Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja 

Mercury Area of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

9C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest (AOI) in 

Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 9C–1a,b). The AOI is located in southwestcentral Afghanistan in the districts of Day Kundi, Pasaband, Pur Chaman, Taywara, and Chagcharan in 

Ghor and Farah Provinces (fig. 9C–1a,b). The Panjshah-Mullayan, Koh-e-Katif Passaband, and 

Sahebdad-Khanjar subareas occupy 590, 1,384, and 1,290 km2 (square kilometers), respectively, of the 

7,197-km2 area of the AOI.

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in some bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

9C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI is based on data generated for the 

Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 
730 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

a 
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 731

b 

Figure 9C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in Afghanistan.

The observed total precipitation in the AOI for the 2009–2010 water year, as published in the 

Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 2), ranged from 201 to

255 mm (millimeters). The AOI received 41 to 60 mm of precipitation in February 2010, the month with 
732 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

the greatest amount of precipitation, with the amount increasing from east to west across the AOI 

(Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, map 3). The AOI received 7 to 33 mm of 

precipitation in October 2009, the month with the least precipitation, with the amount increasing from 

west to east (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, map 4). 

The Chakhcharan Agromet station is located in Ghor Province approximately 60 km north of the 

northwest corner of the AOI. This station is the Agromet station that is closest to the AOI for which 

long-term average (LTA) precipitation data for the 2009–2010 water year are available. Precipitation 

data for the Chakhcharan Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) are 

shown in table 9C–1. 

Table 9C–1. Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation at the 

Chakhcharan Agrometeorological station 60 kilometers north of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest, 

Afghanistan.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius; nr, not reported]

Agromet

Station

Distance 

from AOI 

center (km)

Elevation (m)

Precipitation Temperature

2009–2010 

annual 

(mm)

1 Long-term average 1 Long-term average

Monthly Monthly Annual maximum minimum and (mm) and month month (mm) (mm)

Minimum Monthly Maximum 

and month mean and month 

(°C) (°C) (°C)

Chakhcharan 60 2,250 199.9 186.7 0 42.5 nr nr nr

August– April

September

1

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

The Chakhcharan Agromet station had a total of 11 reported snow days during the 2009–2010 

water year, distributed as follows: November 2009, 2 days; December 2009, 3 days; January 2010, 

2 days; and February 2010, 4 days. The snowfall reported at this station for the 2009–2010 water year 

was 58.6 cm (centimeters). The snow-depth map for 17 January, 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 6), indicates that snow depth in the AOI was between 2 and 10 cm 

in January 2010. 

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The vegetation in the AOI is mostly alpine vegetation classified by Breckle (2007, p. 161) as 

“thorny cushions, subalpine and alpine deserts and meadows.” Much of the upland surface of the AOI is 

bedrock outcrop with thin alluvial cover. Azonal riverine vegetation likely was present in the stream 

valleys, but the trees have been harvested for fuel and building materials. Most land suitable for farming 

has been plowed and planted, especially along major stream valleys and some of the ephemeral tributary 

stream valleys. Irrigated fields are present in many of the valleys in the AOI (fig. 9C–2).

9C.1.2 Demographics

The Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI is sparsely populated, with most areas having 1 to 5 

inhabitants per square kilometer as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) 

(fig. 9C–3). A few areas have no inhabitants, as indicated by the gray shading in figure 9C–3. The wider 

stream valleys are more densely populated, but the maximum population rarely exceeds the 51 to 
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 733

100/km2 category. Most areas along narrower stream valleys are sparsely populated. The population 

density shown in figure 9C–3 has a pixel resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

2010). 

Figure 9C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in Afghanistan.
734 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 9C–3. Population density of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 735

9C.1.3 Topography

The topography of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI is mountainous with east-northeast-trending 

ridges and valleys (Davis, 2006) (fig. 9C–4). The elevations of the valleys average 2,200 m (meters) 

above sea level (asl) and the elevations of the ridges average 3,000 m asl, with some peaks exceeding 

3,500 m asl (Bohannon, 2005). Two long valleys that characterize the AOI are those of the Ghor River, 

about 75 km long, in the western area of the AOI, and the Takhak River, about 30 km long, just south of 

the Sahebda-Khanjar subarea (fig. 9C–2).

9C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI is in the “Central Afghanistan Hydrogeological Folded Region that 

occupies the central part of the country with a predominantly mountain climate.” The outcrops in the 

AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology 

of the AOI is shown in figure 9C–4 with the underlying topography to allow examination of the 

geohydrology in the context of relief. Figure 9C–5a,b shows the generalized geohydrology without 

topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed 

in the Groundwater section) are shown in figure 9C–5a,b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were 

created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and 

rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic 

groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, 

table 2.3), are “conglomerate sediments and rocks; limestones and dolostones; sedimentary rocks;

metamorphic rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 9C–4 and 9C–5a). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) 

used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey 

(AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic map 

that covers this AOI is provided by McKinney and others (2005). 

9C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information 

Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), in the 

Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI is shown in figure 9C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral 

streams, generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 9C–2. National 

Imagery and Mapping Agency (1995) Vector Map (VMAP1) mapped springs are also shown in and 

adjacent to the AOI. Names of major streams and identification numbers of any streamgages and 

ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the AOI are shown in figure 9C–1b. 

The streamgage nearest to the AOI, located about 80 km northwest of the center of the AOI, is 

the Kowgan River at Tangi Azu (Afghan identification number 8–3.L00–6A) (figs. 9C–1b and 9C–2). 

This station is at an elevation of 2,200 m asl and has a drainage area of 2,030 km2 and a period of record 

that extends from 16 October, 1962, to 30 September, 1978 (Williams-Sether, 2008). The mean annual 

streamflow per unit area for this station is about 0.0009 m3/s/km2 (cubic meters per second per square 

kilometer). The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the 

spring and low flows in fall. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this 

station is presented in table 9C–2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical 

gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php. 
736 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 9C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in 

Afghanistan.
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 737

a 
738 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 9C–5. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b) 

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community supply wells in the Kharnak-Kanja mercury 

area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 739

Table 9C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kowgan River at Tangi Azu streamgage station. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second] 

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage of Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 1.62 1966 0.44 1971 0.79 0.36 0.46 3.54

November 1.49 1966 0.38 1970 0.84 0.36 0.43 3.76

December 1.60 1970 0.32 1971 0.86 0.34 0.39 3.86

January 1.47 1965 0.24 1971 0.81 0.35 0.43 3.64

February 2.29 1965 0.29 1971 0.90 0.54 0.60 4.04

March 8.36 1969 0.61 1967 3.15 2.29 0.73 14.2

April 17.7 1975 1.03 1971 6.99 5.12 0.73 31.5

May 9.84 1975 0.38 1971 4.54 3.18 0.70 20.4

June 3.78 1975 0.36 1971 1.39 1.08 0.78 6.24

July 1.38 1975 0.34 1978 0.64 0.29 0.44 2.88

August 1.22 1975 0.30 1978 0.62 0.25 0.41 2.78

September 1.58 1975 0.38 1978 0.71 0.35 0.50 3.20

Annual 3.43 1965 0.52 1971 1.90 0.96 0.50 100
740 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S16, S17, and S18 (figs. 9C–1b and 9C–2) on 

selected streams in the AOI or subareas, using a drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) 

based on historical flows at the Lal River at Shinya streamgage station (Afghan identification number: 

8–11.L00–1A) (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The Lal River at Shinya streamgage station was 

selected as the most representative historical gage, based on drainage-area size and location, for use with 

this method. The estimated mean annual streamflow for point S16 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 

2,390 km2

, is about 7.39 m3/s (cubic meters per second). By applying the same method, the estimated 

mean annual streamflows at points S17 and S18 are 3.52 and 1.32 m3/s, respectively. The seasonal 

timing of maximum and minimum monthly streamflow, with high flows in the spring to early summer 

and low flows in late fall and winter (app. 2), probably is similar to that at the Lal River at Shinya 

station. 

9C.2.2 Groundwater

Approximately 190 shallow community groundwater-supply wells are known to have been 

installed in the Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI by NGOs. Information about these wells can be found in a 

database maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011). Well-depth 

and static-water-level information is available for most of the wells in this database (figs. 9C–5a,b). All 

but one of the supply wells are less than 30 m deep; one well is 33 m deep. The median well depth is 

10 m. The depth to water in 89 percent of the supply wells in the AOI is less than 15 m (fig. 9C–5a

Available well-construction information is limited; however, some wells may be “tube” wells 

(driven wells with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing) but at least 130 (68 percent) are described as dug 

wells with concrete-ring casing. Wells are generally installed in unconsolidated sediments, completed a 

few meters below the depth at which water is first encountered, and equipped with a hand pump. Figure 

9C–5

). 

The median depth to water is 8 m. 

b shows the height of static water in the casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static 

depth to water). The median height of static water in well casings is 1.6 m and 20 percent of the wells 

for which information is available have less than 1 m of static water. Such shallow wells were found to 

be vulnerable to seasonal water-level fluctuations and becoming dry for extended periods of time, or 

even permanently, in areas of the Kabul Basin where groundwater withdrawals are increasing (Mack 

and others, 2010). This condition is particularly evident in the Takhak River valley just south of the 

Sahebdad-Khanjar subarea (fig. 9C–5b

Two groundwater-monitoring wells (GWMs) in the AOI, GWM 45 and 47 (fig. 9C–5

). Any new groundwater withdrawals in this area would need to 

be closely monitored to avoid adversely affecting existing wells.

a), are 

monitored by DACAAR for groundwater levels and specific conductance. Hydrographs of water levels 

in GWMs, provided by DACAAR, are shown in appendix 3. The hydrographs show the date in week 

number and year, groundwater specific conductance in microsiemens per centimeter at 25° Celsius 

(μS/cm), and depth to water in meters below ground surface (bgs). The GWMs likely are generally 

constructed in alluvial material. The hydrograph for GWM 45 indicates a seasonal water-level range of 3 

to 4 m. GWM 47 indicates a seasonal water-level range that increased from 2 to 4 m over the period of 

record (2005–2008). These measured water-level fluctuations indicate that many shallow dug wells may 

be vulnerable to becoming dry, and any new groundwater withdrawals in this area would need to be 

closely monitored to avoid dewatering existing wells. The monitoring-well hydrographs show an annual 

water-level peak in April and a minimum in December that are similar to the pattern of estimated 

streamflows. Streamflow was relatively low during the summer months, whereas groundwater levels 

declined throughout the summer months. This gradual groundwater-level recession may indicate that 

considerable groundwater flows from surrounding sedimentary bedrock mountains to the valley 

bottoms, where wells are located (figs. 9C–4 and 9C–5a). The specific conductance in both monitoring 
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 741

wells is about 700 μS/cm, indicating a slightly elevated dissolved-solids content relative to that in some 

valley-fill aquifers. The specific conductance decreases 100 to 200 μS/cm during the peak-water-level 

periods, indicating that water with a low dissolved-solids content is recharging the groundwater during 

spring melting periods.

9C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that may result from the presence of underlying zones of 

high-angle bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses 

of the Kharnak-Kanja mercury AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, U.S. Geological 

Survey, August 24, 2011, written commun.) were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite 

imagery (fig. 9C–6) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) 

satellite imagery (fig. 9C–7a,b). Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a 

reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater 

resources are likely to be found (Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament 

analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, 

including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 

9C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in figure 9C–7 were delineated using an automated 

process and on the basis of the multispectral characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, 

T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, U.S. Geological Survey, August 24, 2011, written commun.). Water

wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of highly 

fractured bedrock. Areas where lineament density is high, such as the southwest part of the Koh-e-Katif 

Passaband subarea (figs. 9C–6 and 9C–7a,b), are areas where bedrock fractures may be more prevalent 

than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant further 

investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of 

preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate 

high secondary porosity. Areas where lineament density is high in carbonate rocks (fig. 9C–5) may be 

areas with solution-weathered fracture zones. Many lineaments in the AOI are parallel to bedding 

structure, indicating possible bedding-plane weaknesses. Some lineaments follow drainage patterns that 

cross the bedding structure, indicating a possible fracture network orthogonal to bedding planes. Any 

lineament analyses, including those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field 

investigations and additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to waterfilled bedrock fracture zones. 

9C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources are more likely to be available for mining and other uses in the Kharnak-Kanja 

mercury area of interest (AOI) than in other areas of Afghanistan. Water resources in the AOI and 

surrounding area include both surface water and groundwater. Shallow alluvial aquifers in the valley 

bottoms of the AOI are likely a highly utilized groundwater resource. Wells in the AOI are primarily 

shallow dug wells that may be susceptible to becoming dry during periods of low recharge or with 

increasing water use. Most streams may also be highly utilized by the local population as the primary 

source of water for irrigation. The diversion of water from the rivers to support mining activities would 

need to be closely monitored, particularly during low-flow periods, if the quantity and quality of the 

water resource are to be preserved so that surface-water flow remains sufficient to supply water for 

irrigation and to provide recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater to the shallow wells for 

domestic consumption. 
742 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 9C–6. (on previous page) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model 

data and natural-color Landsat imagery in the Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 743

a 
744 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

b 

Figure 9C–7. (on previous pages) (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral 

Landsat imagery and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the

Kharnak-Kanja mercury area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 9C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Kharnak-Kanja Mercury Area of Interest 745

No information about bedrock groundwater resources in the AOI or adjacent areas is available.

Sedimentary bedrock in the AOI may represent a potentially available source of groundwater. Some 

areas of the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are likely 

areas for further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water resources 

in the AOI remain to be determined; however, the limited information available indicates a slightly 

elevated dissolved-solids content in the groundwater in some valley-fill aquifers. Close monitoring and 

careful management of potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect 

the quantity and quality of the existing supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including 

geologic mapping, geophysical surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize 

the extent and availability of groundwater resources in the AOI.

9C.4 References Cited

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., eds. in chief, 1977, Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan, 

book 2: Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries, Afghanistan Geological Survey, British 

Geological Survey Occasional Publications No. 15, 292 p. [Reprinted 2008.]

Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997, Irrigated areas, 1:250,000 scale: Afghanistan 

Information Management Service Afghanistan Shape Files, accessed October 15, 2010, at 

http://www.aims.org.af/.

Bohannon, R.G., 2005, Topographic map of quadrangle 3364, Pasa Band (417) and Kejran (418) 

quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1110B.

Breckle, S.W., 2007, Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan: Basic and Applied Dryland Research, v. 1, 

no. 2, p 155–194.

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011, Update on “National groundwater monitoring 

wells network activities in Afghanistan” from July 2007 to December 2010: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR), 23 p.

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ mosaics of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2006–1345, 18 p., also at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/.

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1038/

Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 604 p.

.

Lattman, L.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1964, Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of 

ground water in carbonate rocks: Journal of Hydrology, v. 2, p. 73–91.

Mabee, S.B., 1999, Factors influencing well productivity in glaciated metamorphic rocks: Groundwater, 

v. 37, no. 1, p. 88–97.

Mack, T.J., Akbari, M.A., Ashoor, M.H., Chornack, M.P., and others, 2010, Conceptual model of water 

resources in the Kabul basin, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 

2009–5262, 240 p.

McKinney, K.C., Sawyer, D.A., and Turner, K.J., 2005, Geologic map of quadrangle 3364, Pasa Band 

(417) and Kejran (418) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–

1110A.

Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock and the Afghan Meteorological Authority of Ministry 

of Transport, 2010, The Afghanistan agrometeorological seasonal bulletin 2009–2010, no. 7, 26 p., 

accessed July 6, 2011, at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/documents.php?cat=1.

Moore, R.B., Schwarz, G.E., Clark, S.F., Jr., Walsh, G.J., and Degnan, J.R., 2002, Factors related to 

well yield in the fractured-bedrock aquifer of New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1660, 51 p., 2 pl.
746 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995, Vector map (VMAP1): National Imagery and Mapping 

Agency database, available at 

http://geoengine.nga.mil/geospatial/SW_TOOLS/NIMAMUSE/webinter/rast_roam.html

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010, LandScan global population database 2009: Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, accessed February 1, 2011, at 

.

http://www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan/

Olson, S.A., and Mack, T.J., 2011, Technique for estimation of streamflow statistics in mineral areas of 

interest in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011–1176, available at 

.

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2011/1176/.

Olson, S.A., and Williams-Sether, T., 2010, Streamflow characteristics of streamgages in northern 

Afghanistan and selected locations: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 529, 512 p.

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the 

U.S. Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 

2007, Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD–ROM. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/.

Ruleman, C.A., Crone, A.J., Machette, M.N., Haller, K.M., and Rukstales, K.S., 2007, Map and 

database of probable and possible Quaternary faults in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1103, 39 p., 1 pl.

)

Siddiqui, S.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1971, Hydrogeologic factors influencing well yields in folded and 

faulted carbonate rocks in central Pennsylvania: Water Resources Research, v. 7, no. 5, p. 1295–1312.

Williams-Sether, T., 2008, Streamflow characteristics of streams in the Helmand Basin, Afghanistan: 

U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 333, 341 p.