United States 

Department of 

Agriculture Incidence and Impact of 

Forest Service Damage to Alabama's 

Southern Forest 

Experiment Station Timber, 1983 

New Orleans, 

Louisiana 

Resource Bulletin 

50-1 12 

September 1986 Paul A. Mistretta and Carl V. Bylin 
SUMMARY 

The Southern Forest Experiment Station in Starkville, MS, periodically 

inventories and evaluates forest resources in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, 

Mississippi, Oklahoma, Puerto Rico, Tennessee, and Texas. Survey data were 

collected in 1981, 1982, and 1983 by the Forest Inventory and Analysis work 

unit of the Southern Forest Experiment Station as part of the fifth inventory 

of Alabama's forests. Considerably more information was gathered for this 

inventory than in previous data collections, making possible the publication of 

this specialized report summarizing information on agents that damage timber 

in Alabama's forests. 
Incidence and Impact of Damage to Alabama's Timber, 1983 

Paul A. Mistretta and Carl V. Bylin 

INTRODUCTION 

During the periodic inventory of Alabama's forests 

conducted from 1981 to 1983 by the Southern Forest 

Experiment Station, Starkville, MS, damage to live 

trees on sample plots was noted, and, where possible, 

a cause or damaging agent was specified. Since a plot 

is visited only once during the survey, and that visit 

can be at any time of the year, only agents that produce durable symptoms or signs of damage were reported. 

Since the data reported here were gathered by people trained and experienced in forest inventory, not 

entomology or pathology, qualified people from Regi n 8, State and Private Forestry, Forest Pest Manag i ment, trained the field crews to use a damageidentification handbook (Anderson et al. 1980) before 

going out on the field survey. Specimen kits and forms 

were provided to crew members for submission of 

damage samples they might be unable to identify in 

the field. During the survey, field checks were made 

to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the recording and collection of the data. 

Agents selected to be included in the survey were 

required to be (1) easily identifiable, (2) present yearround, and (3) present on trees at least 1 inch in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.1. Therefore, small 

trees with problems such as brown spot and trees of all 

sizes with damage such as defoliation (which is not 

apparent in winter) are not included in this report. 

There are several reasons why this report does not 

completely assess the incidence and impact of all damage observed in Alabama's forests. First, damage is 

caused by a wide variety of agents; some are easily 

recognized, others are more difficult to identify. The 

data presented here for damaging agents that are easily identified and persistent, such as stem and branch 

rust, are reliable. The data for damaging agents that 

are more difficult to recognize, such as root rot, are 

underestimated. 

Second, certain types of damage can only be observed during part of the year; these have not been 

incl'kded in this survey in a dedicated category. For 

example, defoliation caused by insects is only evident 

at the time of year during which trees normally have 

leaves, and insects are active. Since survey crews 

work year-round, defoliation data could not be consistently collected and is recorded only as "other insect" 

when observed during the summer. 

Third, some damaging agents cause trees to die 

rapidly; these trees were recorded in a mortality (not 

a damage) category. For instance, trees attacked by 

bark beetles in summer tend to die rapidly. If the 

survey crew found a tree with evidence of bark beetle 

activity, there was a good chance that it was already 

dead and was tallied as such. Thus, many bark beetle 

damaged trees would not be recorded in the "Bark 

Beetle" damage category. 

And finally, only a single "most damaging" agent is 

reported per tree. Thus, there is no information presented concerning complexes such as a diseaseiinsectl 

environmentietc. interaction. 

Data presented in this Bulletin were compiled for 

this report in a separate computer run. Similarity will 

be seen between acres of forest types, timber removals, and mortality by species when compared to 

numbers presented in "Forest Statistics for Alabama 

Counties in 1982" (USDA For. Sen. 1985). Differences in accumulation, definition changes, and rounding will account for the differences in numbers presented. 

In spite of these problems the survey gives a good 

picture of the relative incidence of the pre-selected, 

easily recognized damage types (or agents) that persist year round. 

SAMPLING PROCEDURE 

The sampling procedure used for this inventory was 

designed to provide reliable statistics on a statewide 

basis or for large groups of counties. It also accurately 

summarizes species having a relatively large total 

volume in the State. However, errors associated with 

relatively minor species, like cottonwood or pondcypress, exceed those for such major species as loblolly 

pine. 

Paul Mistretta is a Supervisory Plant Pathologist with Southern Region, Forest Pest Management, USDA Forest Service, Pineville, LA. Carl 

V. Bylin is a Forester with Southern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service, Starkville, MS. 
The data on forest acreage and timber volume in 

this report were obtained by a sampling method involving a forest-nonforest classification on aerial photographs linked to ground measurements of trees at 

sample locations. The sample locations were at the 

intersections of a grid of lines spaced 3 miles apart. In 

Alabama, 151,671 photographic classifications were 

made and 5,723 ground locations were visited. The 

initial estimates of forest area obtained from aerial 

photographs were adjusted on the basis of the ground 

check. 

A cluster of 5 variable-radius plots was installed at 

each ground sample location. Each sample tree on the 

variable-radius plots represented 7.50 square feet of 

basal area per acre. Trees less than 5.0 inches in diameter were tallied on fixed-radius plots around the 

plot centers. Trees on a subsample of plots were measured in detail to obtain data for calculating timber 

volumes. 

Plots established during the fourth survey of Alabama (Murphy 1973) were remeasured during this 

(the fifth) survey to determine the elements of change, 

and these remeasured plots are the basis for estimating growth, mortality, removals, and changes in land 

use. 

COMPUTATION METHODS 

Limits on size classes of trees were: saplings, 1.0 to 

4.9 inches d.b.h.; softwood poles, 5.0 to 8.9 inches 

d.b.h.; hardwood poles, 5.0 to 10.9 inches d.b.h.; so% 

wood sawtimber 29.0 inches d.b.h.; and hardwood 

sawtimber 211.0 inches d.b.h. Volume equations 

based on measurements of standing trees in Alabama 

were used to compute merchantable and total cubic 

volume. 

Percentage of loss in an individual tree was estimated in the field. Volume loss by pestitree combination and total volume loss attributable to all agents 

damaging a species were subsequently computed. 

Data on percent incidence of damage do not imply 

total economic loss; only a part of the volume in cull 

would fail to qualify for some commercial use, such as 

firewood. Cull includes loss due to crooks, limbs, 

decay, missing wood, sweep, large forks, and sections 

of the bole too rough to be used as pulpwood or sawtimber. The volume loss was determined by totaling 

the volume of cull by species. 

Mortality could not be attributed to specific damaging agents because it was often impossible to determine the cause of death. In many cases, a tree which 

had been tallied in the fourth survey 10 years earlier 

(Murphy 1973) was simply missing. It was possible, 

however, to determine volume loss due to mortality 

for each tree species on each plot. Accumulating total 

volume per dead tree by tree species resulted in the 

total volume loss for poles and sawtimber by tree species. Economic impact was determined by multiplying 

the total wood fiber and quality loss for each tree 

species by the stumpage value per unit. These dollar 

estimates were taken from an average of a sample of 

timber sales in Alabama in 1982. 

INCIDENCE OF DAMAGING AGENTS 

Alabama has 21,658,700 acres of commercial forest, 

and most of the acreage is in the oak-hickory, loblolly 

pine, shortleaf pine, slash pine, oak-pine, and mixed 

oak forest types. Table 1 shows the acreage in the 

various size classes and forest types. The remaining 

tables in this report show how much of the timber 

resource was damaged and the agents responsible for 

the damage. The term "damage" refers to any injury 

the tree has suffered. A damaged tree is still living. 

Tables 2 and 3 show percentage of trees damaged, 

by size class and tree species. Overall, hardwoods had 

more damage than softwoods. Red oaks, gums, and 

white oaks were severely affected. More hardwood 

sawtimber was damaged than saplings or poletimber, 

but more softwood saplings were damaged than poletimber or sawtimber. Loblolly, shortleaf, and slash 

pine are the most abundant softwood species in Alabama. For all three species 25 percent or more of both 

poletimber- and sawtimber-sized trees were damaged, 

with damage to saplings being greater than the damage observed in the older age classes. 

The percentage of saplings damaged was generally 

higher for hardwoods (49 percent average) than softwoods (39 percent average). In most hardwood species, 

35 to 70 percent of the saplings were damaged 

(table 3). The most frequently damaged saplings were 

black walnut, with had maples, blackgum, and ash 

all having more than 70 percent of their seedlings 

damaged. Hardwood poletimber was damaged less 

often than saplings or sawtimber. The most frequently damaged hardwood sawtimber trees were 

hard and soft maples, black walnut, and basswood. 

More than 70 percent of the sawtimber trees in these 

species were damaged. 

Table 4 shows the incidence of damage to softwood. 

The most common causes of softwood damage were 

suppression and stagnation in saplings, weather, logging, and form. Fusiform rust, caused by Cronartium 

quercuum (Berk.) Miy. & Shirai f. sp. fclsiforme, was 

the most common disease caused damage. Loblolly, 

slash, and pond pines, in all size classes, were affected 

by this disease. In these tree species, fusiform rust 

was the most damaging agent and was associated 

with high volume losses. Fusiform rust was recorded. 

only if the gall was on or within 12 inches of the main 

stem. Economically, galls farther than 12 inches out 

have minimal impact on the tree. If galls farther out 

on limbs had been recorded, the reported occurrence of 

fusiform rust would have been much higher. 
Bark beetles are considered to be the most serious 

insect pests of pines in the Southeast; however, the 

main reason for this discrepancy is that this survey 

only reported damage to living trees; bark beetles 

usually kill trees, and the dead trees were recorded 

under the heading "mortality". 

The reported incidence of damage due to insects on 

both hardwoods and softwoods was very low with the 

exception of terminal, shoot, and stem borers on 

sapling hardwoods. Insect damage, however, was significantly underestimated due to the difficulty in diagnosing and evaluating many types of insect-caused 

damage. 

Table 5 shows the incidence of damage to hardwoods. The most common problems associated with 

damage observed in hardwoods were basal defect, 

dieback, weather caused problems, suppression and 

stagnation, logging, and tree form. Form damage had 

the highest incidence in mature trees. Saplings had a 

high incidence of damage resulting from suppression 

and stagnation. 

MORTALITY, CULL, AND 

ECONOMIC IMPACT 

Annual mortality of softwood poletimber is shown 

in table 6. Softwood poletimber mortality was more 

than 32 percent of the annual volume of softwood 

poletimber removals and hardwood poletimber mortality was 36 percent of the annual volume of hardwood poletimber removals. Softwood sawtimber mortality was approximately 13 percent of the annual 

softwood sawtimber removals while hardwood sawtimber mortality was almost 34 percent of the annual 

hardwood sawtimber removals. The mortality figures 

shown in table 6 are the total for the resource and do 

not reflect any discounting for dead trees that represented no economic loss. Table 6 also shows the estimated volumes of cull for the major species groups in 

Alabama. Annual removal figures are given to place 

the volume losses in perspective. 

The volume lost due to cull was much greater in 

hardwoods than softwoods; but, considering their relative population sizes, the cull of softwood sawtimber 

is about 3 times as great as that for hardwood sawtimber! Proportioned by population, annual accumulated 

cull of hardwood poletimber was about 133 percent of 

that of softwoods, while the values for mortality in 

poles show much greater damage in both softwood 

categories. 

The economic impact of damaging agents is greatest in softwood sawtimber, which showed an annual 

loss of about $74 million (table 7). The annual wood 

volume loss for hardwood sawtimber, although it is 

more than 75 percent as great as for softwood, is valued at about only $18.5 million because hardwood 

stumpage value is considerably less than that of softwood. In poletimber, the $8 million softwood loss was 

three and a half times that of hardwoods despite the 

fact that hardwood volume loss was 120 percent of 

softwood loss. 

Overall, 79.5 percent of all economic impact occurs 

in softwoods, and about 89.7 percent of the total economic impact was in sawtimber-size trees. 

DAMAGING AGENTS, GROWTH 

DEFECTS, AND SYMPTOMS 

The definitions presented under the subheadings 

Diseases, Growth Defects, Natural Phenomena, Animals and Birds, Insects, and Human Activities are 

those used in the field manual prepared by Anderson, 

et al. (1980). They describe the problems reported by 

the field crews. 

Diseases 

Fusiform Rust.-Common host species: Slash, 

loblolly, and shortleaf pines. Symptoms and signs: 

Spindle-shaped galls formed on the stem or on 

branches within 12 inches (30.5 cm) of the bole. Older 

galls appear as cankers with sunken, rotten centers 

encircled by a callus ridge. Witches' brooms are common at galls. Bright orange spores are produced on 

the galls in the spring. 

Hardwood Cankers.-Common host species: All 

hardwoods. Symptoms and signs: Dead, sunken area 

formed on the stem, frequently with annual callus 

ridges around the dead area. 

Littleleaf Disease. -Common host species: Shortleaf and loblolly pines, but shortleaf is more susceptible. Symptoms and signs: Affected trees occur in 

groups. Short, yellow needles; reduced shoot growth; 

and large crops of under sized cones are typical symptoms. Littleleaf disease usually occurs in trees growing on heavy clay soils with poor internal drainage. 

Pitch Canker.-Common host species: Most southem pines, but primarily slash, loblolly, and shortleaf. 

Symptoms and signs: Flagging at branch ends, pitch 

flow from affected area, slight swelling on affected 

stems and twigs, crooks in main stem, and wilting of 

current candles are all symptoms of this disease. 

Root Rots.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Diseased trees, often with thin, 

tufted crowns, frequently occur in groups that usually 

contain dead or windthrown trees. Conks (fruiting 

bodies) of various fungi may be present on or near the 

bases of diseased trees. Root rots are more frequent in 

trees of reduced vigor, thinned stands, and in trees 

with butt or root injury. Trees with root rots are often 

subsequently attacked by bark beetles. 

Other Diseases.-Common host species: All tree 

species. Symptoms and signs: All damage caused by 
diseases not identified in separate categories (e.g., red 

heart of pine, brown spot, and leaf diseases). Trees 

showing degrade caused by diseases are included in 

this category. 

Growth Defects 

Branch Stubs.-Common host species: All tree species. Symptoms and signs: Branch holes or stubs 

greater than 4.0 inches in diameter on stems of trees 

5.0 inches d.b.h. and larger or greater than 1.0 inch in 

diameter on stems of trees 1.0 to 4.9 inches d.b.h. 

Basal Defect.-Common host species: All tree species. Symptoms and signs: Butt swelling, curls, Vshaped stump sprouts, frost seams, and low stubs 

below 4.5 feet are symptoms of basal defect. 

Dieback.-Common host species: All hardwoods. 

Symptoms and signs: Tips of the branches die back. 

Initially, only a few branches are affected, but in advanced stages, entire branches die with the possibility 

of tree mortality. Dieback is frequently associated 

with stress caused by an unfavorable environment. 

Suppression and Stagnation.-Common host species: All tree species. Symptoms and signs: Suppressed and stagnated trees are characterized by poor 

form and small crowns. Suppressed trees are overtopped and receive indirect sunlight. Stagnated trees 

have thin foliage despite receiving some direct sunlight. Stagnation is usually associated with poor 

growing sites or overstocking. 

Form (damaging) .-Common host species: All tree 

species. Symptoms and signs: All trees 5.0 inches 

d.b.h. and larger that are deformed due to unknown 

causes. 

Natural Phenomena 

Fire.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Fire scars are usually at the 

base of the stem and are widespread in the stand. The 

scars are usually on the uphill side of the tree, and 

signs of charring are generally present on the stem. 

Flooding.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Yellowing and curling downward of leaves, premature leaf fall, branch and top 

dieback, tree mortality, and high water and silt 

marks on tree boles are the most common effects of 

flooding. 

Lightning. -Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Lightning causes bark stripping 

or cracking, with damage running from the strike 

point to the ground in a straight or spiral line. Often, 

the foliage will fade due to root damage or top breakage. Bark beetles often invade struck trees. 

Weather.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Windthrow, ice, frost cracks, 

broken tops, broken branches, marginal leaf burn, 

and winter burn are the common symptoms. 

Animals and Birds 

Beauer.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Beavers leave toothmarks and 

remove the bark from the bole of the tree. Trees are 

often flooded by water impoundment, which can lead 

to flooding damage and death. 

Other Animals.-Common host species: All tree 

species. Symptoms and signs: Branches clipped off or 

broken, bark removed, holes in the stem, and tears 

and toothmarks in the wood are all common signs of 

animal activity. 

Sapsucker. -Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Horizontal rows of small holes 

that may encircle the tree's bole are seen. Bark below 

the holes is usually streaked or stained by oozing sap. 

Insects 

Bark Beetles.-Common host species: All pines. 

Symptoms and signs: Symptoms include pitch tubes, 

bark beetle galleries on the inner bark surface and 

the surface of the sapwood, exit holes, and loose bark. 

Streaks caused by blue stain fungi are often evident 

in the sapwood. Foliage of infested trees gradually 

yellows and then turns red. 

Hardwood Borers. -Common host species: All 

hardwoods. Symptoms and signs: The initial symptom 

is a dark sap spot on the bark surface, often mixed 

with frass. Eventually, coarse boring particles appear 

in bark cracks and crevices beneath the point of attack. Old damage appears as knobby overgrowths or 

scars on the bark surface. 

Terminal Shoot and Stem Borers.-Common host 

species: All tree species. Symptoms and signs: Fresh 

attacks show boring dust and frass at the entrance 

holes, which are most often located at the base of leaf 

petioles and buds. Resin globs may be present at 

points of attack. Dieback results from larval tunneling within terminal shoots and branches. Foliage on 

the shoots turns yellow, red, and finally brown. 

Other Insects.-Common host species: All tree species. Symptoms and signs: All damage caused by insects not identified in separate categories. Includes 

hardwood defoliators (e.g., orangestriped oakworm 

and fall cankerworm), pine defoliators (e.g., redheaded pine sawfly), and pine weevils. 

Human Activities 

People.-Common host species: All tree species. 

Symptoms and signs: Initials in bark, nails in tree, 

burns from lanterns, stripped bark, wire around stem, 

and ax marks are signs of damage by people. 

Logging and Related.-Common host species: All 

tree species. Symptoms and signs: Logging scars on 

the stem will form callus ridges within 1 to 2 years 

after wounding. Trees with logging damage are scat- 
tered in stands and show no charring. Broken limbs 

and scars on the stem near the crown will occur from 

the felling of other trees. Skid trails, stumps, or other 

evidence of logging will be present. 

FOREST SURVEY TERMS 

The following terms, used by the Forest Inventory 

Analysis group are presented to clarify some of the 

constraints placed on the data collected, and on subsequent data analysis. 

Acceptable Trees. -Growing-stock trees of commercial species that meet specified standards of size and 

quality, but do not qualify as desirable trees. 

Annual Accumulated Cull.-Total cull divided by 

the intrasurvey period. 

Baal Area.-The area in square feet of the cross 

section at breast height of a single tree or of all the 

trees in a stand, usually expressed in square feet per 

acre. 

Commercial Forest Land.-Forest land producing 

or capable of producing crops of industrial wood and 

not withdrawn from timber utilization. 

Cull Volume.-Total volume loss due to crooks, 

limbs, decay, missing wood, sweep, large forks, and 

volume in sections of the bole too rough to be used as 

sawtimber or pulp. 

Desirable Trees.-Growing- stock trees' of commercial species having no serious quality defects 

that limit present or prospective use for timber 

products, of relatively high vigor, and containing no 

pathogens that may result in death or serious deterioration before rotation age. 

D.6.h. (Diameter at breast height).-Tree diameter 

in inches, outside bark, measured at 4.5 feet above 

ground. 

Diameter Class. -A classification of trees based on 

diameter outside bark, at d.b.h. Two-inch diameter 

classes are commonly used in forest surveys, with the 

even numbered inch as the approximate midpoint for 

a class. For example, the 6-inch class includes trees 

5.0 through 6.9 inches d.b.h. 

Growing-Stock Trees.-Live trees of commercial 

species excluding rough and rotten trees. 

Hardwoods.-Dicotyledonous trees, usually broadleaved and deciduous. 

Incidence. -Percentage of susceptible trees affected by a damaging agent. 

Intrasuruey Period.-The number of years between 

the kurrent survey and the past swey. 

Mortality.-Number or sound-wood volume of live 

trees that died from natural causes during the intrasurvey period. 

Poletimber Trees.-Live trees of commercial species at least 5.0 inches d.b.h. but smaller than sawtimber size, of good form and vigor. 

Rough and Rotten Trees.-Live trees that are unmerchantable for saw logs currently or potentially 

because of defect, rot, or species. 

Saplings.-Live trees 1.0 to 4.9 inches d.b.h. and of 

good form and vigor. 

Saw Log. -A log meeting minimum standards of 

diameter, length, and defect, including logs at least 8 

feet long, sound and straight, with a minimum diameter inside bark of 6.0 inches for softwoods and 8.0 

inches for hardwoods. 

Sawtimber Trees.-Live trees of commercial species containing at least one 12-foot saw log, or two 

noncontiguous saw logs, each 8 feet or longer, with at 

least one-third of the gross board-foot volume between 

the 1-foot stump and minimum saw log top being 

sound. Softwoods must be at least 9.0 inches d.b.h. 

and hardwoods at least 11.0 inches d.b.h. 

Sawtimber Volume.-Net volume of the saw log 

portion of live sawtimber in board feet of the International rule, 114-inch kerf. 

Softwoods.-Coniferous trees, usually evergreen, 

having needles or scalelike leaves. 

Species Groups.-Sets of tree species pooled together for standard reporting. 

. Hard maples: Florida, black, and sugar maples 

. Soft maples: Boxelder, red, and silver maples 

Select red oaks: Cherrybark, northern red, and 

shumard oaks 

Other red oaks: Scarlet, southern red, laurel, 

water, willow, black, and others not in select red 

oaks 

. Select white oaks: White, swamp white, bur, and 

swamp chestnut oaks 

. Other white oaks: Overcup, chestnut, post, live, 

and others not in select white oaks 

Other eastern hardwoods: Buckeye, birch, hackberry, dogwood, persimmon, honeylocust, silverbell, holly, butternut, cucumbertree, mulberry, 

scrub oaks, willow, and other commercial species. 

Stand-size Class.-A classification of forest land 

based on the size class of growing-stock trees on the 

area. 

Sawtimber stands: Stands at least 16.7 percent 

stocked with growing-stock trees, with half or 

more of the total stocking in sawtimber or poletimber trees and sawtimber stocking at least 

equal to poletimber stocking. 

Poletimber stands: Stands at least 16.7 percent 

stocked with growing-stock trees, with half or 

more of this stocking in poletimber and sawtimber trees, and poletimber stocking exceeding that 

of sawtimber. 

Sapling-seedling stands: Stands at least 16.7 percent stocked with growing-stock trees, of which 

more than half of the stocking is saplings and 

seedlings. 

Susceptible Trees. -All living trees. Includes desirable and acceptable trees, as well as rough and rotten 

trees. 
Timber Renwua1s.-The net volume of growingstock trees removed from the inventory by harvesting 

or cultural operations such as timber-stand improvement, land clearing, or changes in land use. 

TSI.-Timber stand improvement. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Anderson, R.L.; Mistretta, P.A.; Earle, E.; Fisher, V.; 

Ghent, J.; Hoffard, W.; Johnson, K.; Lee, M.; 

Miller, R.; Stein, K.; Warlick, L. Forest insect and 

disease handbook: Renewable resource evaluation. 

Gen. Rep. SA-GR14. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department 

of Agriculture, Forest Service, State and Private 

Forestry, Southeastern Area, Forest Insect and Die 

ease Management; 1980. 58 p. 

Murphy, P.A. Alabama forests: trends and pmspecta. 

Res. Bull. SO-42. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern 

Forest Experiment Station; 1973. 36 p. 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 

Forest Statistics for Alabama counties in 1982. Resource Bulletin SO-97. New Orleans, LA: Southern 

Forest Experiment Station; 1985. 32 p. 
Appendix I-Tables 

1. Area of commercial forest land in Alabama, by stand-size class 

and forest type ............................................. 8 

2. Percentage of susceptible softwood trees damaged and volume of 

cull by species and tree size in Alabama ..................... 9 

3. Percentage of susceptible hardwood trees damaged and volume of 

cull by species and tree size in Alabama ..................... 9 

4. Approximate number of trees and percentage of damagddefect by 

softwood species and damaging agent or defect in Alabama .... 10 

5. Approximate number of trees and percentage of damage 

incidence by hardwood species group and damaging agent 

or growth defect in Alabama ................................ 13 

6. Poletimber and sawtimber removals and wood losses in 

Alabama ................................................... 18 

7. Annual economic impact of damage on the timber resource in 

Alabama ................................................... 18 
Table 1.4~~ of commercial forest land in Ahbarn, by stand-ale 

chs and forest type 

Thousands 

Forest classification of acres1 

Stand-size class: 

Sawtimber 

Poletimber 

Sapling-seedling 

Understacked areas 

All stand sizes 

Forest type: 

White oak-red oak-hickory 

Loblally pine 

Loblolly pine-hardwood 

Sweetgum-nuttal aak-willow oak 

Shortleaf pine 

Shortleafpine-oak 

Slash pine 

Longleaf pine 

Sweetbay-swamp tupelo-red maple 

Virginia pine 

Sugarberry-American elm-green ash 

Sweetgum-yellow poplar 

Longleaf pine-%rub oak 

Slash pine-hardwwd 

Mixed hardwoods 

Virginia pine-southern red oak 

Cypress-tupelo 

Other oak-pine 

Yellow poplar-white oak-N. red oak 

Chestnut oak 

Overcup oak-water hickory 

Eastern redcedar-hardwwd 

Swamp chestnut oak-eherrybark oak 

Post aak-black oak-bear oak 

Southern scrub oak 

Eastern redcedar 

Sycamore-pecan-American elm 

White oak 

Nanstacked 

Spruce pine 

Willow 

Atlantic white-cedar 

Cottonwood 

Sand ~ine 

All types - 

'Totals may not add due to rounding. 
Table 2.-Percentage of susceptible softwood trees damaged and volume of cull by species and tree size in Alabama 

Trees damaged Volume of cull' 

Host Total population Sapling Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber 

Thousands .-...... .percent.. ....... MI@ Mfim 

Loblolly pine 

Shortleaf pine 

Slash pine 

Virginia pine 

Longleaf pine 

Eastern redcedar 

Spruce pine 

Baldcypress 

Eastern hemlack 

Atlantic white cedar 

Southern Redcedar 

Pondcypress 

Total2 

'Cull due to crooks, Limbs, decay, missing wood, sweep, large forks, and volume in sections of bole that are too 

rough to be utilized as pulpwood or as sawtimber. 

2Totals may not add due to rounding. 

Table 3.-Percentage of susceptible hardwood trees damaged and uolume of cull by species and tree size in Ahbarno 

Trees damaged Volume of cull1 

Host Totalpopulation Saplin~ Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber 

Thousands ---.---- .percent.. ....... Mft3 Mfam 

Other eastern hardwoods 3,783,829.5 35.4 46.3 66.3 90,156.5 50,808.9 

Sweetgum 1,918,040.6 54.9 44.9 56.8 49,933.1 74,972.3 

Other red oaks 1,763,611.9 40.6 37.2 53.4 60,024.7 110,738.0 

Hickories 902,192.0 66.8 47.6 58.6 35,814.4 52,170.3 

Soft maple 780,725.6 69.3 75.7 85.3 27,882.5 7,777.7 

Blaekgumitupelo 775,284.3 73.6 60.2 56.5 37,175.3 48,724.3 

Other white oaks 550,186.2 62.1 50.3 61.8 37,800.4 52,921.3 

Select white oaks2 427,945.7 54.0 37.7 46.5 17,632.7 44,556.8 

Yellow-poplar 218,981.8 36.1 41.8 49.4 21,832.9 43,520.1 

Ash 213,626.8 72.9 63.3 66.2 8,046.1 23,439.1 

Hard maple 92,095.0 73.1 55.4 95.8 1,258.3 981.5 

Noncommercial 86,663.5 6.5 5.4 0.0 1,571.0 0.0 

Select red oaks3 78,477.0 61.3 42.6 51.8 4,625.1 23,286.9 

Beech 42,798.5 54.2 59.3 65.7 2,107.2 2,302.8 

Basswood 26,489.0 57.7 66.8 71.9 1,174.2 3,762.9 

Black walnut 6,739.7 89.3 55.1 79.4 0.0 1,274.5 

Cottonwood 2,746.6 33.3 44.1 83.1 425.7 497.7 

Totals4 11,670,433.8 49.3 46.7 57.3 397,460.3 541,735.1 

'Damage due ta crmks, limbs, decay, missing wood, sweep, large forks, and volume in sections of bole that are 

tw rough to be utilized as pulpwood or as sawtimber. 

2White, swamp white, swamp chestnut, and bur oaks. 

3Cherrybark, N. red, and shumard oaks. 

UTotals may not add due to rounding. 
Table 4.-Apprwimate number of trees and percentage of damageidefeet by sofhvwd species and 

damaging agent or defect in Alabama 

Incidence of damane 

Aeent Sa~lines Poletimber Sawtimber 

Loblolly pine 

Insects-other 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Disease-other 

Fusiform rust 

Raot rats 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Tornado 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

Pwple 

Logging-damage 

Form (live tree only) 

Shodleaf pine 

Insects-ther 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseases-ther 

Fusiform rust 

Littleleaf disease 

Branch stubs 

Basal defect8 

Dieback 

Fire 

Animals 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Lightning 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging--damage 

Form (live tree only) 

Slash pine 

Insects-ther 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoat, & stem borers 

Diseases-ther 

Fusiform rust 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Fire 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Hurricane 

Tornado 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Turpentining 

Form (live tree only) 
Table 4.-Approximate number of trees and percenrage of &mageldefect by softluwd species and 

damaging agent or defect in Alabam-Continued 

Incidence of damage 

Agent 

Virginia pine 

Insects-other 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseaaes-other 

Fusiform rust 

Root rats 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Lightning 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging--damage 

Turpentining 

Form (live tree only) 

Longleaf pine 

Insects-other 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseases-ther 

Branch stubs 

Baaal defects 

Diebaek 

Pitch canker 

Fire 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Flaading 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Turpentining 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Eastern redcedar 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseases-other 

Gall rust (cedar apple rust) 

Branch stubs 

Branch defeds 

Diebaek 

Fire 

Animals 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Form (live tree only) 

Spruce pine 

Terminal, shoot, & stem barers 

Diseases-ther 

Fusiform rust 

. 

Saplings Poletimber Sawtimber 
Table 4.-Approximofe number of trees and percentage of darnngeidefect by softmod speeles and 

damaging agent or &feet in Ah6am4ontinwd 

Incidence of damaee 

Aant Saolinea Poletimber Sawtimber 

Spruce pine-Continued 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Flooding 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Loggingdamage 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Baldcypress 

Terminal, sboot, & stem borers 

Diseases-ther 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Laggingdamage 

Form (live tree only) 

Eastern hemlock 

Terminal, shoot. & stem borers 

Weather-other 

Suppression, stagnation 

Atlantic white cedar 

Basal defeeta 

Form (live tree only) 

Southern redcedar 

Weather-ther 
Table 5.-Approximate number of -8 and pcrcentoge of &mogc ineiderno by hardunod speeios 

gmup and damaging agent or gmwth &kt in Alot~mo 

lncidenm of damage 

Agent Saplinga Poletimber Sawtimber 

Other eastern hardwoals 3,507,541,000 244,588,000 31,701,WO 

InseNi-the. 0.1 0.1 0.1 

Hardwood borers 0.1 0.1 0.6 

Terminal, shwt, & stem borers 5.5 1.0 0.9 

Diseases-other 2.4 7.7 9.4 

Roat rot3 0.0 0.3 0.4 

Hardwood cankers 0.2 0.1 0.0 

Branch stubs 1.0 0.8 2.2 

Basal defecta 2.7 4.1 3.8 

Dieback 0.5 0.6 0.6 

Fire 0.6 1.0 0.4 

Beaver 0.1 0.5 1.3 

Sapsucker 0.0 0.6 2.5 

Weather--other 6.8 3.5 3.7 

Flooding 0.0 0.1 0.4 

Lightning 0.0 0.0 0.2 

Hurricane , 0.1 1.4 2.3 

Ice 0.1 0.0 0.2 

Suppression, stagnation 11.7 1.2 0.0 

People 0.3 0.4 0.2 

Logging--damage 3.2 1.8 0.4 

Offsite tree 0.0 0.1 0.1 

Form (live tree only) 0.2 21.1 26.4 

Sweetgum 1,633,802,000 252,131,000 32,108,000 

Inseeta--other 0.2 0.0 0.0 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borera 6.2 1.7 0.7 

Diseases-other 2.9 5.1 11.3 

Roat rota 0.0 0.0 0.7 

Branch stubs 0.5 0.5 1.3 

Basal defecta 4.6 5.2 7.0 

Dieback 0.5 2.2 0.6 

Fire 1.2 1.9 1.1 

Beaver 0.1 2.8 8.3 

Sapsucker 0.0 0.0 0.2 

Weather-ther 7.6 4.2 3.3 

Flooding 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Hurricane 0.1 0.1 0.3 

Tornado 0.0 0.0 0.2 

Ice 0.3 0.1 0.0 

Suppression, stagnation 23.6 3.7 0.4 

People 0.4 0.4 0.6 

Logging--damage 6.5 5.0 2.4 

TSI (dead trees only) 0.0 0.0 0.1 

Form (live tree only) 0.2 12.3 18.1 

Other red oaks 

Insects-other 

Hardwood borers 

Terminal, shwt, & stem borers 

Disease-ther 

Rwt rots 

Hardwood canken, 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather--other 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Ice 
Table 5.-Approximate number of trees and percentage of &we incidence by hardwwd species 

group and damaging agent or growth defect in Alabama-Continued 

Agent 

Other red oaks-Continued 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Hickories 

Insect-other 

Hardwoad borers 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Discases-other 

Root mts 

Hardwwd canken 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Diebaek 

Fire 

Animals 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Flooding 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Tornado 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Soft maple 

Hardwwd horen 

Bark beetles 

Terminal, shoat, & stem borers 

Diseases-other 

Root mts 

Hardwood ders 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Flooding 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging--damage 

Offsite trees 

Form (live tree only) 

Blackgudtupela 

Inseds--ather 

Hardwwd borers 

Terminal, shoot. & stem borers 

Disesses-ther 

Root rots 

Incidence of damage 

Saplings Poletimber 

14.5 0.6 * 

0.2 0.2 

3.6 2.2 

0.0 0.1 

0.0 13.6 

749,983,000 122,829,000 

0.9 0.1 

0.6 0.2 

0.0 0.1 

19.5 2.6 

1.7 6.6 

0.0 0.0 

0.0 0.2 

Sawtimber 
Table 5.-Appmximate number of trees and percentage of damage ineideme by hardwood species 

gmup and damaging agent or gmwth defect in Alabama-Continued 

Agent 

Blackgum/tupelo-Continued 

Hardwood cankers 

Branch stubs 

Basal defecta 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather--other 

Flooding 

Hurricane 

Tornado 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Offsite kee 

Form (live tree only) 

Other white oaks 

Insects-ther 

Hardwood borers 

Terminal, shoat, & stem borers 

Diseases-other 

Root rats 

Hardwood cankers 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Fire 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

Logging-damage 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Select white oaks1 

Inseetsother 

Hardwood borers 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseases--other 

Root mts 

Hardwood cankers 

Branch stubs 

Basal defects 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-ther 

Flding 

Lightning 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

Pwple 

Logging--damage 

Offsite tree 

Form (live tree only) 

Saplings 

Incidence of damaee 

Poletimber Sawtimber 
Table 5.-App~uimate number of bees and pmntage of &we incidence by Mwwd species 

group and dowing agent or gmwth defect in Ah&ma--Continued 

Yellow-poplar 

Insects-ther 

Hardwd borers 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diseases-other 

Root rota 

Hardwd cankers 

Branch stub 

Basal defeds 

Dieback 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather-other 

Flwding 

Hurricane 

Ice 

Suppression, stagnation 

People 

hgging4nmw 

Form (live tree only) 

Ash 

Insects-ther 

Terminal, shoot, & stem born 

Diseases-ther 

Root mts 

Braneb stubs 

Basal defeds 

Diebadr 

Fire 

Beaver 

Sapsucker 

Weather--other 

Flwding 

Hurricane 

Suppression, tagn nation 

People 

Logging--damage 

Form (live tree only) 

Hard maple 

Terminal, shoot, & stem borers 

Diaeaseeother 

Hardwd cankers 

Branch stubs 

Basal defeds 

Dieback 

Fire 

Sapsucker 

Weather--other 

Suppression, stagnation 

Logging-damage 

Form (live tree only) 

Noncommercial 

Terminal, shoot, 8 Btem borers 

Disease-ther 

Basal defecta 

Fire 

Weather-other 

Suppression, stagnation 

Incidence of damage 

saplings Paletimber Sawtimber 
WE1 

0'0 

I'P 

S'OI 

PSS 

OOO'Z8F 

Z'PS 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

L'6 

9'91 

0'0 

000'LZE 

P'9z 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

9'6 

0'0 

PP 

0'0 

2.9 

1'9Z 

0'0 

00O'S9O11 

I'EZ 

0'0 

0'0 

0'1 

PO 

90 

O'S 

L'E 

P'I 

1.z 

Z'LZ 

9'0 

000'09P'P 

9.61 

L'o 

1.0 

1'1 

z'o 

P'o 

OOO'ELI'6 

=qm!unss 

P'ZF 

0'0 

L'II 

0'0 

0'0 

OOO'LZL 

Z'LP 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

0'8 

OOO'L6E'I 

9'82 

1'9 

6'L 

0'0 

6'9 

0'0 

9'z 

8.1 

L'P 

0'0 

000'LE8'& 

L'E 

0'0 

0'0 

0'P 

0'0 

6'F 

F'Z 

P'F 

6'1 

8'9 

I'P 

000'996'9 

8'1 

0'0 

0'0 

I'P 

0'0 

L'O 

L'O 

1.P 

E'E 

&'I 

0'0 

z'P 

P'o 

8'2 

0'0 

OOO'LPS'~I 

~aqm!la~oa 

aasmsp JO aauappul 

0'0 

&'E& 

0'0 

0'0 

0'0 

000'8E9'1 

0'0 

9'01 

E'PZ 

YIE 

0'0 

6'21 

6'6 

000'910'9 

0'0 

0'0 

F'Z 

9'ZI 

LI 

L'E 
Table 6.-Poletimber and sawtimber nmovals and wood losses in Alobama 

Volume loss 

Annual 

Annual timber removals Annual mortality accumulated cull1 

Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber Poletimber Sawtimber 

Softwwda 

Loblolly pine 

Shortleaf pine 

Slash pine 

Virginia pine 

Longleaf pine 

E. redcedar 

Spruce pine 

BaldcypAtlantic white cedar 

Totals 

Hardwoods 

Other eastern hardwoods 

Sweew 

Other rd & 

Hickories 

Soft maple .i , 

Blackgumltupelo 

Other white oaks 

Select whiteoalrs2 ; . Yellow-poplar 

Ash 

Hard maple 

Noncommenial hardwwds 

Select red oaks3 

Beech 

Basswood 

Black walnut 

Cottanwood 

Totals 

'Cull due to aooh. limbs, day, miasing wood: sweep, large forks, and volume in sxtions of bole that are too 

rough to be utilired se pulpwood or sawtimber. 

2White. swamp white, swamp chestnut, and bur oaks. 

aCherrybark, Northern red. and shumard oake. 

Table 7.-Ann& m~mic impact of damage on the timber resource in Alobamo - 

Annual volume Stumpage value 

sped- wood fiber Laaa Annual laas 

per unit 

SoRwmda 

Poletimber (MR3) 57,992.5 141.M) 8,176,942.50 

Sawtimber (Mmm) 486,446.6 152.00 73,939,886.85 

Hardwmda 

Poletimber (&If@) 70,679.6 35.30 2,494,988.70 

Sawtimber (Mmm) 352,223.7 53.W 18,667,856.74 

All BpeCh 

Poletimber (Mft3) 128,672.1 

Sawtimber (Mmm) 838,670.3 

Total 
Appendix 11-Scientific Names of Tree 

Species Mentioned 

Common Name 

American elm 

Ash 

Atlantic white cedar 

Baldcypress 

Basswood 

Bear oak 

Beech 

Black maple 

Black oak 

Black walnut 

Blackgum 

Birch 

Boxelder 

Buckeye 

Bur oak 

Butternut 

Cherrybark oak 

Chestnut oak 

Cottonwood 

Cucumbertree 

Cypress 

Dogwood 

Eastern hemlock 

Eastern red cedar 

Florida maple 

Green ash 

Gums 

Hackberry 

Hickories 

Holly 

Honeylocust 

Laurel oak 

Live oak 

Loblolly pine 

Longleaf pine 

Maples (soft or hard) 

Mulberry 

Northern red oak 

Nuttall oak 

Oaks (red or white) 

Overcup oak 

Pecan 

Persimmon 

Pines 

Pond cypress 

Pond pine 

Post oak 

Red maple 

Sand pine 

Scientific Name 

Ulmus americana L. 

Fraxinus spp. 

Chamaecyparis woides (L.) B.S.P. 

Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. 

Tilia americana L. . Quercus ilicifolia Wangenh. 

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. 

Acer nigrum Michx. 

Quercus velutina Lam. 

Juglans nigra L. 

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. 

Betula spp. 

Acer negundo L. 

Aesculus spp. 

Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 

Juglans cinerea L. 

Quercus falcata var. pagodifolia Ell. 

Quercus prinus L. 

Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh. 

Magnolia acuminata L. 

Cupressus spp. 

Cornus florida L. 

Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. 

Juniperus virginiana L. 

Acer barbatum Michx. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. 

Nyssa spp. 

Celtis occidentalis L. 

~PP. 

Ilex opaca Art. 

Gleditsia tricanthos L. 

Quercus laurifolia Michx. 

Quercus virginiana Mill. 

Pinus taeda L. 

Pinus pallustris Mill. 

Acer spp. 

Morus spp. 

Quercus rubra L. 

Quercus nuttallii Palmer 

Quercus spp. 

Quercus lyrata Walt. 

Carya illinoiensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch. 

Diospyros virginiana L. 

Pinus spp. 

Taxodium distichum var. nutans (Ait.) Sweet 

Pinus serotina Fchx. , ,, 

Quercus stellata Wangenh. 

Acer rubrum L. 

Pinus clausa (Chapm. ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg. 
Appendix 11-Scientific Names of Tree 

Species Mentioned- Continued 

Common Name 

Scarlet oak 

Scrub oak 

Shortleaf pine 

Shumard oak 

%lver maple 

Silverbell 

Slash pine 

Southern red oak 

Southern redcedar 

Spruce pine 

Sugar maple 

Sugarberry 

Swamp chestnut oak 

Swamp tupelo 

Swamp white oak 

Sweetbay 

Sweetgum 

Sycamore 

Tupelo 

Virginia pine 

Water hickory 

Water oak 

White oak 

Willow 

Willow oak 

Yellow poplar 

Scientific Name 

Quercus coccinea Muench. 

Quercus spp. 

Pinus echinata Mill. 

Quercus shumardii Buckl. 

Acer saccharinum L. 

Halesia spp. 

Pinus elliotii Enelm. 

Quercus falcata Michx. 

Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey 

Pinus glabra Walt. 

Acer saccharum Marsh. 

Celtis laevigata Willd. 

Quercus michauxii Nutt. 

Nyssa aquatica L. 

Quercus bicolor Willd. 

Magnolia virginiana L. 

Liquidambar styraciflua L. 

Platanus occidentalis L. 

Nyssa spp. 

Pinus virginiana Mill. 

Carya aquatica (Michx. f.) Nutt. 

Quercus nigra L. 

Quercus alba L. 

Salix spp. 

Quercus phellos L. 

Liriodendmn tulipifera L. 
Mistretta, Paul A,; Bylin, Carl V.; Incidence and impact of 

damage to Alabama's timber, 1983. Resour. Bull. SO-112. 

New Orleans, tA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 

Senrice, Southern Forest Experiment Station; 1986. 20 p. 

Data on timber damage collected during a 1981-83 survey of 

Alabama's forests are tabulated and discussed. 

Additional keywords: forest resources, injury, insect, disease, survey.