tissues, not their mucus (Knap et al., 1982). However, hydrocarbon uptake may also modify lipid 

ratios of coral (Burns and Knap, 1989). If lipid ratios are modified, mucus synthesis may be impacted, 

adversely affecting the coral’s ability to protect itself from oil through mucus production (Burns and 

Knap, 1989).

It is unlikely that a subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact shelf communities. 

The oil is anticipated to remain in deep water and be directed by water currents in the deep water. These 

currents do not typically transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 

2008).

Impacts from Dispersed Oil

If dispersants are used at the sea surface, oil may mix into the water column, or if applied subsea, they 

can travel with currents through the water and may contact or settle on sensitive features. Note that, as 

indicated above, a deepwater plume would not travel onto the continental shelf, but a plume formed on 

the continental shelf could impact topographic features and PSBF’s. If located near the source, the 

dispersed oil could be concentrated enough to harm the community. If the oil remains suspended for a 

longer period of time, it would be more dispersed and exist at lower concentrations. Reports on 

dispersant usage on surface oil indicate that a majority of the dispersed oil remains in the top 10 m (33 ft) 

of the water column, with 60 percent of the oil in the top 2 m (6 ft) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Dispersant 

usage also reduces the oil’s ability to stick to particles in the water column, minimizing oil adhering to 

sediments and traveling to the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). However, after the Deepwater Horizon

oil spill, there was the formation of a dense layer of marine snow that aggregated and collected everything 

that it came in contact with it as it fell through the water column and settled on the seafloor (Passow et al., 

2012).

Dispersed oil reaching the topographic features and PSBF’s in the Gulf of Mexico would be expected 

to be at very low concentrations (<1 ppm) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Such concentrations would not be 

life threatening to larval or adult stages at the depth of the features based on experiments conducted with 

coral. Any dispersed oil in the water column that comes in contact with corals may evoke short-term 

negative responses by the organisms (Wyers et al., 1986; Cook and Knap, 1983; Dodge et al., 1984).

Reductions in feeding and photosynthesis could occur in coral exposed to dispersed oil. Short-term, 

sublethal responses of Diploria strigosa were reported after exposure to dispersed oil at a concentration of

20 ppm for 24 hours. Although concentrations in this experiment were higher than what is anticipated for 

dispersed oil at depth, effects exhibited included mesenterial filament extrusion, extreme tissue 

contraction, tentacle retraction, and localized tissue rupture (Wyers et al., 1986). Normal behavior 

resumed within 2 hours to 4 days after exposure (Wyers et al., 1986). Diploria strigosa exposed to 

dispersed oil (20:1, oil:dispersant) showed an 85 percent reduction in zooxanthellae photosynthesis after

8 hours of exposure to the mixture (Cook and Knap, 1983). However, the response was short term, as 

recovery occurred between 5 and 24 hours after exposure and return to clean seawater. Investigations 

1 year after Diploria strigosa was exposed to concentrations of dispersed oil between 1 and 50 ppm for 

periods between 6 and 24 hours did not reveal any impacts to growth (Dodge et al., 1984).

Historical studies indicate dispersed oil to be more toxic to coral species than oil or dispersant alone. 

The greater toxicity may be a result of an increased number of oil droplets caused by the use of 

dispersant, resulting in greater contact area between oil, dispersant, and water (Elgershuizen and 

De Kruijf, 1976). The dispersant causes a higher water-soluble amount of oil to contact the cell 
B-42 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

membranes of the coral (Elgershuizen and De Kruijf, 1976). The mucus produced by coral, however, can 

protect the organism from oil. Both hard and soft corals have the ability to produce mucus, and mucus 

production has been shown to increase when corals are exposed to crude oil (Mitchell and Chet, 1975; 

Ducklow and Mitchell, 1979). Dispersed oil, however, which has very small oil droplets, does not appear 

to adhere to coral mucus, and larger untreated oil droplets may become trapped by the mucus barrier 

(Knap, 1987; Wyers et al., 1986). However, entrapment of the larger oil droplets may increase the coral’s 

long-term exposure to oil if the mucus is not shed in a timely manner (Knap, 1987; Bak and Elgershuizen, 

1976). Additionally, more recent field studies, using more realistic concentrations of dispersants did not 

result in the toxicity historically reported (Yender and Michel, 2010).

Although historical studies indicated dispersed oil may be more toxic than untreated oil to corals 

during exposure experiments, untreated oil may remain in the ecosystem for long periods of time, while 

dispersed oil does not (Baca et al., 2005; Ward et al., 2003). Twenty years after an experimental oil spill 

in Panama, oil and impacts from untreated oil were still observed at oil treatment sites, but no oil or 

impacts were observed at dispersed oil or reference sites (Baca et al., 2005). Long-term recovery of the 

coral at the dispersed oil site had already occurred as reported in a 10-year monitoring update, and the site 

was not significantly different from the reference site (Ward et al., 2003).

Impacts from Oil Adhering to Sediments

BOEM’s policy, as described in NTL 2009-G39, prevents wells from being placed immediately 

adjacent to sensitive communities. In the event of a seafloor blowout, however, some oil could be carried 

to topographic features or PSBF’s as a result of oil droplets adhering to suspended particles in the water 

column. Oiled sediment that settles to the seafloor may affect organisms attached to hard-bottom 

substrates. Impacts may include reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and reduced coral cover as 

a result of impaired recruitment. Experiments have shown that the presence of oil on available substrate 

for larval coral settlement has inhibited larval metamorphosis and larval settlement in the area. An 

increase in the number of deformed polyps after metamorphosis also took place because of exposure to oil 

(Kushmaro et al., 1997).

The majority of organisms exposed to sedimented oil are expected to experience low-level 

concentrations because as the oiled sediments settle to the seafloor they are widely distributed. Coral may 

also be able to protect itself from low concentrations of sedimented oil that settles from the water column. 

Coral mucus may not only act as a barrier to protect coral from the oil in the water column, but it has also 

been shown to aid in the removal of oiled sediment on coral surfaces (Bak and Elgershuizen, 1976). 

Coral may use a combination of increased mucus production and the action of cilia to rid themselves of 

oiled sediment (Bak and Elgershuizen, 1976).

Impacts from Oil-Spill-Response Activity

Oil-spill-response activity may also impact sessile benthic features. Booms anchored to the seafloor 

are sometimes used to control the movement of oil at the water surface. Boom anchors can physically 

impact corals and other sessile benthic organisms, especially when booms are moved around by waves 

(USDOC, NOAA, 2010d). Vessel anchorage and decontamination stations set up during response efforts 

may also break or kill PSBF’s if their location is unmapped and anchors are set on the features. Injury to 

coral reefs as a result of anchor impact may result in long-lasting damage or failed recovery (Rogers and 

Garrison, 2001). Effort should be made to keep vessel anchorage areas as far from sensitive benthic 

features as possible to minimize impact.

Drilling muds comprised primarily of barite may be pumped into a well to stop a blowout. If a “kill” 

is not successful, the mud (possibly tens of thousands of barrels) may be forced out of the well and 

deposited on the seafloor near the well site. Any organisms beneath the extruded drilling mud would be 

buried. Based on stipulations as described in NTL 2009-G39, a well should be far enough away from a 

topographic feature to prevent extruded drilling muds from smothering sensitive benthic communities. 

However, if drilling muds were to travel far enough or high enough in the water column to contact a 

sensitive community, the fluid would smother the existing community. Experiments indicate that corals 

perish faster when buried beneath drilling mud than when buried beneath carbonate sediments 

(Thompson, 1980). Burial may lead to the elimination of a live bottom community.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-43

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

There would likely be no adverse impacts to topographic features and PSBF’s as a result of the events 

and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 3 of a catastrophic spill 

because the topographic features and PSBF’s are located offshore.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Topographic features and PSBF’s exposed to large amounts of resuspended sediments following a 

catastrophic, subsurface blowout could be subject to sediment suffocation, exposure to resuspended toxic 

contaminants, and reduced light penetration. The greatest impacts would occur to communities that exist 

in clear water with very low turbidity. The consequences of a blowout along, directly on, or near one of 

these features could be long lasting, although the occurrence of a blowout near such sensitive 

communities is unlikely because of stipulations described in NTL 2009-G39, which prevents drilling 

activity near sensitive hard-bottom habitats. Impacts to a community in more turbid waters, such as the 

South Texas Banks, would be greatly reduced, as the species on these features are tolerant of suspended 

sediments, and recovery would occur quicker.

Impacts may also occur from low-level or long-term oil exposure. This type of exposure has the 

potential to impact reef communities, resulting in impaired health. Recovery may be fairly rapid from 

brief, low-level exposures, but it could be much longer with acute concentrations or long-term exposure 

to oil, such as in observations from Panama where untreated oil remained in the ecosystem for long 

periods of time, inhibiting coral recovery (Baca et al., 2005; Ward et al., 2003). Recovery time would 

therefore depend on recruitment from outside populations that were not affected by oiling and residence 

time of oil in an ecosystem.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

A catastrophic spill on the continental shelf would have a greater impact on topographic features and 

PSBF’s than a deepwater spill. Surface oil from a deepwater spill would be weathered and diluted by the 

time it reaches the surface waters over topographic features and PSBF’s (if it ever reaches them), and it 

would be unlikely that it would mix to the depth of active growth in concentrations that could cause 

toxicity. Subsea plumes formed in deepwater would not travel onto the continental shelf because deepsea currents do not travel up a slope.

A catastrophic blowout and spill on the continental shelf has a greater chance to impact topographic 

features and PSBF’s. If the blowout occurs close enough to sensitive features, the organisms may be 

smothered by settling sediment that was displaced by the blowout. The farther the feature is from the 

blowout, the less its chance of being covered with settling sediment or sediment upon which oil adhered. 

In addition, distancing oil and gas activities from topographic features prevents the settlement of a sinking 

rig on top of a topographic feature, although it may destroy a PSBF.

In most cases, impacts from oil would be sublethal. Surface oil is not expected to mix to the zone of 

active growth, and any oil components that do reach that depth would be in sublethal concentrations. 

Subsea plumes may contact the features; however, because currents tend to travel around, instead of over, 

topographic features, the topographic features should be protected from subsea plumes, while lower relief 

PSBF’s may be impacted. Overall impacts of dispersed oil would be similar to subsea plumes. Spill 

response activity should not impact topographic features because it is unlikely that vessels would anchor 

on the features, but they could anchor on unmapped, lower relief PSBF’s.

Overall, a catastrophic spill would have a low probability of impacting topographic features because

of the distancing requirements included in leases, as described in NTL 2009-G39, of oil and gas activities 

from topographic features, the depth of mixing of surface oil compared with the depth of the active 

growing zone, currents that sweep around the topographic features, and the weathering and dispersion of 

oil that would occur with distance from the source as it travels toward the features. The PSBF’s could 

have greater impacts from a blowout as oil and gas activities are not as far distanced from them as 

topographic features; they have a lower relief than topographic features, which would not divert currents; 

and the locations of these features are not all known so accidental anchor impacts may result in breakage 

of the features and possibly destruction. The PSBF’s would, however, have similar protection as for 

topographic features from surface oil.
B-44 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

B.3.1.8. Sargassum Communities

Pelagic Sargassum algae is a floating brown algae that occurs in all parts of the GOM throughout the 

year. It has a seasonal cycle so that its abundance greatly increases spring through fall, when it is carried 

by water currents around the south of Florida and then up the east coast (Gower and King, 2011). It 

occurs in patches, floating on and near the sea surface. Wind and water currents commonly drive it into 

long lines or windrows; when conditions are turbulent, it becomes more scattered and mixed into the 

upper water column. A key to understanding impacts to Sargassum is that the algae is ubiquitous and 

occurs in scattered patches in the very top part of the water column. Sargassum also provides habitat for 

pelagic species, including fish, invertebrates, and sea turtles.

Phase 1—Initial Event

During the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout, impacts may include disturbance of sediments, 

destruction of the drilling rig, release of oil and natural gas (methane), and emergency response efforts. 

This chapter deals with the immediate effects of a blowout that would be located at least 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 

5.6 km) from shore.

Since Sargassum is a floating pelagic (open ocean) algae, it would only be affected by impacts that 

occur in the top-most part of the water column. In deep water (≥ 300 m, 984 ft), sediment disturbed by 

the blowout would not affect Sargassum because the sediment would not reach the surface waters. 

However, in shallow water, sediment from a blowout could have minor effects on Sargassum algae in the 

immediate vicinity. The sediment would have little effect on the algae itself, producing only slight, 

temporary silting that could reduce photosynthesis. If the sediment is contaminated with oil, then the oil 

could have adverse effects on the algae. Depending on the severity of oiling, the algae could be damaged 

or destroyed; but this would only affect the algae in the local vicinity of the blowout. Sediment and oil 

would have a more acute effect on the associated invertebrate, fish, and sea turtle community that utilizes 

the habitat of the Sargassum. Impacts to these organisms may include “changes in respiration rate, 

abrasion and puncturing of structures, reduced feeding, reduced water filtration rates, smothering, delayed 

or reduced hatching of eggs, reduced larval growth or development, abnormal larval development, or 

reduced response to physical stimulus” (Anchor Environmental CA, L.P., 2003).

Destruction of the oil drilling rig and associated equipment could have an acute effect on patches of 

Sargassum algae that happen to be caught in the structure (if it sinks) or destroyed by fuel leaks and 

possible fire on the sea surface. This could destroy local patches of Sargassum, but it would have no 

measurable effect on the Sargassum community as a whole.

The release of oil during the initial blowout event would be expected to cover local patches of 

Sargassum algae with oil, destroying the algae and associated organisms. Methane gas may also bathe 

local patches of algae as it rises through the sea surface; it would have little effect on the algae itself but 

may poison associated organisms. The initiation of oil and gas release (as defined for this phase) at the 

site of the blowout event would affect only local patches of Sargassum, but it would have no measurable 

effect on the Sargassum community as a whole.

Emergency response activities would have minor impacts to Sargassum algae that comes in contact 

with vessels. This is mostly the simple impingement of the algae on the ships’ water intake screens, 

including water that may be pumped in fire-fighting efforts. This minor and local effect would have no 

measurable effect on the Sargassum community as a whole.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

During the second phase of a catastrophic blowout, the major impact of concern is the release of oil 

and methane over time. Response efforts may produce additional minor impacts to Sargassum. This 

chapter deals with the growing effects of a blowout that releases oil and methane into the offshore 

environment.

Since Sargassum is a floating pelagic (open ocean) algae, it would be affected by impacts that occur 

in the top-most part of the water column. This makes Sargassum habitat particularly susceptible to 

damage from offshore oil spills. Oceanographic processes that concentrate Sargassum into mats and rafts 

would also concentrate toxic substances. Therefore, it may be assumed that Sargassum would be found in 

areas where oil, dispersants, and other chemicals have accumulated following a catastrophic spill. Oil 

spreads on the sea surface to form extremely thin layers (0.01-0.1 micrometers) that cover large areas 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-45

(MacDonald et al., 1996). Since Sargassum is ubiquitous in surface waters of the GOM, oil spreading on 

the sea surface can be expected to coincide with floating mats of the algae. The larger the quantity of 

spill and the longer it flows, the larger the area of sea surface it would cover. A catastrophic spill would 

cover a large area and result in impacts to a large quantity of Sargassum algae. For example, Macondo

well oil spill covered up to one-third of the northern GOM (McCrea-Strub and Pauly, 2011; USDOC, 

NMFS, 2011a) and may have affected about one-third of the Sargassum algae in the northern GOM at the 

time.

The severity of oiling to Sargassum depends largely on physical conditions. Factors include the 

quantity of oil at a particular launch point and its physical state, distance from the source, weather 

conditions, and the possible use of dispersants. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained 

in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Obviously, more oil leads to increased oiling, but the physical state of the oil changes as it weathers, 

biodegrades, dissipates, and emulsifies over time and distance. Storms can mix oil into the water column 

(expected maximum of 10-20 m [33-66 ft]; Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981a; Knap et al., 

1985; Scarlett et al., 2005; Hemmer et al., 2010; George-Ares and Clark, 2000), possibly increasing its 

contact with Sargassum as it also mixes the Sargassum into the water column. However, when storms are 

not mixing the oil, they are also not mixing the Sargassum, so the Sargassum would float near the sea 

surface, just as the oil would. Convergence zones, places in the ocean where strong opposing currents 

meet, would collect both oil and Sargassum. Sea turtles, especially post-hatchlings and juveniles, use 

these areas for food and cover. Witherington et al. (2012) surveyed sea turtles in the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico and Atlantic Ocean off Florida and found that 89 percent of the turtles documented were observed 

within 1 m (3 ft) of floating Sargassum. The use of dispersants on surface oil slicks could increase the 

exposure of Sargassum to oil by promoting mixing of oil into the upper few meters of the water column. 

This also promotes the dispersion of oil, speeding its decline toward low concentrations that would be less 

toxic. Regardless, any exposure that is enough to cause visible oiling can be expected to have significant 

detrimental effects on the organisms associated with Sargassum and, likely, effects on the Sargassum

itself. Heavy oiling of Sargassum near the source of the spill would destroy the affected algae. Very 

light exposure far from the oil source may have little effect.

The specific effects of oil on Sargassum depend on the severity of oiling. High to moderate levels of 

oiling would likely cause complete mortality. Low levels of exposure may result in a range of sublethal 

effects to the algae and its associated community. Powers et al. (2013) suggest that exposure to oil and/or 

dispersants can result in direct, sublethal, and indirect effects to Sargassum, resulting in death or a 

decrease in Sargassum-related ecosystem services. Sublethal responses in organisms associated with 

Sargassum may occur at concentrations as low as 1-10 ppb (Hyland and Schneider, 1976). Rogers (1990) 

documented impacts such as reduced growth, alteration in form, and reduced recruitment and 

productivity. Other sublethal impacts may include reduced feeding rates, reduced ability to detect food, 

erratic movement, ciliary inhibition, tentacle retraction, reduced movement, decreased aggression, and 

altered respiration (Scarlett et al., 2005; Suchanek, 1993). Embryonic life stages of organisms may 

experience toxicity at lower levels than the adult stages (Fucik et al., 1995; Suchanek, 1993; Beiras and 

Saco-Álvarez, 2006; Byrne, 1989). The algae itself would be less sensitive than many of its associates, 

since the algae produces oils of its own and has a waxy coating that may protect it from physical oiling.

Response efforts aimed at removing oil from the affected area would have minor impacts on 

Sargassum algae as well. Response vessels would impinge a small amount of the algae on their 

propellers and cooling-water intakes. Cleanup processes such as booming, skimming, and in-situ burning 

would also trap and destroy patches of Sargassum; however, these activities would take place in areas of 

high concentration of surface oil, where Sargassum would likely be destroyed by oil contamination even 

if the cleanup activity were absent.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

This third phase of a catastrophic blowout focuses on the approach of oil to the shoreline. This 

involves the possible oiling of coastal resources including beaches, wetlands, SAV and seagrasses, the 

shallow seafloor, and any resources drifting in the water column (e.g., Sargassum). Response efforts can 

produce additional serious impacts.

There would likely be little additional impact to pelagic Sargassum algae as oil approaches a 

shoreline. Since both the algae and surface oil approaching shore would be guided by the same forces 
B-46 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

(wind and water currents), they would likely be already traveling together, with the algae already 

contaminated. Once it is onshore, the Sargassum would die, regardless of oil contamination. Sargassum

that washes ashore has some value to the ecosystem as it provides food and shelter for some organisms as 

it decays. This value would be mostly lost if the Sargassum is oiled when it reaches shore.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The final phase of a catastrophic blowout is the long-term response of the ecosystem and its recovery. 

Both, the natural rate of recovery and the persistence of oil in natural habitats over time determine the 

long-term effects. Contaminants biodegrade over time, but they may become sequestered as inert forms 

(e.g., buried in sediment) until disturbed (by storms) and re-activated, producing renewed impacts.

Sargassum algae has a yearly seasonal cycle of growth and a yearly cycle of migration from the GOM 

to the western Atlantic. A catastrophic spill could affect a large portion of the annual crop of the algae. 

A large event, such as the Macondo well blowout and spill, could reduce the standing crop of Sargassum

in the GOM and subsequently in the western Atlantic if it coincided with a period when Sargassum

distribution was limited to the northwest GOM in an area known to be a nursery area. This could have a 

cascading effect down current (in the Atlantic) that would stress the cycles of other organisms that depend 

on the Sargassum habitat. However, the effect can be expected to diminish with remoteness from the 

direct impacts of the spill, i.e., the algae community itself would be most affected, with lesser effects on 

organisms that utilize the habitat as a nursery, for feeding, as shelter, or other purposes.

While a large spill event could affect a large portion of the standing crop of Sargassum, several 

factors contribute to the quick recovery of the habitat. Sargassum algae is predominately found in the 

open-ocean pelagic habitat. Once the spill event subsides, the pelagic habitat would quickly regain its 

typically very high water quality. The pelagic habitat far from shore is also far from land-based sources 

of pollution. Only part of the Sargassum stocks would be affected; algae not affected by the spill event 

would continue to grow normally and repopulate the habitat. Since Sargassum has a seasonal cycle of 

growth in the summer and reduction in the winter, populations in the winter following a catastrophic 

event may be similar to populations of any other year. Relatively small populations survive each winter, 

subsequently repopulating the habitat each year. With this pattern, recovery from the effects of a 

catastrophic event is expected within 1-2 growing seasons.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Pelagic Sargassum algae is one of the most likely habitats to be affected by a catastrophic offshore oil 

spill; however, because of its ubiquitous distribution and seasonal cycle, recovery is expected within 

1-2 years. Sargassum algae floats on and near the sea surface and occurs in patches that can be collated 

into windrows by wind and water currents. Oil from a spill offshore would accumulate in the same 

waters, making it inevitable that some patches of Sargassum would be severely affected.

The initial catastrophic event (Phase 1) could destroy Sargassum patches in the immediate vicinity of 

the accident. Impingement, fire, and the initial concentrated spillage of oil and fuels would destroy local 

patches. Sediments disturbed by the accident would only affect Sargassum if the event occurred in 

shallow waters.

The duration of the spill event (Phase 2) would have the most effect on floating Sargassum algae. 

Patches of algae within the entire coverage of the oil slick would be subject to severe damage and death. 

Algae in areas farther from the spill, receiving lower level impacts, may still suffer damage, especially the 

sensitive invertebrate and fish communities associated with the habitat. Efforts to remove the oil could

gather Sargassum with the oil, but these algae patches would likely be destroyed by the oil anyway since 

the collection activities would occur in areas of concentrated oil.

As oil approaches shore (Phase 3), impacts to floating Sargassum algae would not increase much, as 

the algae would likely already be exposed to the oil since wind and water currents drive both the algae 

and the oil.

The recovery of floating Sargassum algae (Phase 4) may occur within 1-2 years because the algae has 

a yearly cycle of subsidence and re-growth. As long as the nursery grounds are not completely saturated 

with oil, the pelagic habitat would quickly regain its high level of water quality after the cessation of a 

spill. Not all of the Sargassum habitat would be affected, even by a catastrophic spill; healthy algae 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-47

would continue to grow and replenish the population. Within 1-2 years, the Sargassum algae community 

may have completely recovered from the impacts of a catastrophic spill.

B.3.1.9. Chemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities

Deepwater benthic communities of the Gulf of Mexico include soft bottom, chemosynthetic, and 

coral habitats. Deep water, for ecology in the GOM, is defined as water depths over 300 m (984 ft) 

because chemosynthetic communities and Lophelia coral habitats have not been found in waters 

shallower than these depths. The possible impacts to these benthic communities from a catastrophic 

blowout depend on the location and the nature of the event.

Phase 1—Initial Event

During the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout, impacts may include the disturbance of sediments, 

destruction of the drilling rig, release of oil and natural gas (methane), and emergency response efforts. 

This chapter deals with the immediate effects of a blowout located at least 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from 

shore.

A catastrophic blowout outside the well casing and below the seafloor or at the seafloor-water 

interface could resuspend large quantities of bottom sediments and create a large crater, destroying many 

organisms within a few hundred meters of the wellhead. Some fine sediment could travel up to a few 

thousand meters before redeposition, negatively impacting a localized area of benthic communities. If a 

blowout were to occur close enough to a chemosynthetic community, suspended sediment may impact the 

organisms. Restrictions described in NTL 2009-G40 require drilling to be removed at least 610 m 

(2,000 ft) from possible chemosynthetic communities. During a blowout, sediment may become 

contaminated with oil and subsequently deposit that oil down-current from the source. The highest 

concentrations of contamination would be nearest the well, and concentrations would diminish with 

distance. A catastrophic blowout that occurs above the seabed (at the rig, along the riser between the 

seafloor and sea surface, or through leak paths on the BOP/wellhead) would not disturb the sediment.

Destruction of the oil drilling rig and associated equipment could have an acute effect on any 

chemosynthetic communities caught under the direct impact of the equipment when it falls to the seafloor. 

However, the restrictions described in NTL 2009-G40 require drilling locations to be 610 m (2,000 ft) 

from any possible indications of chemosynthetic communities, reducing the possibility that a rig would 

settle directly on sensitive habitat.

A catastrophic blowout would likely result in released oil rapidly rising to the sea surface because 

typical reserves in the GOM have specific gravity characteristics that are much lighter than water (refer to 

Chapter 3.2.1.3 of this Supplemental EIS; Environment Canada, 2011; Trudel et al., 2001). The oil 

would surface almost directly over the source location. Oil floating to the sea surface would be 

effectively removed from affecting chemosynthetic communities on the seafloor. Even oil treated with 

chemical dispersants on the sea surface would not be expected to have widespread impacts to deepwater 

communities. Reports on dispersant usage on surface oil indicate that a majority of the dispersed oil 

remains in the top 10 m (33 ft) of the water column, with 60 percent of the oil in the top 2 m (6 ft) 

(McAuliffe et al., 1981a; Lewis and Aurand, 1997). Lubchenco et al. (2010) reports that chemically 

dispersed surface oil from the Macondo well blowout and oil spill remained in the top 6 m (20 ft) of the 

water column where it mixed with surrounding waters and biodegraded. However, if the oil is ejected 

under high pressure, micro-droplets of oil may form and become entrained in the water column (Boehm 

and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). Upward movement of oil may also be reduced if methane mixed 

with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the buoyancy of the oil/gas stream (Adcroft 

et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, formed by vigorous 

turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant in the water column, 

creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). It is unlikely that any 

chemosynthetic community would be affected by the initial stage of a catastrophic event due to the 

required separation of drilling activities from sensitive habitats, because released oil would rise rapidly to 

a level above the habitat, and because surface oil would not mix to the depths of the chemosynthetic 

communities. The required separation distance would also allow for a subsea plume to mix with the 

surrounding water and become diluted before it reached a deepwater community.
B-48 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

During the second phase of a catastrophic blowout, the major impact of concern is the release of oil 

and methane over time. Response efforts may produce additional impacts. This chapter deals with the 

growing effects of a blowout that releases oil and methane into the offshore environment.

A spill resulting from a catastrophic blowout in deep water has the potential to impact offshore 

benthic communities; however, it is not likely that deepwater benthic communities would be affected by a 

spill from a shallow-water blowout. Although subsurface plumes can be generated when oil is ejected 

under high pressure or dispersants are used subsea, a majority of the oil originating from a seafloor 

blowout in deep water is expected to rise rapidly to the sea surface. Upward movement of the oil may 

also be reduced if methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water (Adcroft et al., 2010). A 

sustained spill would continuously create surface slicks and possibly subsurface spill plumes. Some of 

the oil in the water column would become diluted over time, reducing transport to the seafloor 

(Vandermeulen, 1982). Concentrations of dispersed and dissolved oil in the Macondo well blowout and 

spill subsea plume were reported to be in the part per million range or less and were generally lower away 

from the water’s surface and away from the wellhead (Adcroft et al., 2010; Haddad and Murawski, 2010; 

Joint Analysis Group, 2010; Lubchenco et al., 2010). In addition, microbial degradation of oil occurs in 

the water column rendering oil less toxic when it contacts the seafloor (Hazen et al., 2010). Oil can 

precipitate to the seafloor by adhering to other particles, much like rainfall (Kingston et al., 1995; 

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). Oil would also reach the seafloor 

through planktonic consumption and associated excretion, which is distributed over the seafloor 

(International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). These mechanisms would result in a 

wide distribution of small amounts of oil. Throughout these processes, oil would be biodegraded from 

bacterial action, which would continue on the seafloor, resulting in scattered microhabitats with an 

enriched carbon environment (Hazen et al., 2010).

A sustained spill may result in elevated exposure concentrations to chemosynthetic features if a 

subsea oil plume contacts them directly. Dispersed oil is mixed with water, and its movement is then 

dictated by water currents and the physical, chemical, and biodegradation pathways. BOEM’s policy 

(refer to NTL 2009-G39) prevents wells from being placed immediately adjacent to sensitive 

communities; however, in the event of a seafloor blowout, some oil could be carried to chemosynthetic 

communities by subsea plumes. Impacts may include reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and 

reduced biological cover as a result of impaired recruitment. Concentrated oil plumes reaching 

chemosynthetic communities could cause oiling of organisms, resulting in the death of entire populations 

on localized sensitive habitats. The longer the oil remains suspended in the water column, the more 

dispersed, less concentrated, and more biodegraded it would become. Depending on how long oil 

remained suspended in the water column, it may be thoroughly degraded by biological action before 

contacting the seafloor (Hazen et al., 2010; Valentine et al., 2010). Biodegradation rates in cold, 

deepwater environments are not well understood at this time. In general, potential impacts to 

chemosynthetic communities would be localized due to the directional movement of oil plumes by the 

water currents and because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution. While a few patch 

habitats may be affected, the Gulfwide ecosystem of chemosynthetic communities would be expected to 

suffer no significant effects.

Drilling muds comprised primarily of barite may be pumped into a well to stop a blowout. If a “kill” 

is not successful, the mud (possibly tens of thousands of barrels) may be forced out of the well and 

deposited on the seafloor near the well site. Any organisms beneath the extruded drilling mud would be 

buried. Based on stipulations as described in NTL 2009-G40, a well should be far enough away from a 

chemosynthetic community to prevent extruded drilling muds from smothering sensitive benthic 

communities.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

The third phase of a catastrophic blowout focuses on the approach of oil to the shoreline. This 

involves the possible oiling of coastal resources including beaches, wetlands, SAV and seagrasses, the 

shallow seafloor, and any resources drifting in the water column. Response efforts can produce additional 

serious impacts. There would be no additional adverse impacts to chemosynthetic communities in deep 

water as a result of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-49

Phase 3 of a catastrophic spill because the chemosynthetic communities are located offshore in deep 

water (>300 m, 610 ft).

Phase 4— Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The final phase of a catastrophic blowout is the long-term response of the ecosystem and its recovery. 

Both the natural rate of recovery and the persistence of oil in natural habitats over time determine what 

long-term effects may occur. Contaminants degrade over time but may become sequestered as inert 

forms (e.g., buried in sediment) until disturbed and reactivated, producing renewed impacts.

If oil is ejected under high pressure or dispersants are applied at the source near the seafloor, oil 

would mix into the water column, be carried by underwater currents, and eventually contact the seafloor 

in some form, either concentrated (near the source) or dispersed and decayed (farther from the source). 

The oil could then impact patches of chemosynthetic community habitat in its path. The farther the 

dispersed oil travels, the more diluted it would become as it mixes with surrounding water. 

Chemosynthetic communities located at more than 610 m (2,000 ft) away from a blowout could 

experience minor impacts from suspended sediments that travel with currents, although the sediment 

concentration would be diluted with distance from the well. Studies indicate that periods of decades to 

hundreds of years are required to reestablish a seep community once it has disappeared (depending on the 

community type) (Powell, 1995; Fisher, 1995). There is evidence that substantial impacts on these 

communities could permanently prevent reestablishment, particularly if hard substrate required for 

recolonization is buried by resuspended sediments from a blowout. A catastrophic spill combined with 

the application of dispersant has the potential to cause devastating effects on local patches of habitat in 

the path of subsea plumes where they physically contact the seafloor. Sublethal effects are possible for 

communities that receive a lower level of impact. Examples of these effects could include temporary lack 

of feeding, expenditure of energy to remove the oil, loss of gametes and reproductive delays, and loss of 

tissue mass. Oil plumes that remain in the water column for longer periods would disperse and decay, 

having only minimal effect. Depending on how long it remains in the water column, oil may be 

thoroughly degraded by biological action before contacting the seafloor. Water currents can carry a 

plume to contact the seafloor directly but a more likely scenario would be for oil to adhere to other 

particles and precipitate to the seafloor, much like rainfall (Kingston et al., 1995; International Tanker 

Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). Oil would also reach the seafloor through planktonic 

consumption and associated excretion, which is distributed over the seafloor (International Tanker 

Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). These mechanisms would result in a wide distribution of 

small amounts of oil (or oil by-products). This oil would be in the process of biodegradation from 

bacterial action, which would continue on the seafloor, resulting in scattered microhabitats with an 

enriched carbon environment (Hazen et al., 2010). Habitats directly under the path of the oil plume as it 

disperses and “rains” down to the seafloor may experience minor effects, but since the oil would be 

deposited in a widely scattered and decayed state, little effect is anticipated.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Chemosynthetic communities would potentially be subject to detrimental effects from a catastrophic 

seafloor blowout. Sediment and oiled sediment from the initial event (Phase 1) are not likely to reach 

chemosynthetic communities in heavy amounts because of requirements described in NTL 2009-G40. 

Fine sediment from a blowout may reach the location of sensitive habitats, producing sublethal effects. 

The initial accident could result in the drilling rig and equipment falling on a sensitive seafloor habitat if 

the structure travels more than 610 m (2,000 ft) from the well site.

The ongoing spill event (Phase 2) would have the most effect on chemosynthetic communities. 

Chemosynthetic communities are at risk from subsea oil plumes that could directly contact localized 

patches of sensitive habitat. Oil plumes reaching chemosynthetic communities could cause oiling of 

organisms, resulting in the death of entire populations on localized sensitive habitats. However, potential 

impacts would be localized due to the directional movement of oil plumes by the water currents and 

because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution. The more likely scenario would be 

exposure to widely dispersed, biodegraded particles that “rain” down from a passing oil plume. While a 

few patch habitats may be affected, the Gulfwide ecosystem of chemosynthetic communities would be 

expected to suffer no significant effects.
B-50 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

As oil approaches shore (Phase 3), there would be no additional adverse impacts to chemosynthetic 

communities because the chemosynthetic communities are located offshore in deep water (>300 m; 

610 ft). 

The recovery of chemosynthetic communities (Phase 4) depends on the severity of initial impacts. A 

catastrophic spill combined with the application of dispersant has the potential to cause devastating 

effects on local patches of habitat in the path of subsea plumes where they physically contact the seafloor. 

Studies indicate that periods from decades to hundreds of years are required to reestablish a seep 

community once it has disappeared (depending on the community type) (Powell, 1995; Fisher, 1995). 

The burial of hard substrate could permanently prevent recovery. Sublethal effects are possible for 

communities that receive a lower level of impact. Examples of these effects could include temporary lack 

of feeding, expenditure of energy to remove the oil, loss of gametes and reproductive delays, and loss of 

tissue mass. However, most chemosynthetic community habitats are expected to experience no impacts 

from a catastrophic seafloor blowout because of the directional movement of oil plumes by the water 

currents and because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution.

B.3.1.10. Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities

Deepwater benthic communities of the Gulf of Mexico include soft bottom, chemosynthetic, and live 

bottom communities (mostly deepwater coral communities). Deep water, for ecology in the GOM, is 

defined as water depths over 300 m (984 ft) because nonchemosynthetic communities and Lophelia coral 

habitats have not been found in waters shallower than these depths. The possible impacts to 

nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities from a catastrophic blowout depend on the location 

and the nature of the event.

Phase 1—Initial Event

During the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout, impacts may include disturbance of sediments, 

destruction of the drilling rig, release of oil and natural gas (methane), and emergency response efforts. 

This phase deals with the immediate effects of a blowout located at least 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from 

shore.

A catastrophic blowout outside the well casing and below the seafloor or at the seafloor-water 

interface could resuspend large quantities of bottom sediments and create a large crater, destroying many 

organisms within a few hundred meters of the wellhead. A blowout that occurs outside the well casing 

can rapidly deposit 30 cm (12 in) or more of sediment within a few hundred meters and may smother 

much of the soft bottom community in a localized area. Some fine sediment could travel up to a few 

thousand meters before redeposition, negatively impacting a localized area of benthic communities. 

Many of the organisms on soft bottoms live within the sediment and have the ability to migrate upward in 

response to burial by sedimentation. In situations where soft bottom infaunal communities are negatively 

impacted, recolonization by populations from neighboring soft bottom substrate would be expected over a 

relatively short period of time for all size ranges of organisms, in a matter of days for bacteria and 

probably less than 1 year for most macrofauna and megafauna species. Recolonization could take longer 

for areas affected by direct contact of concentrated oil.

If a blowout were to occur close enough to a sensitive deepwater live bottom community, suspended 

sediment may impact the organisms. Restrictions described in NTL 2009-G40 require drilling to be 

removed at least 610 m (2,000 ft) from possible live bottom communities. During a blowout, suspended 

sediment may become contaminated with oil and subsequently deposit that oil down-current from the 

source. The highest concentrations of contamination would be nearest the well, and concentrations would 

diminish with distance. A catastrophic blowout that occurs above the seabed (at the rig, along the riser 

between the seafloor and sea surface, or through leak paths on the BOP/wellhead) would not disturb the 

sediment.

Destruction of the oil drilling rig and associated equipment could have an acute effect on any 

nonchemosynthetic communities caught under the direct impact of the equipment when it falls to the 

seafloor. However, the restrictions described in NTL 2009-G40 require drilling locations to be 610 m 

(2,000 ft) from any possible indications of sensitive live bottom communities, reducing the possibility 

that a rig would settle directly on sensitive habitat.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-51

A catastrophic blowout would likely result in released oil rapidly rising to the sea surface because 

typical reserves in the GOM have specific gravity characteristics that are much lighter than water (refer to 

Chapter 3.2.1.3 of this Supplemental EIS; Environment Canada, 2011; Trudel et al., 2001). The oil 

would surface almost directly over the source location. Oil floating to the sea surface would be 

effectively removed from affecting nonchemosynthetic communities on the seafloor. Even oil treated 

with chemical dispersants on the sea surface would not be expected to have widespread impacts to 

deepwater communities. Reports on dispersant usage on surface oil indicate that a majority of the 

dispersed oil remains in the top 10 m (33 ft) of the water column, with 60 percent of the oil in the top 2 m 

(6 ft) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a; Lewis and Aurand, 1997). Lubchenco et al. (2010) report that chemically 

dispersed surface oil from the Macondo well blowout and oil spill remained in the top 6 m (20 ft) of the 

water column where it mixed with surrounding waters and biodegraded. However, if the oil is ejected 

under high pressure, micro-droplets of oil may form and become entrained in the water column (Boehm 

and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). Upward movement of the oil may also be reduced if methane 

mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the buoyancy of the oil/gas stream 

(Adcroft et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, formed by 

vigorous turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant in the 

water column, creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). It is 

unlikely that any deepwater live bottom community would be affected by the initial stage of a 

catastrophic event due to the required separation of drilling activities from sensitive habitats, because 

released oil would rapidly rise to a level above the habitat, and because surface oil would not mix to the 

depths of such communities. The required separation distance would also allow for a subsea plume to 

mix with the surrounding water and become diluted before it reached a deepwater community.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

During the second phase of a catastrophic blowout, the major impact of concern is the release of oil 

and methane over time. Response efforts may produce additional impacts. This chapter deals with the 

growing effects of a blowout that releases oil and methane into the offshore environment.

A spill resulting from a catastrophic blowout in deep water has the potential to impact offshore 

benthic communities; however, it is not likely that deepwater benthic communities would be affected by a 

spill from a shallow-water blowout. Although subsurface plumes can be generated when oil is ejected 

under high pressure or when dispersants are used subsea, a majority of the oil originating from a seafloor 

blowout in deep water is expected to rise rapidly to the sea surface. Oil and chemical spills that originate 

at the sea surface are not considered to be a potential source of measurable impacts on deepwater, live 

bottom communities because of the water depths at which these communities are located. Oil spills at the 

surface would tend not to sink, and the risk of weathered components of a surface slick reaching the 

benthos in any measurable concentration would be very small. Surface oil also could not physically mix 

to depths of deepwater communities under natural conditions (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and

1981a; Tkalich and Chan, 2002).

Upward movement of the oil may also be reduced if methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the 

water (Adcroft et al., 2010). A sustained spill would continuously create surface slicks and possibly 

subsurface spill plumes. One deepwater coral site at a depth of 1,370 m (4,495 ft) has been reported as 

severely damaged following the Macondo well blowout and oil spill. The site is in Mississippi Canyon 

Block 294, 11 km (7 mi) southwest of the spill location. The site includes hard substrate supporting coral 

in an area approximately 10 x 12 m (33 x 39 ft) (White et al., 2012). The published results document 

damage to the coral community. Forty-three coral colonies were analyzed via close-up imagery: 

86 percent exhibited signs of impact; 46 percent exhibited impact to at least 50 percent of the colony; and 

23 percent of the colonies sustained impact to more than 90 percent of the colony (White et al., 2012). 

Many other associated invertebrates also exhibited signs of stress. This appears to be an exceptional case, 

since the numerous other communities investigated since the spill remained healthy (White et al., 2012). 

Some of the oil in the water column would become diluted over time, reducing transport to the seafloor 

(Vandermeulen, 1982). Concentrations of dispersed and dissolved oil in the Macondo well blowout and 

spill subsea plume were reported to be in the part per million range or less and were generally lower away 

from the water’s surface and away from the wellhead (Adcroft et al., 2010; Haddad and Murawski, 2010; 

Joint Analysis Group, 2010; Lubchenco et al., 2010). In addition, microbial degradation of the oil occurs 

in the water, rendering the oil less toxic when it contacts the seafloor (Hazen et al., 2010). However, as 
B-52 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

evidenced by the report of White et al. (2012), subsea plumes can still retain toxic concentrations over a 

distance of at least 11 km (7 mi). Oil in a plume can adhere to other particles and precipitate to the 

seafloor, much like rainfall (Kingston et al., 1995; International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation 

Limited, 2011). Oil also would reach the seafloor through consumption by plankton, with excretion 

distributed over the seafloor (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). These 

mechanisms would result in a wide distribution of small amounts of oil. Throughout these processes, oil 

would be biodegraded from bacterial action, which would continue on the seafloor, resulting in scattered 

microhabitats with an enriched carbon environment (Hazen et al., 2010).

A sustained spill may result in elevated exposure concentrations to live bottom features if a subsea oil 

plume contacts them directly. Dispersed oil is mixed with water, and its movement is then dictated by 

water currents and the physical, chemical, and biological degradation pathways. BOEM’s policy (refer to 

NTL 2009-G40) prevents wells from being placed immediately adjacent to sensitive communities; 

however, in the event of a seafloor blowout, some oil could be carried to live bottom communities by 

subsea plumes. Impacts may include reduced recruitment success, reduced growth, and reduced 

biological cover as a result of impaired recruitment. Concentrated oil plumes reaching live bottom 

communities could cause oiling of organisms, resulting in the death of entire populations on localized 

sensitive habitats. The longer the oil remains suspended in the water column the more dispersed, less 

concentrated, and more degraded it would become. Depending on how long oil remained suspended in 

the water column, it may be thoroughly degraded by biological action before contacting the seafloor 

(Hazen et al., 2010; Valentine et al., 2010). Biodegradation rates in cold, deepwater environments are not 

well understood at this time. In general, the potential impacts to deepwater live bottom communities 

would be localized due to the directional movement of oil plumes by the water currents and because the 

sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution. While a few patch habitats may be affected, the 

Gulfwide ecosystem of deepwater live bottom communities would be expected to suffer no significant 

effects.

Drilling muds comprised primarily of barite may be pumped into a well to stop a blowout. If a “kill” 

is not successful, the mud (possibly tens of thousands of barrels) may be forced out of the well and 

deposited on the seafloor near the well site. Any organisms beneath the extruded drilling mud would be 

buried. Based on stipulations as described in NTL 2009-G40, a well should be far enough away from 

sensitive live bottom communities to prevent extruded drilling muds from smothering them.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

The third phase of a catastrophic blowout focuses on the approach of oil to the shoreline. This 

involves the possible oiling of coastal resources including beaches, wetlands, SAV and seagrasses, the 

shallow seafloor, and any resources drifting in the water column. Response efforts can produce additional 

serious impacts. There would be no adverse impacts to nonchemosynthetic benthic communities in deep 

water as a result of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout 

Phase 3 of a catastrophic spill because the communities are located offshore in deep water (>300 m; 

610 ft). 

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The final phase of a catastrophic blowout is the long-term response of the ecosystem and its recovery. 

Both the natural rate of recovery and the persistence of oil in natural habitats over time determine what 

long-term effects may occur. Contaminants degrade over time, but they may become sequestered as inert 

forms (e.g., buried in sediment) until disturbed and re-activated, producing renewed impacts.

Although deepwater coral and other live bottom communities often live in close association with 

hydrocarbon seeps (since the carbonate substrate is precipitated by chemosynthetic communities), this 

does not mean they are necessarily tolerant to the effects of oil contamination. Natural seepage is very 

constant and at very low rates as compared with the potential volume of oil released from a catastrophic 

event (blowout or pipeline rupture). In addition, live bottom organisms, such as Lophelia pertusa, inhabit 

areas around the perimeter of seeps and sites where hydrocarbon seepage has reduced its flow or stopped. 

Typical Gulf of Mexico oil is light and floats rapidly to the surface rather than being carried horizontally 

across benthic communities by water currents (Johansen et al., 2001; MacDonald et al., 1995; Trudel 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-53

et al., 2001). So, although deepwater live bottom communities are found near oil seeps, they are not 

typically exposed to concentrated oil.

If oil is ejected under high pressure or dispersants are applied at the source near the seafloor, oil 

would mix into the water column, be carried by underwater currents, and eventually contact the seafloor 

in some form, either concentrated (near the source) or dispersed and decayed (farther from the source). 

The oil could then impact patches of live bottom community habitat in its path. The farther the dispersed 

oil travels, the more diluted it would become as it mixes with surrounding water. Sensitive live bottom 

communities located at more than 610 m (2,000 ft) away from a blowout could experience minor impacts 

from suspended sediments that travel with currents, although the sediment concentration would be diluted 

with distance from the well.

There have been no experiments showing the response of deepwater corals to oil exposure. 

Experiments with shallow tropical corals indicate that corals have a high tolerance to oil exposure. The 

mucus layers on coral resist penetration of oil and slough off the contaminant. Longer exposure times and 

areas of tissue where oil adheres to the coral are more likely to result in tissue damage and death of 

polyps. Corals with branching growth forms appear to be more susceptible to damage from oil exposure 

(Shigenaka, 2001). The most common deepwater coral, Lophelia pertusa, is a branching species. Tests 

with shallow tropical gorgonians indicate relatively low toxic effects to the coral (Cohen et al., 1977), 

suggesting deepwater gorgonians may have a similar response. Depending on the level of exposure, the 

response of deepwater coral to oil from a catastrophic spill would vary. Exposure to widely dispersed oil 

adhering to organic detritus and partially degraded by bacteria may be expected to result in little effect. 

Direct contact with plumes of relatively fresh dispersed oil droplets in the vicinity of the incident could 

cause the death of affected coral polyps through exposure and potential feeding on oil droplets by polyps. 

Median levels of exposure to dispersed oil in a partly degraded condition may result in effects similar to 

those of shallow tropical corals, with often no discernible effects other than temporary contraction and 

some sloughing. The health of corals may be degraded by the necessary expenditure of energy as the 

corals respond to oiling (Shigenaka, 2001). Communities exposed to more concentrated oil may 

experience detrimental effects, including death of affected organisms, tissue damage, lack of growth, 

interruption of reproductive cycles, and loss of gametes. Many invertebrates associated with deepwater 

coral communities, particularly the crustaceans, would likely be more susceptible to damage from oil 

exposure. The recolonization of severely damaged or destroyed communities could take years or decades. 

Burial of hard substrate could permanently prevent recovery. However, because of the scarcity of 

deepwater hard bottoms, their comparatively low surface area, and the distancing requirements set by 

BOEM in NTL 2009-G40, it is unlikely that a sensitive habitat would be located adjacent to a seafloor 

blowout or that concentrated oil would contact the site.

A catastrophic spill combined with the application of dispersant has the potential to cause devastating 

effects on local patches of habitat in the path of subsea plumes where they physically contact the seafloor. 

Sublethal effects are possible for communities that receive a lower level of impact. Examples of these 

effects could include temporary lack of feeding, expenditure of energy to remove the oil, loss of gametes 

and reproductive delays, and loss of tissue mass. Oil plumes that remain in the water column for longer 

periods would disperse and decay, having only minimal effect. Depending on how long it remains in the 

water column, oil may be thoroughly degraded by biological action before contacting the seafloor. Water 

currents can carry a plume to contact the seafloor directly, but a more likely scenario would be for oil to 

adhere to other particles and precipitate to the seafloor, much like rainfall (Kingston et al., 1995; 

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). Oil also would reach the seafloor 

through consumption by plankton with excretion distributed over the seafloor (International Tanker 

Owners Pollution Federation Limited, 2011). These mechanisms would result in a wide distribution of 

small amounts of oil (or oil by-products). This oil would be in the process of biodegradation from 

bacterial action, which would continue on the seafloor, resulting in scattered microhabitats with an 

enriched carbon environment (Hazen et al., 2010). Habitats directly under the path of the oil plume as it 

disperses and “rains” down to the seafloor may experience minor effects, but since the oil would be 

deposited in a widely scattered and decayed state, little effect is anticipated.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Nonchemosynthetic communities would potentially be subject to detrimental effects from a 

catastrophic seafloor blowout. Sediment and oiled sediment from the initial event (Phase 1) are not likely 
B-54 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

to reach sensitive live bottom communities in heavy amounts because of requirements described in NTL 

2009-G40. Fine sediment from a blowout may reach the location of sensitive habitats, producing 

sublethal effects. The initial accident could result in the drilling rig and equipment falling on a sensitive 

seafloor habitat if the structure travels more than 610 m (2,000 ft) from the well site.

The ongoing spill event (Phase 2) would have the most effect on nonchemosynthetic communities. 

Deepwater live bottom communities are at risk from subsea oil plumes that could directly contact 

localized patches of sensitive habitat. Oil plumes reaching live bottom communities could cause oiling of 

organisms, resulting in the death of entire populations on localized sensitive habitats. However, the 

potential impacts would be localized due to the directional movement of oil plumes by the water currents 

and because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution. The more likely result would be 

exposure to widely dispersed, biodegraded particles that “rain” down from a passing oil plume. While a 

few patch habitats may be affected, the Gulfwide ecosystem of live bottom communities would be 

expected to suffer no significant effects.

As oil approaches shore (Phase 3), there would be no adverse impacts to nonchemosynthetic 

communities because the communities are located offshore in deep water (>300 m; 610 ft).

The recovery of nonchemosynthetic communities (Phase 4) depends on the severity of initial impacts. 

A catastrophic spill combined with the application of dispersant has the potential to cause devastating 

effects on local patches of sensitive habitat in the path of subsea plumes where they physically contact the 

seafloor. The recolonization of severely damaged or destroyed communities could take years or decades. 

Burial of hard substrate could permanently prevent recovery. Sublethal effects are possible for 

communities that receive a lower level of impact. Examples of these effects could include temporary lack 

of feeding, expenditure of energy to remove the oil, loss of gametes and reproductive delays, and loss of 

tissue mass. However, most live bottom community habitats are expected to experience no impacts from 

a catastrophic seafloor blowout because of the directional movement of oil plumes by the water currents 

and because the sensitive habitats have a scattered, patchy distribution.

B.3.1.11. Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

The seafloor on the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico consists primarily of muddy to sandy 

sediments. Benthic organisms found on the seafloor include infauna (animals that live in the substrate, 

including mostly burrowing worms, crustaceans, and mollusks) and epifauna (animals that live on or are 

attached to the substrate; mostly crustaceans, as well as echinoderms, mollusks, hydroids, sponges, soft 

and hard corals, and demersal fishes). Infauna is comprised of meiofauna, small organisms (63-500 μm) 

that live among the grains of sediment; and macroinfauna, slightly larger organisms (>0.5 mm; 0.02 in) 

that live in the sediment (Dames and Moore, Inc., 1979). Shrimp and demersal fish are closely associated 

with the benthic community. The most abundant organisms on the continental shelf are the depositfeeding polychaetes. The slope and deep sea consist of vast areas of primarily fine sediments that support 

benthic communities with lower densities and biomass but higher diversity than the continental shelf 

(Rowe and Kennicutt, 2001).

Phase 1—Initial Event

A blowout from an oil well could result in a catastrophic spill event. A catastrophic blowout would 

result in released oil rapidly rising to the sea surface because all known reserves in the GOM have 

specific gravity characteristics that would preclude oil from sinking immediately after release at a 

blowout site. The oil would surface almost directly over the source location. However, if the oil is 

ejected under high pressure, micro-droplets of oil may form and become entrained in the water column 

(Boehm and Fiest, 1982; Adcroft et al., 2010). The upward movement of the oil may be reduced if 

methane mixed with the oil is dissolved into the water column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy (Adcroft 

et al., 2010). Large oil droplets would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, formed by vigorous 

turbulence in the plume or the injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant in the water column, 

creating a subsurface plume (Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). Dispersed oil in the water 

column begins to biodegrade and may flocculate with particulate matter, promoting sinking of the 

particles. Subsea plumes or sinking oil on particulates may contact portions of the seafloor.

A catastrophic blowout outside the well casing and below the seafloor or at the seafloor-water 

interface could resuspend large quantities of bottom sediments and create a large crater, destroying many 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-55

organisms within a few hundred meters of the wellhead. Some fine sediment could travel up to a few 

thousand meters before redeposition, negatively impacting a localized area of benthic communities. The 

localized seafloor habitat around which a seafloor blowout occurs would be impacted by suspended and 

redeposited sediment.

A catastrophic blowout that occurs above the seabed (at the rig, along the riser between the seafloor 

and sea surface, or through leak paths on the BOP/wellhead) would not disturb the sediment.

The use of subsea dispersants would increase the exposure of offshore benthic habitats to dispersed 

oil droplets in the water column, as well as the chemicals used in the dispersants. The use of subsea 

dispersants is not likely to occur for seafloor blowouts outside the well casing.

Impacts to Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

Impacts that occur to benthic organisms as a result of a blowout would depend on the type of blowout 

and their distance from the blowout. Also, if the blowout were to occur beneath the seabed, soft sediment 

habitat would be destroyed by the formation of a crater, and the suspension and subsequent deposition of 

disturbed sediment would smother localized areas of benthic communities. A blowout that occurs outside 

the well casing can rapidly deposit 30 cm (12 in) or more of sediment within a few hundred meters and 

may smother much of the soft bottom community in a localized area. Benthic communities exposed to 

large amounts of resuspended and deposited sediments following a catastrophic, subsurface blowout 

could be subject to smothering, sediment suffocation, and exposure to resuspended toxic contaminants. 

Impacts to organisms as a result of sedimentation would vary based on species tolerance, degree of 

sedimentation, length of exposure, burial depth, and vertical migration ability through sediment.

A portion or the entire rig may sink to the seafloor as a result of a blowout. The benthic features and 

communities upon which the rig settles would be destroyed or smothered. A settling rig may suspend 

sediments, which may smother nearby benthic communities. The habitats beneath the rig may be 

permanently lost; however, the rig itself may become an artificial reef upon which epibenthic organisms 

may settle. The surrounding benthic communities that were smothered by sediment would repopulate 

from nearby stocks through spawning recruitment and immigration if the hard substrate upon which they 

live was not physically destroyed.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

A spill from a shallow-water blowout could impact benthic communities on the continental shelf. 

The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill on the continental shelf is assumed to last 2-5 months 

and to release 30,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 0.9-3.0 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange 

paraffinic sweet crude oil could be released, which would float (APIo >10). An anticipated 35,000 bbl of 

dispersant may be applied to the surface waters.

A spill from a deepwater blowout could also impact shelf communities and deepwater communities. 

The scenario (Table B-4) for a catastrophic spill in deep water is assumed to last 4-6 months and to 

release 30,000-60,000 bbl per day. A total volume of 2.7-7.2 MMbbl of South Louisiana midrange 

paraffinic sweet crude oil could be released, which would float (APIo >10). Oil properties may change as 

it passes up the well and through the water column, and it may become emulsified. An anticipated 

33,000 bbl of dispersant may be applied to the surface waters and 16,500 bbl may be applied subsea. 

Weathering and dilution of the oil would also occur as it travels from its launch point. It is unlikely that a 

subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact shelf communities. The oil is anticipated to 

remain in deep water and be directed by water currents in the deep water. These currents do not typically 

transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 2008).

Impacts to Soft Bottom Benthic Communities

Impacts from Surface Oil

Surface oil slicks can spread over a large area; however, the majority of the slick is comprised of a 

very thin surface layer of oil moved by winds and currents (Lewis and Aurand, 1997). The potential of 

surface oil slicks to affect benthic habitats is limited by its ability to mix into the water column. Soft 

bottom benthic communities below 10-m (33-ft) water depth are protected from surface oil because of its 

lack of ability to mix with water (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981a; Tkalich and Chan, 
B-56 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2002). Benthic organisms would not become physically coated or smothered by surface oil. However, if 

this surface oil makes its way into the water column through physical mixing, the use of dispersants, or 

the sedimenting to particles in the water column, benthic communities may be impacted. These scenarios 

are discussed in later sections.

Disturbance of the sea surface by storms can mix surface oil into the water column, but the effects are 

generally limited to the upper 10-20 m (33-66 ft) (Lange, 1985; McAuliffe et al., 1975 and 1981a; Tkalich 

and Chan, 2002). Therefore, soft bottom benthic communities located in shallow water have the potential 

to be fouled by oil that is floating on shallow water and mixes to the depth of the seafloor. Nearshore oil 

deposits that occur in sheltered areas, such as bays, may remain in the sediment and impact organisms for 

long periods. Oil in nearshore sediments was found in high concentrations 8 years following the Exxon 

Valdez spill (Dean and Jewett, 2001). Benthic communities located in deeper water would not be 

impacted by oil physically mixed into the water column. However, if dispersants are used, they would 

enable oil to mix into the water column and possibly impact organisms in deeper water. Dispersants are 

discussed later in this chapter. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C 

of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Impacts from Subsurface Oil

The presence of a subsurface oil plume on the continental shelf from a shallow-water blowout may 

affect soft bottom benthic communities. A majority of the oil released is expected to rise rapidly to the 

sea surface above the launch point because of the specific gravity characteristics of the oil reserves in the 

GOM, thus not directly sinking to the seafloor and smothering benthic communities. If the oil is ejected 

under high pressure, oil droplets may become entrained in the water column (Boehm and Fiest, 1982; 

Adcroft et al., 2010). The upward movement of the oil may be reduced if methane mixed with the oil is 

dissolved into the water column, reducing the oil’s buoyancy (Adcroft et al., 2010). Large oil droplets 

would rise to the sea surface, but smaller droplets, formed by vigorous turbulence in the plume or the 

injection of dispersants, may remain neutrally buoyant in the water column, creating a subsurface plume 

(Adcroft et al., 2010; Joint Analysis Group, 2010). Dispersed oil in the water column begins to 

biodegrade and may flocculate with particulate matter, promoting sinking of the particles. Subsurface 

plumes generated by high-pressure dissolution of oil may come in contact with portions of the seafloor as 

it travels from the source. A sustained spill would continuously create surface slicks and possibly 

subsurface plumes. Some of the oil in the water column will become diluted or evaporated over time, 

reducing any localized transport to the seafloor (Vandermeulen, 1982). In addition, microbial degradation 

of the oil occurs in the water column so that the oil would be less toxic as it travels from the source 

(Hazen et al., 2010). However, a sustained spill may result in elevated exposure concentrations to benthic 

communities if the plume reaches them. The longer the spill takes to stop, the longer the exposure time 

and higher the exposure concentration may be.

Soft bottom infaunal communities that come into direct contact with oil may experience sublethal 

and/or lethal effects. The greatest effects of oil exposure would occur close to the well and impacts 

would decrease with distance. A subsurface plume that contacts the seafloor may result in acute toxicity. 

The water accommodated fraction (WAF) or water soluble fraction (WSF) of oil that dissolves in water 

may be the most toxic to organisms, especially larvae and embryos in the water column or at the water 

sediment interface. Lethal effects for marine invertebrates have been reported at exposures between 

0.10 ppm to 100 ppm WSF of oil (Suchanek, 1993). The WSF of petroleum hydrocarbons was reportedly 

highly toxic to the embryos of oysters and sea urchins, while sediment containing weathered fuel was not 

toxic to the same species (Beiras and Saco-Álvarez, 2006). Quahog clam embryos and larvae also 

experienced toxicity and deformation of several different crude oils at WSF concentrations between 

0.10 ppm and 10 ppm (Byrne and Calder, 1977). An experiment indicated that the WSF of No. 2 fuel oil 

at a concentration of 5 ppm disrupted the cellular development of 270 out of 300 test organisms within 

3 hours of exposure (Byrne, 1989). After 48 hours exposure, all of the test organisms died and the 

48-hour LC50 (lethal concentration for 50% of the test population) was calculated to be 0.59 ppm (Byrne, 

1989). Another experiment indicated that a WSF of 0.6 ppm and greater of No. 2 fuel oil depressed 

respiration, reduced mobility of sperm, interfered with cell fertilization and embryonic cleavage, and 

retarded larval development of sand dollar eggs (Nicol et al., 1977). Experiments that exposed sea urchin 

embryos to 10-30 ppm WSF of diesel oil for 15-45 days resulted in defective embryonic development and 

nonviable offspring (Vashchenko, 1980). Therefore, any dissolved petroleum hydrocarbon constituents 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-57

that reach larval benthic organisms may cause acute toxicity and other developmental effects to this life 

stage. The WAF and WSF, however, should be considered “worst-case scenario” values as they are 

based on a closed system at equilibrium with the contaminant and, due to its size and complexity, the 

GOM will not reach equilibrium with released oil.

Oil in the water column may impact pelagic eggs and larvae of invertebrates. Toxicity tests indicated 

that eggs of many species were killed by diesel oil in seawater, and in general, the smaller eggs died 

earlier (Chia, 1973). Bivalve fertilization and sperm fertility were depressed with exposure to crude oil 

(Renzoni, 1975). The WSF of crude oil was also highly toxic to gametes, embryos, and larvae of bivalves 

(Renzoni, 1975). Oil concentrations of 0.1 and 1 ppm caused a decrease in fertilization, development of

embryos, survival or larvae, and larval growth in the bivalves Crassostrea virginica and Mulinia lateralis

(Renzoni, 1975). Another experiment, however, calculated the LC50 for a 6-hour exposure of the 

gametes, eggs, and larvae of three bivalves (Crassostrea angulata, Crassostrea gigas, and Mytilus 

galloprovincialis) to be 1,000 ppm oil and 1,000 ppm oil plus dispersant (Renzoni, 1973). Toxicity varies 

widely among species and oil types.

Sublethal responses of marine invertebrates may result in population level changes (Suchanek, 1993). 

Such sublethal responses may occur at concentrations as low as 1-10 ppb (Hyland and Schneider, 1976). 

Sublethal impacts may include reduced feeding rates, reduced ability to detect food, ciliary inhibition, 

reduced movement, decreased aggression, and altered respiration (Suchanek, 1993).

The farther a subsea plume travels, the more physical and biological changes occur to the oil before it 

reaches benthic organisms. Oil would become diluted as it physically mixes with the surrounding water, 

and significant evaporation occurs from surface slicks. The most toxic compounds of oil are lost within 

the first 24 hours of a spill, leaving the heavier, less toxic compounds in the system (Ganning et al., 

1984). An even greater component of the lighter fuel oils dissipates through evaporation. Water currents 

could carry a plume to contact the seafloor directly, but a likely scenario would be for the oil to adhere to 

other particles and precipitate to the seafloor, much like rainfall (International Tanker Owners Pollution 

Federation Limited, 2011; Kingston et al., 1995). Oil also would reach the seafloor through consumption 

by plankton, with excretion distributed over the seafloor (International Tanker Owners Pollution 

Federation Limited, 2011). The longer and farther a subsea plume travels in the sea, the more dilute the 

oil would be (Vandermeulen, 1982; Tkalich and Chan, 2002). In addition, microbial degradation of the 

oil occurs in the water column, reducing toxicity (Hazen et al., 2010; McAuliffe et al., 1981b). The oil 

would move in the direction of prevailing currents (S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd., 1997) and, 

although the oil would weather with the distance it travels, low levels of oil transported in subsea plumes 

would impact benthic communities. These mechanisms would result in a wide distribution of small 

amounts of oil. This oil would be in the process of biodegradation from bacterial action, which would 

continue on the seafloor, resulting in scattered microhabitats with an enriched carbon environment (Hazen 

et al., 2010).

Localized areas of lethal effects would be recolonized by populations from neighboring soft bottom 

substrate once the oil in the sediment has been sufficiently reduced to a level able to support marine life 

(Sanders et al., 1980; Lu and Wu, 2006; Ganning et al., 1984; Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000; Dean 

and Jewett, 2001). This initial recolonization process may be fairly rapid, but full recovery may take up 

to 10 years depending on the species present, substrate in the area, toxicity of oil spilled, concentration 

and dispersion of oil spilled, and other localized environmental factors that may affect recruitment 

(Kingston et al., 1995; Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000; Sanders et al., 1980; Conan, 1982). 

Opportunistic species would take advantage of the barren sediment, repopulating impacted areas first. 

These species may occur within the first recruitment cycle of the surrounding populations or from species 

immigration from surrounding stocks and may maintain a stronghold in the area until community 

succession begins (Rhodes and Germano, 1982; Sanders et al., 1980).

It is unlikely that a subsurface plume from a deepwater blowout would impact shelf communities. 

The oil is anticipated to remain in deep water and be directed by water currents in the deep water. These 

currents do not typically transit from deep water up onto the shelf (Pond and Pickard, 1983; Inoue et al., 

2008). However, the impacts to deepwater soft bottom benthic communities as a result of a blowout 

would similar to those on the continental shelf.
B-58 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Impacts from Dispersed Oil

If dispersants are used at the sea surface, oil may mix into the water column, and if they are applied 

subsea, dispersed oil can travel with currents and contact the seafloor. Chemically dispersed oil from a 

surface slick is not anticipated to result in lethal exposures to organisms on the seafloor. The chemical 

dispersion of oil may increase the weathering process and allow surface oil to be diluted by greater 

amounts of water. Reports on dispersant usage on surface plumes indicate that a majority of the dispersed 

oil remains in the top 10 m (33 ft) of the water column, with 60 percent of the oil in the top 2 m (6 ft) 

(McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Dispersant usage also reduces the oil’s ability to stick to particles in the water 

column, minimizing oiled sediments from traveling to the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). If applied, 

subsea benthic communities near the source could be exposed to dispersed oil that is concentrated enough 

to harm the benthic community. If the oil remains suspended for a longer period of time, it would be 

more dispersed and less concentrated. There is very little information on the behavior of subsea 

dispersants.

Dispersed oil used at the sea surface reaching the benthic communities in the Gulf of Mexico would 

be expected to be at very low concentrations (<1 ppm) (McAuliffe et al., 1981a). Such concentrations 

would not be life threatening to larval or adult stages on the seafloor based on experiments conducted 

with benthic and pelagic species (Scarlett et al., 2005; Hemmer et al., 2010; George-Ares and Clark, 

2000). Any dispersed oil in the water column that comes in contact with benthic communities may evoke 

short-term negative responses by the organisms (Scarlett et al., 2005). Sublethal responses may include 

reduced feeding rate, erratic movement, and tentacle retraction (Scarlett et al., 2005). In addition, 

although dispersants were detected in waters off Louisiana after the Macondo well blowout and spill, they 

were below USEPA benchmarks of chronic toxicity (OSAT, 2010). The rapid dilution of dispersants in 

the water column and lack of transport to the seafloor was also reported by OSAT (2010) where no 

dispersants were detected in sediment on the Gulf floor following the Macondo well blowout and spill. 

Impacts from Oil Adhering to Sediments

Oiled sediment that settles to the seafloor may affect organisms upon which it settles. The greatest 

impacts would be closest to the well where organisms may become smothered by particles and exposed to 

hydrocarbons. High concentrations of suspended sediment in the water column may lend to large 

quantities of oiled sediment (Moore, 1976). Deposition of oiled sediment is anticipated to begin 

occurring within days or weeks of the spill and may be fairly deep near the source (Ganning et al., 1984; 

Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000). Oily sand layers were reported to be 10 cm (4 in) deep on the 

seafloor near the Amoco Cadiz spill (Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000). Acute toxicity may occur near 

the spill, eliminating benthic communities.

Much of the oil released from a blowout would rise to the sea surface, therefore dispersing the 

released oil before it makes its way back to the seafloor through flocculation, by deposition from 

organisms that pass it through their systems with food, and by adhering to sinking particles in the water 

column. In addition, small droplets of oil that are entrained in the water column for extended periods of 

time may migrate a great distance from their point of release and may attach to suspended particles in the 

water column and later be deposited on the seafloor (McAuliffe et al., 1975). The majority of organisms 

exposed to oiled sediment are anticipated to experience low-level concentrations because as the oiled 

sediments settle to the seafloor they are widely dispersed. Impacts may include reduced recruitment 

success, reduced growth, and altered community composition as a result of impaired recruitment.

Impacts from Oil-Spill-Response Activity

Continued localized disturbance of soft bottom communities may occur during oil-spill response 

efforts. Anchors used to set booms to contain oil or vessel anchors in decontamination zones may affect 

infaunal communities in the response activity zone. Infaunal communities may be altered in the anchor 

scar, and deposition of suspended sediment may result from the setting and resetting of anchors. The 

disturbed benthic community should begin to repopulate from the surrounding communities during their 

next recruitment event and through immigration of organisms from surrounding stocks. Any 

decontamination activities, such as cleaning vessel hulls of oil, may also contaminate the sediments of the 

decontamination zone, as some oil may settle to the seabed, impacting the underlying benthic community.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-59

If a blowout occurs at the seafloor, drilling muds (primarily barite) may be pumped into a well in 

order to “kill” it. If a kill is not successful, the mud (possibly tens of thousands of barrels) may be forced 

out of the well and deposited on the seafloor near the well site. Any organisms beneath heavy layers of 

the extruded drilling mud would be buried. Base fluids of drilling muds are designed to be low in toxicity 

and biodegradable in offshore marine sediments (Neff et al., 2000). However, as bacteria and fungi break 

down the drilling fluids, the sediments may temporarily become anoxic (Neff et al., 2000). Benthic 

macrofaunal recovery would occur when drilling mud concentrations are reduced to levels that enable the 

sediment to become re-oxygenated (Neff et al., 2000). Complete community recovery from drilling mud 

exposure may take 3-5 years, although microbial degradation of drilling fluids, followed by an influx of 

tolerant opportunistic species, is anticipated to begin almost immediately (Neff et al., 2000). In addition, 

the extruded mud may bury hydrocarbons from the well, making them a hazard to the infaunal species 

and difficult to remove.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

There would likely be no additional adverse impacts to soft bottom benthic communities as a result of 

events and the potential impact producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 3 of a catastrophic 

spill because these soft bottom benthic communities are located below the water line.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Benthic Habitats

In situations where soft bottom infaunal communities are negatively impacted, recolonization by 

populations from neighboring soft bottom substrate would be expected over a relatively short period. 

Recolonization would begin with recruitment and immigration of opportunistic species from surrounding 

stocks. More complex communities would follow with time. Repopulation could take longer for areas 

affected by direct oil contact in higher concentrations.

Many of the organisms on soft bottoms live within the sediment and have the ability to migrate 

upward in response to burial by sedimentation. A blowout that occurs outside the well casing can rapidly 

deposit 30 cm (12 in) or more of sediment within a few hundred meters and may smother much of the soft 

bottom community in a localized area. In situations where soft bottom infaunal communities are 

negatively impacted, recolonization by populations from neighboring soft bottom substrate would be 

expected over a relatively short period of time for all size ranges of organisms, in a matter of days for 

bacteria, and probably less than 1 year for most macrofauna and megafauna species. Recolonization 

could take longer for areas affected by direct contact of concentrated oil. Initial repopulation from nearby 

stocks of pioneering species, such as tube-dwelling polychaetes or oligochaetes, may begin with the next 

recruitment event (Rhodes and Germano, 1982). Full recovery would follow as later stages of 

successional communities overtake the pioneering species (Rhodes and Germano, 1982). The time it 

takes to reach a climax community may vary depending on the species and degree of impact. Full benthic 

community recovery may take years to decades if the benthic habitat is heavily oiled (Gómez Gesteira 

and Dauvin, 2000; Sanders et al., 1980; Conan, 1982). A slow recovery rate would result in a community 

with reduced biological diversity and possibly a lesser food value for predatory species.

Localized areas of lethal effects would be recolonized by populations from neighboring soft bottom 

substrate once the oil in the sediment has been sufficiently reduced to a level able to support marine life 

(Sanders et al., 1980; Lu and Wu, 2006; Ganning et al., 1984; Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000; Dean 

and Jewett, 2001). This initial recolonization process may be fairly rapid, but full recovery may take up 

to 10 years depending on the species present, substrate in the area, toxicity of oil spilled, concentration 

and dispersion of oil spilled, and other localized environmental factors that may affect recruitment 

(Kingston et al., 1995; Gómez Gesteira and Dauvin, 2000; Sanders et al., 1980; Conan, 1982). 

Opportunistic species would take advantage of the barren sediment, repopulating impacted areas first. 

These species may occur within the first recruitment cycle of the surrounding populations or from species 

immigration from surrounding stocks and may maintain a stronghold in the area until community 

succession begins (Rhodes and Germano, 1982; Sanders et al., 1980).
B-60 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

A catastrophic blowout and spill would have the greatest impact on the soft bottom benthic 

communities in the immediate vicinity of the spill. Turbidity, sedimentation, and oiling would be 

heaviest closest to the source, and decrease with distance from the source. Complete loss of benthic 

populations may occur with heavy sedimentation and oil deposition. Farther from the well, a less thick 

layer of sediment would be deposited and oil would be dispersed from the source, resulting in sublethal 

impacts. The recovery of benthic populations would begin with recruitment from surrounding areas fairly 

rapidly.

B.3.1.12. Marine Mammals

Phase 1—Initial Event

Phase 1 of the scenario is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout event. Impacts, response, and 

intervention depend on the spatial location of the blowout and leak. For this analysis, an explosion and 

subsequent fire are assumed to occur. If a blowout associated with the drilling of a single exploratory 

well occurs, this could result in a fire that would burn for 1 or 2 days. If a blowout occurs on a production 

platform, other wells could feed the fire, allowing it to burn for over a month. The drilling rig or platform 

may sink. If the blowout occurs in shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate 

vicinity; if the blowout occurs in deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away, beyond 

avoidance zones. Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and rescue 

vessels and aircraft, such as USCG cutters, helicopters, and rescue planes, and firefighting vessels. 

Potential impacts reflect the explosion, subsequent fire for 1-30 days, and the sinking of the platform in 

the immediate vicinity and up to 1 mi (1.6 km) from the well.

Depending on the type of blowout, the pressure waves and noise generated by the eruption of gases 

and fluids would likely be significant enough to harass, injure, or kill marine mammals, depending on the 

proximity of the animal to the blowout. A high concentration of response vessels could result in 

harassment or displacement of individuals and could place marine mammals at a greater risk of vessel 

collisions, which would likely cause fatal injuries.

The scenarios for each phase, including cleanup methods, can be found in Table B-4. 

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. A 

catastrophic spill would likely spread hundreds of square miles. Also, the oil slick may break into several 

smaller slicks, depending on local wind patterns that drive the surface currents in the spill area. Potential 

impacts reflect spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. Season and temperature variations 

can result in different resource impacts due to variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity 

and because of differences in potential exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

An oil spill and related spill-response activities can impact marine mammals that come into contact 

with oil and remediation efforts. The marine mammals’ exposure to hydrocarbons persisting in the sea 

may result in sublethal impacts (e.g., decreased health, reproductive fitness, longevity, and increased 

vulnerability to disease), some soft tissue irritation, respiratory stress from inhalation of toxic fumes, food 

reduction or contamination, direct ingestion of oil and/or tar, and temporary displacement from preferred 

habitats or migration routes. More detail on the potential range of effects to marine mammals from 

contact with spilled oil can be found in Geraci and St. Aubin (1990). The best available information does 

not provide a complete understanding of the effects of the spilled oil and active response/cleanup 

activities on marine mammals. For example, it is expected that the large amount of chemical dispersants 

being used on the oil may act as an irritant on the marine mammals’ tissues and sensitive membranes.

The increased human presence after an oil spill (e.g., vessels) would likely add to changes in behavior 

and/or distribution, thereby potentially stressing marine mammals further and perhaps making them more 

vulnerable to various physiologic and toxic effects. In addition, the large number of response vessels 

could place marine mammals at a greater risk of vessel collisions, which could cause fatal injuries.

The potential biological removal (PBR) level is defined by the Marine Mammal Protection Act as the 

maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities that may be removed from a marine 

mammal stock while allowing that stock to reach or maintain its optimum sustainable population. 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-61

However, in the Gulf of Mexico, many marine mammal species have unknown PBR’s or PBR’s with 

outdated abundance estimates, which are considered undetermined. The biological significance of any 

injury or mortality would depend, in part, on the size and reproductive rates of the affected stocks, as well 

as the number, age, and size of the marine mammals affected.

The Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response in Mississippi Canyon Block 252 

(including use of dispersants) have impacted marine mammals that have come into contact with oil and 

remediation efforts. According to the “Dolphins and Whales of the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill” website, 

within the designated Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response area, 171 marine mammals 

(89% of which were deceased) were reported. This includes 155 bottlenose dolphins, 2 Kogia spp., 

2 melon-headed whales, 6 spinner dolphins, 2 sperm whales, and 4 unknown species (USDOC, NMFS, 

2011b). All marine mammals collected either alive or dead were found east of the Louisiana/Texas 

border through Apalachicola, Florida. The highest concentration of strandings has occurred off eastern 

Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama, with a significantly lesser number off western Louisiana and 

western Florida (USDOC, NMFS, 2011b). Due to known low-detection rates of carcasses, it is possible 

that the number of deaths of marine mammals is underestimated (Williams et al., 2011). It is also 

important to note that evaluations have not yet confirmed the cause of death, and it is possible that many, 

some, or no carcasses collected were related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. 

These stranding numbers are significantly greater than reported in past years; though it should be further 

noted that stranding coverage (i.e., effort in collecting strategies) has increased considerably due to the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is 

contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Phase 3 focuses on nearshore (e.g., inside bays and in close proximity to shoreline) and onshore spill 

response and oil initially reaching the shoreline during the spill event or while the oil still persists in the 

offshore environment once the spillage has been stopped. It is likely that Phases 2 and 3 could occur 

simultaneously. The duration of the initial shoreline oiling is measured from initial shoreline contact until 

the well is capped or killed and the remaining oil dissipates offshore. Re-oiling of already cleaned or 

previously impacted areas could be expected during Phase 3. In addition to the response described in 

Phase 2, nearshore and onshore efforts would be introduced in Phase 3 as oil entered coastal areas and 

contacted shore. Potential impacts reflect the spill and response in very shallow coastal waters and once 

along the shoreline. Season and temperature variations can result in different resource impacts due to 

variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity and because of differences in potential 

exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

A high-volume oil spill lasting 90 days could directly impact over 22 species of marine mammals. As 

a spill enters coastal waters, manatees and coastal and estuarine dolphins would be the most likely to be 

affected.

Manatees primarily inhabit open coastal (shallow nearshore) areas and estuaries, and they are also 

found far up in freshwater tributaries. Florida manatees have been divided into four distinct regional 

management units: the Atlantic Coast Unit that occupies the east coast of Florida, including the Florida 

Keys and the lower St. Johns River north of Palatka, Florida; the Southwest Unit that occurs from Pasco 

County, Florida, south to Whitewater Bay in Monroe County, Florida; the Upper St. Johns River Unit that 

occurs in the river south of Palatka, Florida; and the Northwest Unit that occupies the Florida Panhandle 

south to Hernando County, Florida (Waring et al., 2012). Manatees from the Northwest Unit are more 

likely to be seen in the northern GOM, and they can be found as far west as Texas; however, most 

sightings are in the eastern GOM (Fertl et al., 2005).

During warmer months (June to September), manatees are common along the Gulf Coast of Florida 

from the Everglades National Park northward to the Suwannee River in northwestern Florida. Although 

manatees are less common farther westward, manatee sightings increase during the warmer summer 

months. Winter habitat use is primarily influenced by water temperature as animals congregate at natural 

(springs) and/or artificial (power plant outflows) warm water sources (Alves-Stanley et al., 2010). 

Manatees are infrequently found as far west as Texas (Powell and Rathbun, 1984; Rathbun et al., 1990; 

Schiro et al., 1998). If a catastrophic oil spill reached the Florida coast when manatees were in or near 

coastal waters, the spill could have population-level effects.
B-62 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

It is possible that manatees could occur in coastal areas where vessels traveling to and from the spill 

site could affect them. A manatee present where there is vessel traffic could be injured or killed by a 

vessel strike (Wright et al., 1995). Due to the large number of vessels responding to a catastrophic spill 

both in coastal waters and traveling through coastal waters to the offshore site, manatees would have an 

increased risk of collisions with boats. Vessel strikes are the primary cause of death of manatees.

The best available count of Florida manatees is 4,824 animals, based on a January 2014 aerial survey 

of warm water refuges (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2014a). By February 2014, 

there were 114 manatee carcasses collected in Florida, 20 of these animals died of human causes (Florida 

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2014b). Human causes included water control structures, 

entanglement in and ingestion of marine debris, entrapment in pipes/culverts, and collisions with 

watercraft. Seventy percent of the manatees that died of human causes were killed by watercraft (Florida 

Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2014b). Therefore, if a catastrophic spill and response 

vessel traffic occurred near manatee habitats in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, population-level impacts 

could occur because the possibility exists for the number of mortalities to exceed the potential biological 

removal.

There have been no experimental studies and only a few observations suggesting that oil impacts have 

harmed any manatees (St. Aubin and Lounsbury, 1990). Types of impacts to manatees and dugongs from 

contact with oil include (1) asphyxiation because of inhalation of hydrocarbons, (2) acute poisoning 

because of contact with fresh oil, (3) lowering of tolerance to other stress because of the incorporation of 

sublethal amounts of petroleum components into body tissues, (4) nutritional stress through damage to 

food sources, and (5) inflammation or infection and difficulty eating because of oil sticking to the sensory 

hairs around their mouths (Preen, 1989, in Sadiq and McCain, 1993; Australian Maritime Safety 

Authority, 2003). For a population whose environment is already under great pressure, even a localized 

incident could be significant (St. Aubin and Lounsbury, 1990). Spilled oil might affect the quality or 

availability of aquatic vegetation, including seagrasses, upon which manatees feed.

Bottlenose dolphins were the most affected species of marine mammals from the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response. Bottlenose dolphins can be found throughout coastal waters in the Gulf 

of Mexico. Like manatees, dolphins could be affected, possibly to population level, by a catastrophic oil 

spill if it reaches the coast (as well as affecting them in the open ocean), through direct contact, 

inhalation, ingestion, and stress, as well as through collisions with cleanup vessels.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Phase 4 focuses on long term recovery once the well has been capped and the spill has stopped. 

During the final phase of a catastrophic blowout and spill, it is presumed that the well has been capped or 

killed and cleanup activities are concluding. While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil would be 

dissipated offshore within 1-2 months (depending on season and temperature) of stopping the flow, oil 

has the potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event and has been detected in sediment 

30 years after a spill. On sandy beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments. In tidal flats and salt 

marshes, oil may seep into the muddy bottoms. Potential impacts reflect long term persistence of oil in 

the environment and residual and long term clean-up efforts.

Even after the spill is stopped, oilings or deaths of marine mammals would still likely occur because 

of oil and dispersants persisting in the water, past marine mammal/oil or dispersant interactions, and 

ingestion of contaminated prey. The animals’ exposure to hydrocarbons persisting in the sea may result 

in sublethal impacts (e.g., decreased health, reproductive fitness, and longevity; and increased 

vulnerability to disease) and some soft tissue irritation, respiratory stress from inhalation of toxic fumes, 

food reduction or contamination, direct ingestion of oil and/or tar, and temporary displacement from 

preferred habitats or migration routes. A catastrophic oil spill could lead to increased mortalities, 

resulting in potential population-level effects for some species/populations (USDOC, NMFS, 2010a). 

On December 13, 2010, NMFS declared an unusual mortality event (UME) for cetaceans (whales and 

dolphins) in the Gulf of Mexico. An UME is defined under the Marine Mammal Protect Act as a 

“stranding that is unexpected, involves a significant die-off of any marine mammal population, and 

demands immediate response.” Evidence of the UME was first noted by NMFS as early as February 1, 

2010, before the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. As of March 30, 2014, a total of 

1,156 cetaceans (5% stranded alive and 95% stranded dead) have stranded since the start of the UME, 

with a vast majority of these strandings between Franklin County, Florida, and the Louisiana/Texas 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-63

border. After the initial response phase ended, there were six dolphins killed during a fish-related 

scientific study and one dolphin killed incidental to trawl relocation for a dredging project. More detail

on the UME can be found on NMFS’s website (USDOC, NMFS, 2014).

On May 9, 2012, NOAA declared an UME for bottlenose dolphins in five Texas counties. The cause 

of this UME is unknown and cannot be attributed directly to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response. The strandings were coincident with a harmful algal bloom of Karenia brevis that started 

in September 2011 in southern Texas, but researchers have not determined that was the cause of the 

event. The UME lasted from November 2011-March 2012, when 126 bottlenose dolphins stranded in 

Aransas, Calhoun, Kleberg, Galveston, and Brazoria Counties in Texas. Of the 126 animals stranded, 

only 4 were found alive. Preliminary findings included infection in the lung, poor body condition, 

discoloration of the teeth, and in four animals, a black/grey, thick mud-like substance in the stomachs was 

found. Currently, there are no red tide blooms occurring in the region, and stranding rates have returned 

to normal levels (USDOC, NMFS, 2013).

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Accidental events related to a WPA proposed action have the potential to have adverse, but not 

significant impacts to marine mammal populations in the GOM. Accidental blowouts, oil spills, and 

spill-response activities may impact marine mammals in the GOM. Characteristics of impacts (i.e., acute 

vs. chronic impacts) depend on the magnitude, frequency, location, and date of accidents; characteristics 

of spilled oil; spill-response capabilities and timing; and various meteorological and hydrological factors.

B.3.1.13. Sea Turtles

Phase 1—Initial Event

Phase 1 of the scenario is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout incident. Impacts, response, and 

intervention depend on the spatial location of the blowout and leak. For this analysis, an explosion and 

subsequent fire are assumed to occur. If a blowout associated with the drilling of a single exploratory 

well occurs, this could result in a fire that would burn for 1-2 days. If a blowout occurs on a production 

platform, other wells could feed the fire, allowing it to burn for over a month. The drilling rig or platform 

may sink. If the blowout occurs in shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate 

vicinity; if the blowout occurs in deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away, beyond 

avoidance zones. Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and rescue 

vessels and aircraft, such as USCG cutters, helicopters, and rescue planes, and firefighting vessels. 

Potential impacts reflect the explosion, subsequent fire for 1-30 days, and the sinking of the platform in 

the immediate vicinity and up to 1 mi (1.6 km) from the well.

Five species of sea turtles are found in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico: green, leatherback, 

hawksbill, Kemp’s ridley, and loggerhead. All species are protected under the Endangered Species Act 

(ESA), and all are listed as endangered except the loggerhead turtle, which is listed as threatened. 

Depending on the type of blowout, an eruption of gases and fluids may generate significant pressure 

waves and noise that may harass, injure, or kill sea turtles, depending on their proximity to the accident. 

A high concentration of response vessels could place sea turtles at a greater risk of fatal injuries from 

vessel collisions. All sea turtle species and life stages are vulnerable to the harmful effects of oil through 

direct contact or by fouling of their habitats and prey.

Further, mitigation by burning puts turtles at risk because they tend to be gathered up in the corralling 

process necessary to concentrate the oil in preparation for the burning. Trained observers should be 

required during any mitigation efforts that include burning. The scenarios for each phase, including 

cleanup methods, can be found in Table B-4. 

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. A 

catastrophic spill would likely spread hundreds of square miles. Also, the oil slick may break into several 

smaller slicks, depending on local wind patterns that drive the surface currents in the spill area. Potential 

impacts reflect spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. Season and temperature variations 
B-64 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

can result in different resource impacts due to variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity 

and because of differences in potential exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

Sea turtles are more likely to be affected by a catastrophic spill in shallow water than in deep water 

because not all sea turtles occupy a deepwater habitat. For example, Kemp’s ridley sea turtles are 

unlikely to be in water depths of 160 ft (49 m) or greater. Hawksbill sea turtles are commonly associated 

with coral reefs, ledges, caves, rocky outcrops, and high energy shoals. Green sea turtles are commonly 

found in coastal benthic feeding grounds, although they may also be found in the convergence zones of 

the open ocean. Convergence zones are areas that also may collect oil. Leatherback sea turtles are 

commonly pelagic and are the sea turtle species most likely to be affected by a deepwater oil spill. As the 

spilled oil moves toward land, additional species of sea turtles are more likely to be affected.

The Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response in Mississippi Canyon Block (including use 

of dispersants) have impacted sea turtles that have come into contact with oil and remediation efforts. For 

the latest available information on oiled or affected sea turtles documented in the area, refer to NMFS’s 

“Sea Turtles and the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill” website (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c).

According to this NMFS website, 1,146 sea turtles have been collected (537 alive, 609 deceased) as 

of February 15, 2011. Of these, 201 were greens, 16 hawksbills, 809 Kemp’s ridleys, 88 loggerheads, 

and the remaining 32 unknown (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c). Individuals were documented either through 

strandings or directed offshore captures. Due to low detection rates of carcasses in prior events, it is 

possible that the number of deaths of sea turtles is underestimated (Epperly et al., 1996). It is also 

important to note that evaluations have not yet confirmed the cause of death, and it is possible that not all 

carcasses were related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Over the last 2 years, 

NOAA has documented increased numbers of sea turtle strandings in the northern GOM. Many of the 

stranded turtles were reported from Mississippi and Alabama waters, and very few showed signs of 

external oiling (believed to be related to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response). 

Necropsy results from many of the stranded turtles indicate mortality due to forced submergence, which is 

commonly associated with fishery interactions. In May 2012, NMFS published the Draft EIS to reduce 

incidental bycatch and mortality of sea turtles in the southeastern U.S. shrimp fishery (Federal Register, 

2012). Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The Ixtoc I well blowout and spill in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico, on June 3, 1979, resulted in the 

release of 500,000 metric tons (140 million gallons) of oil and the transport of this oil into the Gulf of 

Mexico (ERCO, 1982). Three million gallons of oil impacted Texas beaches (ERCO, 1982). According 

to the ERCO study, “Whether or not hypoxic conditions could, in fact, be responsible for areawide 

reductions in [invertebrate] faunal abundance is unclear, however.” Of the three sea turtles found dead in 

the U.S., all had petroleum hydrocarbons in the tissues examined, and there was selective elimination of 

portions of this oil, indicating chronic exposure (Hall et al., 1983). Therefore, the effects of the Ixtoc I

well blowout and spill on sea turtles in waters off Texas are still unknown.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Phase 3 focuses on nearshore (e.g., inside bays and in close proximity to shoreline) and onshore spill 

response, and on oil initially reaching the shoreline during the spill event or while the oil still persists in 

the offshore environment once the spillage has been stopped. It is likely that Phases 2 and 3 could occur 

simultaneously. The duration of the initial shoreline oiling is measured from initial shoreline contact until 

the well is capped or killed and the remaining oil dissipates offshore. The re-oiling of already cleaned or 

previously impacted areas could be expected during Phase 3. In addition to the response described in 

Phase 2, nearshore and onshore efforts would be introduced in Phase 3 as oil entered coastal areas and 

contacted shore. Potential impacts reflect the spill and response in very shallow coastal waters and once 

along the shoreline. Season and temperature variations can result in different resource impacts due to 

variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity and because of differences in potential 

exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

Out of the five species of sea turtle that occur in the Gulf of Mexico, only four nest in the GOM. The 

largest nesting location for the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle is in Rancho Nuevo, Mexico, but they also nest in 

Texas and Alabama. Loggerhead sea turtles nest in all states around the Gulf of Mexico. Green sea 

turtles have been cited nesting in Texas, Alabama, and Florida. Leatherback sea turtles mostly nest on the 

east coast of Florida but are recorded in Texas. Kemp’s ridley, loggerhead, and green sea turtles are 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-65

therefore most likely to be affected by a catastrophic oil spill when there is onshore and/or offshore 

contact.

Several recent reports are available concerning Gulf of Mexico loggerheads’ nesting habitats and 

movements (Hart et al., 2013), post-nesting behavior (Foley et al., 2013), foraging sites (Foley et al., 

2014), and body size effects on growth rates (Bjorndal et al., 2013). These reports confirm the 

importance of Gulf of Mexico beaches, specifically for loggerheads. On September 22, 2011, NMFS 

issued the final rule to list 9 Distinct Population Segments (DPSs) of loggerhead sea turtles under the 

ESA and designated the GOM as the Northwest Atlantic Ocean DPS (Federal Register, 2011). 

Female sea turtles seasonally emerge during the warmer summer months to nest on beaches. 

Thousands of sea turtles nest along the Gulf Coast, and turtles could build nests on oiled beaches. Nests 

could also be disturbed or destroyed by cleanup efforts. Untended booms could wash ashore and become 

a barrier to sea turtle adults and hatchlings (USDOC, NOAA, 2010c). Hatchlings, with a naturally high 

mortality rate, could traverse the beach through oiled sand and swim through oiled water to reach 

preferred habitats of Sargassum floats. Response efforts could include mass movement of eggs from 

hundreds of nests or thousands of hatchlings from Gulf Coast beaches to the east coast of Florida or to the 

open ocean to prevent hatchlings entering oiled waters (Jernelöv and Lindén, 1981; USDOI, FWS, 

2010b). Due to poorly understood mechanisms that guide female sea turtles back to the beaches where 

they hatched, it is uncertain if relocated hatchlings would eventually return to the Gulf Coast to nest 

(Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2010). Therefore, shoreline oiling and response 

efforts may affect future population levels and reproduction (USDOI, NPS, 2010). Sea turtle hatchling 

exposure to, fouling by, or consumption of tarballs persisting in the sea following the dispersal of an oil 

slick would likely be fatal. 

As a preventative measure during the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, NMFS 

and FWS translocated a number of sea turtle nests and eggs that were located on beaches affected or 

potentially affected by spilled oil. The NMFS stranding network website (USDOC, NMFS, 2011c) 

translocated a total of 274 nests from GOM beaches to the east coast of Florida. These nests were mainly 

for hatchlings that would enter waters off Alabama and Florida’s northwest Gulf Coast. Of these, 4 were 

from green turtles, 5 from Kemp’s ridley, and 265 were loggerheads. The translocation effort ended 

August 19, 2010, at the time when biologists determined that risks to hatchlings emerging from beaches 

and entering waters off Alabama and Florida’s northwest Gulf Coast had diminished significantly and that 

the risks of translocating nests during late incubation to the east coast of Florida outweighed the risks of 

letting hatchlings emerge into the Gulf of Mexico. The hatchlings resulting from the translocations were 

all released as of September 9, 2010.

In addition to the impacts from direct contact with hydrocarbons, spill-response activities could 

adversely affect sea turtle habitat and cause displacement from suitable habitat to inadequate areas. 

Impacting factors might include artificial lighting from night operations, booms, machine and human 

activity, equipment on beaches and in intertidal areas, sand removal and cleaning, and changed beach 

landscape and composition. Some of the resulting impacts from cleanup could include interrupted or 

deterred nesting behavior, crushed nests, entanglement in booms, and increased mortality of hatchlings 

because of predation during the increased time required to reach the water (Newell, 1995; Lutcavage 

et al., 1997). The strategy for cleanup operations should vary, depending on the season.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Phase 4 focuses on long-term recovery once the well has been capped and the spill has stopped. 

During the final phase of a catastrophic blowout and spill, it is presumed that the well has been capped or 

killed and that cleanup activities are concluding. While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil 

would be dissipated offshore within 1-2 months (depending on season and temperature) of stopping the 

flow, oil has the potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event and has been detected in 

sediment 30 years after a spill. On sandy beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments. In tidal flats and 

salt marshes, oil may seep into the muddy bottoms. Potential impacts reflect long-term persistence of oil 

in the environment and residual and long-term cleanup efforts.

Sea turtles take many years to reach sexual maturity. Green sea turtles reach maturity between 20 and 

50 years of age; loggerheads may be 35 years old before they are able to reproduce; and hawksbill sea 

turtles typically reach lengths of 27 in (69 cm) for males and 31 in (79 cm) for females before they can 

reproduce (USDOC, NMFS, 2010a). Declines in the food supply for sea turtles, which include 
B-66 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

invertebrates and sponge populations, could also affect sea turtle populations. While all of the pathways 

that an oil spill or the use of dispersants can affect sea turtles is poorly understood, some pathways may 

include the following: (1) oil or dispersants on the sea turtle’s skin and body can cause skin irritation, 

chemical burns, and infections; (2) inhalation of volatile petroleum compounds or dispersants can damage 

the respiratory tract and lead to diseases; (3) ingesting oil or dispersants may cause injury to the 

gastrointestinal tract; and (4) chemicals that are inhaled or ingested may damage internal organs. In most 

foreseeable cases, exposure to hydrocarbons persisting in the sea following the dispersal of an oil slick 

would result in sublethal impacts (e.g., decreased health, reproductive fitness, and longevity and increased 

vulnerability to disease) to sea turtles. Other possible internal impacts might include harm to the liver, 

kidney, and brain function, as well as causing anemia and immune suppression, or they could lead to 

reproductive failure or death. The deaths of subadult and adult sea turtles may also drastically reduce the 

population.

Since January 1, 2011, a notable increase in sea turtle strandings has occurred in the northern GOM, 

primarily in Mississippi. While turtle strandings in this region typically increase in the spring, the recent 

increase is a cause for concern. The Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network is monitoring and 

investigating this increase. The network encompasses the coastal areas of the 18 states from Maine 

through Texas and includes portions of the U.S. Caribbean. There are many possible reasons for the 

increase in strandings in the northern GOM, both natural and human caused (USDOC, NMFS, 2012a). 

One sea turtle had a small amount of tar from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response on 

its shell. No visible external or internal oil was observed in any other animals. These sea turtle species 

include loggerhead, green, Kemp’s ridley, leatherback, hawksbill, and unidentified. The NMFS has also 

identified strandings in Texas (upper Texas coast—Zone 18). Refer to Chapter 4.1.1.12 for updated 

turtle stranding data for the Gulf of Mexico.

Over the last 2 years, NOAA has documented necropsy results from many of the stranded turtles, 

indicating mortality due to forced submergence, which is commonly associated with fishery interactions, 

and acute toxicosis. On May 10, 2012, NMFS published the Draft EIS to reduce incidental bycatch and 

mortality of sea turtles in the southeastern U.S. shrimp fishery (Federal Register, 2012).

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Accidental blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response activities resulting from a WPA proposed action 

have the potential to impact small to large numbers of sea turtles in the GOM, depending on the 

magnitude and frequency of accidents, the ability to respond to accidents, the location and date of 

accidents, and various meteorological and hydrological factors. Impacts on sea turtles from smaller 

accidental events are likely to affect individual sea turtles in the spill area, but they are unlikely to rise to 

the level of population effects (or significance) given the size and scope of such spills.

Unavailable information on the effects to sea turtles from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response and increased stranding events (and thus changes to the sea turtle baseline in the affected 

environment) makes an understanding of the effects less clear.

For low-probability catastrophic spills, this analysis concludes that there is a potential for a lowprobability catastrophic event to result in significant, population-level effects on affected sea turtle 

species.

B.3.1.14. Diamondback Terrapins

Phase1—Initial Event

Phase 1 of the scenario is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout event. Impacts, response, and 

intervention depend on the spatial location of the blowout and leak. For this analysis, an explosion and 

subsequent fire are assumed to occur. If a blowout associated with the drilling of a single exploratory

well occurs, this could result in a fire that would burn for 1-2 days. If a blowout occurs on a production 

platform, other wells could feed the fire, allowing it to burn for over a month. The drilling rig or platform 

may sink. If the blowout occurs in shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate 

vicinity; if the blowout occurs in deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away, beyond 

avoidance zones. Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and rescue 

vessels and aircraft, such as USCG cutters, helicopters, and rescue planes, and firefighting vessels. 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-67

Potential impacts reflect the explosion, subsequent fire for 1-30 days and the sinking of the platform in 

the immediate vicinity and up to 1 mi (1.6 km) from the well.

The scenarios for each phase, including cleanup methods, can be found in Table B-4. 

There would likely be no adverse impacts to diamondback terrapins as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event 

because these species exclusively inhabit estuarine waters and salt marshes. 

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. A 

catastrophic spill would likely spread hundreds of square miles. Also, the oil slick may break into several 

smaller slicks, depending on local wind patterns that drive the surface currents in the spill area. Potential 

impacts reflect spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. Season and temperature variations 

can result in different resource impacts due to variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity 

and because of differences in potential exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

There would likely be no adverse impacts to diamondback terrapins as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill event 

because these species exclusively inhabit estuarine waters and salt marshes. 

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Phase 3 focuses on nearshore (e.g., inside bays and in close proximity to shoreline) and onshore spill 

response and on oil initially reaching the shoreline during the spill event or while the oil still persists in 

the offshore environment once the spillage has been stopped. It is likely that Phases 2 and 3 could occur 

simultaneously. The duration of the initial shoreline oiling is measured from initial shoreline contact until 

the well is capped or killed and the remaining oil dissipates offshore. The re-oiling of already cleaned or 

previously impacted areas could be expected during Phase 3. In addition to the response described in 

Phase 2, nearshore and onshore efforts would be introduced in Phase 3 as oil entered coastal areas and 

contacted shore. Potential impacts reflect the spill and response in very shallow coastal waters and once 

along the shoreline. Season and temperature variations can result in different resource impacts due to 

variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity and because of differences in the potential 

exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

The major impact-producing factors resulting from the low-probability catastrophic event at may 

affect the five terrapin subspecies that occur in the WPA and CPA include offshore and coastal oil spills 

and spill-response activities.

Terrapins inhabit brackish waters including coastal marshes, tidal flats, creeks, and lagoons behind 

barrier beaches (Hogan, 2003). Their diet consists of fish, snails, worms, clams, crabs, and marsh plants 

(Cagle, 1952). Courtship and mating occur in March and April, and the nesting season extends through 

July, with possibly multiple clutches (U.S. Dept. of the Army, COE, 2002; Butler et al., 2006). Terrapins 

nest on dunes, beaches, sandy edges of marshes, islands, and dike roads (Roosenburg, 1994). The 

common factor for proper egg development is sandy soil, which does not clog eggshell pores, thus 

allowing sufficient gas exchange between the developing embryo and the environment (Roosenburg, 

1994). Nesting occurs primarily in the daytime during high tide on high sand dunes with gentle slopes 

and minimal vegetation (Burger, 1977). Clutch size ranges from 4 to 22 eggs, and incubation time ranges 

from 61 to 104 days (Butler et al., 2006; Burger, 1977). Female terrapins may nest 2-3 times in the same 

nesting season. Gender determination is temperature dependent. Hatching occurs from July through 

October in northeastern Florida (Butler et al., 2004).

Spending most of their lives at the aquatic-terrestrial boundary in estuaries, terrapins are susceptible 

to habitat destruction from oil-spill cleanup efforts as well as direct contact with oil. However, most 

impacts cannot be quantified at this time. Even after oil is no longer visible, terrapins may still be 

exposed while they forage in the salt marshes lining the edges of estuaries, where oil may have 

accumulated under the sediments and within the food chain. Terrapin nests can also be disturbed or 

destroyed by cleanup efforts. The range of the possible chronic effects from contact with oil and 

dispersants include lethal or sublethal oil-related injuries that may include skin irritation from the oil or 

dispersants, respiratory problems from the inhalation of volatile petroleum compounds or dispersants, 
B-68 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

gastrointestinal problems caused by the ingestion of oil or dispersants, and damage to other organs 

because of the ingestion or inhalation of these chemicals.

Accidental blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response activities resulting from a WPA proposed action 

have the potential to impact small to large numbers of terrapins within their habitat, depending on the 

magnitude and frequency of accidents, the ability to respond to accidents, the location and date of 

accidents, and various meteorological and hydrological factors. Populations of terrapins in the Gulf may 

be exposed to residuals of oils spilled as a result of a WPA proposed action during their lifetimes. 

Chronic or acute exposure may result in the harassment, harm, or mortality to terrapins occurring in the 

GOM. In the most likely scenarios, exposure to hydrocarbons persisting within the wetlands following 

the dispersal of an oil slick could result in sublethal impacts (e.g., decreased health, reproductive fitness, 

and longevity; and increased vulnerability to disease). Terrapin hatchling exposure to, fouling by, or 

consumption of tarballs persisting inland following the dispersal of an oil slick could likely be fatal but 

unlikely. Impacts from the dispersants are unknown, but they may have similar irritants to tissues and 

sensitive membranes as are known to occur in seabirds and sea turtles (NRC, 2005). The impacts to 

diamondback terrapins from chemical dispersants could include nonlethal injury (e.g., tissue irritation and 

inhalation), long-term exposure through bioaccumulation, and potential shifts in distribution from some 

habitats.

Burger (1994) described the behavior of 11 female diamondback terrapins that were oiled during the 

January 1990 spill of No. 2 fuel oil in Arthur Kill, New York. The terrapins were hibernating at the time 

of the spill, and when they emerged from hibernation, they were found to be oiled. The terrapins voided 

oil from their digestive tracks for 2 weeks in rehabilitation. At 3 weeks, the terrapins scored low on 

strength tests and were slow to right themselves when placed on their backs. At 4 weeks, they developed 

edema and appetite suppression. Eight of the 11 died; these animals had traces of oil in their tissues and 

exhibited lesions in their digestive tract consistent with oil exposure (Burger, 1994). Further detail on this 

catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may have potentially impacted the terrapin 

community. Impacts from a catastrophic spill may impact terrapin communities. Impacts can be either 

direct (mortality or injury) or indirect (e.g., reduced prey availability); however, most impacts cannot be 

quantified at this time. The best available information does not provide a complete understanding of the 

effects of the spilled oil and active response/cleanup activities on the potentially affected terrapin 

environment. Current available information includes photographic evidence of one terrapin found oiled 

on Grand Terre Island, Louisiana, on June 8, 2010 (State of Louisiana, Coastal Protection and 

Restoration, 2012).

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Phase 4 focuses on long term recovery once the well has been capped and the spill has stopped. 

During the final phase of a catastrophic blowout and spill, it is presumed that the well has been capped or 

killed and cleanup activities are concluding. While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil would be 

dissipated offshore within 1-2 months (depending on season and temperature) of stopping the flow, oil 

has the potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event and has been detected in sediment 

30 years after a spill. On sandy beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments. In tidal flats and salt 

marshes, oil may seep into the muddy bottoms. Potential impacts reflect long term persistence of oil in 

the environment and residual and long-term cleanup efforts.

The Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response and associated oil spill may have impacted 

the terrapin community and associated brackish habitats. According to OSAT-2 (2011), possible 

environmental effects from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response could occur within 

terrapin marsh habitat via food or to nesting habitat since no active intervention (natural remediation) is

the preferred protocol.

Behavioral effects and nonfatal exposure to or intake of OCS oil- and gas-related contaminants or 

discarded debris may stress and/or weaken individuals of a local group or population and predispose them 

to infection from natural or anthropogenic sources. Even after the oil is no longer visible, terrapins may 

still be exposed while they forage in the salt marshes lining the edges of estuaries where oil may have 

accumulated under the sediments and within the food chain (Burger, 1994; Roosenburg et al., 1999). 

Nests can also be disturbed or destroyed by cleanup efforts. Through NRDA, ongoing research and 

analysis of the presence of contaminants in terrapin eggs following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill is 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-69

being conducted (USDOC, NOAA, 2012a). Hatching success studies at various oiled nesting sites of the 

northern diamondback terrapin suggest that spills may result in a reduction in nest size and increased 

mortality of spring emergers (hatched turtles) at the oiled sites (Wood and Hales, 2001). However, 

research on the PAH exposure and toxicology of eggs in the vicinity of a spill site found no correlation to 

substrate PAH’s when compared with egg toxicology. The level of PAH’s found in the eggs may be the 

result of maternal transfer and represent the exposure level of the nesting female rather than 

environmental exposure to PAH’s from oil at the site of the nest (Holliday et al., 2008).

Habitat destruction, road construction, drowning in crab traps, and nest predation are the most recent 

threats to diamondback terrapins. Tropical storms, hurricanes, and beach erosion threaten their preferred 

nesting habitats. Destruction of the remaining habitat because of a catastrophic spill and response efforts 

could drastically affect future population levels and reproduction.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Impacts on diamondback terrapins from smaller accidental events are likely to affect individual 

diamondback terrapins in the spill area, as described above, but are unlikely to rise to the level of 

population effects (or significance) given the probable size and scope of such spills. Possible catastrophic 

environmental effects from an oil spill and cleanup could occur within terrapin marsh habitat via food or 

to the nesting habitat. Since terrapins do not move far from where they are hatched, it is possible that 

entire subpopulations could incur high mortality rates and community disruptions, though this would be 

highly localized depending on the time, place, and size of the spill. 

The OSRA analyses in this Supplemental EIS conclude that there is a low probability for catastrophic 

spills and that there is a potential for a low-probability catastrophic event to result in significant, 

population-level effects on affected diamondback terrapin species.

For those terrapin populations that may not have been impacted by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response, it is unlikely that a future accidental event related to a WPA proposed action would 

result in significant impacts due to the distance of most terrapin habitat from offshore OCS energy-related 

activities.

B.3.1.15. Beach Mice

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to beach mice as a result of the events and the potential 

impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event because 

Phase 1 is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout incident, and initiation would occur well offshore from 

beach mouse habitat.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

There would likely be no adverse impacts to beach mice as a result of the events and the potential 

impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill event because 

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters away from 

beach mouse habitat.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Five subspecies of the field mouse, collectively known as beach mice, live along the Gulf Coast, and 

two beach mouse subspecies live on the Atlantic Coast of Florida. Five subspecies of beach mice 

(Alabama, Perdido Key, Choctawhatchee, St. Andrew, and Anastasia Island) are listed as State and 

federally endangered; also, the southeastern beach mouse is listed as federally threatened. Beach mice are 

restricted to the coastal barrier sand dunes along the Gulf Coasts of Alabama and Florida. Erosion caused 

by the loss of vegetation because of oiling would likely cause more damage than the direct oiling of beach 

mice because of the degradation or loss of habitat. In addition, vehicular traffic and activity associated 

with cleanup can trample or bury beach mice nests and burrows or cause displacement from preferred 

habitat. Improperly trained personnel and vehicle and foot traffic during shoreline cleanup of a 

catastrophic spill would disturb beach mouse populations and would degrade or destroy habitat.
B-70 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

The Alabama, Choctawhatchee, St. Andrew, Perdido Key, Anastasia Island, and southeastern beach 

mice are designated as protected species under the Endangered Species Act, mostly because of the loss 

and fragmentation of coastal habitat (Federal Register, 1989; USDOI, MMS, 2007). Some of the 

subspecies have coastal habitat that is designated as their critical habitat. For example, the endangered 

Alabama beach mouse’s (Peromyscus polionotus ammobates) designated critical habitat is 1,211 acres 

(450 hectares) of frontal dunes covering just 10 mi (16 km) of shoreline (USDOI, FWS, 2007). Critical 

habitat is the specific geographic areas that are essential for the conservation of a threatened or 

endangered species.

All designated critical habitat for beach mice officially extends landward from the mean high water 

line (Federal Register, 2006; USDOI, FWS, 2007). Therefore, spilled oil could contact critical habitat 

even without a concurrent storm surge; contact would require only that the water level would be at mean 

high tide. However, a concurrent storm surge of considerable height would be required to oil the portion 

of the critical habitat substantially landward of the mean high water line (over the tops of the primary, 

secondary, and tertial dunes). With the potential oiling of over 1,000 mi (1,609 km) of shoreline that 

could result from a catastrophic spill event and a concurrent storm surge of considerable height that 

occurs within a close proximity to the critical habitat, there is the potential for the entire critical habitat 

for a subspecies of beach mice to be completely oiled. Thus, destruction of critical habitat because of a 

catastrophic spill, a concurrent storm surge of considerable height and over a considerable length of 

shoreline, and cleanup activities would increase the threat of extinction of several subspecies of beach 

mice. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Within the last 20-30 years, the combination of habitat loss because of beachfront development, the 

isolation of the remaining beach mouse habitat areas and populations, and the destruction of the 

remaining habitat by tropical storms and hurricanes has increased the threat of extinction of several 

subspecies of beach mice. On sandy beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments and become exposed 

again after erosion of sand by wave action. Oil may therefore persist near beach mouse habitat for the 

long term. The destruction of the remaining habitat because of a catastrophic spill and cleanup activities 

would increase the threat of extinction.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Impacts to beach mice would vary according to the severity of the oiling. Further detail on this 

catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

B.3.1.16. Coastal, Marine, and Migratory Birds

Phase 1—Initial Event

Some migratory birds use offshore platforms or rigs as potential stopover sites during their longdistance migrations across the GOM during the spring and fall (Russell, 2005). In addition, it has been 

well documented that seabirds are attracted to offshore platforms and rigs for a myriad of reasons; i.e., 

concentrations of baitfish, roost sites, etc. (Tasker et al., 1986; Wiese et al., 2001; Burke et al., 2012). 

The numbers of birds present at a platform or rig tend to be greater on platforms or rigs closer to shore, 

particularly during drilling operations (Baird, 1990). Birds resting on the drilling rig or platform during a 

catastrophic blowout at the surface (similar to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response) 

are more likely to be killed by the explosion. While it is assumed that most birds in trans-Gulf migration 

would likely avoid the fire and smoke plume during the day, it is possible that the light from the fire could 

interfere with nocturnal migration, especially during poor visibility conditions, i.e., fog or low clouds. It 

has been documented that seabirds are attracted to natural gas flares at rigs and platforms (Russell, 2005; 

Wiese et al., 2001); therefore, additional bird fatalities could result from the fire following the blowout. 

Though different species migrate differentially throughout the year, the largest number of species 

migrates through the proposed area from mid-April through mid-May (spring migration back north) and 

from mid-August through early November (fall migration south) (Russell, 2005, Table 6.12; Farnsworth 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-71

and Russell, 2007). A blowout during this time would potentially result in a greater number of bird 

fatalities (see below).

Of the four phases considered herein, avian mortality associated with this Phase is certainly expected 

to be much lower than avian mortality associated with either Phase 2 or Phase 3. However, this 

anticipated result is highly dependent on the location of the platform and the timing of the event. The 

only scenario considered is the case where a blowout and explosion occurred at the surface (Table B-4). 

If the catastrophic event, in this case a blowout and explosion at the surface (refer to Table B-4), occurs 

more proximal to the coast during the breeding season or during a peak migration period (late March to 

late May and mid-August to early November), then the level of avian mortality is expected to be higher. 

In comparison, a blowout and explosion at the surface on a platform more distant from the coast (greater 

than or equal to the distance of the Macondo well from the coast) would result in much lower avian 

mortality, particularly if the event did not overlap temporally with either the breeding season or either of 

the trans-Gulf migrations.

While the species composition and species-specific mortality estimates are unknown and would be 

dependent on the blowout location and time of year, the initial mortalities would almost certainly not 

result in population-level impacts for species present at the time of the blowout and resulting fire (Arnold 

and Zink, 2011; also refer to Table 4-7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). If the event occurred 

during the breeding season or wintering period, species of seabirds or diving birds would have the 

greatest potential to be affected, whereas if the event occurred during either the spring or fall migration, 

species of passerines would most likely have the greatest potential to be affected due to the diversity and 

sheer numbers of individuals in this avian species group (Rappole and Ramos, 1994; Lincoln et al., 1998; 

Russell, 2005; also refer to Chapter 4.1.1.14 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.14.1 of the 2012-

2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS).

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

During Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill, the primary concern for marine and migratory birds would be 

their vulnerability to oiling or ingesting oil, which is primarily a function of their behavior and diets. 

Wading birds (e.g., herons, egrets, etc.) and species that feed by plunge-diving into the water to catch 

small fish (e.g., pelicans, gannets, terns, gulls, and pelagic birds) and those that use water as a primary 

means of locomotion, foraging (e.g., black skimmers), or resting and preening (e.g., diving ducks, 

cormorants, pelicans, etc.) are highly vulnerable to becoming oiled and also to ingesting oil (Table B-5 of 

this Supplemental EIS; also refer to Table 4-13 and Figure 4-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS). Seabirds, in particular, tend to feed and concentrate in convergence zones, eddies, upwellings, and 

near Sargassum mats (Haney, 1986a-c; Moser and Lee, 2012). In addition to concentrating prey, these 

areas are also known to aggregate oil (Unified Incident Command, 2010d). Oiling interferes with the 

birds’ ability to fly (thus to obtain food) and compromises the insulative characteristics of down and 

contour feathers, making it difficult to regulate body temperature. Attempts by oiled birds to remove the 

oil via preening can cause them to ingest oil and may result in mortality. In addition, the ingestion of 

contaminated prey can result in physiological impairment and even death. Refer to Chapter 4.1.1.14.3 of 

the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS for additional detailed information on oiling effects to birds.

Though several species or species groups are mentioned above, the most vulnerable species to spilled 

oil in the offshore environment in the GOM during Phase 2 would be representatives of the diving bird 

(≤10 species) and seabird (≥20 species) groups (King and Sanger, 1979; Ribic et al., 1997; Davis et al., 

2000). Unlike Phase 1, where passerines may be affected depending on the timing of the catastrophic 

event, timing or seasonal effects would be less important under the Phase 2 scenario (Table B-4) due to 

the spilled oil being restricted to the offshore environment, thereby limiting the potential impacts to the 

several avian species groups relegated to the coastal and nearshore environment (Table B-5 of this 

Supplemental EIS; also refer to Chapter 4.1.1.14 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.14.1 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS, and Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS). 

However, it is highly probable that representative species of diving birds and seabirds would differentially 

be impacted (Table B-5 of this Supplemental EIS; also refer to Table 4-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS). Table 4-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS shows the actual number of birds 

identified to the species level for each of the species groups. This number is fairly representative of the 

suite of species available to be oiled. However, this number is dependent on efforts to correctly assign 

species to unidentified birds or unknowns, which is also a function of search effort. Search effort likely 
B-72 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

declined dramatically once the Macondo well was plugged/capped. The species composition and speciesspecific mortality estimates associated with a Phase 2 catastrophic event are unknown and would be 

dependent primarily on the blowout location, as well as the distribution, coverage, and proximity to the 

shoreline of spilled oil. Overall, avian mortalities for this Phase would probably not result in populationlevel impacts for species present at the time of the blowout (refer to Table B-5 of this Supplemental EIS 

and to Figure 4-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). However, it should be clear that many 

species of seabirds and diving birds have life-history strategies that do not allow subpopulations to 

recover quickly from major mortality events or perturbations (Ricklefs, 1983 and 1990; Russell, 1999; 

Saether et al., 2004; also refer to Table 4-13 and Figure 4-18 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS).

Some discussion of available information provided from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response is relevant here with respect to temporal aspects of oiled birds (Figure B-3). The first oiled 

bird (northern gannet, a seabird) recovered after the Macondo well event was collected just 10 days postblowout. While gannets breed in coastal colonies in the Canadian North Atlantic, the population, 

including a major concentration in the northern GOM, over-winters in the deeper waters of the offshore 

environment. Belanger et al. (2010) provided some interesting results relative to live versus dead birds 

collected based on the actual date each bird was collected. Interestingly, they documented a dramatic and 

statistically significant decline in the number of live birds collected after 110 days compared with live 

birds collected during the first 72 days. These authors also documented a dramatic and statistically 

significant increase in the number of dead birds collected after 110 days (Belanger et al., 2010, Figures 2 

and 3). As a temporal reference, oil reached the shoreline near Venice, Louisiana, ≥10 days postblowout, covering a distance of approximately 90 mi (145 km) (Oil Spill Commission, 2011; also refer to 

Chapter 4.2.1.3.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS and Chapter 4.2.1.3 of the WPA 233/CPA 

231 Supplemental EIS) (Figure B-3). It should be understood that, for the Phase 2 scenario considered 

here, it is assumed that spilled oil will not contact the shoreline.

Overall, avian mortality estimates are unknown and are difficult to predict given the uncertainty 

(Conroy et al., 2011, pages 1209-1210; Williams, 2011, page 1348) associated with the scenario and 

specific characteristics associated with the spill (refer to Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 

Supplemental EIS), as well as environmental conditions that are probably a function of spill location and 

timing. Even recognizing the uncertainty associated with the scenario, spill characteristics, and the 

environmental conditions at the time of the spill, Phase 2 would likely be second only to Phase 3 in total 

avian mortality. Phase 3 would include much greater avian species diversity and abundance due to the oil 

reaching nearshore, coastal beach/dune, salt- and brackish marsh habitats (Table B-5 of this 

Supplemental EIS; also refer to Table 4-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS).

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Gulf coastal habitats are essential to the annual cycles of many species of breeding, wintering, and 

migrating diving birds, seabirds, shorebirds, passerines, marsh- and wading birds, and waterfowl (refer to 

Chapter 4.1.1.14 of this Supplemental EIS, Chapter 4.1.1.14.1 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale 

EIS, and Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the WPA 233/CPA 231 Supplemental EIS). For example, the northern Gulf 

Coast supports a large proportion of populations of several beach-nesting bird species (USDOI, FWS, 

2010c). During Phase 3, oil is expected to contact not only the beach but also other important habitats 

used by a diverse and abundant assemblage of avian species. Habitats potentially impacted by a 

catastrophic spill would also likely include the nearshore environment, as well as the salt- and brackish 

marsh habitats. Potential impacts and total avian mortality from Phase 3 would be greater than any of the 

other phases considered herein due to (1) avian diversity and abundance in the nearshore environment 

(Table B-5 of this Supplemental EIS; also refer to Tables 4-9 through 4-11 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS) and (2) the dispersion of oil from a catastrophic spill, which would reach the shoreline and 

enter the salt- and brackish marsh environments. Similar to Phases 1 and 2, the timing and location of the 

spill are important factors in determining the severity of impacts to the avian community. In addition, the 

duration of potential oil exposure to various species of birds would also be important.

As the Macondo well blowout and spill is the only historic catastrophic oil spill to occur in U.S. 

waters in the GOM, the information obtained from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response relative to avian mortality may be reasonably relevant for any future catastrophic spills, 

recognizing of course the variation and uncertainty associated with individual oil spills. At present, the 

estimates of avian mortality associated with the Exxon Valdez oil spill far exceed current estimates of 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-73

avian mortality associated with the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response even though the 

Deepwater Horizon spill volume/size far exceed that of the Exxon Valdez (refer to Table 4-15 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Based on data from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response, a similar catastrophic spill would probably result in >10,000 carcasses collected 

(Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response = 7,258 collected) representing >100 potentially 

impacted species (Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response = 104 species identified) (refer to 

Table B-5, superscript 1 and also superscript b). It should be recognized that the number of avian 

carcasses collected post-spill represents some unknown fraction or proportion of the total modeled 

estimate of realized mortality (Flint et al., 1999; Byrd et al., 2009; Ford and Zafonte, 2009); the number 

of avian carcasses collected is biased low (Piatt et al., 1990a-b; Piatt and Ford, 1996; Castège et al., 

2007). Figure 4-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS should provide reasonable estimates of 

oiling rates for the seven avian species groups in the northern Gulf of Mexico if another catastrophic spill 

were to occur and the timing, oil spill characteristics, and spill behavior were similar to the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. It should be noted that the top five most impacted (based on 

number collected) avian species from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response were all 

representatives of the seabird group: laughing gull (n = 2,981, 40% oiling rate); brown pelican (n = 826, 

41% oiling rate); northern gannet (n = 475, 63% oiling rate); royal tern (n = 289, 52% oiling rate); and 

black skimmer (n = 253, 22% oiling rate) (Table B-5 of this Supplemental EIS and Figure 4-13 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS).

Additional information is provided herein from an OSRA catastrophic oil-spill analysis (refer to 

Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, Tables C-4 and C-5). 

It should be noted that oil from the Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill reached the shoreline 

less than 14 days after the blowout occurred (Oil Spill Commission, 2011). The OSRA does not take into 

account or consider the following with respect to avian resources and their habitats: (1) species-specific 

densities; (2) species-specific habitat preferences, food habits, or behavior; (3) relative vulnerabilities to 

oiling among the avian species groups or among species within each of the groups (Table B-5 of this 

Supplemental EIS and Figure 4-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS; also refer to Williams 

et al., 1995; Camphuysen, 2006); and (4) it does not take into account or consider species-specific lifehistory strategies, their demography, or a species’ recovery potential (refer to Table 4-13 and Figures 4-18 

and 4-19 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). 

In summary, Phase 3 of a catastrophic oil spill has the greatest potential for negative impacts (i.e., 

direct mortality) to avian resources due to its contact with the shoreline and inundation of other habitats 

occupied by a much greater diversity and abundance of birds, particularly during the breeding season. 

Avian mortality estimates are presently unknown and are difficult to predict with any level of precision 

given the uncertainty associated with the scenario, specific characteristics associated with the spill, spatial 

and temporal variation in environmental conditions, and recognition that the avian resources (both species 

diversity and abundance) available to be oiled will also vary temporally and spatially. A worst-case 

scenario in the event of a catastrophic oil spill that reached the nearshore environment would occur in the 

presence of a hurricane with strength or magnitude similar to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, or Ike during the 

breeding season. Such an overlap of two low-probability events during the breeding season could 

potentially push spilled oil even farther inland and also distribute oil vertically into the vegetation. Such 

an event would not only negatively impact diving birds, seabirds, shorebirds, marsh- and wading birds, 

and waterfowl but also the more terrestrial avian species groups including passerines and raptors. Such 

effects would most likely be long-term (due to direct mortality of individuals, but also due to major 

habitat loss) and could potentially result in population-level impacts to a number of avian species. 

Threatened and endangered avian species would likely be the most severely impacted by such an event 

depending on the spatial and temporal aspects of both the spill and the hurricane.

Endangered and Threatened Birds

A detailed discussion of threatened and endangered species is provided in Chapter 4.1.1.14.1 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Of the 17 species considered, 12 species are known to occur in the 

WPA (Table B-6). However, only the piping plover (Charadrius melodus), roseate tern (Sterna dougallii 

dougallii), wood stork (Mycteria americana), whooping crane (Grus americana), Mississippi sandhill 

crane (Grus canadensis pulla), bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), eastern brown pelican (Pelecanus 

occidentalis), and red knot (Calidris canutus rufa) were analyzed and are considered further here. 
B-74 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Phase 3 would likely result in the greatest net negative impacts (primarily direct mortality) to threatened 

and endangered avian species due to contact with the shoreline and potential movement of spilled oil 

inland to other habitats during this phase (Table B-4). In addition, the presence of spilled oil would result 

in indirect and potentially long-term effects to threatened and endangered avian species’ habitats and their 

preferred foods. Phases 1 and 2 would likely result in very limited impacts, if any, due to the scenarios as 

defined with oil restricted to the offshore environment.

In general, the potential direct impact (i.e., mortality) to any or all of these threatened or endangered 

(including recently delisted and candidate) species is directly a function of their presence at the time of a 

catastrophic oil spill. Indirect effects from a catastrophic oil spill could negatively affect the quality and 

functional availability of their habitats and the availability, distribution, and energetic benefits of their 

preferred foods in the absence of a given species. Of the species listed, the wood stork, Mississippi 

sandhill crane, bald eagle, eastern brown pelican, and Cape Sable seaside sparrows are year-round 

residents, whereas the piping plover, roseate tern, whooping crane, and red knot represent either wintering 

species or transients that utilize coastal habitats in the GOM as staging areas during migration. There are 

“resident” whooping cranes considered as “nonessential, experimental flocks” within the Gulf Coast 

States of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida. These birds would be considered as “resident,” 

whereas the component of the ESA-listed species occurring primarily as a wintering flock in Texas (i.e., 

the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge) is considered a migratory flock. It is important to recognize these 

differences relative to whether or not individuals of a given species would be present and available to be 

oiled should a catastrophic oil spill event occur. Similarly, species-specific differences in habitat use and 

behavior would further separate which species would be most vulnerable to a spill given the timing of the 

spill, spill distribution, and other spill-related characteristics.

Of the species considered, probably only the eastern brown pelican and possibly the bald eagle 

(ingestion of contaminated fish and birds) would potentially be impacted during Phases 1 and 2. The 

other species are restricted to the nearshore, coastal, salt- and brackish, and upland habitats, which would 

not be impacted during these phases given the scenario (Table B-4). Phase 4 impacts to threatened and 

endangered avian species would probably be limited to short-term disturbance-related effects and 

potential impacts to habitats including destruction, alteration, or fragmentation from associated recovery 

activities (American Bird Conservancy, 2010; National Audubon Society, Inc., 2010).

As the Macondo well blowout and spill is the only historic catastrophic oil spill to occur in U.S. 

waters in the GOM, the information obtained from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response relative to avian mortality may be reasonably relevant for any future catastrophic spills, 

recognizing of course the variation and uncertainty associated with individual oil spills. Of the threatened 

and endangered avian species considered, only a single, unoiled piping plover was collected as part of the 

post-Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response monitoring program (Table B-5). There were 

106 least terns (Sterna antillarum) collected (n = 106, 46% oiling rate), but these individuals were 

considered as members of the coastal breeding population and not the ESA-listed population (Interior or 

noncoastal population). Of the species considered, only the eastern brown pelican was impacted by the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (n = 826, 41% oiling rate); this species was delisted 

on November 17, 2009 (Federal Register, 2009). No other carcasses of threatened and endangered 

species were collected as part of the post-Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response

monitoring efforts (Table B-5; USDOI, FWS, 2011a). 

Additional information is provided herein from an OSRA catastrophic oil-spill analysis (refer to 

Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, Tables C-4 and C-5). 

Caveats regarding the OSRA catastrophic run with respect to avian resources were addressed above 

and would also apply to threatened and endangered avian resources considered here.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

There is a high probability of underestimating the impacts of oil spills on avian species potentially 

encountering oil. Despite being oiled, some birds are capable of flight and may later succumb to the 

oiling for a myriad of reasons (refer to Chapter 4.1.1.14 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS for 

additional detailed information). Often overlooked and understudied are the long-term, sublethal, chronic 

effects due to sublethal exposure to oil (Butler et al., 1988; Alonso-Alvarez et al., 2007; Pérez et al., 

2010). Also, individuals having been oiled in the Gulf of Mexico as the result of a catastrophic oil spill 

during the overwinter period or while staging in the GOM could exhibit carry-over effects to the northern 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-75

breeding grounds. Affected individuals in poor body condition may arrive at their breeding grounds later 

than nonaffected individuals, which could, in turn, negatively affect habitat-use decisions, territory 

establishment, pairing success, and ultimately lead to reduced reproductive success (Norris, 2005; Norris 

et al., 2006; Harrison et al., 2011). Some oiled individuals may forego breeding altogether (Zabala et al., 

2010). If oil-affected, long-distance migrants represent important prey items for various species of 

raptors, then the ingestion of affected individuals could also negatively affect individual birds of prey 

(Zuberogoitia et al., 2006). Refer to Henkel et al. (2012) for a review of potential carry-over effects to 

shorebirds potentially impacted by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.

The long-term impacts of potential food-induced stress for bird species from an altered ecosystem due 

to a catastrophic spill are unknown, but disturbances to the ecosystem can cause long-term sublethal 

impacts, including reduced food intake, prey switching, increased energy expenditures, decreased 

reproductive success, and decreased survival. Decreases in either reproductive success or survival (or 

both) could result in population-level effects as was observed for certain avian species more than 10 years 

after the Exxon Valdez catastrophic spill (Esler et al., 2002 and 2010; Golet et al., 2002). Long-term, 

sublethal, chronic effects may exceed immediate losses (i.e., direct mortality of oiled birds) if residual 

effects influence a significant proportion of the population or disproportionately impact an important 

aspect of the population demographic, i.e., breeding-age females (Croxall and Rothery, 1991; Oro et al., 

2004). Depending on the effects and the life-history strategy of impacted species, some populations could 

take years or decades before reaching pre-spill population numbers and age-sex structure; some 

populations for some species may never recover (refer to Figure 4-13 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA 

Multisale EIS; refer to Peterson et al., 2003, but also to Wiens et al., 2010).

In general, potential effects associated with Phase 4 should be limited to short-term disturbance 

effects (personnel and equipment) and potential indirect effects to various avian species groups due to 

habitat loss, alteration, or fragmentation from restoration efforts. There may be cases whereby incubating 

individuals are flushed from nests exposing their eggs or young to either weather-related mortality or 

depredation by avian or mammalian predators (American Bird Conservancy, 2010; National Audubon 

Society, Inc., 2010). However, efforts to minimize potential effects of post-oil spill monitoring and 

restoration efforts, particularly during the breeding season, should be sufficient to protect nesting birds as 

a function of oversight by Federal and State agencies charged with the conservation of migratory bird 

resources.

Limited information available to date with respect to avian impacts from the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response suggests much lower mortality than would have been predicted by the 

spill size or volume alone (Belanger et al., 2010), though spill volume or size tends to be a poor predictor 

of avian mortality (Burger, 1993; Tan et al., 2010). The final modeled estimates of avian mortality will 

greatly exceed the number of avian carcasses collected (n = 7,258; Table B-5), but overall, the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response appears to have directly resulted in far fewer dead, oiled birds 

than the Exxon Valdez catastrophic spill (refer to Table 4-15 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). 

It should be recognized that the avian-related mortality associated with the Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response (considered a catastrophic event) represents a small fraction of birds killed when 

compared with collisions with offshore oil and gas platforms. Russell (2005, page 304) states, “an 

average Gulf platform may cause 50 deaths by collision [only] per year,” so using this number, the 

number of deaths the Deepwater Horizon rig would have caused through collisions had it remained intact 

for its 40-year term would be about 2,000. That is about 5,258 less than the number of avian carcasses 

collected due to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response just given above. In the GOM, 

an estimated 200,000-321,000 avian deaths occur annually; primarily due to collisions with platforms 

(Table 4-7 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS; also refer to Russell, 2005). Over the life of the 

GOM platform archipelago, the estimated total avian mortality is on the order of 7-12 million birds (refer 

to Figure 4-15 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS). Oil spills, regardless of size, are but one of a 

myriad of anthropogenic avian mortality sources. Even the cumulative total avian mortality associated 

with all the North American oil spills to date is only a small fraction when compared with estimates of 

annual avian mortality attributed to collisions with buildings and windows, predation by housecats, and 

collisions with powerlines and communication towers (Klem, 2009; Manville, 2009; Table 4-7 of the 

2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS).
B-76 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

While the species composition and species-specific mortality estimates are unknown and would be 

dependent on the blowout location and time of year, the mortalities for the initial event (Phase 1) would 

almost certainly not result in population-level impacts for species present at the time of the blowout and 

resulting fire. Seabirds are highly vulnerable to becoming oiled and also to ingesting oil during Phase 2 

(the offshore spill). Even recognizing the uncertainty associated with the scenario, spill characteristics, 

and the environmental conditions at the time of the spill, Phase 2 would likely be second only to Phase 3 

(onshore contact) in total avian mortality. Phase 3 would include impacts to much greater avian species’ 

richness and abundance (particularly during the breeding season) due to oil reaching habitats, including 

the nearshore, coastal beaches and dunes, and salt and brackish marshes. In general, the potential effects 

associated with Phase 4 (long-term recovery and response) should be limited to short-term disturbance 

effects (by cleanup personnel and equipment) and potential indirect effects to various bird species groups 

from habitat loss, alteration, or fragmentation from restoration efforts.

Phases 1 (initial event) and 2 (offshore spill) would likely result in very limited impacts to threatened 

and endangered bird species because the two scenarios have oil restricted to the offshore environment. 

Phase 3 (onshore contact) would likely result in the greatest net negative impacts to threatened and 

endangered bird species due to contact with the shoreline and potential movement of spilled oil inland to 

other habitats during this phase.

B.3.1.17. Fish Resources and Essential Fish Habitat

Phase 1—Initial Event

Depending on the type of blowout and the proximity of marine life to it (Table B-1), an eruption of 

gases and fluids may generate not only a toxic effect but also pressure waves and noise significant enough 

to injure or kill local biota. Within a few thousand meters of the blowout, resuspended sediments may 

clog fish gills and interfere with respiration. Settlement of resuspended sediments may, in turn, smother 

invertebrates or interfere with their respiration. Essential fish habitat (EFH) in the vicinity of the blowout 

could have adverse effects from the event. These EFH resources are discussed in the water quality 

(Chapter B.3.1.1.2), live bottoms (Chapter B.3.1.1.6), topographic features (Chapter B.3.1.1.7), 

Sargassum communities (Chapter B.3.1.1.8), chemosynthetic and nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic 

communities (Chapters B.3.1.1.9 and B.3.1.1.10, respectively), and soft bottom benthic communities 

(Chapter B.3.1.1.11) chapters.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

With the initiation of a catastrophic blowout incident, an explosion and subsequent fire are assumed 

to occur. If a blowout associated with the drilling of a single exploratory well occurs, this could result in 

a fire that would burn for 1 or 2 days, but if a blowout occurs on a production platform and other wells 

feed the fire, it could burn for over a month. The drilling rig or platform may sink, and if this occurs in 

shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate vicinity. If the blowout occurs in 

deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away and could be beyond avoidance zones. 

Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and rescue vessels and aircraft, 

such as USCG cutters, helicopters, rescue planes, and firefighting vessels.

Early life stages of animals are usually more sensitive to oil than adults (Boesch and Rabalais, 1987; 

NRC, 2005). Weathered crude oil has been shown in laboratory experiments to cause malformation, 

genetic damage, and even mortality at low levels in fish embryos of Pacific herring (Carls et al., 1999). 

Because natural crude oil found in the Gulf of Mexico would generally float on the surface, fish species 

whose eggs and larvae are found at or near the water surface are most at risk from an offshore spill. 

Species whose spawning periods coincide with the timing of the highest oil concentrations would be at 

greatest risk.

Adult fish may be less at risk than earlier life stages, in part because they are less likely to concentrate 

at the surface and may avoid contact with floating oil. The effects of oil on organisms can include direct 

lethal toxicity, sublethal disruption of physiological processes (internal lesions), the effects from direct 

coating by oil (suffocation by coating gills), incorporation of hydrocarbons in organisms (tainting or 

accumulation in the food chain), and changes in biological habitat (decreased dissolved oxygen) (Moore 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-77

and Dwyer, 1974). The extent of the impacts of the oil would depend on the properties of the oil and the 

time of year of the event.

If there is a subsea catastrophic blowout, it is assumed dispersants would be used. Then there could 

be effects on multiple life history stages and trophic levels. There is limited knowledge of the toxicity of 

dispersants mixed with oil to specific species or life stages of ichthyoplankton and the likely extent of 

mortality because the combination of factors is difficult to determine. The combined toxic effects of the 

oil and any dispersants that may be used would not be apparent unless a significant portion of a year-class 

is absent from next year’s fishery (e.g., shrimps, crabs, snapper, and tuna).

An example of a catastrophic event in the WPA was modeled using OSRA (Appendix C of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, Tables C-4 and C-5). Because fish occur throughout the GOM, it is 

assumed that some individuals would be contacted with oil. Specific habitats that are discussed with 

regards to the Western Planning Area OSRA example and in the Appendix are water quality (Chapter 

B.3.1.1.2), wetlands (Chapter B.3.1.1.4), seagrass communities (Chapter B.3.1.1.5), live bottoms 

(Chapter B.3.1.1.6), topographic features (Chapter B.3.1.1.7), Sargassum communities (Chapter 

B.3.1.1.8), chemosynthetic and nonchemosynthetic deepwater communities (Chapters B.3.1.1.9 and 

B.3.1.1.10, respectively), and soft bottom benthic communities (Chapter B.3.1.1.11). 

Studies by USEPA, Office of Research and Development (2010) using representative species provide 

some indication of the relative toxicity of Louisiana sweet crude oil, dispersants, and oil/dispersant mixes. 

Bioassays were conducted using two Gulf species—a mysid shrimp (Amercamysis bahia) and a small 

estuarine fish, the inland silverside (Menidia beryllinina)—to evaluate the acute toxic effects of oil, eight 

dispersants, and oil/dispersant mixtures. In addition, USEPA used standard in vitro techniques using the 

same dispersants to (1) evaluate the acute toxicity on three cell lines over a range of concentrations and 

(2) evaluate the effects of these dispersants on androgen and estrogen function using human cell lines (to 

see if they are likely to disrupt hormonal systems). All dispersants showed cytotoxicity in at least one cell 

type at concentrations between 10 and 110 ppm. Results of the in vitro toxicity tests were similar to the 

whole animal tests. For all eight dispersants, for both species, the dispersants alone were less toxic than 

the dispersant/oil mixture. Louisiana sweet crude oil alone was determined to be more toxic to both the 

mysid shrimp and silverside fish than the dispersants alone. The results of the testing for disruption of 

androgen and estrogen function indicate that the dispersants do not show biologically significant 

endocrine activity via androgen or estrogen pathways (USEPA, Office of Research and Development, 

2010).

The GOM waters out to 100 fathoms (182 m; 600 ft) have EFH’s described and identified for 

managed species (GMFMC, 2005; USDOC, NOAA, 2009). There are Fisheries Management Plans for 

shrimp, red drum, reef fishes, coastal migratory pelagics, spiny lobsters, coral and coral reefs, and highly 

migratory species (GMFMC, 2004; USDOC, NOAA, 2009). These species could use the GOM for EFH 

at different life history stages. The Highly Migratory Species Fisheries Management Plan was recently 

amended to update EFH and Habitat Areas of Particular Concerns for the Atlantic bluefin tuna spawning 

area (USDOC, NOAA, 2009).

These EFH’s in the Gulf of Mexico are discussed in various chapters of this Appendix: water column 

(Chapter B.3.1.1.2); wetlands (Chapter B.3.1.1.4); seagrass communities (Chapter B.3.1.1.5), live 

bottoms (Chapter B.3.1.1.6); topographic features (Chapter B.3.1.1.7), Sargassum communities 

(Chapter B.3.1.1.8); chemosynthetic and nonchemosynthetic deepwater benthic communities (Chapters 

B.3.1.1.9 and B.3.1.1.10, respectively), and soft bottom benthic communities (Chapter B.3.1.1.11); these 

EFH’s are also summarized in Appendix D of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. There are current 

NTL’s (NTL 2009-G39 and NTL 2009-G40) and stipulations that provide guidance and clarification of 

the regulations with respect to many of these biologically sensitive underwater features and areas and 

benthic communities, which are considered EFH.

Plankton 

Open-water organisms, such as phytoplankton and zooplankton, are essential to the marine food web. 

They play an important role in regulating climate, contribute to marine snow, and are an important source 

of nutrients for mesopelagic and benthic habitats. Also, monthly ichthyoplankton collections over the 

years 2004-2006 offshore of Alabama have confirmed that peak seasons for ichthyoplankton 

concentrations on the shelf are spring and summer (Hernandez et al., 2010). If a catastrophic blowout 

occurs in the spring and summer, it could cause greater harm to fish populations and not just individual 
B-78 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

fish. Therefore, an offshore oil spill would not only have an impact on these populations but also on the 

species that depend on them.

The microbial community can also be affected by an offshore oil spill. The microbial loop is an 

essential part of the marine ecosystem. Changes in the microbial community because of an oil spill could 

have significant impacts on the rest of the marine ecosystem. However, several laboratory and field 

experiments and observations have shown that impacts to planktonic and marine microbial populations 

are generally short lived and do not affect all groups evenly, and in some cases stimulate growth of 

important species (Gonzalez et al., 2009; Graham et al., 2010; Hing et al., 2011).

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

It is estimated that shoreline oiling would last 1-5 months from a shallow-water catastrophic spill 

event and 3-4 months from a deepwater catastrophic spill. It is estimated that there would be contact to 

the shoreline within 30 days of the spill for both shallow-water and deepwater spill locations. Though 

response methods would be monitored, there would also be some impact from these efforts on contacted 

coastal habitats. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 

238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

The life history of estuarine-dependent species involves spawning on the continental shelf; the 

transportation of eggs, larvae, or juveniles back to the estuary nursery grounds; and migration of the 

adults back to the sea for spawning (Deegan, 1989; Beck et al., 2001). Estuaries in the Gulf of Mexico 

are extremely important nursery areas and are considered EFH for fish and other aquatic life (Beck et al., 

2001). Oiling of these areas, depending on the severity, can destroy nutrient-rich marshes and erode 

coastlines that have been significantly damaged by recent hurricanes.

The Gulf of Mexico supports a wide variety of finfish, and most of the commercial finfish resources 

are linked either directly or indirectly to the estuaries that ring the Gulf of Mexico. Darnell et al. (1983) 

observed that the density distribution of fish resources in the Gulf was highest nearshore off of the central 

Gulf Coast. For all seasons, the greatest abundance occurred between Galveston Bay and the mouth of 

the Mississippi River. Oyster beds could be damaged by freshwater diversions that release tens of 

thousands of cubic feet of freshwater per second for months in an effort to keep oil out of the marshes. 

Adult oysters survive well physiologically in salinities from those of estuarine waters (about 7.5 parts per 

thousand sustained) to full strength seawater (Davis, 1958). While oysters may tolerate small changes in 

salinity for a few weeks, a rapid decrease in salinity over months would kill oysters. In the event of a 

catastrophic oil spill, at least 1 year’s oyster production in the area receiving fresh water would be lost 

because of exposure to freshwater and/or oil.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

In addition to possible small fish kills because of direct impacts (as described under Phases 2 and 3), a 

catastrophic spill could affect fish populations in the long term. Due to a catastrophic spill, a significant 

portion of a year class of fish could be absent from the following year’s fishery, reducing overall 

population numbers. However, sublethal impacts, especially for long-lived species (e.g., snapper and 

grouper), could be masked by reduced fishing pressure because of closures. In addition healthy fish 

resources and fishery stocks depend on ideal habitat (EFH) for spawning, breeding, feeding, and growth 

to maturity. There could be long-term effects to coastal habitats from buried or sequestered oil becoming 

resuspended after a disturbance. Thus, a catastrophic spill that affects these areas could result in longterm impacts, including destruction to a portion of their natural habitats.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Depending on the type of blowout and the proximity of marine life to it, an eruption of gases and 

fluids may generate not only a toxic effect but also pressure waves and noise significant enough to injure 

or kill local biota and destroy habitat in the immediate vicinity (Phase 1). Adult fish may be less at risk 

than earlier life stages, in part because they are less likely to concentrate at the surface and may avoid 

contact with floating oil. Effects of oil on organisms can include direct lethal toxicity, sublethal 

disruption of physiological processes (internal lesions), the effects from direct coating by oil (suffocation 

by coating gills), incorporation of hydrocarbons in organisms (tainting or accumulation in the food chain), 

and changes in biological habitat (decreased dissolved oxygen) (Phase 2). Estuaries in the Gulf of 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-79

Mexico are extremely important nursery areas and are considered EFH for fish and other aquatic life 

(Beck et al., 2001). Oiling of these areas, depending on the severity, can destroy nutrient-rich marshes 

and erode coastlines that have been significantly damaged by recent hurricanes (Phase 3). Due to a 

catastrophic spill, a significant portion of a year class of fish could be absent from the following year’s 

fishery, reducing overall population numbers. However, sublethal impacts, especially for long-lived 

species (e.g., snapper and grouper), could be masked by reduced fishing pressure because of closures 

(Phase 4).

B.3.1.18. Commercial Fisheries

Phase 1—Initial Event

The initial explosion and fire could endanger commercial fishermen in the immediate vicinity of the 

blowout. Although commercial fishing vessels in the area would likely aid in initial search-and-rescue 

operations, the subsequent fire could burn for over a month, during which time commercial vessels would 

be expected to avoid the area so as to not interfere with response activities. This could impact the 

livelihood and income of these commercial fishermen. The extent of the economic impact on the fishing 

community would depend largely on the season during which the blowout occurred, the depth of water in 

which it occurred, and its distance from shore.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

The Gulf of Mexico is one of the largest producers of seafood in the continental United States. In 

2010 the Gulf of Mexico provided 40 percent of the commercial fishery landings in the continental U.S. 

(excluding Alaska), with over 1.5 billion pounds valued at nearly $670 million (USDOC, NMFS, 2012b). 

Various commercial species are fished from State waters through the Exclusive Economic Zone and are 

found throughout the water column as well as at the surface and near the seafloor. Commercial species 

occupy many different habitats throughout the area, and many commercial species occupy different 

habitats during different life stages. Most commercial species spend at least part of their life cycles in the 

productive shelf and estuarine habitat. In the event of a catastrophic offshore spill, it is assumed that a 

large quantity of oil would be released daily whether this spill occurred in State or Federal waters. 

Although the oil would generally float, it is also assumed that dispersants would be used preventing much 

of the oil from reaching the surface.

As an example of the areas that could be affected by such a catastrophic oil spill in the WPA, two 

OSRA model runs were performed using two different launch points as described in Chapter B.1.2.3. 

The resulting tables show conditional probabilities (expressed as percent chance) of an oil spill contacting 

resources in the GOM for each launch point and for each season, the condition being that a spill is 

assumed to have occurred at the given location. Because the commercial species are so widespread over 

the GOM, all of the tables are referenced (Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS, 

Tables C-4 and C-5). 

Oil that is not volatilized, dispersed, or emulsified by dispersants has the potential to affect finfish 

through direct ingestion of hydrocarbons or ingestion of contaminated prey. Finfish are, however, mobile 

and generally avoid adverse conditions. Less mobile species or planktonic larval stages are more 

susceptible to the effects of oil and dispersants.

Actual effects of any oil that is released and comes in contact with populations of commercially 

important species will depend on the API gravity of the oil, its ability to be metabolized by 

microorganisms, and the time of year of the spill. The effects on the populations will be at a maximum 

during the spawning season of any commercially important population, exposing larvae and juveniles to 

oil. The effects on commercial species may also include tainting of flesh or the perception of tainting in 

the market. This can, depending on the extent and duration of the spill, affect marketability of 

commercial species.

Even though sensory testing may show no detectable oil or dispersant odors or flavors and the 

chemical test results could be well below the known levels of concern, NOAA Fisheries would be 

expected to close large portions of the Gulf of Mexico during a high-volume spill. This would be done as 

a precautionary measure to ensure public safety and to assure consumer confidence in Gulf seafood 

(USDOC, NMFS, 2010b). Up to 30-40 percent of the Gulf of Mexico’s Exclusive Economic Zone could 

be closed to commercial fishing as the spill continues and expands (USDOC, NMFS, 2010c). This area 
B-80 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

could represent 50-75 percent of the Gulf’s seafood production (Flynn, 2010). The size of the closure 

area may peak about 50 days into the spill and could persist another 2-3 months until the well is killed or 

capped and the remaining oil is recovered or dissipates. During this period, portions or all of individual 

State waters would also be closed to commercial fishing.

The economic impacts of closures on commercial fishing are difficult to predict because they are 

dependent on the season and would vary by fishery. If fishers cannot make up losses throughout the 

remainder of the season, a substantial part of their annual income would be lost. In some cases, 

commercial fishers will leave the industry and some may move to areas still open to fishing, but at a 

greater cost because of longer transit times. Marketing issues are also possible; even if the catch is 

uncontaminated, the public may lack confidence in the product. The duration of the public’s perception 

of seafood tainting is also difficult to predict and depends to some extent on the duration of the spill and 

public awareness of the spill.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Shoreline contact of oil is estimated to persist from 1 to 5 months in the event of a shallow-water 

catastrophic spill and for up to 6 months from a deepwater catastrophic spill. The OSRA probability 

tables show the conditional probabilities (expressed as percent chance) for a shoreline contact for each 

season, the condition being that a spill is assumed to have occurred at the given location. Further detail 

on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

This scenario, depending on the season of occurrence, would cause disruption in commercial fishing 

activity because many commercial fishermen operate inshore in State waters.

In addition to closures in Federal waters, portions of individual State waters would also be closed to 

commercial fishing. The economic impacts of closures on commercial fishing are complicated to predict 

because it is dependent on season and would vary by fishery. If fishers cannot make up losses in the 

remainder of the season, a substantial part of their annual income will be lost. In some cases, commercial 

fishers may move to areas still open to fishing, but at a greater cost because of longer transit times and, in 

some instances, additional license costs. Some commercial fishermen may also augment their income by 

aiding in the cleanup effort and/or renting the boats as vessels of opportunity.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response 

The Gulf of Mexico is an important biological and economic area in terms of commercial seafood 

production and recreational fishing. Commercial fishermen in the Gulf of Mexico harvested over 

1.5 billion pounds of finfish and shellfish in 2010 (USDOC, NMFS, 2012b). The economic impacts of 

closures on commercial fishing are complicated to predict because the economic effects are dependent on 

season and would vary by fishery. If fishermen cannot make up losses by fishing the remainder of the 

season or by participating as contractors in the cleanup, a substantial part of their annual income could be 

lost and may force them out of the industry. While the commercial fishing industry of Texas did not 

sustain measurable direct or indirect economic effects following the 1979 Ixtoc I blowout and spill 

(Restrepo et al., 1982), there is a documented phenomenon that, long after an incident, the perception of 

tainted fish and shellfish from the impacted area persists (Keithly and Diop, 2001). Data regarding the 

duration of the negative perception of Gulf seafood following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, 

and response are not yet available. It is reasonable to assume that a negative perception could impact the 

value of commercial fish resources for several seasons.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

The Gulf of Mexico is one of the largest producers of seafood in the continental United States. 

Various commercial species are fished from State waters through the Exclusive Economic Zone and are 

found throughout the water column. The primary economic impacts of oil spill on commercial fisheries 

are the closure of State or Federal waters to fishing and the perception of seafood tainting by the market. 

Both of these factors are difficult to predict. Closures depend on the size, timing, depth of water, and 

location of the spill as well as the fishery involved. Perception depends on length of the spill and public 

perception. Both of these factors could affect the livelihood of the fishing community.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-81

B.3.1.19. Recreational Fishing

Phase 1—Initial Phase

About 20 percent of the recreational fishing activity in the Gulf of Mexico occurs within 300 ft 

(91 m) of oil and gas structures (Hiett and Milon, 2002). Therefore, an explosion and fire could endanger 

recreational fishermen and divers in the immediate vicinity of the blowout, especially if the blowout is 

located close to shore. Recreational vessels in the area would likely aid in initial search-and-rescue 

operations but they would also be in danger during the explosion and subsequent fire. The subsequent 

fire could burn for up to a month, during which recreational vessels would be expected to avoid the area 

and to not interfere with response activities. It is also possible that recreational fishing could be impacted 

in areas beyond the immediate area of the event due to the perceptions of the public.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

If a catastrophic spill were to occur, a substantial portion of ocean waters could be closed. For 

example, 88,522 square miles (mi2

) (229,271 square kilometers [km2]) were closed to recreational fishing 

activity at the peak of the Macondo well oil spill. However, the majority of recreational fishing activity 

occurs fairly close to shore. Therefore, while the spill remains offshore, the impacts would be particularly 

felt with respect to fishing of offshore species such as king mackerel and red snapper (the impacts of a 

catastrophic spill on fish populations are discussed in Chapter B.3.1.17). The NOAA’s Center for 

Coastal Monitoring and Assessment (USDOC, NOAA, Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment, 

2012) provides a set of maps that display the locations in the Gulf of Mexico where certain fish species 

are prevalent. However, even while the spill remains offshore, there could be impacts to inshore 

recreational fishing due to misperceptions regarding the extent of the spill or due to concerns regarding 

the tainting of fish species. These misperceptions could also reduce tourism activity, which would impact 

tourism-based recreational fishing activity.

In 2011, the percent of each Gulf Coast State’s recreational fishing activity that occurred in State and 

Federal ocean waters combined (i.e., not inland waters) were as follows: Texas (6%); Louisiana (5%); 

Mississippi (2%); Alabama (42%); and West Florida (34%) (USDOC, NMFS, 2012c; Texas Parks and 

Wildlife Department, 2012). Chapter 4.1.1.17 of this Supplemental EIS provides a further breakdown of 

recreational fishing activity by state. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in 

Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

If a catastrophic spill were to reach shore, there would likely be noticeable impacts to recreational 

fishing activity. Since most recreational fishing activity occurs fairly close to shore, there would be a 

number of direct impacts to angler activity due to the fishing closures that would likely arise. This is 

particularly true since anglers would find it more difficult to find substitute fishing sites in the case of a 

catastrophic spill. In 2011, the percent of each Gulf State’s recreational fishing activity that occurred 

inland were as follows: Texas (94%); Louisiana (95%); Mississippi (98%); Alabama (58%); and West 

Florida (66%) (USDOC, NMFS, 2012c; Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 2012). The impacts to 

recreational fishing would also depend on the time of year of the spill. In 2011, 31 percent of angler trips 

in the Gulf occurred between January and April, 41 percent of angler trips occurred between May and 

August, and 28 percent of angler trips occurred between September and December (USDOC, NMFS, 

2012c). In addition, fishing tournaments are often scheduled for the summer months and would be 

difficult to reschedule in the aftermath of a catastrophic spill. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA 

run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

There would also be various economic impacts along the recreational fishing supply chain. Gentner 

Consulting Group (2010) estimates that recreational fishing activity supports $9.8 million in direct 

expenditures and $23 million in total sales per day in the Gulf of Mexico. There could be further impacts 

if the fishing closures persisted long enough to affect purchases of boats and other durable fishing 

equipment. There could also be further impacts if the loss of opportunities for recreational fishing 

activity exacerbated the fall in tourism activity that would arise due to the spill.
B-82 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The long-term impacts of a catastrophic spill on recreational fishing activity would primarily depend 

on the extent to which fish populations recover (refer to Chapter B.3.1.1.17 for more information). 

However, the longer term impacts of a spill on recreational fishing activity would also depend on the 

extent to which public perceptions of fish tainting can be assuaged. In addition, the longer-term impacts 

would depend on the extent to which the various firms that serve the recreational fishing industry would 

be able to weather the downturn in activity resulting from the spill.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Recreational fishing activity could be noticeably impacted in the event of a catastrophic spill. This is 

particularly the case if the spill reached shore or if the spill occurred during peak times and places of 

recreational fishing activity. The long-term impacts of a catastrophic spill would depend on the extent to 

which fish populations recover and the length of time it would take to convince the public that it was 

again safe to fish in the affected areas.

B.3.1.20. Recreational Resources

Phase 1—Initial Event

The most immediate impacts of a catastrophic spill would be on the recreational fishing and 

recreational diving activity in the vicinity of the blowout. About 20 percent of the recreational fishing 

activity and 90 percent of the recreational diving activity in the Gulf of Mexico from Alabama to Texas 

occurs within 300 ft (91 m) of oil and gas structures (Hiett and Milon, 2002). The impacts on recreational 

fishing and recreational diving would be greater the closer the blowout occurred to shore. The immediate 

response activities could also impact ocean-based recreational activity. Finally, there could be impacts to 

tourism activity since a catastrophic spill would likely receive a large amount of media attention.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

While the spill is still offshore, there could be some ocean-dependent recreation that is affected (e.g., 

fishing, diving, and boating), as discussed above. In addition, there may be some effects due either to 

perceived damage to onshore recreational resources that has not yet materialized or to general hesitation 

on the part of travelers to visit the overall region because of the spill. A Congressional hearing into this 

matter (U.S. House of Representatives, 2010) provides a broad overview of some of the effects that were 

felt along the Gulf Coast subsequent to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. For 

example, a representative of Pinellas County estimated that this area had lost roughly $70 million in hotel 

revenue even though beaches in this area did not receive any oil damage. This type of effect could be due 

to misperceptions about the spill, uncertainty about the future of the spill, or concerns about whether a 

tourism experience will be affected even if the destination is only within close proximity to a spill.

As previously mentioned, recreational diving is one offshore recreational activity that would be 

particularly affected by a catastrophic oil spill. Further detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained 

in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

A catastrophic spill has the potential to noticeably impact the Gulf Coast recreation and tourism 

industries. The water-dependent and beach-dependent components of these industries would be 

particularly vulnerable. Environmental Sensitivity Indexes (ESI’s) provide overall measures of the 

sensitivity of a particular coastline to a potential oil spill. The ESI’s rank coastlines from 1 (least 

sensitive) to 10 (most sensitive). Marshes and swamps are examples of resources that have ESI’s of 10 

due to the extreme difficulty of removing oil from these areas; marsh and swamp areas are particularly 

prevalent in Louisiana. The ESI’s for beach areas generally range from 3 to 6, depending on the type of 

sand and the extent to which gravel is mixed into the beach area; beach areas are particularly prevalent in 

Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. The ESI maps for any coastline along the Gulf of Mexico can 

be viewed using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s ERMA mapping system 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-83

(USDOC, NOAA, 2012b; USDOC, NOAA, Office of Response and Restoration, 2014). The ESI maps 

also provide point indicators for recreational resources.

A catastrophic spill would also raise a number of issues regarding recreational activity that is based 

on tourism. One important point is that a spill of the Deepwater Horizon’s dimensions can influence a 

much broader range of individuals and firms than can a smaller spill. For example, a small, localized spill 

may lead some travelers to seek substitute recreational opportunities in nearby areas. However, a large 

spill is more likely to dissuade travelers from visiting a broader economic region. Similarly, small- and 

mid-sized restaurant chains and hotels may be able to find other customers or to simply weather a smaller 

spill. However, a spill the size of the Deepwater Horizon is more likely to affect these types of firms 

since they are less able to diversify their customer base. These effects can be seen in the makeup of those 

who filed damage claims with BP (Gulf Coast Claims Facility, 2012); the Gulf Coast Claims Facility 

closed in early 2012 subsequent to preliminary court approval of a settlement program. For example, the 

bulk of the claims by individuals have been made in the food, beverage, and lodging sector and in the 

retail, sales, and service sector. Claims have also been made by individuals and firms in a broad range of 

geographic regions, many of which were not directly impacted by oil.

Murtaugh (2010) provides data on the change in hotel and sales tax receipts for individual Gulf Coast 

counties in the months immediately following the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. 

During the summer of 2010, the spill caused substantial declines in hotel receipts in the following 

counties: Baldwin, Alabama (33.2% decline); Santa Rosa, Florida (24.8% decline); Okaloosa, Florida 

(24.1% decline); Walton, Florida (12.3% decline); and Bay, Florida (7.4% decline). However, coastal 

counties west of Baldwin, Alabama (as far west as St. Mary, Louisiana), generally experienced noticeable 

increases in hotel receipts. This was particularly true in Mobile, Alabama; Jackson, Mississippi; and in 

the coastal parishes of Louisiana. For example, in Louisiana, St. Mary, Terrebonne, and Lafourche 

Parishes each reported increases in hotel tax receipts of over 80 percent in the summer of 2010. These 

effects are likely due to the influx of oil-spill relief workers to these areas in the immediate aftermath of 

the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. Overall sales tax receipts in counties from 

Baldwin, Alabama, eastward also generally fell during 2010, although to a lesser extent than hotel tax 

receipts. Sales tax receipts in counties and parishes west of Baldwin, Alabama, did not show as clear a 

pattern as did hotel tax receipts. For example, overall sales tax receipts fell by 12.5 percent in Hancock 

County (Mississippi), receipts were almost unchanged in Harrison County (Mississippi), and receipts 

increased by 8.3 percent in Orleans Parish (Louisiana). These results suggest that the impacts of a future 

catastrophic spill will be influenced by the structure of a particular county/parish’s recreational economy, 

as well as by the extent to which oil-spill-response activities will mitigate some of the negative impacts of 

the spill in certain areas.

There could also be effects on tourist activities in areas far away from the areas directly affected by 

oil. For example, in Texas subsequent to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, some 

tourists may have stayed away from Texas Gulf Coast beaches due to misperceptions regarding the extent 

to which these beaches were damaged due to the spill. Conversely, there may have been some 

substitution of beach visitation away from beaches in the eastern Gulf towards the beaches in Texas, 

which were farther from the spill. While it is difficult to quantify these effects, some anecdotal evidence 

regarding this substitution effect can be found in Pack (2010). Hotel occupancy data suggest that these 

two effects may have largely offset each other. Source Strategies Inc. (2010) reports that total hotel 

occupancy in the three metro regions in Texas closest to the Gulf Coast increased just 1.9 percent during 

the third quarter of 2010 compared with the third quarter of 2009. Further detail on this catastrophic 

OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental EIS.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The longer-term implications of a catastrophic event on tourism would depend on the extent to which 

any structural/ecological damage can be repaired and the extent to which economic mitigation actions 

would occur. The long-term implications of a catastrophic spill would also depend on the extent to which 

public confidence in the various components of the recreational and tourism economies can be restored. 

For example, restaurants in the region would be impacted to the extent to which they are perceived to use 

seafood products caught or raised in contaminated waters. Similarly, although beaches can be 

decontaminated not long after a spill has been stopped, lingering perceptions can be expected to 

negatively impact tourism even after a spill has ended.
B-84 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Oxford Economics (2010) attempts to quantify these effects by analyzing the impacts of recent 

catastrophic events on recreational economies. For example, they analyzed the Ixtoc I well blowout and 

spill of 1979, the scale and nature of which was reasonably similar to the Macondo well blowout and spill 

of 2010. In this example, it took approximately 3 years for beaches to be cleaned and for recreational 

activity to return to similar levels as before the spill. They also looked at the Prestige oil spill of 2002 off 

the coast of Spain. Given the nature and size of that spill, recreational activity was able to return to prespill levels in approximately 1 year. Alaska’s tourism economy took approximately 2 years to recover 

from the Exxon Valdez spill.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

A catastrophic spill can cause noticeable impacts to recreational resources such as beaches. A 

catastrophic spill can also have complex effects on recreational activity that depends on tourism. The 

longer-term implications of a catastrophic oil spill on tourism would depend on the extent to which any 

structural/ecological damage can be repaired, the extent to which economic mitigation actions would 

occur, and the speed at which public confidence in the various components of the affected recreational 

and tourism economies would be restored.

B.3.1.21. Archaeological Resources

Phase 1—Initial Event

Offshore Archaeological Resources

BOEM protects all known, discovered, and potentially historic and prehistoric archaeological 

resources on the OCS by requiring appropriate avoidance criteria as well as directives to investigate these 

resources. Onshore archaeological resources, prehistoric and historic sites, would not be immediately 

impacted during the initial phase of a catastrophic blowout because the distance of a blowout site from 

shore is at least 3 nmi (3.5 mi; 5.6 km). However, offshore catastrophic blowouts, when compared with 

spills of lesser magnitude, may initially impact multiple archaeological resources. Resources adjacent to 

a catastrophic blowout could be damaged by the high volume of escaping gas, buried by large amounts of 

dispersed sediments, crushed by the sinking of the rig or platform, destroyed during emergency relief well 

drilling, or contaminated by the hydrocarbons.

Based on historical information, over 2,100 potential shipwreck locations have been identified on the 

Gulf of Mexico OCS (USDOI, MMS, 2007). This number is a conservative estimate and is heavily 

weighted toward post-19th century, nearshore shipwrecks, where historic records documenting the loss of 

the vessels were generated more consistently. BOEM currently has confirmed locational data for 

approximately 380 potential wreck sites, although the historic significance for the majority of these sites 

has not been determined.

BOEM’s Regional Director may require the preparation of an archaeological report to accompany the 

exploration plan, development operations coordination document, or development and production plan, 

under 30 CFR § 550.194, and BSEE’s Regional Director may do likewise under 30 CFR § 250.194 if a 

potential wreck is encountered during operations. As part of the environmental reviews conducted for 

postlease activities, available information is evaluated regarding the potential presence of archaeological 

resources within a WPA proposed action area to determine if additional archaeological resource surveys 

and mitigations are warranted. Having complete knowledge of seafloor resources before a spill occurs 

would enable responders to quickly plan countermeasures in a way that would minimize adverse effects 

occurring from the spill response.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Offshore Archaeological Resources

Due to the response methods (i.e., subsea dispersants) and magnitude of the response (i.e., thousands 

of vessels), a catastrophic blowout and spill have a greater potential to impact offshore archaeological 

resources than other accidental events.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-85

Deep Water 

In contrast to smaller spills or spills in shallow water, large quantities of subsea dispersants could be 

used for a catastrophic subsea blowout in deep water. This could result in currently unknown effects from 

dispersed oil droplets settling to the seafloor. Though information on the actual impacts to submerged 

cultural resources is inconclusive at this time, oil settling to the seafloor could come in contact with 

archaeological resources. At present, there is no evidence of this having occurred. A recent experimental 

study has suggested that, while the degradation of wood in terrestrial environments is initially retarded by 

contamination with crude oil, at later stages, the biodeterioration of wood is accelerated (Ejechi, 2003). 

While there are different environmental constraints that affect the degradation of wood in terrestrial and 

waterlogged environments, soft-rot fungal activity, one of the primary wood degrading organisms in 

submerged environments, was shown to be increased in the presence of crude oil (Ejechi, 2003). There is 

a possibility that oil from a catastrophic blowout could come in contact with wooden shipwrecks and 

artifacts on the seafloor and accelerate their deterioration.

Ancillary damages from vessels associated with oil-spill-response activities (e.g., anchoring) in deep 

water are unlikely because of the use of dynamically positioned vessels responding to a deepwater 

blowout. If response and support vessels were to anchor near a deepwater blowout site, the potential to 

damage undiscovered vessels in the area would be high because of the required number and the size of 

anchors and the length of mooring chains needed to safely secure vessels. Additionally, multiple offshore 

vessel decontamination stations would likely be established in shallow water outside of ports or entrances 

to inland waterways, as seen for the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. The anchoring 

of vessels could result in damage to both known and undiscovered archaeological sites; the potential to 

impact archaeological resources increases as the density of anchoring activities in these areas increases.

Shallow Water 

The potential for damaging archaeological resources increases as the oil spill and related response 

activities progress landward. In shallower waters, most of the damage would be associated with oil 

cleanup and response activities. Thousands of vessels would respond to a shallow-water blowout and 

would likely anchor, potentially damaging both known and undiscovered archaeological sites. Additional 

anchoring would be associated with offshore vessel decontamination stations, as described above. As the 

spill moves into the intertidal zone, the chance of direct contact between the oil and archaeological 

resources increases. As discussed above, this could result in increased degradation of wooden shipwrecks 

and artifacts.

Additionally, in shallower waters, shipwrecks often act as a substrate to corals and other organisms, 

becoming an essential component of the marine ecosystem. These organisms often form a protective 

layer over the shipwreck, virtually encasing the artifacts and hull remains. If these fragile ecosystems 

were destroyed as a result of the oil spill and the protective layer was removed, the shipwreck would then 

be exposed to increased degradation until it reaches a new level of relative stasis with its surroundings.

Regardless of water depth, because oil is a hydrocarbon, heavy oiling could contaminate organic 

materials associated with archaeological sites, resulting in erroneous dates from standard radiometric 

dating techniques (e.g., 14C-dating). Interference with the accuracy of 14C-dating would result in the loss 

of valuable data necessary to understand and interpret the sites.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Onshore Archaeological Resources

Regardless of the water depth in which the catastrophic blowout occurs, it is assumed that more than 

1,000 mi (1,609 km) of shoreline could be oiled to some degree. Onshore prehistoric and historic sites 

would be impacted to some extent by a high-volume spill from a catastrophic blowout that reaches shore. 

Sites on barrier islands could suffer the heaviest impact, and a few prehistoric sites located inland from 

the coastline, in the marsh, and along bayous could also experience some light oiling. Impacts would 

include the loss of ability to accurately date organic material from archaeological sites because of 

contamination or increased research costs to clean samples for analysis. Efforts to prevent coastal cultural 

resources from becoming contaminated by oil would likely be overwhelmed in the event of a hurricane 

and by the magnitude of shoreline impacted.
B-86 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

The most significant damage to archaeological sites could be related to cleanup and response efforts. 

Fortunately, important lessons were learned from the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska in 1989, in which the 

greatest damage to archaeological sites was related to cleanup activities and looting by cleanup crews 

rather than from the oil itself (Bittner, 1996). As a result, cultural resources were recognized as 

significant early in the Deepwater Horizon response and cleanup, and archaeologists were embedded in 

Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Teams (SCAT) and consulting with cleanup crews. Historic preservation 

representatives were present at both the Joint Incident Command as well as each Area Command under 

the general oversight of the National Park Service to coordinate response efforts (Odess, official 

communication, 2010). Despite these efforts, some archaeological sites suffered damage from looting or 

from spill cleanup activities, most notably the parade ground at Fort Morgan, Alabama (Odess, official 

communication, 2011).

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Onshore Archaeological Resources

Regardless of the water depth in which the catastrophic blowout occurs, it is assumed that more than 

1,000 mi (1,609 km) of shoreline could be oiled to some degree. Onshore prehistoric and historic sites 

would be impacted to some extent by a high-volume spill from a catastrophic blowout that reaches shore. 

A few prehistoric sites in Louisiana, located inland from the coastline in the marsh and along bayous, 

could experience some light oiling. As discussed above, impacts would include the permanent loss of 

ability to accurately date organic material from archaeological sites because of contamination. The most 

significant damage to archaeological sites would be related to cleanup and response efforts. Long-term 

recovery would prove difficult if not impossible. Historic structures such as coastal forts that are exposed 

to oiling are generally constructed of brick or other porous, friable materials that are difficult to clean 

without causing further damage (Chin and Church, 2010). Funding for any sort or archaeological 

recovery is problematic outside of Federal lands because of existing laws and regulations (Varmer, 2014). 

Most coastal prehistoric sites in Louisiana, for example, are on private lands where there is no mechanism 

to recover damages. Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act is triggered by a Federal 

undertaking, which in the case of a spill, would be the response and not the actual spill. The Natural 

Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) process codified by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 is a legal 

process to determine the type and amount of restoration needed to compensate the public for harm to 

natural resources that occurs as a result of an oil spill, but it does not cover cultural, archaeological, or 

historic properties.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Archaeological resources are finite, unique, irreplaceable, nonrenewable records of mankind’s past, 

which, once destroyed or damaged, are gone forever. In the event of a catastrophic oil spill, the most 

likely source of irreversible impact is, ironically, from the spill response, and the danger increases 

dramatically as the response approaches the shoreline. This damage can, to a large extent, be mitigated 

by the early integration of archaeologists and State and Tribal historic preservation officers in the 

response to protect sites from impact. Mitigation of impacts from the oil itself are likely to meet with 

varied success depending upon the type of site and availability of funding.

B.3.1.22. Land Use and Coastal Infrastructure

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure as a result of the 

events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic 

spill event because of the long distance (>3 nmi; 3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from shore and the short duration of the 

initial event, fire, and/or explosion.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-87

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Impacts to tourism and recreational resources are addressed in Chapter B.3.1.20. Possible fisheries 

closures are addressed in Chapters B.3.1.18 and B.3.1.19. As cleanup and remediation efforts evolve, 

there would be increased activity at ports and coastal cities, leading to increased traffic on road 

infrastructure and at port facilities. This follows from consideration of BOEM’s scenario estimates of up 

to 3,000 vessels, 25-50 planes/helicopters, and up to 25,000 workers for a shallow-water event and up to 

7,000 vessels, 50-100 planes/helicopters, and up to 50,000 workers for a deepwater event. Waste disposal 

activities associated with boom deployment and retrieval would increase demand at waste disposal 

facilities. BOEM’s scenario estimates 5 million feet (1.5 million meters) of boom deployment and 

35,000 bbl of dispersant applied at the surface for a shallow-water event or 11 million feet (3.4 million 

meter) of boom deployment and 33,000 bbl of dispersant applied at the surface and 16,500 bbl of 

dispersant applied subsea for a deepwater event. Also, vessel decontamination sites would be set up 

offshore and the staffing/maintenance of these sites would contribute to increased activity at port facilities 

and traffic congestion on coastal waterways and highways.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

In the event of a catastrophic spill, impacts on land use and infrastructure would be temporary and 

variable in nature. The scale of impact would depend on the nature of the event and whether it occurs in 

shallow or deep water. These impacts would include land use in staging areas, waste disposal locations 

and capacities, and potential delays because of vessel decontamination stations near ports, as described 

below.

For a shallow-water event, BOEM estimates 5-10 staging areas and 200-300 skimmers. For a 

deepwater event, scenario estimates call for 10-20 staging areas and 500-600 skimmers. Given these 

estimates and the several thousand responders that would be involved in the effort, BOEM expects a 

further increase in traffic congestion and some possible competing land-use issues near the staging areas, 

depending on the real estate market at the time of the event. Some infrastructure categories, such as 

vessels, ports, docks and wharves, would likely become very engaged in response activities and this could 

result in a shortage of space and functionality at infrastructure facilities if ongoing drilling activities were 

simultaneously occurring. However, if drilling were to be suspended, conflicting demands on 

infrastructure facilities would likely fail to materialize.

In the category of waste disposal, the impacts would be more visible as thousands of tons of oily 

liquid and solid wastes from the oil-spill cleanup would be disposed of in onshore landfills. As was the 

case in the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, USEPA, in consultation with USCG, 

would likely issue solid-waste management directives to address the issue of contaminated materials and 

solid or liquid wastes that are recovered as a result of cleanup operations (USEPA, 2010c and 2010d). 

For navigation and port use, there would also be the potential for delays in cargo handling and slow 

vessel traffic because of decontamination operations at various sites along the marine transportation 

system (USDOT, 2010). However, vessel decontamination activities most likely would be complete 

within a year of the event, so impacts would be expected to be limited in duration.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Based on the rapid recovery of infrastructure that was heavily damaged by the catastrophic 2005 

hurricane season and the region’s experience in the few years since the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil 

spill, and response, BOEM would not expect any long-term impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure 

as a result of a catastrophic oil-spill event. However, if a catastrophic oil spill were to occur, BOEM 

would (as it is currently with regard to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response) monitor 

the post-spill, long-term recovery phase of the event for any changes that indicate otherwise. A 

catastrophic spill could generate several thousand tons of oil-impacted solid materials disposed in 

landfills along the Gulf Coast. This waste may contain debris, beach, or marsh material (sand/silt/clay), 

vegetation, and personal protection equipment collected during cleanup activities. BOEM does not 

expect that landfill capacity would be an issue at any phase of the oil-spill event or the long-term 

recovery. In the case of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, USEPA reported that 

existing landfills receiving oil-spill waste had plenty of capacity to handle waste volumes; the Deepwater 
B-88 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response’s waste that was disposed of in landfills represented less than 

7 percent of the total daily waste normally accepted at these landfills (USEPA, 2012).

It is not expected that any long-term, land-use impacts would arise from properties that are utilized 

for restoration activities and would somehow have their future economic use compromised. The rise or 

fall of property values would not be solely a function of some kind of economic impact from a 

catastrophic oil-spill event. There are many other factors that influence the value of property and its best 

economic use. To date, it is not clear from past experiences whether vegetation loss or erosion created by 

a spill could result in changes in land use. The amount and location of erosion and vegetation loss could 

be influenced by the time of year the spill occurs, its location, and weather patterns, including hurricane 

landfalls.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

There would likely be no adverse impacts to land use and coastal infrastructure throughout Phase 1 of 

a catastrophic spill event. Response efforts in Phases 2 and 3 would require considerable mobilization of 

equipment and people. While these efforts might temporarily displace traditional users of coastal land 

and infrastructure, these interruptions would not be long lasting. The post-spill, long-term recovery and 

response efforts during Phase 4 could generate several thousand tons of oil-impacted solid materials 

disposed in landfills along the Gulf Coast, but this would account for no more than 7 percent of the total 

daily waste normally accepted in these landfills. It is also not expected that any properties utilized for 

restoration activities throughout Phase 3 would not suffer any long-term land use or economic impacts.

B.3.1.23. Demographics

Phase 1—Initial Event

The impacts of a catastrophic spill on demographics would primarily be driven by the spill’s impacts 

on employment (refer to Chapter B.3.1.24). Since the impacts of a catastrophic spill on employment 

would take time to evolve, the initial impacts on demographics would be minimal. Therefore, there 

would likely be no adverse impacts to demographics as a result of the events and the potential impactproducing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

The impacts of a catastrophic spill on demographics would primarily be driven by the spill’s impacts 

on employment (refer to Chapter B.3.1.24). For example, there could be some suspension of oil/gas 

activities in the immediate aftermath of the spill. This could cause some workers to seek employment 

outside of the OCS industry, for example in onshore oil/gas extraction or on overseas offshore projects. 

However, since the OCS oil and gas industry would likely eventually recover, the long-term impacts on 

demographics would be small. There could also be impacts on demographics if employment in 

recreation, tourism, or fishing industries were affected, due to either actual or perceived impacts of the 

spill. However, the impacts on these industries would become more acute if the spill were to reach shore.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

The impacts of a catastrophic spill on demographics would primarily be driven by the spill’s impacts 

on employment (refer to Chapter B.3.1.24). For example, impacts to recreation/tourism and recreational 

and commercial fishing activities would become more acute if the spill were to reach shore. There would 

also be a larger presence of cleanup workers in some areas if the spill were to reach shore. For example, 

48,200 workers were employed in response activities at the peak of the response effort following the 

Macondo well blowout and spill (RestoreTheGulf.gov, 2011). However, these impacts would be 

temporary and would be governed by the dynamics of the particular spill. There could also be impacts to 

demographics if there were impacts on the response workers’ health or if the demographics of the 

response workers were noticeably different from the local population.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-89

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

The impacts of a catastrophic spill on demographics would primarily be driven by the spill’s impacts 

on employment (refer to Chapter B.3.1.24). The spill’s impacts on employment, and therefore 

demographics, would primarily be felt in the oil/gas, recreational fishing, commercial fishing, and 

recreation/tourism industries. However, it is unlikely that a catastrophic spill would cause substantial 

long-term changes to a region’s demographics. For example, the demographics data in Woods and Poole 

Economics, Inc. (2011) did not suggest large demographic changes to any Gulf regions subsequent to the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

The impacts of a catastrophic spill on demographics would primarily be driven by the spill’s impacts 

on employment (refer to Chapter B.3.1.24). These impacts would likely be temporary and would be 

governed by the particular dynamics of the spill.

B.3.1.24. Economic Factors

Phase 1—Initial Event

The most immediate economic impacts of a catastrophic spill would be on the oil/gas production and 

employment associated with the area of the spill. There could also be impacts on commercial fishing 

(Chapter B.3.1.18), recreational fishing (Chapter B.3.1.19), and recreational resources (Chapter 

B.3.1.20). However, the primary economic impacts of a catastrophic spill would depend how the spill 

evolves, which is discussed in subsequent sections.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

In contrast to a less severe accidental event, suspension of some oil and gas activities would be likely 

following a catastrophic event. Depending on the duration and magnitude, this could impact hundreds of 

oil-service companies that supply the steel tubing, engineering services, drilling crews, and marine supply 

boats critical to offshore exploration. An interagency economic report estimated that the suspension 

arising from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may have directly and indirectly 

resulted in up to 8,000-12,000 fewer jobs along the Gulf Coast (USDOC, Economics and Statistics 

Administration, 2010). Greater New Orleans, Inc. (2012) provides an overview of the impacts of 

decreased oil and gas industry operations subsequent to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response. This report provides survey evidence regarding the various economic strains felt by businesses 

in Louisiana due to the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response. For example, this report 

found that 41 percent of the respondents were not making a profit due to the slowdown in operations. The 

economic impacts of a catastrophic spill would likely be more heavily concentrated in smaller businesses 

than in the larger companies due to their difficulty in finding substitute revenue sources. Much of the 

employment loss would be concentrated in coastal oil-service parishes in Louisiana (St. Mary, 

Terrebonne, Lafourche, Iberia, and Plaquemines Parishes) and counties/parishes where drilling-related 

employment is most concentrated (Harris County, Texas, in which Houston is located, and Lafayette 

Parish, Louisiana). There could also be economic impacts due to the impacts on commercial fishing 

(Chapter B.3.1.18), recreational fishing (Chapter B.3.1.19), and recreational resources (Chapter 

B.3.1.20). 

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

By the end of a catastrophic spill, a large number of personnel (up to 25,000 in the event of a shallowwater spill and up to 50,000 in the event of a deepwater spill) would be expected to have responded to 

protect the shoreline and wildlife and to cleanup vital coastlines. The degree to which new cleanup jobs 

offset job losses would vary greatly from county to county (or parish to parish). However, these new jobs 

would not make up for lost jobs, in terms of dollar revenue. In most cases, cleanup personnel are paid 

less (e.g., $15-$18 per hour compared with roughly $45 per hour on a drilling rig), resulting in consumers 

in the region having reduced incomes overall and thus, spending less money in the economy (Aversa, 
B-90 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

2010). In addition, the economic impacts of relief workers would likely vary by county or parish, causing 

noticeable positive economic impacts to some counties or parishes while having fairly small positive 

impacts in other counties or parishes (Murtaugh, 2010). However, the influx of relief workers could also 

cause some negative impacts if it disrupted some of the normal functioning of economies. In addition, if 

the spill reaches shore, the impacts to commercial fishing (Chapter B.3.1.18), recreational fishing 

(Chapter B.3.1.19), and recreational resources (Chapter B.3.1.20) would likely be greater.

In the unfortunate event of a future disaster, the creation of a large financial claims administration 

process, similar to the Gulf Coast Claims Facility, would be likely. This administrative body would be 

responsible for distributing funds made available by the responsible party to parties financially hurt by the 

disaster. As demonstrated by the actions of Gulf Coast Claims Facility recipients following the 

Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, funds will likely be used by individuals to pay for 

necessities such as mortgages or groceries, while businesses who receive funds will likely use them to 

maintain payroll and current payments on equipment. As of March 2012, over $6 billion had been paid 

through the Gulf Coast Claims Facility, which mitigated some of the economic impacts of the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response (Gulf Coast Claims Facility, 2012).

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

While a catastrophic spill could immediately impact several Gulf Coast States for several months 

through fishing closures, loss of tourism, and any suspension of oil and gas activities, anticipating the 

long-term economic and employment impacts in the Gulf of Mexico is a difficult task. Many of the 

potentially affected jobs, like fishing charters, are self-employed. Thus, they would not necessarily file 

for unemployment and will not be included in business establishment surveys used to estimate State 

unemployment levels. In addition, unemployment numbers in states are based on nonagricultural jobs, 

and the fishing industry is considered within the agriculture category. On the other side, it is also a 

challenge to estimate how many of these displaced workers have been hired to clean up the spill. For 

example, while thousands of vessels of opportunity would be active in the spill response, not all of these 

would be displaced commercial fishermen from the affected areas. The positive employment impacts 

related to response activities are likely to be shorter term than the negative impacts discussed above. 

However, the long-term economic impacts of a catastrophic spill will likely depend on the speed at which 

the oil/gas, commercial fishing, recreational fishing, and recreational industries recover.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

There would be a number of economic impacts that would arise from a catastrophic oil spill. The 

most direct effects would be on the recreation/tourism, commercial fishing, and recreational fishing 

industries that depend on damaged resources. There could also be substantial negative effects on the 

oil/gas industry due to moratoriums or rule changes that would arise. Finally, there could be substantial 

impacts due to the relief operations and economic mitigation activities that would occur in the aftermath 

of a catastrophic spill.

B.3.1.25. Environmental Justice

Phase 1—Initial Event

There would likely be no adverse impacts to environmental justice as a result of the events and the 

potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a catastrophic spill event 

because of the long distance (>3 nmi; 3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from shore and the short duration of the initial 

event, fire, and/or explosion.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

The environmental justice policy, based on Executive Order 12898 of February 11, 1994, directs 

agencies to incorporate into NEPA documents an analysis of potentially disproportionate and detrimental 

environmental and health effects of their proposed actions on minorities and low-income populations and 

communities. While the spill is still offshore, the primary environmental justice concern would be large 

commercial fishing closures disproportionately impacting minority fishers. In the event of a catastrophic 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-91

spill, Federal and State agencies would be expected to close substantial portions of the Gulf to 

commercial and recreational fishing (USDOC, NOAA, 2010e). While oystering occurs “onshore,” oyster 

beds are also likely to be closed to harvests during Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill because of concerns 

about oil contamination and increased freshwater diversions to mitigate oil intrusion into the marshes. 

These closures would directly impact commercial fishermen and oystermen, and indirectly impact such 

downstream activities as shrimp processing facilities and oyster shucking houses. The mostly AfricanAmerican communities of Phoenix, Davant, and Point a la Hache in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, are 

home to families with some of the few black-owned oyster leases. Just as these leases have been 

threatened by freshwater diversion projects for coastal restoration, they could be threatened by Phase 2 of 

a catastrophic spill (Mock, 2010).

The Gulf Coast hosts multiple minority and low-income groups whose use of natural resources of the 

offshore and coastal environments make them vulnerable to fishing closures. While not intended as an 

inventory of the area’s diversity, we have identified several Gulf Coast populations of particular concern. 

An estimated 20,000 Vietnamese American fishermen and shrimpers live along the Gulf Coast; by 1990, 

over 1 in 20 Louisiana fishers and shrimpers had roots in Southeast Asia even though they comprised less 

than half a percent of the State’s workforce (Bankston and Zhou, 1996). Vietnamese Americans account 

for about one-third of all the fishermen in the central Gulf of Mexico (Ravitz, 2010). Islaños, African 

Americans, and Native American groups are also engaged in commercial fishing and oystering. 

Historically, Vietnamese Americans and African Americans have worked in the fish processing and 

oyster shucking industries. Shucking houses particularly, have provided an avenue into the mainstream 

economy for minority groups.

Therefore, fishing closures during Phase 2 of a catastrophic spill impacting the central Gulf of 

Mexico may disproportionately affect such minority groups as the Vietnamese Americans, Native 

Americans, African Americans, and Islaños (Hemmerling and Colten, 2003).

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

While most coastal populations along the Gulf Coast are not generally minority or low income, 

several communities on the coasts of St. Mary, Lafourche, Terrebonne, St. Bernard, and Plaquemines 

Parishes, Louisiana, have minority or low-income population percentages that are higher than their state 

average. These minority populations are predominately Native American, Islaños, or African American. 

For example, a few counties or parishes along the Gulf Coast have more than a 2-percent Native 

American population (USDOI, MMS, 2007); about 2,250 Houma Indians (a State of Louisiana 

recognized tribe) are concentrated in Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, comprising 2.4 percent of the parish’s 

population, and about 800 Chitimacha (a federally recognized tribe) make up 1.6 percent of St. Mary 

Parish’s population. While these are not significant numbers on their own, viewed in the context of 

Louisiana’s overall 0.6 percent Native American average, these communities take on greater 

environmental justice importance.

Gulf Coast minority and low-income groups are particularly vulnerable to the coastal impacts of a 

catastrophic oil spill due to their greater than average dependence on the natural resources in the offshore 

and coastal environments. Besides their economic reliance on commercial fishing and oystering, coastal 

low-income and minority groups rely heavily on these fisheries and other traditional subsistence fishing, 

hunting, trapping, and gathering activities to augment their diets and household incomes (refer to 

Hemmerling and Colton, 2003, for an evaluation of environmental justice considerations for south 

Lafourche Parish). Regular commuting has continued this reliance on the natural resources of the coastal 

environments even when populations have been forced to relocate because of landloss and the destruction 

from hurricane events.

State fishery closures because of a catastrophic oil spill could disproportionately affect minority and 

low-income groups. Shoreline impacts could generate additional subsistence-related effects. Therefore, 

these minority groups may be disproportionately affected if these coastal areas were impacted by a 

catastrophic spill and the resulting response.
B-92 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

After the spill is stopped, the primary environmental justice concerns relate to possible long-term 

health impacts to cleanup workers, a predominately minority population, and to possible disposal of oilimpacted solid waste in predominantly minority areas.

An analysis of socioeconomic characteristics shows that people of Cajun ethnicity in the Gulf Coast 

States are often found to be of a comparatively low socioeconomic status and to work jobs in the textile 

and oil industries (Henry and Bankston, 1999). Past studies suggest that a healthy offshore petroleum 

industry also indirectly benefits low-income and minority populations (Tolbert, 1995). One BOEMfunded study in Louisiana found income inequality decreased during the oil boom of the 1980’s and 

increased with the decline (Tolbert, 1995). If there is a suspension of oil and gas activities in response to 

a catastrophic spill, many oil- and gas-related service industries would attempt to avoid massive layoffs 

by cutting costs and deferring maintenance during the recovery. This was the case with the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, and the long-term impacts are still not fully understood.

Onshore and Offshore Cleanup Workers

By the end of a catastrophic spill, up to 25,000 (shallow water) or 50,000 (deepwater) personnel 

would be expected to be responding to the spill. The majority of these would be field responders (United 

Incident Command, 2010e). As seen by the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response, the 

racial composition of cleanup crews was so conspicuous that Ben Jealous, the president of the National 

Association for the Advancement of Colored People, sent a public letter to BP Chief Operations Officer 

Tony Hayward on July 9, 2010, demanding to know why African Americans were over-represented in 

“the most physically difficult, lowest paying jobs, with the most significant exposure to toxins” (National 

Association for the Advancement of Colored People, 2010). While regulations require the wearing of 

protective gear and only a small percentage of cleanup workers suffer immediate illness and injuries 

(Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010), exposure could have long-term health impacts (e.g., 

increased rates of some types of cancer) (Savitz and Engel, 2010; Kirkeleit et al., 2008). Aguilera et al. 

(2010) compiled and reviewed existing studies on the repercussions of spilled oil exposure on human 

health for patterns of health effects and found evidence of the relationship between exposure and “acute 

physical, psychological, genotoxic, and endocrine effects in the exposed individuals.” Acute symptoms 

from exposure to oil, dispersants, and degreasers include headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, sore 

eyes, runny nose, sore throat, cough, nose bleeds, rash, blisters, shortness of breath, and dizziness 

(Sathiakumar, 2010). The USEPA’s monitoring data have not shown that the use of dispersants during 

the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response resulted in a presence of chemicals that 

surpassed human health benchmarks (Trapido, 2010). The potential for the long-term human health 

effects are largely unknown. However, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is 

conducting a study known as the “Gulf Long-Term Follow-Up Study” that should provide a better 

understanding of the long-term and cumulative health impacts, such as the consequences of working close 

to a spill and of consuming contaminated seafood. The “Gulf Long-Term Follow-up Study” will monitor 

oil-spill cleanup workers for 10 years and represents a national effort to determine if the Gulf oil spill led 

to physical or mental health problems (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, NIEHS, 2010). The 

study has a target goal of 55,000 participants. As of October 2012, the National Institute of 

Environmental Health Sciences announced that over 29,000 cleanup workers and volunteers have 

enrolled in the “Gulf Long-Term Follow-up Study” (U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, NIEHS, 

2012). Prior research on post-spill cleanup efforts found that the duration of cleaning work was a risk 

factor for acute toxic symptoms and that seamen had the highest occurrence of toxic symptoms compared 

with volunteers or paid workers. Therefore, participants in the “Vessels of Opportunity” program, which 

recruited local boat owners (including Cajun, Houma Indian, and Vietnamese American fishermen) to 

assist in cleanup efforts, would likely be one of the most exposed groups. African Americans are thought 

to have made up a high percentage of the cleanup workforce. The Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration (OSHA) released two matrices of gear requirements for onshore and offshore Gulf 

operations that were organized by task (U.S. Dept. of Labor, OSHA, 2010a). Of past oil-spill workers, 

uninformed and poorly informed workers were at more risk of exposure and symptoms, demonstrating the 

importance of education and proper training of workers (Sathiakumar, 2010). Therefore, a catastrophic 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-93

spill may disproportionately affect seamen and onshore workers such as Cajuns, Vietnamese Americans, 

Houma Indian, and African Americans.

Solid-Waste Disposal 

Following a catastrophic spill, environmental justice concerns arise related to the disposal of cleanuprelated wastes near minority and/or low-income communities (Schleifstein, 2010). It is estimated that a 

catastrophic spill could generate several thousand tons of oil-impacted solid materials that would be 

disposed in landfills along the Gulf Coast. While no new landfills would be built because of a 

catastrophic spill, the use of existing landfills might exacerbate existing environmental justice issues. For 

example, Mobile, Alabama, and Miami, Florida, are majority minority urban centers with a majority of 

minority residents living within a 1-mi (1.6-km) radius of chosen landfills or liquid processing centers. 

While only a small percentage of Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response waste was sent to 

these facilities—13 percent of the liquid waste to Liquid Environmental Solutions in Mobile and only 

0.28 percent of the total liquid waste to Cliff Berry in Miami—they may receive more from potential 

future spills. Disposal procedures for the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response involved 

sorting waste materials into standard “waste stream types” at small, temporary stations, and then sending 

each type to existing facilities that were licensed to dispose of them. The location of temporary sorting 

stations was linked to the location of containment and cleanup operations. Hence, future locations of any 

sorting stations are not predictable since they would be determined by the needs of cleanup operations. 

However, waste disposal locations were determined by the specializations of existing facilities and by 

contractual relationships between them and the cleanup and containment firms. Louisiana received about 

82 percent of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response liquid waste recovered; of this, 

56 percent was manifested to mud facilities located in Venice in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana, and to 

Port Fourchon in Lafourche Parish, Louisiana, and then transferred to a processing facility in Port Arthur, 

Texas. The waste remaining after processing was sent to deep well injection landfills located in Fannett 

and Big Hill, Texas. The sites located in Venice and Port Fourchon, Louisiana, and in Port Arthur, 

Fannett, and Big Hill, Texas, have low-minority populations, but a few of these areas have substantial 

poverty rates relative to State and parish/county means.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

For Phase 1 (Initial Event) of a catastrophic spill, there would likely be no adverse impacts to 

minority and low-income communities because of the long distance (>3 nmi; 3.5 mi; 5.6 km) from shore, 

as well as the short duration of the initial event, fire, and/or explosion. The primary environmental justice 

concerns during Phase 2 (Offshore Spill) would be large-scale fishing closures, oyster bed contamination 

and closures, and subsequent impacts to downstream activities such as shrimp processing facilities and 

oyster shucking houses. These may disproportionately affect such minority groups as the Vietnamese 

Americans, Native Americans, African Americans, and Islaños. Phase 3 (Onshore Contact), depending 

on the location, could result in disproportional impacts to those groups that rely heavily on oystering, 

commercial fishing, and other traditional subsistence fishing, hunting, trapping, and gathering activities to 

augment their diets and household incomes. During Phase 4 (Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and 

Response), the primary environmental justice concerns relate to possible long-term health impacts to 

cleanup workers, a predominately minority population, and to the possible disposal of oil-impacted solid 

waste in predominantly minority areas. As in the case of the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response, understanding long-term impacts would be dependent on the outcome of ongoing research by 

various interested parties, such as the National Institutes of Health and BOEM. Overall, depending on a 

number of mainly geographic variables such as the location of fisheries closures and oyster bed 

contamination and closures, as well as the demographic composition of cleanup workers, and if waste 

disposal was not distributed across the region at many different facilities, a catastrophic oil-spill event 

may have disproportionate effects on minority and low-income populations.
B-94 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

B.3.1.26. Species Considered due to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Concerns

Phase 1—Initial Event

Phase 1 of the scenario is the initiation of a catastrophic blowout incident. Impacts, response, and 

intervention depend on the spatial location of the blowout and leak. For this analysis, an explosion and 

subsequent fire are assumed to occur. If a blowout associated with the drilling of a single exploratory 

well occurs, this could result in a fire that would burn for 1 or 2 days. If a blowout occurs on a production 

platform, other wells could feed the fire, allowing it to burn for over a month. The drilling rig or platform 

may sink. If the blowout occurs in shallow water, the sinking rig or platform may land in the immediate 

vicinity; if the blowout occurs in deep water, the rig or platform could land a great distance away, beyond 

avoidance zones. Regardless of water depth, the immediate response would be from search and rescue 

vessels and aircraft, such as USCG cutters, helicopters, and rescue planes, and firefighting vessels. The 

potential impacts reflect the explosion, subsequent fire for 1-30 days, and the sinking of the platform in 

the immediate vicinity and up to 1 mi (1.6 km) from the well.

The scenarios for each phase, including cleanup methods, can be found Table B-4. 

BOEM has only focused on species within coastal counties and parishes because those are the species 

that could be potentially impacted by oil and gas development activities, including a potential OCS spill. 

There would likely be no adverse impacts to the species considered due to FWS concerns as a result of 

the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 1 of a 

catastrophic spill event due to the distance of most activities, the heavy regulation of infrastructure and 

pipelines, and permitting and siting requirements.

Phase 2—Offshore Spill

Phase 2 of the analysis focuses on the spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. A 

catastrophic spill would likely spread hundreds of square miles. Also, the oil slick may break into several 

smaller slicks, depending on local wind patterns that drive the surface currents in the spill area. The 

potential impacts reflect spill and response in Federal and State offshore waters. Season and temperature 

variations can result in different resource impacts due to variations in oil persistence and oil and 

dispersant toxicity and because of differences in potential exposure of the resources throughout various 

life cycle stages.

There would likely be no adverse impacts to the species considered due to FWS concerns as a result 

of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 2 of a 

catastrophic spill event due to the distance of most activities, the heavy regulation of infrastructure and 

pipelines, and permitting and siting requirements.

Phase 3—Onshore Contact

Phase 3 focuses on nearshore (e.g., inside bays and in close proximity to shoreline) and onshore spill 

response and oil initially reaching the shoreline during the spill event or while the oil still persists in the 

offshore environment once the spillage has been stopped. It is likely that Phases 2 and 3 could occur 

simultaneously. The duration of the initial shoreline oiling is measured from initial shoreline contact until 

the well is capped or killed and the remaining oil dissipates offshore. Re-oiling of already cleaned or 

previously impacted areas could be expected during Phase 3. In addition to the response described in 

Phase 2, nearshore and onshore efforts would be introduced in Phase 3 as oil entered coastal areas and 

contacted shore. The potential impacts reflect the spill and response in very shallow coastal waters and 

once along the shoreline. Season and temperature variations can result in different resource impacts due 

to variations in oil persistence and oil and dispersant toxicity and because of differences in potential 

exposure of the resources throughout various life cycle stages.

The FWS has explicitly communicated interest in specific species within State boundaries along the 

Gulf Coast. The species within Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida have been designated as 

endangered, threatened, candidate, listed with critical habitat, proposed nonessential experimental 

population, or distinct vertebrate population. The greatest threats to the majority of these species are the 

loss of and/or modification to suitable habitat caused by urban and agricultural development. Further 

detail on this catastrophic OSRA run is contained in Appendix C of the WPA 238/246/248 Supplemental 

EIS.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-95

At this time, there is no known record of a hurricane crossing the path of a large oil spill; the impacts 

of such have yet to be determined. The experience from Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005 was that the 

oil released during the storms widely dispersed as far as the surge reached (USDOC, NOAA, National 

Weather Service, 2012). Due to their reliance on terrestrial habitats to carry out their life-history 

functions at a considerable distance from the GOM, the activities of a WPA proposed action are unlikely 

to have significant adverse effects on the size and recovery of any of the FWS-mentioned species or 

populations in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. 

There would likely be no adverse impacts to the species considered due to FWS concerns as a result 

of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 3 of a 

catastrophic spill event due to the distance of most activities, the heavy regulation of infrastructure and 

pipelines, and permitting and siting requirements.

Phase 4—Post-Spill, Long-Term Recovery and Response

Phase 4 focuses on long-term recovery once the well has been capped and the spill has stopped. 

During the final phase of a catastrophic blowout and spill, it is presumed that the well has been capped or 

killed and cleanup activities are concluding. While it is assumed that the majority of spilled oil would be 

dissipated offshore within 1-2 months (depending on season and temperature) of stopping the flow, oil 

has the potential to persist in the environment long after a spill event and has been detected in sediment 

30 years after a spill. On sandy beaches, oil can sink deep into the sediments. In tidal flats and salt 

marshes, oil may seep into the muddy bottoms. The potential impacts reflect long-term persistence of oil 

in the environment and residual and long-term cleanup efforts.

As data continue to be gathered and impact assessments completed, a better characterization of the 

full scope of impacts to populations in the GOM from the Deepwater Horizon explosion, oil spill, and 

response will be available. Relevant data on the status of populations after the Deepwater Horizon

explosion, oil spill, and response may take years to acquire and analyze, and impacts from the Deepwater 

Horizon explosion, oil spill, and response may be difficult or impossible to discern from other factors. 

Therefore, it is not possible for BOEM to obtain this information within the timeline contemplated in this 

Supplemental EIS, regardless of the cost or resources needed. In light of the incomplete or unavailable 

information, BOEM’s subject-matter experts have used available scientifically credible evidence in this 

analysis and applied it using accepted methods and approaches. Nevertheless, a complete understanding 

of the missing information is not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives for this Supplemental 

EIS. As of August 2013, there are 1,380 active leases in the WPA with ongoing (or the potential for) 

exploration, drilling, and production activities. In addition, non-OCS energy-related activities will 

continue to occur in the WPA irrespective of a WPA proposed action (i.e., habitat loss and competition). 

The potential for effects from changes to the affected environment (post-Deepwater Horizon explosion, 

oil spill, and response), accidental spills (including low-probability catastrophic spills), and cumulative 

effects remains whether or not the No Action or an Action alternative is chosen under this Supplemental 

EIS.

There would likely be no adverse impacts to the species considered due to FWS concerns as a result 

of the events and the potential impact-producing factors that could occur throughout Phase 4 of a 

catastrophic spill event due to the distance of most activities, the heavy regulation of infrastructure and 

pipelines, and permitting and siting requirements.

Overall Summary and Conclusion (Phases 1-4)

Accidental blowouts, oil spills, and spill-response activities resulting from a WPA proposed action 

have the potential to impact small to large areas in the GOM, depending on the magnitude and frequency 

of accidents, the ability to respond to accidents, the location and date of accidents, and various 

meteorological and hydrological factors (including tropical storms). The incremental contribution of a 

WPA proposed action would not be likely to result in a significant incremental impact on the FWSmentioned species within the WPA; in comparison, non-OCS-related activities, such as habitat loss and 

competition, have historically proved to be of greater threat to the FWS-mentioned species.

In conclusion, within the CPA, which is directly adjacent to the WPA, there is a long-standing and 

well-developed OCS Program (more than 50 years); there are no data to suggest that activities from the 
B-96 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

preexisting OCS Program are significantly impacting the FWS mentioned species populations; therefore, 

a WPA proposed action would be expected to have little or no effect on the FWS mentioned species.

B.4. PREPARERS

Pat Adkins, Information Management Specialist

Bruce Baird, Biologist

Mark Belter, Marine Biologist

Darice Breeding, Physical Scientist

Sindey Chaky, Social Scientist

Chris DuFore, Oceanographer

Stephanie Gambino, Chief, Biological/Social Sciences Section

Donald (Tre) W. Glenn III, Protected Species Biologist

Gary D. Goeke, Chief, Environmental Assessment Section

Allison Hernandez, Protected Species Biologist

Chester Huang, Meteorologist

Jack Irion, Unit Supervisor, Marine Archaeologist, Social Sciences Unit

Mark D. Jensen, Economist

Matthew Johnson, Marine Biologist

Doug Jones, Marine Archaeologist

Arie R. Kaller, Unit Supervisor, Environmental Scientist, Biological Sciences Unit

Lissa Lyncker, Unit Supervisor, Environmental Scientist, Environmental Assessment Section

Jessica Mallindine, Protected Species Biologist

Megan Milliken, Economist

Tershara Matthews, Unit Supervisor, Environmental Scientist, Environmental Assessment Section

Margaret Metcalf, Chief, Physical/Chemical Sciences Unit

Deborah H. Miller, Technical Editor

David P. Moran, Biologist

Erin O’Reilly, Physical Scientist

Catherine A. Rosa, Environmental Assessment Program Specialist

B.5. REFERENCES

Adcroft, A., R. Hallberg, J.P. Dunne, B.L. Samuels, J.A. Galt, C.H. Barker, and B. Payton. 2010. 

Simulations of underwater plumes of dissolved oil in the Gulf of Mexico. Geophysical Research 

Letters. Vol. 37. 5 pp. L18605, doi:10.1029/2010GL044689.

Aguilera, F., J. Méndez, E. Pásaro, and B. Laffon. 2010. Review on the effects of exposure to spilled 

oils on human health. Journal of Applied Toxicology 30:291-301. doi:10.1002/jat.1521.

Alabama State Port Authority. 2010. Spill continues to impact Gulf Coastal States, Port of Mobile will 

remain open. Media Update, July 2, 2010. Internet website: http://www.asdd.com/pdf/

ASPA_PortofMobile_OilSpillUpdate_07022010.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Alexander, S.K. and J.W. Webb. 1983. Effects of oil on growth and decomposition of Spartina 

alterniflora. In: Proceedings, 1983 Oil Spill Conference. February 28-March 3, 1983, San Antonio, 

TX. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute. Pp. 529-532.

Alexander, S.K. and J.W. Webb. 1987. Relationship of Spartina alterniflora growth to sediment oil 

content following an oil spill. In: Proceedings, 1987 Oil Spill Conference . . . April 6-9, 1988, 

Baltimore, MD. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute. Pp. 445-450.

Alonso-Alvarez, C., I. Munilla, M. Lopez-Alonso, and A. Velando. 2007. Sublethal toxicity of the 

Prestige oil spill on yellow-legged gulls. Environment International 33:773-781.

Alves-Stanley, C.D., G.A.J. Worthy, and R.K. Bomde. 2010. Feeding preferences of West Indian 

manatees in Florida, Belize, and Puerto Rico as indicated by stable isotope analysis. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 402:255-267.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-97

American Bird Conservancy. 2010. Gulf oil spill: Field survey report and recommendations. American 

Bird Conservancy, Washington, DC. 13 pp. Internet website: http://www.abcbirds.org/

newsandreports/ABC_Gulf_Oil_Spill_Report.pdf. Accessed January 5, 2011.

Anchor Environmental CA, L.P. 2003. Literature review of effects of resuspended sediments due to 

dredging operations. Prepared for the Los Angeles Contaminated Sediments Task Force, Los 

Angeles, CA. 140 pp.

Arnold, T.W. and R.M. Zink. 2011. Collision mortality has no discernible effect on population trends of 

North American birds. PLoS ONE 6(9), 6 pp.

Australian Maritime Safety Authority. 2003. The effects of oil on wildlife. Internet website: http://

www.amsa.gov.au/Marine_Environment_Protection/National_plan/General_Information/

Oiled_Wildlife/Oil_Spill_Effects_on_Wildlife_and_Non-Avian_Marine_Life.asp. Accessed June 

2011.

Australian Maritime Safety Authority. 2010. Oil spill dispersants: Top 20 frequently asked questions 

(FAQs). Internet website: http://www.amsa.gov.au/Marine_Environment_Protection/National_plan/

General_Information/Dispersants_Information/FAQ_Oil_Spills_Dispersants.asp. Accessed 

November 10, 2011.

Aversa, J. 2010. Oil spill’s economic damage may not go beyond Gulf. Internet website: http://

www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9GK80MG0.htm. Accessed November 17, 2011.

Baca, B., G.A. Ward, C.H. Lane, and P.A. Schuler. 2005. Net environmental benefit analysis (NEBA) of 

dispersed oil on nearshore tropical ecosystems derived from the 20 year “TROPICS” field study. In: 

Proceedings 2005 International Oil Spill Conference. May 15-19, 2005, Miami Beach, FL. 

Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.

Baird, P.H. 1990. Concentrations of seabirds at oil-drilling rigs. Condor 92:768-771.

Bak, R.P.M. and J.H.B.W. Elgershuizen. 1976. Patterns of oil-sediment rejection in corals. Marine 

Biology 37:105-113. 

Bankston, C.L. and M. Zhou. 1996. Go fish: The Louisiana Vietnamese and ethnic entrepreneurship in 

an extractive industry. National Journal of Sociology 10(1):37-55.

Barras, J.A. 2006. Land area change in coastal Louisiana after the 2005 hurricanes: A series of three 

maps. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey. Open-File Report 06-1274.

Barras, J.A., S. Beville, D. Britsch, S. Hartley, S. Hawes, J. Johnston, P. Kemp, Q. Kinler, A. Martucci, 

J. Porthouse, D. Reed, K. Roy, S. Sapkota, and J. Suhayda. 2003. Historical and projected coastal 

Louisiana land changes: 1978-2050. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey. Open-File 

Report 03-334.

Bartha, R. and R.M. Atlas. 1983. Transport and transformations of petroleum: Biological processes. In: 

Boesch, D.F. and N.N. Rabalais, eds. Long-term environmental effects of offshore oil and gas 

development. Taylor and Francis, Abingdon.

Baustian, J., I. Mendelssohn, Q. Lin, and J. Rapp. 2010. In situ burning restores the ecological function 

and structure of an oil-impacted coastal marsh. Environmental Management 46:781-789.

Beck, M.W., K.L. Heck, Jr., K.W. Able, D.L. Childers, D.B. Eggleston, B.M. Gillanders, B. Halpern, 

C.G. Hays, K. Hoshino, T.J. Minello, R.J. Orth, P.F. Sheridan, and M.P. Weinstein. 2001. The 

identification, conservation, and management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and 

invertebrates. BioScience 51(8):633-641.

Beiras, R. and L. Saco-Álvarez. 2006. Toxicity of seawater and sand affected by the Prestige fuel-oil 

spill using bivalve and sea urchin embryogenesis bioassays. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 

177:457-466.
B-98 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Belanger, M., L. Tan, N. Askin, and C. Wittnich. 2010. Chronological effects of the Deepwater Horizon

Gulf of Mexico oil spill on regional seabird casualties. Journal of Marine Animals and Their Ecology 

3:10-14.

Bik H.M., K.M. Halanych, J. Sharma, and W.K. Thomas. 2012. Dramatic shifts in benthic microbial 

eukaryote communities following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. PLoS ONE 7(6):e38550. 

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038550.

Bittner, J.E. 1996. Cultural resources and the Exxon-Valdez oil spill: An overview. Proceedings of the 

Exxon-Valdez Oil Spill Symposium. American Fisheries Society Symposium 18:814-818.

Bjorndal, K.A., B.A. Schroeder, A.M. Foley, B. E. Witherington, M. Bresette, D. Clark, R. M. Herren, 

M.D. Arendt, J.R. Schmid, A.B. Meylan, P.A. Meylan, J.A. Provancha, K.M. Hart, M.M. Lamont, 

R.R. Carthy, and A.B. Bolten. 2013. Temporal, spatial, and body size effects on growth rates of 

loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) in northwest Atlantic. Marine Biology 160(10): 2711-2721. 

Internet website: http://accstr.ufl.edu/accstr-resources/publications/Bjorndal_et_al_MarBiol_

2013b.pdf. 

Boehm, P.D. and D.L. Fiest. 1982. Subsurface distributions of petroleum from an offshore well blowout. 

The Ixtoc I blowout, Bay of Campeche. Environmental Science and Technology 16(2):67-74.

Boesch, D.F. and N.N. Rabalais, eds. 1987. Long-term environmental effects of offshore oil and gas 

development. London: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 696 pp.

British Petroleum. 2014a. Active shoreline cleanup operations from Deepwater Horizon accident end. 

Internet website: http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/press/press-releases/active-shorelinecleanup-operations-dwh-accident-end.html. Released April 15, 2014. Accessed May 19, 2014.

British Petroleum. 2014b. Deepwater Horizon accident and response. Internet website: http://

www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/gulf-of-mexico-restoration/deepwater-horizon-accident-andresponse.html. Accessed July 10, 2014.

Burdeau C. and J. Collins. 2010. Marshes fouled by Gulf of Mexico oil spill show signs of regrowth. 

The Associated Press. August 12, 2010. Internet website: http://www.nola.com/news/gulf-oil-spill/

index.ssf/2010/08/marshes_fouled_by_gulf_of_mexi.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Burger, J. 1977. Determinants of hatching success in diamond-back terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin. 

American Midland Naturalist 97:444-464.

Burger, A.E. 1993. Estimating the mortality of seabirds following oil spills: Effects of spill volume. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin 26:140-143.

Burger, J. 1994. Immediate effects of oils spills on organisms in the Arthur Kill. In: Burger, J., ed. 

Before and after an oil spill: The Arthur Kill. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. 

Pp. 115-130.

Burke, C.M., W.A. Montevecchi, and F.K. Wiese. 2012. Inadequate environmental monitoring around 

offshore oil and gas platforms on the Grand Bank of Eastern Canada: Are risks to marine birds 

known? Journal of Environmental Management 104:121-126.

Burns, K.A. and A.H. Knap. 1989. The Bahía Las Minas oil spill: Hydrocarbon uptake by reef building 

corals. Marine Pollution Bulletin 20(8):391-398.

Burns, K.A., S.D. Garrity, and S.C. Levings. 1993. How many years until mangrove ecosystems recover 

from catastrophic oil spills? Marine Pollution Bulletin 26: 239-248.

Burns, K.A., S.D. Garrity, D. Jorissen, J. MacPherson, M. Stoelting, J. Tierney, and L. Yelle-Simmons. 

1994. The Galeta oil spill. II. Unexpected persistence of oil trapped in mangrove sediments. 

Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 38: 349-364.

Butchart, S.H.M., A.J. Stattersfield, L.A. Bennun, S.M. Shutes, H.R. Akçakaya, J.E.M. Baillie, 

S.N. Stuart, C. Hilton-Taylor, and G.M. Mace. 2004. Measuring global trends in the status of 

biodiversity: Red List indices for birds. PLoS Biology 2(12), 11 pp.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-99

Butchart, S.H.M., A.J. Stattersfield, J.E.M. Baillie, L.A. Bennun, S.N. Stuart, H.R. Akçakaya, C. HiltonTaylor, and G.M. Mace. 2005. Using Red List indices to measure progress towards the 2010 target 

and beyond. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B 360:255-268.

Butler, R.G., A. Harfenist, F.A. Leighton, and D.B. Peakall. 1988. Impact of sublethal oil and emulsion 

exposure on the reproductive success of Leach’s storm-petrels: Short and long-term effects. Journal 

of Applied Ecology 25:125-143.

Butler, J.A., C. Broadhurst, M. Green, and Z. Mullin. 2004. Nesting, nest predation, and hatchling 

emergence of the Carolina diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin centrata, in northeastern 

Florida. American Midland Naturalist 152:145-155.

Butler, J.A., R.A. Seigel, and B. Mealey. 2006. Malaclemys terrapin—diamondback terrapin. In: 

Meylan, P.A., ed. Biology and conservation of Florida turtles. Chelonian Research Monographs 

3:279-295.

Byrd, G.V., J.H. Reynolds, and P.L. Flint. 2009. Persistence rates and detection probabilities of bird 

carcasses on beaches of Unalaska Island, Alaska, following the wreck of the M/V Selendang Ayu. 

Marine Ornithology 37:197-204.

Byrne, C. 1989. Effects of the water-soluble fractions of No. 2 fuel oil on the cytokinesis of the Quahog 

clam (Mercenaria mercenaria). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 42:81-86.

Byrne, C.J. and J.A. Calder. 1977. Effect of the water-soluble fractions of crude, refined, and waste oils 

on the embryonic and larval stages of the Quahog clam Mercenaria sp. Marine Biology 40:225-231.

Caetano, M., M.J. Madureira, and C. Vale. 2003. Metal remobilization during resuspension of anoxic 

contaminated sediment: Short-term laboratory study. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 143:23-40.

Cagle, F.R. 1952. A Louisiana terrapin population (Malaclemys). Copeia 1952:74-76.

Caldwell, A.B. 2003. Do terraces and coconut mats affect seeds and submerges aquatic vegetation at 

Sabine National Wildlife Refuge? Master’s thesis, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA. 

41 pp.

Camphuysen, C.J. 2006. Methods for assessing seabird vulnerability to oil pollution: Final report. 

Workshop on the Impact of Oil Spills on Seabirds (7-9 September 2006), Santa Cruz, Spain. 5 pp.

Canadian Center for Energy Information. 2010. What are oil sands and heavy oil? Internet website: 

http://www.centreforenergy.com/AboutEnergy/ONG/OilsandsHeavyOil/Overview.asp?page=1. 

Accessed November 10, 2011.

Carls, M.G., S.D. Rice, and J. Hose. 1999. Sensitivity of fish embryos to weathered crude oil: Part 1. 

Low-level exposure during incubation causes malformations, genetic damage and mortality in larval 

Pacific herring (Clupea pallashi). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18(3):481-493.

Castège, I., Y. Lalanne, V. Gouriou, G. Hèmery, M. Girin, F. D’Amico, C. Mouchès, J. D’Elbèe, 

L. Soulier, J. Pensu, D. Lafitte, and F. Pautrizel. 2007. Estimating actual seabirds mortality at sea 

and relationship with oil spills: Lesson from the “Prestige” oil spill in Aquitaine (France). Ardeola 

54:289-307.

Castellanos, D.L. and L.P. Rozas. 2001. Nekton use of submerged aquatic vegetation, marsh, and 

shallow unvegetated bottom in the Atchafalaya River Delta, a Louisiana tidal freshwater ecosystem. 

Estuaries 24(2):184-197.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010. NIOSH report of BP illness and injury data (April 

23—June 6, 2010). Internet website: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/oilspillresponse/pdfs/

NIOSHRept-BPInjuryandIllnessDataApril23-June6.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Chia, F.S. 1973. Killing of marine larvae by diesel oil. Marine Pollution Bulletin 4(1):29-30.

Chin, C. and J. Church. 2010. Field report: Fort Livingstone, Grand Terre Island, Jefferson Parish, 

Louisiana, site visit June 16, 2010. Report prepared for the National Center for Preservation 

Technology and Training, Natchitoches, LA.
B-100 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Clarke, D.G. and D.H. Wilber. 2000. Assessment of potential impacts of dredging operations due to 

sediment resuspension. DOER Technical Notes Collection (ERDC TN-DOER-E9), U.S. Dept. of the 

Army, Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.

Cohen, Y., A. Nissenbaum, and R. Eisler. 1977. Effects of Iranian crude oil on the Red Sea octocoral 

Heteroxenia fuscescens. Environmental Pollution 12:173-186.

Cook, B.B. and A.H. Knap. 1983. The effects of crude oil and chemical dispersant on photosynthesis in 

the brain coral, Diploria strigosa. Marine Biology 78:21-27.

Conan, G. 1982. The long-term effects of the Amoco Cadiz oil spill. Philosophical Transactions of the 

Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 297(1087).

Conroy, M.J., M.C. Runge, J.D. Nichols, K.W. Stodola, and R.J. Cooper. 2011. Conservation in the face 

of climate change: the roles of alternative models, monitoring, and adaptation in confronting and 

reducing uncertainty. Biological Conservation 144:1204-1213.

Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ). 2010. Report regarding the Minerals Management Service’s 

National Environmental Policy Act policies, practices, and procedures as they relate to Outer 

Continental Shelf oil and gas exploration and development. 41 pp.

Croxall, J.P. and R. Rothery. 1991. Population regulation of seabirds: Implications of their demography 

for conservation. In: Perrins, C.M., J.-D. Lebreton, and G.J.M. Hirons, eds. Bird population 

studies–relevance to conservation and management. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 

Pp. 272-296.

Dames and Moore, Inc. 1979. Mississippi, Alabama, Florida outer continental shelf baseline 

environmental survey; MAFLA, 1977/78. Volume I-A. Program synthesis report. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Washington, DC. BLM/YM/ES-79/01-Vol-1-A. 278 pp.

Darnell, R.M., R.E. Defenbaugh, and D. Moore. 1983. Atlas of biological resources of the continental 

shelf, northwestern Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, New 

Orleans, LA. BLM Open-File Report No. 82-04.

Davis, H.C. 1958. Survival and growth of clam and oyster larvae at different salinities. Biological 

Bulletin, Marine Biological Laboratory 114(3):296-307.

Davis, R.W., W.E. Evans, and B. Würsig, eds. 2000. Cetaceans, sea turtles, and seabirds in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico: Distribution, abundance, and habitat association. Prepared by Texas A&M 

University at Galveston and the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey, Biological Resources Division, USGS/BRD/CR-1999-0005 

and Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA, OCS Study 

MMS 2000-002. 27 pp.

Davis, B., D.S. Etkin, M. Landry, and K. Watts. 2004. Determination of oil persistence: A historical 

perspective. Proc. Fifth Biennial Freshwater Spills Symposium. Internet website: http://

www.environmental-research.com/erc_papers/ERC_paper_19.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Dawes, C.J., J. Andorfer, C. Rose., C. Uranowski, and N. Ehringer. 1997. Regrowth of seagrass 

Thalassia testudinum into propeller scars. Aquatic Botany 59:139-155.

Dean, T.A. and S.C. Jewett. 2001. Habitat-specific recovery of shallow subtidal communities following 

the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Ecological Applications 11(5):1456-1471.

Deegan, L.A. 1989. Nekton, the free-swimming consumers. In: Day, J.W. Jr., C.A.S. Hall, 

W.M. Kemp, and A. Yanez-Arancibia, eds. Estuarine ecology. New York, NY: Wiley and Sons, 

Inc. 400 pp.

de Gouw, J.A., A.M. Middlebrook, C. Warneke, R. Ahmadov, E.L. Atlas, R. Bahreini, D.R. Blake, 

C.A. Brock, J. Brioude, D.W. Fahey, F.C. Fehsenfeld, J.S. Holloway, M. Le Henaff, R.A. Lueb, 

S.A. McKeen, J.F. Meagher, D.M. Murphy, C. Paris, D.D. Parrish, A.E. Perring, I.B. Pollack, 

A.R. Ravishankara, A.L. Robinson, T.B. Ryerson, J.P. Schwarz, J.R. Spackman, A. Srinivasan, and 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-101

L.A. Watts. 2011. Organic aerosol formation downwind from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

Science 331(6022):1273-1274.

Delaune, R.D., W.H. Patrick, and R.J. Bureh. 1979. Effect of crude oil on a Louisiana Spartina 

alterniflora salt marsh. Environmental Pollution 20:21-31.

den Hartog, C. and R.P.W.M. Jacobs. 1980. Effects of the “Amoco Cadiz” oil spill on an eelgrass 

community at Roscoff (France) with special reference to the mobile benthic fauna. Helgoländer 

Meeresunters 33:182-191.

Diercks, A-R., R.C. Highsmith, V.L. Asper, D.J. Joung, Z. Zhou, L. Guo, A.M. Shiller, S.B. Joye, 

A.P. Teske, N. Guinasso, T.L. Wade, and S.E. Lohrenz. 2010. Characterization of subsurface 

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at the Deepwater Horizon site. Geophysical Research Letters, 

Vol. 37, L20602, doi:10.1029/2010GL045046.

Dodge, R.E., S.C. Wyers, A.H. Knap, H.R. Frith, T.D. Sleeter, and S.R. Smith. 1984. The effects of oil 

and oil dispersants on hermatypic coral skeletal growth (extension rate). Coral Reefs 3:191-198.

Dow, R.L. 1975. Reduced growth and survival of clams transplanted to an oil spill site. Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 6(2):124-125.

Ducklow, H.W. and R. Mitchell. 1979. Composition of mucus released by coral reef Coelenterates. 

Limnology and Oceanography 24(4):706-714.

Eccleston, C.H. 2008. NEPA and environmental planning: Tools, techniques, and approaches for 

practitioners. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 447 pp.

Ejechi, B.O. 2003. Biodegradation of wood in crude oil-polluted soil. World Journal of Microbiology & 

Biotechnology 19(8):799-804. ISSN: 0959-3993.

Elgershuizen, J.H.B.W. and H.A.M. De Kruijf. 1976. Toxicity of crude oils and a dispersant to the stony 

coral Madracis mirabilis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 7(2):22-25.

Energy Resources Co. Inc. (ERCO). 1982. Ixtoc oil spill assessment: Executive summary. U.S. Dept. 

of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Contract No. AA851-CT0-71. Cambridge, MA. 39 pp.

Environment Canada. 2011. Environmental Technology Centre. Oil properties database. Internet 

website: http://www.etc-cte.ec.gc.ca/databases/OilProperties/oil_prop_e.html. Accessed on June 21, 

2011.

Epperly, S.P., J. Braun, A.J. Chester, F.A. Cross, J.V. Merriner, P.A. Tester, and J.H. Churchill. 1996. 

Beach strandings as an indicator of at-sea mortality of sea turtles. Bulletin of Marine Science 

59:289-297.

Erftemeijer, P.L.A. and R.R.R. Lewis III. 2006. Environmental impacts of dredging on seagrass: A 

review. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52:1553-1572.

Esler, D., T.D. Bowman, K.A. Trust, B.E. Ballachey, T.A. Dean, S.C. Jewett, and C.E. O’Clair. 2002. 

Harlequin duck population recovery following the Exxon Valdez oil spill: Progress, process and 

constraints. Marine Ecology Progress Series 241:271-286.

Esler, D., K.A. Trust, B.E. Ballachey, S.A. Iverson, T.L. Lewis, D.J. Rizzolo, D.M. Mulcahy, A.K. Miles, 

B.R. Woodin, J.J. Stageman, J.D. Henderson, and B.W. Wilson. 2010. Cytochrome P4501 

biomarker indication of oil exposure in harlequin ducks up to 20 years after the Exxon Valdez oil 

spill. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 29:1138-1145.

Fanning, K., K.L. Carder, and P.R. Betzer. 1982. Sediment resuspension by coastal waters: A potential 

mechanism for nutrient re-cycling on the ocean’s margins. Deep-Sea Research 29:953-965.

Farnsworth, A. and R.W. Russell. 2007. Monitoring flight calls of migrating birds from an oil platform 

in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Journal of Field Ornithology 78:279-289.

Federal Register. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Interior population of the least 

tern determined to be endangered. Final rule. 50 FR 21784-21792.
B-102 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Federal Register. 1989. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; endangered status for the 

Anastasia Island beach mouse and threatened status for the southeastern beach mouse. Final rule. 

Federal Register, May 12, 1989, 54 FR 91, pp. 20598-20602.

Federal Register. 2006. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designation of critical habitat for 

the Perdido Key beach mouse, Choctawhatchee beach mouse, and St. Andrew beach mouse. Final 

rule. 71 FR 197, pp. 60238-60370.

Federal Register. 2009. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; removal of the brown pelican 

(Pelecanus occidentalis) from the Federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife. Final rule. 

74 FR 220, pp. 59444-59472.

Federal Register. 2011. Endangered and threatened species: Determination of nine distinct population 

segments of loggerhead sea turtles as endangered or threatened. Final rule. 76 FR 184, p. 58868. 

September 22, 2011.

Federal Register. 2012. Sea turtle conservation; shrimp trawling requirements. May 10, 2012. 

50 CFR part 223. 77 FR 91, pp. 27411-27415.

Federal Register. 2013. Endangered and threatened species: Designation of critical habitat for the 

northwest Atlantic Ocean loggerhead sea turtle distinct population segment (DPS) and determination 

regarding critical habitat for the North Pacific Ocean loggerhead DPS. July 18, 2013. 77 FR 138, 

pp. 43006-43054.

Fertl, D., A.J. Shiro, G.T. Regan, C.A. Beck, N. Adimey, L. Price-May, A. Amos, G.A.J. Worthy, and 

R. Crossland. 2005. Manatee occurrence in the northern Gulf of Mexico, west of Florida. Gulf and 

Caribbean Research 17:69-94.

Fingas, M. 2004. Weather windows for oil spill countermeasures. Environmental Technology Center, 

Environmental Canada.

Fingas, M., F. Ackerman, P. Lambert, K. Li, Z. Wang, J. Mullin, L. Hannon, D. Wang, A. Steenkammer, 

R. Hiltabrand, R. Turpin, and P. Campagna. 1995. The Newfoundland offshore burn experiment: 

Further results of emissions measurement. In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth Arctic and Marine 

Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, Volume 2, June 14-16, 1995, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

Pp. 915-995.

Fischel, M., W. Grip, and I.A. Mendelssohn. 1989. Study to determine the recovery of a Louisiana 

marsh from an oil spill. In: Proceedings, 1989 Oil Spill Conference, February 13-16, 1989, San 

Antonio, TX. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute. Pp. 383-387.

Fisher, C.R. 1995. Characterization of habitats and determination of growth rate and approximate ages 

of the chemosynthetic symbiont-containing fauna. In: MacDonald, I.R., W.W. Schroeder, and 

J.M. Brooks, eds. 1995. Chemosynthetic ecosystems study: Final report. Volume 2: Technical 

report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 95-0022. Pp. 5.1-5.47.

Flint, P.L. and A.C. Fowler. 1998. A drift experiment to assess the influence of wind on recovery of 

oiled seabird on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 36:165-166.

Flint, P.L., A.C. Fowler, and R.F. Rockwell. 1999. Modeling losses of birds associated with the oil spill 

from the M/V Citrus off St. Paul Island, Alaska. Ecological Modeling 117:261-267.

Flint, P.L., E.W. Lance, K.M. Sowl, and T.F. Donnelly. 2010. Estimating carcass persistence and

scavenging bias in a human-influenced landscape in western Alaska. Journal of Field Ornithology 

81:206-214.

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2010. Sea turtle nests to be moved Friday. News 

Release, June 22, 2010. 2 pp. Internet website: http://myfwc.com/news/news-releases/2010/july/22/

news_10_x_oilspill34/. Accessed November 17, 2011.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-103

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2014a. Manatee synoptic surveys. Internet 

website: http://myfwc.com/research/manatee/projects/population-monitoring/synoptic-surveys/. 

Accessed June 13, 2014.

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2014b. Manatee mortality statistics. Florida Fish 

and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute. Internet website: 

http://myfwc.com/media/1777172/YearToDate.pdf. Accessed April 8, 2014.

Flynn, D. 2010. NOAA closes Gulf spill area to fishing. Food safety news. May 3, 2010. Internet 

website: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2010/05/noaa-closes-spill-area-to-fishing/. Accessed 

November 10, 2011.

Foley, A.M., B.A. Schroeder, R. Hardy, S.L. MacPherson, M. Nicholas, and M.S. Coyne. 2013. 

Postnesting migratory behavior of loggerhead Caretta caretta from three Florida rookeries. 

Endangered Species Research 21(2):129-142. Internet website: http://www.int-res.com/articles/

esr_oa/n021p129.pdf. 

Foley, A.M., B.A. Schroeder, R. Hardy, S.L. MacPherson, and M. Nicholas. 2014. Long-term behavior 

at foraging sites of adult female loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) from three Florida rookeries. 

Marine Biology 161(6): 1251-1262. Internet website: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%

2Fs00227-014-2415-9. Accessed July 7, 2014.

Ford, R.G. 2006. Using beached bird monitoring data for seabird damage assessment: The importance 

of search interval. Marine Ornithology 34:91-98.

Ford, R.G. and M.A. Zafonte. 2009. Scavenging of seabird carcasses at oil spill sites in California and 

Oregon. Marine Ornithology 37:205-211.

Ford, R.G., M.L. Bonnell, D.H. Varoujean, G.W. Page, H.R. Carter, B.E. Sharp, D. Heinemann, and 

J.L. Casey. 1996. Total direct mortality of seabirds from the Exxon Valdez oil spill. American 

Fisheries Society Symposium 18:684-711.

Fowler, A.C. and P.L. Flint. 1997. Persistence rates and detection probabilities of oiled king eider 

carcasses on St. Paul Island, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 34:522-526.

Frazer, T.K., S.K. Notestein, C.A. Jacoby, C.J. Littles, S.R. Keller, and R.A. Swift. 2006. Effects of 

storm-induced salinity changes on submersed aquatic vegetation in Kings Bay, Florida. Estuaries and 

Coasts 29(6A):943-953.

Fucik, K.W., J.K. Hoover, and B.J. Morson. 1980. Effects of turbidity and sedimentation on tropical 

benthic communities: A literature review. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration. 25 pp.

Fucik, K.W., K.A. Carr, and B.J. Balcom. 1995. Toxicity of oil and dispersed oil to the eggs and larvae 

of seven marine fish and invertebrates from the Gulf of Mexico. In: Lane, P., ed. The use of 

chemicals in oil spill response. STP 1252. Ann Arbor, MI. Pp. 135-171.

Ganning, B., D.J. Reish, and D. Straughan. 1984. Recovery and restoration of rocky shores, sandy 

beaches, tidal flats, and shallow subtidal bottoms impacted by oil spill. In: Cairns, J., Jr. and 

A.L. Buikema, Jr., eds. Restoration of habitats impacted by oil spills. Boston, MA.

Gentner Consulting Group. 2010. Economic impacts of recreational fishing closures resulting from the 

Deep Horizon oil spill: Preliminary estimates, May 19, 2010.

George-Ares, A. and J.R. Clark. 2000. Aquatic toxicology of two Corexit® registered dispersants. 

Chemosphere 40(8):897-906.

Geraci, J.R. and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. 1990. Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risks. San Diego, 

CA: Academic Press.

Gittings, S.R., T.J. Bright, W.W. Schroeder, W.W. Sager, J.S. Laswell, and R. Rezak. 1992. Invertebrate 

assemblages and ecological controls on topographic features in the northeast Gulf of Mexico. 

Bulletin of Marine Science 50(3):435-455.
B-104 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Golet, G.H., P.E. Seiser, A.D. McGuire, D.D. Roby, J.B. Fischer, K.J. Kuletz, D.B. Irons, T.A. Dean, 

S.C. Jewett, and S.H. Newman. 2002. Long-term direct and indirect effects of the Exxon Valdez oil 

spill on pigeon guillemots in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series 

241:287-304.

Gómez Gesteira, J.L. and J.C. Dauvin. 2000. Amphipods are good bioindicators of the impact of oil 

spills on soft bottom macrobenthic communities. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(11):1017-1027.

González, J, F.G. Figueiras, M. Aranguren-Gassis, B.G. Crespo, E. Fernández, X.A.G. Morán, and 

M. Nieto-Cid. 2009. Effect of a simulated oil spill on natural assemblages of marine phytoplankton 

enclosed in microcosms. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 83(3):265-276.

Gower, J.F.R. and S.A. King. 2011. Distribution of floating Sargassum in the Gulf of Mexico and the 

Atlantic Ocean mapped using MERIS. International Journal of Remote Sensing 32:7, 1917-1929.

Graham, W.M., R.H. Condon, R.H. Carmichael, I. D’Ambra, H.K. Patterson, L.J. Linn, and 

F.J. Hernandez, Jr. 2010. Oil carbon entered the coastal planktonic food web during the Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill. Environ. Res. Lett. 5 045301:1-6.

Greater New Orleans, Inc. 2012. The impact of decreased and delayed drilling permit approvals on Gulf 

of Mexico businesses. 28 pp.

Gulf Coast Claims Facility. 2012. Overall program statistics.

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC). 2004. Final environmental impact statement 

for the generic essential fish habitat amendment to the following fishery management plans of the 

Gulf of Mexico: shrimp fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, red drum fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, reef 

fish fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, stone crab fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, coral and coral reef 

fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, spiny lobster fishery of the Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic, coastal 

migratory pelagic resources of the Gulf of Mexico and south Atlantic. 678 pp.

Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council (GMFMC). 2005. Generic amendment number 3 for 

addressing essential fish habitat requirements, habitat areas of particular concern, and adverse effects 

of fishing in the following fishery management plans of the Gulf of Mexico: shrimp fishery of the 

Gulf of Mexico, United States waters red drum fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, reef fish fishery of the 

Gulf of Mexico coastal migratory pelagic resources (mackerels) in the Gulf of Mexico and South 

Atlantic, stone crab fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, spiny lobster in the Gulf of Mexico and South 

Atlantic, coral and coral reefs of the Gulf of Mexico. Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, 

Tampa, FL.

Guzmán, H.M. and I. Holst. 1993. Effects of chronic oil-sediment pollution on the reproduction of the 

Caribbean reef coral Siderastrea siderea. Marine Pollution Bulletin 26:276-282.

Haddad, R. and S. Murawski. 2010. Analysis of hydrocarbons in samples provided from the cruise of the 

R/V Weatherbird II, May 23-26, 2010. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanographic and 

Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. 14 pp.

Hall, R.J., A.A. Belisle, and L. Sileo. 1983. Residues of petroleum hydrocarbons in tissues of sea turtles 

exposed to the Ixtoc I oil spill. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 19(2):106-109.

Hamdan, L.J. and P.A. Fulmer. 2011. Effects of COREXIT® EC9500A on bacteria from a beach oiled 

by the Deepwater Horizon spill. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 63:101-109, doi:10.3354/ame01482.

Hampton, S. and M. Zafonte. 2005. Factors influencing beached bird collection during the Luckenbach

2001/02 oil spill. Marine Ornithology 34:109-113.

Handley, D.A., D. Altsman, and R. DeMay, eds. 2007. Seagrass status and trends in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico: 1940-2002. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2006-5287 and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 855-R-04-003. 6 pp.

Haney, J.C. 1986a. Seabird segregation at Gulf Stream frontal eddies. Marine Ecology Progress Series 

28:279-285.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-105

Haney, J.C. 1986b. Seabird affinities for Gulf Stream frontal eddies: responses of mobile marine 

consumers to episodic upwelling. Journal of Marine Research 44:361-84.

Haney, J.C. 1986c. Seabird patchiness in tropical oceanic waters: The influence of Sargassum “reefs.” 

Auk 103:141-151.

Harris, J.B.C., J.L. Reid, B.R. Scheffers, T.C. Wanger, N.S. Sodhi, D.A. Fordham, and B.W. Brook. 

2012. Conserving imperiled species: A comparison of the IUCN Red List and U.S. Endangered 

Species Act. Conservation Letters 5:64-72.

Harrison, X.A., J.D. Blount, R. Inger, D.R. Norris, and S. Bearhop. 2011. Carry-over effects as drivers 

of fitness differences in animals. Journal of Animal Ecology 80:4-18.

Hart, K.M., M.M. Lamont, A.R. Sartain, I.Fujisaki, and B.S. Stephens. 2013. Movements and habitatuse of loggerhead sea turtles in the northern Gulf of Mexico during the reproductive period. PLoS 

ONE 8(7):e66921. Internet website: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%

2Fjournal.pone.0066921. 

Hazen, T.C., E.A. Dubinsky, T.Z. DeSantis, G.L. Andersen, Y.M. Picento, N. Singh, J.K. Jansson, 

A. Probst, S.E. Borglin, J.L. Fortney, W.T. Stringfellow, M. Bill, M.S. Conrad, L.M. Tom, 

K.L. Chavarria, T.R. Alusi, R. Lamendella, D.C. Joyner, C. Spier, J. Baelum, M. Auer, M.L. Zelma, 

R. Chakraborty, E.L. Sonnenthal, P. D’haeseleer, H.N. Holman, S. Osman, Z. Lu, J.D. Van Nostrand, 

Y. Deng, J. Zhou, and O.U. Mason. 2010. Deep-sea oil plume enriches indigenous oil-degrading 

bacteria. Science Express. August 24, 2010.

Heck, K.L., G. Hays, and R.J. Orth. 2003. Critical evaluation of the nursery role hypothesis for seagrass 

meadows. Marine Ecology Progress Series 253:123-136. 

Helix Energy Solutions Group. 2014. Well intervention/well containment. Internet website: http://

helixesg.com/well-intervention/well-containment/. Accessed May 19, 2014.

Hemmer, M.J., M.G. Barron, and R.M. Greene. 2010. Comparative toxicity of Louisiana sweet crude oil 

(LSC) and chemically dispersed LSC to two Gulf of Mexico aquatic test species. U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development. July 31, 2010.

Hemmerling, S.A. and C.E. Colten. 2003. Environmental justice considerations in Lafourche Parish, 

Louisiana: Final report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico 

OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-038. 348 pp.

Henkel, J.R., B.J. Sigel, and C.M. Taylor. 2012. Large-scale impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill: 

Can local disturbance affect distant ecosystems through migratory shorebirds? BioScience 

62:676-685.

Henry, J.M. and C.L. Bankston III. 1999. Louisiana Cajun ethnicity: Symbolic or structural? 

Sociological Spectrum: Mid-South Sociological Association, 1521-0707, 19(2):223-248.

Hernandez, F.J., S. Powers, and W. Graham. 2010. Seasonal variability in ichthyoplankton abundance 

and seasonal composition in the northern Gulf of Mexico off Alabama. Fishery Bulletin 

108:193-207.

Hiett, R.L. and J.W. Milon. 2002. Economic impact of recreational fishing and diving associated with 

offshore oil and gas structures in the Gulf of Mexico: Final report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 

2002-010. 98 pp.

Hing, L.S., T. Ford, P. Finch, M. Crane, and D. Morritt. 2011. Laboratory stimulation of oil-spill effects 

on marine phytoplankton. Aquat. Toxicol. 103(1-2):32-7.

Hogan, J.L. 2003. Occurrence of the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin littoralis) at South 

Deer Island in Galveston Bay, Texas, April 2001–May 2002. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological 

Survey. USGS Open-File Report 03-022. 30 pp.
B-106 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Holliday, D.K., W.M. Roosenburg, and A.A. Elskus. 2008. Spatial variation on polycyclic aromatic 

hydrocarbon concentrations in eggs of diamondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, from the 

Patuxent River, Maryland. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination Toxicology 80:119-122.

Hyland, J.L. and E.D. Schneider. 1976. Petroleum hydrocarbons and their effects on marine organisms, 

populations, communities, and ecosystems. In: Sources, effects and sinks of hydrocarbons in the 

aquatic environment. Proceedings of the Symposium, Washington, DC. August 9-11, 1976. 

Arlington, VA: American Institute of Biological Sciences. Pp. 465-506.

Inoue, M., S.E. Welsh, L.J. Rouse, Jr., and E. Weeks. 2008. Deepwater currents in the eastern Gulf of 

Mexico: Observations at 25.5oN and 87oW. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management 

Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2008-001. 95 pp.

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited. 2011. Fate of marine oil spills. Technical 

Information Paper. London, UK. 12 pp. Internet website: http://www.itopf.com/fileadmin/data/

Documents/TIPS%20TAPS/TIP2FateofMarineOilSpills.pdf. 

Jackson, J.B.C., J.D. Cubit, B.D. Keller, V. Batista, K. Burns, H.M. Caffey, R.L. Caldwell, S.D. Garrity, 

C.D. Getter, C. Gonzalez, H.M. Guzman, K.W. Kaufmann, A.H. Knap, S.C. Levings, M.J. Marshall, 

R. Steger, R.C. Thompson, and E. Weil. 1989. Ecological effects of a major oil spill on Panamanian 

coastal marine communities. Science 243:37-44.

Jernelöv, A. and O. Lindén. 1981. Ixtoc I: A case study of the world's largest oil. Ambio 

10(6):299-306.

Johansen, O., H. Rye, and C. Cooper. 2001. DeepSpill JIP—field study of simulated oil and gas 

blowouts in deep water. In: Proceedings from the Fifth International Marine Environment Modeling 

Seminar, October 9-11, 2001, New Orleans, LA. 377 pp.

Joint Analysis Group. 2010. Review of R/V Brooks McCall data to examine subsurface oil. 58 pp.

Joye, S.B., I.R. MacDonald, I. Leifer, and V. Asper. 2011. Magnitude and oxidation potential of 

hydrocarbon gases released from the BP oil well blowout. Nature Geoscience 4:160-164, 

doi:10.1038/ngeo1067.

Keithly, W and H. Diop. 2001. The demand for eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, from the Gulf of 

Mexico in the presence of Vibrio vulnificus. Marine Fisheries Review 63(1):47-53.

Kemp, W.M. 1989. Estuarine seagrasses. In: Day, J.W., Jr., C.A.S. Hall, W.M. Kemp, and A. YanezArancibia, eds. Estuarine ecology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. 558 pp.

Kennedy, C.J., N.J. Gassman, and P.J. Walsh. 1992. The fate of benzo[a]pyrene in the Scleractinian 

corals Favia fragrum and Montastrea annularis. Marine Biology 113:313-318.

Kennet, J.P. 1982. Marine geology. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall. 752 pp.

Kenworthy, W.J. and M.S. Fonseca. 1996. Light requirements of seagrasses Halodule wrightii and 

Syringodium filiforme derived from the relationship between diffuse light attenuation and maximum 

depth distribution. Estuaries 19(3):740-750. Internet website: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1352533. 

Kenworthy, W.J., M.J. Durako, S.M.R. Fatemy, H. Valavis, and G.W. Thayer. 1993. Ecology of 

seagrasses in northeastern Saudi Arabia one year after the Gulf War spill. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

27:213-222.

Kessler, J.D., D.L. Valentine, M.C. Redmond, M. Du., E.W. Chan, S.D. Mendes, E.W. Quiroz, 

C.J. Villanueva, S.S. Shusta, L.M. Werra, S.A. Yvon-Lewis, and T.C. Weber. 2011. A persistent 

oxygen anomaly reveals the fate of spilled methane in the deep Gulf of Mexico. Science Express, 

10.1126/science.1199697.

King, J.G. and G.A. Sanger. 1979. Oil vulnerability index for marine oriented birds. In: Bartonek, J.C. 

and D.N. Nettleship, eds. Conservation of marine birds in North America. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Wildlife Research Report Number 11, Washington, DC. Pp. 227-239. 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-107

Kingston, P.F., I.M.T. Dixon, S. Hamilton, and D.C. Moore. 1995. The impact of the Braer oil spill on 

the macrobenthic infauna of the sediments off the Shetland Islands. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

30(7):445-459.

Kirkeleit J., T. Riise, M. Bråtveit and B.E. Moen. 2008. Increased risk of acute myelogenous leukemia 

and multiple myeloma in a historical cohort of upstream petroleum workers exposed to crude oil. 

Cancer Causes Control. 2008 Feb, 19(1):13-23. Epub 2007 Sep 29.

Klem, D., Jr. 2009. Avian mortality at windows: the second largest human source of bird mortality on 

earth. In: Rich, T.D., C. Arizmendi, D.W. Demarest, and C. Thompson, eds. Tundra to tropics: 

Connecting birds, habitats and people. Proceedings of the 4th International Partners in Flight 

Conference, 13-16 February 2008, McAllen, TX. Pp. 244-251.

Knap, A.H. 1987. Effects of chemically dispersed oil on the brain coral, Diploria strigosa. Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 18(3):119-122.

Knap, A.H., J.E. Solbakken, R.E. Godge, T.D. Sleeter, S.C. Wyers, and K.H. Palmork. 1982. 

Accumulation and elimination of (9-14C) phenanthrene in the reef-building coral (Diploria strigosa). 

Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 28:281-284.

Knap, A.H., S.C. Wyers, R.E. Dodge, T.D. Sleeter, H.R. Frith, S.R. Smith, and C.B. Cook. 1985. The 

effects of chemically and physically dispersed oil on the brain coral, Diploria strigosa (Dana)—a 

summary review. In: Proceedings 1985 Oil Spill Conference, Los Angeles, CA. (USCG/API/EPA) 

API Publ. No. 4385:547-551.

Ko, J-Y. and J.W. Day. 2004. A review of ecological impacts of oil and gas development on coastal 

ecosystems in the Mississippi delta. Ocean and Coastal Management 47(11-12):597-623.

Kushmaro, A., G. Henning, D.K. Hofmann, and Y. Benayahu. 1997. Metamorphosis of Heteroxenia 

fuscescens Plaunlae (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) is inhibited by crude oil: A novel short term toxicity 

bioassay. Marine Environmental Research 43(4):295-302.

Lange, R. 1985. A 100 ton experimental oil spill at Halten Bank, off Norway. In: Proceedings, 1985 

Oil Spill Conference. February 25-28, 1985, Los Angeles, CA. Washington, DC: American 

Petroleum Institute.

Lewis, J.B. 1971. Effects of crude oil and oil spill dispersant on coral reefs. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

2:59-62.

Lewis, A. and D. Aurand. 1997. Putting dispersants to work: Overcoming obstacles. 1997 International 

Oil Spill Conference. API 4652A. Technical Report IOSC-004.

Lin Q. and I. Mendlessohn. 2009. Potential of restoration and phytoremediation with Juncus

roemerianus for diesel-contaminated coastal wetlands. Ecological Engineering 8(1):85-91, January 8, 

2009.

Lin, Q., I.A. Mendelssohn, M.T. Suidan, K. Lee, and A.D. Venosa. 2002. The dose-response 

relationship between No. 2 fuel oil and the growth of the salt marsh grass, Spartina alterniflora. 

Marine Pollution Bulletin 44:897-902.

Lincoln, F.C., S.R. Peterson, and J.L. Zimmerman. 1998. Migration of birds. Circular 16, U.S. Dept. of 

the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. 119 pp.

Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium. 2010. 2010 Dead zone—one of the largest ever. LUMCON 

News. Internet website: http://www.gulfhypoxia.net/research/Shelfwide%20Cruises/2010/

PressRelease2010.pdf. Accessed November 17, 2011.

Lu, L. and R.S.S. Wu. 2006. A field experimental study on recolonization and succession of 

macrobenthic infauna in defaunated sediment contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbons. Estuarine, 

Coastal and Shelf Science 68:627-634.

Lubchenco, J., M. McNutt, B. Lehr, M. Sogge, M. Miller, S. Hammond, and W. Conner. 2010. BP 

Deepwater Horizon oil budget: What happened to the oil? 5 pp.
B-108 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Lutcavage, M.E., P. Plotkin, B. Witherington, and P.L. Lutz. 1997. Human impacts on sea turtle 

survival. In: Lutz, P.L. and J.A. Musick, eds. The biology of sea turtles. Boca Raton, FL: CRC 

Press, Inc. Pp. 387-409.

Lytle, J.S. 1975. Fate and effects of crude oil on an estuarine pond. In: Proceedings, Conference on 

Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution, San Francisco, CA. Pp. 595-600.

MacDonald, I.R., W.W. Schroeder, and J.M. Brooks, eds. 1995. Chemosynthetic ecosystems study: 

Final report. Volume 2: Technical report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service,

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 95-0022. 319 pp.

MacDonald, I.R., J.F. Reilly Jr., W.E. Best, R. Vnkataramaiah, R. Sassen, N.S. Guinasso Jr., and J. Amos. 

1996. Remote sensing inventory of active oil seeps and chemosynthetic communities in the northern 

Gulf of Mexico. In: Schumacher, D. and M.A. Abrams, eds. Hydrocarbon migration and its nearsurface expression. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 66:27-37.

Manville A.M., II. 2009. Towers, turbines, power lines, and buildings-steps being taken by the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service to avoid or minimize take of migratory birds at these structures. In: Rich, T.D., 

C. Arizmendi, D.W. Demarest, and C. Thompson, eds. Tundra to tropics: Connecting birds, habitats 

and people. Proceedings of the 4th International Partners in Flight Conference, 13-16 February 2008, 

McAllen, TX. Pp. 262-272.

Marine Well Containment Company (MWCC). 2013. Marine Well Containment Company’s single ram 

capping stack can now handle temperatures up to 350 degrees Fahrenheit. News Release. 1 p. 

Internet website: http://www.marinewellcontainment.com/pdfs/mwcc_release_11_14_13.pdf. 

Accessed May 19, 2014.

McAuliffe, C.D., A.E. Smalley, R.D. Groover, W.M. Welsh, W.S. Pickle, and G.E. Jones. 1975. 

Chevron Main Pass Block 41 oil spill: Chemical and biological investigation. In: Proceedings, 1975 

Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution, March 25-27, 1975, San Francisco, CA. 

Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.

McAuliffe, C.D., B.L. Steelman, W.R. Leek, D.F. Fitzgerald, J.P. Ray, and C.D. Barker. 1981a. The 

1979 southern California dispersant treated research oil spills. In: Proceedings 1981 Oil Spill 

Conference. March 2-5, 1981, Atlanta, GA. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute. 

Pp. 269-282.

McAuliffe, C.D., G.P. Canevari, T.D. Searl, J.C. Johnson, and S.H. Greene. 1981b. The dispersion and 

weathering of chemically treated crude oils on the sea surface. In: Petroleum and the Marine 

Environment. Proceedings of Petromar ’80. London: Graham and Trotman Ltd.

McCrea-Strub, A. and D. Pauly. 2011. Oil and fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico. Ocean and Coastal Law 

Journal 16(2):473-480. Internet website: http://www.seaaroundus.org/researcher/dpauly/PDF/2011/

JournalArticles/OilandFisheriesinthe%20GulfofMexico.pdf. 

McGrail, D. 1982. Water and sediment dynamics at the Flower Garden Banks. In: Norman, R., ed. 

Environmental studies at the Flower Gardens and selected banks: Northwestern Gulf of Mexico, 

1979-1981. Executive summary. Technical Report No. 82-8-T. Pp. 27-29.

Mechalas, B.J. 1974. Pathways and environmental requirements for biogenic gas production in the 

ocean. In: Kaplan, I.R., ed. Natural Gases in Marine Sediments. Marine Science, Volume 3. New 

York, NY: Plenum Press.

Mendelssohn, I.A., G.L. Andersen, D.M. Baltz, R.H. Caffey, K.R. Carman, J.W. Fleeger, S.B. Joye, 

Q. Lin, E. Maltby, E.B. Overton, and L.P. Rozas. 2012. Oil impacts on coastal wetlands: 

Implications for the Mississippi River Delta ecosystem after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. 

BioScience 62:562–574.

Michel, J. 1992. Chapter 2. Oil behavior and toxicity. In: Introduction to coastal habitats and biological 

resources for spill response. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, Office of Response and Restoration. NOAA Report No. HMRAD 92-4.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-109

Mishra, D.R., H.J. Cho, S. Ghosh, A. Fox, C. Downs, Merani, P.B.T. Merani, P. Kirui, N. Jackson, and 

S. Mishra. 2012. Post-spill state of the marsh: Remote estimation of the ecological impact of the 

Gulf of Mexico oil spill on Louisiana salt marshes. Remote Sensing of Environment 118:176-185.

Mitchell, R. and I. Chet. 1975. Bacterial attack of corals in polluted seawater. Microbial Ecology 

2:227-233.

Mock, B. 2010. Boats moored by the BP oil spill, a long-threatened community of black fishers fears for 

its future. The Lens: Investigating New Orleans and the Gulf Coast. Internet website: http://

www.projectnola.com/component/content/article/86-the-lens/90049-boats-moored-by-the-bp-oilspill-a-long-threatened-community-of-black-fishers-fears-for-its-future. Accessed November 10, 

2011.

Moore, S.F. 1976. Offshore oil spills and the marine environment. Technology Review 78(4):61-67.

Moore, S.F. and R.L. Dwyer. 1974. Effects of oil on marine organisms: A critical assessment of 

published data. Water Research 8:819-827.

Morton R.A., T.L. Miller, and L.J. Moore. 2004. Historical shoreline changes along the US Gulf of 

Mexico: A summary of recent shoreline. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey. Open-File 

Report 2004-1089.

Moser, M.L. and D.S. Lee. 2012. Foraging over Sargassum by western North Atlantic seabirds. Wilson 

Journal of Ornithology 124:66-73.

Muller-Karger, F.E., F. Vukovich, R. Leben, B. Nababan, C. Hu, and D. Myhre. 2001. Surface 

circulation and the transport of the Loop Current into the northeastern Gulf of Mexico: Final report. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, 

LA. OCS Study MMS 2001-102. 39 pp.

Murray, S.P. 1998. An observational study of the Mississippi/Atchafalaya coastal plume: Final report. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, 

LA. OCS Study MMS 98-0040. 513 pp.

Murtaugh, D. 2010. Short-term spill impacts leave both winners and losers. Internet website: http://

blog.al.com/press-register-business/2010/11/short_term_spill_impacts_leave.html. Accessed 

August 20, 2012.

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. 2010. NAACP blasts BP for oil spill 

response. July 10, 2010.

National Audubon Society, Inc. 2010. Oil and birds, too close for comfort: Louisiana’s coast six months

into the BP disaster. New York, NY: National Audubon Society, Inc. 28 pp. Internet website: 

http://gulfoilspill.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/oilandbirds-toocloseforcomfort_

october2010_1.pdf. Accessed October 14, 2010.

National Research Council (NRC). 2003. Oil in the sea III: Inputs, fates, and effects (Committee on Oil 

in the Sea: J.N. Coleman, J. Baker, C. Cooper, M. Fingas, G. Hunt, K. Kvenvolden, J. McDowell, 

J. Michel, K. Michel, J. Phinney, N. Rabalais, L. Roesner, and R.B. Spies). Washington, DC: 

National Academy Press. 265 pp.

National Research Council (NRC). 2005. Oil spill dispersants: Efficacy and effects. Washington, DC: 

National Academy Press. 377 pp.

National Response Team. 2010. Oil spill response strategies for coastal marshes during the Deepwater 

Horizon MC252 spill. Washington DC: National Response Team. 10 pp.

NaturalGas.org. 2012. Background. Internet website: http://naturalgas.org/overview/background/. 

Accessed May 28, 2012.

NatureServe Explorer. 2011. Endangered species. Internet website: http://www.natureserve.org/

explorer/servlet/NatureServe?sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=

tabular_report.wmt&selectedReport=&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=unknown&paging
B-110 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

=prev&save=true&startIndex=21&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=

102588&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=

radiobutton&selectedIndexes=105391&selectedIndexes=102915&selectedIndexes=

101508&selectedIndexes=103386&selectedIndexes=104315. Accessed April 6, 2012.

Neff, J.M., S. McKelvie, and R.C. Ayers, Jr. 2000. Environmental impacts of synthetic based drilling 

fluids. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2000-064. 118 pp.

Newell, M.J. 1995. Sea turtles and natural resource damage assessment. In: Rineer-Garber, C., ed. 

Proceedings: The effects of oil on wildlife, Fourth International Conference, Seattle, WA. 

Pp. 137-142.

Nicol, J.A.C., W.H. Donahue, R.T. Wang, and K. Winters. 1977. Chemical composition and effects of 

water extracts of petroleum and eggs of the sand dollar Melitta quinquiesperforata. Marine Biology 

40:309-316.

Nodar, J. 2010. Gulf tanker decontaminated before entering Mississippi. The Journal of Commerce 

Online. May 26, 2010. Internet website: http://www.joc.com/maritime/tanker-requires-cleaningentering-mississippi-river. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Norris, D.R. 2005. Carry-over effects and habitat quality in migratory populations. Oikos 109:178-186.

Norris, D.R., M.B. Wunder, and M. Boulet. 2006. Perspectives in migratory connectivity. In: Boulet, 

M., and D.R. Norris, eds. Patterns of migratory connectivity in two nearctic-neotropical songbirds: 

New insights from intrinsic markers. Washington, DC: American Ornithologists’ Union. Pp. 79-88. 

Internet website: http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.2307/40166838. 

Nowlin, W.D., Jr., A.E. Jochens, S.F. DiMarco, R.O. Reid, and M.K. Howard. 2001. Deepwater 

physical oceanography reanalysis and synthesis of historical data: Synthesis report. U.S. Dept. of the 

Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study 

MMS 2001-064. 528 pp.

Odess, D. 2010. Official communication. Teleconference regarding Section 106 in relation to response 

to the oil spill.

Odess, D. 2011. Official communication. Trustees meeting on January 12, 2011, New Orleans, LA.

Oil Spill Commission. 2011. Oil and birds, too close for comfort: Louisiana’s coast six months into the 

BP disaster. National Audubon Society, Inc., New York, NY, USA. 28 pp.

Onuf, C.P. 1996. Biomass patterns in seagrass meadows of the Laguna Madre, Texas. Bulletin of 

Marine Science 58(2):404-420.

Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT). 2010. Summary report for sub-sea and sub-surface oil and 

dispersant detection: Sampling and monitoring. Unified Area Command, New Orleans, LA. Internet 

website: http://www.restorethegulf.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdf/OSAT_Report_FINAL_

17DEC.pdf. Released on December 17, 2010. Accessed November 18, 2011.

Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT Addendum). 2011. Summary report for sub-sea and subsurface oil and dispersant detection: Ecotoxicity addendum. Unified Area Command, New Orleans, 

LA. 35 pp. Internet website: http://www.restorethegulf.gov/sites/default/files/u306/FINAL%20

OSAT%20Ecotox%20Addendum.pdf. 

Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT-2). 2011. Summary report for fate and effects of remnant 

oil in the beach environment. Operational Science Team (OSAT-2), Gulf Coast Incident 

Management Team. Prepared for Lincoln H. Stroh, CAPT, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal On-Scene 

Coordinator, Deepwater Horizon MC 252. February 10, 2011. 35 pp. Internet website: http://

www.dep.state.fl.us/deepwaterhorizon/files2/osat_2_report__10feb.pdf. 

Operational Science Advisory Team (OSAT-3). 2013. Operational Science Advisory Team report III. 

Internet website: http://www.restorethegulf.gov/release/2014/01/15/operational-science-advisoryteam-report-iii. Accessed May 28, 2014.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-111

Oro, D., J.S. Aguilar, J.M. Igual, and M. Louzao. 2004. Modelling demography and extinction risk in 

the endangered Balearic shearwater. Biological Conservation 116:93-102.

Orth, R.J., T.J.B. Carruthers, W.C. Dennison, C.M. Duarte, J.W. Fourqurean, K.L. Heck, Jr., 

A.R. Hughes, G.A. Kendrick, W.J. Kenworthy, S. Olyarnik, F.T. Short, M. Waycott, and 

S.L. Williams. 2006. A global crisis for seagrass ecosystems. BioScience 56(12):987-996.

Ortmann, A.C., J. Anders, N. Shelton, L. Gong, A.G. Moss, and R.H. Condon. 2012. Dispersed Oil 

Disrupts Microbial Pathways in Pelagic Food Webs. PLoS ONE 7(7):e42548. 

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042548.

Oxford Economics. 2010. Potential impact of the Gulf oil spill on tourism. Prepared for the U.S. Travel 

Association. 27 pp.

Pack, W. 2010. Oil spill may benefit Texas. My San Antonio Business. Internet website: http://

www.mysanantonio.com/default/article/Oil-spill-may-benefit-Texas-794644.php. Accessed 

December 10, 2012.

Passow, U., K. Ziervogel, V. Asper, and A. Diercks. 2012. Marine snow formation in the aftermath of 

the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Environmental Research Letters 7 (2012) 

035301. 11 pp. Internet website: http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/7/3/035301/pdf/1748-

9326_7_3_035301.pdf.

Patin, S. 1999. Gas impacts on fish and other marine organisms. In: Environmental impact of the 

offshore oil and gas industry. New York, NY: EcoMonitor Publishing. 425 pp.

PCCI Marine and Environmental Engineering. 1999. Oil spill containment, remote sensing and tracking 

for deepwater blowouts: Status of existing and emerging technologies. Report prepared for the U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. TA&R Project 311. 66 pp. + apps.

Perez, C., I. Munilla, M. Lopez-Alonso, and A. Velando. 2010. Sublethal effects on seabirds after the 

Prestige oil-spill are mirrored in sexual signals. Biological Letters 6:33-35.

Peterson, C.H., S.D. Rice, J.W. Short, D. Esler, J.L. Bodkin, B.E. Ballachey, and D.B. Irons. 2003. 

Long-term ecosystem response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Science 302:2082-2086.

Phillips, N.W., D.A. Gettleson, and K.D. Spring. 1990. Benthic biological studies of the southwest 

Florida shelf. American Zoologist 30:65-75.

Piatt, J.F. and R.G. Ford. 1996. How many seabirds were killed by the Exxon Valdez oil spill? In: 

Rice, S.D., R.B. Spies, D.A. Wolfe, and B.A. Wright, eds. Proceedings of the Exxon Valdez oil spill 

symposium. Am. Fisheries Soc. Symposium 18, Bethesda, MD. Pp. 712-719.

Piatt, J.F., H.R. Carter, and D.N. Nettleship. 1990a. Effects of oil pollution on marine bird populations. 

In: White, J., ed. The effects of oil on wildlife: Research, rehabilitation and general concerns. 

Hanover, PA: Sheridan Press.

Piatt, J.F., C.J. Lensink, W. Butler, M. Kendziorek, and D.R. Nysewander. 1990b. Immediate impact of 

the ‘Exxon Valdez’ oil spill on seabirds. Auk 107:387-397.

Pond, S. and G.L. Pickard. 1983. Introductory dynamical oceanography, 2nd ed. New York, NY: 

Pergamon Press. 329 pp.

Powell, E.N. 1995. Evidence for temporal change at seeps. In: MacDonald, I.R., W.W. Schroeder, and 

J.M. Brooks, eds. 1995. Chemosynthetic ecosystems study: Final report. Volume 2: Technical 

report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New 

Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 95-0022. Pp. 8.1-8.65.

Powell, J.A. and G.B. Rathbun. 1984. Distribution and abundance of manatees along the northern coast 

of the Gulf of Mexico. Northeast Gulf Sci. 7:1-28.

Powers, S.P., F.J. Hernandez, R.H. Condon, J.M. Drymon, and C.M. Free. 2013. Novel pathways for 

injury from offshore oil spills: Direct, sublethal and indirect effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil 
B-112 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

spill on pelagic sargassum communities. PLoS ONE 8(9):e74802. 

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074802.

Rappole, J.H. and M.A. Ramos. 1994. Factors affecting migratory bird routes over the Gulf of Mexico. 

Bird Conservation International 4:251-262.

Rathbun, G.B., J.P. Reid, and G. Carowan. 1990. Distribution and movement patterns of manatees 

(Trichechus manatus) in northwestern peninsular Florida. Florida Marine Research Publication 

No. 48. 33 pp.

Ravitz, J. 2010. Vietnamese fishermen in Gulf fight to not get lost in translation. CNN. June 25, 2010. 

Internet website: http://www.flutrackers.com/forum/showthread.php?t=148708. Accessed 

November 10, 2011.

Reddy, C.M. 2012. Official communication. Email confirming the approximate percent of PAHs by 

weight. Woods Hole, MA. April 4, 2012.

Reddy, C.M., J.S. Arey, J.S. Seewald, S.P. Sylva, K.L. Lemkau, R.K. Nelson, C.A. Carmichael, 

C.P. McIntyre, J. Fenwick, G.T. Ventura, B.A.S. Van Mooy, and R. Camilli. 2011. Composition and 

fate of gas and oil released to the water column during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceedings 

of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 10.1073/pnas.1101242108.

Regg, J. 2000. Deepwater development: A reference document for the deepwater environmental 

assessment, Gulf of Mexico OCS (1997 through 2000). U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Report MMS 99-0066.

Reible, D. 2010. After the oil is no longer leaking. The University of Texas, Austin. Environmental 

Science & Technology 44(15):5685-5686.

Renzoni, A. 1973. Influence of crude oil, derivatives, and dispersants on larvae. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 4:9-13.

Renzoni, A. 1975. Toxicity of three oils to bivalve gametes and larvae. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

6(2):125-128.

RestoreTheGulf.gov. 2011. Operations and ongoing response, June 30, 2011. Internet website: http://

www.restorethegulf.gov/release/2011/06/30/operations-and-ongoing-response-june-30-2011. 

Accessed on June 14, 2012.

Restrepo, C.E., F.C. Lamphear, C.A. Gunn, R.B. Ditton, J.P. Nichols, and L.S. Restrepo. 1982. IXTOC I

oil spill economic impact study, executive summary. Report prepared by Restrepo and Associates for 

the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, New Orleans OCS Office, New Orleans, 

LA.

Rezak, R., T.J. Bright, and D.W. McGrail. 1983. Reefs and banks of the northwestern Gulf of Mexico: 

Their geological, biological, and physical dynamics. Final Technical Report No. 83-1-T.

Rhodes, D.C. and J.D. Germano. 1982. Characterization of organism-sediment relations using sediment 

profile imaging: An efficient method of remote ecological monitoring of the seafloor (RemotsTM

System). Marine Ecology Progress Series 8:115-128.

Ribic, C.A., R. Davis, N. Hess, and D. Peake. 1997. Distribution of seabirds in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico in relation to mesoscale features: Initial observations. ICES Journal of Marine Science 

54:545-551.

Rice, S.A. and C.L. Hunter. 1992. Effects of suspended sediment and burial on Scleractinian corals from 

west central Florida patch reefs. Bulletin of Marine Science 51(3):429-442.

Ricklefs, R.E. 1983. Some considerations on the reproductive energetics of pelagic seabirds. Studies in 

Avian Biology 8:84-94.

Ricklefs, R.E. 1990. Seabird life histories and the marine environment: Some speculations. Colonial 

Waterbirds 13:1-6.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-113

Rogers, C.S. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series 62:185-202.

Rogers, C.S. and V.H. Garrison. 2001. Ten years after the crime: Lasting effects of damage from a 

cruise ship anchor on a coral reef in St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Bulletin of Marine Science 

69(2):793-803.

Rooker, J.R., S.A. Holt, M.A. Soto, and G.J. Holt. 1998. Postsettlement patterns of habitat use by 

Sciaenid fishes in subtropical seagrass meadows. Estuaries 21(2):318-327.

Roosenburg, W.M. 1994. Nesting habitat requirements of the diamondback terrapin: A geographic 

comparison. Wetland Journal 6(2):8-11.

Roosenburg, W.M., K.L. Haley, and S. McGuire. 1999. Habitat selection and movements of 

diamondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin, in a Maryland estuary. Chelonian Conservation and 

Biology 3(3):425-429.

Rowe, G.T. and M.C. Kennicutt II. 2001. Deepwater program: Northern Gulf of Mexico continental 

slope benthic habitat and ecology. Year I: Interim report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2001-091. 

166 pp.

Rozas, L.P. and W.E. Odum. 1988. Occupation of submerged aquatic vegetation by fishes: Testing the 

roles of food and refuge. Oecologia 77:101-106.

Runcie, J., C. Macinnis-Ng, and P. Ralph. 2004. The toxic effects of petrochemical on seagrasses. A 

literature review. Institute for Water and Environmental Resource Management, Sydney, Australia. 

19 pp.

Russell, R.W. 1999. Comparative demography and life-history tactics of seabirds: Implications for 

conservation and marine monitoring. American Fisheries Society Symposium 23:51-76.

Russell, R.W. 2005. Interactions between migrating birds and offshore oil and gas platforms in the 

northern Gulf of Mexico: Final Report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, 

LA. OCS Study MMS 2005-009. 348 pp.

Ryerson, T.B., K.C. Aikin, W.M. Angevine, E.L. Atlas, D.R. Blake, C.A. Brock, F.C. Fehsenfeld, 

R.-S. Gao, J.A. de Gouw, D.W. Fahey, J.S. Holloway, D.A. Lack, R.A. Lueb, S. Meinardi, 

A.M. Middlebrook, D.M. Murphy, J.A. Neuman, J.B. Nowak, D.D. Parrish, J. Peischl, A.E. Perring, 

I.B. Pollack, A.R. Ravishankara, J.M. Roberts, J.P. Schwarz, J.R. Spackman, H. Stark, C. Warneke, 

and L.A. Watts. 2011. Atmospheric emissions from the Deepwater Horizon spill constrain air-water 

partitioning, hydrocarbon fate, and leak rate. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 38, L07803, 6 pp., 

doi:10.1029/2011GL046726.

S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd. 1997. Fate and behavior of deepwater subsea oil well blowouts 

in the Gulf of Mexico. Prepared for the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service. 

27 pp.

Sadiq, M. and J.C. McCain. 1993. The Gulf War aftermath: An environmental tragedy. Dordrecht, The 

Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Saether, B.-E., S. Engen, A.P. Møller, H. Weimerskirch, M.E. Visser, W. Fiedler, E. Matthysen, 

M.M. Lambrechts, A. Badyaev, P.H. Becker, J.E. Brommer, D. Bukacinski, M. Bukacinska, 

H. Christensen, J. Dickinson, C. du Feu, F.R. Gehlbach, D. Heg, H. Hötker, J. Merilä, J.T. Nielsen, 

W. Rendell, R.J. Robertson, D.L. Thomson, J. Török, and P. Van Hecke. 2004. Life-history 

variation predicts the effects of demographic stochasticity on avian population dynamics. American 

Naturalist 164:793-802.

Sanders, H.L., J.F. Grassle, G.R. Hamson, L.S. Morse, S. Garner-Price, and C.C. Jones. 1980. Anatomy 

of an oil spill: Long-term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off West Falmouth, 

Massachusetts. Journal of Marine Research 38:265-380.
B-114 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Sathiakumar, N. 2010. Short-term physical effects of oil spills. Presentation, School of Public Health, 

University of Alabama at Birmingham. 31 pp.

Savitz, D.A. and L.S. Engel. 2010. Lessons for study of the health effects of oil spills. Annals of 

Internal Medicine. August 23, 2010. Internet website: http://www.annals.org/content/early/2010/08/

23/0003-4819-153-8-201010190-00276.full. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Scarlett, A., T.S. Galloway, M. Canty, E.L. Smith., J. Nilsson, and S.J. Rowland. 2005. Comparative 

toxicity of two oil dispersants, Superdispersant-25 and Corexit 9527, to a range of coastal species. 

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24(5):1219-1227.

Schiro, A.J., D. Fertl, L.P. May, G.T. Regan, and A. Amos. 1998. West Indian manatee (Trichechus 

manatus) occurrence in U.S. waters west of Florida. Presentation, World Marine Mammal 

Conference, 20-24 January, Monaco.

Schleifstein, M. 2010. Environmental justice concerns arising from Gulf of Mexico oil spill aired. The 

Times-Picayune. June 15, 2010. Internet website: http://www.nola.com/news/gulf-oil-spill/

index.ssf/2010/06/environmental_justice_concerns.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

Scholz, D.K., J.H. Kucklick, R.G. Pond, A.H. Walker, A. Bostrom, and P. Fischbeck. 1999. Fate of 

spilled oil in marine waters: Where does it go? What does it do? How do dispersants affect it? An 

information booklet for decision-makers. American Petroleum Institute Publication Number 4691.

Shah J.J. and H.B. Singh. 1988. Distribution of volatile organic chemicals in outdoor and indoor air. 

Environmental Science & Technology 22:1381-1388. In: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services 

Public Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Toxicological profile for 

benzene, August 2007.

Shigenaka, G. 2001. Toxicity of oil to reef-building corals: A spill response perspective. U.S. Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Response and Restoration, 

Hazardous Materials Response Division, Seattle, WA. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS 

OR&R 8. 95 pp.

Short, F.T. and R.G. Coles, eds. 2001. Global seagrass research methods. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 

Elsevier Science B.V. 473 pp.

Short, F.T., R.G. Coles, and C. Pergent-Martini. 2001. Global seagrass distribution. In: Short, F.T. and 

R.G. Coles, eds. Global seagrass research methods. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science 

B.V. Pp. 5-6, 20.

Silliman, B.R., J. van de Koppel, M.W. McCoy, J. Diller, G.N. Kasozi, K. Earl, P.N. Adams, and 

A.R. Zimmerman. 2012. Degradation and resilience in Louisiana salt marshes after the 

BP-Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(28):11234-

11239.

Source Strategies Inc. 2010. Texas hotel performance report: Third quarter 2010. Data tables: By 

metro, by metro by county. 23 pp.

St. Aubin, D.J. and V. Lounsbury. 1990. Oil effects on manatees: Evaluating the risks. In: Geraci, J.R. 

and D.J. St. Aubin, eds. Sea mammals and oil: Confronting the risk. San Diego, CA: Academic 

Press. Pp. 241-251.

State of Florida. Office of the Governor. 2010. Gulf oil spill situation update. Florida Releases. 

July 18, 2010. Internet website: http://www.icyte.com/system/snapshots/fs1/f/9/d/e/

f9de6fa8fed6a9448a17b48d74864898e9f92d5d/index.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

State of Louisiana. 2010. Report on coastal skimming activities in Louisiana. Press Release. 

September 17, 2010. Internet website: http://emergency.louisiana.gov/Releases/

91710Skimming.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

State of Louisiana. Coastal Protection and Restoration. 2012. Natural Resource Damage Assessment. 

Internet website: http://coastal.louisiana.gov/index.cfm?md=pagebuilder&tmp=home&pid=157. 

Accessed April 4, 2012.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-115

State of Louisiana. Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries. 2012. Aerial waterfowl surveys. Internet website: 

http://www.wlf.louisiana.gov/hunting/aerial-waterfowl-surveys. Accessed February 7, 2013.

Suchanek, T.H. 1993. Oil impacts on marine invertebrate populations and communities. American 

Zoologist 33:510-523.

Tan, L., M. Belanger, and C. Wittnich. 2010. Revisiting the correlation between estimated seabird 

mortality and oil spill size. Journal of Marine Animals and Their Ecology 3:20-26. Internet website: 

http://www.oers.ca/journal/Volume3/Tan_Galley.pdf. 

Tasker, M.L., P. Hope-Jones, B.F. Blake, T.J. Dixon, and A.W. Wallis. 1986. Seabirds associated with 

oil production platforms in the North Sea. Ringing and Migration 7:7-14.

Taylor, H.A., M.A. Rasheed, and R. Thomas. 2006. Port Curtis post oil spill seagrass assessment, 

Gladstone-2006. DPI&F Information Series QI06046 (DPI&F, Cairns). 19 pp.

Taylor, H.A., M.A. Rasheed, and R. Thomas. 2007. Long term seagrass monitoring in Port Cutis and 

Rodds Bay, Gladstone November-2006. DPI&F Publications PR07-2774 (DPI&F, Cairns). 30 pp.

Teal, J.M. and R.W. Howarth. 1984. Oil spill studies: A review of ecological effects. Environmental 

Management 8:27-44.

Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. 2012. Official communication. Email regarding effort and catch 

data obtained through communication with Mark Fisher.

The Federal Interagency Solutions Group. 2010. Oil budget calculator: Deepwater Horizon. The 

Federal Interagency Solutions Group, Oil Budget Calculator Science and Engineering Team. 217 pp.

Thompson, J.H. 1980. Effects of drilling mud on seven species of reef-building coral as measured in 

field and laboratory. Report to the U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Geological Survey by Texas A&M 

University, Department of Oceanography, College Station, TX.

Thorhaug, A., J. Marcus, and F. Booker. 1986. Oil and dispersed oil on subtropical and tropical 

seagrasses in laboratory studies. Marine Pollution Bulletin 17:357-631.

Tkalich, P. and E.S. Chan. 2002. Vertical mixing of oil droplets by breaking waves. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 44:1219-1229.

Tolbert, C.M. 1995. Oil and gas development and coastal income inequality: A comparative analysis. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, 

LA. OCS Study MMS 94-0052. 75 pp.

Trapido, E.J. 2010. Health and the Deepwater Horizon Gulf oil spill. (October 5-6, 2010). JSOST 

Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Principal Investigator (PI) Conference, St. Petersburg, FL.

Trudel, K., S.L. Ross, R. Belore, G.B. Rainey, and S. Buffington. 2001. Technology assessment of the 

use of dispersants on spills from drilling and production facilities in the Gulf of Mexico outer 

continental shelf. In: Proceedings; Twenty-Third Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Conference, June 

2001, Edmonton, Canada.

Unified Incident Command. 2010a. Vessel decontamination stations available around Louisiana. 

Deepwater Horizon Incident Joint Information Center. June 20, 2010.

Unified Incident Command. 2010b. Ask a responder: Q & A with Coast Guard Task Force leader for 

commercial vessel decontamination. September 29, 2010.

Unified Incident Command. 2010c. Media availability: Media invited to observe commercial-vessel 

decontamination operations. June 23, 2010.

Unified Incident Command. 2010d. Fish and Wildlife report, consolidated Fish and Wildlife collection 

report. 

Unified Incident Command. 2010e. Unified Area Command daily report, August 25, 2010.
B-116 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. Economics and Statistics Administration. 2010. Estimating the economic 

effects of the deepwater drilling moratorium on the Gulf Coast economy: Inter-agency economic 

report. 25 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2010a. Impacts of oil on marine mammals 

and sea turtles. 2 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2010b. Deepwater Horizon/BP oil spill: 

Size and percent coverage of fishing area closures due to BP oil spill. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional 

Office, St. Petersburg, FL.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2010c. Information about the Federal 

fishing closure in oil-affected portions of the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Fisheries Service, Southeast Regional Office, 

St. Petersburg, FL. Southeast Fishery Bulletin, July 12, 2010.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011a. Deepwater Horizon/BP oil spill: 

size and percent coverage of fishing area closures due to the BP oil spill. Internet website: http://

sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/deepwater_horizon/size_percent_closure/index.html. Last modified April 29, 

2011. Accessed on August 17, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011b. Dolphins and whales and the Gulf 

of Mexico oil spill. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/oilspill/mammals.htm. 

Accessed June 29, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2011c. Sea turtles and the Gulf of Mexico 

oil spill. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/oilspill/turtles.htm. Accessed 

August 24, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012a. Sea turtle strandings in the Gulf of 

Mexico. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/gulfofmexico.htm. Accessed 

April 4, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012b. Information and databases on 

fisheries landings. Internet website (latest data for 2010): http://www.st.nmfs.gov/st1/commercial/

landings/annual_landings.html. Accessed August 16, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2012c. Recreational fishing online 

Database. Internet website: http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/recreational/queries/index.html. 

Accessed April 24, 2012, and August 15, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2013. NOAA declares 2011-2012 

bottlenose dolphin unusual mortality event in Texas. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/

health/mmume/bottlenosedolphins_texas.htm. Accessed July 1, 2013.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. 2014. 2010-2014 cetacean unusual 

mortality event in northern Gulf of Mexico. Internet website: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/health/

mmume/cetacean_gulfofmexico2010.htm. Accessed February 2, 2014. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009. Final: 

Amendment 1 to the consolidated Atlantic highly migratory species fishery management plan; 

essential fish habitat. U.S. Dept. of the Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Sustainable Fisheries, Highly Migratory 

Species Management Division, Silver Spring, MD. xiii + 395 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010a. NOAA assists 

with multi-agency effort to decontaminate ships passing through oil spill. Internet website: http://

www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100528_ships.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010b. Deepwater 

Horizon oil spill: Characteristics and concerns. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and 
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-117

Atmospheric Administration, Office of Response and Restoration, Emergency Response Division. 

2 pp. Last revised May 15, 2010.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010c. Using booms in 

response to oil spills. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

National Ocean Service. 4 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010d. Oil spills and 

coral reefs fact sheet. 2 pp. Internet website: http://www.noaa.gov/factsheets/new%20version/

coralreefs_oil.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2010e. NOAA closes 

commercial and recreational fishing in oil-affected portion of Gulf of Mexico. May 2, 2010. Internet 

website: http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2010/20100502_fisheries.html. Accessed August 17, 

2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011a. ERMA deepwater 

Gulf response. Internet website: http://gomex.erma.noaa.gov/. Accessed April 7, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011b. The Gulf of 

Mexico at a glance: A second glance. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, National Ocean Service, Washington, DC. 51 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2012a. Natural Resource 

Damage Assessment; April 2012; status update for the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. U.S. Dept. of 

Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Gulf Spill Restoration. 91 pp. 

Internet website: http://www.doi.gov/deepwaterhorizon/upload/FINAL_NRDA_StatusUpdate_

April2012-2.pdf. 

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2012b. Environmental 

Response Management Application (ERMA). Internet website: http://gomex.erma.noaa.gov. 

Accessed June 14, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Center for Coastal 

Monitoring and Assessment. 2012. Gulf of Mexico essential fish habitat. Internet website: http://

ccma.nos.noaa.gov/products/biogeography/gom-efh/. Accessed August 15, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Hazardous Materials 

Response and Assessment Division. 1992. Oil spill case histories, 1967-1991: Summaries of 

significant U.S. and international spills. HMRAD 92-11 to USCG Research and Development 

Center, Seattle, WA.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service. 

2010. Tropical cyclone climatology. Internet website: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastprofile.shtml. 

Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. National Weather Service. 

2012. NOAA’s oil spill response: Hurricanes and the oil spill. U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, MD. 2 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Office of Response and 

Restoration. 2010a. Chevron Main Pass Block 41. Internet website http://incidentnews.noaa.gov/

incident/6209. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Office of Response and 

Restoration. 2010b. Shell Platform 26. Internet website: http://incidentnews.noaa.gov/incident/

6211. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Office of Response and 

Restoration. 2010c. Ixtoc I. Internet website: http://incidentnews.noaa.gov/incident/6250. 

Accessed November 10, 2011.
B-118 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Office of Response and 

Restoration. 2010d. Shoreline threat update: Southern Florida, Florida Keys and East Coast 

Deepwater Horizon/BP oil spill, July 30, 2010. Internet website: http://archive.orr.noaa.gov/

topic_subtopic_entry.php?RECORD_KEY(entry_subtopic_topic)=entry_id,subtopic_id,topic_

id&entry_id(entry_subtopic_topic)=815&subtopic_id(entry_subtopic_topic)=8&topic_id(entry_

subtopic_topic)=1. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Office of Response and 

Restoration. 2014. Environmental sensitivity index (ESI) maps. Internet website: http://

response.restoration.noaa.gov/maps-and-spatial-data/environmental-sensitivity-index-esi-maps.html. 

Accessed July 3, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. 2007. Toxicological profile for benzene. U.S. Dept. of 

Health and Human Services, Health Service Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 

August 2007.

U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2010. 

NIH to launch Gulf oil spill health study. Internet website: http://www.nih.gov/news/health/

sep2010/niehs-07.htm. Accessed August 15, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. 2012. 

Final opportunities to enroll in NIH oil spill health study. Internet website: http://

www.niehs.nih.gov/news/newsroom/releases/2012/october02/index.cfm. Accessed October 17, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of Homeland Security. Coast Guard. 2010. Dispersants/on-water oil removal capacity 

(CAPS). Internet website: https://homeport.uscg.mil/mycg/portal/ep/contentView.do?contentTypeId

=2&channelId=-30095&contentId=125795&programId=114824&programPage=%2Fep%2Fprogram

%2Feditorial.jsp&pageTypeId=13489. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 2010a. On-shore & off-shore PPE 

matrix for Gulf operations. Internet website: http://www.osha.gov/oilspills/gulf-operations-ppematrix.pdf. Accessed November 17, 2011. 

U.S. Dept. of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 2010b. Keeping workers safe 

during oil spill response and cleanup operations: Gulf oil response and heat. Internet website: http://

www.osha.gov/oilspills/heatstress.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of the Army. Corps of Engineers. 2002. Diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin (spp)). 

Internet website: http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/emrrp/turtles/species/diamond.html. Accessed 

June 11, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2012. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2012-2017; Western Planning Area Lease Sales 229, 233, 238, 246, and 248; Central 

Planning Area Lease Sales 227, 231, 235, 241, and 247; final environmental impact statement. 

3 vols. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS

Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2012-019.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2013a. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2013-2014; Western Planning Area Lease Sale 233; Central Planning Area Lease 

Sales 231—final supplemental environmental impact statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of 

Ocean Energy Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 

2013-0118.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. 2013b. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and 

gas lease sales: 2014 and 2016; Eastern Planning Area Lease Sales 225 and 226—final 

environmental impact statement. 2 vols. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy 

Management, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA BOEM 2013-200.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. 2010a. 

Oil reservoirs in the Gulf of Mexico with API gravity data available, including those with a gas cap, 

collected by querying the Reserve Reservoirs Tables from the Technical Information Management 

(TIMS). Accessed November 10, 2011.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-119

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement. 2010b. 

Annual volume of produced water discharged by depth (in millions of barrels). Accessed in the 

Technical Information Management System on December 30, 2010.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement. 2012. Spills ≥50 barrels 

(2,100 gallons)—1967 to 2012.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2004. Effects of oil spills on wildlife and habitat. 

December 2004. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Regional Spill Response 

Coordinator, Anchorage, Alaska. Internet website: http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/

NOAA_related_docs/oil_spills/Oil_Spill_Wildlife_Habitat.pdf. 

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007. Alabama beach mouse—revision of critical 

habitat. January 2007. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Daphne Ecological 

Services Field Office, Daphne, AL. 2 pp.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010a. Effects of oil on wildlife and habitat. Fact 

Sheet, June 2010. Internet website: http://www.fws.gov/home/dhoilspill/pdfs/

DHJICFWSOilImpactsWildlifeFactSheet.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010b. State and Federal wildlife agencies, other 

partners, move to safeguard sea turtle nests; FedEx providing transportation to Florida’s Space Coast. 

News Release, July 9, 2010. Internet website: http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2010/r10-

048.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010c. Beach-nesting birds of the Gulf. U.S. 

Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Division of Migratory Bird Management, 

Atlanta, GA. 1 p. Internet website: http://www.fws.gov/home/dhoilspill/pdfs/

DHBirdsOfTheGulf.pdf. Accessed January 5, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010d. Bird impact data and consolidated wildlife 

reports (wildlife collection reports). Internet website: http://www.fws.gov/home/dhoilspill/

collectionreports.html. Accessed July 9, 2014.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011a. Bird impact data from DOI-ERDC database 

download 12 May 2011: weekly bird impact data and consolidated wildlife reports (accessed 21 

March 2012). U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Internet 

website: http://www.fws.gov/home/dhoilspill/pdfs/Bird%20Data%20Species%20Spreadsheet%20

05122011.pdf. Accessed March 12, 2012.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011b. Endangered species program. Internet 

website: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/. Accessed February 16, 2011.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Preliminary federally listed species to be 

considered by state. Official correspondence (date received April 6, 2012). U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 4, Ecological Services Field Office, Lafayette, LA.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2000. Gulf of Mexico deepwater operations 

and activities: Environmental assessment. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 

Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA MMS 2000-001.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2007. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and gas lease 

sales: 2007-2012; Western Planning Area Sales 204, 207, 210, 215, and 218; Central Planning Area 

Sales 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, and 222—final environmental impact statement. 2 vols. U.S. Dept. of 

the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS 

EIS/EA MMS 2007-018.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2008. Gulf of Mexico OCS oil and gas lease 

sales: 2009-2012; Central Planning Area Sales 208, 213, 216, and 222; Western Planning Area Sales 

210, 215, and 218—final supplemental environmental impact statement. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS EIS/EA MMS 

2008-041.
B-120 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. Minerals Management Service. 2010. Preliminary revised program Outer 

Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Leasing Program, 2007-2012. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals 

Management Service, Herndon, VA. iv + 215 pp.

U.S. Dept. of the Interior. National Park Service. 2010. Managing sea turtles during the oil spill 

response. 2 pp.

U.S. Dept. of Transportation. 2010. Gulf Coast ports surrounding the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Fact 

Sheet, June 2010. U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Research and Innovative Technology 

Administration. 4 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. Coastal condition report III. U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development/Office of Water, Washington, DC. 

EPA/842-R-08-002. 329 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010a. BP’s analysis of subsurface dispersant use. Internet 

website: http://www.epa.gov/bpspill/dispersants-bp.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010b. Odors from the BP oil spill. Internet website: http://

www.epa.gov/BPSpill/odor.html. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010c. Recovered oil, contaminated materials and liquid and 

solid wastes management directive, Louisiana, June 29, 2010. Internet website: http://www.epa.gov/

bpspill/waste/wastemanagementdirective_la.pdf. Accessed November 10, 2011.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010d. Recovered oil, contaminated materials and liquid and 

solid wastes management directive, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, June 29, 2010. Internet website: 

http://www.epa.gov/bpspill/waste/wastemanagementdirective_msalfl.pdf. Accessed November 10, 

2011.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Water quality benchmarks for aquatic life. Internet 

website: http://www.epa.gov/bpspill/water-benchmarks.html. Accessed August 17, 2012.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2012. Questions and answers about the BP oil spill in the Gulf 

Coast. Internet website: http://www.epa.gov/BPSpill/qanda.html#waste19. Accessed August 17, 

2012.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Research and Development. 2010. Comparative 

toxicity of Louisiana sweet crude oil (LSC) and chemically dispersed LSC to two Gulf of Mexico 

aquatic test species. July 31, 2010. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and 

Development. 13 pp.

U.S. House of Representatives. Committee on Energy and Commerce. Subcommittee on Commerce, 

Trade, and Consumer Protection. 2010. The BP oil spill and the Gulf Coast tourism: Assessing the 

impact.

Valentine, D.L., J.D. Kessler, M.C. Redmond, S.D. Mendes, M.B. Heintz, C. Farwell, L. Hu, 

F.S. Kinnaman, S. Yvon-Lewis, M. Du, E.W. Chan, F. Garcia Tigreros, and C.J. Villaneuva. 2010. 

Propane respiration jump-starts microbial response to a deep oil spill. Science Express. 9 pp.

Vandermeulen, J.H. 1982. Some conclusions regarding long-term biological effects of some major oil 

spills. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 

297(1087).

Varmer, O. 2014. Underwater cultural heritage law study. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean 

Energy Management, Herndon, VA. OCS Study BOEM 2014-005. 115 pp.

Vashcenko, M.A. 1980. Effects of oil pollution on the development of sex cells in sea urchins. 

Biologische Anstalt Helgoland 297-300.

Vukovich, F.M. 2005. Climatology of ocean features in the Gulf of Mexico. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 

Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 

2005-031. 58 pp.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-121

Vukovich, F.M. 2007. Climatology of ocean features in the Gulf of Mexico using satellite remote 

sensing data. Journal of Physical Oceanography, Vol. 37, doi:10.1175/JPO2989.1.

Ward, G.A., B. Baca, W. Cyriacks, R.E. Dodge, and A. Knap. 2003. Continuing long-term studies of the 

TROPICS Panama oil and dispersed oil spill sites. In: Proceedings 2003 International Oil Spill 

Conference, April 6-11, 2003, Vancouver, Canada. Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute.

Waring, G.T., E. Josephson, K. Maze-Foley, and P.E. Rosel, eds. 2012. U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of 

Mexico marine mammal stock assessments -- 2011. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-221. 

319 pp.

Webb, J.W. 1988. Establishment of vegetation on oil-contaminated dunes. Shore and Beach, October. 

Pp. 20-23.

Webb, J.W., G.T. Tanner, and B.H. Koerth. 1981. Oil spill effects on smooth cordgrass in Galveston 

Bay, Texas. Contributions in Marine Science 24:107-114.

Webb, J.W., S.K. Alexander, and J.K. Winters. 1985. Effects of autumn application of oil on Spartina 

alterniflora in a Texas salt marsh. Environmental Pollution Series A 38(4):321-337.

Wesseling, I., A.J. Uychiaoco, P.M. Aliño, T. Aurin, and J.E. Vermaat. 1999. Damage recovery of four 

Philippine corals from short-term sediment burial. Marine Ecology Progress Series 176:11-15.

White, H.K., P. Hsing, W. Cho, T.M. Shank, E.E. Cordes, A.M. Quattrini, R.K. Nelson, R. Camilli, 

A.W.J. Demopoulos, C.R. German, J.M. Brooks, H.H. Roberts, W. Shedd, C.M. Reddy, and 

C.R. Fisher. 2012. Impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill on a deep-water coral community in 

the Gulf of Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of 

America, PNAS Early Edition, Special Feature, March 27, 2012. 6 pp.

Wiens, J.A., R.H. Day, S.M. Murphy, and M.A. Fraker. 2010. Assessing cause-effect relationships in 

environmental accidents: Harlequin ducks and the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Current Ornithology 

17:131-189.

Wiese, F.K. and I.L. Jones. 2001. Experimental support for a new drift block design to assess seabird 

mortality from oil pollution. Auk 118:1062-1068.

Wiese, F.K., W.A. Montevecchi, G.K. Davoren, F. Huettman, A.W. Diamond and J. Linke. 2001. 

Seabirds at risk around offshore oil platforms in the Northwest Atlantic. Marine Pollution Bulletin 

42:1285-1290.

Wilber, D.H., W. Brostoff, D.G. Clarke, and G.L. Ray. 2005. Sedimentation: Potential biological effects 

from dredging operations in estuarine and marine environments. DOER Technical Notes Collection 

(ERDC TN-DOER-E20), U.S. Dept. of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and 

Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.

Wilhelm, S.I., G.J. Robertson, P.C. Ryan, and D.C. Schneider. 2007. Comparing an estimate of seabirds 

at risk to a mortality estimate from the November 2004 Terra Nova FPSO oil spill. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 54:537-544.

Williams, B.K. 2011. Adaptive management of natural resources-framework and issues. Journal of 

Environmental Management 92:1346-1353.

Williams, J.M., M.L. Tasker, I.C. Carter, and A. Webb. 1995. A method of assessing seabird 

vulnerability to surface pollutants. Ibis 137:S147-S152.

Williams, R., S. Gero, L. Bejder, J. Calambokidis, S. Kraus, D. Lusseau, A. Read, and J. Robbins. 2011. 

Underestimating the damage: interpreting cetacean carcass recoveries in the context of the Deepwater 

Horizon/BP Incident. Conservation Letters, DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-263x2011.00168x.

Witherington, B., S. Hirama, and R. Hardy. 2012. Young sea turtles of the pelagic Sargassumdominated drift community: habitat use, population density, and threats. Marine Ecology Progress 

Series 463:1-22.
B-122 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Wood, R.C. and L.S. Hales. 2001. Comparison of northern diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin 

terrapin) hatching success among variably oiled nesting sites along the Patuxent River following the 

Chalk Point Oil Spill of April 7, 2000: Final report. 16 pp.

Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 2011. The 2012 complete economic and demographic data source 

(CEDDS) on CD-ROM.

Wright, S.D., B.B. Ackerman, R.K. Bonde, C.A. Beck, and D.J. Banowetz. 1995. Analysis of 

watercraft-related mortality of manatees in Florida, 1979-1991. In: O’Shea, T.J., B.B. Ackerman, 

and H.F. Percival, eds. Population biology of the Florida manatee. National Biological Service 

Information and Technology Report 1. Pp. 259-268.

Wyers, S.C., H.R. Frith, R.E. Dodge, S.R. Smith, A.H. Knap, and T.D. Sleeter. 1986. Behavioral effects 

of chemically dispersed oil and subsequent recovery in Diploria strigosa. Marine Ecology 7:23-42.

Yender, R.A. and J. Michel, eds. 2010. Oil spills in coral reefs: Planning and response considerations. 

Second edition. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office 

of Response and Restoration. 82 pp. Internet website: http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/sites/

default/files/Oil_Spill_Coral.pdf. 

Zabala, J., I. Zuberogoitia, J.A. Martinez-Climent, and J. Etxezarreta. 2010. Do long lived seabirds 

reduce the negative effects of acute pollution on adult survival by skipping breeding? A study with 

European storm petrels (Hydrobates pelagicus) during the Prestige oil-spill. Marine Pollution 

Bulletin 62:109-115.

Zieman, J.C. 1976. The ecological effects of physical damage from motor boats on turtle grass beds in 

Southern Florida. Aquatic Botany 2:127-139.

Zieman, J.C., R. Orth, R.C. Phillips, G. Thayer, and A. Thorhaug. 1984. The effects of oil on seagrass 

ecosystems. In: Cairns, J., Jr. and A.L. Buikema, Jr., eds. Restoration of habitats impacted by oil 

spills. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishers.

Zuberogoitia, I., J.A. Martinez, A. Iraeta, A. Azkona, J. Zabala, B. Jimenez, R. Merino, and G. Gomez. 

2006. Short-term effects of the Prestige oil spill on the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus). Marine 

Pollution Bulletin 52:1176-1181.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-123

Figure B-1. Location of Five Hypothetical Oil-Spill Launch Points for OSRA within the Study Area. (Spatial 

variability of the Loop Current is from Vukovich [2007] and is shown as percent of time that the Loop 

Current watermass is associated with a particular location.)
B-124 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Figure B-2. Spatial Frequency (%) of the Watermass Associated with the Loop Current in the Eastern Gulf of 

Mexico based on Data for the Period 1976-2003 (Vukovich, 2005).
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-125

Figure B-3. Summary of Avian Species Collected by Date Obtained from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as 

Part of the Deepwater Horizon Post-Spill Monitoring and Collection Process through May 12, 2011 

(USDOI, FWS, 2011a). (This figure represents the date the data were released and reported and does 

not represent the actual date individual birds were collected. Data on the Y-axis reflects the 

cumulative # of individual birds collected, identified, and summarized by date; data on the Z-axis 

reflects proportional change from one reporting date to the next. The data used in this figure are 

verified as per FWS’s QA/QC processes. The mean # of birds collected between intervals is 184.4 + 

89.3 SE [-807 min, 526 max for 13 collection intervals] and the mean % change between intervals is 

3.0 + 1.3% [-11.12% min., 8.27% max]. Unfortunately, we have no data on change in search effort 

temporally (or spatially) and also lack data prior to September 14, 2010; therefore, data at that point 

represent the baseline or “0” for determining interval differences. Disclaimer: All data should be 

considered provisional, incomplete, and subject to change. For more information, refer to FWS’s 

Weekly Bird Impact Data and Consolidated Wildlife Reports [USDOI, FWS, 2011a]; for additional 

information on the chronological change in number of birds collected, refer to Belanger et al., 2010).
B-126 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-1

Blowout Scenarios and Key Differences in Impacts, Response, and/or Intervention

Location of Blowout and Leak Key Differences in Impacts, Response, and/or Intervention

Blowout occurs at the sea surface 

(i.e., at the rig)

Offers the least chance for oil recovery because of the restricted access to the 

release point; therefore, greater impacts to coastal ecosystems. In addition to 

relief wells, there is potential for other intervention measures such as capping 

and possible manual activation of blowout-preventer (BOP) rams.

Blowout occurs along the riser 

anywhere from the seafloor to the 

sea surface. However, a severed 

riser would likely collapse, 

resulting in a leak at the seafloor.

In deep water, the use of subsea dispersants, if approved, may reduce impacts 

to coastal ecosystems; however, their use may increase exposure of deepwater 

marine resources to dispersed oil. There is a possibility for limited recovery of 

oil at the source. In addition to relief wells, there is potential for other 

intervention measures, such as capping and possible manual activation of BOP 

rams.

At the seafloor, through leak paths 

on the BOP/wellhead

In deep water, the use of subsea dispersant, if approved, may reduce impacts to 

coastal ecosystems; however, their use may increase exposure of deepwater 

marine resources to dispersed oil.

With an intact subsea BOP, intervention may involve the use of drilling mud to 

kill the well. If the BOP and well stack are heavily compromised, the only 

intervention method may be relief wells. Greatest possibility for recovery of 

oil at the source, until the well is capped or killed.

Below the seafloor, outside the 

wellbore (i.e., broached)

Disturbance of a large amount of sediments resulting in the burial of benthic 

resources in the immediate vicinity of the blowout. The use of subsea 

dispersants would likely be more difficult (PCCI Marine and Environmental 

Engineering, 1999). Stopping this kind of blowout would probably involve 

relief wells. Any recovery of oil at the seabed would be very difficult.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis B-127

Table B-2

Properties and Persistence by Oil Component Group

Properties and 

Persistence Light-Weight Medium-Weight Heavy-Weight

Hydrocarbon 

Compounds

Up to 10 carbon atoms 10-22 carbon atoms >20 carbon atoms

API o >31.1o 31.1o-22.3o <22.3o

Evaporation Rate Rapid (within 1 day) and 

complete

Up to several days; not 

complete at ambient 

temperatures

Negligible

Solubility in Water High Low (at most a few 

milligrams/liter)

Negligible

Acute Toxicity High because of 

monoaromatic 

hydrocarbons (BTEX)

Moderate because of 

diaromatic hydrocarbons 

(naphthalenes—2 ring 

PAH’s)

Low except because of 

smothering (i.e., heavier oils 

may sink)

Chronic Toxicity None, does not persist 

because of evaporation

PAH components (e.g., 

naphthalenes—2 ring 

PAH’s)

PAH components (e.g., 

phenanthrene, anthracene—

3 ring PAH’s)

Bioaccumulation 

Potential

None, does not persist 

because of evaporation

Moderate Low, may bioaccumulate 

through sediment sorption

Compositional 

Majority

Alkanes and cycloalkanes Alkanes that are readily 

degraded

Waxes, asphaltenes, and 

polar compounds (not 

significantly bioavailable or 

toxic)

Persistence Low because of 

evaporation

Alkanes readily degrade, 

but the diaromatic 

hydrocarbons are more 

persistent

High; very low degradation 

rates and can persist in 

sediments as tarballs or 

asphalt pavements

API = American Petroleum Institute.

BTEX = benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene

PAH = polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

Sources: Michel, 1992; Canadian Center for Energy Information, 2010.
B-128 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-3

Annual Volume of Produced Water Discharged by Depth

(millions of barrels)

Year Shelf

0-60 m

Shelf

60-200 m

Slope

200-400 m

Deepwater

400-800 m

Deepwater

800-1,600 m

UltraDeepwater

1,601-2,400 m

UltraDeepwater

>2,400 m

Total

2000 370.6 193.1 35.5 25.6 12.2 0.0 0.0 637.0

2001 364.2 185.2 35.0 32.0 16.6 0.0 0.0 633.0

2002 344.6 180.4 32.5 35.2 21.4 0.0 0.0 614.1

2003 359.4 182.9 31.2 39.0 35.5 0.2 0.0 648.2

2004 346.7 160.5 29.3 36.9 39.2 1.9 0.0 614.5

2005 270.1 113.5 23.1 33.5 43.0 5.8 0.0 489.0

2006 260.3 99.7 20.6 35.1 61.5 12.4 0.0 489.6

2007 307.0 139.4 22.2 40.0 70.3 15.5 0.1 594.5

2008 252.7 118.6 15.9 32.7 60.1 16.5 0.1 496.6

2009 263.9 108.3 19.9 39.2 65.3 25.0 0.1 521.7

Source: USDOI, BOEMRE, 2010b.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-129

Table B-4 

Description of the Scenario for a Catastrophic Spill Event Occurring in Shallow Water or Deep Water 

(assumptions are described in detail in the text)

Scenario Shallow-Water Location Deepwater Location

Phase 1. Initial Event

Vertical Location of Blowout 4 possible locations including sea surface, along 

the riser, at the seafloor, and below the seafloor

4 possible locations including sea surface, along the riser, at 

the seafloor, and below the seafloor

Duration of Uncontrolled Fire 1-30 days 1-30 days

Phase 2. Offshore Spill

Duration of Spill 2-5 months 4-6 months

Rate of Spill 30,000 bbl per day* 30,000-60,000 bbl per day

Total Volume of Spill (1) 0.9-3.0 MMbbl crude oil 2.7-7.2 MMbbl crude oil

10,000-20,000 bbl diesel fuel 

APIo Gravity Fresh oil will float (APIo >10) Fresh oil will float (APIo >10)

Characteristics of Oil Released Typical South Louisiana midrange paraffinic 

sweet crude oil 

Typical South Louisiana midrange paraffinic sweet crude 

oil; crude properties changed after oil traveled up the 

wellbore and passed through the water column, undergoing 

rapid depressurization and turbulence. Oil reached the 

surface as an emulsion stripped of many of its volatile 

components.

Response

Number of Vessels Up to 3,000 Up to 7,000

Number of Workers Up to 25,000 Up to 50,000

Number of Planes/Helicopters 25/50 50/100

Boom (million feet) 5 13.5

Dispersant Application

(surface application) (2)

35,000 bbl 33,000-bbl surface application and 16,500-bbl subsea 

application 

Number of Miles of Shoreline 

Requiring Some Measure of 

Mechanical or Manual Cleaning

778 778

In-situ Burn Yes, will occur Yes, will occur

Vessel Decontamination Stations Yes Yes

Severe Weather The potential for severe weather is noted, which 

could temporarily halt containment and response 

efforts.

The potential for severe weather is noted, which could 

temporarily halt containment and response efforts.

Fisheries Closure During the peak, anticipate approximately 37% or 

88,522 mi2 (229,270 km2) closed to recreational and 

commercial fishing.
 B-130 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-4. Description of the Scenario for a Catastrophic Spill Event Occurring in Shallow Water or Deep Water (continued).

Scenario Shallow-Water Location Deepwater Location

Phase 3. Onshore Contact

Shoreline Oiling Duration 1-5 months 3-6 months

Response

Number of Staging areas 5-10 10-20

Number of Skimmers 200-300 500-600

Length of Shoreline Contacted

30 days1 = 0-50 miles2 30 days1 = 0-50 miles2

60 days = 50-100 miles 60 days = 50-100 miles

90 days = 100-1,000 miles 90 days = 100-1,000 miles

120 days = >1,000 miles 120 days = >1,000 miles 1 Not cumulative.

2 Length was extrapolated

Oil Characteristics and Appearance —Essentially stable emulsions mixed with sand.

—Typically initially stranded as surface layers and as 

discrete droplets/summer 2010.

Response Considerations for Sand 

Beaches

—No mechanical techniques allowed in some 

areas.

—Much of the beach cleanup conducted at night.

—Typically sand sieving, shaking, and sifting 

beach cleaning machines.

—Repetitive tilling and mixing using agriculture 

plows and discs in combination with beach 

cleaning machines.

—Sand washing treatment—sand sieve/shaker to 

remove debris and large oil particles and heated 

washing systems.

—Nearshore submerged oil difficult to recover 

and hard to locate; vacuums and snares could be 

used.

—No mechanical techniques allowed in some areas.

—Much of the beach cleanup conducted at night.

—Typically sand sieving, shaking, and sifting beach 

cleaning machines.

—Repetitive tilling and mixing using agriculture plows and 

discs in combination with beach cleaning machines.

—Sand washing treatment—sand sieve/shaker to remove 

debris and large oil particles and heated washing systems.

—Nearshore submerged oil difficult to recover and hard to 

locate; vacuums and snares could be used.

Response Considerations for Marshes —Lightly oiled—allowed to recovery naturally; 

degrade in place or removed by tidal or wave 

action.

—Moderately/heavily oiled—vacuumed or 

skimmed from boats possibly in conjunction with 

flushing; low-pressure flushing (with water 

comparable to marsh type); manual removal by 

—Lightly oiled—allowed to recovery naturally; degrade in 

place or removed by tidal or wave action.

—Moderately or heavily oiled—vacuumed or skimmed 

from boats possibly in conjunction with flushing; lowpressure flushing (with water comparable to marsh type);

manual removal by hand or mechanized equipment; and 

vegetation cutting.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-131

Table B-4. Description of the Scenario for a Catastrophic Spill Event Occurring in Shallow Water or Deep Water (continued).

hand or mechanized equipment; and vegetation 

cutting.

—Heavily oiled areas—in-situ burning may be an 

option if water covers the sediment surface.

—Bioremediation may be utilized but mostly as a 

secondary treatment after bulk removal. 

—Heavily oiled areas—in-situ burning may be an option if 

water covers the sediment surface.

—Bioremediation may be utilized but mostly as a 

secondary treatment after bulk removal.

Response Considerations for 

Nearshore Waters

Marsh areas—skimming and vacuum (in areas too 

shallow to use skimmers) systems used in 

conjunction with flushing, and booming to 

temporarily contain mobile slicks.

Marsh areas—skimming and vacuum (in areas too shallow 

to use skimmers) systems used in conjunction with flushing, 

and booming to temporarily contain mobile slicks.

Phase 4. Recovery Phase

Response

Number of Vessels 

– 24-36 months post-spill/greater 

than 36 months

Fewer than 10/0 designated—called up only if 

new residual oil reported 

Fewer than 10/0 designated—called up only if new residual 

oil reported

Number of Workers 

– 24-36 months post-spill/greater 

than 36 months

230/0 designated—called up only if new residual 

oil reported 

230/0 designated—called up only if new residual oil 

reported

Miles of Shoreline Undergoing 

Regular Patrolling and 

Maintenance 

– 30-36 months post-spill/greater 

than 36 months

Fewer than 20/0 Fewer than 20/0

End Date for Dispersant 

Application

No dispersant usage 2 weeks after spillage ends No dispersant usage 2 weeks after spillage ends

Remaining Sources of Unrecoverable 

Weathered Oil

Buried or in surface pockets in coastal sand, 

sediment, or muddy bottoms and in pockets on the 

seafloor.

Buried or in surface pockets in coastal sand, sediment, or 

muddy bottoms and in pockets on the seafloor.

Oil Characteristics and Appearance As stranded oil weathered, some became buried through 

natural beach processes and appeared as surface residual 

balls (SRB) <10 cm (4 in) or as patties (SRP) 10 cm-1 m 

(4 in-3 ft).

Response Considerations for Sand 

Beaches, Marshes, and Nearshore 

Waters

See Phase 3 above. See Phase 3 above.

(1) A blowout may contain crude oil, natural gas, and condensate. Because the majority of environmental damage is due to the release of oil, this text 

assumes the spill to be an oil spill. However, a natural gas release would result in a less visible and less persistent adverse impact than an oil release.

(2) Subsea dispersal application must be individually approved.

Source: British Petroleum, 2014b.
 B-132 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-5 

Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: 

Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the Gulf of Mexico1, 2

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4 Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

Amer. Coot Marsh/Wading 3 2 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.67

Amer. Oystercatcher Shorebird 13 7 3 7 3 0 3 1 3 3 0.54

Amer. Redstart Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Amer. White Pelican Seabird 19 5 3 8 4 0 4 4 8 7 0.42

Audubon’s Shearwater Seabird 36 1 1 1 35 0 35 0 2 0 0.03

Barn Owl Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Barn Swallow Passerine 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Belted Kingfisher Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Bl.-crown. Night Heron Marsh/Wading 18 6 3 8 7 0 7 1 4 3 0.44

Black Skimmer Seabird 253 51 16 55 153 0 153 40 14 45 0.22

Black Tern Seabird 9 1 0 1 7 0 7 1 3 1 0.11

Bl.-bell. Whistl. Duck Waterfowl 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0.00

Black-necked Stilt Shorebird 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0.00

Blue-winged Teal Waterfowl 6 0 0 0 6 0 6 0 0 0 0.00

Boat-tailed Grackle Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Broad-winged Hawk Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Brown Pelican Seabird 826 152 227 339 248 0 248 177 149 239 0.41

Brown-headed Cowbird Passerine 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Bufflehead Waterfowl 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Canada Goose Waterfowl 4 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 0.25

Caspian Tern Seabird 17 7 3 8 4 0 4 2 6 5 0.47

Cattle Egret Marsh/Wading 36 4 4 7 25 0 25 3 4 4 0.19

Clapper Rail Marsh/Wading 120 27 5 29 64 0 64 20 14 27 0.24
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-133

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4

Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

Common Loon Diving 75 33 27 39 24 0 24 4 20 12 0.52

Common Moorhen Marsh/Wading 4 1 0 1 3 0 3 0 0 0 0.25

Common Nighthawk Passerine 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Common Tern Seabird 25 15 12 16 9 0 9 0 0 0 0.64

Common Yellowthroat Passerine 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.00

Cooper’s Hawk Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Cory’s Shearwater Seabird 4 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 1 1 0.00

Dbl-crest. Cormorant Diving 23 2 1 2 17 0 17 2 7 4 0.09

Eastern Kingbird Passerine 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.50

Eastern Meadowlark Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Eur. Collared-dove Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Eur. Starling Passerine 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.50

Forster’s Tern Seabird 40 17 8 20 12 0 12 6 7 8 0.50

Fulvous Whistl. Duck Waterfowl 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Glossy Ibis Marsh/Wading 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.50

Great Blue Heron Marsh/Wading 42 5 3 6 26 0 26 4 16 10 0.14

Great Cormorant Diving 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Great Egret Marsh/Wading 31 6 6 7 15 0 15 8 3 9 0.23

Great-horned Owl Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Greater Shearwater Seabird 89 7 4 7 55 0 55 27 4 27 0.08

Green Heron Marsh/Wading 16 2 0 2 8 0 8 1 6 6 0.13

Gull-billed Tern Seabird 4 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 4 2 0.00

Herring Gull Seabird 31 10 11 13 10 0 10 2 13 8 0.42

House Sparrow Passerine 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0.00

Killdeer Shorebird 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0.00
 B-134 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4

Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

King rail Marsh/Wading 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Laughing Gull Seabird 2,981 1,025 355 1,182 1,390 0 1,390 304 371 409 0.40

Leach’s Storm-petrel Seabird 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1.00

Least Bittern Marsh/Wading 4 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 2 0 0.00

Least Tern Seabird 106 46 7 49 43 0 43 12 3 14 0.46

Less. Bl.-backed Gull Seabird 4 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 2 2 0.25

Less. Scaup Waterfowl 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.00

Little Blue Heron Marsh/Wading 5 0 0 0 4 0 4 1 1 1 0.00

Long-bill. Dowitcher Shorebird 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Magnif. Frigatebird Seabird 8 3 3 4 2 0 2 1 2 2 0.50

Mallard Waterfowl 26 5 4 6 16 0 16 0 7 4 0.23

Manx Shearwater Seabird 6 1 0 1 5 0 5 0 0 0 0.17

Masked Booby Seabird 9 4 3 4 1 0 1 0 4 4 0.44

Mottled Duck Waterfowl 6 0 0 0 5 0 5 1 1 1 0.00

Mourning Dove Passerine 15 3 1 3 8 0 8 0 6 4 0.20

Muscovy Duck Waterfowl 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Neotropic Cormorant Diving 5 0 0 0 2 0 2 3 0 3 0.00

Northern Cardinal Passerine 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0.00

Northern Gannet Seabird 475 225 189 297 99 0 99 30 107 79 0.63

Northern Mockingbird Passerine 5 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 2 1 0.00

Osprey Raptor 11 2 1 3 6 0 6 0 3 2 0.27

Pied-billed Grebe Diving 32 18 24 24 7 0 7 1 3 1 0.75

Piping Plover Shorebird 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Purple Gallinule Marsh/Wading 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.00

Purple Martin Passerine 5 1 0 1 3 0 3 0 1 1 0.20
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-135

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4

Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

Red-breasted Merg. Waterfowl 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.50

Reddish Egret Marsh/Wading 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.50

Red-shouldered Hawk Raptor 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Red-tailed Hawk Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Red-winged Blackbird Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Ring-billed Gull Seabird 2 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.50

Rock Dove (pigeon) Passerine 16 2 2 3 4 0 4 2 10 9 0.19

Roseate Spoonbill Marsh/Wading 15 7 3 7 3 0 3 5 1 5 0.47

Royal Tern Seabird 289 116 66 149 104 0 104 19 47 36 0.52

Ruddy Duck Waterfowl 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Ruddy Turnstone Shorebird 13 1 3 3 8 0 8 1 5 2 0.23

Sanderling Shorebird 26 4 2 4 20 0 20 1 6 2 0.15

Sandwich Tern Seabird 70 28 20 34 25 0 25 8 14 11 0.49

Seaside Sparrow Passerine 9 4 0 4 5 0 5 0 0 0 0.44

Semipalm. Sandpiper Shorebird 3 2 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Short-bill. Dowitcher Shorebird 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Snowy Egret Marsh/Wading 22 12 9 14 6 0 6 2 3 2 0.64

Sooty Shearwater Seabird 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Sooty Tern Seabird 3 0 1 1 2 0 2 0 1 0 0.33

Sora Marsh/Wading 5 2 1 2 1 0 1 2 0 2 0.40

Spotted Sandpiper Shorebird 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Surf Scoter Waterfowl 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Tri-colored Heron Marsh/Wading 31 9 5 11 7 0 7 11 2 13 0.35

Virginia Rail Marsh/Wading 3 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 1 0 0.00

White Ibis Marsh/Wading 7 1 1 1 4 0 4 2 3 2 0.14
 B-136 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4

Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

White-tail. Tropicbird Seabird 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

White-wing. Dove Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Willet Shorebird 13 2 1 3 8 0 8 1 3 2 0.23

Wilson’s Plover Shorebird 3 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 0 1 0.00

Yellow-billed Cuckoo Passerine 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Yel.-cr. Night Heron Marsh/Wading 9 1 0 1 7 0 7 0 3 1 0.11

Unid. Blackbird Passerine 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.00

Unid. Booby Seabird 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.00

Unid. Cormorant Diving 14 3 0 3 10 0 10 1 0 1 0.21

Unid. Dowitcher Shorebird 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0.50

Unid. Duck Waterfowl 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0.00

Unid. Egret Marsh/Wading 15 2 0 2 11 0 11 2 1 2 0.13

Unid. Flycatcher Passerine 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.00

Unid. Grebe Diving 4 2 1 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.50

Unid. Gull Seabird 248 79 1 80 134 0 134 33 4 34 0.32

Unid. Hawk Raptor 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0.00

Unid. Heron Marsh/Wading 15 5 0 5 8 0 8 1 1 2 0.33

Unid. Loon Diving 7 2 2 4 3 0 3 0 1 0 0.57

Unid. Mockingbird Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Unid. Owl Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Unid. Passerine Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Unid. Pelican Seabird 25 5 1 5 15 0 15 4 1 5 0.20

Unid. Pigeon Passerine 14 2 1 3 6 0 6 1 6 5 0.21

Unid. Rail Marsh/Wading 4 1 0 1 3 0 3 0 0 0 0.25

Unid. Raptor Raptor 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-137

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

Common Name Species 

Group3

Grand 

Total

Visibly Oiled Not Visibly Oiled Unknown Oiling Oiling 

Rate4

Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total Dead Alive Total

Unid. Sandpiper Shorebird 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 0.00

Unid. Shearwater Seabird 6 0 0 0 5 0 5 1 0 1 0.00

Unid. Shorebird Shorebird 3 2 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0.67

Unid. Skimmer Seabird 6 0 0 0 5 0 5 1 0 1 0.00

Unid. Sparrow Passerine 3 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 2 0.00

Unid. Swallow Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Unid. Tern Seabird 132 38 1 39 79 0 79 13 2 14 0.30

Unid. Warbler Passerine 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0.00

Unknown spp. 593 51 2 53 451 0 451 88 1 89 0.09

Other 106 31 3 34 52 0 52 7 14 20 0.32

Column Totals 7,258 2,121 2,642 3,387 3,387 873 1,229 0.24 1 Data obtained from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) as part of the Deepwater Horizon post-spill monitoring and collection process are summarized for May 12, 

2011 (USDOI, FWS, 2011a). The data used in this table are verified as per FWS’s QA/QC processes. Disclaimer: All data should be considered provisional, incomplete, 

and subject to change (USDOI, FWS, 2011a). For more information, refer to the Weekly Bird Impact Data and Consolidated Wildlife Reports. Numbers in this table have

been verified against the original data from FWS’s website (USDOI, FWS, 2011a). 2 As of May 12, 2011, 104 avian species had been collected and identified through the Deepwater Horizon post-spill monitoring and collection process (USDOI, FWS, 

2011a). Note: Though the process was triggered by the Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill, not all birds recovered were oiled (36% = oiled, 47% = unoiled, 17% = 

unknown), suggesting that “search effort” alone accounted for a large proportion of the total (n = 7,258) birds collected (Piatt et al., 1990a, page 127). Some of the live 

birds collected may have been incapable of flight due to age or molt, and some of the dead birds collected may have died due to natural mortality, predation, or other 

anthropogenic sources of mortality. The overall oiling rate across species including “others” and “unknowns” was 0.24 versus 0.25 for individuals identified to species. 

The oiling rate for the Top 5 (see bold rows in table) most-impacted avian species was 0.43 and included representatives only from the seabird group. These are listed in 

descending order based on the number collected: laughing gull (2,981 collected, 0.40 oiling rate); brown pelican (826 collected, 0.41 oiling rate); northern gannet 

(475 collected, 0.63 oiling rate); royal tern (289 collected, 0.52 oiling rate); and black skimmer (253 collected, 0.22 oiling rate). Note: There is a difference between the 

table structure here compared with the original table on FWS’s website. Herein, columns for live birds that later died were not included. Totals associated with each larger 

grouping are correct and sum to those column totals for the May 12, 2011, Collection Report values. Six new species or rows were added and 3 species were removed 

between the December 14, 2010, Collection Report (USDOI, FWS, 2010d) and the May 12, 2011, Collection Report (USDOI, FWS, 2011a). The major difference in 

number (-807) between the more recent and older versions was due to an ~10% overestimate in the previous report representing live birds that later died, as these individuals 

were counted twice in the December 14, 2010, Collection Report (USDOI, FWS, 2010d). 3 For additional information on oiling rates by Species Group and additional statistics, refer to Table 4-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS.
 B-138 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Table B-5. Birds Collected and Summarized by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Post-Deepwater Horizon Explosion, Oil Spill, and Response in the 

Gulf of Mexico1, 2 (continued).

4 Oiling Rate: For each species, an oiling rate was calculated by dividing the “total” number of oiled individuals (∑ alive + dead) /∑ of total individuals collected for a given 

species/row. In general, it has been well documented that the number of birds collected after a spill event represents a small fraction of the total oiled population (direct 

mortality) due to various factors: species-specific differences in vulnerability to spilled oil, species-specific differences in distribution, habitat use and behavior; speciesspecific differences in abundance; species-specific differences in carcass deposition rates, persistence rates, and detection probabilities; overall search effort and temporal 

and spatial variation in search effort; and carcass loss due to predation, habitat, weather, tides, and currents (Piatt et al., 1990a and 1990b; Ford et al., 1996; Piatt and Ford, 

1996; Fowler and Flint, 1997; Flint and Fowler, 1998; Flint et al., 1999; Hampton and Zafonte, 2005; Ford, 2006; Castège et al., 2007; Ford and Zafonte, 2009; Byrd et al., 

2009; Flint et al., 2010). For example, Piatt and Ford (1996, Table 1) estimated a mean carcass recovery rate of only 17% for a number of previous oil-bird impact studies. 

Burger (1993) and Wiese and Jones (2001) estimated recovery rates of 20% with the latter study based on a drift-block design to estimate carcass recovery rate from 

beached-bird surveys. Due to the fact that the coastline directly inshore of the well blowout location is primarily marsh and not sandy beaches, due to the distance from the 

blowout location to the coast, and due to predominant currents and wind directions during the event, the number of birds collected will likely represent a recovery estimate 

in the lower ranges of those provided in the literature to date (≤10%). A range of mortality estimates given the total number of dead birds collected through May 12, 2011, 

of 7,258 birds x recovery rates from the literature (0-59% in Piatt and Ford, 1996, Table 1) suggests a lower range of 12,302 birds* (59% recovery rate), an upper range of 

725,800 birds* (0% recovery rate), and 42,694 birds based on the 17% mean recovery rate from Piatt and Ford (1996). The lower range of estimates (i.e., high carcass 

recovery rates) is likely biased low because it assumes no search effort after May 2011 (i.e., no more birds were collected after that date) and does not account for any of the 

detection probability parameters that are currently unknown. The actual avian mortality estimate will likely not be available until the NRDA process has been completed; 

this should include a combination of carcass drift experiments, drift-block experiments, corrections for carcass deposition and persistence rates, scavenger rates, and 

detection probability with additional modeling to more precisely derive an estimate. For additional information on oiling rates by Species Group and additional statistics, 

refer to Table 4-12 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. Note: Spill volume tends to be a poor predictor of bird mortality associated with an oil spill (Burger, 1993), 

though it should be considered for inclusion in any models to estimate total bird mortality, preferably with some metric of species composition and abundance (preferably 

density) pre-spill (Wilhelm et al., 2007). 

* Corrected values are based on revisiting the original calculations after publication of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS. An additional estimate for total mortality 

based on Piatt and Ford (1996) is also provided.
Catastrophic Spill Event Analysis

B-139

Table B-6 

Federally Listed Avian Species Considered by State and Associated Planning Area in the Gulf of Mexico1

Species Status Critical Habitat IUCN Red List

Status2 States Planning Area

Red-cockaded Woodpecker Endangered No rules published Vulnerable AL, FL, LA, MS, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

Least Tern3 Endangered No rules published Least Concern AL, LA, TX (FL, MS) WPA, CPA, EPA

Piping Plover Threatened Designated Near Threatened AL, FL, LA, MS, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

Roseate Tern Threatened No rules published Least Concern FL only EPA

Wood Stork Endangered No rules published Least Concern AL, FL, MS CPA, EPA

Whooping Crane Endangered Designated Endangered TX, LA4, FL4 WPA, CPA, EPA

Mississippi Sandhill Crane Endangered Designated Not Yet Assessed MS only CPA

Attwater’s Prairie Chicken Endangered No rules published Not Yet Assessed TX only WPA

N. Aplomado Falcon Endangered No rules published Not Yet Assessed TX only WPA

Everglades Snail Kite Endangered Designated Not Yet Assessed FL only EPA

Cape Sable Seaside Sparrow Endangered Designated Not Yet Assessed FL only EPA

Audubon’s Crested Caracara Threatened No rules published Not Yet Assessed FL only EPA

Sprague’s Pipit Candidate NA – Priority 2 Vulnerable LA, TX WPA, CPA

Bald Eagle Delisted No rules published Least Concern AL, FL, LA, MS, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

Peregrine Falcon Delisted Designated Least Concern AL, FL, LA, MS, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

Eastern Brown Pelican Delisted No rules published Least Concern AL, FL, LA, MS, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

Red Knot Proposed 

Threatened

NA – proposed threatened Least Concern FL, LA, TX WPA, CPA, EPA

1 Information contained in this table was obtained via an email attachment from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) on April 6, 2012 (USDOI, FWS, 2012) and from 

FWS’s “Endangered Species” website and associated queries for “species” available from FWS’s website (USDOI, FWS, 2011b). Additional information for each species 

can be found at NatureServe Explorer (2011). Note: All species listed in this table are considered, but only the piping plover, roseate tern, whooping crane, wood stork, 

Mississippi sandhill crane, bald eagle, eastern brown pelican, and red knot will be analyzed. 2 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) – The Red List classifies species as imperiled (Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable), not imperiled 

(Near Threatened or Least Concern), extinct (Extinct, Extinct in the Wild), or Data Deficient (Butchart et al., 2004 and 2005; Harris et al., 2012). If species meet the 

quantitative thresholds of any of the following criteria, they will be added to the Red List: (1) decline in population size; (2) small geographic range; (3) small population 

size plus decline; (4) very small population size; or (5) quantitative analysis. 3 The Interior population of the least tern was listed as endangered on May 28, 1985 (Federal Register, 1985) throughout much of its breeding range in the Midwest. This 

designation does not provide or extend Endangered Species Act (ESA) protection to the breeding population of Gulf Coast “population” of least terns. Similarly, ESA 

protection for breeding least terns only applies to certain segments or areas (inland rivers and lakes ~50 mi [80 km] inland) of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas. 4 The whooping crane is considered endangered throughout its range in the U.S. except where nonessential, experimental flocks have been established. More recently, a 

release site (White Lake Wetlands Conservation Area, Vermilion Parish) was added in Louisiana (Table 4-14 of the 2012-2017 WPA/CPA Multisale EIS) with a release of 

10 birds on February 22, 2011. To date, only 3 of the original 10 released cranes remain; an additional release of 16 cranes occurred on December 1, 2011. The Gulf Coast 

States that have these nonessential, experimental flocks include Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida; as well, wild whooping cranes may rarely occur as transients 

in Mississippi and Alabama, but they are not known to breed in either state. 5 The red knot is currently a proposed threatened species as of September 30, 2013 (Federal Register, 2013).

KEYWORD INDEX

Keyword Index Keywords-3 

KEYWORD INDEX

Air Quality, x, xi, 1-13, 2-6, 2-7, 2-9, 3-11, 4-6, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, 4-98, 4-102

Alternative Energy, 4-13

Archaeological Resources, x, xiv, 1-13, 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 4-8, 4-73, 4-74, 4-75, 4-76, 4-77, 4-78, 4-79, 

4-98, 4-104, 4-105

Artificial Reefs, xiv, 1-13, 2-6, 3-27, 3-29, 3-30, 4-62, 4-68, 4-69, 4-75, 4-78, 4-106

Blowout Preventer, 3-24

Blowouts, ix, xiii, xiv, 2-10, 3-24, 3-25, 4-9, 4-10, 4-16, 4-19, 4-27, 4-29, 4-32, 4-35, 4-36, 4-38, 4-39, 

4-40, 4-41, 4-42, 4-45, 4-50, 4-62, 4-77, 4-84, 4-85, 4-95, 4-98, 4-99, 4-102

Chemosynthetic Communities, xii, 1-13, 2-6, 3-10, 4-34, 4-35, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38

Chemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities, 2-9, 4-34, 4-35, 4-36, 4-62

Coastal and Marine Birds, x, xiii, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 4-5, 4-56, 4-57, 4-58, 4-60, 4-61, 4-98, 4-103

Coastal Barrier Beaches, x, xi, 2-7, 2-9, 4-18, 4-19, 4-20, 4-21, 4-22, 4-98

Coastal Infrastructure, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 3-3, 3-13, 3-14, 3-15, 3-26, 4-8, 4-23, 4-51, 4-74, 4-77, 4-79, 4-80, 

4-81, 4-82, 4-83, 4-84, 4-85, 4-87, 4-90

Coastal Spills, 3-12, 3-18, 3-20, 4-13, 4-66, 4-74, 4-77, 4-80

Coastal Zone Management, x, 1-6, 1-10, 1-13, 4-4, 5-7 

Collisions, viii, xi, xiv, 3-25, 3-33, 4-13, 4-16, 4-19, 4-23, 4-50, 4-54, 4-58, 4-59, 4-60, 4-80, 4-81, 4-84, 

4-85, 4-90, 4-91, 4-102, 4-103

Commercial Fisheries, x, xiii, 2-7, 2-9, 4-59, 4-65, 4-66, 4-67, 4-68, 4-98, 4-103, 4-104

Commercial Fishing, x, xiii, 2-6, 4-36, 4-41, 4-47, 4-51, 4-52, 4-65, 4-75, 4-78, 4-104, 4-105

Consultation and Coordination, viii, 1-6, 1-7, 3-16, 5-9 

Cumulative Activities, viii, xiii, 3-26, 3-27, 3-29, 3-30, 3-31, 4-3, 4-55

Cumulative Impacts, viii, xi, 1-5, 3-26, 3-27, 3-32, 4-3, 4-4, 4-9, 4-10, 4-12, 4-13, 4-15, 4-16, 4-18, 4-20, 

4-22, 4-24, 4-26, 4-28, 4-31, 4-32, 4-35, 4-36, 4-38, 4-39, 4-42, 4-44, 4-45, 4-46, 4-50, 4-51, 4-54, 

4-55, 4-57, 4-58, 4-60, 4-61, 4-62, 4-65, 4-68, 4-69, 4-71, 4-73, 4-74, 4-77, 4-80, 4-81, 4-83, 4-84, 

4-87, 4-88, 4-90, 4-92, 4-97, 4-100, 4-105, 5-4 

Deepwater, x, xii, xiv, 1-8, 1-9, 2-5, 2-7, 2-8, 3-7, 3-11, 3-13, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-23, 3-24, 

3-25, 3-26, 3-28, 3-30, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-11, 4-14, 4-16, 4-17, 4-20, 4-21, 4-24, 4-25, 4-28, 4-30, 

4-31, 4-33, 4-34, 4-35, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38, 4-39, 4-40, 4-41, 4-43, 4-44, 4-46, 4-47, 4-48, 4-49, 4-51, 

4-52, 4-53, 4-56, 4-60, 4-64, 4-67, 4-70, 4-72, 4-75, 4-82, 4-86, 4-88, 4-92, 4-93, 4-94, 4-96, 4-98, 

4-99, 4-106, 5-4, 5-8 

Deepwater Horizon, x, xiv, 1-8, 1-9, 2-5, 2-8, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-21, 3-23, 3-24, 3-28, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 

4-7, 4-8, 4-11, 4-14, 4-16, 4-17, 4-20, 4-21, 4-24, 4-25, 4-28, 4-30, 4-31, 4-33, 4-34, 4-36, 4-37, 4-39, 

4-40, 4-41, 4-44, 4-46, 4-47, 4-48, 4-49, 4-51, 4-52, 4-53, 4-56, 4-60, 4-64, 4-67, 4-70, 4-72, 4-82, 

4-86, 4-88, 4-92, 4-93, 4-94, 4-96, 5-4, 5-8 

Demographics, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 4-8, 4-81, 4-84, 4-85, 4-86, 4-89

Diamondback Terrapins, x, xiii, 4-53, 4-54, 4-55, 4-56

Discharges, x, xi, xii, xiii, 2-10, 3-8, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-15, 3-23, 4-12, 4-13, 4-15, 4-16, 4-28, 4-29, 4-32, 

4-35, 4-36, 4-38, 4-39, 4-43, 4-45, 4-50, 4-58, 4-59, 4-62, 4-63, 4-65, 4-68, 4-95, 4-98, 4-102, 4-103
Keywords-4 Western Planning Area Lease Sales 246 and 248 EIS

Dispersants, xi, 3-19, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 4-9, 4-13, 4-16, 4-19, 4-33, 4-35, 4-46, 4-74, 4-90, 4-93, 4-99, 

4-102, 4-103

Dunes, x, xi, 2-7, 2-9, 4-18, 4-19, 4-20, 4-21, 4-22, 4-98

Economic Factors, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 4-8, 4-69, 4-72, 4-85, 4-86, 4-87, 4-88, 4-89

Employment, xiv, 4-10, 4-71, 4-72, 4-84, 4-85, 4-86, 4-87, 4-89, 4-90, 4-91, 4-92, 4-101

Endangered Species Act, 1-6, 2-10, 3-12, 4-5, 4-7, 4-33, 4-45, 4-55, 4-103, 5-8 

Environmental Justice, x, xv, 1-7, 2-7, 2-9, 4-8, 4-89, 4-90, 4-91, 4-92, 4-94

Essential Fish Habitat, x, xiii, 1-6, 2-7, 2-9, 4-5, 4-29, 4-61, 4-62, 4-63, 4-64, 4-65, 4-98, 4-103, 5-8 

Explosive Removals, 4-46

Fish Resources, x, xiii, 2-7, 2-9, 4-61, 4-62, 4-63, 4-64, 4-65, 4-98, 4-103, 4-104

Fisheries, xiii, 1-13, 2-8, 4-5, 4-39, 4-41, 4-59, 4-60, 4-63, 4-65, 4-66, 4-67, 4-68, 4-69, 4-90, 5-3, 5-5, 

5-6, 5-8 

Flaring, 1-13, 4-9, 4-10

Flower Garden Banks, ix, 2-4, 2-6, 2-8, 2-10, 4-3, 4-30, 4-31, 4-99

Human Resources, 2-7, 2-9, 4-79, 4-98

Hurricanes, x, 3-33, 4-10, 4-19, 4-23, 4-25, 4-29, 4-30, 4-32, 4-47, 4-48, 4-55, 4-69, 4-75, 4-78, 4-94, 

4-96

Income, xv, 4-85, 4-90, 4-91, 4-92, 4-93, 4-94

Infrastructure, vii, x, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 1-11, 2-7, 3-3, 3-4, 3-9, 3-10, 3-13, 3-14, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 3-31, 

3-32, 3-33, 4-18, 4-19, 4-22, 4-23, 4-29, 4-42, 4-65, 4-68, 4-71, 4-79, 4-80, 4-81, 4-83, 4-84, 4-90, 

4-91, 4-92, 4-95, 4-101, 4-102, 4-106

Land Use, x, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 3-14, 4-8, 4-71, 4-79, 4-80, 4-81, 4-83, 4-84, 4-87, 4-92, 4-98

Loss of Well Control, viii, xi, 3-24, 3-25, 4-13, 4-16

Macondo, 4-6, 4-7, 4-15, 4-18, 4-30, 4-34, 4-37, 4-41, 4-44, 4-56, 4-96

Marine Mammals, x, xii, 1-6, 1-13, 2-6, 2-7, 2-9, 4-5, 4-6, 4-45, 4-46, 4-47, 4-48, 4-49, 4-50, 4-52, 4-98, 

4-103, 5-5, 5-6 

Meteorological Conditions, 1-9, 3-23

Mitigating Measures, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, 1-10, 1-13, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6, 2-10, 2-11, 4-5, 4-6, 4-8, 4-22, 4-27, 

4-50, 4-95, 4-97, 4-98, 4-105, 5-4, 5-8, 5-9 

NEPA, vii, viii, ix, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 1-10, 1-11, 1-12, 1-14, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 

4-7, 4-9, 4-11, 4-14, 4-17, 4-21, 4-26, 4-34, 4-37, 4-41, 4-44, 4-48, 4-70, 4-76, 4-79, 4-83, 4-86, 4-90, 

4-94, 4-96, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 5-8 

Noise, xiii, xiv, 3-6, 3-12, 4-45, 4-46, 4-47, 4-50, 4-51, 4-57, 4-58, 4-59, 4-71, 4-91, 4-95, 4-103

Nonchemosynthetic Deepwater Benthic Communities, xii, 2-9, 4-37, 4-38, 4-40, 4-41, 4-62

Offshore Spills, xiii, 3-12, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, 3-23, 4-27, 4-66, 4-82

Oil Spills, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 1-8, 2-5, 2-8, 2-9, 3-12, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 

3-23, 3-25, 3-33, 4-4, 4-5, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-10, 4-11, 4-13, 4-14, 4-16, 4-17, 4-19, 4-20, 4-21, 4-23, 4-24, 

4-25, 4-27, 4-28, 4-29, 4-30, 4-31, 4-33, 4-34, 4-35, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38, 4-39, 4-40, 4-41, 4-42, 4-44, 

4-45, 4-46, 4-47, 4-48, 4-49, 4-50, 4-51, 4-52, 4-53, 4-54, 4-55, 4-56, 4-57, 4-58, 4-59, 4-60, 4-62, 

4-63, 4-64, 4-66, 4-67, 4-69, 4-70, 4-71, 4-72, 4-74, 4-77, 4-78, 4-80, 4-81, 4-82, 4-85, 4-86, 4-87, 

4-88, 4-90, 4-91, 4-92, 4-93, 4-94, 4-95, 4-96, 4-98, 4-99, 4-102, 4-103, 4-104, 4-106, 5-4, 5-8 

OSRA, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20
Keyword Index Keywords-5 

Physical Oceanography, 1-9, 3-33, 4-76, 4-79

Pipelines, x, 2-6, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-13, 3-17, 3-18, 3-20, 3-21, 3-25, 3-26, 3-27, 4-12, 4-15, 4-16, 

4-18, 4-19, 4-22, 4-23, 4-26, 4-27, 4-29, 4-35, 4-38, 4-62, 4-69, 4-78, 4-80, 4-95, 4-103, 4-104

Port Fourchon, xiv, 3-14, 3-23, 4-82, 4-83, 4-84, 4-90, 4-91

Produced Waters, 3-10, 4-35, 4-57, 4-58, 4-59, 4-62, 4-65, 4-68, 4-102

Public Services, x

Recreational Fishing, x, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 4-8, 4-51, 4-63, 4-66, 4-68, 4-69, 4-70, 4-71, 4-93, 4-98, 4-103, 

4-105, 4-106

Recreational Resources, x, xiv, 2-7, 2-9, 4-8, 4-71, 4-72, 4-73, 4-98

Resource Estimates, 3-3, 3-4 

Sargassum, x, xii, 2-7, 2-9, 4-31, 4-32, 4-33, 4-34, 4-62, 4-98, 4-103

Sea Turtles, x, xii, 1-13, 2-6, 2-7, 2-9, 4-6, 4-33, 4-49, 4-50, 4-51, 4-52, 4-53, 4-95, 4-98

Seagrass Communities, x, xii, 2-7, 2-8, 4-26, 4-27, 4-28, 4-61, 4-98

Service Base, 3-13, 3-14, 4-23, 4-80

Site Clearance, xiv, 1-13, 2-6 

Soft Bottoms, x, xii, 2-7, 2-9, 3-29, 4-6, 4-40, 4-41, 4-42, 4-43, 4-44, 4-62, 4-98

Spill Response, 1-5, 1-13, 3-16, 3-20, 3-21, 3-22, 3-23, 3-24, 4-11, 4-19, 4-20, 4-24, 4-48, 4-55, 4-80, 

4-82, 4-102

Spills, viii, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, 1-9, 1-13, 2-12, 3-12, 3-16, 3-17, 3-18, 3-19, 3-20, 3-21, 3-23, 3-25, 3-26, 

3-33, 4-4, 4-7, 4-13, 4-16, 4-19, 4-21, 4-23, 4-24, 4-25, 4-27, 4-29, 4-32, 4-34, 4-35, 4-38, 4-42, 4-45, 

4-46, 4-47, 4-49, 4-50, 4-53, 4-54, 4-55, 4-57, 4-58, 4-59, 4-62, 4-63, 4-66, 4-69, 4-71, 4-74, 4-77, 

4-78, 4-80, 4-83, 4-84, 4-87, 4-90, 4-91, 4-94, 4-96, 4-98, 4-99, 4-102, 4-103

Submerged Vegetation, 4-26, 4-27

Synthetic-Based Drilling Fluids, 3-26

Topographic Features, ix, x, xii, 2-4, 2-5, 2-6, 2-7, 2-9, 2-10, 2-11, 2-12, 3-10, 4-6, 4-28, 4-29, 4-30, 4-31, 

4-33, 4-40, 4-61, 4-97, 4-98, 4-99, 4-100

Tourism, x, 4-20, 4-24, 4-69, 4-71, 4-72, 4-85, 4-87, 4-92, 4-93, 4-106, 5-5 

Trash, x, 3-15, 4-45, 4-50, 4-51, 4-54, 4-55, 4-58, 4-59, 4-95, 4-103

Waste Disposal, 4-23, 4-80

Wastes, xi, 2-7, 3-10, 3-11, 3-15, 3-28, 4-16, 4-22

Water Quality, x, xi, xii, 2-7, 2-9, 3-14, 4-6, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17, 4-18, 4-32, 4-45, 4-50, 

4-61, 4-62, 4-63, 4-69, 4-72, 4-98, 4-102, 4-103, 4-106

Wetlands, x, xi, 1-7, 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9, 3-32, 4-5, 4-6, 4-19, 4-20, 4-22, 4-23, 4-24, 4-25, 4-26, 4-27, 4-60, 

4-61, 4-69, 4-98, 4-102, 4-104, 4-106, 5-4 

The Department of the Interior Mission

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior 

has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural 

resources. This includes fostering the sound use of our land and water 

resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity; preserving the 

environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places; 

and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The 

Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure 

that their development is in the best interests of all our people by encouraging 

stewardship and citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a 

major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for 

people who live in island communities. 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Mission 

The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) promotes energy 

independence, environmental protection, and economic development through 

responsible, science-based management of offshore conventional and 

renewable energy.