National Asthma Education

and Prevention Program

Expert Panel Report 3

Guidelines for the 

Diagnosis and Management 

of Asthma

SUMMARY REPORT 2007
National Asthma Education

and Prevention Program

Expert Panel Report 3

Guidelines for the 

Diagnosis and Management 

of Asthma

S UMMARY REPORT 2007

NIH Publication Number 08-5846

October 2007
Contents

Acknowledgments iii

Preface ix

Introduction 1

Asthma Definition and Implications for Treatment 9

Definition and Pathophysiology 9

Causes of Asthma 10

Implications for Treatment 10

Diagnosis of Asthma 11

Managing Asthma Long Term 15

Four Components of Asthma Care 15

Component 1: Assessing and Monitoring Asthma Severity and Asthma Control 15

Component 2: Education for a Partnership in Care 18

Component 3: Control of Environmental Factors and Comorbid Conditions That Affect Asthma 23

Allergens and Irritants 23

Comorbid Conditions 25

Component 4: Medications 28

General Mechanisms and Role in Therapy 28

Delivery Devices for Inhaled Medications 29

Safety Issues for Inhaled Corticosteroids and Long-Acting Beta2-Agonists 29

Inhaled Corticosteroids 29

Inhaled Corticosteroids and Linear Growth in Children 30

Long-Acting Beta2-Agonists 30

Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma 30

Principles of the Stepwise Approach 30

Stepwise Treatment Recommendations for Different Ages 34

Steps for Children 0–4 Years of Age 34

Steps for Children 5–11 Years of Age 35

Steps for Youths >12 Years of Age and Adults 37

Managing Special Situations 38

Exercise-Induced Bronchospasm 38

Pregnancy 38

Surgery 39

Disparities 39

Managing Exacerbations 53

Classifying Severity 53

Home Management 53

Management in the Urgent or Emergency Care and Hospital Settings 54

For More Information back cover

Contents i
List of Boxes and Figures

Figure 1. Summary of Recommended Key Clinical Activities for the 

Diagnosis and Management of Asthma 4

Figure 2. The Interplay and Interaction Between Airway Inflammation and the 

Clinical Symptoms and Pathophysiology of Asthma 9

Figure 3. Suggested Items for Medical History* 13

Figure 4. Sample Patient Self-Assessment Sheet for Followup Visits* 17

Figure 5. Asthma Action Plan—Adult 20

Figure 6. Sample Asthma Action Plan—Child 21

Figure 7. Delivery of Asthma Education by Clinicians During Patient Care Visits 22

Figure 8. Asthma Education Resources 24

Figure 9. How To Control Things That Make Your Asthma Worse 26

Figure 10. Aerosol Delivery Devices 31

Figure 11. Classifying Asthma Severity and Initiating Therapy in Children 40

Figure 12. Assessing Asthma Control and Adjusting Therapy in Children 41

Figure 13. Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma Long Term in Children,

0–4 Years of Age and 5–11 Years of Age 42

Figure 14. Classifying Asthma Severity and Initiating Treatment in 

Youths ≥12 Years of Age and Adults 43

Figure 15. Assessing Asthma Control and Adjusting Therapy in 

Youths ≥12 Years of Age and Adults 44

Figure 16. Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma in Youths ≥12 Years of Age and Adults 45

Figure 17. Usual Dosages for Long-term control Medications* 46

Figure 18. Estimated Comparative Daily Dosages for Inhaled Corticosteroids 49

Figure 19. Usual Dosages for Quick-Relief Medications* 50

Figure 20. Classifying Severity of Asthma Exacerbations in the Urgent or Emergency Care Setting 54

Figure 21. Management of Asthma Exacerbations: Emergency Department and 

Hospital-Based Care 55

Figure 22. Dosages of Drugs for Asthma Exacerbations 56

Figure 23a. Emergency Department—Asthma Discharge Plan 59

Figure 23b. Emergency Department—Asthma Discharge Plan: How to Use Your Metered-Dose Inhaler 60

ii Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
National Asthma Education and Prevention

Program Coordinating Committee

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

Denise Dougherty, Ph.D.

Allergy & Asthma Network Mothers of Asthmatics

Nancy Sander

American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and

Immunology

Michael Schatz, M.D., M.S.

American Academy of Family Physicians

Kurtis S. Elward, M.D., M.P.H., F.A.A.F.P.

American Academy of Pediatrics

Gary S. Rachelefsky, M.D.

American Academy of Physician Assistants

Tera Crisalida, P.A.-C., M.P.A.S.

American Association for Respiratory Care

Thomas J. Kallstrom, R.R.T., F.A.A.R.C., AE-C

American College of Allergy, Asthma, and

Immunology

William Storms, M.D.

American College of Chest Physicians

John Mitchell, M.D., F.A.C.P.

American College of Emergency Physicians

Richard M. Nowak, M.D., M.B.A., F.A.C.E.P.

American Lung Association

Noreen M. Clark, Ph.D.

American Medical Association

Paul V. Williams, M.D.

American Nurses Association

Karen Huss, D.N.Sc., R.N., A.P.R.N.B.C., F.A.A.N.,

F.A.A.A.A.I.

American Pharmacists Association

Dennis M. Williams, Pharm.D.

American Public Health Association

Pamela J. Luna, Dr.P.H., M.Ed.

American School Health Association

Lani S. M. Wheeler, M.D., F.A.A.P., F.A.S.H.A.

American Society of Health-System Pharmacists

Kathryn V. Blake, Pharm.D.

American Thoracic Society

Stephen C. Lazarus, M.D.

Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America

Mo Mayrides

Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists

Sarah Lyon-Callo, M.A., M.S.

National Association of School Nurses

Donna Mazyck, R.N., M.S., N.C.S.N.

National Black Nurses Association, Inc.

Susan B. Clark, R.N., M.N.

National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention,

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Sarah Merkle, M.P.H.

National Center for Environmental Health, CDC

Paul M. Garbe, M.D.

National Center for Health Statistics, CDC

Lara Akinbami, M.D.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health, CDC

Margaret Filios, S.M., R.N.

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

Elizabeth Nabel, M.D.

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

NIH, Ad Hoc Committee on Minority Populations

Ruth I. Quartey, Ph.D.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

(NIAID), NIH

Peter J. Gergen, M.D., M.P.H.

Acknowledgements iii

Acknowledgements
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences,

NIH

Charles A. Wells, Ph.D.

National Medical Association

Michael Lenoir, M.D.

National Respiratory Training Center

Pamela Steele, M.S.N., C.P.N.P., AE-C

Society for Academic Emergency Medicine

Rita Cydulka, M.D., M.S.

Society for Public Health Education

Judith C. Taylor-Fishwick, M.Sc., AE-C

U.S. Department of Education

Dana Carr

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Indoor Environments Division

David Rowson, M.S.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Research and Development

Hillel S. Koren, Ph.D.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Robert J. Meyer, M.D.

Third Expert Panel on the Management of Asthma

William W. Busse, M.D., Chair

University of Wisconsin Medical School 

Madison, Wisconsin

Homer A. Boushey, M.D.

University of California–San Francisco

San Francisco, California

Carlos A. Camargo, Jr., M.D., Dr.P.H.

Massachusetts General Hospital

Boston, Massachusetts

David Evans, Ph.D., A.E.-C,

Columbia University

New York, New York

Michael B. Foggs, M.D.

Advocate Health Centers

Chicago, Illinois

Susan L. Janson, D.N.Sc., R.N., A.N.P., F.A.A.N.

University of California–San Francisco

San Francisco, California

H. William Kelly, Pharm.D.

University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center

Albuquerque, New Mexico

Robert F. Lemanske, M.D.

University of Wisconsin Hospital and Clinics

Madison, Wisconsin

Fernando D. Martinez, M.D.

University of Arizona Medical Center

Tucson, Arizona

Robert J. Meyer, M.D.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

Silver Spring, Maryland

Harold S. Nelson, M.D.

National Jewish Medical and Research Center

Denver, Colorado

Thomas A. E. Platts-Mills, M.D., Ph.D.

University of Virginia School of Medicine

Charlottesville, Virginia

Michael Schatz, M.D., M.S.

Kaiser-Permanente–San Diego

San Diego, California

Gail Shapiro, M.D.*

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington

Stuart Stoloff, M.D.

University of Nevada School of Medicine

Carson City, Nevada

Stanley J. Szefler, M.D.

National Jewish Medical and Research Center

Denver, Colorado

Scott T. Weiss, M.D., M.S.

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Boston, Massachusetts

Barbara P. Yawn, M.D., M.Sc.

Olmstead Medical Center

Rochester, Minnesota

iv Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Development of the guidelines was funded by the

NHLBI, NIH. Expert Panel members completed

financial disclosure forms, and the Expert Panel

members disclosed relevant financial interests to each

other prior to their discussions. Expert Panel members participated as volunteers and were compensated

only for travel expenses related to the Expert Panel

meetings. Financial disclosure information covering

the 3-year period during which the guidelines were

developed is provided for each Expert Panel member

below.

Dr. Busse has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Novartis, and Pfizer; and on

the Advisory Boards of Altana, Centocor, Dynavax,

Genentech/Novartis, GlaxoSmithKline, Isis, Merck,

Pfizer, Schering, and Wyeth. He has received funding/grant support for research projects from Astellas,

Centocor, Dynavax, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis,

and Wyeth. Dr. Busse also has research support from

the NIH.

Dr. Boushey has served as a consultant for Altana,

Protein Design Lab, and Sumitomo. He has received

honoraria from Boehringer-Ingelheim, Genentech,

Merck, Novartis, and Sanofi Aventis, and funding/-

grant support for research projects from the NIH.

Dr. Camargo has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, and Schering

Plough; and as a consultant for AstraZeneca, Critical

Therapeutics, Dey Laboratories, GlaxoSmithKline,

MedImmune, Merck, Novartis, Praxair, Respironics,

Schering Plough, Sepracor, and TEVA. He has

received funding/grant support for research projects

from a variety of Government agencies and not-forprofit foundations, as well as AstraZeneca, Dey

Laboratories, GlaxoSmithKline, MedImmune, Merck,

Novartis, and Respiromics.

Dr. Evans has received funding/grant support for

research projects from the NHLBI.

Dr. Foggs has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Pfizer, Sepracor, and UCB

Pharma; on the Advisory Boards of Alcon, Altana,

AstraZeneca, Critical Therapeutics, Genentech,

GlaxoSmithKline, and IVAX, and as consultant for

Merck and Sepracor. He has received funding/grant

support for research projects from GlaxoSmithKline.

Dr. Janson has served on the Advisory Board of

Altana, and as a consultant for Merck. She has

received funding/grant support for research projects

from the NHLBI.

Dr. Kelly has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

AstraZeneca and GlaxoSmithKline; and on the MAP

Pharmaceuticals Advisory Boards of AstraZeneca,

Merck, Novartis, and Sepracor.

Dr. Lemanske has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

GlaxoSmithKline and Merck, and as a consultant for

AstraZeneca, Aventis, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, and

Novartis. He has received honoraria from Altana,

and funding/grant support for research projects from

the NHLBI and NIAID.

Dr. Martinez has served on the Advisory Board 

of Merck and as a consultant for Genentech,

GlaxoSmithKline, and Pfizer. He has received 

honoraria from Merck.

Dr. Meyer has no relevant financial interests.

Dr. Nelson has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, and Schering

Plough; and as a consultant for Air Pharma, Altana

Pharma US, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Curalogic,

Dey Laboratories, Dynavax Technologies,

Genentech/Novartis, GlaxoSmithKline, Inflazyme

Pharmaceuticals, MediciNova, Protein Design

Laboratories, Sanofi-Aventis, Schering Plough,

and Wyeth Pharmaceuticals. He has received 

funding/grant support for research projects from

Altana, Astellas, AstraZeneca, Behringer, Critical

Therapeutics, Dey Laboratories, Epigenesis,

Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, IVAX, Medicinova,

Novartis, Sanofi-Aventis, Schering Plough, Sepracor,

TEVA, and Wyeth.

Dr. Platts-Mills has served on the Advisory

Committee of Indoor Biotechnologies. He has

received funding/grant support for a research project

from Pharmacia Diagnostics.

Dr. Schatz has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

AstraZeneca, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, and

Merck; and as a consultant for GlaxoSmithKline on

an unbranded asthma initiative. He has received

funding/grant support for research projects from

GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, and Sanofi-Aventis.

Acknowledgements v

* The NAEPP would like to acknowledge the contributions of

Dr. Gail Shapiro, who served on the NAEPP Expert Panels from 1991

until her death in August 2006. She had a passion for improving asthma

care and an unwavering commitment to develop evidence-based recommendations that would offer practical guidance for clinicians and

patients to work together to achieve asthma control.
Dr. Shapiro* served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

AstraZeneca, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, IVAX

Laboratories, Key Pharmaceuticals, Merck, Pfizer

Pharmaceuticals, Schering Corporation, UCB

Pharma, and 3M; and as a consultant for Altana,

AstraZeneca, Dey Laboratories, Genentech/Novartis,

GlaxoSmithKline, ICOS, IVAX Laboratories, Merck,

Sanofi-Aventis, and Sepracor. She received

funding/grant support for research projects from

Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim,

Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Dey Laboratories, Fujisawa

Pharmaceuticals, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline,

Immunex, Key, Lederle, Lilly Research, MedPointe

Pharmaceuticals, Medtronic Emergency Response

Systems, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Pharmaxis, Purdue

Frederick, Sanofi-Aventis, Schering, Sepracor, 3M

Pharmaceuticals, UCB Pharma,

and Upjohn Laboratories.

Dr. Stoloff has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus 

of Alcon, Altana, AstraZeneca, Genentech,

GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi Aventis,

and Schering; and as a consultant for Alcon, Altana,

AstraZeneca, Dey, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline,

Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi Aventis, and Schering.

Dr. Szefler has served on the Advisory Boards of

Altana, AstraZeneca, Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline,

Merck, Novartis, and Sanofi Aventis; and as a 

consultant for Altana, AstraZeneca, Genentech,

GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Novartis, and Sanofi

Aventis. He has received funding/grant support 

for a research project from Ross.

Dr. Weiss has served on the Advisory Board of

Genentech, and as a consultant for Genentech and

GlaxoSmithKline. He has received funding/grant

support for research projects from GlaxoSmithKline.

Dr. Yawn has served on the Advisory Boards of

Altana, AstraZeneca, Merck, Sanofi Aventis, and

Schering Plough. She has received honoraria from

Pfizer and Schering Plough, and funding/grant 

support for research projects from the Agency for

Healthcare Research and Quality, the CDC, the

NHLBI, Merck, and Schering Plough.

Consultant Reviewers

Financial disclosure information covering a 

12 month period prior to the review of the 

guidelines is provided below for each consultant.

Andrea J. Apter, M.D., M.Sc.

University of Pennsylvania Medical Center

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Noreen M. Clark, Ph.D.

University of Michigan School of Public Health

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Anne Fuhlbrigge, M.D., M.S.

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Boston, Massachusetts

Elliott Israel, M.D.

Brigham and Women’s Hospital

Boston, Massachusetts

Meyer Kattan, M.D.

Mount Sinai Medical Center

New York, New York

Jerry A. Krishnan. M.D., Ph.D.

The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

Baltimore, Maryland

James T. Li, M.D., Ph.D., F.A.A.A.A.I.

Mayo Clinic

Rochester, Minnesota 

Dennis R. Ownby, M.D.

Medical College of Georgia

Augusta, Georgia

Gary S. Rachelefsky, M.D.

University of California–Los Angeles, School of

Medicine

Los Angeles, California

Brian H. Rowe, M.D., M.Sc., C.C.F.P. (E.M.), F.C.C.P.

University of Alberta Hospital

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

E. Rand Sutherland, M.D., M.P.H.

National Jewish Medical and Research Center

Denver, Colorado

Sandra R. Wilson, Ph.D.

Palo Alto Medical Foundation

Palo Alto, California

Robert A. Wood, M.D.

The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine

Baltimore, Maryland

vi Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Robert Zeiger, M.D.

Kaiser Permanente Medical Center

San Diego, California

Dr. Apter owns stock in Johnson & Johnson. She 

has received funding/grant support for research 

projects from the NHLBI.

Dr. Clark has no relevant financial interest.

Dr. Fulhlbrigge has served on the Speakers’ Bureau 

of GlaxoSmithKline, the Advisory Boards of

GlaxoSmithKline and Merck, the Data Systems

Monitoring Board for a clinical trial sponsored by

Sepracor, and as a consultant for GlaxoSmithKline.

She has received honoraria from GlaxoSmithKline

and Merck, and funding/grant support for a research

project from Boehringer Ingelheim.

Dr. Israel has served on the Speakers’ Bureau of

Genentech and Merck, and as a consultant for

Asthmatx, Critical Therapeutics, Genentech, Merck,

Novartis Pharmaceuticals, Protein Design Labs,

Schering-Plough Company, and Wyeth. He has

received funding/grant support for research projects

from Asthmatx, Boehringer Ingelheim, Centocor,

Genentech, GlaxoSmithKline, and Merck.

Dr. Kattan has served on the Speakers’ Bureau of

AstraZeneca.

Dr. Krishnan has received funding/grant support 

for a research project from Hill-Rom, Inc.

Dr. Li has received funding/grant support for 

research projects from the American Lung

Association, GlaxoSmithKline, Pharming, and 

ZLB Behring.

Dr. Ownby has no relevant financial interest.

Dr. Rachelefsky has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus

of AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, IVAX, Medpointe,

Merck, and Schering Plough. He has received 

honoraria from AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline,

IVAX, Medpointe, Merck, and Schering Plough.

Dr. Rowe has served on the Advisory Boards 

of Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim,

and GlaxoSmithKline. He has received honoraria

from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim,

and GlaxoSmithKline. He has received funding/

grant support for research projects from Abbott,

AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, GlaxoSmithKline, and Trudell.

Dr. Sutherland has served on the Speakers’ Bureau of

Novartis/Genentech and the Advisory Board of Dey

Laboratories. He has received honoraria from IVAX

and funding/grant support for research projects from

GlaxoSmithKline and the NIH.

Dr. Wilson has served as a consultant for the

Department of Urology, University of California,

San Francisco (UCSF); Asthmatx, Inc.; and the

Stanford UCSF Evidence-Based Practice Center.

She has received funding/grant support for research

projects from the NHLBI and from a subcontract to

Stanford University from Blue Shield Foundation.

Dr. Wood has served on the Speakers’ Bureaus of

Dey Laboratories, GlaxoSmithKline, and Merck; on

the Advisory Board of Dey Laboratories; and as a

consultant to Dey Laboratories. He has received 

honoraria from Dey Laboratories, GlaxoSmithKline,

and Merck, and funding/grant support for a research

project from Genentech.

Dr. Zeiger has served on the Data Monitoring Board

of Genentech, Advisory Board of GlaxoSmithKline,

and as a consultant for Aerocrine, AstraZeneca,

and Genentech. He has received honoraria from

AstraZeneca and funding/grant support for a research

project from Sanofi-Aventis.

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute 

Robinson (Rob) Fulwood, Ph.D., M.S.P.H.

Branch Chief, Enhanced Dissemination and 

Utilization Branch

Division for the Application of Research Discoveries

James P. Kiley, Ph.D.

Director

Division of Lung Diseases

Gregory J. Morosco, Ph.D., M.P.H.

Associate Director for Prevention, Education, and 

Control

Director

Division for the Application of Research Discoveries

Diana K. Schmidt, M.P.H.

Coordinator

National Asthma Education and Prevention Program

Virginia S. Taggart, M.P.H.

Program Director

Division of Lung Diseases

Acknowledgements vii
American Institutes for Research

Heather Banks, M.A., M.A.T.

Senior Editor

Patti Louthian

Senior Desktop Publisher

Karen L. Soeken, Ph.D.

Methodologist

Mary Tierney, M.D.

Project Manager 

viii Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Preface ix

Preface

The Expert Panel Report 3 (EPR—3) Summary

Report 2007: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and

Management of Asthma was developed by an expert

panel commissioned by the National Asthma

Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP)

Coordinating Committee (CC), coordinated by the

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI)

of the National Institutes of Health.

Using the 1997 EPR—2 guidelines and the 2002

update on selected topics as the framework, the

expert panel organized the literature review and

updated recommendations for managing asthma 

long term and for managing exacerbations around

four essential components of asthma care, namely:

assessment and monitoring, patient education,

control of factors contributing to asthma severity, and

pharmacologic treatment. Subtopics were developed

for each of these four broad categories.

The EPR—3 Full Report and the EPR—3 Summary

Report 2007 have been developed under the excellent

leadership of Dr. William Busse, Panel Chair. The

NHLBI is grateful for the tremendous dedication of

time and outstanding work of all the members of the

expert panel, and for the advice from an expert 

consultant group in developing this report. Sincere

appreciation is also extended to the NAEPP CC and

the Guidelines Implementation Panel as well as other

stakeholder groups (professional societies, voluntary

health, government, consumer/patient advocacy

organizations, and industry) for their invaluable

comments during the public review period that

helped to enhance the scientific credibility and 

practical utility of this document.

Ultimately, the broad change in clinical practice

depends on the influence of local primary care 

physicians and other health professionals who not

only provide state-of-the-art care to their patients,

but also communicate to their peers the importance

of doing the same. The NHLBI and its partners will

forge new initiatives based on these guidelines to

stimulate adoption of the recommendations at all 

levels, but particularly with primary care clinicians at

the community level. We ask for the assistance of

every reader in reaching our ultimate goal: improving

asthma care and the quality of life for every asthma

patient with asthma

Gregory Morosco, Ph.D., M.P.H. James Kiley, Ph.D.

Director Director

Division for the Application of Research Discoveries Division of Lung Diseases

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute 
x Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
More than 22 million Americans have asthma, and 

it is one of the most common chronic diseases of

childhood, affecting an estimated 6 million children.

The burden of asthma affects the patients, their 

families, and society in terms of lost work and school,

lessened quality of life, and avoidable emergency

department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, and deaths.

Improved scientific understanding of asthma has 

led to significant improvements in asthma care, and

the National Asthma Education and Prevention

Program (NAEPP) has been dedicated to translating

these research findings into clinical practice through 

publication and dissemination of clinical practice

guidelines. The first NAEPP guidelines were 

published in 1991, and updates were made in 1997,

2002, and now with the current report. Important

gains have been made in reducing morbidity and

mortality rates due to asthma; however, challenges

remain. The NAEPP hopes that the “Expert Panel

Report 3: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and

Management of Asthma—Full Report 2007”

(EPR—3: Full Report 2007) will support the efforts

of those who already incorporate best practices and

will help enlist even greater numbers of primary care 

clinicians, asthma specialists, health care systems 

and providers, and communities to join together in 

making quality asthma care available to all people

who have asthma. The goal, simply stated, is to help

people with asthma control their asthma so that they

can be active all day and sleep well at night.

This EPR—3: Summary Report 2007 presents the

key recommendations from the EPR—3: Full Report

2007 (See www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/

asthgdln. htm). Detailed recommendations, the levels

of scientific evidence upon which they are based,

citations from the published scientific literature,

discussion of the Expert Panel’s rationale for the 

recommendations, and description of methods used

to develop the report are included in that resource

document. Because EPR—3: Full Report 2007 is 

an update of previous NAEPP guidelines, highlights

of major changes in the update are presented below,

and figure 1 presents a summary of recommended

key clinical activities.

Introduction 1

Introduction
2 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

HIGHLIGHTS OF MAJOR CHANGES IN EPR—3: FULL REPORT 2007

The following are highlights of major changes. Many recommendations were updated or expanded

based on new evidence. See EPR—3: Full Report 2007 for key differences at the beginning of each 

section and for a full discussion.

New focus on monitoring asthma control as the goal for asthma therapy and distinguishing between

classifying asthma severity and monitoring asthma control.

■ Severity: the intrinsic intensity of the disease process. Assess asthma severity to initiate therapy.

■ Control: the degree to which the manifestations of asthma are minimized by therapeutic interventions and the 

goals of therapy are met. Assess and monitor asthma control to adjust therapy.

New focus on impairment and risk as the two key domains of severity and control, and multiple 

measures for assessment. The domains represent different manifestations of asthma, they may not correlate

with each other, and they may respond differentially to treatment.

■ Impairment: frequency and intensity of symptoms and functional limitations the patient is experiencing currently 

or has recently experienced.

■ Risk: the likelihood of either asthma exacerbations, progressive decline in lung function (or, for children, lung 

growth), or risk of adverse effects from medication.

Modifications in the stepwise approach to managing asthma long term.

■ Treatment recommendations are presented for three age groups (0–4 years of age, 5–11 years of age, and 

youths ≥12 years of age and adults). The course of the disease may change over time; the relevance of 

different measures of impairment or risk and the potential short- and long-term impact of medications may 

be age related; and varied levels of scientific evidence are available for these three age groups.

■ The stepwise approach expands to six steps to simplify the actions within each step. Previous guidelines had 

several progressive actions within different steps; these are now separated into different steps.

■ Medications have been repositioned within the six steps of care.

— Inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) continue as preferred long-term control therapy for all ages.

— Combination of long-acting beta2-agonist (LABA) and ICS is presented as an equally preferred option, with

increasing the dose of ICS in step 3 care, in patients 5 years of age or older. This approach balances the

established beneficial effects of combination therapy in older children and adults with the increased risk for

severe exacerbations, although uncommon, associated with daily use of LABA.

— Omalizumab is recommended for consideration for youths ≥12 years of age who have allergies or for adults

who require step 5 or 6 care (severe asthma). Clinicians who administer omalizumab should be prepared

and equipped to identify and treat anaphylaxis that may occur.
Introduction 3

New emphasis on multifaceted approaches to patient education and to the control of environmental

factors or comorbid conditions that affect asthma.

■ Patient education for a partnership is encouraged in expanded settings.

— Patient education should occur at all points of care: clinic settings (offering separate self-management 

programs as well as integrating education into every patient visit), Emergency Departments (EDs) and hospitals,

pharmacies, schools and other community settings, and patients’ homes.

— Provider education should encourage clinician and health care systems support of the partnership (e.g.,

through interactive continuing medical education, communication skills training, clinical pathways, and 

information system supports for clinical decisionmaking.

■ Environmental control includes several strategies:

— Multifaceted approaches to reduce exposures are necessary; single interventions are generally ineffective.

— Consideration of subcutaneous immunotherapy for patients who have allergies at steps 2–4 of care (mild 

or moderate persistent asthma) when there is a clear relationship between symptoms and exposure to an

allergen to which the patient is sensitive. Clinicians should be prepared to treat anaphylaxis that may occur.

— Potential benefits to asthma control by treating comorbid conditions that affect asthma.

Modifications to treatment strategies for managing asthma exacerbations. These changes:

■ Simplify the classification of severity of exacerbations. For the urgent or emergency care setting: <40 percent 

predicted forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) or peak expiratory flow (PEF) indicates severe 

exacerbation and potential benefit from use of adjunctive therapies; ≥70 percent predicted FEV1 or PEF is a 

goal for discharge from the emergency care setting.

■ Encourage development of prehospital protocols for emergency medical services to allow administration of 

albuterol, oxygen, and, with medical oversight, anticholinergics and oral systemic corticosteroids.

■ Modify recommendations on medications:

— Add levalbuterol.

— Add magnesium sulfate or heliox for severe exacerbations unresponsive to initial treatments.

— Emphasize use of oral corticosteroids. Doubling the dose of ICS for home management is not effective.

— Emphasize that anticholinergics are used in emergency care, not hospital care.

— Add consideration of initiating ICS at discharge.
4 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

Figure 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED KEY CLINICAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA

Clinical Issue Key Clinical Activities Action Steps

DIAGNOSIS 

Establish asthma diagnosis.

MANAGING ASTHMA

LONG TERM

Assessment and

Monitoring

Four Components of Care

Assess asthma severity to initiate therapy.

Assess asthma control to monitor and

adjust therapy.

Schedule followup care.

Use severity classification chart, assessing both domains of impairment and

risk, to determine initial treatment.

Use asthma control chart, assessing both domains of impairment and risk, to

determine if therapy should be maintained or adjusted (step up if necessary,

step down if possible).

Use multiple measures of impairment and risk: different measures assess 

different manifestations of asthma; they may not correlate with each other; 

and they may respond differently to therapy. Obtain lung function measures by

spirometry at least every 1–2 years, more frequently for not-well-controlled

asthma.

Asthma is highly variable over time, and periodic monitoring is essential. In

general, consider scheduling patients at 2- to 6-week intervals while gaining

control; at 1–6 month intervals, depending on step of care required or duration

of control, to monitor if sufficient control is maintained; at 3-month intervals if

a step down in therapy is anticipated.

Assess asthma control, medication technique, written asthma action plan,

patient adherence and concerns at every visit.

Use medical history and physical examination to determine that symptoms of

recurrent episodes of airflow obstruction are present.

Use spirometry in all patients ≥5 years of age to determine that airway

obstruction is at least partially reversible.

Consider alternative causes of airway obstruction.

Goal of asthma therapy is asthma control:

■ Reduce impairment (prevent chronic symptoms, require infrequent use of short-acting beta2-agonist 

(SABA), maintain (near) normal lung function and normal activity levels).

■ Reduce risk (prevent exacerbations, minimize need for emergency care or hospitalization, prevent loss of 

lung function, or for children, prevent reduced lung growth, have minimal or no adverse effects of therapy).

Education Provide self-management education. Teach and reinforce:

■ Self-monitoring to assess level of asthma control and signs of worsening 

asthma (either symptom or peak flow monitoring shows similar benefits for 

most patients). Peak flow monitoring may be particularly helpful for patients

who have difficulty perceiving symptoms, a history of severe exacerbations,

or moderate or severe asthma.

■ Using written asthma action plan (review differences between long-term 

control and quick-relief medication).

■ Taking medication correctly (inhaler technique and use of devices).

■ Avoiding environmental factors that worsen asthma.

Tailor education to literacy level of patient. Appreciate the potential role of a

patient’s cultural beliefs and practices in asthma management.
Introduction 5

Figure 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED KEY CLINICAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA (continued)

Clinical Issue Key Clinical Activities Action Steps

Education (continued Develop a written asthma action plan 

in partnership with patient.

Integrate education into all points of

care where health professionals 

interact with patients.

Agree on treatment goals and address patient concerns.

Provide instructions for (1) daily management (long-term control medication, if

appropriate, and environmental control measures) and (2) managing worsening

asthma (how to adjust medication, and know when to seek medical care).

Involve all members of the health care team in providing/reinforcing education,

including physicians, nurses, pharmacists, respiratory therapists, and asthma

educators.

Encourage education at all points of care: clinics (offering separate selfmanagement education programs as well as incorporating education into every

patient visit), Emergency Departments and hospitals, pharmacies, schools and

other community settings, and patients’ homes.

Use a variety of educational strategies and methods.

Control Environmental

Factors and Comorbid

conditions

Medications

Recommend measures to control 

exposures to allergens and pollutants or

irritants that make and asthma worse.

Treat comorbid conditions.

Select medication and delivery 

devices to meet patient’s needs and 

circumstances.

Determine exposures, history of symptoms in presence of exposures, and

sensitivities (In patients who have persistent asthma, use skin or in vitro testing

to assess sensitivity to perennial indoor allergens.).

Advise patients on ways to reduce exposure to those allergens and pollutants,

or irritants to which the patient is sensitive. Multifaceted approaches are beneficial; single steps alone are generally ineffective. Advise all patients and pregnant women to avoid exposure to tobacco smoke.

Consider allergen immunotherapy, by specifically trained personnel, for patients

who have persistent asthma and when there is clear evidence of a relationship

between symptoms and exposure to an allergen to which the patient is sensitive.

Consider especially: allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis; gastroesophageal

reflux, obesity, obstructive sleep apnea, rhinitis and sinusitis, and stress or

depression. Recognition and treatment of these conditions may improve 

asthma control.

Consider inactivated influenza vaccine for all patients over 6 months of age.

Use stepwise approach (See below.) to identify appropriate treatment options.

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) are the most effective long-term control therapy.

When choosing among treatment options, consider domain of relevance to 

the patient (impairment, risk, or both), patient’s history of response to the 

medication, and patient’s willingness and ability to use the medication.

Four Components of Care (continued)
6 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

Figure 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED KEY CLINICAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA (continued)

Clinical Issue Key Clinical Activities Action Steps

General Principles for

All Age Groups

Incorporate four components of care.

Initiate therapy based on asthma severity.

Adjust therapy based on asthma control.

Include medications, patient education, environmental control measures, and

management of comorbidities at each step. Monitor asthma control regularly

(See above, assessment and monitoring.).

For patients not taking long-term control therapy, select treatment step based 

on severity (See figures on stepwise approach for different age groups.).

Patients who have persistent asthma require daily long-term control medication.

Once therapy is initiated, monitor the level of asthma control and adjust therapy

accordingly: step up if necessary and step down if possible to identify the 

minimum amount of medication required to maintain asthma control.

Refer to an asthma specialist for consultation or comanagment if there are 

difficulties achieving or maintaining control; step 4 care or higher is required

(step 3 care or higher for children 0–4 years of age); immunotherapy or 

omalizumab is considered; or additional testing is indicated; or if the patient

required 2 bursts of oral systemic corticosticosteroids in the past year or a

hospitalization.

Stepwise Approach

Young children may be at high risk for severe exacerbations, yet have low 

levels of impairment between exacerbations. Initiate daily long-term control

therapy for:

■ Children who had ≥4 episodes of wheezing the past year that lasted 

>1 day and affected sleep AND who have a positive asthma risk profile,

either (1) one of the following: parental history of asthma, physician 

diagnosis of atopic dermatitis, or evidence of sensitization to aeroallergens 

OR (2) two of the following: sensitization to foods, ≥4 percent blood 

eosinophilia, or wheezing apart from colds.

Consider initiating daily long-term control therapy for:

■ Children who consistently require SABA treatment >2 days per week 

for >4 weeks.

■ Children who have two exacerbations requiring oral systemic 

corticosteroids within 6 months.

If no clear and positive response occurs within 4–6 weeks and the

patient’s/caregiver’s medication technique and adherence are satisfactory,

stop the treatment and consider alternative therapies or diagnoses.

If clear benefit is sustained for at least 3 months, consider step down to 

evaluate the continued need for daily therapy. Children this age have high

rates of spontaneous remission of symptoms.

Ages 0–4 Years Consider daily long-term control therapy.

Monitor response closely, and 

adjust treatment.
Introduction 7

Figure 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED KEY CLINICAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA (continued)

Clinical Issue Key Clinical Activities Action Steps

Stepwise Approach (continued)

Address child’s concerns, preferences, and school schedule in selecting 

treatments.

Encourage students to take a copy of written asthma action plan to school/

afterschool activities.

Treat exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) (See below.) Step up daily therapy

if the child has poor endurance or symptoms during normal play activities.

Treatment will not alter underlying progression of the disease, but a step up in

therapy may be required to maintain asthma control.

Address youth’s concerns, preferences, and school schedule in selecting 

treatment.

Encourage students to take a copy of written asthma action plan to

school/afterschool activities.

Treat EIB. Step up daily therapy if the child has poor endurance or symptoms

during normal daily activities.

Establish reversibility with a short course of oral systemic corticosteroids.

Consider, for example: calcium and vitamin D supplements for patients who

take ICS and have risk factors for osteoporosis; increased sensitivity to side

effects of bronchodilators with increasing age; increased drug interactions

with theophylline; medications for arthritis (NSAIDs), hypertension, or 

glaucoma (beta blockers) may exacerbate asthma.

Ages 5–11 Years Involve child in developing a written 

asthma action plan.

Promote physical activity.

Monitor for disease progression and loss

of lung growth.

Involve youths in developing written 

asthma action plan.

Promote physical activity.

Assess possible benefit of treatment in

older patients.

Adjust medications to address 

coexisting medical conditions common

among older patients.

Treatment strategies to prevent EIB include:

■ Long-term control therapy.

■ Pretreatment before exercise with SABA, leukotriene receptor antagonists 

(LTRAs), cromolyn or nedocromil; frequent or chronic use of long acting 

beta2-agonist (LABA) for pretreatment is discouraged, as it may 

disguise poorly controlled persistent asthma.

■ Warmup period or a mask or scarf over the mouth for cold-induced EIB.

Exercise-Induced

Bronchospasm (EIB)

Prevent EIB

Monitor asthma control during all prenatal visits; asthma worsens in one-third

of women during pregnancy and improves in one-third; medications should 

be adjusted accordingly.

It is safer to be treated with asthma medications than to have poorly 

controlled asthma. Maintaining lung function is important to ensure oxygen

supply to the fetus.

Albuterol is the preferred SABA. ICS is the preferred long-term control 

medication (Budesonide is preferred because more data are available on this

medication during pregnancy.).

Pregnancy Maintain asthma control through 

pregnancy.

Assess asthma control prior to surgery. If lung function is not well controlled,

provide medications to improve lung function. A short course of oral systemic

corticosteroids may be necessary.

For patients receiving oral systemic corticosteroids during 6 months prior 

to surgery, and for selected patients on high dose ICS, give 100 mg 

hydrocortisone every 8 hours intravenously during the surgical period, and

reduce the dose rapidly within 24 hours after surgery.

Surgery Reduce risks for complications during 

and after surgery.

Ages 12 and Older
8 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

Figure 1. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED KEY CLINICAL ACTIVITIES FOR THE DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA (continued)

Clinical Issue Key Clinical Activities Action Steps

Managing Exacerbations

Include assessment and monitoring, patient education, environmental control,

and medications.

Instruct patients how to:

■ Recognize early signs, symptoms, peak expiratory flow (PEF) measures that 

indicate worsening asthma.

■ Adjust medications (increase SABA and, in some cases, add oral systemic 

corticosteroids) and remove or withdraw from environmental factors 

contributing to the exacerbation.

■ Monitor response and seek medical care if there is serious deterioration or 

lack of response to treatment.

Home Management Incorporate four components of care.

Develop a written asthma action plan.

Treatment strategies include:

■ Assessing initial severity by lung function measures (for ages ≥5 years) 

and symptom and functional assessment

■ Supplemental oxygen

■ Repetitive or continuous SABA

■ Oral systemic corticosteroids

■ Monitoring response with serial assessment of lung function measures,

pulse oximetry, and symptoms

■ Considering adjunctive treatments magnesium sulfate or heliox in severe 

exacerbations (e.g., forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) or 

PEF <40 percent predicted) unresponsive to initial treatment

■ Providing at discharge:

— Medications: SABA, oral systemic corticosteroids; consider 

initiating ICS

— Referral to followup care

— An emergency department asthma discharge plan

— Review of inhaler technique and, whenever possible, environmental 

control measures

Management in the

Urgent or Emergency

Care Setting

Assess severity.

Treat to relieve hypoxemia and airflow

obstruction; reduce airway inflammation.

Monitor response.

Discharge with medication and patient

education
Definition and Pathophysiology

Asthma is a complex disorder characterized by variable

and recurring symptoms, airflow obstruction, bronchial

hyperresponsiveness, and an underlying inflammation.

The interaction of these features determines the clinical

manifestations and severity of asthma (See figure 2,

“The Interplay and Interaction Between Airway

Inflammation and the Clinical Symptoms and

Pathophysiology of Asthma.”) and the response to

treatment. The working definition of asthma is as 

follows:

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways

in which many cells and cellular elements play a role: in

particular, mast cells, eosinophils, neutrophils (especially in

sudden onset, fatal exacerbations, occupational asthma,

and patients who smoke), T lymphocytes, macrophages,

and epithelial cells. In susceptible individuals, this inflammation causes recurrent episodes of coughing (particularly

at night or early in the morning), wheezing, breathlessness,

and chest tightness. These episodes are usually associated

with widespread but variable airflow obstruction that is

often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment.

Airflow limitation is caused by a variety of changes in

the airway, all in influenced by airway inflamation:

■ Bronchoconstriction—bronchial smooth muscle 

contraction that quickly narrows the airways 

in response to exposure to a variety of stimuli,

including allergens or irritants.

■ Airway hyperresponsiveness—an exaggerated 

bronchoconstrictor response to stimuli.

■ Airway edema—as the disease becomes more 

persistent and inflammation becomes more 

progressive, edema, mucus hypersecretion, and 

formation of inspissated mucus plugs further 

limit airflow.

Remodeling of airways may occur. Reversibility 

of airflow limitation may be incomplete in some

patients. Persistent changes in airway structure 

occur, including sub-basement fibrosis, mucus 

hypersecretion, injury to epithelial cells, smooth 

muscle hypertrophy, and angiogenesis.

Recent studies provide insights on different phenotypes

of asthma that exist. Different manifestations of

asthma may have specific and varying patterns of

inflammation (e.g., varying intensity, cellular mediator

pattern, and therapeutic response). Further studies 

will determine if different treatment approaches 

benefit the different patterns of inflammation.

Asthma Definition and Implications for Treatment 9

Figure 2. THE INTERPLAY AND INTERACTION BETWEEN 

AIRWAY INFLAMMATION AND THE CLINICAL SYMPTOMS AND

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF ASTHMA

Inflammation

Airway

Hyperresponsiveness

Clinical Symptoms

Airway

Obstruction

Asthma Definition and Implications 

for Treatment
Causes of Asthma

The development of asthma appears to involve the

interplay between host factors (particularly genetics)

and environmental exposures that occur at a crucial

time in the development of the immune system. A

definitive cause of the inflammatory process leading

to asthma has not yet been established.

■ Innate immunity. Numerous factors may affect the 

balance between Th1-type and Th2- type cytokine 

responses in early life and increase the likelihood 

that the immune response will downregulate the 

Th1 immune response that fights infection and 

instead will be dominated by Th2 cells, leading to 

the expression of allergic diseases and asthma.

This is known as the “hygiene hypothesis,” which 

postulates that certain infections early in life,

exposure to other children (e.g., presence of older 

siblings and early enrollment in childcare, which 

have greater likelihood of exposure to respiratory 

infection), less frequent use of antibiotics, and 

“country living” is associated with a Th1 response 

and lower incidence of asthma, whereas the 

absence of these factors is associated with a 

persistent Th2 response and higher rates of

asthma. Interventions to prevent the onset of

this process (e.g., with probiotics) are under study,

but no recommendations can yet be made.

■ Genetics. Asthma has an inheritable component,

but the genetics involved remain complex. As 

the linkage of genetic factors to different asthma 

phenotypes becomes clearer, treatment approaches 

may become directed to specific patient 

phenotypes and genotypes.

■ Environmental factors.

— Two major factors are the most important in 

the development, persistence, and possibly 

the severity of asthma: airborne allergens 

(particularly sensitization and exposure to 

house-dust mite and Alternaria) and viral 

respiratory infections (including respiratory

syncytial virus [RSV] and rhinovirus).

— Other environmental factors are under study:

tobacco smoke (exposure in utero is associated 

with an increased risk of wheezing, but it is not

certain this is linked to subsequent development

of asthma), air pollution (ozone and particular

matter) and diet (obesity or low intake of

antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids). The

association of these factors with the onset of

asthma has not been clearly defined. A number

of clinical trials have investigated dietary and 

environmental manipulations, but these 

trials have not been sufficiently long term or

conclusive to permit recommendations.

Implications for Treatment

Knowledge of the importance of inflammation to the

central features of asthma continues to expand and

underscores inflammation as a primary target of

treatment. Studies indicate that current therapeutic

approaches are effective in controlling symptoms,

reducing airflow limitation, and preventing 

exacerbations, but currently available treatments do

not appear to prevent the progression of asthma in 

children. As various phenotypes of asthma are defined

and inflammatory and genetic factors become more

apparent, new therapeutic approaches may be 

developed that will allow even greater specificity to

tailor treatment to the individual patient’s needs 

and circumstances.

10 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
To establish a diagnosis of asthma, the clinician

should determine that symptoms of recurrent

episodes of airflow obstruction or airway 

hyperresponsiveness are present; airflow 

obstruction is at least partially reversible; and 

alternative diagnoses are excluded.

■ Episodic symptoms of airflow obstruction or 

airway hyperresponsiveness are present.

■ Airflow obstruction is at least partially reversible,

measured by spirometry. Reversibility is determined by an increase in FEV1 of >200 mL and ≥12

percent from baseline measure after inhalation of

short-acting beta2-agonist (SABA). Some studies

indicate that an increase of ≥10 percent of the 

predicted FEV1 after inhalation of a SABA may

have higher likelihood of separating patients 

who have asthma from those who have chronic

obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

■ Alternative diagnoses are excluded. See discussion 

below.

Recommended methods to establish the diagnosis

are:

■ Detailed medical history. See figure 3, “Suggested 

Items for Medical History,” for questions to 

include.

■ Physical examination may reveal findings that 

increase the probability of asthma, but the 

absence of these findings does not rule out 

asthma, because the disease is variable and signs 

may be absent between episodes. The examination

focuses on:

— upper respiratory tract (increased nasal 

secretion, mucosal swelling, and/or nasal polyp;

— chest (sounds of wheezing during normal 

breathing or prolonged phase of forced 

exhalation, hyperexpansion of the thorax, use 

of accessory muscles, appearance of hunched

shoulders, chest deformity); and

— skin (atopic dermatitis, eczema).

■ Spirometry can demonstrate obstruction and assess 

reversibility in patients ≥5 years of age. Patients’

perceptions of airflow obstruction are highly 

variable. Spirometry is an essential objective 

measure to establish the diagnosis of asthma,

Diagnosis of Asthma 11

KEY SYMPTOM INDICATORS FOR CONSIDERING 

A DIAGNOSIS OF ASTHMA

The presence of multiple key indicators increases the 

probability of asthma, but spirometry is needed to establish 

a diagnosis.

■ Wheezing—high-pitched whistling sounds when 

breathing out—especially in children. A lack of wheezing 

and a normal chest examination do not exclude asthma.

■ History of any of the following:

— Cough (worse particularly at night)

— Recurrent wheeze

— Recurrent difficulty in breathing

— Recurrent chest tightness

■ Symptoms occur or worsen in the presence of:

— Exercise

— Viral infection

— Inhalant allergens (e.g., animals with fur or hair,

house-dust mites, mold, pollen)

— Irritants (tobacco or wood smoke, airborne chemicals)

— Changes in weather

— Strong emotional expression (laughing or crying hard)

— Stress

— Menstrual cycles

■ Symptoms occur or worsen at night, awakening the patient.

Diagnosis of Asthma
12 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

because the medical history and physical 

examination are not reliable means of excluding 

other diagnoses or of assessing lung status.

Spirometry is generally recommended, rather than 

measurements by a peak flow meter, due to wide 

variability in peak flow meters and reference values.

Peak flow meters are designed for monitoring, not as 

diagnostic tools.

A differential diagnosis of asthma should be 

considered. Recurrent episodes of cough and 

wheezing most often are due to asthma in both 

children and adults; however, other significant causes

of airway obstruction leading to wheeze must be 

considered both in the initial diagnosis and if there 

is no clear response to initial therapy.

■ Additional studies are not routinely necessary 

but may be useful when considering alternative

diagnoses.

— Additional pulmonary function studies will

help if there are questions about COPD 

(diffusing capacity), a restrictive defect 

(measures of lung volumes), or VCD 

(evaluation of inspiratory flow-volume loops).

— Bronchoprovocation with methacholine,

histamine, cold air, or exercise challenge may 

be useful when asthma is suspected and 

spirometry is normal or near normal. For 

safety reasons, bronchoprovocation should be 

carried out only by a trained individual. A 

positive test is diagnostic for airway hyperre

sponsiveness, which is a characteristic feature 

of asthma but can also be present in other 

conditions. Thus, a positive test is consistent

with asthma, but a negative test may be more 

helpful to rule out asthma.

— Chest x ray may be needed to exclude other 

diagnoses.

— Biomarkers of inflammation are currently

being evaluated for their usefulness in the 

diagnosis and assessment of asthma.

Biomarkers include total and differential cell

count and mediator assays in sputum, blood,

urine, and exhaled air.

■ Common diagnostic challenges include the 

following:

— Cough variant asthma. Cough can be the 

principal—or only—manifestation of

asthma, especially in young children.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSTIC POSSIBILITIES FOR ASTHMA

Infants and Children

Upper airway diseases

■ Allergic rhinitis and sinusitis

Obstructions involving large airways

■ Foreign body in trachea or bronchus

■ Vocal cord dysfunction (VCD)

■ Vascular rings or laryngeal webs

■ Laryngotracheomalacia, tracheal stenosis, or 

bronchostenosis

■ Enlarged lymph nodes or tumor

Obstructions involving small airways

■ Viral bronchiolitis or obliterative bronchiolitis

■ Cystic fibrosis

■ Bronchopulmonary dysplasia

■ Heart disease

Other causes

■ Recurrent cough not due to asthma

■ Aspiration from swallowing mechanism dysfunction 

or gastroesophageal reflux

Adults

■ Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) 

(e.g., chronic bronchitis or emphysema)

■ Congestive heart failure

■ Pulmonary embolism

■ Mechanical obstruction of the airways 

(benign and malignant tumors)

■ Pulmonary infiltration with eosinophilia

■ Cough secondary to drugs (e.g., angiotensinconverting enzyme [ACE] inhibitors)

■ Vocal cord dysfunction (VCD)
Diagnosis of Asthma 13

FIGURE 3. SUGGESTED ITEMS FOR MEDICAL HISTORY*

1. Symptoms

Cough

Wheezing

Shortness of breath

Chest tightness

Sputum production

2. Pattern of symptoms

Perennial, seasonal, or both

Continual, episodic, or both

Onset, duration, frequency (number of days or nights,

per week or month)

Diurnal variations, especially nocturnal and on awakening 

in early morning

3. Precipitating and/or aggravating factors

Viral respiratory infections

Environmental allergens, indoor (e.g., mold, house-dust 

mite, cockroach, animal dander or secretory products) 

and outdoor (e.g., pollen)

Characteristics of home including age, location, cooling and 

heating system, wood-burning stove, humidifier, carpeting

over concrete, presence of molds or mildew, presense of

pets with fur or hair, characteristics of rooms where 

patient spends time (e.g., bedroom and living room with 

attention to bedding, floor covering, stuffed furniture)

Smoking (patient and others in home or daycare)

Exercise

Occupational chemicals or allergens

Environmental change (e.g., moving to new home; going on 

vacation; and/or alterations in workplace, work processes,

or materials used)

Irritants (e.g., tobacco smoke, strong odors, air pollutants,

occupational chemicals, dusts and particulates, vapors,

gases, and aerosols)

Emotions (e.g., fear, anger, frustration, hard crying or laughing)

Stress (e.g., fear, anger, frustration)

Drugs (e.g., aspirin; and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory

drugs, beta-blockers including eye drops, others)

Food, food additives, and preservatives (e.g., sulfites)

Changes in weather, exposure to cold air

Endocrine factors (e.g., menses, pregnancy, thyroid disease)

Comorbid conditions (e.g. sinusitis, rhinitis, gastroesophageal

reflux disease (GERD)

4. Development of disease and treatment

Age of onset and diagnosis

History of early-life injury to airways (e.g., bronchopulmonary

dysplasia, pneumonia, parental smoking)

Progression of disease (better or worse)

Present management and response, including plans for 

managing exacerbations

Frequency of using short-acting beta2-agonist (SABA)

Need for oral corticosteroids and frequency of use

5. Family history

History of asthma, allergy, sinusitis, rhinitis, eczema, or 

nasal polyps in close relatives

6. Social history

Daycare, workplace, and school characteristics that may 

interfere with adherence

Social factors that interfere with adherence, such as 

substance abuse

Social support/social networks

Level of education completed

Employment

7. History of exacerbations

Usual prodromal signs and symptoms

Rapidity of onset

Duration 

Frequency

Severity (need for urgent care, hospitalization, intensive 

care unit (ICU) admission.)

Life-threatening exacerbations (e.g., intubation, intensive care

unit admission)

Number and severity of exacerbations in the past year.

Usual patterns and management (what works?)

8. Impact of asthma on patient and family

Episodes of unscheduled care (emergency department (ED),

urgent care, hospitalization)

Number of days missed from school/work

Limitation of activity, especially sports and strenuous work

History of nocturnal awakening

Effect on growth, development, behavior, school or work 

performance, and lifestyle

Impact on family routines, activities, or dynamics

Economic impact

9. Assessment of patient’s and family’s perceptions 

of disease

Patient’s, parent’s, and spouse’s or partner’s knowledge of 

asthma and belief in the chronicity of asthma and in 

the efficacy of treatment

Patient’s perception and beliefs regarding use and longterm effects of medications

Ability of patient and parents, spouse, or partner to cope 

with disease

Level of family support and patient’s and parents’,

spouse’s, or partner’s capacity to recognize severity 

of an exacerbation

Economic resources

Sociocultural beliefs

A detailed medical history of the new patient who is known or thought to have asthma should address the following items

* This list does not represent a standardized assessment or diagnostic instrument. The validity and reliability of this list have not been assessed.
Monitoring of PEF or bronchoprovocation may

be helpful. Diagnosis is confirmed by a positive response to asthma medications.

— VCD can mimic asthma, but it is a distinct 

disorder. VCD may coexist with asthma.

Asthma medications typically do little, if any

thing, to relieve VCD symptoms. Variable 

flattening of the inspiratory flow loop on 

spirometry is strongly suggestive of VCD.

Diagnosis of VCD is from indirect or direct 

vocal cord visualization during an episode,

during which the abnormal adduction can be 

documented. VCD should be considered in 

difficult-to-treat, atypical asthma patients 

and in elite athletes who have exercise-related 

breathlessness unresponsive to asthma 

medication.

— Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD),

obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), and allergic 

bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) may 

coexist with asthma and complicate diagnosis.

See the section on “Comorbid Conditions,” for 

further discussion.

— Children ages 0–4 years. Diagnosis in infants 

and young children is challenging and is 

complicated by the difficulty in obtaining 

objective measurements of lung function in 

this age group. Caution is needed to avoid 

giving young children inappropriate 

prolonged asthma therapy. However, it is 

important to avoid underdiagnosing asthma,

and thereby missing the opportunity to 

treat a child, by using such labels as “wheezy 

bronchitis,” “recurrent pneumonia,” or 

“reactive airway disease” (RAD). The chronic 

airway inflammatory response and structural 

changes that are characteristic of asthma can 

develop in the preschool years, and appropriate

asthma treatment will reduce morbidity.

■ Consider referral to an asthma specialist if signs 

and symptoms are atypical, if there are problems 

with a differential diagnosis, or if additional 

testing is indicated.

14 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Achieving and maintaining asthma control requires

four components of care: assessment and monitoring,

education for a partnership in care, control of environmental factors and comorbid conditions that

affect asthma, and medications. A stepwise approach

to asthma management incorporates these four 

components, emphasizing that pharmacologic 

therapy is initiated based on asthma severity and

adjusted (stepped up or down) based on the level of

asthma control. Special considerations of therapeutic

options within the stepwise approach may be 

necessary for situations such as exercise-induced

bronchospasm (EIB), surgery, and pregnancy.

Four Components of Asthma Care

Component 1: Assessing and Monitoring Asthma

Severity and Asthma Control

The functions of assessment and monitoring are 

closely linked to the concepts of severity, control, and 

responsiveness to treatment:

■ Severity: the intrinsic intensity of the disease 

process. Severity is most easily and directly measured

in a patient who is not receiving long-term control 

therapy. Severity can also be measured, once 

asthma control is achieved, by the step of care 

(i.e., the amount of medication) required to 

maintain control.

■ Control: the degree to which the manifestations of

asthma are minimized by therapeutic intervention 

and the goals of therapy are met.

■ Responsiveness: the ease with which asthma 

control is achieved by therapy.

Asthma severity and asthma control include the

domains of current impairment and future risk.

■ Impairment: frequency and intensity of symptoms

and functional limitations the patient is currently 

experiencing or has recently experienced.

Managing Asthma Long Term 15

Managing Asthma Long Term

GOAL OF THERAPY: CONTROL OF ASTHMA

Reduce Impairment

■ Prevent chronic and troublesome symptoms (e.g., coughing or breathlessness in the daytime, in the night, or after exertion).

■ Require infrequent use (≤2 days a week) of inhaled SABA for quick relief of symptoms (not including prevention of 

exercise-induced bronchospasm [EIB]).

■ Maintain (near) normal pulmonary function.

■ Maintain normal activity levels (including exercise and other physical activity and attendance at school or work).

■ Meet patients’ and families’ expectations of and satisfaction with asthma care.

Reduce Risk

■ Prevent recurrent exacerbations of asthma and minimize the need for ED visits or hospitalizations.

■ Prevent loss of lung function; for children, prevent reduced lung growth.

■ Provide optimal pharmacotherapy with minimal or no adverse effects of therapy.
■ Risk: the likelihood of either asthma exacerbations,

progressive decline in lung function (or, for 

children, reduced lung growth), or risk of adverse 

effects from medication.

This distinction emphasizes the multifaceted nature

of asthma and the need to consider separately 

asthma’s current, ongoing effects on the present 

quality of life and functional capacity and the future

risk of adverse events. The two domains may

respond differentially to treatment. For example,

evidence demonstrates that some patients can 

have adequate control of symptoms and minimal

day-to-day impairment, but still be at significant 

risk of exacerbations; these patients should be 

treated accordingly.

The specific measures used to assess severity and 

control are similar: symptoms, use of SABAs for quick

relief of symptoms, limitations to normal activities due

to asthma, pulmonary function, and exacerbations.

Multiple measures are important, because different

measures assess different manifestations of the disease

and may not correlate with each other.

The concepts of severity and control are used as 

follows for managing asthma:

■ Assess severity to initiate therapy. See section on 

“Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma” for 

figures on classifying asthma severity and initiating 

therapy in different age groups. During a patient’s 

initial presentation, if the patient is not currently 

taking long-term control medication, asthma severity

is assessed to guide clinical decisions for initiating 

the appropriate medication and other therapeutic 

interventions.

■ Assess control to adjust therapy. See section on 

“Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma” for 

figures on assessing asthma control and adjusting 

therapy in different age groups. Once therapy is 

initiated, the emphasis for clinical management 

thereafter is changed to the assessment of asthma 

control. The level of asthma control will guide 

decisions either to maintain or to adjust therapy 

(i.e., step up if necessary, step down if possible).

■ For assessing a patient’s overall asthma severity,

once the most optimal asthma control is achieved

and maintained, or for population-based evaluations or clinical research, asthma severity can be

inferred by correlating the level of severity with the

lowest level of treatment required to maintain 

control.

However, the emphasis for clinical management is 

to assess asthma severity prior to initiating therapy

and then to assess asthma control for monitoring 

and adjusting therapy.

For the initial assessment to characterize the patient’s

asthma and guide decisions for initiating therapy, use

information from the diagnostic evaluation to:

■ Classify asthma severity.

■ Identify precipitating factors for episodic symptoms (e.g., exposure at home, work, daycare, or

school to inhalant allergens or irritants).

■ Identify comorbid conditions that may impede 

asthma management (e.g., sinusitis, rhinitis, GERD,

OSA, obesity, stress, or depression).

■ Assess the patient’s knowledge and skills for 

self-management.

For periodic monitoring of asthma control to guide

decisions for maintaining or adjusting therapy:

■ Instruct patients to monitor their asthma control in

an ongoing manner. All patients should be taught

how to recognize inadequate asthma control.

— Either symptom or peak flow monitoring is 

appropriate for most patients; evidence suggests

the benefits are similar.

— Consider daily peak-flow monitoring for 

patients who have moderate or severe persistent

asthma, patients who have a history of severe 

exacerbations, and patients who poorly perceive

airway obstruction or worsening asthma.

■ Monitor asthma control periodically in clinical

visits, because asthma is highly variable over time

andtherapy may need to be adjusted (stepped up 

if necessary, stepped down if possible). The 

frequency of monitoring is a matter of clinical 

judgment. In general:

16 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

Lowest level 

of treatment

required to 

maintain 

control

(See “Stepwise

Approach for

Managing

Asthma”

for treatment

steps.)

Classification of Asthma Severity When

Asthma Is Well Controlled

Persistent

Intermittent Mild Moderate Severe

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 5

or or

Step 4 Step 6
Managing Asthma Long Term 17

FIGURE 4. SAMPLE PATIENT SELF-ASSESSMENT SHEET FOR FOLLOWUP VISITS*

Name:___________________________________ Date:________________________

Your Asthma Control

How many days in the past week have you had chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath, or

wheezing (whistling in your chest)? 

_____ 0 _____ 1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____ 4 _____ 5 _____ 6 _____ 7 

How many nights in the past week have you had chest tightness, cough, shortness of breath, or

wheezing (whistling in your chest)? 

_____ 0 _____ 1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____ 4 _____ 5 _____ 6 _____ 7

Do you perform peak flow readings at home? ______ yes ______ no 

If yes, did you bring your peak flow chart? ______ yes ______ no 

How many days in the past week has asthma restricted your physical activity? 

_____ 0 _____ 1 _____ 2 _____ 3 _____ 4 _____ 5 _____ 6 _____ 7

Have you had any asthma attacks since your last visit? ______ yes ______ no 

Have you had any unscheduled visits to a doctor, including to the emergency department,

since your last visit? ______ yes ______ no 

How well controlled is your asthma, in your opinion? ____ very well controlled

____ somewhat controlled

____ not well controlled

Average number of puffs per day of quick-relief 

medication (short acting beta2-agonist) ____________________

Taking your medicine

What problems have you had taking your medicine or following your asthma action plan?

Please ask the doctor or nurse to review how you take your medicine.

Your questions

What questions or concerns would you like to discuss with the doctor?

How satisfied are you with your asthma care?____ very satisfied

____ somewhat satisfied

____ not satisfied

* These questions are examples and do not represent a standardized assessment instrument. Other examples of asthma control questions:

Asthma Control Questionnaire (Juniper); Asthma Therapy Assessment Questionnaire (Volmer); Asthma Control Test (Nathan); Asthma Control

Score (Boulet)
18 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

— Schedule visits at 2- to 6-week intervals for 

patients who are just starting therapy or who 

require a step up in therapy to achieve or 

regain asthma control.

— Schedule visits at 1- to 6-month intervals, after 

asthma control is achieved, to monitor whether

asthma control is maintained. The interval will

depend on factors such as the duration of asthma

control or the level of treatment required.

— Consider scheduling visits at 3-month intervals

if a step down in therapy is anticipated.

■ Assess asthma control, medication technique,

the written asthma action plan, adherence, and

patient concerns at every patient visit. See figure

4 for a sample patient self-assessment of overall

asthma control and asthma care.

■ Use spirometry to obtain objective measures of lung 

function.

— Perform spirometry at the following times:

• At the initial assessment.

• After treatment is initiated and symptoms 

and PEF have stabilized.

• During periods of progressive or prolonged 

loss of asthma control.

• At least every 1–2 years; more frequently 

depending on response to therapy.

— Low FEV1 indicates current obstruction 

(impairment) and risk for future exacerbations 

(risk). For children, FEV1/forced vital capacity 

(FVC) appears to be a more sensitive measure 

of severity and control in the impairment 

domain. FEV1 is a useful measure of risk for 

exacerbations, although it is emphasized that 

even children who have normal lung function 

experience exacerbations.

■ Minimally invasive markers (called biomarkers) 

such as fractionated exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO) 

and sputum eosinophils may be useful, but bio

markers require further evaluation before they 

can be recommended as clinical tools for routine 

management.

Component 2: Education for a Partnership in Care

A partnership between the clinician and the person

who has asthma (and the caregiver, for children) is

required for effective asthma management. By working

together, an appropriate treatment can be selected, and

the patient can learn self-management skills necessary

to control asthma. Self-management education

improves patient outcomes (e.g., reduced urgent care

visits, hospitalizations, and limitations on activities as

well as improved health status, quality of life, and 

perceived control of asthma) and can be cost-effective.

Self-management education is an integral component

of effective asthma care and should be treated as such

by health care providers as well as by health care policies

and reimbursements.

KEY EDUCATIONAL MESSAGES: TEACH AND REINFORCE

AT EVERY OPPORTUNITY

Basic Facts About Asthma

■ The contrast between airways of a person who has and a 

person who does not have asthma; the role of inflammation.

■ What happens to the airways during an asthma attack.

Role of Medications: Understanding the Difference

Between:

■ Long-term control medications: prevent symptoms, often by 

reducing inflammation. Must be taken daily. Do not expect 

them to give quick relief.

■ Quick-relief medications: SABAs relax airway muscles to 

provide prompt relief of symptoms. Do not expect them to 

provide long-term asthma control. Using SABA >2 days 

a week indicates the need for starting or increasing longterm control medications.

Patient Skills

■ Taking medications correctly

— Inhaler technique (demonstrate to the patient and have 

the patient return the demonstration).

— Use of devices, as prescribed (e.g., valved holding 

chamber (VHC) or spacer, nebulizer).

■ Identifying and avoiding environmental exposures that 

worsen the patient’s asthma; e.g., allergens, irritants,

tobacco smoke.

■ Self-monitoring

— Assess level of asthma control.

— Monitor symptoms and, if prescribed, PEF measures.

— Recognize early signs and symptoms of worsening asthma.

■ Using a written asthma action plan to know when and how to:

— Take daily actions to control asthma.

— Adjust medication in response to signs of worsening asthma.

■ Seeking medical care as appropriate.
Managing Asthma Long Term 19

Develop an active partnership with the patient and 

family by:

■ Establishing open communications that consider 

cultural and ethnic factors, as well as language and 

health care literacy needs, of each patient and family.

■ Identifying and addressing patient and family 

concerns about asthma and asthma treatment.

■ Developing treatment goals and selecting 

medications together with the patient and family,

allowing full participation in treatment decision

making.

■ Encouraging self-monitoring and self-management

by reviewing at each opportunity the patient’s 

reports of asthma symptoms and response to 

treatment.

Provide to all patients a written asthma action 

plan that includes instructions for both daily 

management (long-term control medication, if

appropriate, and environmental control measures) 

and actions to manage worsening asthma (what signs,

symptoms, and PEF measurements (if used) indicate

worsening asthma; what medications to take in

response; what signs and symptoms indicate the need

for immediate medical care). Written asthma action

plans are particularly recommended for patients who

have moderate or severe persistent asthma (i.e.,

requiring treatment at step 4, 5, or 6), a history of

severe exacerbations, or poorly controlled asthma.

See figures 5 and 6 for samples of written asthma

action plans.

Integrate asthma self-management education into

all aspects of asthma care. Asthma self management

requires repetition and reinforcement. It should:

■ Begin at the time of diagnosis and continue through 

followup care. See figure 7, “Delivery of Asthma 

Education by Clinicians During Patient Care Visits,”

for a sample of how to incorporate teaching into 

routine clinic visits.

■ Involve all members of the health care team, including

physicians, nurses, pharmacists, respiratory 

therapists, and asthma educators, as well as other 

health professionals who come in contact with 

asthma patients and their families.

■ Occur at all points of care where health care professionals interact with patients who have asthma.

The strongest evidence supports self-management

education in the clinic setting. Evidence also 

supports education provided in patients' homes,

pharmacies, targeted education in EDs and hospitals, and selected programs in schools and other

community sites. Proven community programs

should be considered because of their potential to

reach large numbers of people who have asthma

and encourage “asthma-friendly” support from

their families and community environments.

■ Use a variety of educational strategies to reach 

people who have varying levels of health literacy 

or learning styles. Individual instruction, group

programs, written materials (at a 5th grade reading

level or below), video- or audiotapes, and computer and Internet programs all provide effective 

educational opportunities. See figure 8, “Asthma

Education Resources,” for a sample of available

resources.

■ Incorporate individualized case/care management

by trained health care professionals for patients

who have poorly controlled asthma and have 

recurrent visits to the emergency department 

or hospital. This will provide tailored 

self-management education and skills training.

Encourage patients' adherence to the written 

asthma action plan by:

■ Choosing treatment that achieves outcomes and 

addresses preferences that are important to the

patient, and reminding patients that adherence 

will help them achieve the outcomes they want.

■ Reviewing with the patient at each visit the success

of the treatment plan to achieve asthma control

and make adjustments as needed.

■ Reviewing patients' concerns about their asthma 

or treatment at every visit. Inquire about any 

difficulties encountered in adhering to the written

asthma action plan.

■ Assessing the patient's and family's level of social

support, and encouraging family involvement.

■ Tailoring the self-management approach to the

needs and literacy levels of the patient, and 

maintaining sensitivity to cultural beliefs and 

ethnocultural practices.

Encourage health care provider and health care 

system support of the therapeutic partnership by:

■ Incorporating effective clinician education strategies,
20 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 5. SAMPLE ASTHMA ACTION PLAN—ADULT

Adapted and reprinted with permission from the Regional Asthma Management and Prevention (RAMP) Initiative, a program of the Public Health

Institute, to include terms used in the EPR—3: Full Report 2007.

Source: http://www.calasthma.org/uploads/resources/actionplanpdf.pdf; San Francisco Bay Area Regional Asthma Management Plan,

http://www.rampasthma.org
Managing Asthma Long Term 21

FIGURE 6. SAMPLE ASTHMA ACTION PLAN—CHILD

Adapted and reprinted with permission from “The Asthma Action Plan” developed by a committee facilitated by the Regional Asthma

Management and Prevention (RAMP) Initiative, a program of the Public Health Institute.

Source: http://www.calasthma.org/uploads/resources/actionplanpdf.pdf; San Francisco Bay Area Regional Asthma Management Plan,

http://www.rampasthma.org
22 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 7. DELIVERY OF ASTHMA EDUCATION BY CLINICIANS DURING PATIENT CARE VISITS

Assessment Questions Information Skills

Focus on:

■ Expectations of visit

■ Asthma control

■ Patients’ goals of treatment

■ Medications

■ Quality of life

Ask relevant questions

“What worries you most about your asthma?”

“What do you want to accomplish at this visit?”

“What do you want to be able to do that you can’t do

now because of your asthma?”

“What do you expect from treatment?”

“What medicines have you tried?”

“What other questions do you have for me today?”

“Are there things in your environment that make your 

asthma worse?”

Recommendations for Initial Visit

Teach in simple language:

■ What is asthma? Asthma is a chronic lung disease.

The airways are very sensitive. They become

inflamed and narrow; breathing becomes difficult.

■ The definition of asthma control: few daytime symptoms, no nighttime awakenings due to asthma, able 

to engage in normal activities, normal lung function.

■ Asthma treatments: two types of medicines are

needed:

— Long-term control: medications that prevent 

symptoms, often by reducing inflammation.

— Quick relief: short-acting bronchodilator relaxes 

muscles around airways.

■ Bring all medications to every appointment.

■ When to seek medical advice. Provide appropriate 

telephone number.

Teach or review and demonstrate:

■ Inhaler and spacer or valved holding chamber 

(VHC) use. Check performance.

■ Self-monitoring skills that are tied to a written 

asthma action plan:

— Recognize intensity and frequency of asthma 

symptoms.

— Review the signs of deterioration and the need 

to reevaluate therapy:

s Waking at night or early morning with asthma

s Increased medication use

s Decreased activity tolerance

■ Use of a written asthma action plan (See figures 5

and 6.) that includes instructions for daily 

management and for recognizing and handling

worsening asthma.

Focus on:

■ Expectations of visit

■ Asthma control

■ Patient’s goals of treatment

■ Medications

■ Patient’s treatment preferences

■ Quality of life

Ask relevant questions from previous visit and

also ask:

“What medications are you taking?”

“How and when are you taking them?”

“What problems have you had using your 

medications?”

“Please show me how you use your inhaled 

medications.”

Recommendations for First Followup Visit (2 to 4 Weeks or Sooner as Needed)

Teach in simple language:

■ Use of two types of medications.

■ Remind patient to bring all medications and the 

peak flow meter, if using, to every appointment

for review.

■ Self/assessment of asthma control using symptoms

and/or peak flow as a guide.

Teach or review and demonstrate:

■ Use of written asthma action plan. Review and 

adjust as needed.

■ Peak flow monitoring if indicated 

■ Correct inhaler and spacer or VHC technique.

Focus on:

■ Expectations of visit

■ Asthma control

■ Patients’ goals of treatment

■ Medications

■ Quality of life

Ask relevant questions from previous visits and 

also ask:

“Have you noticed anything in your home, work, or

school 

that makes your asthma worse?”

“Describe for me how you know when to call your 

doctor or go to the hospital for asthma care.”

“What questions do you have about the asthma 

action plan?”

“Can we make it easier?”

“Are your medications causing you any problems?”

“Have you noticed anything in your environment that

makes your asthma worse?”

“Have you missed any of your medications?”

Recommendations for Second Followup Visit

Teach in simple language:

■ Self-assessment of asthma control, using symptoms 

and/or peak flow as a guide.

■ Relevant environmental control/avoidance strategies:

— How to identify home, work, or school exposures

that can cause or worsen asthma

— How to control house-dust mites, animal 

exposures if applicable

— How to avoid cigarette smoke (active and 

passive)

■ Review all medications.

Teach or review and demonstrate:

■ Inhaler/spacer or VHC technique.

■ Peak flow monitoring technique.

■ Use of written asthma action plan. Review and

adjust as needed.

■ Confirm that patient knows what to do if 

asthma gets worse
Managing Asthma Long Term 23

such as interactive formats, practice-based 

case studies, and multidimensional teaching

approaches that reinforce guideline-based care.

■ Providing communication skills training to 

clinicians to enhance competence in caring for 

all patients, especially multicultural populations.

■ Using systems approaches, such as clinical pathways

and clinical information system prompts, to

improve the quality of asthma care and to support

clinical care decisionmaking.

Component 3: Control of Environmental Factors

and Comorbid Conditions That Affect Asthma

If patients who have asthma are exposed to irritants or

inhalant allergens to which they are sensitive, their

asthma symptoms may increase and precipitate an

asthma exacerbation. Substantially reducing exposure

to these factors may reduce inflammation, symptoms,

and need for medication. Several comorbid conditions

can impede asthma management. Recognition and

treatment of these conditions may improve asthma

control. See questions in figure 3, “Suggested Items 

for Medical History,” above, for questions related to

environmental exposures and comorbid conditions.

Allergens and Irritants

Evaluate the potential role of allergens (particularly

inhalant allergens) and irritants.

■ Identify allergen and pollutants or irritant 

exposures. The most important allergens for both

children and adults appear to be those that are

inhaled.

■ For patients who have persistent asthma, use skin 

testing or in vitro testing to assess sensitivity to 

perennial indoor allergens. Assess the significance 

of positive tests in the context of the person’s 

history of symptoms when exposed to the allergen.

Advise patients who have asthma to reduce exposure 

to allergens and pollutants or irritants to which they

are sensitive.

■ See figure 9, “How To Control Things That 

Make Your Asthma Worse,” for a sample patient 

information sheet.

■ Effective allergen avoidance requires a multifaceted,

comprehensive approach; single steps alone are 

generally ineffective. Multifaceted allergen-control 

education programs provided in the home setting 

can help patients reduce exposures to cockroach,

dust-mite, and rodent allergens and, consequently,

improve asthma control.

■ Advise patients who have severe persistent asthma,

nasal polyps, or a history of sensitivity to aspirin or 

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) 

about their risk of severe and even fatal exacerbations from using these drugs.

■ Indoor air-cleaning devices (high-efficiency 

particulate air [HEPA] and electrostatic precipitating

filters), cannot substitute for more effective 

dust-mite and cockroach control measures because 

FIGURE 7. DELIVERY OF ASTHMA EDUCATION BY CLINICIANS DURING PATIENT CARE VISITS (continued)

Assessment Questions Information Skills

Focus on:

■ Expectations of visit

■ Asthma control

■ Patients’ goals of treatment

■ Medications

■ Quality of life

Ask relevant questions from previous visits and 

also ask:

“How have you tried to control things that make 

your asthma worse?”

“Please show me how you use your inhaled 

medication.”

Recommendations for All Subsequent Visits

Teach in simple language:

■ Review and reinforce all:

— Educational messages

— Environmental control strategies at home, work,

or school

— Medications

— Self-assessment of asthma control, using 

symptoms and/or peak flow as a guide

Teach or review and demonstrate:

■ Inhaler/spacer or VHC technique.

■ Peak flow monitoring technique, if appropriate.

■ Use of written asthma action plan. Review and

adjust as needed.

■ Confirm that patient knows what to do if asthma 

gets worse.

Sources: Adapted from Guevara et al. 2003; Janson et al. 2003; Powell and Gibson 2003; Wilson et al. 1993.
24 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 8. ASTHMA EDUCATION RESOURCES

Allergy & Asthma Network Mothers of Asthmatics 1–800–878–4403

2751 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 150 1–703–641–9595

Fairfax, VA 22030

www.breatherville.org

American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology 1–414–272–6071

555 East Wells Street, Suite 100

Milwaukee, WI 53202-3823

www.aaaai.org

American Association For Respiratory Care 1–972–243–2272

9125 North MacArthur Boulevard, Suite 100

Irving, TX 75063

www.aarc.org

American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology 1–800–842–7777

85 West Algonquin Road 1–847–427–1200

Suite 550 

Arlington Heights, IL 60005

www.Acaai.Org

American Lung Association 1–800–586–4872

61 Broadway

New York, NY 10006

www.lungusa.org

Association of Asthma Educators 1–888–988–7747

1215 Anthony Avenue

Columbia, SC 29201

www.asthmaeducators.org

Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America 1–800–727–8462

1233 20th Street, NW., Suite 402

Washington, DC 20036

www.aafa.org

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1–800–311–3435

1600 Clifton Road

Atlanta, GA 30333

Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network 1–800–929–4040

11781 Lee Jackson Highway, Suite 160

Fairfax, VA 22033

www.foodallergy.org

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Information Center 1–301–592–8573

P.O. Box 30105

Bethesda, MD 20824-0105

www.nhlbi.nih.gov

National Jewish Medical and Research Center (Lung Line) 1–800–222–Lung

1400 Jackson Street

Denver, CO 80206

www.njc.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1–800–490–9198

National Center for Environmental Publications

P.O. Box 42419

Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419

www.airnow.gov
Managing Asthma Long Term 25

these particles do not remain airborne. The devices

can reduce airborne dog and cat allergens, mold 

spores, and particulate tobacco smoke; however,

most studies do not show an effect on symptoms or

lung function.

■ Use of humidifiers or evaporative (swamp) coolers 

is not generally recommended in homes of patients

who are sensitive to dust mites or mold.

Consider subcutaneous allergen immunotherapy for

patients who have persistent asthma when there is

clear evidence of a relationship between symptoms

and exposure to an allergen to which the patient

is sensitive. Evidence is strongest for use of subcutaneous immunotherapy for single allergens, particularly

house dust mites, animal dander, and pollen. The 

role of allergy in asthma is greater in children than in

adults. If use of allergen immunotherapy is elected,

it should be administered only in a physician’s office

where facilities and trained personnel are available 

to treat any life-threatening reaction that can, but

rarely does, occur.

Consider inactivated influenza vaccination for

patients who have asthma. This vaccine is safe for

administration to children over 6 months of age and

adults, and the Advisory Committee on Immunization

Practices of the Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention (CDC) recommends vaccination for persons who have asthma because they are considered to

be at risk for complications from influenza. However,

the vaccine should not be given with the expectation

that it will reduce either the frequency or severity of

asthma exacerbations during the influenza season.

Dietary factors have an inconclusive role in asthma.

Food allergenies are rarely an aggravating factor in 

asthma. An exception is that sulfites in foods (e.g.,

shrimp, dried fruit, processed potatoes, beer, and wine)

can precipitate asthma symptoms in people who 

are sensitive to these food items. Furthermore,

individuals who have both food allergy and asthma 

are at increased risk for fatal anaphlylactic reactions 

to the food to which they are sensitized.

Comorbid Conditions

Identify and treat comorbid conditions that may

impede asthma management. If these conditions are

treated appropriately, asthma control may improve.

■ Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) 

may be considered in patients who have 

asthma and a history of pulmonary infiltrates,

immunoglobulin E (IgE) sensitization to 

Aspergillus, and/or are corticosteroid dependent.

Diagnostic criteria include: positive immediate 

skin test and elevated serum IgE and/or IgG to 

Aspergillus, total serum IgE >417 IU (1,000 

ng/mL), and central bronchiectasis. Treatment 

is prednisone, initially 0.5 mg per kilogram 

with gradual tapering. Azole antifungal agents 

as adjunctive therapy may also be helpful.

■ Gastroesophageal Reflux (GERD) treatment may 

benefit patients who have asthma and complain of

frequent heartburn or pyrosis, particularly those 

who have frequent nighttime asthma symptoms.

Even in the absence of suggestive GERD symptoms,

consider evaluation for GERD in patients who 

have poorly controlled asthma, especially with 

nighttime symptoms. Treatment includes: avoiding heavy meals, fried foods, caffeine, and alcohol;

avoiding food and drink within 3 hours of retiring;

elevating the head of the bed on 6- to 8-inch

blocks; using proton pump inhibitor medication.

■ Obese or overweight patients who have asthma 

may be advised that weight loss, in addition to 

improving overall health, might also improve 

asthma control.

■ Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) may be considered

in patients who have not well controlled asthma,

particularly those who are overweight or obese.

Treatment for OSA is nasal continuous positive air

way pressure (CPAP). However, this treatment may 

disrupt the sleep of asthma patients who do not 

also have OSA. Accurate diagnosis is important.

■ Rhinitis or sinusitis symptoms or diagnosis should

be evaluated in patients who have asthma, because 

the interrelationship of the upper and lower 

airway suggests that therapy for the upper airway

will improve asthma control. Treatment of

allergic rhinitis includes intranasal corticosteroids,

antihistamine therapy, and the consideration of

immunotherapy. Treatment of sinusitis includes 

intranasal corticosteroids and antibiotics. Evidence

is inconclusive regarding the effect on asthma 

of sinus surgery in patients who have chronic 

rhinosinusitis.

■ Stress and depression should be considered in 

patients who have asthma that is not well 

controlled. Additional education to improve 

self-management and coping skills may be helpful.
26 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 9. HOW TO CONTROL THINGS THAT MAKE YOUR ASTHMA WORSE

You can help prevent asthma episodes by staying

away from things that make your asthma worse.

This guide suggests many ways to help you do this.

You need to find out what makes your asthma worse.

Some things that make asthma worse for some 

people are not a problem for others. You do not 

need to do all of the things listed in this guide.

Look at the things listed below. Put a check next to

the ones that you know make your asthma worse,

particularly if you are allergic to these things. Then,

decide with your doctor what steps you will take.

Start with the things in your bedroom that bother your

asthma. Try something simple first.

Tobacco Smoke

■ If you smoke, ask your doctor for ways to help you 

quit. Ask family members to quit smoking, too.

■ Do not allow smoking in your home, car or around 

you.

■ Be sure no one smokes at a child’s daycare 

center or school.

Dust Mites

Many people who have asthma are allergic to dust

mites. Dust mites are like tiny “bugs” you cannot 

see that live in cloth or carpet.

Things that will help the most:

■ Encase your mattress in a special dust-mite proof 

cover.*

■ Encase your pillow in a special dust-mite proof 

cover* or wash the pillow each week in hot water.

Water must be hotter than 130 °F to kill the 

mites. Cooler water used with detergent and 

bleach can also be effective.

■ Wash the sheets and blankets on your bed each 

week in hot water.

Other things that can help:

■ Reduce indoor humidity to or below 60 percent,

ideally 30–50 percent. Dehumidifiers or central air

conditioners can do this.

■ Try not to sleep or lie on cloth-covered cushions 

or furniture.

■ Remove carpets from your bedroom and those 

laid on concrete, if you can.

■ Keep stuffed toys out of the bed, or wash the 

toys weekly in hot water or in cooler water with 

detergent and bleach. Placing toys weekly in a 

dryer or freezer may help. Prolonged exposure 

to dry heat or freezing can kill mites but does not 

remove allergen.

*To find out where to get products mentioned in this guide, call:

Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (800–727–8462)

Allergy & Asthma Network Mothers of Asthmatics (800–878–4403)

American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (800–822–2762)

National Jewish Medical and Research Center (Lung Line) (800–222–5864)

American College of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology (800–842–7777)
Managing Asthma Long Term 27

Animal Dander

Some people are allergic to the flakes of skin or dried saliva

from animals.

The best thing to do:

■ Keep pets with fur or hair out of your home.

If you can’t keep the pet outdoors, then:

■ Keep the pet out of your bedroom, and keep the 

bedroom door closed.

■ Remove carpets and furniture covered with cloth from 

your home. If that is not possible, keep the pet out of 

the rooms where these are.

Cockroach

Many people with asthma are allergic to the dried 

droppings and remains of cockroaches.

■ Keep all food out of your bedroom.

■ Keep food and garbage in closed containers 

(Never leave food out).

■ Use poison baits, powders, gels, or paste 

(for example, boric acid). You can also use traps.

■ If a spray is used to kill roaches, stay out of the room 

until the odor goes away.

Vacuum Cleaning

■ Try to get someone else to vacuum for you once or 

twice a week, if you can. Stay out of rooms while they 

are being vacuumed and for a short while afterward.

■ If you vacuum, use a dust mask (from a hardware store),

a central cleaner with the collecting bag outside the 

home, or a vacuum cleaner with a HEPA filter or a 

double-layered bag.*

Indoor Mold

■ Fix leaking faucets, pipes, or other sources of water.

■ Clean moldy surfaces.

■ Dehumidify basements if possible.

Pollen and Outdoor Mold

During your allergy season (when pollen or mold spore

counts are high):

■ Try to keep your windows closed.

■ If possible, stay indoors with windows closed during the 

midday and afternoon, if you can. Pollen and some mold 

spore counts are highest at that time.

■ Ask your doctor whether you need to take or increase 

anti-inflammatory medicine before your allergy season 

starts.

Smoke, Strong Odors, and Sprays

■ If possible, do not use a wood-burning stove, kerosene 

heater, fireplace, unvented gas stove, or heater.

■ Try to stay away from strong odors and sprays, such as 

perfume, talcum powder, hair spray, paints, new carpet,

or particle board.

Exercise or Sports

■ You should be able to be active without symptoms.

See your doctor if you have asthma symptoms when 

you are active—such as when you exercise, do sports,

play, or work hard.

■ Ask your doctor about taking medicine before you 

exercise to prevent symptoms.

■ Warm up for a period before you exercise.

■ Check the air quality index and try not to work or play 

hard outside when the air pollution or pollen levels 

(if you are allergic to the pollen) are high.

Other Things That Can Make Asthma Worse

■ Sulfites in foods: Do not drink beer or wine or eat 

shrimp, dried fruit, or processed potatoes if they cause 

asthma symptoms.

■ Cold air: Cover your nose and mouth with a scarf on 

cold or windy days.

■ Other medicines: Tell your doctor about all the 

medicines you may take. Include cold medicines, aspirin,

and even eye drops.

Key: HEPA, high-efficiency particulate air
Component 4: Medications

Medications for asthma are categorized into two 

general classes: long-term control medication and

quick-relief medication. Selection of medications

includes consideration of the general mechanisms

and role of the medication in therapy, delivery 

devices, and safety.

General Mechanisms and Role in Therapy

Long-term control medications are used daily to

achieve and maintain control of persistent asthma.

The most effective are those that attenuate the

underlying inflammation characteristic of asthma.

Long-term control medications include the 

following (listed in alphabetical order):

■ Corticosteroids are anti-inflammatory medications

that reduce airway hyperresponsiveness, inhibit 

inflammatory cell migration and activation, and 

block late phase reaction to allergen. Inhaled 

Corticosteriods (ICSs) are the most consistently 

effective long-term control medication at all steps 

of care for persistent asthma, and ICSs improve 

asthma control more effectively in both children 

and adults than leukotriene receptor antagonists 

(LTRAs) or any other single, long-term control 

medication do. ICSs reduce impairment and risk

of exacerbations, but ICSs do not appear to alter

the progression or underlying severity of the disease in children. Short courses of oral systemic

corticosteroids are often used to gain prompt control of asthma. Oral systemic corticosteroids are

used long term to treat patients who require step 6

care (for severe persistent asthma).

■ Cromolyn sodium and nedocromil stabilize mast

cells and interfere with chloride channel function.

They are used as alternative, but not preferred,

medication for patients requiring step 2 care (for

mild persistent asthma). They also can be used as

preventive treatment before exercise or unavoidable

exposure to known allergens.

■ Immunomodulators. Omalizumab (anti-IgE) is a 

monoclonal antibody that prevents binding of IgE 

to the high-affinity receptors on basophils and mast 

cells. Omalizumab is used as adjunctive therapy 

for patients 12 years of age who have sensitivity to

relevant allergens (e.g., dust mite, cockroach, cat, or 

dog) and who require step 5 or 6 care (for severe 

persistent asthma). Clinicians who administer 

omalizumab should be prepared and equipped to 

identify and treat anaphylaxis that may occur.

■ Leukotriene modifiers interfere with the pathway

of leukotriene mediators, which are released from

mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils. These medications include LTRAs (montelukast and zafirlukast) and a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor (zileuton).

LTRAs are alternative, but not preferred, therapy for

the treatment of patients who require step 2 care

(for mild persistent asthma). LTRAs also can be

used as adjunctive therapy with ICSs, but for youths

12 years of age and adults, they are not preferred 

adjunctive therapy compared to the addition of

LABAs. LTRAs can attenuate EIB. Zileuton can be 

used as alternative, but not preferred, adjunctive 

therapy in adults; liver function monitoring is 

essential.

■ LABAs (salmeterol and formoterol) are 

inhaled bronchodilators that have a duration of

bronchodilation of at least 12 hours after a 

single dose.

— LABAs are not to be used as monotherapy for 

long-term control of asthma.

— LABAs are used in combination with ICSs for 

long-term control and prevention of symptoms 

in moderate or severe persistent asthma (Step 3 

care or higher in children ≥5 years of age and 

adults and Step 4 care or higher in children 0–4 

years of age, although few data are available for 

0–4-year-olds.).

— Of the adjunctive therapies available, LABA is 

the preferred therapy to combine with ICS in 

youths ≥12 years of age and adults.

— A LABA may be used before exercise to prevent 

EIB, but duration of action does not exceed 

5 hours with chronic, regular use. Frequent 

or chronic use before exercise is discouraged,

because this may disguise poorly controlled 

persistent asthma. See also the section “Safety 

Issues for Inhaled Corticosteroids and LongActing Beta2-Agonists.”

■ Methylxanthines. Sustained-release theophylline 

is a mild to moderate bronchodilator used as 

alternative, not preferred, therapy for step 2 care 

(for mild persistent asthma) or as adjunctive therapy

with ICS in patients ≥5 years of age. Theophylline

may have mild anti-inflammatory effects. Monitoring

of serum theophylline concentration is essential.

28 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Managing Asthma Long Term 29

Quick-relief medications are used to treat acute

symptoms and exacerbations. They include the 

following (listed in alphabetical order):

■ Anticholinergics inhibit muscarinic cholinergic 

receptors and reduce intrinsic vagal tone of the airway. Ipratropium bromide provides additive benefit 

to SABA in moderate or severe exacerbations in the 

emergency care setting, not the hospital setting.

Ipratropium bromide may be used as an alternative 

bronchodilator for patients who do not tolerate 

SABA, although it has not been compared to SABAs.

■ SABAs—albuterol, levalbuterol, and pirbuterol—are

bronchodilators that relax smooth muscle. They are 

the treatment of choice for relief of acute symptoms 

and prevention of EIB. Increasing use of SABA 

treatment or the use of SABA >2 days a week for 

symptom relief (not prevention of EIB) generally 

indicates inadequate asthma control and the need 

for initiating or intensifying anti-inflammatory 

therapy. Regularly scheduled, daily, chronic use of

SABA is not recommended.

■ Systemic corticosteroids. Although not shortacting, oral systemic corticosteroids are used for

moderate and severe exacerbations in addition to

SABA to speed recovery and to prevent recurrence of

exacerbations.

Complementary and alternative medications

(CAMs) and interventions generally have insufficient evidence to permit recommendations. Because

as much as one-third of the U.S. population uses complementary alternative healing methods, it is important

to discuss their use with patients.

■ Ask patients about all the medications and 

interventions they are using. Some cultural 

beliefs and practices may be of no harm and can 

be integrated into the recommended asthma 

management strategies, but it is important to 

advise patients that alternative healing methods are

not substitutes for recommended therapeutic 

approaches. Clinical trials on safety and efficacy 

are limited, and their scientific basis has not been 

established.

■ Evidence is insufficient to recommend or not 

recommend most CAMs or treatments for 

asthma. These include chiropractic therapy,

homeopathy and herbal medicine, and breathing 

or relaxation techniques. Acupuncture is not 

recommended for the treatment of asthma.

■ Patients who use herbal treatments for asthma 

should be cautioned about the potential for 

harmful ingredients and for interactions with 

recommended asthma medications.

Delivery Devices for Inhaled Medications

Patients should be instructed in the use of inhaled

medications, and patients’ technique should be

reviewed at every patient visit. The major 

advantages of delivering drugs directly into the lungs

via inhalation are that higher concentrations can be

delivered more effectively to the airways and that 

systemic side effects are lessened. Inhaled medications,

or aerosols, are available in a variety of devices that 

differ in the technique required. See figure 10, “Aerosol

Delivery Devices,” for a summary of issues to consider

for different devices.

Safety Issues for Inhaled Corticosteroids and LongActing Beta2-Agonists

Inhaled Corticosteroids

■ ICSs are the preferred long-term control therapy in 

children of all ages and adults. In general, ICSs are 

well tolerated and safe at the recommended dosages.

■ Most benefits of ICS for patients who have mild or 

moderate asthma occur at the low- to medium-dose 

ranges. Data suggest higher doses may further 

reduce the risk of exacerbations. Furthermore,

higher doses are beneficial for patients who have 

more severe asthma. The risk of adverse effects 

increases with the dose.

■ High doses of ICS administered for prolonged 

periods of time (e.g., >1 year) have significantly 

less potential than oral systemic corticosteroids for 

having adverse effects. High doses of ICS used for 

prolonged periods of time (e.g., >1 year), particularly in combination with frequent courses of oral

corticosteroids, may be associated with risk of

posterior subcapsular cataracts or reduced bone 

density. Slit-lamp eye exam and bone densitometry 

may be considered. For adult patients, consider 

supplements of calcium and vitamin D, particularly 

in perimenopausal women. For children, ageappropriate dietary intake of calcium and vitamin

D should be reviewed with parents or caregivers.

■ To reduce the potential for adverse effects, the 

following measures are recommended.

— Advise patients to use spacers or VHCs with 

nonbreath-activated metered-dose inhalers 
(MDIs) to reduce local side effects. There are 

no clinical data on use of spacers with ultrafine 

particle hydrofluoroalkane (HFA) MDIs.

— Advise patients to rinse the mouth (rinse and 

spit) after inhalation.

— Use the lowest dose of ICS that maintains 

asthma control. Evaluate the patient’s inhaler 

technique and adherence, as well as environmental control measures, before increasing 

the dose.

— Consider adding a LABA, or alternative 

adjunctive therapy, to a low or medium dose 

of ICS rather than using a higher dose of ICS

to maintain asthma control.

Inhaled Corticosteroids and Linear Growth in Children

■ The potential risks of ICSs are well balanced by 

their benefits.

■ Poorly controlled asthma may delay growth.

Children who have asthma tend to have longer 

periods of reduced growth rates before puberty.

■ Growth rates are highly variable in children.

Short-term evaluation may not be predictive of

final adult height attained.

■ The potential for adverse effects on linear growth 

from ICS appear to be dose dependent. In 

treatment of children who have mild or moderate 

persistent asthma, low-to medium-dose ICS 

therapy may be associated with a possible, but 

not predictable, adverse effect on linear growth 

(approximately 1 cm). The effect on growth 

velocity appears to occur in the first several 

months of treatment and is generally small and 

not progressive. The clinical significance of this 

potential systemic effect has yet to be determined.

■ In general, the efficacy of ICSs is sufficient to out

weigh any concerns about growth or other systemic

effects. However, ICSs should be titrated to as low 

a dose as needed to maintain good control of the 

child’s asthma, and children receiving ICSs should 

be monitored for changes in growth by using a 

stadiometer.

Long-Acting Beta2-Agonists

■ The addition of LABA (salmeterol or formoterol) 

to the treatment of patients who require more than

low-dose ICS alone to control asthma improves 

lung function, decreases symptoms, reduces 

exacerbations and use of SABA for quick relief in 

most patients to a greater extent than doubling the 

dose of ICSs.

■ A large clinical trial comparing daily treatment 

with salmeterol or placebo added to usual asthma 

therapy resulted in an increased risk of asthmarelated deaths in patients treated with salmeterol 

(13 deaths among 13,176 patients treated for 

28 weeks with salmeterol versus 3 deaths among 

13,179 patients treated with placebo). In addition,

increased numbers of severe asthma exacerbations 

were noted in the pivotal trials submitted to the 

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for 

formoterol approval, particularly in the arms of the

trials with higher dose formoterol. Thus, the 

FDA determined that a Black Box warning was 

warranted on all preparations containing a LABA.

■ The established beneficial effects of LABA for 

the great majority of patients who require more 

therapy than low-dose ICS alone to control asthma 

(i.e., require step 3 care or higher) should be 

weighed against the increased risk for severe 

exacerbations, although uncommon, associated 

with the daily use of LABAs.

■ Daily use of LABA generally should not exceed 

100 mcg salmeterol or 24 mcg formoterol.

■ It is not currently recommended that LABA be 

used for treatment of acute symptoms or 

exacerbations.

■ LABAs are not to be used as monotherapy for longterm control. Patients should be instructed not to 

stop ICS therapy while taking LABA, even though 

their symptoms may significantly improve.

Stepwise Approach for Managing Asthma

Principles of The Stepwise Approach

A stepwise approach to managing asthma is recommended to gain and maintain control of asthma in

both the impairment and risk domains. These

domains may respond differentially to treatment.

For children, see:

Figure 11, “Classifying Asthma Severity and

Initiating Therapy in Children”

30 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Managing Asthma Long Term 31

FIGURE 10. AEROSOL DELIVERY DEVICES

Device/Drugs Population Optimal Technique*

Metered-dose inhaler (MDI)

Beta2-agonists

Corticosteroids

Cromolyn sodium

Anticholinergics

Breath-actuated MDI

Beta2-agonist

≥5 years old

(<5 with spacer or

valved holding 

chamber (VHC) or

mask)

≥5 years old

Actuation during a slow (30 L/min 

or 3–5 seconds) deep inhalation,

followed by 10-second breathhold.

Under laboratory conditions, openmouth technique (holding MDI 2

inches away from open mouth)

enhances delivery to the lung. This

technique, however, has not been

shown to enhance clinical benefit

consistently compared to closedmouth technique (inserting MDI

mouthpiece between lips and teeth).

Tight seal around mouthpiece and

slightly more rapid inhalation than 

standard MDI (see above) followed 

by 10-second breathhold.

Slow inhalation and coordination of actuation during inhalation 

may be difficult, particularly in young children and elderly.

Patients may incorrectly stop inhalation at actuation. Deposition 

of 50–80 percent of actuated dose in oropharynx. Mouth washing

and spitting is effective in reducing the amount of drug swallowed

and absorbed systemically.

Lung delivery under ideal conditions varies significantly between

MDIs due to differences in formulation (suspension versus solution),

propellant (chlorofluorocarbon [CFC] versus hydrofluoralkane [HFA]),

and valve design. For example, inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) delivery

varies from 5–50 percent.

May be particularly useful for patients unable to coordinate 

inhalation and actuation. May also be useful for elderly patients.

Patients may incorrectly stop inhalation at actuation. Cannot be

used with currently available spacer/valved holding chamber 

(VHC) devices.

Therapeutic Issues

Dry powder inhaler (DPI)

Beta2-agonists

Corticosteroids

Anticholinergics

≥4 years old Rapid (60 L/min or 1–2 seconds),

deep inhalation. Minimally effective

inspiratory flow is device dependent.

Most children <4 years of age may

not generate sufficient inspiratory

flow to activate the inhaler.

Dose is lost if patient exhales through device after actuating.

Delivery may be greater or lesser than MDI, depending on device

and technique. Delivery is more flow dependent in devices with

highest internal resistance. Rapid inhalation promotes greater 

deposition in larger central airways. Mouth washing and spitting 

is effective in reducing amount of drug swallowed and absorbed.

Spacer or valved holding

chamber (VHC)

≥4 years old

<4 years old VHC

with face mask

Slow (30 L/min or 3–5 seconds)

deep inhalation, followed by 

10-second breathhold immediately

following actuation.

Actuate only once into spacer/VHC

per inhalation.

If face mask is used, it should have 

a tight fit and allow 3–5 inhalations

per actuation.

Rinse plastic VHCs once a month

with low concentration of liquid

household dishwashing detergent

(1:5,000 or 1–2 drops per cup of

water) and let drip dry.

Indicated for patients who have difficulty performing adequate 

MDI technique.

May be bulky. Simple tubes do not obviate coordinating actuation

and inhalation. The VHCs are preferred.

Face mask allows MDIs to be used with small children. However,

use of a face mask reduces delivery to lungs by 50 percent.

The VHC improves lung delivery and response in patients who 

have poor MDI technique.

The effect of a spacer or VHC on output from an MDI depends 

on both the MDI and device type; thus data from one combination 

should not be extrapolated to all others. Spacers and/or VHCs

decrease oropharyngeal deposition and thus decrease risk of 

topical side effects (e.g., thrush).

Spacers will also reduce the potential systemic availability of ICSs 

with higher oral absorption. However, spacer/VHCs may increase 

systemic availability of ICSs that are poorly absorbed orally by 

enhancing delivery to lungs.

No clinical data are available on use of spacers or VHCs with 

ultrafine-particle-generated HFA MDIs.

Use anti-static VHCs or rinse plastic non-anti-static VHCs with 

dilute household detergents to enhance delivery to lungs and 

efficacy. This effect is less pronounced for albuterol MDIs with 

HFA propellant than for albuterol MDIs with CFC propellant.

As effective as nebulizer for delivering SABAs and anticholinergics 

in mild- to moderate-exacerbations; data in severe exacerbations

are limited.
Figure 12, “Assessing Asthma Control and

Adjusting Therapy in Children”

Figure 13, “Stepwise Approach for Managing

Asthma Long Term in Children, 0–4 Years of Age

and 5–11 Years of Age”

For adults, see:

Figure 14, “Classifying Asthma Severity and

Initiating Treatment in Youths 12 Years of Age 

and Adults”

Figure 15, “Assessing Asthma Control and

Adjusting Therapy in Youths ≥ 12 Years of Age and

Adults”

Figure 16, “Stepwise Approach for Managing

Asthma in Youths ≥12 Years of Age and Adults”

For medication dosages, see:

Figure 17, “Usual Dosages for Long-Term Control 

Medications”

Figure 18, “Estimated Comparative Daily Dosages

for Inhaled Corticosteroids”

Figure 19, “Usual Dosages for Quick-Relief

Medications”

■ The stepwise approach incorporates all four 

components of care: assessment of severity to 

initiate therapy or assessment of control to monitor

and adjust therapy; patient education; environmental

control measures, and management of comorbid 

conditions at every step; and selection of medication.

■ The type, amount, and scheduling of medication is 

determined by the level of asthma severity or 

asthma control.

— Therapy is increased (stepped up) as necessary 

and decreased (stepped down) when possible.

— Because asthma is a chronic inflammatory 

disorder, persistent asthma is most effectively 

controlled with daily long-term control 

medication directed toward suppressing 

inflammation. ICSs are the most consistently

effective anti-inflammatory therapy for all age

groups, at all steps of care for persistent asthma.

— Selection among alternative treatment options 

is based on consideration of treatment 

effectiveness for the domain of particular

relevance to the patient (impairment, risk, or 

both), the individual patient’s history 

of previous response to therapies (sensitivity 

and responsiveness to different asthma 

medications can vary among patients), and the 

willingness and ability of the patient and family

to use the medication.

■ Once asthma control is achieved, monitoring and 

followup are essential, because asthma often varies 

over time. A step up in therapy may be needed,

or a step down may be possible, to identify the 

minimum medication necessary to maintain 

control.

32 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 10. AEROSOL DELIVERY DEVICES(continued)

Device/Drugs Population Optimal Technique* Therapeutic Issues

Nebulizer

Beta2-agonists

Corticosteroids

Cromolyn sodium

Anticholinergics

Patients of any age

who cannot use MDI

with VHC and face

mask.

Slow tidal breathing with occasional

deep breaths. Tightly fitting face

mask for those unable to use 

mouthpiece.

Using the “blow by” technique (i.e.,

holding the mask or open tube near 

the infant’s nose and mouth) is not

appropriate.

Less dependent on patient’s coordination and cooperation.

Delivery method of choice for cromolyn sodium in young children.

May be expensive; time consuming; bulky; output is dependent 

on device and operating parameters (fill volume, driving gas flow);

internebulizer and intranebulizer output variances are significant.

Use of a face mask reduces delivery to lungs by 50 percent.

Nebulizers are as effective as MDIs plus VHCs for delivering bronchodilators in the ED for mild to moderate exacerbations; data in

severe exacerbations are limited. Choice of delivery system is

dependent on resources, availability, and clinical judgment of the clinician caring for the patient.

Potential for bacterial infections if not cleaned properly.

Key: ED, emergency department; SABAs, inhaled short-acting beta2-agonists

*See figures in component 2—Education for a Partnership in Asthma Care for description of MDI and DPI techniques.
Managing Asthma Long Term 33

The stepwise approach and recommended treatments are meant to assist, not replace, the clinical

decisionmaking necessary to determine the most

appropriate treatment to meet the individual

patient’s needs and circumstances.

Referral to an asthma specialist for consultation or

comanagement is recommended if there are difficulties achieving or maintaining control of asthma,

if the patient required >2 bursts of oral systemic

corticosteriods in 1 year or has an exacerbation

requiring hospitalization, if step 4 care or higher is

required (step 3 care or higher for children 0–4

years of age), if immunotherapy or omalizumab is

considered, or if additional testing is indicated.

To achieve control of asthma, the following

sequence of activities is recommended:

■ For patients who are not already taking long-term 

control medications, assess asthma severity and 

initiate therapy according to the level of severity.

■ For patients who are already taking long-term 

control medications, assess asthma control and 

step up therapy if the patient’s asthma is not well 

controlled on current therapy. Before stepping up,

review the patient’s adherence to medications,

inhaler technique, and environmental control 

measures.

■ Evaluate asthma control in 2–6 weeks (depending 

on level of initial severity or control).

— In general, classify the level of asthma control 

by the most severe indicator of impairment 

or risk.

— The risk domain is usually more strongly 

associated with morbidity in young children 

than the impairment domain because young 

children are often symptom free between 

exacerbations.

— If office spirometry suggests worse control than

other measures of impairment, consider fixed 

obstruction and reassess the other measures.

If fixed obstruction does not explain the lack of

control, step up therapy, because low FEV1 is a 

predictor of exacerbations.

— If the history of exacerbations suggests poorer 

control than does assessment of impairment,

reassess impairment measures, and consider a 

step up in therapy. Review plans for handling 

exacerbations and include the use of oral 

systemic corticosteroids, especially for patients 

who have a history of severe exacerbations.

■ If asthma control is not achieved with the above 

actions:

— Review the patient’s adherence to medications,

inhaler technique, environmental control 

measures (or whether there are new 

exposures), and management of comorbid 

conditions.

— If adherence and environment control 

measures are adequate, then step up one step 

(if not well controlled ) or two steps (if very 

poorly controlled).

— If an alternative treatment was used initially,

discontinue its use and use the preferred 

treatment option before stepping up therapy.

— A short course of oral systemic corticosteroids may be considered to gain more 

rapid control for patients whose asthma 

frequently interrupts sleep or normal daily 

activities or who are experiencing an 

exacerbation at the time of assessment.

— If lack of control persists, consider alternative 

diagnoses before stepping up further.

— If the patient experiences side effects,

consider different treatment options.

To maintain control of asthma, regular followup contact is essential because asthma often varies over time.

■ Schedule patient contact at 1- to 6-month intervals;

the interval will depend on such factors as the level 

or duration of asthma control and the level of

treatment required.

■ Consider a step down in therapy once asthma is 

well controlled for at least 3 months. A step down 

is necessary to identify the minimum therapy 

required to maintain good control. A reduction 

in therapy should be gradual and must be closely 

monitored. Studies are limited in guiding therapy 

reduction. In general, the dose of ICS may be 

reduced 25 percent to 50 percent every 3 months 

to the lowest possible dose.

■ Consider seasonal periods of daily long-term 

control therapy for patients who have asthma 
symptoms only in relation to certain seasons (e.g.,

seasonal pollens, allergens, or viral respiratory 

infections) and who have intermittent asthma the 

rest of the year. This approach has not been 

rigorously evaluated; close monitoring for 2–6 

weeks after therapy is discontinued is essential to 

assure sustained asthma control.

Stepwise Treatment Recommendations for 

Different Ages

Recommendations for treatments in the different

steps are presented in three different age groups 

(0–4 years, 5–11 years, and 12 years and older)

because the course of the disease may change over

time, the relevance of measures of impairment or risk

and the potential short- and long-term impact of

medications may be age related, and varied levels of

scientific evidence are available for the different ages.

Steps for Children 0–4 Years of Age

See figure 13, for recommended treatments in the 

different steps and figures 17–19 for recommended

medication dosages. In addition to the general 

principles of the stepwise approach, special considerations for this age group include initiating therapy,

selecting among treatment options, and monitoring

response to therapy.

The initiation of daily long-term control therapy in

children ages 0–4 years is recommended as follows:

■ It is recommended for reducing impairment and 

risk of exacerbations in infants and young children 

who had four or more episodes of wheezing in the 

past year that lasted more than 1 day and affected 

sleep AND who have a positive asthma predictive 

index (either (1) one of the following: a parental 

history of asthma, a physician’s diagnosis of

atopic dermatitis, or evidence of sensitization 

to aeroallergens; OR (2) two of the following:

evidence of sensitization to foods, >4 percent 

peripheral blood eosinophilia, or wheezing apart 

from colds).

■ It should be considered for reducing impairment 

in infants and young children who consistently 

require symptomatic treatment >2 days per week 

for a period of more than 4 weeks.

■ It should be considered for reducing risk in infants 

and young children who have two exacerbations 

requiring systemic corticosteroids within 6 months.

■ It may be considered for use only during periods,

or seasons, of previously documented risk (e.g.,

during seasons of viral respiratory infections).

The decision about when to start long-term daily

therapy is difficult. The chronic airway inflammatory

response in asthma can develop in the preschool

years; for example, between 50–80 percent of children

who have asthma developed symptoms before their

fifth birthday. Adequate treatment will reduce the

burden of illness, and underdiagnosis and undertreatment are key problems in this age group. Not all

wheeze and cough are caused by asthma, however,

and caution is needed to avoid giving inappropriate,

prolonged therapy.

Initiating long-term control therapy will depend 

on consideration of issues regarding diagnosis 

and prognosis.

— Viral respiratory infections are the most 

common cause of asthma symptoms in this age

group, and many children who wheeze with 

respiratory infections respond well to asthma 

therapy even though the diagnosis of asthma is 

not clearly established. For children who have 

exacerbations with viral infections, exacerbations are often severe (requiring emergency 

care or hospitalization), yet the child has 

no significant symptoms in between these 

exacerbations. These children have a low level 

of impairment but a high level of risk.

— Most young children who wheeze with viral 

respiratory infection experience a remission 

of symptoms by 6 years of age, perhaps due to 

growing airway size.

— However, two-thirds of children who have 

frequent wheezing AND also have a positive 

asthma predictive index (see above) are likely 

to have asthma throughout childhood. Early 

identification of these children allows appropriate

treatment with environmental control 

measures and medication to reduce morbidity.

Select medications with the following considerations 

for young children:

■ Asthma treatment for young children, especially 

infants, has not been studied adequately. Most 

recommendations are based on limited data and 

extrapolations from studies in older children and 

adults. Preferred treatment options are based on 

34 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
individual drug efficacy studies in this age group;

comparator trials are not available.

■ The following long-term control medications are 

FDA approved for the following ages in young 

children: ICS budesonide nebulizer solution (1–8 

years of age); ICS fluticasone dry power inhaler 

(DPI) (>4 years of age); LABA salmeterol DPI,

alone or in combination with ICS (>4 years of age);

LTRA montelukast (chewable tablets, 2–6 years of

age; granules, down to 1 year old).

■ Several delivery devices are available, and the doses 

received may vary considerably among devices and 

age groups. In general, children <4 years of age 

will have less difficulty with a face mask and either 

(1) a nebulizer or (2) an MDI with a VHC. (See 

figure 10 above.)

■ ICSs are the preferred long-term control medication

for initiating therapy. The benefits of ICSs out

weigh any concerns about potential risks of a small,

nonprogressive reduction in growth velocity or 

other possible adverse effects. ICSs, as with all 

medications, should be titrated to as low a dose 

as needed to maintain control.

■ For children whose asthma is not well controlled 

on low-dose ICS, few studies are available on 

stepup therapy in this age group, and the studies 

have mixed findings. Some data on children ≤4 

years old and younger show dose-dependent 

improvements in the domains of impairment and 

risk of exacerbation from taking ICS. Data from 

studies on LABA combined with ICS have only 

small numbers of 4-year-old children, and these 

data show improvement in the impairment but 

not risk domain. Adding a noncorticosteroid 

long-term control medication to medium-dose 

ICS may be considered before increasing the dose

of ICS to high dose to avoid potential risk of side

effects with high doses of medication.

Monitor response to therapy closely, because 

treatment of young children is often in the form of

a therapeutic trial.

■ If a clear and beneficial response is not obvious 

within 4–6 weeks and the patient’s/family’s medication technique and adherence are satisfactory,

treatment should be stopped. Alternative therapies

or alternative diagnoses should be considered.

■ If a clear and beneficial response is sustained for

at least 3 months, consider a step down to evaluate the need for continued daily long-term control

therapy. Children in this age group have high rates

of spontaneous remission of symptoms.

Steps for Children 5–11 Years of Age

See figure 13, “Stepwise Approach for Managing

Asthma Long Term in Children, 0–4 Years of Age and

5–11 Years of Age,” for recommended treatments in

different steps and figures 17, 18, and 19 for recommended medication dosages. Special considerations

for this age group include the following:

Promote active participation in physical activities,

exercise, and sports because physical activity is an

essential part of a child’s life. Treatment immediately before vigorous activity usually prevents EIB 

(see section on “Exercise-Induced Bronchospasm”).

However, if the child has poor endurance or has

symptoms during usual play activities, a step up 

in therapy is warranted.

Directly involve children ≥10 years of age (and

younger children as appropriate) in developing

their written asthma action plans and reviewing

their adherence. This involvement may help address

developmental issues of emerging independence by

building the children’s confidence, increasing personal responsibility, and gaining problem-solving skills.

Encourage parents to take a copy of the written

asthma action plan to the student’s school, or 

childcare or extended care setting, or camp.

Consider the following when selecting treatment

options:

■ ICSs are the preferred long-term control therapy.

The benefits of ICSs outweigh any concerns about

potential risks of a small, nonprogressive reduction

in growth velocity or other possible adverse effects.

ICSs, as with all medications, should be titrated 

to as low a dose as needed to maintain control.

High-quality evidence demonstrates the effectiveness of ICS in children 5–11 years of age, and 

comparator studies demonstrate improved control

with ICS on a range of asthma outcomes compared

to other long-term control medications.

■ Step up treatment options for children whose asthma is not well controlled on low-dose ICS have not

been adequately studied or compared in this age

group. The selection will depend on the domain 

Managing Asthma Long Term 35
36 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

SAMPLE RECORD FOR MONITORING THE RISK DOMAIN IN CHILDREN: RISK OF ASTHMA PROGRESSION 

(INCREASED EXACERBATIONS OR NEED FOR DAILY MEDICATION, OR LOSS OF LUNG FUNCTION), AND 

POTENTIAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF CORTICOSTEROID THERAPY

Patient name:

Date

ICS daily dose*

LTRA

LABA

Theophylline

Other

FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 second; FVC, forced vital capacity; ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, long-acting beta2 agonist; LTRA, leukotriene

receptor antagonist

*Consider ophthalmologic exam and bone density measurement in children using high doses of ICS or multiple courses of oral corticosteroids.

Long-term control medication

Significant exacerbations

Long-term control medication

Potential risk of adverse corticosteroid effects 

(as indicated by corticosteroid dose and duration of treatment)

Exacerbations (number/month) 

Oral systemic corticosteroids (number/year)*

Hospitalization (number/year) 

Prebronchodilator FEV1/FVC

Prebronchodilator FEV1 percent predicted

Postbronchodilator FEV1 percent predicted

Percent bronchodilator reversibility

Height, cm

Percentile

Plots of growth velocity
of particular relevance (impairment, risk, or both)

and clinician–patient preference.

— For the impairment domain:

• Children who have low lung function and >2

days per week impairment may be better served

by adding a LABA to a low dose of ICS (based 

on studies in older children and adults).

• Increasing the dose of ICS to medium dose can

improve symptoms and lung function in those

children who have greater levels of impairment

(based on studies in children).

• One study in children suggests some benefit in

the impairment domain with adding LTRA.

— For the risk domain:

• Studies have not demonstrated that adding 

LABA or LTRA reduces exacerbations in children.

Adding LABA has the potential risk of rare 

life-threatening or fatal exacerbations.

• Studies in older children and adults show that

increasing the dose of ICS can reduce the risk of

exacerbations, but this may require up to a fourfold increase in the dose. This dose may increase

the potential risk of systemic effects, although 

the risk is small within the medium-dose range.

■ The need for step 4 care usually involves children

who have a low level of lung function contributing

to their impairment. The combination of ICS and

LABA is preferred, on the basis of studies in older

children and adults.

■ Before maintenance dose of oral corticosteroids is

initiated in step 6, consider a 2-week course of oral

corticosteroids to confirm clinical reversibility,

measured by spirometry, and the possibility of an

effective response to therapy. If the response is poor,

a careful review for other pulmonary conditions or

comorbid conditions should be conducted to ensure

that the primary diagnosis is severe asthma.

Monitor asthma progression. Declines in lung function or repeated periods of worsening asthma 

impairment may indicate a progressive worsening 

of the underlying severity of asthma. Although there

is no indication that treatment alters the progression

of the underlying disease in children, adjustments 

in treatment may be necessary to maintain asthma

control.

Steps for Youths 12 Years of Age and Adults

See figure 16, “Stepwise Approach for Managing

Asthma in Youths 12 Years of Age and Adults,” for

recommended treatment options in different steps

and figures 18 and 19, for recommended medication

dosages for youths 12 years of age and adults.

Special considerations for this age group include 

the following:

For youths:

■ Involve adolescents in the development of their 

written asthma action plans and reviewing their 

adherence.

■ Encourage students to take a copy of their plan 

to school, after school programs, and camps.

■ Encourage adolescents to be physically active.

For older adults:

■ Consider a short course of oral systemic 

corticosteroids to establish reversibility and the 

extent of possible benefit from asthma treatment.

Chronic bronchitis and emphysema may coexist 

with asthma.

■ Adjust medications as necessary to address 

coexisting medical conditions. For example,

consider calcium and vitamin D supplements for 

patients who take ICS and have risk factors for 

osteoporosis. Consider increased sensitivity to side 

effects of bronchodilators, especially tremor and 

tachycardia with increasing age, and increased 

possibilities for drug interactions with theophylline.

Consider also that NSAIDs prescribed for arthritis 

and the beta-blockers prescribed for hypertension 

or glaucoma may exacerbate asthma.

■ Review the patient’s technique and adherence 

in using medications, and make necessary 

adjustments. Physical or cognitive impairments 

may make proper technique difficult.

Consider the following when selecting treatment

options:

■ Recommended treatment for step 3 weighs the 

high-quality evidence demonstrating the benefits of

adding LABA to low-dose ICS against the potential 

risk of rare life-threatening or fatal exacerbations 

with the use of LABA. The selection will depend 

on the domain of particular relevance (impairment, risk, or both) and clinician–patient preference.

Managing Asthma Long Term 37
— Adding LABA more consistently results in 

improvements in the impairment domain 

compared to increasing the dose of ICS.

— If the risk domain is of particular concern, then

a balance of potential risks needs to be considered.

• Adding LABA to low-dose ICS reduces the frequency of exacerbations to a greater extent than

doubling the dose of ICS, but adding LABA has 

the potential risk of rare life-threatening or fatal

exacerbations.

• Increasing the dose of ICS can significantly reduce 

the risk of exacerbations, but this benefit may

require up to a fourfold increase in the ICS dose.

This dose may increase the potential risk of

systemic effects, although the risk is small within

the medium-dose range.

■ Comparator studies demonstrate significantly 

greater improvements with adding LABA to ICS 

compared to other adjunctive therapies.

■ Clinicians who administer omalizumab are advised 

to be prepared and equipped for the identification 

and treatment of anaphylaxis that may occur, to 

observe patients for an appropriate period of time 

following each omalizumab injection (the optimal 

length of the observation is not established), and to

educate patients about the risks of anaphylaxis and 

how to recognize and treat it if it occurs (e.g., using

prescription auto injectors for emergency self

treatment, and seeking immediate medical care).

Managing Special Situations

Patients who have asthma may encounter situations

that will require adjustments to their asthma management to keep their asthma under control, such as 

EIB, pregnancy, and surgery.

Exercise-Induced Bronchospasm

EIB should be anticipated in all asthma patients. A

history of cough, shortness of breath, chest pain or

tightness, wheezing, or endurance problems during

exercises suggests EIB. An exercise challenge,

in which a 15 percent decrease in PEF or FEV1

(measured before and after exercise at 5-minute intervals for 20–30 minutes) will establish the diagnosis.

An important dimension of adequate asthma control

is a patient’s ability to participate in any activity he or

she chooses without experiencing asthma symptoms.

EIB should not limit either participation or success 

in vigorous activities.

Recommended treatments for EIB include:

■ Long-term control therapy, if appropriate.

Frequent or severe EIB may indicate the need to

initiate or step up long-term control medications.

■ Pretreatment before exercise:

— Inhaled beta2-agonists will prevent EIB for 

more than 80 percent of patients. SABA used 

shortly before exercise may be helpful for 2–3 

hours. LABA can be protective up to 12 hours,

but there is some shortening of the duration of

protection when LABA is used on a daily basis.

Frequent or chronic use of LABA as pretreatment for EIB is discouraged, as it may disguise

poorly controlled persistent asthma.

— LTRAs, with an onset of action generally hours 

after administration, can attenuate EIB in up 

to 50 percent of patients.

— Cromolyn or nedocromil taken shortly before 

exercise is an alternative treatment, but it is 

not as effective as SABAs.

— A warmup period before exercise may reduce 

the degree of EIB.

— A mask or scarf over the mouth may attenuate 

cold-induced EIB.

Pregnancy

Maintaining asthma control during pregnancy is

important for the health and well-being of both the

mother and her baby. Maintaining lung function 

is important to ensure oxygen supply to the fetus.

Uncontrolled asthma increases the risk of perinatal

mortality, preeclampsia, preterm birth, and 

low-birth-weight infants. It is safer for pregnant

women to be treated with asthma medications than

to have asthma symptoms and exacerbations.

■ Monitor the level of asthma control and lung 

function during prenatal visits. The course of

asthma improves in one-third of women and 

worsens for one-third of women during pregnancy.

Monthly evaluations of asthma will allow the 

opportunity to step up therapy if necessary and to

step down therapy if possible.

38 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
■ Albuterol is the preferred SABA. The most data 

related to safety during human pregnancy are 

available for abuterol.

■ ICSs are the preferred long-term control 

medication. Budesonide is the preferred ICS

because more data are available on using budesonide

in pregnant women than are available on other ICSs,

and the data are reassuring. However, no data 

indicate that the other ICS preparations are unsafe

during pregnancy.

Surgery

Patients who have asthma are at risk for complications during and after surgery. These complications

include acute bronchoconstriction triggered by 

intubation, hypoxemia and possible hypercapnia,

impaired effectiveness of cough, atelectasis, and 

respiratory infection, and, if a history of sensitivity 

is present, reactions to latex exposure or some 

anesthetic agents.

The following actions are recommended to reduce

the risk of complications during surgery:

■ Before surgery, review the level of asthma control,

medication use (especially oral systemic corticosteroids within the past 6 months), and pulmonary 

function.

■ Provide medications before surgery to improve 

lung function if lung function is not well 

controlled. A short course of oral systemic 

corti costeroids may be necessary.

■ For patients receiving oral systemic corticosteroids 

during the 6 months prior to surgery and for 

selected patients on long-term high-dose ICS, give

100 mg hydrocortisone every 8 hours intravenously

during the surgical period, and reduce the dose

rapidly within 24 hours after surgery.

Disparities

Multiple factors contribute to the higher rates of

poorly controlled asthma and asthma deaths among

Blacks and Latinos compared to Whites. These 

factors include socioeconomic disparities in access to

quality medical care, underprescription and underutilization of long-term control medication, cultural

beliefs and practices about asthma management, and

perhaps biological and pathophysiological differences

that affect the underlying severity of asthma and

response to treatment. Heightened awareness of

disparities and cultural barriers, improving access

to quality care, and improving communication

strategies between clinicians and ethnic or racial

minority patients regarding use of asthma 

medications may improve asthma outcomes.

Managing Asthma Long Term 39
40 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma FIGURE 11. CLASSIFYING ASTHMA SEVERITY AND INITIATING THERAPY IN CHILDREN Key: FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 second; FVC, forced vital capacity; ICS, inhaled corticosteroids; ICU, intensive care unit; N/A, not applicable Notes:

■ Level of severity is determined by

both impairment and risk. Assessimpairment domain by caregiver’srecall of previous 2–4 weeks.Assign severity to the most severecategory in which any featureoccurs.

■ Frequency and severity of exacerbations may fluctuate over time for

patients in any severity category.

At present, there are inadequatedata to correspond frequencies of exacerbations with different levels of asthma severity. In general,more frequent and severe exacerbations (e.g., requiring urgent,unscheduled care, hospitalization,or ICU admission) indicate greater

underlying disease severity. Fortreatment purposes, patients with ≥2exacerbations described above may

be considered the same as patientswho have persistent asthma, even in

the absence of impairment levels consistent with persistent asthma.
Managing Asthma Long Term 41

FIGURE 12. ASSESSING ASTHMA CONTROL AND ADJUSTING THERAPY IN CHILDREN

Key: EIB, exercise-induced bronchospasm, FEV1, forced expiratory 

volume in 1 second; FVC, forced vitalcapacity; ICU, intensive care unit; N/A, not applicableNotes:

■ The level of control is based on the

most severe impairment or risk category. Assess impairmentdomain by patient’s or caregiver’s 

recall of previous 2–4 weeks.Symptom assessment for longerperiods should reflect a globalassessment, such as whether the patient’s asthma is better orworse since the last visit.

■ At present, there are inadequate

data to correspond frequencies of

exacerbations with different levels ofasthma control. In general, morefrequent and intense exacerbations(e.g., requiring urgent, unscheduledcare, hospitalization, or ICU admission) indicate poorer disease control.
42 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma FIGURE 13. STEPWISE APPROACH FOR MANAGING ASTHMA LONG TERM IN CHILDREN, 0–4 YEARS OF AGE AND 5–11 YEARS OF AGE LABA or Montelukast Oral corticosteriods ICS
Managing Asthma Long Term 43

FIGURE 14. CLASSIFYING ASTHMA SEVERITY AND INITIATING TREATMENT IN YOUTHS 12 YEARS OF AGE AND ADULTS

Assessing severity and initiating treatment for patients who are not currently takinglong-term control medications

Key: EIB, exercise-induced bronchospasm, FEV1, forced expiratory 

volume in 1 second; FVC, forced vitalcapacity; ICU, intensive care unitNotes:

• The stepwise approach is meant to

assist, not replace, the clinical decisionmaking required to meetindividual patient needs.

• Level of severity is determined by

assessment of both impairment andrisk. Assess impairment domain bypatient’s/caregiver’s recall of previous 2–4 weeks and spirometry.Assign severity to the most severecategory in which any featureoccurs.

• At present, there are inadequate

data to correspond frequencies of

exacerbations with different levels of asthma severity. In general, more

frequent and intense exacerbations(e.g., requiring urgent, unscheduledcare, hospitalization, or ICU admission) indicate greater underlying disease severity. Fortreatment purposes, patients whohad ≥2 exacerbations requiring oralsystemic corticosteroids in the pastyear may be considered the same as patients who have persistentasthma, even in the absence ofimpairment levels consistent withpersistent asthma.
44 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma FIGURE 15. ASSESSING ASTHMA CONTROL AND ADJUSTING THERAPY IN YOUTHS ≥12 YEARS OF AGE AND ADULTS *ACQ values of 0.76–1.4 are indeterminate regarding well-controlled asthma. Key: EIB, exercise-induced bronchospasm; ICU, intensive care unit Notes: • The stepwise approach is meant to assist, not replace, the clinical decisionmaking required to meet individual patient needs. • The level of control is based on the most severe impair- ment or risk category. Assess impairment domain by patient’s recall of previous 2–4 weeks and by spirometry/or peak flow measures. Symptom assessment for longer periods should reflect a global assessment, such as inquiring whether the patient’s asthma is better or worse since the last visit. • At present, there are inadequate data to correspond fre- quencies of exacerbations with different levels of asthma control. In general, more frequent and intense exacerbations (e.g., requiring urgent, unscheduled care,

hospitalization, or ICU admission) indicate poorer diseasecontrol. For treatment purposes, patients who had ≥2exacerbations requiring oral systemic corticosteroids in thepast year may be considered the same as patients whohave not-well-controlled asthma, even in the absence ofimpairment levels consistent with not-well-controlled asthma.

ATAQ = Asthma Therapy Assessment Questionnaire©

ACQ = Asthma Control Questionnaire©ACT = Asthma Control TestTM Minimal Important Difference: 1.0 for the ATAQ; 0.5 for the ACQ; not 

determined for the ACT.

Before step up in therapy:— Review adherence to medication, inhaler technique,

environmental control, and comorbid conditions.

— If an alternative treatment option was used in a step,

discontinue and use the preferred treatment for that step.
Managing Asthma Long Term 45

FIGURE 16. STEPWISE APPROACH FOR MANAGING ASTHMA IN YOUTHS ≥12 YEARS OF AGE AND ADULTS

Key: Alphabetical order is used when more than onetreatment option is listed within either preferred oralternative therapy. ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, longacting inhaled beta2-agonist; LTRA, leukotriene receptor

antagonist; SABA, inhaled short-acting beta2-agonist

Notes:

• The stepwise approach is meant to assist, not replace, the

clinical decisionmaking required to meet individual patientneeds.

• If alternative treatment is used and response is inadequate,

discontinue it and use the preferred treatment before stepping up.

• Zileuton is a less desirable alternative due to limited 

studies as adjunctive therapy and the need to monitor 

liver function. Theophylline requires monitoring of serumconcentration levels.

• In step 6, before oral corticosteroids are introduced, a trial

of high-dose ICS + LABA + either LTRA, theophylline, orzileuton may be considered, although this approach hasnot been studied in clinical trials.

• Step 1, 2, and 3 preferred therapies are based on Evidence

A; step 3 alternative therapy is based on Evidence A forLTRA, Evidence B for theophylline, and Evidence D for

zileuton. Step 4 preferred therapy is based on Evidence B,and alternative therapy is based on Evidence B for LTRAand theophylline and Evidence D zileuton. Step 5 preferred therapy is based on Evidence B. Step 6 preferred

therapy is based on (EPR—2 1997) and Evidence B for omalizumab.

• Immunotherapy for steps 2–4 is based on Evidence B for

house-dust mites, animal danders, and pollens; evidence isweak or lacking for molds and cockroaches. Evidence isstrongest for immunotherapy with single allergens. The role

of allergy in asthma is greater in children than in adults.

• Clinicians who administer immunotherapy or omalizumab

should be prepared and equipped to identify and treat anaphylaxis that may occur.
46 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 17. USUAL DOSAGES FOR LONG-TERM CONTROL MEDICATIONS*

Medication

0–4 Years

of Age

Methylprednisolone

2, 4, 8, 16,

32 mg tablets

Prednisolone

5 mg tablets,

5 mg/5 cc,

15 mg/5 cc

Prednisone

1, 2.5, 5, 10, 20,

50 mg tablets;

5 mg/cc,

5 mg/5 cc

0.25–2 mg/kg

daily in single

dose in a.m. or

qod as needed

for control

Short-course

“burst”: 1–2

mg/kg/day, maximum 60 mg/day

for 3–10 days

5–11 Years

of Age

0.25–2 mg/kg

daily in single

dose in a.m. or

qod as needed

for control

Short-course

“burst”: 1–2

mg/kg/day, maximum 60 mg/day

for 3–10 days

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults

7.5–60 mg daily

in a single dose

in a.m. or qod

as needed for

control

Short-course

“burst”: to

achieve control,

40–60 mg per

day as single or

2 divided doses

for 3–10 days

■ Short-term use: reversible

abnormalities in glucose metabolism, increased appetite, fluid

retention, weight gain, mood

alteration, hypertension, peptic

ulcer, and rarely aseptic necrosis.

■ Long-term use: adrenal axis

suppression, growth suppression,

dermal thinning, hypertension,

diabetes, Cushing’s syndrome,

cataracts, muscle weakness,

and—in rare instances

—impaired immune function.

■ Consideration should be given to

coexisting conditions that could

be worsened by systemic corticosteroids, such as herpes virus

infections, varicella, tuberculosis,

hypertension, peptic ulcer, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, and

Strongyloides

Potential Adverse Effects

Inhaled Corticosteroids (See Figure 18, “Estimated Comparative Daily Dosages for ICSs.”)

Key: DPI, dry powder inhaler; EIB, exercise-induced broncospasm; HFA, hydrofluoroalkane; ICS, inhaled corticosteroids; IgE, immunoglobulin E; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; 

NA, not available (either not approved, no data available, or safety and efficacy not established for this age group); SABA, short-acting beta2-agonist

*Note: Dosages are provided for those products that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration or have sufficient clinical trial safety and efficacy data 

in the appropriate age ranges to support their use.

Comments (not all inclusive)

■ For long-term treatment of severe 

persistent asthma, administer single 

dose in a.m. either daily or on alternate

days (alternate-day therapy may 

produce less adrenal suppression).

■ Short courses or “bursts” are effective 

for establishing control when initiating

therapy or during a period of gradual 

deterioration.

■ There is no evidence that tapering 

the dose following improvement in 

symptom control and pulmonary function

prevents relapse.

■ Children receiving the lower dose 

(1 mg/kg/day) experience fewer 

behavioral side effects, and it appears 

to be equally efficacious.

■ For patients unable to tolerate the liquid

preparations, dexamethasone syrup at 

0.4 mg/kg/day may be an alternative.

Studies are limited, however, and the

longer duration of activity increases the

risk of adrenal suppression.

Oral Systemic Corticosteroids (Apply to all three corticosteriods.)

Salmeterol

DPI 50 mcg/

blister

Formoterol

DPI 12 mcg/

single-use 

capsule

NA

NA

1 blister 

q 12 hours

1 capsule

q 12 hours

1 blister

q 12 hours

1 capsule

q 12 hours

■ Tachycardia, skeletal muscle

tremor, hypokalemia, prolongation

of QTc interval in overdose.

■ A diminished bronchoprotective

effect may occur within 1 week

of chronic therapy. Clinical significance has not been established.

■ Potential risk of uncommon,

severe, life-threatening or fatal

exacerbation; see text for additional discussion regarding safety

of LABAs.

■ Should not be used for acute 

symptom relief or exacerbations.

Use only with ICSs.

■ Decreased duration of protection against

EIB may occur with redgular use.

■ Most children <4 years of age cannot

provide sufficient inspiratory flow for 

adequate lung delivery.

■ Do not blow into inhaler after dose is 

activated.

■ Each capsule is for single use only; additional doses should not be administered

for at least 12 hours.

■ Capsules should be used only with the

inhaler and should not be taken orally.

Inhaled Long-Acting Beta2-Agonists (LABAs) (Apply to both LABAs.)
Managing Asthma Long Term 47

FIGURE 17. USUAL DOSAGES FOR LONG-TERM CONTROL MEDICATIONS* (continued)

Medication

0–4 Years

of Age

Fluticasone/Salmeterol

DPI

100 mcg/50 mcg,

250 mcg/50 mcg,

or 500 mcg/

50 mcg

HFA

45 mcg/21 mcg

115 mcg/21 mcg

230 mcg/21 mcg

NA

5–11 Years

of Age

1 inhalation bid,

dose depends on

level of severity 

or control 

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults

1 inhalation bid;

dose depends on

level of severity 

or control

■ See notes for ICS and LABA.

Potential Adverse Effects Comments (not all inclusive)

■ There have been no clinical trials in 

children <4 years of age.

■ Most children <4 years of age cannot

provide sufficient inspiratory flow for 

adequate lung delivery.

■ Do not blow into inhaler after dose is 

activated.

■ 100/50 DPI or 45/21 HFA for patients

who have asthma not controlled on 

low- to medium-dose ICS

■ 250/50 DPI or 115/21 HFA for patients

who have asthma not controlled on 

medium to high dose ICS.

Combined Medication

Budesonide/

Formoterol

HFA MDI

80 mcg/4.5 mcg

160mcg/4.5 mcg

NA 2 puffs bid, dose

depends on level

of severity or 

control

2 puffs bid; dose

depends on level

of severity or 

control

■ See notes for ICS and LABA.

Cromolyn

MDI 

0.8 mg/puff

Nebulizer

20 mg/ampule

Nedocromil

MDI

1.75 mg/puff

NA

1 ampule qid

NA <2 years of

age

NA <6 years of

age

2 puffs qid

1 ampule qid

2 puffs qid

2 puffs qid

1 ampule qid

2 puffs qid

■ Cough and irritation.

■ 15–20 percent of patients 

complain of an unpleasant taste

from nedocromil.

■ Safety is the primary advantage 

of these 

Cromolyn/Nedocromil 

■ One dose of cromolyn before exercise 

or allergen exposure provides effective

prophylaxis for 1–2 hours. Not as 

effective as inhaled beta2-agonists for 

EIB as SABA.

■ 4- to 6-week trial of cromolyn or

nedocromil may be needed to determine

maximum benefit.

■ Dose by MDI may be inadequate to 

affect hyperresponsiveness.

■ Once control is achieved, the frequency 

of dosing may be reduced.

■ There have been no clinical trials in 

children <4 years of age.

■ Currently approved for use in youths 

≥12 years of age. Dose for children 

5–12 years of age based on clinical 

trials using DPI with slightly different

delivery characteristics.

■ 80/4.5 for patients who have asthma 

not controlled on low- to medium-dose

ICS.

■ 160/4.5 for patients who have asthma 

not controlled on medium- to high-dose

ICS.
48 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 17. USUAL DOSAGES FOR LONG-TERM CONTROL MEDICATIONS* (continued)

Medication

0–4 Years

of Age

5–11 Years

of Age

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults Potential Adverse Effects Comments (not all inclusive)

Omalizumab 

(Anti IgE)

Subcutaneous 

injection, 150 mg/

1.2 mL following 

reconstitution with 

1.4 mL sterile 

water for injection

NA NA 150–375 mg SC

q 2–4 weeks,

depending on

body weight and

pretreatment

serum IgE level

■ Pain and bruising of injection sites

in 5–20 percent of patients.

■ Anaphylaxis has been reported in

0.2% of treated patients.

■ Malignant neoplasms were 

reported in 0.5 percent of patients 

compared to 0.2 percent receiving

placebo; relationship to drug is

unclear.

■ Do not administer more than 150 mg 

per injection site.

■ Monitor patients following injections; be

prepared and equipped to identify and

treat anaphylaxis that may occur.

■ Whether patients will develop significant

antibody titers to the drug with 

long-term administration is unknown.

Leukotriene Receptor

Antagonists (LTRAs) 

Montelukast

4 mg or 5 mg

chewable tablet

4 mg granule 

packets

10 mg tablet

Zafirlukast

10 mg tablet

20 mg tablet

4 mg qhs

(1–5 years of

age)

NA

5 mg qhs

(6–14 years of

age)

10 mg bid

(7–11 years of

age)

10 mg qhs

40 mg daily

(20 mg tablet 

bid)

■ No specific adverse effects have 

been identified.

■ Rare cases of Churg-Strauss

have occurred, but the 

association is unclear.

■ Postmarketing surveillance has

reported cases of reversible 

hepatitis and, rarely, irreversible

hepatic failure resulting in death

and liver transplantation.

Leukotriene Modifiers

■ Montelukast exhibits a flat dose-response

curve. Doses >10 mg will not produce 

a greater response in adults.

■ No more efficacious than placebo in

infants ages 6–24 months.

■ As long-term therapy may attenuate 

exercise-induced bronchospasm in some

patients, but less effective than ICS therapy.

■ For zafirlukast, administration with meals 

decreases bioavailability; take at least 

1 hour before or 2 hours after meals.

■ Zarfirlukast is a microsomal P450 enzyme

inhibitor that can inhibit the metabolism 

of warfarin. Doses of these drugs should

be monitored accordingly.

■ Monitor hepatic enzymes (ALT). Warn

patients to discontinue use if they 

experience signs and symptoms of liver

dysfunction.

Immunomodulators

5-Lipoxygenase

Inhibitor

Zileuton

600 mg tablet

NA NA 2,400 mg daily

(give tablets qid)

■ Elevation of liver enzymes has

been reported. Limited case

reports of reversible hepatitis and

hyperbilirubinemia.

■ For zileuton, monitor hepatic enzymes (ALT).

■ Zileuton is a microsomal P450 enzyme

inhibitor that can inhibit the metabolism

of warfarin and theophylline. Doses 

of these drugs should be monitored

accordingly.

Theophylline

Liquids, sustainedrelease tablets,

and capsules

Starting dose 

10 mg/kg/day;

usual maximum:

■ <1 year of

age: 0.2 (age

in weeks) + 5

= mg/kg/day

■ ≥1 year 

of age:

16 mg/kg/day

Starting dose 

10 mg/kg/day;

usual maximum:

16 mg/kg/day

Starting dose

10 mg/kg/day up

to 300 mg

maximum; usual

maximum:

800 mg/day

■ Dose-related acute toxicities

include tachycardia, nausea and

vomiting, tachyarrhythmias (SVT),

central nervous system stimulation, headache, seizures,

hematemesis, hyperglycemia,

and hypokalemia.

■ Adverse effects at usual 

therapeutic doses include

insomnia, gastric upset,

aggravation of ulcer or reflux,

increase in hyperactivity in

some children, difficulty in 

urination in elderly males

who have prostatism.

Methylxanthines

■ Adjust dosage to achieve serum

concentration of 5–15 mcg/mL at steady

state (at least 48 hours on same dosage).

■ Due to wide interpatient variability 

in theophylline metabolic clearance,

routine serum theophylline level 

monitoring is essential.

■ Patients should be told to discontinue 

if they experience toxicity.

■ Various factors (diet, food, febrile illness,

age, smoking, and other medications) 

can affect serum concentrations. See

EPR—3 Full Report 2007 and package

inserts for details.
Managing Asthma Long Term 49

FIGURE 18. ESTIMATED COMPARATIVE DAILY DOSAGES FOR INHALED CORTICOSTEROIDS

Beclomethasone HFA

40 or 80 mcg/puff

Budesonide DPI

90, 180, or 200

mcg/inhalation

Budesonide Inhaled

Inhalation suspension

for nebulization

Flunisolide

250 mcg/puff

Flunisolide HFA 

80 mcg/puff

Fluticasone 

HFA/MDI: 44, 110, or 

220 mcg/puff

DPI: 50, 100, or

250 mcg/inhalation

Mometasone DPI

200 mcg/inhalation

Triamcinolone 

acetonide

75 mcg/puff

NA

NA

0.25–0.5 mg

NA

NA

176 mcg

NA

NA

NA

80–160 mcg

180–400 mcg

0.5 mg

500–750 mcg

160 mcg

88–176 mcg

100–200 mcg

NA

300–600 mcg

80–240 mcg

180–600 mcg

NA

500–1,000 mcg

320 mcg

88–264 mcg

100–300 mcg

200 mcg

300–750 mcg

NA

NA

>0.5–1.0 mg

NA

NA

>176–352 mcg

NA

NA

NA

Key: DPI, dry power inhaler; HFA, hydrofluoroalkane; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; NA, not available (either not approved, no data available, or safety and efficacy not established for this age group)

>160–320 mcg

>400–800 mcg

1.0 mg

1,000–

1,250 mcg

320 mcg

>176–352 mcg

>200–400 mcg

NA

>600–900 mcg

>240–480 mcg

>600–

1,200 mcg

NA

>1,000–

2,000 mcg

>320–640 mcg

>264–440 mcg

>300–500 mcg

400 mcg

>750–

1,500 mcg

NA

NA

>1.0 mg

NA

NA

>352 mcg

NA

NA

NA

>320 mcg

>800 mcg

2.0 mg

>1,250 mcg

≥640 mcg

>352 mcg

>400 mcg

NA

>900 mcg

Drug

>480 mcg

>1,200 mcg

NA

>2,000 mcg

>640 mcg

>440 mcg

>500 mcg

>400 mcg

>1,500 mcg

Therapeutic Issues:

■ The most important determinant of appropriate dosing is the clinician’s judgment of the patient’s response to therapy. The clinician must monitor the patient’s response on several

clinical parameters and adjust the dose accordingly. Once control of asthma is achieved, the dose should be carefully titrated to the minimum dose required to maintain control.

■ Preparations are not interchangeable on a mcg or per puff basis. This figure presents estimated comparable daily doses. See EPR—3 Full Report 2007 for full discussion.

■ Some doses may be outside package labeling, especially in the high-dose range. Budesonide nebulizer suspension is the only inhaled corticosteroid (ICS) with FDA-approved 

labeling for children <4 years of age.

■ For children <4 years of age: The safety and efficacy of ICSs in children <1 year has not been established. Children <4 years of age generally require delivery of ICS (budesonide

and fluticasone HFA) through a face mask that should fit snugly over nose and mouth and avoid nebulizing in the eyes. Wash face after each treatment to prevent local corticosteroid side effects. For budesonide, the dose may be administered 1–3 times daily. Budesonide suspension is compatible with albuterol, ipratropium, and levalbuterol nebulizer

solutions in the same nebulizer. Use only jet nebulizers, as ultrasonic nebulizers are ineffective for suspensions. For fluticasone HFA, the dose should be divided 2 times daily; 

the low dose for children <4 years of age is higher than for children 5–11 years of age due to lower dose delivered with face mask and data on efficacy in young children.

Potential Adverse Effects of Inhaled Corticosteroids:

■ Cough, dysphonia, oral thrush (candidiasis).

■ Spacer or valved holding chamber with non-breath-actuated MDIs and mouthwashing and spitting after inhalation decrease local side effects.

■ A number of the ICSs, including fluticasone, budesonide, and mometasone, are metabolized in the gastrointestinal tract and liver by CYP 3A4 isoenzymes. Potent inhibitors of 

CYP 3A4, such as ritonavir and ketoconazole, have the potential for increasing systemic concentrations of these ICSs by increasing oral availability and decreasing systemic 

clearance. Some cases of clinically significant Cushing syndrome and secondary adrenal insufficiency have been reported.

■ In high doses, systemic effects may occur, although studies are not conclusive, and clinical significance of these effects has not been established (e.g., adrenal suppression,

osteoporosis, skin thinning, and easy bruising). In low-to-medium doses, suppression of growth velocity has been observed in children, but this effect may be transient, and 

the clinical significance has not been established.

Child 0–4

Years of Age

Child 5–11

Years of Age

≥12 Years 

of Age and

Adults

Low Daily Dose

Child 0–4

Years of Age

Child 5–11

Years of Age

≥12 Years

of Age and

Adults

Medium Daily Dose

Child 0–4

Years of Age

Child 5–11

Years of Age

≥12 Years

of Age and

Adults

High Daily Dose
50 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 19. USUAL DOSAGES FOR QUICK-RELIEF MEDICATIONS* 

Medication

<5 Years

of Age

MDI

Albuterol CFC

90 mcg/puff,

200 puffs/canister

Albuterol HFA

90 mcg/puff,

200 puffs/canister

Levalbuterol HFA

45 mcg/puff,

200 puffs/canister

Pirbuterol CFC

Autohaler

200 mcg/puff,

400 puffs/canister

1–2 puffs

5 minutes before

exercise

2 puffs every 

4–6 hours, as

needed for 

symptoms

NA <4 years of

age

NA

5–11 Years

of Age

2 puffs

5 minutes before

exercise

2 puffs every 

4–6 hours, as

needed for 

symptoms

NA

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults

2 puffs

5 minutes before

exercise

2 puffs every 

4–6 hours, as

needed for 

symptoms

■ Tachycardia, skeletal muscle

tremor, hypokalemia,

increased lactic acid,

headache, hyperglycemia.

Inhaled route, in general,

causes few systemic

adverse effects. Patients

with preexisting cardiovascular disease, especially the

elderly, may have adverse

cardiovascular reactions

with inhaled therapy.

Potential Adverse Effects Comments (not all inclusive) 

■ Drugs of choice for acute bronchospasm.

■ Differences in potencies exist, but all 

products are essentially comparable on a 

puff per puff basis.

■ An increasing use or lack of expected effect 

indicates diminished control of asthma.

■ Not recommended for long-term daily treatment. Regular use exceeding 2 days/week 

for symptom control (not prevention of EIB)

indicates the need for additional long-term

control therapy.

■ May double usual dose for mild exacerbations.

■ For levalbuterol, prime the inhaler by releasing 

4 actuations prior to use.

■ For HFA: periodically clean HFA actuator, as

drug may plug orifice.

■ For autohaler: children <4 years of age 

may not generate sufficient inspiratory flow 

to activate an auto-inhaler.

■ Nonselective agents (i.e., epinephrine,

isoproterenol, metaproterenol) are not recommended due to their potential for excessive

cardiac stimulation, especially in high doses.

Inhaled Short-Acting Beta2-Agonists

Key: CFC, chlorofluorocarbon; ED, emergency department; EIB, exercise-induced bronchospasm; HFA, hydrofluoroalkane; IM, intramuscular; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; 

NA, not available (either not approved, no data available, or safety and efficacy not established for this age group); PEF, peak expiratory flor; SABA, short-acting beta2-agonist

*Dosages are provided for those products that have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or have sufficient clinical trial safety and efficacy data in the

appropriate age ranges to support their use.

Nebulizer solution

Albuterol

0.63 mg/3 mL

1.25 mg/3 mL

2.5 mg/3 mL

5 mg/mL (0.5%)

Levalbuterol 

(R-albuterol)

0.31 mg/3 mL

0.63 mg/3 mL

1.25 mg/0.5 mL

1.25 mg/3 mL

0.63–2.5 mg in 

3 cc of saline 

q 4–6 hours, as

needed

0.31–1.25 mg 

in 3 cc 

q 4–6 hours, as

needed for symptoms

1.25–5 mg in 

3 cc of saline 

q 4–8 hours, as

needed

0.31–0.63 mg,

q 8 hours,

as needed for

symptoms

1.25–5 mg in 

3 cc of saline 

q 4–8 hours, as

needed

0.63 mg–

1.25 mg

q 8 hours,

as needed for

symptoms

(Same as with MDI)

(Same as with MDI)

■ May mix with cromolyn solution, budesonide

inhalant suspension, or ipratropium solution

for nebulization. May double dose for severe

exacerbations.

■ Does not have FDA-approved labeling for 

children <6 years of age.

■ Compatible with budesonide inhalant 

suspension. The product is a sterile-filled 

preservative-free unit dose vial.

Dose applies 

to Albuterol.

Dose applies

to

Albuterol/and

Levalbuterol.

Dose applies

to all four

SABAs

Apply to all four (SABAs)
Managing Asthma Long Term 51

FIGURE 19. USUAL DOSAGES FOR QUICK-RELIEF MEDICATIONS* (continued)

Medication

<5 Years

of Age

5–11 Years

of Age

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults Potential Adverse Effects Comments (not all inclusive) 

Ipratropium HFA

MDI

17 mcg/puff,

200 puffs/canister

Nebulizer solution

0.25 mg/mL 

(0.025%)

Ipratropium with 

albuterol

MDI

18 mcg/puff of 

ipratropium 

bromide and 

90 mcg/puff of 

albuterol

200 puffs/canister

Nebulizer solution

0.5 mg/3 mL 

ipratropium 

bromide and 

2.5 mg/3 mL 

albuterol

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

2–3 puffs 

q 6 hours

0.25 mg 

q 6 hours

2–3 puffs

q 6 hours

3 mL

q 4–6 hours

■ Drying of mouth and 

respiratory secretions,

increased wheezing in

some individuals, blurred

vision if sprayed in eyes.

If used in the ED, produces

less cardiac stimulation

than SABAs.

■ Multiple doses in the emergency department

(not hospital) setting provide additive benefit 

to SABA.

■ Treatment of choice for bronchospasm due 

to beta-blocker medication.

■ Does not block EIB.

■ Reverses only cholinergically mediated 

bronchospasm; does not modify reaction 

to antigen.

■ May be an alternative for patients who 

do not tolerate SABA.

■ Has not proven to be efficacious as 

long-term control therapy for asthma.

■ Contains EDTA to prevent discoloration of 

the solution. This additive does not induce

bronchospasm.

Anticholinergics

Methylprednisolone

2, 4, 6, 8, 16,

32 mg tablets

Prednisolone

5 mg tablets,

5 mg/5 cc,

15 mg/5 cc

Prednisone

1, 2.5, 5, 10, 20,

50 mg tablets; 

5 mg/cc,

5 mg/5 cc

Short course

“burst:”

1–2 mg/kg/

day, maximum 

60 mg/day, for

3–10 days

Short course

“burst”:

1-2 mg/kg/day 

maximum

60 mg/day

for 3–10 days

Short course

“burst”:

40–60 mg/day 

as single or 

2 divided doses

for 3–10 days

■ Short-term use: reversible

abnormalities in glucose

metabolism, increased

appetite, fluid retention,

weight gain, facial flushing,

mood alteration, hypertension, peptic ulcer, and

rarely aseptic necrosis.

■ Consideration should be

given to coexisting conditions that could be worsened by systemic corticosteroids, such as herpes

virus infections, varicella,

tuberculosis, hypertension,

peptic ulcer, diabetes 

mellitus, osteoporosis,

and Strongyloides.

(Applies to the first three corticosteroids.)

■ Short courses or “bursts” are effective for

establishing control when initiating therapy 

or during a period of gradual deterioration.

Action may begin within an hour.

■ The burst should be continued until patient

achieves 80 percent PEF personal best or 

symptoms resolve. This usually requires 

3–10 days but may require longer. There is

no evidence that tapering the dose following

improvement prevents relapse in asthma

exacerbations.

■ Other systemic corticosteroids such as 

hydrocortisone and dexamethasone given 

in equipotent daily doses are likely to be as

effective as prednisolone.

Systemic Corticosteroids

Dosages apply to first three corticosteroids.
52 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 19. USUAL DOSAGES FOR QUICK-RELIEF MEDICATIONS* (continued)

Medication

<5 Years

of Age

5–11 Years

of Age

≥12 Years of

Age and Adults Potential Adverse Effects Comments (not all inclusive) 

Repository 

injection

(Methylprednisolone

acetate)

40 mg/mL

80 mg/mL

7.5 mg/kg IM

once

240 mg IM once 240 mg IM once ■ May be used in place of a short burst of 

oral steroids in patients who are vomiting or 

if adherence is a problem.

Systemic Corticosteroids (continued)
Asthma exacerbations are acute or subacute episodes

of progressively worsening shortness of breath, cough,

wheezing, and chest tightness, or some combination of

these symptoms. Exacerbations are characterized by

decreases in expiratory airflow; objective measures of

lung function (spirometry or PEF) are more reliable

indicators of severity than symptoms are. Individuals

whose asthma is well controlled with ICSs have

decreased risk of exacerbations. However, these

patients can still be vulnerable to exacerbations, for

example, when they have viral respiratory infections.

Effective management of exacerbations incorporates

the same four components of asthma management

used in managing asthma long term: assessment 

and monitoring, patient education, environmental

control, and medications.

Classifying Severity

Do not underestimate the severity of an exacerbation. Severe exacerbations can be life threatening

and can occur in patients at any level of asthma

severity—i.e., intermittent, or mild, moderate, or

severe persistent asthma. See figure 20, “Classifying

Severity of Asthma Exacerbations in the Urgent or

Emergency Care Setting.”

Patients at high risk of asthma-related death require

special attention—particularly intensive education,

monitoring, and care. Such patients should be

advised to seek medical care early during an exacerbation. Risk factors for asthma-related death include:

■ Previous severe exacerbation (e.g., intubation or 

ICU admission for asthma)

■ Two or more hospitalizations or >3 ED visits in the 

past year

■ Use of >2 canisters of SABA per month

■ Difficulty perceiving airway obstruction or the 

severity of worsening asthma

■ Low socioeconomic status or inner-city residence

■ Illicit drug use

■ Major psychosocial problems or psychiatric disease

■ Comorbidities, such as cardiovascular disease or 

other chronic lung disease

Home Management

Early treatment by the patient at home is the best 

strategy for managing asthma exacerbations.

Patients should be instructed how to:

■ Use a written asthma action plan that notes when 

and how to treat signs of an exacerbation. A peak 

flow-based plan may be particularly useful for

patients who have difficulty perceiving airflow

obstruction or have a history of severe 

exacerbations.

■ Recognize early indicators of an exacerbation,

including worsening PEF.

■ Adjust their medications by increasing SABA and,

in some cases, adding a short course of oral 

systemic corticosteroids. Doubling the dose of

ICSs is not effective.

■ Remove or withdraw from allergens or irritants in

the environment that may contribute to the 

exacerbation.

■ Monitor response to treatment and promptly

communicate with the clinician about any serious

deterioration in symptoms or PEF or about

decreased responsiveness to SABA treatment,

including decreased duration of effect.

The following home management techniques are

not recommended because no studies demonstrate

their effectiveness and they may delay patients from

obtaining necessary care: drinking large volumes of

liquids; breathing warm, moist air; or using over-thecounter products, such as antihistamines or cold

remedies. Pursed-lip and other forms of breathing

may help to maintain calm, but these methods do not

improve lung function.

Managing Exacerbations

Managing Exacerbations 53
54 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 20. CLASSIFYING SEVERITY OF ASTHMA EXACERBATIONS IN THE URGENT OR EMERGENCY CARE SETTING

Symptoms and Signs

Mild

Moderate

Severe

Subset: Life

threatening

Dyspnea only with

activity (assess 

tachypnea in young

children)

Initial PEF (or FEV1)

PEF ≥ 70 percent 

predicted or personal best

Clinical Course

■ Usually cared for at home

■ Prompt relief with inhaled SABA

■ Possible short course of oral 

systemic corticosteroids

■ Usually requires office or ED visit

■ Relief from frequent inhaled SABA

■ Oral systemic corticosteroids; 

some symptoms last for 

1–2 days after treatment is begun

■ Usually requires ED visit and 

likely hospitalization

■ Partial relief from frequent 

inhaled SABA

■ Oral systemic corticosteroids; 

some symptoms last for 

>3 days after treatment is begun

■ Adjunctive therapies are helpful

■ Requires ED/hospitalization; 

possible ICU

■ Minimal or no relief from 

frequent inhaled SABA

■ Intravenous corticosteroids

■ Adjunctive therapies are helpful

Key: ED, emergency department; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 second; ICU, intensive care unit; PEF, peak expiratory flow;

SABA, short-acting beta2-agonist

Note: Patients are instructed to use quick-relief medications if symptoms occur or if PEF drops below 80 percent predicted or personal best. If

PEF is 50–79 percent, the patient should monitor response to quick-relief medication carefully and consider contacting a clinician. If PEF is below

50 percent, immediate medical care is usually required. In the urgent or emergency care setting, the following parameters describe the severity

and likely clinical course of an exacerbation.

Dyspnea interferes with 

or limits usual activity

PEF 40–69 percent 

predictedor personal

best

PEF <40 percent 

predicted or personal best

PEF <25 percent 

predicted or personal best

Dyspnea at rest; 

interferes with 

conversation

Too dyspneic to speak;

perspiring

Management in the Urgent or Emergency Care and 

Hospital Settings

Emergency medical services providers should have

prehospital protovols that allow administration of

SABA, supplemental oxygen, and (with appropriate

medical oversight) anticholinergics and oral systemic

corticosteriods to patients who have signs or symptoms of an asthma exacerbation.

Treatment strategies for managing moderate or severe

exacerbations in the urgent or emergency care setting

are described below. Also see figure 21 for a detailed

sequence of recommended actions for monitoring

and treatment and figure 22 for dosages of drugs for

asthma exacerbations.

■ Administer supplemental oxygen to correct significant hypoxemia in moderate or severe exacerbations.

■ Administer repetitive or continuous administration of SABA to reverse airflow obstruction rapidly.

■ Administer oral systemic corticosteroids to

decrease airway inflammation in moderate or

severe exacerbations or for patients who fail to

respond promptly and completely to SABA 

treatment.

■ Monitor response to therapy with serial 

assessments.

— For children:
Managing Exacerbations 55

FIGURE 21. MANAGEMENT OF ASTHMA EXACERBATIONS: EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT AND HOSPITAL-BASED CARE

Key: FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 second; ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; PCO2, partial pressure carbon dioxide;

PEF, peak expiratory flow; SABA, short-acting beta2-agonist; SaO2, oxygen saturation
56 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 22. DOSAGES OF DRUGS FOR ASTHMA EXACERBATIONS

Medication Child Dose* Adult Dose

Albuterol

Nebulizer solution

(0.63 mg/3 mL,

1.25 mg/3 mL,

2.5 mg/3 mL,

5.0 mg/mL) 

MDI

(90 mcg/puff)

Bitolterol

Nebulizer solution 

(2 mg/mL)

MDI

(370 mcg/puff)

Levalbuterol 

(R-albuterol)

Nebulizer solution

(0.63 mg/3 mL,

1.25 mg/0.5 mL

1.25 mg/3 mL)

MDI

(45 mcg/puff)

0.15 mg/kg (minimum dose

2.5 mg) every 20 minutes for 

3 doses then 0.15–0.3 mg/kg up to 

10 mg every 1–4 hours as needed, or 

0.5 mg/kg/hour by continuous 

nebulization.

4–8 puffs every 20 minutes for 3 doses,

then every 1–4 hours inhalation maneuver as needed. Use VHC; add mask in

children <4 years.

See albuterol dose; thought to be half as

potent as albuterol on mg basis.

See albuterol MDI dose.

0.075 mg/kg (minimum dose 1.25 mg)

every 20 minutes for 3 doses, then

0.075–0.15 mg/kg up to 5 mg every 

1–4 hours as needed.

See albuterol MDI dose

2.5–5 mg every 20 minutes

for 3 doses, then 2.5–10 mg

every 1–4 hours as 

needed, or 10–15 mg/hour 

continuously.

4–8 puffs every 20 minutes

up to 4 hours, then every

1–4 hours as needed.

See albuterol dose.

See albuterol MDI dose.

1.25–2.5 mg every 

20 minutes for 3 doses,

then 1.25–5 mg every 

1–4 hours as needed.

See albuterol MDI dose.

Only selective beta2 agonists are recommended.

For optimal delivery, dilute aerosols to minimum of 

3 mL at gas flow of 6–8 L/min. Use large volume 

nebulizers for continuous administration. May mix 

with ipratropium nebulizer solution.

In mild-to-moderate exacerbations, MDI plus VHC is 

as effective as nebulized therapy with appropriate 

administration technique and coaching by trained 

personnel.

Has not been studied in severe asthma exacerbations.

Do not mix with other drugs.

Has not been studied in severe asthma exacerbations.

Levalbuterol administered in one-half the mg dose of

albuterol provides comparable efficacy and safety.

Has not been evaluated by continuous nebulization.

Comments (not all inclusive)

Dosage

Inhaled Short-Acting Beta2-Agonists (SABA)

Epinephrine

1:1,000 (1 mg/mL)

Terbutaline

(1 mg/mL)

0.01 mg/kg up to 0.3–0.5 mg every 

20 minutes for 3 doses sq.

0.01 mg/kg every 20 minutes for 

3 doses then every 2–6 hours as 

needed sq.

0.3–0.5 mg every 

20 minutes for 3 doses sq.

0.25 mg every 20 minutes

for 3 doses sq.

No proven advantage of systemic therapy over aerosol.

No proven advantage of systemic therapy over aerosol.

Systemic (Injected) Beta2-Agonists

Ipratropium bromide

Nebulizer solution

(0.25 mg/mL)

MDI

(18 mcg/puff)

0.25–0.5 mg every 20 minutes for 

3 doses, then as needed

4–8 puffs every 20 minutes as 

needed up to 3 hours

0.5 mg every 20 minutes for

3 doses, then as needed

8 puffs every 20 minutes as

needed up to 3 hours

May mix in same nebulizer with albuterol. Should not 

be used as first-line therapy; should be added to 

SABA therapy for severe exacerbations. The addition 

of ipratropium has not been shown to provide further

benefit once the patient is hospitalized.

Should use with VHC and face mask for children 

<4 years. Studies have examined ipratropium bromide 

MDI for up to 3 hours.

Anticholinergics

Pirbuterol

MDI

(200 mcg/puff)

See albuterol MDI dose; thought to be 

half as potent as albuterol on a mg basis.

See albuterol MDI dose. Has not been studied in severe asthma exacerbations
• No single measure is best for assessing severity or

predicting hospital admission.

• Lung function measures (FEV1 or PEF) may be 

useful for children ≥5 years of age, but these 

measures may not be obtainable during an 

exacerbation.

• Pulse oximetry may be useful for assessing the 

initial severity; a repeated measure of pulse 

oximetry of <92–94 percent after 1 hour is 

predictive of the need for hospitalization.

• Signs and symptoms scores may be helpful.

Children who have signs and symptoms after 1–2

hours of initial treatment and who continue to 

meet the criteria for a moderate or severe 

exacerbation have a >84 percent chance of

requiring hospitalization.

— For adults:

• Repeated lung function measures (FEV1 or 

PEF) at 1 hour and beyond are the strongest 

single predictor of hospitalization. Such 

measures may not be helpful, or easily obtained,

during severe exacerbations.

• Pulse oximetry is indicated for patients who are 

in severe distress, have FEV1 or PEF <40 percent 

predicted, or are unable to perform lung 

function measures. Only repeat assessments 

after initial treatment, not a single assessment 

upon admission, are useful for predicting the 

need for hospitalization.

• Signs and symptoms scores at 1 hour after 

initial treatments improve the ability to predict 

need for hospitalization. The presence of

drowsiness is a useful predictor of impending 

respiratory failure and is reason to consider 

immediate transfer to a facility equipped to 

offer ventilatory support.

Managing Exacerbations 57

FIGURE 22. DOSAGES OF DRUGS FOR ASTHMA EXACERBATIONS (continued)

Medication Child Dose* Adult Dose Comments (not all inclusive)

Dosage

Ipratropium with albuterol

Nebulizer solution

(Each 3 mL vial 

contains 0.5 mg 

ipratropium bromide 

and 2.5 mg albuterol.)

MDI

(Each puff contains 

18 mcg ipratropium 

bromide and 90 mcg 

of albuterol.)

1.5-3 mL every 20 minutes for 3 doses,

then as needed

4–8 puffs every 20 minutes as needed up

to 3 hours

3 mL every 20 minutes for 3

doses, then as needed 

8 puffs every 20 minutes as

needed up to 3 hours

May be used for up to 3 hours in the initial 

management of severe exacerbations. The addition 

of ipratropium to albuterol has not been shown to 

provide further benefit once the patient is hospitalized.

Should use with VHC and face mask for children 

<4 years.

Anticholinergics (continued)

Prednisone

Methylprednisolone

Prednisolone

1-2 mg/kg in 2 divided doses (maximum =

60 mg/day) until PEF is 70 percent of

predicted or personal best

40–80 mg/day in 1 or 2

divided doses until PEF

reaches 70 percent of 

predicted or personal best

For outpatient “burst,” use 40–60 mg in single or 

2 divided doses for total of 5–10 days in adults 

(children: 1–2 mg/ kg/day maximum 60 mg/day for

3–10 days).

Systemic Corticosteroids (Apply to all three corticosteriods.)

* Children ≤ 12 years of age

Key: ED, emergency department; MDI, metered-dose inhaler; PEF, peak expiratory flow, VHC, valved holding chamber

Notes:

• There is no known advantage for higher doses of corticosteroids in severe asthma exacerbations, nor is there any advantage for intravenous administration over oral therapy 

provided gastrointestinal transit time or absorption is not impaired.

• The total course of systemic corticosteroids for an asthma exacerbation requiring an ED visit of hospitalization may last from 3 to 10 days. For corticosteroid courses of less than

1 week, there is no need to taper the dose. For slightly longer courses (e.g., up to 10 days), there probably is no need to taper, especially if patients are concurrently taking ICSs.

• ICSs can be started at any point in the treatment of an asthma exacerbation.
■ Consider adjunctive treatments, such as 

intravenous magnesium sulfate or heliox, in

severe exacerbations, if patients are unresponsive to

the initial treatments listed above (e.g., FEV1 or

PEF <40 percent predicted or personal best after

initial treatments).

■ Provide the following to prevent relapse of the 

exacerbation and recurrence of another 

exacerbation:

— Referral to followup asthma care within 1–4 

weeks. In addition, encourage the patient to 

contact (e.g., by telephone) his/her asthma care

provider during the first 3–5 days after 

discharge. A followup visit is essential to

review the patient’s written asthma action plan,

adherence, and environmental control and to 

consider a step up in therapy. If appropriate,

consider referral to an asthma self-management

education program.

— An ED asthma discharge plan. See figure 23a, b

“Emergency Department—Asthma Discharge 

Plan.”

— Review of inhaler technique whenever possible.

— Consideration of initiating ICS.

■ Treatments that are not recommended in the

emergency care or hospital setting include:

methylxanthines, antobiotics (except as needed for

comorbid conditions), aggressive hydration, chest

physical therapy, mucolytics, or sedation. Inhaled

ipratropium bromide is a helpful adjunctive 

therapy in the emergency care setting, but does not

provide additional benefit after a patient is 

hospitalized for a severe exacerbation.

58 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma
Managing Exacerbations 59

FIGURE 23a. EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT—ASTHMA DISCHARGE PLAN

Reprinted by permission from Carlos Camargo, M.D., Principal Investigator of Agency for Health Care Research and Quality. Grant No.

R13H31094.

Source: Camargo CA Jr, Emond SD, Boulet L, Gibson PG, Kolbe J, Wagner CW, Brenner BE. Emergency Department Asthma Discharge

Plan. Developed at "Asthma Education in the Adult Emergency Department: A Multidisciplinary Consensus Conference," New York

Academy of Medicine, New York, NY; 2001 April 1–5. Boston, MA: Massachusetts General Hospital, 2001. 2 pp.

EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT—ASTHMA DISCHARGE PLAN

Name: _________________________ was seen by Dr.________________ on ___/___/___

Take your prescribed medications as directed—do not delay!

-term treatment plan.

Even when you feel well, you may need daily medicine to keep your asthma in good

control and prevent attacks.

Visit your doctor or other health care provider as soon as you can to discuss how to

ontrol your asthma and to develop your own action plan.

Yourfollowupappointment with ________________ ison: ___ ___ ___ Tel: ____________

YOUR MEDICINE FOR THIS ASTHMA ATTACK IS:

Medication Amount Doses per day, for # days

Prednisone/prednisolone

oral corticosteroid)

nhaled albuterol

_____ a day for _____ days

Take the entire prescription, even when you

tarttofeelbetter.

_____ puffs every 4 to 6 hours if you have

symptoms, for _____days

YOUR DAILY MEDICINE FOR LONG-TERM CONTROL AND PREVENTING ATTACKS IS:

Medication Amount Doses per day

Inhaled corticosteroids

YOURQUICK-RELIEFMEDICINEWHENYOUHAVESYMPTOMSIS:

Medication Amount Number of doses/day

Inhaled albuterol

ASK YOURSELF 2 TO 3 TIMES PER DAY, EVERY DAY, FOR AT LEAST 1 WEEK:

“HowgoodismyasthmacomparedtowhenIleftthehospital?”

Ifyoufeelmuch

better:

Take your daily

long term control

medicine.

If you feel better, but

still need your quick

relief inhaler often:

Take your daily long

term control

medicine.

See your doctor as

soon as possible.

Ifyoufeelaboutthe

same:

Use your quick

relief inhaler.

Take your daily

long term control

medicine.

See your doctor as

soon as possible—

don’t delay.

If you feel worse:

Use your quick

relief inhaler.

Take your daily

long term control

medicine.

Immediatelygoto

the emergency

department or call

– –1 .

YOUR ASTHMA IS UNDER CONTROL WHEN YOU:

Can be active daily

and sleep through the

night.

Need fewer than 4

doses of quick relief

medicine in a week.

Arefreeof

shortness of breath,

wheeze, and cough.

Achieve an

acceptable “peak flow”

(discuss with your

health care provider).
60 Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma

FIGURE 23b. EMERGENCY DEPARTMENT—ASTHMA DISCHARGE PLAN: HOW TO USE YOUR METERED-DOSE INHALER

Clean your inhaler as needed, and know when to replace your inhaler. For instructions, read the package insert or talk to your doctor,

other health care provider, or pharmacist.

Using an inhaler seems simple, but most patients do not use it the right way. When you use your inhaler the wrong

way, less medicine gets to your lungs.

For the next few days, read these steps aloud as you do them or ask someone to read them to you. Ask your doctor,

nurse, other health care provider, or pharmacist to check how well you are using your inhaler.

Use your inhaler in one of the three ways pictured below (A or B are best, but C can be used if you have trouble with

A and B). (Your doctor may give you other types of inhalers.)

Steps for Using Your Inhaler

A. Hold inhaler 1 to 2 inches in 

front of your mouth (about 

the width of two fingers).

C. Put the inhaler in your 

mouth. Do not use for 

steroids.

B. Use a spacer/holding 

chamber. These come in 

many shapes and can be 

useful to any patient.

Getting ready 1. Take off the cap and shake the inhaler.

2. Breathe out all the way.

3. Hold your inhaler the way your doctor said (A, B, or C below).

Breathe in slowly 4. As you start breathing in slowly through your mouth, press down on the inhaler one time.

(If you use a holding chamber, first press down on the inhaler. Within5 seconds, begin to 

breathe in slowly.)

5. Keep breathing in slowly, as deeply as you can.

Hold your breath 6. Hold your breath as you count to 10 slowly, if you can.

7. For inhaled quick-relief medicine (short-acting beta2 agonists), wait about 15–30 seconds 

between puffs. There is no need to wait between puffs for other medicines.
For More Information

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(HIC) is a service of the NHLBI of the National Institutes of Health. The NHLBI HIC 

provides information to health professionals, patients, and the public about the 

HIC treatment, diagnosis, and prevention of heart, lung, and blood 

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NHLBI Health Information Center

P.O. Box 30105

Bethesda, MD 20824-0105

Phone: 301-592-8573

TTY: 240-629-3255

Fax: 301-592-8563

Web site: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov

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