Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley 

Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest

By Michael P. Chornack and Thomas J. Mack

13C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of 

interest (AOI) in Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 13C–1a,b). The AOI is located 

in east-central Afghanistan in the Hisa-i-Anwali District in Parwan Province (fig. 13C–1a,b). The silver 

and iron subarea covers 111 km2 (square kilometers) and the emerald subarea covers 125 km 2 in the 

AOI, which has an area of 956 km2. 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, and generalized 

geohydrology and topography. The results of lineament analyses are presented to identify areas where 

the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of high relative water 

yield and storage in bedrock aquifers.

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

13C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI is based on data generated 

for the Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the 

U.S. Agency for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization 

in 2003 to establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. 

Scientists with the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze 

agricultural and meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, 

and aviation. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the 

project in 2005; by the end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and 

other parameters. Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological 

Authority (AMA) weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data 

collected at the Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather 

stations, and historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the 

Agromet project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in 

the Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1047

The observed total precipitation for the 2009–2010 water year for the AOI, as published in the 

Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 2), ranged from 255 to

300 mm (millimeters). The AOI received 61 to 80 mm of precipitation in February 2010, the month with 

the greatest precipitation (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 3). The AOI 

received 34 to 79 mm of precipitation in October 2009, the month with the least precipitation (Ministry 

of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 4). The amount of precipitation increases from west 

to east across the AOI.

a 
1048 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 13C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest in Afghanistan.

There are no Agromet stations near the AOI for which 2009–2010 water year and long-term 

average (LTA) precipitation and temperature data are available. Precipitation data for the 2009–2010 
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1049

water year are available for the Charikar Agromet station. This station is located about 80 km southwest 

of the center of the AOI at an elevation of about 1,600 m (meters) above sea level (asl). The total 

amount of precipitation recorded at this station for the 2009–2010 water year was 445 mm. Charikar had 

2 snow days during the 2009–2010 water year, 1 each in December and February. Ten cm (centimeters) 

of snowfall was recorded at this station during the 2009–2010 water year, and 55 cm was recorded the 

previous water year. The snow-depth map for January 17, 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock, 2010, map 6), indicates that snow depth in the AOI ranged from 10 to 30 cm in January 2010. 

The Dara Panjsheer Agromet station is listed in the Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) and 2009–2010 water year snowfall data are available. This station 

could not be accurately located, but it is likely to be near the AOI in the Panjsher River Basin. The 

snowfall data provide an example of the amount of snowfall that could be received in the higher 

elevations of the AOI. The Dara Panjsheer Agromet station had a total of 17 snow days in the 2009–

2010 water year, distributed as follows: November 2009, 3 days; December 2009, 4 days; January 2010, 

1 day; and February 2010, 9 days. The snowfall reported at this station for the 2009–2010 water year 

was 217 cm. The LTA snowfall for this station is 370 cm. 

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” (PNV) described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover 

that would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the 

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

Much of the upland surface of the AOI is bedrock outcrop with very thin alluvial cover. The 

vegetation above about 3,300 m asl in the AOI is classified by Breckle (2007, p. 161 and 178) as “thorny 

cushions, subalpine and alpine semi deserts and meadows.” The Amygdalus-Woodlands PNV is mapped 

in the lower elevations of the AOI. Azonal riverine vegetation likely was present in the stream valleys, 

but the trees have been harvested for fuel and building materials. Most land suitable for farming has 

been plowed and planted, especially along major stream valleys and some of the ephemeral tributary 

stream valleys. Irrigated fields are present in many of the valleys in the AOI (fig. 13C–2).

13C.1.2 Demographics

The population in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI is concentrated along the 

Panjsher River and a few of the tributary streams as mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, 2010). The population density along the Panjsher River is as much as 501 to 2,500/km2 in 

some areas, but generally ranges from 51 to 500/km2. Farther from the Panjsher River the population is 

sparse, with much of the higher, mountainous terrain having no inhabitants, as indicated by the gray 

shading in figure 13C-3. The population density shown in figure 13C–3 has a pixel resolution of about 

1 km2 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010). 

13C.1.3 Topography and Geomorphology

The topography of the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI is very mountainous 

(fig. 13C–4), with a northeast-southwest trend dissected by the Panjsher River in the middle of the AOI 

(Davis, 2006) (fig. 13C–2). The elevations of the higher mountain peaks within the AOI range from 

3,500 to more than 4,500 m asl. One peak just outside the northeast corner of the AOI is 5,809 m asl, 

and another outside the southwest corner is 5,126 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a, 2005b). The elevation of the 

Panjsher River valley in the AOI is about 2,800 m asl where it enters the AOI, and 2,100 m asl where it 

exits. Relief between the valley bottom and flanking mountain ridges ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 m. 

The landforms at the higher elevations within and just outside the AOI are dominated by alpine 

glacial features including arêtes, cirques, cirque lakes, and paternoster lakes. The course of the Panjsher 

River through the AOI is linear. The tributary streams to the Panjsher River exhibit a rectangular

drainage pattern.
1050 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 13C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1051

Figure 13C–3. Population density of the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest in Afghanistan.
1052 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 13C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology of the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of 

interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1053

13C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI is in the “Central Afghanistan Hydrogeological Folded Region 

that occupies the central part of the country with a predominantly mountain climate.” The outcrops and 

near-surface rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The 

generalized geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 13C–4 with the underlying topography to allow 

examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figure 13C–5 shows the generalized 

geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Generalized 

geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) 

by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic 

characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic 

conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “tills; limestones and dolostones; sedimentary 

rocks; metamorphic rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 13C–4, 13C–5). Metamorphic rocks 

form much of the higher elevations in the AOI and probably receive substantial snowfall. Faults mapped 

in this AOI may have formed the Panjsher River valley and some of the ephemeral stream valleys 

(figs. 13C–4 and 13C–5). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, 

modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide 

geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic maps that cover this AOI are provided by Lindsay and 

others (2005a, 2005b). 

A band of sedimentary rocks, limestones and dolostones, and intrusive rocks and lavas crops out 

along the southeast side of the Panjsher River valley in the AOI (fig.13C–4). The maximum width of 

this 48-km-long band is about 7 km. The position of the sedimentary rocks and limestones and 

dolostones geohydrologic groups in and adjacent to the bottom of the Panjsher River valley could 

enhance the infiltration of surface water. The outcrop of the till in the north corner of the AOI appears to 

be primarily covering hillslopes (fig. 13C–4). Where this unit occurs in the stream-valley bottom, it 

could form an aquifer of limited extent.

13C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information 

Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in 

figure 13C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, generated with a digital elevation 

model (DEM), also is shown in figure 13C–2. Names of major streams and identification numbers for 

any streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver 

AOI are shown in figure 13C–1b. 

The Panjsher River at Omarz streamgage station (Afghan identification number 1-8.L00-8A) is 

the nearest to the AOI. This station is located about 3.5 km (kilometers) southwest of AOI (figs. 13C–1b

and13C–2). This station is at an elevation of 2,010 m asl and has a drainage area of 2,240 km2 and a 

period of record that extends from 1 October, 1962, to 20 February, 1963, and 25 June, 1963, to 30 

September, 1980 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this 

station is 0.015 m3/s/km2 (cubic meters per second per square kilometer). The seasonal timing of 

maximum and minimum monthly streamflow is high flows in the late spring and summer and low flows 

in winter. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station is presented in 

table 15C-2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan 

can be accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.
1054 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 13C–5. Generalized geohydrology and mapped faults in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of 

interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1055

Table 15C–2. (on following page) Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Panjsher River 

at Omarz streamgage station (Afghan identification number 1-8.L00-8A) (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

1-8.L00-8A PANJSHER RIVER AT OMARZ

Maximum Minimum Mean

Standard Percentage Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Coefficient of deviation of annual (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s) streamflow

October 15.8 1970 7.90 1972 11.9 2.05 0.17 2.95

November 12.4 1973 7.51 1972 9.50 1.55 0.16 2.36

December 10.7 1973 .04 1975 7.96 1.35 0.17 1.98

January 9.11 1970 5.27 1979 6.85 1.18 0.17 1.71

February 8.72 1970 5.05 1975 6.46 0.92 0.14 1.61

March 10.0 1971 5.55 1975 7.45 1.32 0.18 1.86

April 23.7 1971 10.5 1977 16.3 4.12 0.25 4.05

May 92.4 1971 32.1 1977 50.1 18.1 0.36 12.5

June 190 1973 89.2 1971 131 28.5 0.22 32.5

July 153 1969 34.7 1971 95.8 33.3 0.35 23.9

August 75.5 1969 24.0 1974 40.3 13.2 0.33 10.0

September 27.6 1969 11.9 1971 18.5 3.72 0.20 4.60

Annual 43.7 1969 24.5 1977 33.5 5.80 0.17 100

13C.2.2 Groundwater

There are no NGO-installed water-supply wells in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI 

according to a database maintained by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 

2011). However, there are likely to be dug wells completed in unconsolidated sediments near the 

Panjsher River. Some sections of the Panjsher River valley may contain tens of meters of coarsegrained, unconsolidated sediments, and therefore there is potential for recharge from induced infiltration 

from the river. Wells in such areas may be able to supply considerable water to local users or for 

mining-related activities. No information is available about groundwater resources in the bedrock 

aquifers of the AOI. Where fracture zones are present, there may be the potential for limited 

groundwater availability from bedrock aquifers. No information is available about the quality of 

groundwater in the unconsolidated or bedrock aquifers. 

13C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 

2011) were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 13C–6) and Advanced 

Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 13C–7a, b).

Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas 

in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and 

Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of 

high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore 

and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 13C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in 

figure 13C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the multispectral 

characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). 

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of 

highly fractured bedrock. Numerous lineaments in the AOI follow the northeasterly structural pattern. 

Some lineaments follow drainage patterns (fig. 13C–2) and may represent areas with a pattern of 

conjugate fracturing in the bedrock. The presence of a conjugate pattern is supported by the trends of 

mapped faults in the AOI (fig. 13C–5). Areas where lineament density is high, such as in the silver and 

iron subarea and the emerald subarea (figs. 13C–6, 13C–7a, 13C–7b), potentially are areas where 
1056 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an indication of 

areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. Lineaments may also 

indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a high density of 

lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including those presented in 

this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and additional data to confirm the 

nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones.

Figure 13C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and 

natural-color Landsat imagery in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1057

a 
1058 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 13C–7. (on previous pages) (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral 

Landsat imagery and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the 

Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest in Afghanistan.
Chapter 13C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Panjsher Valley Emerald, Iron, and Silver Area of Interest 1059

13C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Water resources in the Panjsher-Valley emerald-iron-silver area of interest (AOI) are likely to be 

more available than in other areas of Afghanistan as determined from the high annual precipitation and 

streamflow in the area. The known water resources in the AOI and surrounding area consist mainly of 

surface water. Shallow alluvial aquifers in the valley bottoms of the AOI are a likely to be a highly 

utilized groundwater resource. Most streams are also likely to be highly utilized by the local population 

for irrigation. Any diversion of water from the rivers to support mining activities would need to be 

closely monitored, particularly during low-flow periods. The quantity and quality of the water resource 

need to be assessed so that surface-water flow remains sufficient to supply water for irrigation and to 

provide recharge to the aquifers that supply groundwater to the shallow wells for domestic consumption.

No information about deep groundwater in the AOI or adjacent areas is available. Some areas of 

the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, are potential areas for 

further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water resources in the 

AOI remain to be determined, however. Close monitoring and careful management of potential new 

surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality of the existing 

supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, geophysical 

surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and availability of 

groundwater resources in the AOI.

13C.4 References Cited

Abdullah, Sh., and Chmyriov, V.M., eds. in chief, 1977, Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan, 

book 2: Afghanistan Ministry of Mines and Industries, Afghanistan Geological Survey, reprinted 

2008, British Geological Survey Occasional Publications No. 15, 292 p.

Afghanistan Information Management Service, 1997, Irrigated areas, 1:250,000 scale, Afghanistan 

Information Management Service Afghanistan Shape Files, accessed October 15, 2010, at 

http://www.aims.org.af/.

Bohannon, R.G., 2005a, Topographic map of quadrangle 3568, Polekhomri (503) and Charikar (504) 

quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1101B.

Bohannon, R.G., 2005b, Topographic map of quadrangle 3570, Tagab-e-Munjan (505) and AsmarKamdesh (505) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1102B.

Breckle, S.W., 2007, Flora and vegetation of Afghanistan: Basic and Applied Dryland Research, v. 1, 

no. 2, p 155–194.

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011, Update on “National groundwater monitoring 

wells network activities in Afghanistan” from July 2007 to December 2010: Kabul, Afghanistan, 

Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR)23 p.

Davis, P.A., 2006, Calibrated Landsat ETM+ Mosaics of Afghanistan, U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2006–1345, 18 p., available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2006/1345/.

Doebrich, J.L., and Wahl, R.R., comps., with contributions by Doebrich, J.L., Wahl, R.R., Ludington, 

S.D., Chirico, P.G., Wandrey, C.J., Bohannon, R.G., Orris, G.J., Bliss, J.D., Wasy, Abdul, and 

Younusi, M.O., 2006, Geologic and mineral resource map of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open File Report 2006–1038, scale 1:850,000, available at 

Freeze, R.A., and Cherry, J.A., 1979, Groundwater: Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 

604 p.

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Lattman, L.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1964, Relationship between fracture traces and the occurrence of 

ground water in carbonate rocks: Journal of Hydrology, v. 2, p. 73–91.

Lindsay, C.R., Snee, L.W., Bohannon, R.G., Wahl, R.R., and Sawyer, D.A., 2005a, Geologic map of 

quadrangle 3568, Polekhomri (503) and Charikar (504) quadrangles, Afghanistan: U.S. Geological 

Survey Open-File Report 2005–1101A.
1060 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Lindsay, C.R., Snee, L.W., Bohannon, R.G., Wahl, R.R., and Sawyer, D.A., 2005b, Geologic map of 

quadrangle 3570, Tagab-e-Munjan (505) and Asmar-Kamdesh (505) quadrangles, Afghanistan:

U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005–1102A.

Mabee, S.B., 1999, Factors influencing well productivity in glaciated metamorphic rocks: Groundwater, 

v. 37, no. 1, p. 88–97. 

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of Transport, 2010, The Afghanistan agrometeorological seasonal bulletin 2009–2010, no. 7, 26 p., 

accessed July 6, 2011, at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/documents.php?cat=1.

Moore, R.B., Schwarz, G.E., Clark, S.F., Jr., Walsh, G.J., and Degnan, J.R., 2002, Factors related to 

well yield in the fractured-bedrock aquifer of New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Professional 

Paper 1660, 51 p., 2 pl.

National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995, Vector map (VMAP1): National Imagery and Mapping 

Agency database, available at http://geoengine.nga.mil/geospatial/SW_TOOLS/NIMAMUSE/

webinter/rast_roam.html

Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010, LandScan global population database 2009: Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory database, accessed February 1, 2011, at 

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Olson, S.A. and Williams-Sether, T., 2010, Streamflow characteristics of streamgages in northern 

Afghanistan and selected locations: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 529, 512 p.

.

Peters, S.G., Ludington, S.D., Orris, G.J., Sutphin, D.M., Bliss, J.D., and Rytuba, J.J., eds., and the 

U.S. Geological Survey-Afghanistan Ministry of Mines Joint Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 

2007, Preliminary non-fuel mineral resource assessment of Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1214, 810 p., 1 CD–ROM. (Also available at 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1214/.

Ruleman, C.A., Crone, A.J., Machette, M.N., Haller, K.M., and Rukstales, K.S., 2007, Map and 

database of probable and possible Quaternary faults in Afghanistan: U.S. Geological Survey 

Open-File Report 2007–1103, 39 p., 1 pl.

)

Siddiqui, S.H., and Parizek, R.R., 1971, Hydrogeologic factors influencing well yields in folded and 

faulted carbonate rocks in central Pennsylvania: Water Resources Research, v. 7, no. 5, p. 1295–1312.