REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE

PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS

Associate Administrator for

Commercial Space Transportation (AST)

January 1998
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

PAGE i

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction....................................................................................................................................1

Overview of RLV Development Program Areas.........................................................................3

Commercial Launch Programs.......................................................................................................5

United States Government Programs.............................................................................................6

International Concepts..................................................................................................................7

The X PRIZESM.............................................................................................................................8

Commercial Launch Programs....................................................................................................9

Advent Launch Services – Heavy Lift Launch System...................................................................9

Kelly Space and Technology – Sprint, Express, & Astroliner.......................................................10

Kistler Aerospace Corporation – K-1..........................................................................................12

Pioneer Rocketplane – Pathfinder ..............................................................................................14

Rotary Rocket Company – Roton-C............................................................................................15

Vela Technology Development – Space Cruiser System...............................................................16

Third Millennium Aerospace – Space Van/Bantam Van................................................................17

David L. Burkhead – Spacecub ....................................................................................................18

Lockheed Martin Corporation – VentureStar...............................................................................19

United States Government Programs........................................................................................20

Clipper Graham (DC-XA) ...........................................................................................................20

X-33 ...........................................................................................................................................21

X-34............................................................................................................................................23

Future X Trailblazer Program......................................................................................................24

Future X Pathfinder Program.......................................................................................................25

Highly Reusable Space Transportation Program...........................................................................26

X-38/Crew Return Vehicle ..........................................................................................................27

Military Spaceplane.....................................................................................................................29

Space Shuttle...............................................................................................................................30

International Concepts...............................................................................................................32

Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd. – Ascender ............................................................................................32

NASDA – HOPE-X Spaceplane...................................................................................................33

Japanese Rocket Society – Kankoh-Maru ...................................................................................34

Daimler Benz Aerospace – Sänger................................................................................................34

National Aerospace Laboratory (Japan) – SSTO Spaceplane........................................................36

Reaction Engines Ltd. – SKYLON...............................................................................................37

Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd. – Spacecab/Spacebus...............................................................................38

X PRIZESM Competitors..............................................................................................................39

Advent Launch Services – CAC-1................................................................................................39

Dynamica Research – Cosmos Mariner ......................................................................................40

Third Millennium Aerospace – X Van .........................................................................................41

Other X PRIZESM Competitors....................................................................................................42

Burt Rutan – Proteus...............................................................................................................42

Rick Fleeter – PA-X2..............................................................................................................42

Pablo De Leon and Associates – Gauchito................................................................................42

Graham Dorrignton – Green Arrow..........................................................................................43

Steven Bennett – Thunderbird.................................................................................................43

John Bloomer – The Space Tourist..........................................................................................43

Mickey Badgero – Lucky Seven...............................................................................................43

Others.....................................................................................................................................44
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTRODUCTION PAGE 1

Introduction

This report examines reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) currently proposed for government,

commercial, and public uses. The term “reusable launch vehicle” may refer to several different

levels of reuse. Some vehicle concepts are fully reusable (that is, the vehicle launches and lands

without jettisoning any stages). Others have one stage that is reusable in combination with other

stages that are expendable. The table and text below describe different levels of launch vehicle

reusability, from most reusable to least reusable.

Full Reusability – Full reusability implies that the vehicle launches, carries a payload to orbit,

and returns to Earth with the vehicle (or vehicle stages) intact and without the assistance of any

expendable stages. Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle concepts fall into this category, as do the

two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) concepts in which both the orbital vehicle and a booster vehicle fly

back to Earth for reuse (many such designs were originally proposed for the Space Shuttle, and

several others are currently under study).

Full Reusability of One Stage,

Partial Reusability of Another

Stage – Vehicles in this category

have one fully-reusable component,

and another stage or stages that are

partially reusable. The United

States’ Space Shuttles are good

examples of this type of vehicle, as

the orbiters are reusable, and

components of the boost stages are recovered for refurbishment and reuse.

Full Reusability of One Stage, Expendable Other Stages – These types of vehicles have one

stage (either the booster or orbiter) that is reused and other stages that are expendable. The

Pegasus launch system, for example, relies on a reusable atmospheric aircraft to carry an

expendable rocket launch vehicle to altitude.

Partial Reusability of One Stage – Components of at least one stage of these mostlyexpendable vehicles are recovered for future use. An historical example of this concept is the

Advanced Launch System (ALS) examined in 1980s and 1990s space launch studies. The

proposed ALS designs would recover only the avionics and propulsion packages from vehicles

since these key pieces were the most expensive.

No Reusability – Today’s expendable launch vehicles such as Atlas, Delta, and Proton have no

reusable components.

Level of Reusability Examples

Full Reusability VentureStar, Original Space

Shuttle designs

Full Reusability of One Stage,

Partial Reusability of Another

Stage

Space Shuttle fleet,

Buran/Energia

Full Reusability of One Stage,

Expendable Other Stages

Pegasus, HOPE spaceplane,

Ariane 5 with Crew Transfer

Vehicle

Partial Reusability of One Stage ALS

No Reusability ELVs
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTRODUCTION PAGE 2

Another element of a vehicle’s reusability is whether components must be overhauled or

replaced. A base vehicle may be designed to fly multiple times, but still may have various

components and systems that only last one flight or require replacement before the end of the

vehicle’s expected lifetime. For example, the Space Shuttle fleet requires overhaul of the thermal

protection system on each orbiter following each flight.

This report discusses current RLV concepts that employ at least one fully-reusable stage. The

reusability of specific vehicle components is not addressed in this report. A matrix containing

the design and performance characteristics of each concept accompanies this report.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 3

Overview of RLV Development Program Areas

Reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) present the opportunity to reduce the cost of launches and to

provide capabilities that are not now available. It is expected that because of lower operations

costs and the reduced cost of building a few reusable vehicles rather than many expendable ones,

RLVs eventually may be able to reduce launch costs by as much as an order of magnitude from

what they are today. Thanks to these lower costs and because of RLVs re-entry capabilities,

these vehicles also may be able to offer a new range of services, such as retrieval of satellites from

orbit, rapid passenger or package services to many points of the globe, and tourism services that

may carry civilians into space for entertainment.

Over the last five decades, space agencies and aerospace companies worldwide have studied the

potential use of RLVs for routine launch operations. RLV designs range from partial to full

reusability, and employ various types of propulsion, takeoff, and landing methods. RLVs can

use single or multiple stages to reach orbit. TSTO vehicles, using a reusable hypersonic aircraft

as the booster and a smaller orbiter to attain orbit, are among the most common RLV concepts.

SSTO vehicles present challenges in terms of weight requirements, materials, and propulsion

systems that have only recently come to be considered achievable. RLVs have been proposed to

launch vertically from launch pads, horizontally from conventional airports, or from towed or airdropped configurations. Landing horizontally, vertically, or using other means such as

parachutes, parafoils, rotors, or water landings have also been considered. The takeoff and

landing concepts for a vehicle are integral to the design characteristics of the vehicle and the

potential payload it can carry.

RLVs as workhorse launch vehicles have yet to appear, however, for several reasons. The

primary reason for the emphasis on expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) instead of RLVs has

historically been the higher up-front development costs of RLV designs. In order to field fullyreusable launch vehicles, reusable components and operations techniques must be developed

along with the vehicle design. Although construction of RLVs has been possible, governments

and commercial companies have been reluctant to provide the funding required to build RLVs that

have higher initial costs, but that would reduce operating costs in the long-term. When the

designs for the Space Shuttle fleet were first considered, fully-reusable concepts were introduced,

and the original selected design was to have two reusable stages. Budgetary pressures, however,

molded the vehicle into the partially-reusable system used today.

The materials and designs to construct TSTO RLVs have been available for 35 years, but

innovations are still required to develop a SSTO vehicle that can transport payloads to orbit at

low costs. Advances in propulsion and structural technology (such as new lightweight

composite materials) have been made over the last few decades that are enabling the development

of SSTO vehicles. SSTO vehicle technologies may be validated in the next few years with the

testing of NASA’s X-33 and X-34 vehicles and with the development of commercial SSTO

designs such as the Roton-C. Developments that will be demonstrated by the X-33 will include
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 4

load-bearing fuel tanks and composite structures. Both the X-33 and Roton plan to use

aerospike engines (the aerospike design has existed for decades it has yet to be fully flight tested).

Today there are several drivers that are pushing RLV development forward. The desire to reduce

launch costs in the commercial and government markets is greater than ever. The growth in the

number of proposed LEO satellite constellations for telecommunication applications has

produced demand for low-cost launches, encouraging entrepreneurial aerospace companies to

develop commercial RLVs to serve this market.

RLV designs for space tourism applications have been seriously proposed in the last few years.

The X PRIZESM competition is encouraging construction of passenger-carrying sub-orbital RLVs

by over a dozen start-up companies by offering a $10 million prize to the first vehicle to

demonstrate the capability to carry 3 people to a 100 km sub-orbital altitude and repeat the flight

within 2 weeks.

Government programs are also a key source of RLV development. NASA’s current X-33 and

X-34 RLV prototype and technology development programs grew out of a series of studies

examining the next step following the Space Shuttle program. In 1985, NASA and the

Department of Defense were directed by the President to devise a common plan to develop space

transportation systems beyond the Space Shuttle. The resulting Space Transportation

Architecture Study was focused on meeting civil and military launch needs, and endorsed

examining air-breathing propulsion technologies, TSTO systems, and solid rocket boosters.

At the same time, NASA and DoD were collaborating on a much more ambitious vision of the

future of space transportation. The National Aerospace Plane (NASP) program began in the

early 1980s, with the goal of making a giant technological leap forward to produce a horizontal

takeoff and landing SSTO vehicle powered by both airbreathing and rocket propulsion. It was

eventually determined that the technological advancement NASP required could not be completed

in a reasonable time frame, and by the early 1990s the program was dispersed into smaller

technology development programs that are still ongoing.

In the early 1990s NASA undertook the Access to Space Study to examine options for future

launch systems. Three options were presented, including upgrades to the Space Shuttle such as a

cargo variant or liquid-fueled boosters, new ELV and RLV launch systems with only minor

advancements in technology, and new RLV development using advanced technologies.

In 1994, Congress directed DoD to undertake another space launch study. This study, which

resulted in the “Space Launch Modernization Plan,” or the “Moorman report,” developed a range

of options for DoD launcher development, eventually leading DoD to focus on developing the

Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) to meet its launch requirements, while leaving RLV

development to NASA. Later that year, NASA chose to implement the third option of the

Access to Space Study, to develop all-new RLV vehicles to meet future needs, while at the same

time, DoD decided to develop EELV. This policy was formalized in the National Space
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 5

Transportation Policy signed by the President in 1994. NASA’s exploration of tall new RLVs

has grown into the X-33 and X-34 RLV programs of today.

In addition to the government and commercial RLV programs in the United States, RLVs are

under development by other major space agencies such as the European Space Agency (ESA) and

Japan’s space agency (NASDA), and by private firms outside the United States as well.

Commercial Launch Programs

Satellite operators and

manufacturers have been

vocal in their desire to

reduce the cost of

launching satellites.

Several companies have

begun to develop

commercial RLVs

intended to decrease the

cost of launch by as

much as an order of

magnitude. Many of

these companies hope to

generate revenue by

launching satellites for

the recent flurry of

proposals for large

constellations of LEO

satellites for

communication

applications. These vehicles may also foster new markets such as space tourism. Unwilling to

wait for NASA’s RLV program to validate new technologies to develop a completely new type

of spacecraft, these companies are focusing on using existing technologies, materials, and

components to build their vehicles. Some of these companies are also focused on space tourism

and other potential new markets, instead of, or in addition to, offering payload launch services.

Program Developer Reusability Level

heavy lift launch vehicle

(unnamed)

Advent Launch Services Fully Reusable

Sprint Kelly Space and

Technology Inc.

Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable Other

Stages

Express Kelly Space and

Technology Inc.

Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable Other

Stages

Astroliner Kelly Space and

Technology Inc.

Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable Other

Stages

K-1 Kistler Aerospace

Corporation

Fully Reusable

Pathfinder spaceplane Pioneer Rocketplane Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable Other

Stages

Roton-C Rotary Rocket

Company

Fully Reusable

Space Cruiser System Vela Technology

Development

Fully Reusable

Space Shuttle United Space Alliance Full Reusability of One

Stage, Partial Reusability of

Another Stage

Space Van/Bantam Van Third Millennium

Aerospace

Fully Reusable

Spacecub David L. Burkhead Fully Reusable
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 6

United States Government Programs

NASA’s Space Shuttle has

been the most prominent RLV

in the world since its

introduction in 1981. The

design phase for the Shuttle

began in the 1960s, when RLV

concepts that had been

developed as early as the

1950s were proposed. The

United States government is

continuing RLV design and development to supplement and eventually replace the Space Shuttle.

NASA began its current RLV technology development programs by soliciting industry proposals

for the X-33 and X-34 RLV demonstrators. At about the same time, NASA took over testing of

the a vertical take-off and landing demonstration vehicle, the DC-X (Delta Clipper-Experimental)

from the military. The original DC-X acted as a testbed for RLV materials, technologies, and

operations, and the X-34 will perform a similar mission. In contrast, the X-33 program seeks to

integrate RLV technologies into a sub-orbital demonstrator, which is envisioned to foster

commercial development of a full-scale orbital RLV. Another NASA X-vehicle program is

developing the X-38 demonstrator vehicle as a prototype for a crew return vehicle for the

International Space Station.

Following the X-33 and X-34 programs, NASA plans to continue the development of RLV

technologies with the “Future X” program that will result in a series of X-vehicles—experimental

demonstrators. The Future X program is divided into two classes of vehicles, Trailblazer and

Pathfinder. Trailblazer vehicles, like the X-33, will act as integrated technology demonstrators.

Pathfinder vehicles, like the X-34, are low-cost testbeds designed to validate specific technologies

and applications. Overall, new RLV technologies and systems will be studied under a threetiered implementation process. The first tier consists of the Advanced Space Transportation

Program (ASTP), which develops core RLV technologies and conducts ground tests. The second

tier consists of flight tests of technologies validated in the first tier through Pathfinder vehicles.

The third tier consists of a Trailblazer testbed RLV using a combination of technologies under

development.1

NASA has also been conducting the Highly Reusable Space Transportation (HRST) study since

1995 in order to plot RLV development strategy beyond the near term. HRST includes NASA

centers, aerospace firms, and engineering universities in developing RLV concepts using advanced

technologies and operating methods. While not intended to proceed to a design phase, these

concepts have helped NASA to determine what technologies to explore and develop for future

RLV programs by providing input to the ASTP and Future X programs.

Program Developer Reusability Level

Clipper Graham

(DC-XA)

McDonnell Douglas

Space Division

Fully Reusable

X-33 Lockheed Martin Fully Reusable

X-34 Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Fully Reusable

Future X NASA Marshall Space

Flight Center

TBD

X-38 Johnson Space Flight

Center, Scaled

Composites

Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable

Other Stages

Military

spaceplane

USAF, Boeing, Lockheed

Martin

Fully Reusable
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 7

The United States Air Force, after having completing testing of the Clipper Graham (DC-X)

vehicle in 1995, is also continuing to develop some RLV concepts. The Air Force is currently

testing a subscale model of a reusable “Space Maneuver Vehicle” (SMV, or mini-spaceplane) for

orbital insertion of payloads and on-orbit applications. The SMV may be used with a reusable

hypersonic booster. The Air Force has awarded contracts to Lockheed Martin and McDonnell

Douglas Space Division to develop designs for the booster, but funding for the spaceplane

program is uncertain.

International Concepts

European and

Japanese

government

space programs

have also

instituted

studies of

RLVs. In the

early 1990s, the

European Space Agency (ESA) promoted the Hermes spaceplane to be boosted into space by the

Ariane 5 ELV. While this program was canceled in 1992, ESA initiated the Future European

Space Transportation Investigation Program (FESTIP) in 1993 to study a spaceplane concept

successor to Hermes. Several spaceplane concepts have been under consideration in Europe since

the 1980s, and many of these were offered for FESTIP. The first phase of the program, which

examined concept design proposals for systems such as vehicle materials and propulsion, ran

from 1994 to 1996. The second phase of the program would develop an experimental vehicle,

and although ESA has selected a design for FESTIP to study, a decision on whether to proceed

with the second phase has been postponed until 2005.2

Other RLV designs from European private-sector firms are also seeking support and funding.

German and British companies have an established history of RLV concept development, but

private funding for designs from these firms has not yet been secured.

The Japanese have studied their own reusable spaceplane concept since the late 1980s. While

funding cuts have changed the scope of the program, the HOPE-X crewless spaceplane boosted

by a conventional expendable rocket will make its debut in 2001. In addition, the Japanese have

long-range plans for the development of a fully reusable single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) spaceplane

by 2010.

Russia is the only other country to have developed a partially-reusable “Space Shuttle-type”

vehicle, the Buran. The Buran, which closely resembles the United States Space Shuttles, flew

one automated orbital mission in 1988 and has since been retired and mothballed. Over the last

Program Developer Reusability Level

Ascender Bristol Spaceplanes Limited Fully Reusable

HOPE-X NASDA Full Reusability of One

Stage, Expendable Other

Stages

Kankoh-Maru Japanese Rocket Society Fully Reusable

Sänger DASA Fully Reusable

SSTO spaceplane National Aerospace Laboratory

(Japan)

Fully Reusable

SKYLON Reaction Engines Limited Fully Reusable

Spacecab/Spacebus Bristol Spaceplanes Limited Fully Reusable
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

OVERVIEW OF RLV DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM AREAS PAGE 8

few years, reports of development of two RLV programs in Russia have surfaced, but given the

financial difficulties in Russia, their development status is uncertain. Russia is reported to be

developing the Multi-purpose Aerospace System (MAKS) based on a small spaceplane named

Molniya and launched off the back of a modified An-225 aircraft. Another potential RLV

program is Orel (or Oryol), which has the goal of developing a SSTO vehicle employing hybrid

propulsion systems by 2010.3

The X PRIZESM

In the spirit of the early

20th century aviation

prizes, such as the

Orteig prize that Charles

Lindbergh won for

crossing the Atlantic, the

X PRIZESM Foundation

was established in 1994

as an educational, nonprofit corporation

dedicated to inspiring

private, entrepreneurial

advancements in space travel. The St. Louis-based X PRIZESM Foundation is offering a $10

million prize to the first entrant able to launch a vehicle capable of carrying 3 people to a 100 km

suborbital altitude and repeating the flight within two weeks (only one person and ballast for two

others are required to actually make the flights). The X PRIZESM is offered to help speed along

development of space vehicle concepts that will reduce the cost of access to space to allow

human spaceflight to become routine.

The X PRIZESM competition currently has 16 entrants offering a variety of different RLV

concepts. Most are single-stage spaceplane concepts that employ both air-breathing and rocket

propulsion. One of the entrants, Burt Rutan, designer of the Voyager aircraft that flew around

the world without refueling, announced at the August 1997 Experimental Aircraft Association

convention that the “Mothership” component of his Proteus air-launched RLV design will make

an atmospheric flight in the second quarter of 1998.

The next four sections provide descriptions of each RLV concept. The concepts are presented in

the order of the companion RLV matrix and are divided into the four categories introduced in the

previous section: Commercial Launch Programs, United States Government Programs,

International Concepts, and the X PRIZESM. Each description provides information on the

operating characteristics of the vehicle, the vehicle design, and the company or companies

responsible for the development of the vehicle.

Program Developer Reusability Level

CAC-1 Advent Launch Services Fully Reusable

Cosmos Mariner Dynamica Research Fully Reusable

X Van Pan Aero, Inc. Fully Reusable

Proteus Burt Rutan, Scaled Composites Fully Reusable

PA-X2 Rick Fleeter, AeroAstro Inc. Fully Reusable

Gauchito Pablo De Leon and Associates Fully Reusable

Green Arrow Graham Dorrington Fully Reusable

Thunderbird Steven M. Bennett, Starchaser

Foundation

Fully Reusable

The Space Tourist John Bloomer, Discraft Corporation Fully Reusable

Lucky Seven Mickey Badgero Fully Reusable

unnamed Paul F. Tyron, Helen Tyron Fully Reusable

unnamed William Good, Earth Space

Transport System Corporation

TBD
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 9

Commercial Launch Programs

Private industry is developing a variety of RLV concepts with plans to begin commercial launch

operations around the turn of the century. The vehicles described in this section are in various

stages of development. For example, the Kistler K-1 vehicle has significant funding and is

undergoing construction for possible testing in 1998, while the Advent heavy lift vehicle is still

only a paper concept.

Advent Launch Services – Heavy Lift Launch System

Advent Launch Services has proposed this concept to provide delivery

of medium to heavy payloads to LEO. Advent’s primary vehicle

concept is the CAC-1, which is an entry into the X PRIZESM

competition (see CAC-1 entry on page 39). Advent’s heavy lift launch

vehicle, however, is also in the preliminary design phase. 4

Advent Launch Services is the partnership of long-time NASA engineer

Jim Akkerman and Texas businessman Harry Dace. Akkerman has

worked at NASA's Johnson Space Center for over 32 years. He has

participated in programs such as Gemini, the Space Shuttle, and Apollo,

where he worked on the descent engine of the lunar module. According

to a February 1997 article in the Houston

Chronicle, Akkerman believes that the time is

ripe to offer opportunities for cheap public

access to space.5

The unpiloted heavy lift launch vehicle will be

launched from, and land in, the ocean (Advent,

based in Texas, is suggesting the use of Gulf of

Mexico waters). The vehicle will be

transported to an ocean launch site by ship or

barge, where it will be put into the water and tethered to the sea floor in order to launch

vertically. The vehicle has two stages powered by multiple lunar descent engines (i.e. engines of

the type used on the Apollo moon lander), with both stages making an autonomous horizontal

water landing for recovery.6

Advent Launch Services is a start-up company. The continued development of the heavy lift

launch vehicle will likely depend upon the success of the CAC-1 in attracting space tourism

customers (and thus providing Advent with concept validation and funding for future

development).

Vehicle: Advent heavy lift launch vehicle

(currently unnamed)

Developer: Advent Launch Services

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: Gulf of Mexico

Markets served: Launch of heavy-class LEO

payloads.

Funding: Program funding is not known.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 10

Kelly Space and Technology – Sprint,

Express, & Astroliner

Kelly Space & Technology (KST) is developing

a family of reusable launch vehicles based on the

patented “Eclipse” tow-launch technique. These

launch vehicles will be towed into the air by a

modified transport aircraft, where the RLV will

be released and proceed on a sub-orbital

trajectory under its own power. Two of the

designs use expendable upper stages to inject

payloads into orbit.

Former TRW colleagues Michael Kelly and

Michael Gallo founded KST in 1993 to (in their

words) “commercially provide the lowest cost,

most reliable, and fastest response access to

space without dependence upon government

subsidy.” 7

The flagship of the KST fleet will be the

Astroliner; it will be preceded by the Sprint

and Express vehicles. The Sprint is a onefourth scale version of the Astroliner (the

Astroliner will be slightly larger than the Space

Shuttle orbiters). The Sprint will use an existing

rocket engine to accelerate to a sub-orbital

altitude after towing. The Sprint initially will

act as a reusable sounding rocket, carrying

payloads on sub-orbital missions. Later

modifications to the vehicle will allow it to carry

an expendable upper stage to deploy suborbital

payloads to higher altitude.8 

The Express will be a half-scale version of the Astroliner. The Express vehicle will be able to

carry larger sub-orbital payloads and deploy microsatellites to LEO using conventional upper

stages.

Vehicle: Astroliner (shown above)

Developer: Kelly Space and Technology

First launch: 2001

Number of stages: 3-4 (including towing aircraft)

Possible launch sites: Atlantic City NJ,

Vandenberg AFB, White Sands Missile Range

Markets served: Launch of LEO constellation

satellites

Funding: Program is seeking funding. Some

private funding secured

Vehicle: Express

Developer: Kelly Space and Technology

First launch: 1999

Number of stages: 3 (including towing aircraft)

Possible launch sites: same as Astroliner

Markets served: Launch of suborbital payloads or

LEO microsatellites.

Funding: Program is seeking funding.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 11

The Astroliner, measuring 38 meters in length,

will be powered by a rocket engine such as

Rockwell Rocketdyne Division’s aerospike or

RS-27, NPO’s RD-180 or RD-120, or a multiple

engine configuration. Following separation from

the tow aircraft, the Astroliner ignites its rocket

engine(s) and accelerates to a speed of Mach 6.5

and an altitude of 120 km. The nose of the

vehicle then opens to release the payload and the

upper stages that will lift the payload to orbit. The Astroliner vehicle then returns to the ground

under the guidance of its two-person crew.9 The original Astroliner design called for an

unpowered landing, but the current design features wing-mounted jet engines.

The Astroliner will use expendable upper stages, solid or liquid depending upon mission

requirements, to carry payloads from the vehicle into LEO, MEO or GTO (the current Astroliner

design has very limited GTO capacity). In planning the Astroliner, a tandem configuration of the

Thiokol Star 48B and Star 63F upper stages was used as the baseline design for launching a pair

of Iridium-sized satellites.10 Other, more powerful upper stages such as the Star 75, CSD’s

Orbus 21, and liquid stages are under consideration for launching heavier LEO payloads such as

Motorola’s Celestri satellites.11 A larger version of the Astroliner is under consideration to offer

GTO launches for payloads of up to about 4100 kg.12

KST has received a United States patent for its tow-launch concept. KST claims that the towlaunch method allows vehicles to lift off with heavier payloads than an air-dropped vehicle and

allows the elimination of the infrastructure required for vertical launch vehicles.13 KST also

claims that it will offer launch prices of about $10 to $15 million (or about $2000 per pound to

LEO)14 and reduced launch insurance rates for Astroliner payloads.

Financing has been obtained to develop and construct the Sprint. A Private Placement is

concluding for KST to incrementally fund progress on the Express and Astroliner.15

Development of the Astroliner is expected to cost about $150 million.16 Development of KST’s

family of vehicles was encouraged by a contract signed in October 1996 with Motorola to launch

20 replacement satellites for the Iridium constellation in 10 as-needed launches, possibly as early

as 1999.17 This is a speculative contract, with payment based on Kelly’s development of the

Astroliner and ability to launch the satellites when desired.

KST currently is conducting ground and flight tests of the Eclipse tow-launch technique using

modified QF-106 aircraft (provided by the U.S. Air-Force), and a USAF Flight Test Centersupplied C-141A tow aircraft at Edwards Air Force Base. The Eclipse Experimental

Demonstration (EXD) tests are being conducted in cooperation with NASA’s Dryden Flight

Research Center and the USAF Flight Test Center, under a Small Business Innovation Research

program coordinated by the USAF Phillips Laboratory, now known as the Air Force Research

Laboratory. KST also received a matching grant from the state of California to conduct research

Vehicle: Sprint

Developer: Kelly Space and Technology

First launch: 1998

Number of stages: 2 (including towing aircraft)

Possible launch sites: same as Astroliner

Markets served: Launch of sounding rockets.

Microgravity or other suborbital missions.

Funding: Program has secured private funding.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 12

associated with the EXD program. Actual tow testing is being conducted by the Eclipse team

from December 1997 to February 1998.

KST has also registered as a competitor in the X PRIZESM competition. The Sprint vehicle could

meet the X PRIZESM criteria, but winning the X PRIZESM is not a driver for its design. KST

officials have indicated that, should the X PRIZESM still be available once the Sprint vehicle’s

development goals are met, modifications may be made to attempt to claim the prize.18

Kistler Aerospace Corporation – K-1

Kistler Aerospace Corporation (KAC) is

developing the K-1 two-stage reusable launch

vehicle for commercial launches of LEO

payloads. KAC was founded in 1993 by

Walter Kistler, whose background includes

founding several technology companies, and

Bob Citron, the founder of Spacehab Inc. The

former head of NASA’s manned space

program, George Mueller, currently serves as

Kistler’s CEO.

Space News reported in 1994 that KAC would

offer a reusable orbital vehicle boosted by a

first stage “launch assist platform,” that would

be able to carry 2000 pounds to low Earth

orbit for about $500 per pound. KAC had

originally planned to build a suborbital

demonstrator (the K-0), followed by the

operational commercial vehicle.19 The design

was refined in 1995 and 1996 to the current

TSTO vehicle that will have a payload capacity of 10,000 pounds to LEO and will offer launch

prices of about $4800 per pound.20

KAC has made significant progress in preparing its vehicle for testing and launch in 1998,

perhaps eventually employing a fleet of five K-1 vehicles. KAC signed a $100 million agreement

in January 1997 with Space Systems/Loral to provide ten launches aboard the K-1 beginning in

late 1999 through early 2002.21

The K-1 will launch vertically like conventional ELVs but will use a unique combination of

parachutes and air bags to recover its two stages. The vehicle is designed to operate with a small

complement of ground personnel and will be transported to the launch site and erected from a

Vehicle: K-1

Developer: Kistler Aerospace Corp.

First launch: 1998

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: Nevada Test Site,

Woomera, Australia

Markets served: Deployment of LEO constellations

and replacement satellites.

Funding: Program has secured private funding
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 13

mobile transporter truck. The K-1 vehicle will measure about 23 meters high, with a dry mass of

about 30,000 kg.

KAC’s K-1 vehicle employs off-the-shelf technology and components in its design. The first

stage is powered by three LOX/kerosene NK-33 engines. These engines were originally built in

the 1960s for the Russian moon mission program and are being provided by GenCorp Aerojet.

Following launch and first stage separation, the first stage deploys parachutes and drops to a predetermined landing area where air bags are deployed beneath the stage to cushion its landing.

The second stage, or orbital vehicle, continues into low Earth orbit where it releases its payload

and performs a re-entry burn. The orbital vehicle is powered by a single NK-43 engine, also

provided by GenCorp Aerojet. The orbital vehicle also carries LOX/ethanol thrusters for orbital

maneuvers. Following payload separation, the orbital vehicle continues on orbit for about 24

hours, after which the LOX/ethanol thrusters fire to de-orbit the vehicle. After atmospheric reentry, the orbital vehicle also deploys parachutes and air bags, landing at a pre-determined site.

The K-1 vehicle is scheduled for initial test launches in 1998. To date, KAC has made significant

progress to meeting this timetable. KAC’s subcontractors are producing the major components

of the vehicle. Lockheed Martin is building the LOX fuel tanks and Northrop Grumman has been

contracted to provide much of the vehicle structure. KAC has signed an agreement with

GenCorp Aerojet to be the prime contractor for the K-1 vehicle. Aerojet will import, refurbish,

and provide the Russian-made NK-33 and NK-43 engines that will power the first and second

stages respectively.22 Kistler reportedly has over $100 million of the $500 million needed to

develop the K-1.23

In August 1997, the United States Department of Energy signed an agreement with the Nevada

Test Site Development Corp. that will allow Kistler to develop launch operations at the site.24

Kistler has also decided to construct a launch facility at the Woomera site in northern Australia

for both test and launch operations.25 Kistler is in pre-application processing with the FAA for

permission to conduct launches from the Nevada Test Site, with both stages returning to Earth at

the NTS as well.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 14

Pioneer Rocketplane – Pathfinder 26

The Pathfinder (not to be confused with the FutureX Pathfinder program discussed in the US

Government Programs section) tracks its heritage to a

military spaceplane concept. The “Black Horse”

spaceplane was promoted within the United States

Air Force in the early 1990s by Mitchell Burnside

Clapp, who developed the concept of aerial

propellant transfer to enable horizontal takeoff and

landing SSTO spaceplanes. Two demonstration

vehicles were planned as stepping stones to the

Black Horse, called the Black Foal and the Black

Colt. The Black Foal would have demonstrated

aspects of the technology and provided proof of

concept. The Black Colt would have flown to half

orbital velocity and utilized an existing upper stage to

put satellites in orbit.

Clapp left the Air Force and co-founded Pioneer

Rocketplane in 1996 along with engineer Robert Zubrin, who led the development of the Black

Colt concept at Lockheed Martin.27 Pioneer Rocketplane advanced the concept (renamed the

Pathfinder) as a potential design for NASA’s X-34 program.

Although the Pathfinder was not selected for the X-34, its proponents elected to continue

development. In June 1997, Pioneer Rocketplane was awarded one of four $2 million NASA

Low Cost Boost Technology Program contracts to develop detailed preliminary designs and

conduct wind-tunnel tests for concepts to launch small satellites. The other three concepts

awarded contracts are expendable vehicles (offered by Summa Technology, Inc., Universal Space

Lines, and PacAstro). The schedule of the Low Cost Boost Technology Program calls for NASA

to select two of these four designs for prototype construction in early 1998,28 but the future of

this program is uncertain. NASA is currently studying options for the program, with a decision

expected by mid-1998.

Pathfinder is a spaceplane operated by a crew of two and is powered by both air-breathing jet

engines and LOX/kerosene rocket engines. The 23-meter long vehicle takes off horizontally using

jet engines but carries only a tiny amount of LOX on-board. While in flight, the Pathfinder meets

a tanker aircraft carrying LOX, which fills the LOX tanks of the Pathfinder in a method identical

to today’s air-to-air refueling. After taking on the LOX, the Pathfinder ignites its RD-120 rocket

engine, carrying it to a speed of Mach 12 and an altitude of about 130 km. The vehicle then

releases a satellite payload mated to a conventional upper stage from its payload bay. The

Vehicle: Pathfinder

Developer: Pioneer Rocketplane

First launch: TBD

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: Wallops Island, Kodiak

Island, Vandenberg AFB

Markets served: Launch of small and mediumclass LEO payloads. Sounding missions.

Spaceplane sales for fast passenger service, fast

package delivery, and military missions.

Funding: Funded for $2 million through the NASA

Low Cost Boost Technology Program. Has raised

$1.2 million in private funding as of Dec. 1997.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 15

payload is carried into orbit by the upper stage and the Pathfinder returns to the atmosphere.

After deceleration to subsonic speeds, the jet engines are re-started and the Pathfinder lands

horizontally.29

The Pathfinder vehicle uses primarily existing technology and components. The propulsion

system uses proven jet and rocket engines (two Pratt and Whitney F100 jet engines and one

kerosene/oxygen-burning RD-120 rocket engine), and the avionics systems are derived from

systems produced for the Boeing 777.

Pioneer Rocketplane believes that its vehicles can be used not only for satellite launch but also

for worldwide package delivery, passenger service, space tourism, and military missions.

Pathfinder would be capable of carrying 6,800 kg of packages and may be modified to carry 40

passengers.30 Pathfinder is expected to cost about $250 million to develop, and Pioneer

Rocketplane is currently seeking investors for the effort, and has already secured commitments

for over $1.2 million by December 1997.31

The main technical challenge in developing the Pathfinder is the LOX air-to-air transfer system.

While airborne refueling technology is tested and proven, airborne transfer of LOX will require

unique equipment that has not yet been developed. Pioneer plans to modify a wide-body aircraft

such as a 747, DC-10, or L-1011 to act as the tanker.

Rotary Rocket Company – Roton-C

Roton-C is the latest design from the Rotary

Rocket Company. Rotary Rocket Company is

headed by Gary Hudson and Bevin McKinney,

who respectively had directed Pacific American

Launch Systems and American Rocket

Company. A precursor company co-founded by

Hudson and McKinney, HMX, Inc., originated

the Roton concepts now under development.

The Roton concept has been under development

for several years, and the current design (RotonC, “C” for “cargo”) was introduced at the Cheap

Access To Space Symposium in July 1997. The

Roton concept is based on using centrifugal

pumping of propellant by rotating the engine

about the axis of the vehicle and using a rotor to

land the vehicle in place of engine thrust,

parachutes, or fixed wings. Other Roton

concepts under development include vehicles

Vehicle: Roton-C

Developer: Rotary Rocket Company

First launch: 1999

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Deployment of LEO constellations

and replacement satellites. Vehicle sales for a

range of space launch services.

Funding: Program has raised $6 million in private

funding.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 16

that use rotors not only for landing but for lift-off as well.32

The SSTO Roton-C vehicle is designed for vertical takeoff and landing. The 16-meter high

Roton-C is powered by a proprietary design Rocketjet aerospike engine that rotates inside the

cylindrical vehicle. The rotation feeds the LOX/jet fuel propellants into the combustors at

(which are located the periphery of the engine) at high chamber pressure, eliminating the need for

turbopumps to feed the engine. Following ascension to LEO, Roton-C will deploy a satellite

payload and perform a de-orbit burn. If weather conditions are not favorable at the landing

location, the vehicle can remain on-orbit until conditions improve. After atmospheric re-entry,

Roton-C will deploy rotors that allow it to land like an autorotating helicopter, with the rotating

blades providing braking and control.33 Roton touches down vertically under the control of the

two to three person crew, landing without fuel on-board. The vehicle is designed to be serviced

by a small team of ground personnel and is targeting turn-around times between flights of 24

hours or less.34 The Roton-C also has been designed to be able to return to Earth with the cargo

bay fully loaded.

Rotary Rocket Company is currently raising funds for the development of the Roton-C and has

contracted with several other firms for component construction. Rotary Rocket Company is

developing the propulsion system internally and has contracted with Scaled Composites for

design and construction of the airframe.

A first round of fundraising for vehicle development produced $6 million.35 Rotary Rocket

Company recently reached an agreement with Barclays Capital for Barclays to serve as financial

advisors and placement agency for an approximately $30 million private equity placement.

Rotary Rocket Company plans to begin flight tests in 1999, with operational capability

beginning in 2000. Rotary Rocket company will initially offer launch services but hopes to build

a fleet of Roton vehicles that can be sold to other companies that may provide a range of space

launch services.

Vela Technology Development –

Space Cruiser System

The Space Cruiser System (SCS) vehicle is

currently being marketed for space tourism

flights beginning in 2001 by Zegrahm Space

Voyages, a division of the Zegrahm

Expeditions travel company. The SCS vehicle

is being designed and developed by Virginia-based Vela Technology Development, Inc. to carry

six passengers on a suborbital flight reaching just over 100 km in altitude.36
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 17

Steven J. Höeser is president of Vela

Technology Development. Höeser and all of

Vela’s technical personnel have extensive

NASA, commercial aerospace, or U.S. Air

Force space systems experience. The

company is planning to use existing

technologies to create passenger-carrying

vehicles.37

SCS is a two-stage horizontal takeoff and landing design that employs both airbreathing and

rocket engines. The “Sky Lifter” first stage booster will be piloted by a two-member crew and

will be powered by two JT8D/F100-class jet engines. The Sky Lifter will be about 33 meters

long, with a dry mass of approximately 10,000 kg. The Sky Lifter will carry the “Space Cruiser”

second stage spaceplane underneath. The Space Cruiser will measure about 12 meters long and

will have a mass of approximately 8000 kg. The two stages will climb together to about 15 km

(50,000 ft.) where the Space Cruiser, carrying two crew and six passengers, separates and will

climb to 100 km using its three Nitrous Oxide/Propane-fueled rocket engines. During re-entry

into the atmosphere, the Space Cruiser will fire retro rockets to slow descent and then will

activate two JT15D-class turbo-jet engines to return to a landing site.38

Vela Technology Development plans to build two sets of operational vehicles and plans to

initially operate two launches per week.

Third Millennium Aerospace –

Space Van/Bantam Van

The Space Van and Bantam Van are the commercial space

tourism and satellite launch systems proposed by Third

Millennium Aerospace. Third Millennium has plans for

both launch services and space tourism services for its

vehicles. Third Millennium’s founder, Len Cormier,

believes that small, low-cost RLVs will provide a better

return on investment than the 20 ton capacity SSTO RLV

design that NASA envisions.39

Third Millennium’s space tourism plans call for initial

suborbital flights using the Bantam Van. The second phase

would use the Space Van to construct an orbiting facility

capable of hosting tourists for a one-week stay.

Third Millennium has also promoted several conceptual uses for RLVs outside of space tourism.

It has proposed an international consortium, Third Millennium Telecommunications, to pursue

an integrated approach to low-cost, high-capability space-based communications based upon the

Vehicle: Space Cruiser System (second stage

spaceplane pictured)

Developer: Vela Technology Development

First launch: 2001

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: Commercial airports

Markets served: Suborbital space tourism flights.

Funding: Program funding is not known.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 18

availability of the Bantam Van launch vehicle. In

addition, Third Millennium has expressed interest

in using RLVs for space solar power construction,

space-based manufacturing, orbital debris removal,

and the mining of helium-3 from the lunar surface

to provide fuel for spacecraft.

The Space Van is designed to carry 16 passengers

plus 3 crew to LEO. A cargo carrying version is

also planned. The Space Van would measure about 32 meters long and have a dry mass of about

12,000 kg. Third Millennium is partnered with an organization known as Space Tour, which

hopes to raise the approximately $500 million in funding for the construction of the Space Van.40

The Space Van would be the upper-stage orbiter of a two stage system. The first stage would

consist of a relatively simple reusable booster that carries the Space Van orbiter to about Mach 3

at 30 km. Third Millennium claims that boosting to this altitude and at this speed allows for

construction of the booster and design of the orbiter using existing materials and powerplants. 41

The Bantam Van is a scaled-down version of the Space Van that Third Millennium suggests

should be built first in order to provide commercial operations to generate demand and funding

for the Space Van. Third Millennium feels that construction of the Bantam Van is currently

feasible for a cost of about $75 million. The Bantam Van would use a scaled-up version of the X

Van (see entry on page 41) as a first stage booster and would be capable of carrying 400 kg to a

450 km LEO orbit.42

David L. Burkhead – Spacecub 43

Spacecub is a four-seat vehicle designed for

VTOL operations by private individuals.

Spacecub has been proposed as a kit vehicle,

built by individual hobbyists for suborbital

flights. The vehicle has been proposed by

aerospace enthusiast David L. Burkhead since

1994.

Spacecub would be a 10-meter long cylindrical

vehicle with wings. Propulsion would be

provided by four LOX/kerosene rocket engines,

giving the vehicle the capability to reach an

altitude of 130 km.

Spacecub would launch and land vertically.

Following descent from its peak altitude, the

Vehicle: Space Van

Developer: Third Millennium Aerospace

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Orbital space tourism flights.

Launch of LEO and GEO satellites. Mining of

helium from the moon.

Funding: Program funding is not known.

Vehicle: Spacecub

Developer: David L. Burkhead

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Personal suborbital space tourism

Funding: Program funding is not known.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

COMMERCIAL LAUNCH PROGRAMS PAGE 19

vehicle gradually slows and pulls into a glide. After gliding over the landing area and pulling into

a vertical position, the vehicle fires its engines to execute a powered touchdown. Spacecub’s

flight systems could be programmed to provide a range of control capability for the pilot, ranging

from fully-automated flight to full manual control.

Lockheed Martin Corporation –

VentureStar

In 1993, Lockheed Skunk Works introduced a

concept vehicle using an aerospike engine and a

wedge-shaped lifting-body design known as an

“aeroballistic rocket” (a VentureStar forerunner),

and offered it for the Air Force’s planned new

vehicle program called “Spacelifter,” but

Spacelifter was canceled in the wake of the

EELV program.

Today’s VentureStar resembles the original

aeroballistic rocket in the lifting-body design.

VentureStar is Lockheed Martin's potential

commercial follow-on to the X-33 vehicle being

developed for NASA's RLV program (see pages

21-23 for a complete overview of the X-33).

The VentureStar vehicle will be similar in design

to the X-33 but twice the size and about eight

times the launch mass. Development of the

VentureStar vehicle is underway in parallel with

the X-33, but Lockheed Martin has not yet made a firm decision to proceed with VentureStar

construction. Complete development of an operational VentureStar will require significant funds,

and Lockheed Martin is examining whether the market will support a return on investment that

will make the vehicle feasible.

Vehicle: VentureStar

Developer: Lockheed Martin Skunk Works

First launch: 2004

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Launch of heavy-class LEO

payloads.

Funding: May be funded by Lockheed Martin as a

commercial follow-on to the X-33.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 20

United States Government Programs

In the 1990s, NASA and the military have made significant strides in RLV development. The

DC-X (later the DC-XA and Clipper Graham) was funded by the military in the early 1990s and

later by NASA. This vehicle demonstrated RLV materials and operations and paved the way for

the current NASA X-33 and X-34 RLV prototype development programs. In addition to the X33 and X-34 RLV programs, NASA is also participating in a joint effort with the European Space

Agency for a crew return/crew transfer vehicle for the Space Station. The US military is

continuing its RLV study with the development of military spaceplane concepts.

Clipper Graham (DC-XA) 44

In the 1950s, McDonnell Douglas advanced a

vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) spaceplane

concept,45 but such a design did not come into

development until the Delta Clipper-Experimental

(DC-X). In the late 1980s, the Strategic Defense

Initiative Organization (SDIO) was exploring

launch system options to reduce the cost of

launching small payloads (especially for launching

an SDI system). The Delta Clipper (DC-X)

program was funded under the Phase II Single

Stage Rocket Technology program of the SDIO’s

successor, the Ballistic Missile Defense

Organization (BMDO), in 1991. The DC-X

demonstrator vehicle was delivered in April 1993,

and system and flight testing began immediately.

Flight testing involved vertical launches, hovering,

vertical landing, and a gradual exploration of

different aspects of an actual flight plan.

Military funding for continued DC-X testing,

however, was difficult to maintain and flight

testing was halted in October 1993. Flight tests

resumed in 1994 as BMDO renewed funding and

NASA agreed to provide additional funds for the

project. A total of eight flight tests were

completed by July 1995. Following the eighth

test flight, control of the vehicle was transferred to NASA, which directed modifications to the

vehicle to test technologies for the RLV program and redesignated the vehicle DC-XA.

Vehicle: Clipper Graham (DC-XA)

Developer: McDonnell Douglas Space Division

First launch: 1993

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: White Sands Missile Range

Markets served: Demonstration of VTOL

capabilities, RLV materials, and rapid turn-around

operations. Possible future development as first

stage of the military spaceplane.

Funding: Program is complete.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 21

Concurrently, a McDonnell Douglas-Boeing team proposed a VTOL concept based on the DCXA for NASA’s X-33 program.

NASA flight testing of the DC-XA (renamed the Clipper Graham in June 1996) produced three

successful test flights. On June 7 and June 8, 1996, the Clipper Graham performed two test

flights within 26 hours, demonstrating the potential for quick turn-around capability for RLVs.

The fourth and final flight test of the vehicle ended disastrously as one of the vehicle’s four

landing gear legs failed to deploy. The vehicle toppled over on landing and was completely

destroyed. The Clipper Graham experimental vehicle measured 11.8 meters in height and had a

dry mass of 10,200 kg. A full-scale version would measure 38.5 meters high with a mass of

about 46,800 kg.46

NASA has since selected Lockheed Martin’s X-33 concept for the RLV program. Without

further funding, development of a full-scale version of the Clipper Graham is questionable.

McDonnell Douglas Space Division (now a subsidiary of Boeing), however, has presented a

proposal for the military spaceplane based on the Clipper Graham design (see military

spaceplane entry on page 29).

X-33 47

Following the National Space Transportation

Policy announced in 1994, NASA initiated the

RLV program and solicited proposals for the

SSTO X-33 experimental demonstrator.

NASA’s focus on SSTO RLV technology stems

from the conclusions of the 1993 Access to

Space Study. Based on this study, NASA

decided to pursue the development of new SSTO

technologies and vehicles.

The X-33 program was initiated to develop a

testbed for integrated RLV technologies, paving

the way for full-scale development of a reusable

launch vehicle that would be contracted for

government and private sector use. The X-33 is

targeted to reach high hypersonic speeds and

demonstrate SSTO and autonomous operations

capabilities. NASA has set goals of a routine

seven hour turn-around time and a 3.5 hour

emergency flight turn-around time. NASA

hopes the program will lead to the development

of RLVs that will reduce the cost of space launches to at most one quarter of today’s prices.

Vehicle: X-33

Developer: Lockheed Martin Skunk Works

First launch: 1999

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Testbed for RLV technologies and

operations.

Funding: Project is funded under NASA’s RLV

Program. NASA will contribute $950 million and

Lockheed Martin will contribute $220 million.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 22

In April 1995, NASA signed cooperative agreements with Lockheed Martin, McDonnell

Douglas, and Rockwell International to develop concept designs for the X-33 program. Lockheed

Martin offered a vertical takeoff, horizontal landing concept based on the aeroballistic

rocket/VentureStar design (see the VentureStar entry on page 19 for background information).

Rockwell also offered a vertical takeoff, horizontal landing design, and McDonnell Douglas

proposed a VTOL design based on its Clipper Graham vehicle.

On July 2, 1996, NASA selected Lockheed Martin’s design. NASA will provide almost $950

million in funding, while Lockheed Martin is expected to contribute $220 million. Payment,

however, is based on meeting progress milestones during development.

Lockheed Martin’s design is a single stage to orbit (SSTO) vehicle that relies on a lifting body

rather than wings. The X-33 will measure about 20 meters in length, with a dry mass of about

28,350 kg. The X-33 vehicle is sometimes referred to as VentureStar, but in this context, we use

VentureStar to refer to Lockheed Martin’s intended full-scale operational RLV design. The

VentureStar vehicle will be similar in design to the X-33 but twice the size and about four times

the dry mass. The X-33 and the VentureStar will be powered by linear aerospike engines under

development by Rocketdyne that do not use conventional cone-shaped exhaust nozzles but allow

the exhaust flow to adjust to changes in atmospheric pressure.

NASA has scheduled completion of the X-33 program by 1999. Fifteen flight tests are planned

to cover medium and long-range flights from July to December 1999. The aerospike engine has

been undergoing flight testing, and final engine qualification tests are scheduled for late 1998.

Rollout of the completed X-33 is scheduled for May 1999.48

The X-33 is currently under construction at Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works facility. Although

the design was reported to have stability and weight problems during the summer of 1997, the

X-33 recently reached two major milestones in the design process. In November 1997, the

vehicle passed a critical design review, a key step before actual construction begins. Lockheed

Martin continues to attempt to reduce the dry weight of the vehicle and must build a composite

material fuel tank for the liquid hydrogen propellant. The top speed of the X-33 will only be

Mach 13, rather than the Mach 15 goal originally targeted.49

On November 6, 1997, NASA completed the environmental impact statement (EIS) process for

the X-33 testing program, which considered issues such as public safety, noise, impacts on

general aviation, and effects on biological, natural, and other resources. The 15 test flights of the

X-33 will be conducted from the launch site at Haystack Butte on the eastern portion of Edwards

Air Force Base, CA, to landing sites at Michael Army Air Field, Dugway Proving Ground,

UT, and Malmstrom Air Force Base near Great Falls, MT. Construction crews broke ground on

November 14, 1997 for the launch facility at Edwards AFB, with completion expected in one

year.50
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 23

X-34

Following the implementation of the Space

Transportation Policy in August 1994, NASA

initiated the X-33 program for a heavy-lift RLV

and the X-34 program to develop an RLV for

payloads of about 1100 kg. In April 1995,

NASA signed an agreement with Orbital Sciences

Corporation for the development of the X-34

technology testbed. At this time, Orbital and

Rockwell International formed a joint venture

known as American Space Lines to develop and

operate the X-34. The X-34 program was

originally designed to offer the possibility of

development into a commercial booster on its

own after accomplishing its technology

demonstration goals. Flight tests were planned

for late 1997, but Orbital, Rockwell, and NASA

could not agree what engine to use for the

vehicle. The problems with the program

apparently were such that NASA terminated the

contract with Rockwell and Orbital in February

1996.51 Other reports contend that Orbital and Rockwell found that the vehicle would not be

commercially viable, which resulted in them pulling out of the project.52

NASA redesigned the X-34 program to use a smaller vehicle to demonstrate key technologies.

Following a competition that included nine entries, NASA again awarded Orbital Sciences

Corporation a $60 million contract in June 1996 to design, develop, and test the X-34 vehicle.

The X-34 is designed to be a sub-orbital technology testbed vehicle for the RLV program. The

goals of the X-34 are to achieve a maximum speed of Mach 8 and to reach altitudes of up to 80

km. Flight testing will focus on RLV operations such as 24 hour turn-around, landing in adverse

weather conditions, and safe abort procedures. New technology demonstrations will include

composite primary and secondary airframe structures; cryogenic insulation and propulsion

system elements; advanced thermal protection systems and materials; and low cost avionics,

including differential global positioning and inertial navigation systems. Operations technologies

such as integrated vehicle health-monitoring and automated checkout systems also will be

validated.53

Orbital Sciences’ design features a cylindrical body with delta wings. The X-34 will measure

17.7 meters in length and will have a dry mass of 19,500 kg. The vehicle will be launched from an

L-1011 carrier aircraft (much like Orbital Sciences’ Pegasus expendable launch vehicle). The

engine is a new LOX/kerosene rocket engine known as Fastrac, that is designed, developed, and

Vehicle: X-34

Developer: Orbital Sciences Corporation

First launch: 1998

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: White Sands Missile Range

Markets served: Testbed for RLV technologies and

operations.

Funding: Project is funded for $60 million under

NASA’s RLV Program.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 24

provided by NASA under a separate program. The X-34 design, however, will allow for easy

substitution of engines.54

In May 1997, the X-34 completed a system design freeze, and flight tests are scheduled to begin

in late 1998. Phase 1 of the program calls for two test flights at speeds up to Mach 3.8. Still

being considered by NASA is an option for a second phase of the testing program that calls for

25 flights over 12 months, achieving a range of different speeds and operating in a variety of

conditions.55

Future X Trailblazer Program

Following the award of the X-33 contract,

NASA attempted to determine whether to

continue creating experimental vehicles, and if

so, what future X-vehicles to fund. NASA

found it had difficulty choosing among 10

specific candidates and instead decided to

develop a framework for the development of

X-vehicles. This resulted in the Future X

program and its Trailblazer and Pathfinder

classes of X-vehicles.56 New X-vehicles will be

developed as technology concepts are

presented, as demand for development of a

concept is expressed by potential users, and

(most importantly) as funding becomes

available. New technology concepts will

evolve out of the Advanced Space

Transportation Program, as discussed in the

introduction to this document (see page 6).

The Future X Trailblazer program will develop

technology demonstrator vehicles that will test

integrated vehicle systems. The vehicles will

validate the viability of complete programs. For example, the X-33 is designed not only to

validate technology but also to validate RLV operations such as turn-around time and safe abort

procedures. Trailblazer programs respond to mission needs (as the X-33 responds to the need

for reduction in space cost access) and will share costs between NASA and other end users.57

Currently, there are no funded Trailblazer programs. NASA, however, has identified several

vehicle concept types and programs that would be classified under Trailblazer:58

Vehicle: Trailblazer-class

Developer: Marshall Space Flight Center in

cooperation with private industry

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: TBA

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Testbeds for RLV technologies

and operations. Future X Trailblazer vehicles will act

as experimental demonstrators that respond to the

mission needs of end users.

Funding: Program is not funded.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 25

Boost Technology Demonstrator—This vehicle would represent a follow-on to the X-33. It

would test new technologies and components beyond those used in the X-33 and would be

designed for a customer-specific mission. For example, such a demonstrator could be designed to

meet military operational requirements, or it could be designed to meet the needs of the

commercial package delivery market.

X-33 Upgrade—This program would provide upgrades to the X-33 vehicle beyond the current

design. Such upgrades could consist of developing a composite construction LOX fuel tank to

replace the current aluminum tank or of improving the performance of the aerospike engine.

Orbital Technology Demonstrator—This program would develop an on-orbit vehicle that

could provide commercial capabilities such as transfer of payloads from lower orbits to higher

orbits. Other concepts include an on-orbit vehicle for military missions and a vehicle to

demonstrate technologies that could be used for planetary exploration.

Future X Pathfinder Program

The Future X Pathfinder program will develop

testbed vehicles that focus on validating specific

technologies (in contrast to the Trailblazer

program, which will develop vehicle

prototypes). These vehicles respond to the

need to test new technologies and will be lowcost programs that produce vehicles in less than

two years. It is intended that the materials and

technologies tested under this program will be

integrated into the RLVs of the future.59

Like the Trailblazer class of vehicles, the

Pathfinder class currently has no funded

projects. NASA has identified several vehicle and program concepts that could be explored as

Pathfinder vehicles, some of which examine RLV-specific technologies:60

Aerobrake Demonstration—This project would continue the development of technologies to

use planetary atmospheres to reduce spacecraft velocity. Such technologies would have

applications in planetary exploration missions. Aerobraking could also be used by a reusable

upper stage to reduce its speed to reenter the atmosphere and return to earth.

High Q Testbed—This program would subject a test vehicle to high dynamic pressures to

simulate various phases of transatmospheric vehicle operations.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 26

Space Shuttle Experiments—This program

would continue the use of the Space Shuttle fleet

for testing on various materials and concepts. For

example, the shuttles have been used in the past to

carry payloads that test thermal protection system

concepts and materials.

Solar Electric Demonstration—This project

would test solar electric propulsion technologies

for use in applications such as orbital transfer

stages or electric propulsion upper stages.

High Reentry L/D Demonstration—This program would demonstrate new designs for

increasing lift to drag ratio, providing increased lift for crossrange operations through

aerodynamic improvements instead of added propulsion.

Hyper-X Experiments—This program would provide follow-on testing for the scramjet61

propulsion technologies currently being explored in the current Hyper-X program (the current

Hyper-X vehicle program funded by NASA will explore hypersonic performance of scramjet

propulsion).

Rocket-based Combined-Cycle (RBCC) Demonstration—This project would provide flight

validation of systems that combine scramjet and rocket propulsion into a single engine. The

RBCC concept is currently under design and funded as part of the Advanced Space

Transportation Program.

Highly Reusable Space Transportation Program

NASA initiated the Highly Reusable Space Transportation (HRST) program in 1995 to identify

new launch vehicle concepts that could produce launch prices of $100-$200 per pound to LEO.

The study focused on propulsion and operations concepts as the key drivers to produce high

performance and low costs. A variety of RLV concepts submitted by aerospace companies,

NASA divisions, and universities were evaluated. These vehicles were based on propulsion

systems that used and combined technologies such as advanced LOX/liquid hydrogen engines,

scramjets, and combined-cycle engines. Launch assist methods such as hydraulic and

electromagnetic catapults were also examined.

In 1997, the HRST study recommended three concepts that could satisfy near-term RLV needs

(including advance-propulsion designs employing RBCC and scramjets, and a TSTO lift assist

design) and three concepts that could satisfy far-term RLV needs. Significant technology

Vehicle: Pathfinder-class

Developer: Marshall Space Flight Center in

cooperation with private industry

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: TBA

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Testbeds for RLV technologies

and operations. Future X Pathfinder vehicles will

be driven by specific technology developments

and provide low-cost validation of these

technologies.

Funding: Program is not funded.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 27

advancement is needed, however, before any of the concept vehicles could proceed with

development.

The second phase of the HRST program, recently completed, draws specific technologies from

the concepts developed in the first phase. The study recommended technologies in which NASA

should invest in order to further future RLV development. These technologies could eventually

be the focus of technology development activities in the ASTP and the Future X programs.

X-38/Crew Return Vehicle 62

The X-38 is a technology demonstration vehicle project of the

Johnson Space Flight Center. The X-38 is a prototype for an

emergency crew return vehicle (CRV) that will be attached to the

International Space Station. The CRV will provide means of

returning to earth if an emergency requiring immediate evacuation

of the station arises, if an astronaut has a medical emergency

requiring immediate treatment on Earth, or if the Space Shuttle

fleet is grounded and the astronauts must return to Earth.

Plans for a CRV have been under consideration since the Space

Station was first proposed. Proposals for CRVs have taken on

many different forms. At first, use of a Soyuz

capsule or the ESA’s proposed Hermes

spaceplane were considered. In 1989, NASA

decided to solicit bids for the construction of

an Assured CRV (ACRV), but the program

stalled because of the high costs associated

with the proposed designs, which would have

provided the capability to both send and

retrieve crews from the Space Station.

NASA and ESA are currently working together

for a common concept to satisfy their Space Station crew transport needs. Rather than focusing

solely on an emergency return vehicle, ESA wants to develop a vehicle capable of both launching

and returning crew members to and from the station. Although ESA has directed energies toward

developing its own crew transfer vehicle (CTV), it has so far committed $34 million to the

development of the X-38. CRV development is expected to cost almost $1 billion, with ESA

contributing about 30%.63

European participation in the program, however, has recently undergone some turmoil, as France

decided in October 1997 to terminate its participation in the program. France had been the

largest ESA contributor to the program (39% of ESA’s CRV funding).64 While ESA is trying to

Vehicle: X-38/CRV

Developer: Johnson Space Flight Center, Dryden

Flight Research Center, Scaled Composites

First launch: 1999

Number of stages: 1 (at least 2 for launch)

Possible launch sites: KSC, Kourou

Markets served: Prototype for International Space

Station crew return operations

Funding: Program is funded by NASA for $80

million for two atmospheric and two space test

vehicles.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 28

piece together additional funding for the CRV effort, the German Space Center (DLR) has

independently entered into an agreement with NASA to develop body flaps, a nose cone, and

other components for a space flight test of the X-38.65

The X-38 employs a lifting body design based on a 1970s-vintage X-aircraft (X-24A). Rather

than landing in an unassisted glide like the Space Shuttle, the X-38 will deploy a steerable parafoil

(similar to a large parachute) that will allow the vehicle to maneuver to a landing site. Two X-38

atmospheric test vehicles have been constructed by Scaled Composites, with parafoils supplied

by Pioneer Aerospace. Avionics and control systems were incorporated into the test vehicles at

NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Center.

Drop tests of the vehicle have been undertaken in 1997, and further testing is scheduled for

February 1998. A full de-orbit and landing test following launch from the Space Shuttle is

planned for 1999 or 2000. NASA expects that four CRVs will be developed based on the X-38

design at a total cost of about $500 million. A request for proposals for CRV construction is

expected to be sent to United States industry in mid-1998, resulting in an operational vehicle by

2002.66

The CRV will employ the same steerable parafoil concept as the X-38. Its control systems

would allow it to land within 9 km of a given landing area. Landing will be accomplished by

setting down on landing skids, and a backup parachute system will be included as well. The CRV

will be able to carry six crew members (although ESA plans for about 3 passengers on the CTV)

and would be able to operate free of the Space Station for up to nine hours. Both the X-38

(space test version) and the CRV will use a de-orbit propulsion stage to orient the vehicle for

atmospheric re-entry, jettisoning the stage following the maneuver. A full-scale CRV will

measure 8.6 meters long with a mass of about 8,200 kg.

Although the X-38 is not designed to be an RLV (that is, it is not intended to be a launch vehicle),

it is possible that the eventual design for the CRV (which ESA is planning as the CTV) will be

able to attain orbit through launch atop an expendable launch vehicle such as the

Ariane 5.67 While the CRV design has no space maneuvering propulsion system, an orbital

transfer vehicle could be used to move it into position at the Space Station, allowing it to carry

crews both to and from the station.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 29

Military Spaceplane

In August 1996, the USAF Space Command

(AFSPC) approved a “concept of operations”

for a spaceplane demonstrator to satisfy USAF

space operations needs in the future. An

Integrated Concept Team (ICT) was

established to develop designs for a

multimission vehicle that could perform a

variety of orbital and suborbital military

missions, such as placing small satellites in

low-Earth orbit, conducting surveillance,

disabling adversaries’ space vehicles, releasing

weapons (within the atmosphere) against

terrestrial targets, serving as a time-critical

communications relay platform, or delivering

cargo. The first squadron of military

spaceplanes could be operational in the 2030

time frame.68

Following a year of study, the AFSPC

followed the ITC’s recommendation to

establish a central spaceplane program office to

coordinate the program. Spaceplane research

efforts have been funded through “add-on”

funds appropriated in 1996.69

Through this program, the Air Force is

developing a two-stage spaceplane concept.

The concept consists of a reusable “minispaceplane,” or Space Maneuver Vehicle

(SMV) that is carried to hypersonic speeds by

a suborbital reusable first stage. The SMV is

released and accelerates to orbit, where it will be designed to be able to maneuver in space and

remain on-orbit for perhaps as long as one year.

Both stages of the spaceplane are under development, but funding is uncertain. In September

1997, the Air Force’s Phillips Laboratory awarded contracts worth $4 million each to Lockheed

Martin and McDonnell Douglas Space Division to develop concept designs for a sub-orbital

demonstrator. Lockheed Martin has offered a concept based on its X-33 design, while

McDonnell Douglas has proposed a concept based on the Clipper Graham.70

The SMV is under development by Boeing North American, and an 85% scale unpowered

testbed has been produced under a $5.2 million contract awarded in October 1996 by the USAF’s

The Space Maneuver Vehicle (SMV) sub-scale testbed

 

The SMV mated to a reusable booster

Vehicle: Military Spaceplane

Developers: Boeing, Lockheed Martin

First launch: TBA (SMV tests in 1997)

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Military payload delivery to LEO.

Special missions such as satellite orbital transfer

Funding: Program funding is questionable following

a presidential veto.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 30

Wright Laboratory.71 The testbed will be carried aloft by helicopter, where it will be released to

demonstrate automated landing procedures. Three landing tests were planned for the fall of 1997,

but the current program status is uncertain due to funding questions. With funding, further

landing tests and ground procedure testing could proceed in 1998.72

The full-scale powered SMV will be designed to be about 7.5 meters long and have a mass of

about 1140 kg. The Air Force is also considering future designs of the SMV to include crewed

versions. Should the USAF proceed with development of the SMV, testing could proceed with

unpowered drops from a B-52, followed by missions into space for return-from-orbit tests.73

The availability of funds for the military spaceplane is in doubt because of President Clinton’s

October 1997 line-item veto of the program’s funding. The Air Force has stated publicly that

funding could continue in 1999 should the veto not be overturned.74 A senior Air Force official at

the Phillips Laboratory, however, stated that funds that were supposed to be earmarked for the

program had not been allocated to the program, and that the continuation of the program without

the funds vetoed by the president is unlikely.75

Space Shuttle

The United States’ Space Shuttle fleet was first launched in

1981 and since then has provided the basis for NASA’s

crewed missions to space. Although the Space Shuttles have

launched several commercial and military satellite payloads

during their initial years of service, commercial payloads have

been effectively banned from the shuttles since the explosion

of the Challenger orbiter in 1986. The transition of Space

Shuttle program operations management from NASA to a

private organization, however, has raised the possibility that

the shuttle fleet could engage in a range of commercial

operations in the future.

The Space Shuttle fleet consists of four orbiters

(Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, Endeavor) that

measure 37.2 meters in length and have dry

masses ranging from 78,400 kg to 82,200 kg.

Each orbiter is mated to an external fuel tank

and two solid rocket boosters for vertical

launches. The solid rocket boosters

supplement the thrust of the three LOX/liquid

hydrogen engines of the orbiter. The orbiter

can carry a crew of 7 and a payload of up to

24,400 kg to LEO. After completing

Vehicle: Space Shuttle

Developer: Rockwell International, Lockheed Martin,

Thiokol. Operated by United Space Alliance (USA)

First launch: 1981

Number of stages: 2 (3 with upper stage for GEO

launches)

Possible launch sites: CCAS

Markets served: Science missions. Launch of

heavy-class LEO satellites. Satellite repair

missions. Delivery of supplies to the International

Space Station. Orbital space tourism.

Funding: USA has a $7 billion contract with NASA
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS PAGE 31

operations in orbit, the orbiter re-enters the atmosphere and lands horizontally.76

In October 1996, United Space Alliance (USA), a joint venture of Lockheed Martin and Boeing,

took over day-to-day operations of the Space Shuttle fleet under a six-year contract with NASA.

USA has offered a plan to NASA under which the shuttle fleet could begin carrying commercial

payloads within a year and which calls for the privatization of the fleet by 2002. USA believes

that the shuttle fleet can provide services such as launches for governments and commercial

entities, satellite retrieval or repair, International Space Station delivery in the near term. In the

future, the shuttle fleet could also serve emerging markets such as space-based biomedicine and

space tourism. 77

In order to provide commercial services, however, the cost of launching payloads must be

reduced. Such cuts in cost could come from increasing the flight rate (from the current 7 per year

to 15 per year or more) or from modifications and improvements to the vehicles. One

modification currently under study is a change from the current solid rocket boosters, which must

be recovered at sea, to liquid-propelled boosters that are capable of flying back to the launch site

under their own power. 78 Liquid fly-back boosters are currently under study at NASA’s

Marshall Space Flight Center.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 32

International Concepts

International public and private organizations are also designing RLVs to satisfy government and

commercial launch needs. As with the US commercial vehicles in the previous section, these

vehicles are in various stages of development. Several of these concepts, such as the SKYLON,

the Spacecab/Spacebus, and the Sänger spaceplane, have been under development since the

1980s. Others, like the Kankoh-Maru, are only under study.

Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd. – Ascender 79

The Ascender is a proposed passenger-carrying

spaceplane designed by Bristol Spaceplanes

Limited of Great Britain. Bristol Spaceplanes

Limited (BSL) was formed in 1991, and its

director, David Ashford, has long been involved

in space tourism and RLV concepts.80 Ashford

has written publications detailing plans for

TSTO RLVs and advocating space tourism

opportunities.

The 7.9-meter long Ascender is designed to carry

two passengers and a crew of two to a suborbital altitude of 100 km for space tourism

flights, potentially making several flights per

day. Alternatively, the Ascender can act as a

reusable sounding rocket (a potential market that Kelly Space and Technology’s Sprint vehicle

may pursue). The Ascender is also planned to be the forerunner of larger-scale commercial

RLVs, the Spacecab and Spacebus (see the Spacecab/Spacebus entry on page 38).

BSL is currently seeking private funding for the Ascender. BSL has registered as a competitor

for the X PRIZESM and is designing the Ascender as its entry.

Vehicle: Ascender

Developer: Bristol Spaceplanes Limited

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Suborbital space tourism.

Sounding missions.

Funding: Program funding is not known.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 33

NASDA – HOPE-X Spaceplane

The Japanese space program began studying

the development of a small crewless space

shuttle in 1987. The original parameters called

for a 20,000 kg vehicle that would be lifted by

the H-2 booster and would land by remote

control in Japan or Australia.

To this end, the Japanese space agency

(NASDA) initiated the H-2 Orbiting Plane

(HOPE) program. NASDA has moved the

program gradually through a series of

development steps over the last ten years. The

program progressed though two major

testbeds, the HYFLEX (Hypersonic Flight

Experiment), which consisted of a lifting body

aircraft used to study hypersonic flight

following launch from rocket booster, and the

ALFLEX (Automatic Landing Flight

Experiment), which consisted of a one-third

model of the HOPE spaceplane and performed

automated landing tests.81

The program had called for a HOPE-X prototype to be built and tested before a full-scale version

was produced. A funding decision made in the summer of 1997 by the Japanese government,

however, changed the scope of the HOPE project significantly. In order to save money and cut

down on the number of steps to reach a long term goal of a fully-reusable SSTO spaceplane (see

SSTO spaceplane entry on page 36), the government decided to eliminate the final full-scale

HOPE vehicle and modify the HOPE-X prototype to provide regular operations. The HOPE-X

vehicle will measure about 16 meters long and will receive improved ceramic thermal protection, a

cargo bay, and an in-orbit maneuvering engine. The HOPE-X will also be launched from the new,

less expensive H-2A vehicle.82

With the new development plan in place, the Japanese expect that the modifications to the

HOPE-X spaceplane should allow it to launch in 2001.

Vehicle: HOPE-X

Developer: NASDA

First launch: 2001

Number of stages: 3

Possible launch sites: Tanegashima

Markets served: Delivery of supplies to

International Space Station.

Funding: Program is funded for $1.2 billion by the

Japanese government.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 34

Japanese Rocket Society – Kankoh-Maru 83

Kankoh-Maru is a passenger carrying RLV concept under

study by the Japanese Rocket Society. In 1993, the Japanese

Rocket Society began a Space Tourism Study Program to

study methods of making launch services and space flight

available to the general public. The concept design for the

Kankoh-Maru has been introduced and refined since that time.

The Kankoh-Maru design is based on space tourism

applications. The vehicle concept under study is a SSTO

rocket that would offer areas to sit and areas for passengers to

move around in weightlessness and would be capable of

carrying 50 passengers to a 200 km orbit.

The Kankoh-Maru remains a study concept of

the Japanese Rocket Society, and no funding

has been announced for the design of this

vehicle.

Daimler Benz Aerospace – Sänger

The Sänger spaceplane concept was developed

in Germany in the 1970s, but the vehicle

remained a concept without a program until the

1980s. In 1986, the ESA began examining

designs for a follow-on vehicle to the proposed

Hermes spaceplane. Germany proposed the

Sänger design, and British Aerospace Space

Systems (now Matra Marconi) offered the

Horizontal Takeoff and Landing (HOTOL)

spaceplane, which would consist of a reusable

spaceplane carried aloft by a conventional

transport aircraft and landing horizontally. In

1990, British Aerospace and the Soviet Ministry

of Aviation Industry agreed to develop an

interim HOTOL design that would use an An-225 transport as the carrier aircraft. ESA funded

this effort through the Rocket-ascent demonstrator (Radem) study, but ESA funding and

HOTOL development ceased with the end of this program.84

Vehicle: Kankoh-Maru

Developer: Japanese Rocket Society

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Orbital space tourism.

Funding: Program is not funded.

Vehicle: Sänger

Developer: Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Launch of medium-class LEO

payloads. Orbital space tourism.

Funding: First phase of the program is complete.

Second phase of the program is not funded.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 35

While HOTOL was ESA’s initial choice for further development, the German government

lobbied for Sänger as an alternative. Though Sänger was rejected by ESA, Germany initiated a

National Hypersonics Technology program in 1988 to study the propulsion and structural

systems that Sänger would require. With this first phase of development complete, a second

phase of the program would produce the Hytex demonstrator vehicle. The second phase of the

program was originally planned to begin in 1993, but funding problems have stalled the

program.85

Sänger is designed as a two-stage-to-orbit spaceplane consisting of a hypersonic boost stage

known as the European Hypersonic Transport Vehicle (EHTV) and a reusable rocket-powered

orbiter known as Horus (Hypersonic Reusable Orbital Upper Stage). Takeoff and landing for

both stages is horizontal. The EHTV would be powered by six airbreathing turbo-ramjets which

use liquid hydrogen as propellant for hypersonic flight and which function as kerosene powered

turbofans for subsonic flight. EHTV would measure about 82 meters in length and have a dry

mass of about 177,000 kg. 86 EHTV would accelerate to Mach 6, at which time Horus would

separate and climb to orbit.87 Horus would use an Advanced Topping Cycle Rocket Engine for

propulsion. Horus would be about 32 meters long, with a dry mass of about 35,000 kg. Horus

designs for carrying 36-44 passengers have been developed,88 and variants of Horus to carry crew

and cargo are also under study.

Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG (DASA) is the prime contractor for Sänger, and other European

space industry firms such as Alenia SpA, Saab Ericsson Space, and MAN Technologie GmbH

have also participated in Phase 1.

The Teal group estimates that the Sänger program will cost $20 billion. The Sänger program has

recently received a boost as the ESA has chosen Sänger for the Future European Space

Transportation Investigation Program (FESTIP). The availability of ESA funding for the

FESTIP program, however, remains in doubt. ESA will wait until 2005 to decide whether to

proceed with full scale development of the vehicle.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 36

National Aerospace Laboratory (Japan) –

SSTO Spaceplane

Japan’s long-term reusable launch vehicle goal is

the construction of a SSTO spaceplane. The

Japanese government cut funding for the HOPE

spaceplane (see HOPE-X entry on page 33) in

order to reduce the number of intermediate steps

to reach the goal of a fully reusable SSTO vehicle

in the long run. Following the recommendation

of the Committee on Future Fully Reusable

Space Transportation Systems, the design for a

SSTO RLV is being explored and refined by the

National Aerospace Laboratory.

The National Aerospace Laboratory concept

calls for the development of a SSTO prototype

rocket by 2010 and a final SSTO spaceplane by

2020.89 The companies of the Space Plane Committee of the Society of Japanese Aerospace

Companies (Mitsubishi, Ishikawa-jima-Harima, Kawasaki, Fuji, and Sumitomo) have all been

developing advanced propulsion systems in support of the program. Development of the

spaceplane is expected to cost $20 billion.90 These concepts are still in the early development

stages, but they represent the official direction for Japan’s RLV development.

The SSTO Spaceplane would take off and land horizontally and carry a crew of four. The vehicle

would measure about 65 meters in length, with a dry mass of about 101,000 kg.

The final SSTO Spaceplane would utilize either air-breathing propulsion for atmospheric flight

and multiple rocket engines to achieve orbit or may employ new hybrid engines. Propulsion

concepts favored for the spaceplane include liquefied air cycle engines (LACE) and scramjets.

LACE engines liquefy air at low altitudes and accumulate oxygen to be used later at higher

altitudes. In one design concept, LACE would be used to power the craft to Mach 5 and 20 km

altitude, where scramjets would be activated to accelerate the vehicle to Mach 20. The LACE

engines would then switch to rocket mode to achieve orbit. Engines that combine the aspects of

both LACE and scramjets (known as combined cycle engines) may be developed to provide an

optimal combination of weight and power. 91

Vehicle: SSTO Spaceplane

Developer: National Aerospace Laboratory (Japan)

First launch: 2010

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Launch and recovery of heavyclass LEO payloads.

Funding: Program funded to an unknown level by

the Japanese government.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 37

Reaction Engines Ltd. – SKYLON

The SKYLON spaceplane was proposed in 1993

by Alan Bond of Great Britain. Bond designed

the dual-mode propulsion system (engines that

operate using air for atmospheric flight and LOX

or other liquid propellants to reach orbit) for the

defunct HOTOL spaceplane concept (see Sänger

entry on page 34). Bond and his company

Reaction Engines Ltd. had hoped to introduce

SKYLON to the ESA as the design for the

FESTIP program (see Sänger), but were unable

to get funding from the British government to

make the proposal.92

SKYLON is an SSTO spaceplane designed for

horizontal takeoff and landing. The vehicle

measures about 82 meters long and has a dry

mass of about 55,000 kg.93 SKYLON would be

powered by two “synergetic air-breathing and

rocket engines” (SABREs). A SABRE integrates

a turbo-ramjet and a rocket motor using LOX and liquid hydrogen into a single engine. SKYLON

would be capable of placing heavy payloads into LEO (about 10 metric tons to 400 km) and

could also perform space tourism and fast passenger service missions.94

Prospects for the further development of SKYLON are uncertain. Bond will need to seek either

government funding or commercial investors to be able to continue the SKYLON. Reaction

Engines has sought to form an international consortium of interested firms in order to raise funds

for the development of SKYLON but to date has not achieved this goal. Reaction Engines claims

that there is potential demand for as many as 40 such vehicles, and that a 10,000 kg payload

would cost about $6 million to launch to LEO. Reaction Engines plans to sell SKYLON vehicles

to providers of launch and space tourism services, rather than providing such services on its own.

Vehicle: SKYLON

Developer: Reaction Engines Ltd.

First launch: 2010

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Sale of vehicles for launch of

heavy-class LEO payloads and orbital space

tourism.

Funding: Program is not funded.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 38

Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd. –

Spacecab/Spacebus

Spacecab and Spacebus are similar concepts

promoted by Bristol Spaceplanes Limited

(BSL). BSL is headed by David Ashford, an

advocate of space tourism for many years, and

has entered its Ascender vehicle in the X

PRIZESM competition (see Ascender entry on

page 32 for more information).

The Spacecab would be a prototype two-stage

spaceplane. The first stage would consist of a

supersonic aircraft similar to the Concorde but

equipped with four air-breathing and two rocket

engines, allowing acceleration to Mach 4. Upon

reaching Mach 4, the second stage reusable

orbiter would separate from the top of the first

stage and use rocket power to reach orbit. The

orbiter would be similar in size and design to the

Ascender vehicle but would be capable of

carrying two crew with either six passengers or

750 kg of cargo. Both the booster and the orbiter would land horizontally.95

Spacebus is an enlarged version of the Spacecab. The Spacebus booster would have a length of

approximately 88 meters and a mass of 130,000 kg, while the orbiter would be 34 meters long

with a mass of 19,900 kg. The Spacebus booster would have greater power and accelerate to

Mach 6 for orbiter separation. The orbiter would be capable of carrying 50 passengers.96

According to BSL, Spacecab can be built using existing technology, and the development cost and

timetable of the prototype of each stage should be comparable with that of the prototype of an

advanced aircraft. The prototype could be used for early operational flights to and from orbit

and could launch small satellites and ferry crews and passengers to and from space. BSL

completed a feasibility study of the Spacecab and Spacecab demonstrator vehicles for ESA in

1994, but ESA has not acted to develop the concept any further.97

Vehicle: Spacecab (above)/Spacebus (above-top)

Developer: Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd.

First launch: 2010

Number of stages: 2

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Orbital space tourism. Launch of

small-class LEO payloads. ISS crew transfer.

Repair of LEO satellites.

Funding: Program is not funded.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 39

X PRIZESM Competitors

The commercial vehicles under development for the X PRIZESM competition are generally

uniquely designed for sub-orbital space tourism operations carrying about 3-6 passengers.

These designs use many different takeoff, landing, and propulsion concepts, but all plan

to use existing technology to accomplish their goals. The X PRIZESM competition criteria

requires vehicles be capable of carrying 3 people to a 100 km suborbital altitude and

repeating the flight within two weeks.

Advent Launch Services – CAC-1

The CAC-1 is the X PRIZESM entry of

Advent Launch Services. Advent is

partnered with an organization known as the

Civilian Astronaut Corps (CAC). The CAC

plans to contract with Advent Launch

Services to build the CAC-1 and is selling

memberships in their organization in order to

raise funds. Members will ride into space

when the CAC-1 becomes operational.98

The CAC-1 is planned as a SSTO rocket

powered by 8 engines of the type used on

the Apollo moon lander. The CAC-1

employs a water launch method in which the

vehicle is taken out to sea by ship or barge

and tethered to the sea floor for a vertical

launch. The vehicle will climb to

approximately 110 km following engine

shut-down. Upon re-entering the atmosphere, the vehicle will pull into a supersonic glide

at an altitude of about 9 km (30,000 ft.) and

then decelerate and land horizontally in the

water.99

Advent Launch Services was founded in

1995 and is still seeking funding to proceed

with development of the CAC-1. Advent

believes that the CAC-1 can serve the space

tourism market and also provide passenger

service to port cities around the globe.100

Vehicle: CAC-1

Developer: Advent Launch Services

First launch: 1999

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: Gulf of Mexico off

Galveston, TX

Markets served: Suborbital space tourism.

Worldwide passenger service.

Funding: Program funding is unknown.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 40

Dynamica Research –

Cosmos Mariner 101

The Cosmos Mariner is the X PRIZESM

entry of Dynamica Research, a Texasbased aerospace firm. Dr. Norman

LaFave is president and CEO of

Dynamica Research. Dr. LaFave and his

staff have many years of experience in

aerospace engineering with NASA, the

FAA, the military, and private industry.

The Cosmos Mariner measures

approximately 27 meters in length. The

vehicle is designed to use two

conventional air-breathing engines

and one rocket engine. The rocket engine

will use LOX and conventional jet fuel as

propellants. The vehicle will be capable

of carrying 4 passengers without

modification. The vehicle will also be

capable of carrying a 11,000 kg payload

consisting of an additional passenger

module or a booster rocket that could carry a 900 kg payload to LEO. Dynamica plans to

use available technologies to reduce costs and development time.

Dynamica Research has designed the Cosmos Mariner to operate from conventional

airports and use the air traffic control system while operating in the atmosphere under jet

power.

Dynamica Research believes that it could possibly serve small payload launch, worldwide

package delivery, space tourism, high-speed travel, and sounding payload markets with

this vehicle.

Vehicle: Cosmos Mariner

Developer: Dynamica Research

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 1 (2 for payload launches)

Possible launch sites: Ellington Field (Houston)

Markets served: Suborbital space tourism. Launch

of LEO satellites using small piggyback payload

upper stage. Fast package delivery. Fast

passenger service.

Funding: Program funding is unknown.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 41

Third Millennium Aerospace – X

Van 102

The X Van is the X PRIZESM entry of

PanAero, Inc. and Third Millennium

Aerospace. The X Van would measure

about 12 meters long and would be

capable of carrying three passengers to

100 km.

Third Millennium Aerospace hopes to

use the X Van as the jumping off point

for the commercial applications of its

Bantam Van and Space Van (see Space

Van/Bantam Van entry on page 17). The

developers have also indicated that a

scaled-up version of the X Van vehicle could be used as the booster segment of the Space

Van/Bantam Van vehicles.103 More information on Third Millennium's business plans are

found in the Space Van/Bantam Van entry on

page 17.

The X Van would launch vertically using

four air-breathing engines. After climbing to

altitude, two rocket motors (defined by

Third Millennium as “pressure-fed

propulsion modules”) are started to carry the

vehicle to 100 km. Upon reentry, the airbreathing engines are restarted and the vehicle returns to a vertical hover before landing.

The landing is accomplished by maneuvering the vehicle in the vertical position onto a

crane or gantry device. The vehicle will then latch on to the gantry using a hook.

Experimental tests for this landing concept were conducted by the X-13 aircraft in 1955.

PanAero has obtained a permit for permanent import into the United States of the

Rybinsk RD-38 lift jet engines. PanAero is currently negotiating with Rybinskie Motory

joint stock company in Rybinsk, Russia for use of their RD-38 engines for the X Van, the

Bantam Van, and other applications. PanAero plans to join in a coordinated group with

three other American companies for the development of the pressure-fed rocket

propulsion modules.

Vehicle: X Van

Developer: Pan Aero, Inc., Third Millennium

Aerospace

First launch: TBA

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: TBA

Markets served: Suborbital space tourism.

Funding: Program funding is not known.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 42

Other X PRIZESM Competitors

Several other companies and individuals have registered as competitors for the X

PRIZESM, but not all of them have made information about their designs available to the

public. The remaining X PRIZESM competitors, and information about their vehicles

where available, are listed below:

Burt Rutan – Proteus

Burt Rutan and his team from Scaled Composites are designing the Proteus

TSTO launch vehicle for the X PRIZESM. The concept consists of a boost

stage (the “Mothership”) configured as a conventional turbofan-powered

aircraft. This stage carries a smaller, rocket-powered second stage that

carries the passengers. After climbing to 37,000 feet, the Mothership pitches up and

releases the second stage. The second stage accelerates under power to 100 km and

continues to coast on a suborbital trajectory. Mr. Rutan has not disclosed the

powerplants for the vehicles or the landing method for the vehicle stages.

Rick Fleeter – PA-X2

Rick Fleeter and AeroAstro have entered the PA-X2 design for the X PRIZESM.

This vehicle appears to be a modification of the PA series of expendable launch

vehicles that the PacAstro division of AeroAstro is currently designing. The PAX2 will use a LOX/kerosene pressure-fed engine and will be launched vertically

from a simple pad and launch rail. Upon reentry, the vehicle deploys a steerable

parafoil and lands horizontally with airbags for cushioning.

Pablo De Leon and Associates – Gauchito

Pablo De Leon and Associates are designing a vertical

takeoff TSTO vehicle for the X PRIZESM. This

vehicle will consist of a reusable booster and a

reusable passenger capsule. Both the booster and the

capsule will be recovered following parachute

landings. The vehicle will use four hybrid engines (Mr. De Leon does not define hybrid)

that will burn from lift-off until an altitude of 34 km. The vehicle then coasts to a 120 km

altitude. Following about five minutes of weightlessness, the pilot orients the capsule for

descent. Parachutes slow the capsule following its return to the atmosphere.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 43

Graham Dorrignton – Green Arrow

Dr. Graham Dorrington’s X PRIZESM entry is named the Green Arrow after an

old British rocket design. This SSTO vehicle will use LOX and hydrogen

peroxide as propellants. The Green Arrow will launch vertically and climb to an

altitude of about 100 km. The vehicle lands vertically using parachutes to slow

descent and air bags for cushioning.

Steven Bennett – Thunderbird

Steven M. Bennett and the Starchaser Foundation have entered

the X PRIZESM competition with this SSTO design. The

Thunderbird takes off using turbofan engines and then switches

to LOX/kerosene engines in the upper atmosphere. After

coasting to 100 km, the vehicle will reenter the atmosphere and

land vertically.

John Bloomer – The Space Tourist

John Bloomer, founder of the Discraft Corporation has

introduced “The Space Tourist” entry for the X

PRIZESM. This vehicle is being designed to take off and

land horizontally from conventional runways.

Propulsion will be provided by what Mr. Bloomer calls blastwave pulsejets. This saucershaped vehicle also features a large, laminar-flow wing. The vehicle will accelerate using

the air-breathing engines on a gradually ascending arc and will exit the atmosphere at

Mach 10 and coast to a 75 mi. altitude. The vehicle will return to earth on a gradually

descending arc.

Mickey Badgero – Lucky Seven

Mr. Badgero is on active duty in the USAF and is designing the Lucky

Seven to compete for the X PRIZESM. The SSTO Lucky Seven will be

powered by as-yet unspecified rocket engines and will launch

vertically. Following a 1.5-minute main engine burn, the vehicle will

coast to above 100 km. After reentry, the Lucky Seven will use a

parafoil to glide to its landing area.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 44

Others

Paul and Helen Tyron plan to enter the X PRIZESM competition with a rocket-powered

version of a military aircraft. They plan to modify an F-4, F-18, or F-5 aircraft (with the

F-4 preferred). The vehicle will accelerate under rocket power to 100 km and then glide

unpowered back to the landing site. Takeoff and landing will be horizontal from

conventional runways.

Mr. William Good is the president of the Earth Space Transport Corporation and has not

released details of his design.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 45

Endnotes

 

1

Interview with Steve Creech, Deputy Director of the Future X program at Marshall Space Flight Center,

November 10, 1997.

2

Teal Group, “Sänger,” World Space Systems Briefing.

3

Federation of American Scientists Space Policy Project, “Reusable Launch Vehicles,” World Space

Guide (http://www.fas.org/spp/guide/russia/launch/reusable.htm)

4

Interview with Harry Dace, Advent Launch Services, September 1997.

5 Carreau, Mark, “Rocket ride entrepreneurs plot barnstorming, 21st century style,” Houston Chronicle,

February 2, 1997.

(http://www.chron.com/content/houston/interactive/special/space/news/97/ride0202.html)

6

Interview with Harry Dace, Advent Launch Services, September 1997.

7

 “Kelly Space & Technology issued patent for Eclipse tow-launch technique,” Kelly Space and

Technology press release, May 22, 1997 (http://www.kellyspace.com/pressre14)

8

Interview with Joe Holland and Dick Hora, Kelly Space and Technology, November 5, 1997.

9

Sweetman, Bill, “Rocket Planes,” Popular Science, February 1998, p. 43.

10 Forecast International, “Eclipse Astroliner,” Space Systems Forecast.

11 Interview with Joe Holland and Dick Hora, Kelly Space and Technology, November 5, 1997.

12 Forecast International, “Eclipse Astroliner,” Space Systems Forecast.

13 Kelly Space and Technology, Eclipse Tow Concept. (http://www.kellyspace.com/f106.html)

14 Petit, Charles, “Rockets for the Rest of Us,” Air&Space, February/March 1998, p. 55.

15 Interview with Joe Holland and Dick Hora of Kelly Space and Technology, November 5, 1997.

16 Sweetman, Bill, “Rocket Planes,” Popular Science, February 1998, p. 43.

17 “Motorola Signs $89 Million Contract With Kelly Space & Technology For Satellite Launches,”

Kelly Space and Technology Press Release, October 7, 1996 (http://www.kellyspace.com/pressre11)

18 Interview with Joe Holland and Dick Hora, Kelly Space and Technology, November 5, 1997.

19 Weber, Steve, “Company Vows to Build SSTO for $250 million,” Space News, October 3, 1994.

20 Petit, Charles, “Rockets for the Rest of Us,” Air&Space, February/March 1998, p. 54-55.

21 “Space Systems/Loral Signs $100 Million Contract with Kistler Aerospace for Ten Launches.” Kistler

Aerospace Corporation Press Release, January 28, 1997.

22 “Aerojet Instrumental in Kistler Aerospace First Fully Reusable Launch Vehicle,” GenCorp Aerojet

Press Release, February 3, 1997.

23 Eisele, Anne, “Kistler Plans Australian Orbital Flight,” Space News, July 14-20, 1997, p. 34.

24 “Energy Secretary Peña to sign use permit for Nevada Test Site Development Corp. during visit to

Nevada,” NTS Development Corp. News Release

(http://www.newspace.com/Industry/Kistler/news/pr/22.html)

25 Eisele, Anne, “Kistler Plans Australian Orbital Flight,” Space News, July 14-20, 1997, p. 4.

26 see Forecast International, “Pathfinder,” Space Systems Forecast for background information on the

Pathfinder vehicle

27 Pioneer Rocketplane, The Pioneer Rocketplane Team. (http://www.rocketplane.com/team.htm)

28 Eisele, Anne, “NASA Will Test Small Boosters,” Space News, June 16-22, 1997. p. 40.

29 Pioneer Rocketplane Initial Product/Design. (http://www.rocketplane.com/inprod.htm)

30 Windle, David, “London to New York in Thirty Minutes,” London Times, September 22, 1996.

31 “NASA Selects Four Firms for Low Cost Launch Contracts,” Space Business News, June 11, 1997, p.

6.

32 Rotary Rocket Company, Roton Frequently Asked Questions.

(http://www.rotaryrocket.com/freqaskquest.htm)

33 Rotary Rocket Company, The Roton Design. (http://www.rotaryrocket.com/index.htm)

34 Rotary Rocket Company, Revolution to Orbit.. (http://www.rotaryrocket.com/index.htm)

35 Forecast International, “Roton,” Space Systems Forecast, March 1997

36 Zegrahm Space Voyages Brochure. (http://www.spacevoyages.com/brochure.html)

37 Zegrahm Space Voyages, About Our Technology Company, Vela Technology Development, Inc.

(http://www.spacevoyages.com/aboutvela.html)

38 Zegrahm Space Voyages, Space Cruiser System Fact Sheet.

(http://www.spacevoyages.com/factsheet.html)
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 46

 

39 Len Cormier’s 1997 publication, Bantam Boosters: The Key to Small RLVs?, (AIAA-97-3124) 33rd

AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, July 6-9, 1997.

(http://www.tour2space.com/economic/aiaapaps.htm)

40 Space Tour, The Space Van. (http://www.tour2space.com/spacevan/spacevan.htm)

41 Space Tour, The Space Van. (http://www.tour2space.com/spacevan/spacevan.htm)

42 Space Tour, The Bantam Van. (http://www.tour2space.com/bantam/bantam-v.htm)

43 David L. Burkhead’s Spacecub page. (http://gozips.uakron.edu/~david8/)

44 see Teal Group, “Clipper Graham,” World Space Systems Briefing for background information on the

DC-XA

45 Space Future, Vehicle Designs, (http://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml)

46 Teal Group, “Clipper Graham,” World Space Systems Briefing.

47 See Forecast International, “X-33,” Space Systems Forecast for background and technical information

on the X-33

48 Eisele, Anne, “NASA Eyes Upgrades for X-33,” Space News, Nov.10-16, 1997. p. 1, 26.

49 Eisele, Anne, “NASA Eyes Upgrades for X-33,” Space News, Nov.10-16, 1997. p. 1, 26.

50 “NASA Completes X-33 Environmental Impact Statement Process,” NASA Press Release, Nov. 5,

1997.

51 Forecast International, “X-34,” Space Systems Forecast.

52 Wilson, Andrew (ed.) Jane’s Space Directory 1997-1998, p. 294.

53 Orbital Sciences Corporation, Orbital's X-34 Launch Vehicle.

(http:\\www.orbital.com\Prods_n_Servs/Products/LaunchSystems/X34/index.html)

54 “X-34 Technology Testbed Demonstrator,” Cheap Access to Space Symposium, July 21-22, 1997,

p.23.

55 see Forecast International, “X-34,” Space Systems Forecast for background and technical information on

the X-34

56 Interview with Steve Creech, Deputy Director of the Future X program at Marshall Space Flight Center,

November 10, 1997.

57 “Implementation Approach for Advanced Space Transportation Technologies,” (NASA Space

Transportation Programs briefing) p. STP-3212.

58 Interview with Steve Creech, Deputy Director of the Future X program at Marshall Space Flight Center,

November 10, 1997.

59 “Implementation Approach for Advanced Space Transportation Technologies,” (NASA Space

Transportation Programs briefing) p. STP-3212.

60 Interview with Steve Creech, Deputy Director of the Future X program at Marshall Space Flight Center,

November 10, 1997.

61 A scramjet operates by allowing air to flow through the combustion chamber at supersonic speeds,

where it ignites hydrogen fuel, producing thrust. Scramjets are expected to operate at speeds of between

Mach 4 and Mach 25.

62 see Forecast International, “X-38,” Space Systems Forecast for background and technical information on

the X-38

63 de Selding, Peter, “France Pulls Out of CRV,” Space News, Oct. 27-Nov. 2, 1997, p. 28.

64 de Selding, Peter, “France Pulls Out of CRV,” Space News, Oct. 27-Nov. 2, 1997, p. 28.

65 de Selding, Peter, “Germany, NASA Pen Deal for Crew Lifeboat Work,” Space News, Nov. 24-30,

1997, p.6.

66 de Selding, Peter, “France Pulls Out of CRV,” Space News, Oct. 27-Nov. 2, 1997, p. 28.

67 NASA Dryden Flight Research Center, X-38 Technology.

(http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/Projects/X38/intro.html)

68 Scott, William, “US Defines Missions for Military Spaceplane,” Aviation Week and Space Technology,

January 13, 1997, p. 362.

69 Scott, William, “USAF Set to Fly Mini-Spaceplane,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, August

4, 1997, p. 20-21.

70 “Two Multi-million-dollar Contracts are Awarded,” Phillips Laboratory Press Release, September 4,

1997.

71 Dornheim, Michael, “Spaceplane Low-Speed Testbed Rolled Out,” Aviation Week and Space

Technology, September 8, 1997, p. 22.

72 Scott, William, “USAF Set to Fly Mini-Spaceplane,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, August

4, 1997, p. 21.
REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAMS AND CONCEPTS JANUARY 1998

INTERNATIONAL CONCEPTS PAGE 47

 

73 Scott, William, “USAF Set to Fly Mini-Spaceplane,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, August

4, 1997, p. 21.

74 Ferster, Warren, “Critics Decry Clinton’s Military Space Vetoes,” Space News, October 20-26, 1997,

p.3.

75 Interview with a senior official at the USAF Phillips Laboratory, November 12, 1997.

76 Teal Group, “Space Shuttle,” World Space Systems Briefing.

77 Eisele, Anne, “Shuttle Haggling Begins,” Space News, October 6-12, 1997, p.35.

78 Eisele, Anne, “Shuttle Haggling Begins,” Space News, October 6-12, 1997, p.35.

79 see the Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd. web site for Ascender information

(http://www.bristolspaceplanes.com/home.shtml)

80 see Space Future, Vehicle Designs for information and links to David Ashford’s space tourism and RLV

publications (http://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml)

81 Forecast International, “HOPE Spaceplane,” Space Systems Forecast.

82 Kallender, Paul, “Japan Cuts Spending; Hope Killed,” Space News, July 21-27, 1997, p. 19.

83 see Patrick Collins and Kohki Isozaki, “The JRS Space Tourism Study Program Phase 2,” presented

at the 7th International Space Conference of Pacific-basin Societies, July 1997.

(http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/the_jrs_space_tourism_study_program_phase_2.shtml)

84 Teal Group, “Interim HOTOL,” World Space System Briefing.

85 Teal Group, “Sänger,” World Space Systems Briefing.

86 Teal Group, “Sänger,” World Space Systems Breifing.

87 Space Future, Vehicle Designs. (http://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml)

88 Space Future, Vehicle Designs. (http://www.spacefuture.com/vehicles/designs.shtml)

89 Masataka Maita, Hirotoshi Kubota, and Yasutaka Moriguchi, “Japanese Spaceplane/RLV Programme.”

presented at the 48th International Astronautical Congress, October 6-10, 1997.

90 Teal Group, “Japanese Advanced Spaceplane,” World Space Systems Breifing.

91 Teal Group, “Japanese Advanced Spaceplane,” World Space Systems Breifing.

92 Teal Group, “Skylon,” World Space Systems Briefing.

93 Reaction Engines Limited, The SKYLON Tour—Introduction to the Vehicle.

(http://ns.gbnet.net/orgs/skylon/tourint2.htm)

94 Reaction Engines Limited, The SKYLON Tour- SKYLON Project Structure.

(http://ns.gbnet.net/orgs/skylon/tourman1.htm)

95 Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd., Spacecab. (http://www.bristolspaceplanes.com/projects/spacecab.shtml)

96 Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd., Spacecab. (http://www.bristolspaceplanes.com/projects/spacebus.shtml)

97 Bristol Spaceplanes Ltd., Spacecab. (http://www.bristolspaceplanes.com/projects/spacecab.shtml)

98 Civilian Astronaut Corps. (http://www.phoenix.net/~advent/civilastro/)

99 Interview with Harry Dace, Advent Launch Services, September 1997.

100 Advent Launch Services. (http://www.advent-launch.com/)

101 Dynamica Research. (http://www.dynamicar.com/)

102 Space Tour, The X Van Candidate for the X PRIZE. (http://www.tour2space.com/xvan/xvan.htm)

103 Space Tour, The Bantam Van. (http://www.tour2space.com/bantam/bantam-v.htm)
Reusable Launch Vehicle Programs and Concepts Table

Vehicle

First launch

Manufacturer/ Developer

Number of 

stages

Powerplants Performance Launch 

method

Recovery 

method

Launch 

Contracts

Government 

funding

Potential Markets Served Subcontractors Commercial Investors Possible launch sites

NASA RLV Program

Clipper Graham

Clipper Graham-XA

(DC-XA)

1993 Boeing (McDonnell Douglas 

Space Division)

1 CG-XA demonstrator: Four Pratt and Whitney RL10A5 LOX/hydrogen engines

Full scale Clipper Graham: TBA

CG-XA demonstrator: testing to 3.1 km altitude

Full scale Clipper Graham: 

10,000 kg to LEO

8200 kg to space station orbit

4500 kg to 740 km Polar

vertical launch vertical 

landing

no yes Demonstration of VTOL capabilities, RLV materials, and 

rapid turn-around operations.

Pratt and Whitney, AlliedSignal, Chicago Bridge and Iron 

Services, General Connector, Harris, Integrated 

Systems, Lockheed Martin, New Mexico State 

University, Process Fabrication Inc., Space Guild

White Sands Missile Range

X-33/ Venturestar 2001 Lockheed Martin Skunk Works 1 2 J-2S linear aerospike engines (X-33) 7 RS-2200 linear 

aerospike engines (Venturestar)

18,000 kg to LEO vertical launch horizontal 

landing

no yes Testbed for RLV technologies and operations. 

Venturestar launch of heavy-class LEO payloads.

LM Space Operations, LM Manned Space Systems, LM 

Astronautics, LM Engineering and Sciences, Sanders, 

Rocketdyne, Rohr, AlliedSignal, Alliant Techsystems, 

Sverdrup

X-34 1998 Orbital Sciences Corporation 1 One kerosene/LOX Fastrac engine Mach 8 at 250,000 ft. air-launched horizontal 

landing

no yes Sub-orbital demonstration of RLV technology. AlliedSignal, Oceaneering Incorporated, Draper 

Laboratories

White Sands Missile Range

Future X

Trailblazer program

TBA TBA TBA Advanced LOX/RP Propulsion

Integration of airbreathing engines

Orbital or Earth orbital transfer capability TBA TBA no yes Demonstration of integrated technology concept vehicles.

Future X

Pathfinder program

TBA TBA TBA Solar electric propulsion

Rocket-based combined-cycle engines

Hypersonic sub-orbital or orbital capability TBA TBA no yes Demonstration of specific technology advancements.

NASA X-38 Program

X-38/Crew Return Vehicle 1999 Scaled Composites TBA X-38: none

CRV: Expendable Deorbit Propulsion Stage (DPS)

6 crew from Space Station to Earth on-board 

Space Shuttle

horizontal 

landing

no yes Prototype for International Space Station crew return 

operations 

Pioneer Aerospcace, SSE Inc. CCAS

US Military Programs

Military Spaceplane TBA Boeing North American, 

Lockheed Martin, McDonnell 

Douglas Space Division

2 Hypersonic first stage: similar design to X-33 or Clipper 

Graham

Space Maneuver Vehicle (SMV) second stage: TBA

450 kg to LEO vertical launch horizontal or 

vertical 

landing

no yes Military payload delivery or special missions such as 

satellite orbital transfer or satellite neutralization.

Commercial Launch Programs

Advent heavy lift LV TBA Advent Launch Services 2 Multiple Lunar Descent Engines 9000 kg to LEO vertical water 

launch

horizontal 

water landing

no no Launch of heavy-class LEO payloads. Gulf of Mexico

Astroliner E-100 2001 Kelly Space and Technology 3 Engines under consideration include: GenCorp Aerojet's 

NK-33, Rockwell Rocketdyne Division's Aerospike and 

RS-27, or NPO’s RD-180; Launches of Iridium satellite 

pairs may use Thiokol Star 48B for the second stage 

and Star 63F for the third stage

1591 kg to 463 km Polar

1733 kg to 185 km Polar

1931 kg to 463 km 28.5 deg. LEO

9000 kg sub-orbital payload capacity

air-launched horizontal 

landing

yes no Launch of LEO constellation satellites. ACTA, Aircraft Technical Services, GenCorp Aerojet, 

AeroLaunch Systems Corporation, Altair, Frontier 

Engineering, Menasco, Modern Technologies Corp., 

Oceaneering Space Systems, Pioneer Aerospace, 

Thiokol, Tracor, TRW, Universal Space Lines

Motorola has signed $89 million contract 

with KST for ten launches of twenty 

Iridium satellites

Atlantic City NJ, Vandenberg 

AFB, White Sands Missile 

Range

Express 1998 Kelly Space and Technology 2 Engines under consideration in 1996 included: TRW 

Pintle engine, Fastrac engine, Aerojet NK-31 liquid 

engine; Will use a conventional expendable upper stage 

like the Astroliner

23 kg to 463 km Polar

32 kg to 185 km Polar

45 kg to 463 km 28.5 deg. LEO

450 kg sub-orbital payload capacity

air-launched horizontal 

landing

no yes Launch of suborbital payloads or LEO microsatellites. as above as above

Sprint 1998 Kelly Space and Technology 2 Air breathing jet engine or LOX/kerosene rocket engine

Vehicle may eventually carry an expendable upper stage 

for sounding missions

273 kg sub-orbital payload capacity air-launched horizontal 

landing

no yes Launch of sounding rockets for microgravity and other 

missions.

as above Mainly financed by individual investors 

with moderate contributions

as above

Astroliner E-250 TBA Kelly Space and Technology 3 Engine for spaceplane is not specified 

liquid upper stage 

Goal of 4100 kg to GTO air-launched horizontal 

landing

no no Launch of medium-class GTO payloads.

K-1 1998 Kistler Aerospace Corporation 2 First stage: 3 NK-33 kerosene/ LOX engines

Second stage: 1 NK-43 kerosene/ LOX engine

4900 kg to 200 km 52 deg. LEO

2275 kg to 750 km 52 deg. LEO

2950 kg to 200 km 28 deg. LEO

990 kg to 639 km Polar

vertical launch parachutes 

and air bags 

(both stages)

yes no Launch of LEO constellation satellites. GenCorp Aerojet, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, 

Draper Laboratories, AlliedSignal, Irvin Aerospace, 

Honeywell, Motorola, Rami, MPI

Space Systems/Loral has signed $100 

million contract with Kistler Aerospace 

for ten launches 

Woomera, Australia; DOE 

Nevada Test Site

Pathfinder TBA Pioneer Rocketplane 2 2 Pratt and Whitney F100 air-breathing engines, 1 RD120 LOX/kerosene engine2500 kg to LEO with STAR 75 upper stage

1000 kg to LEO with STAR 48B upper stage

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no yes Launch of medium-class LEO payloads. Sounding 

missions (short-duration space research). Vehicle sales 

for fast passenger service, fast package delivery, and 

military missions.

Wallops Island, Vandenberg, 

Kodiak Island

Roton-C 1999 Rotary Rocket Company 1 Rocketjet aerospike LOX/ jet fuel engine 3175 kg to LEO vertical launch vertical 

landing

no no Launch of LEO constellation satellites. Vehicle sales for 

space tourism, fast passenger service, and fast package 

delivery.

Scaled Composites, Ray Prouty, Advanced Rotorcraft 

Technologies, Deskin Research Corp., Hypersonics Inc., 

Aerotherm Corp., Altus Associates, Luna Corp.

Space Cruiser System 

(SCS)

2001 Vela Technology Development, 

Inc.

Zegrahm Space Voyages

2 Lower stage: 2 JT8D/F100-class turbo-jet engines

Upper stage: 3 Nitrous Oxide/Propane, pressure fed, 

rocket engines, two JT15D-class turbo-jet engines 

6 passengers and 2 crew to 100 km suborbital horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

yes no Suborbital space tourism. Suborbital microgravity and 

other experiments. Aerospace training.

AeroAstro Commercial airports capable of 

servicing business jets

Space Shuttle 1981 Rockwell, Rocketdyne, Lockheed 

Martin

2 3 Rocketdyne LOX/hydrogen Space Shuttle Main 

Engines 

24,950 kg to 204 km 28 deg. LEO

18,600 kg to 204 km 57 deg. LEO

13,426 kg to 204 km 98 deg. sun-synchronous

vertical launch horizontal 

landing

yes yes

Space Van/ Bantam Van TBA Third Millennium Aerospace 2 Space Van: One RD-120, Two Pratt & Whitney RL10A4-1

Bantam Van: One RL10A-4-1

Space Van: 4200 kg to 40 deg. LEO

Bantam Van: 400 kg to 450 km, 40 deg. LEO

or 4-16 passengers

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no no Orbital space tourism. Launch of GEO payloads. 

Launch of LEO constellation satellites. Mining of He3 

from the moon.

International Concepts

Ascender (Great Britain) TBA Bristol Spaceplanes Limited 1 2 Williams Rolls FJ441, one Pratt & Whitney RL10 4 passengers to 50 mi. horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no no Suborbital space tourism.

HOPE-X Spaceplane 

(Japan)

2001 NASDA 3 Thrusters utilizing nitrogen tetroxide and either 

monomethelhydrazine or hydrazine

3000 kg to space station orbit vertical launch 

with H-2A 

booster

horizontal 

landing

no yes Delivery of supplies to International Space Station (ISS). Fuji Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, 

Mitsubishi Corp.

Tanegashima

Kankoh-Maru (Japan) TBA Japanese Rocket Society 1 Multiple liquid Oxygen/liquid Hydrogen engines 50 passengers to 200 km LEO vertical launch vertical 

landing

no no Orbital space tourism. Launch of small-class LEO 

payloads. ISS crew transfer. Repair of LEO satellites.

Sänger (Germany-ESA) TBA Daimler-Benz Aerospace AG 2 First stage: six airbreathing liquid hydrogen ramjets

Second stage: Advanced Topping Cycle Rocket engine

7000 kg to 465 km 28.5 deg. LEO

3300 kg to 465 km 28.5 deg. LEO with 5 crew

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no yes Launch of medium-class LEO payloads. Alenia SpA, Linde AG, Man Technologie GmbH, Raufoss 

A/S, Sabb Ericsson Space AB, Volvo Flygmotot AB

SSTO Spaceplane (Japan) 2010 National Aerospace Laboratory 1 Multiple liquid propellant engines

Airbreathing engines for atmospheric flight

10000 kg to 500 km 28.5 deg. LEO horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no yes Launch and recovery of LEO payloads.

Skylon (Great Britain) 2005 Reaction Engines Ltd. 1 2 SABRE hybrid air-breathing and LOX/LH rocket 

engines

12 tons to 300 km equatorial

10.5 tons to 400 km LEO

9.5 tons to 460 km 28.5 deg. LEO

or 60 passengers

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no no Vehicle sales for launch of heavy-class LEO payloads, 

orbital transfer operations, and orbital space tourism.

Spacecab/ Spacebus 

(Great Britain)

TBA Bristol Spaceplanes Limited 2 Lower stage: combination of air-breathing and rocket 

engines

Upper stage: six RL-10 or HM7 class engines

Spacecab: 6 passengers/space station crew 

1000 kg to LEO

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no no Orbital space tourism. Launch of small-class LEO 

payloads. ISS crew transfer. Repair of satellites in 

LEO.

Spacecub TBA David L. Burkhead 1 4 Oxygen/ Kerosene engines 4 passengers vertical launch vertical 

landing 

no no Suborbital space tourism.

X-PRIZESM Competitors (other than those listed elsewhere)

CAC-1 1999 Advent Launch Services 1 8 Lunar Descent Engines 6 passengers vertical water 

launch

horizontal 

water landing

no no Suborbital space tourism. Worldwide passenger service. Gulf of Mexico

Cosmos Mariner TBA Dynamica Research 1 2 Rolls Royce/BMW turbofans

2 JP1/liquid Oxygen engines

3-4 passengers

can also carry a 11000 kg payload atop the vehicle

this payload could be a booster rocket, allowing insertion 

of a 900 kg LEO payload

horizontal 

take-off

horizontal 

landing

no no Suborbital space tourism flights. Launch of LEO 

satellites using small piggyback payload upper stage. 

Fast package delivery. High-speed travel.

Ellington Field (Houston)

X Van TBA PanAero, Inc. 

Third Millennium Aerospace

1 4 Rybinsk RD-41 airbreathing lift engines

2 rocket motors

3 passengers to 100 km; Booster for Bantam Van and 

Space Van (scaled up version)

vertical launch vertical 

landing

no no Suborbital space tourism.