The population of disabled elderly in the United States is

growing rapidly. The number of Americans who will suffer

functional disability due to arthritis, stroke, diabetes,

coronary artery disease, cancer, or cognitive impairment is

expected to increase at least 300 percent by 2049.1

Although people tend to develop chronic conditions as they

age, growing old does not have to mean becoming disabled.

Research sponsored by the Agency for Healthcare Research

and Quality (AHRQ) led to the development of the Chronic

Disease Self-Management Program (CDSMP), a patient

self-management program that can help prevent or delay

disability even in patients with arthritis, heart disease, or

hypertension.2 These patients are taught how to better

manage their symptoms, adhere to medication regimens,

and maintain functional ability.2 Additional research funded

by AHRQ has also shown that education and lifestyle

changes can reduce disability, control costs, and have a

positive influence on the quality of life of America’s elderly. 

Disability has far-reaching consequences

Almost 75 percent of the elderly (age 65 and over) have at

least one chronic illness.3 About 50 percent have at least

two chronic illnesses.3 Chronic conditions can lead to

severe and immediate disabilities, such as hip fractures and

stroke, as well as progressive disability that slowly erodes

the ability of elderly people to care for themselves.4

According to AHRQ’s 1996 Medical Expenditure Panel

Survey (MEPS),a about 14.3 percent of people age 65 and

over—4.5 million elderly Americans—require assistance

with bathing, dressing, preparing meals, or shopping.5

The costs associated with treating the elderly with chronic

conditions are high and continuing to grow. These costs are

borne by everyone—Federal and State governments,

families, and the elderly themselves. AHRQ research shows

that out-of-pocket health costs are highest for people with

chronic health conditions or functional impairment.6

Home care expenses contribute to these high costs. For

example, home health care expenses for the elderly totaled

$27.2 billion in 1996, and Medicare paid for nearly 60

percent of these expenses.7 The elderly also paid more of

these expenses themselves than did younger people.7 MEPS

data from 1996 show that the elderly were more likely than

younger people to incur expenses for home health care and

their costs per person were higher (Table 1).7 AHRQ

research indicates that the primary risk factor for requiring

formal home health care is difficulty in bathing, dressing,

Preventing Disability in the Elderly

With Chronic Disease

Making a Difference

• Patients enrolled in the Chronic Disease SelfManagement Program (CDSMP) improved their health

and reduced their use of health services...Page 2

• CDSMP participants reduced their health care

costs...Page 3

• Education and lifestyle changes helped patients

successfully change smoking, alcohol consumption,

nutrition, and weight control behaviors...Page 4

• Education and exercise helped to improve function in

heart failure patients...Page 4

RESEARCH IN ACTION

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality • www.ahrq.gov

Issue #3 April 2002

a

The Medical Expenditure Panel Survey is conducted to provide

nationally representative estimates of health care use, expenditures,

sources of payment, and insurance coverage for the U.S. civilian

noninstitutionalized population. MEPS is cosponsored by the Agency

for Healthcare Research and Quality and the National Center for Health

Statistics (NCHS).
eating, or using the toilet.8 Many elderly people can

maintain or improve their functional ability by attending the

CDSMP and practicing its principles. 

CDSMP improved health and reduced health care

use

AHRQ-funded research at the Stanford University Patient

Education Research Center led to the development of the

CDSMP. The CDSMP is a 17-hour course taught by trained

lay people that teaches patients with chronic disease how to

better manage their symptoms, adhere to medication

regimens, and maintain functional ability.2 Offered in

community settings such as senior centers, churches,

libraries, and hospitals, CDSMP classes are held once a

week for 7 weeks.2 This program has been so successful, it

has been implemented both nationally and internationally.9

Over a period of 2 years, AHRQ-funded investigators

compared health behaviors, health status, and health

services use in patients age 40 to 90 years (average age, 65)

who had completed the CDSMP. When compared to

baseline measures taken for the 6 months prior to the

CDSMP, researchers found that:

After 6 months, CDSMP participants had—

• Increased exercise.

• Better coping strategies and symptom management.

• Better communication with their physicians.

• Improvement in their self-rated health, disability, social

and role activities, and health distress.

• More energy and less fatigue.

• Decreased disability.

• Fewer physician visits and hospitalizations.2

After 1 year, CDSMP participants had—

• Significant improvements in energy, health status, social

and role activities, and self-efficacy.

• Less fatigue or health distress.

• Fewer visits to the emergency room.

• No decline in activity or role functions, even though

there was a slight increase in disability after 1 year.10

After 2 years, CDSMP participants had—

• No further increase in disability.

• Reduced health distress.

• Fewer visits to physicians and emergency rooms.

• Increased self-efficacy.10

The increase in patients’ perceptions of their self-efficacy

was associated with reduced health care use.10 Self-efficacy,

the degree of belief people have that they can perform the

behavior required to produce a desired outcome, is crucial

to the success of the CDSMP.2 The more self-efficacy

people have, the more control they believe they have over

2 www.ahrq.gov

Table 1. Home health services use and expenses, 1996

Statistic Under age 65 Age 65 and over

Percent with expense 1% 13%

Average annual expense per person $3,342 $6,041

Percent paid out of pocket 2.7% 14.5%

Amount paid out of pocket $186 million $3.9 billion

Percent paid by Medicare 27.6% 58.9%

Amount paid by Medicare $1.9 billion $16 billion

Source: Cohen JW, Machlin SR, Zuvekas SH, et al. Health care expenses in the United States, 1996. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2000. MEPS Research

Findings No. 12. AHRQ Pub. No. 01-0009.
their behavior.2,11 Therefore, increasing self-efficacy

contributes to better decisionmaking processes, stronger

motivation, and perseverance.11

CDSMP reduced costs

The CDSMP saved from $390 to $520 per patient over the

2-year study period because participants used fewer health

care services. CDSMP participants used less hospital and

physician services than they had used before participating

in the program, and less than those who had not

participated in the CDSMP (the control group).2,10

Specifically, researchers found that hospitalization rates for

CDSMP participants did not increase over the 2-year

duration of the study.10 For example, during the first 6

months, CDSMP participants were hospitalized 0.15 fewer

days than they had been during the 6 months before they

began the program. Patients in the control group were

hospitalized 0.34 more days, making a total difference of

0.49 days.10 If the cost to hospitalize a patient were $1,000

per day, cost savings attributed to the CDSMP would be

$490 per person (0.49 fewer days in the hospital multiplied

by $1,000).10

CDSMP participants also had 2.5 fewer visits to the

emergency room and their physicians.10 Assuming a

minimum reimbursement from Medicare of $40 for a

physician or emergency room visit, savings from the

CDSMP would be $100 per participant (2.5 fewer visits

multiplied by $40 per visit).10

The CDSMP cost between $70 and $200 per person to

administer. After subtracting these costs from the savings

due to lower health services use, the total amount saved as

a result of the CDSMP over a 2-year period was estimated

at $390 to $520 per person.2,10

Impact in a community setting continues

Further evidence of the effectiveness of the CDSMP can be

found in a study funded by Kaiser Permanente. One year

after completing the CDSMP, participants in the Kaiser

study showed significant improvements in fatigue,

shortness of breath, pain, social activity limitation, illness

intrusiveness, depression, and health distress. Participants

also reported improved exercise, symptom management,

and communication with their physicians.12

In addition, Kaiser CDSMP participants had 0.2 fewer

visits to the emergency room and 0.97 fewer hospital days

compared to the year prior to completing the CDSMP. As a

result, they reduced their health care costs. For example, if

the average cost per day of hospitalization were $1,000 and

the average cost of an emergency room visit were $100, the

potential savings would be $990 per participant for the first

year following completion of the program (0.97 days of

hospitalization multiplied by $1,000 plus 0.2 emergency

visits multiplied by $100).12

Kaiser Permanente paid approximately $200 per participant

for CDSMP training, materials, and administration. With

489 participants, Kaiser’s total cost was $97,800. However,

if the cost to care for each participant decreased $990

because participants used fewer health services, Kaiser

Permanente’s net savings would be nearly $400,000.12

A final note: Kaiser Permanente’s enrollment in the

CDSMP grew to 2,500 participants in 2000.12 In 2002, the

CDSMP won Kaiser Permanente’s James A. Vohs Award

for Quality.13 This award (named in honor of Kaiser’s

longtime President, Chief Executive Officer, and

Chairman) acknowledges superior, creative programs that

improve the quality of patient care.14

CDSMP has international impact

The National Health Service (NHS) of England has

adopted the CDSMP as the key educational offering in its

Expert Patient program.13 The Expert Patient program is

based on the premise that people with chronic disease often

understand their condition better than their physicians do.15

The NHS intends to help people with chronic disease

become “experts” in knowledge about their condition so

that they can develop disease management skills, consider

themselves partners with their health care providers, and

take greater responsibility for their health and health care.15

Over a 6-year period, the NHS will implement selfmanagement programs such as the CDSMP for patients

with chronic disease.15

CDSMP covers multiple chronic conditions

As discussed earlier, most elderly people contend with

more than one chronic illness. For example, during the

AHRQ-funded studies, patients in the CDSMP had an

average of two chronic conditions.2,9,10 One advantage of the

www.ahrq.gov 3
CDSMP is that patients receive instruction on selfmanagement for several different chronic diseases by

attending only one course.2 However, the CDSMP can also

be used in conjunction with disease-specific education

programs.2

The CDSMP focuses on problems that are common to

patients suffering from chronic diseases. Coping strategies

such as action planning and feedback, behavior modeling,

problem-solving techniques, and decisionmaking are

applicable to all chronic diseases. Patients are taught to

control their symptoms through:

• Relaxation techniques.

• Changing their diets.

• Managing sleep and fatigue.

• Using medications correctly.

• Exercise.

• Communication with health providers.

In addition, patients receive information on sexual

relations, advance directives, nutrition, and pain

management.2,9,10

Each person enrolled in the CDSMP receives the text

Living a Healthy Life With Chronic Conditions, 2nd

Edition.

9 This manual, developed by Stanford University

School of Medicine researchers and supported by AHRQ,

teaches self-management behaviors for chronic lung

disease, heart disease, high blood pressure, arthritis, and

diabetes.16 Currently, the CDSMP is offered by over 100

health organizations in 31 States and 10 countries—the

United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Great

Britain, Italy, Norway, Hong Kong, China, and Sweden.9,b

Education and lifestyle changes improve health 

Other AHRQ research supports the health education and

lifestyle changes endorsed by the CDSMP. AHRQ

sponsored a comprehensive review of research on how

education and counseling interventions affect preventive

health behaviors. Although these studies focused on

prevention in healthy people, the consensus was that

behavioral techniques such as self-monitoring, personal

communication with health care providers, and viewing

audiovisual materials contribute to successful change for

behaviors such as quitting smoking, controlling alcohol

consumption, improving nutrition, and weight control.17

Education that promoted exercise lifestyle changes

enhanced control of heart failure in another AHRQ-funded

study. Patients over the age of 30 who were taking

medication to control their heart failure underwent an

exercise program of walking at home 3 days a week.

Participants were taught how to monitor their heart rate and

exertion level. They also received instruction on resistance

exercises and multimedia material to take home regarding

safety and proper technique. At the end of 3 months,

patients who exercised reported less fatigue, decreased

shortness of breath, improved emotional functioning, and

better control over their symptoms than patients who did

not exercise.18

AHRQ research supports national goals 

A prime objective of Healthy People 2010,

19 the Nation’s

health promotion and disease prevention agenda, is to

improve the quality of life and longevity of adults with

chronic disease. Specifically, the objectives identified by

the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services are to:

• Reduce the number of adults who experience functional

limitations and limitations with activities of daily living

as a result of chronic joint problems.

• Increase the number of adults who seek help for coping

with their arthritis, who see a health care provider, and

who have had education about arthritis as part of their

overall medical management.

• Reduce the number of people who die as a result of

coronary artery disease or stroke through education,

screening, and control of high blood pressure and serum

cholesterol levels.

• Increase the proportion of older adults who participate

in an organized health promotion activity to 90 percent. 

Implementation of the CDSMP and other AHRQ-funded

research that has been translated into practice clearly helps

the United States meet these goals.

4 www.ahrq.gov

b

Stanford University offers a 41/2 day training course to teach

representatives of health care organizations how to implement the

CDSMP. More information on the CDSMP can be found at the Stanford

Patient Education Research Center Web site:

<http://www.stanford.edu/group/perc/>.
Research to improve chronic disease outcomes

continues

AHRQ is continuing to fund research on health care for the

elderly and management of chronic disease for all age

groups. Ongoing studies include:

• Education in an HMO: Effectiveness and Efficiency;

Grant No. R01 HS08641-01A1. This study is assessing

the short-term and long-term effectiveness of a health

education program (HEP) for spouse caregivers and frail

elderly care recipients. The researchers are examining

whether health education group programs offered by a

health maintenance organization (HMO) in a primary

care setting can reduce health services use and costs

while improving participants’ health status and wellbeing.

• Effect of Formal Home Care Services on Caregiver

Burden; AHRQ Grant. No. R03 HS10794-01. This study

will provide a better understanding of the dynamics of

family caregiving to low-income and frail elderly

individuals living in the community. It is examining how

community and home care services diminish the effect

of stressors on caregiver burden. 

• A Patient Activation Approach to Improving Diabetes

Care; Grant No. R18 HS10123-01A1. This study is

applying a patient-focused, behavioral-systems approach

to improving diabetes self-management. Investigators

are studying patient, physician, and practice

characteristics associated with compliance with

recommended guidelines for diabetes, including clinic

culture, patient autonomy, provider attitudes and

supportiveness of patient autonomy, and patient-provider

communication.

• Spouse Involvement in Cardiac Patients’ Behavior

Change; Grant No. R03 HS11263-01. This study of

heart disease patients and their spouses is exploring

patient perceptions of supportive, controlling, and

undermining behaviors in response to recommendations

for adoption and maintenance of exercise activity. The

Transtheoretical Model of Behavior Change is the

primary method of promoting healthy behaviors such as

exercise to prevent disability due to heart disease. 

New funding opportunities—researchers can

make a difference

AHRQ’s program announcement “Patient-Centered Care:

Customizing Care to Meet Patients’ Needs” is intended to

support the redesign and evaluation of new processes of

care that lead to greater patient empowerment, improved

patient-provider interaction, easier navigation through

health care systems, and improved access, quality, and

outcomes. Specific strategies could include, but are not

limited to, electronic clinical communication, selfmanagement programs, Web-based applications for patients

and/or health care providers, and shared decisionmaking

programs. AHRQ encourages projects that emphasize

chronic illness, episodes of care that extend beyond

hospitalization, longitudinal care, and priority populations.

More information can be found at 

<http://grants1.nih.gov/ grants/guide/pa-files/PA-01-124.html>.

www.ahrq.gov 5

AHRQ-Funded/Sponsored Research on Chronic Disease Management

• Improving Chronic Disease by Self-Management Education, Stanford University: This study developed, operated, and

evaluated the Chronic Disease Self-Management Program and assessed its effectiveness in improving health while

lowering costs for patients with chronic disease.

• Meta-Analysis of Studies Evaluating Patient Education, University of Texas Health Science Center: This study evaluated

different methods of patient education and examined their impact on preventive health behaviors.

• Home-Based Exercise in Patients with Heart Failure, University of California: This study compared a physical activity

program with usual care for improving physical performance and quality of life and well-being in patients with heart

failure.
Conclusion

Programs such as the CDSMP provide self-management

education for all patients with chronic disease and help

preserve functional ability while reducing costs. AHRQfunded research clearly indicates that health education and

lifestyle changes contribute greatly to reducing the negative

consequences of chronic disease. The lives of Americans

can be improved by implementing programs such as the

CDSMP and encouraging patients to take part in them.

Furthermore, this program can help the Nation achieve its

Healthy People 2010 goals and objectives: to reduce the

number of people who suffer from disability as a result of

chronic disease and to increase the number of people who

receive education and support for coping with their disease.

For more information

This synthesis was written by Barbara L. Kass-Bartelmes,

M.P.H., CHES (bkass@ahrq.gov). For further information

on chronic disease, please contact the Center for Primary

Care Research at 301-594-1357.

References

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*2. Lorig KR, Sobel DS, Stewart AL, et al. Evidence

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11. Lorig KR, Mazonson PD, Holman HR. Evidence

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<http://www.kaiserpermanente.org/

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<http://www.doh.gov.uk/healthinequalities/

ep_report.pdf>.

*16. Lorig K, Holman H, Sobel D, et al. Living a healthy life

with chronic conditions. Self-management of heart

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Publishing Company; 2000.

*AHRQ-funded/sponsored research

6 www.ahrq.gov
www.ahrq.gov 7

*17. Mullen PD, Simons-Morton DG, Ramirez G, et al. A

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*18. Oka RK, De Marco T, Haskell WL. Impact of a homebased walking resistance training program on quality of

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*AHRQ-funded/sponsored research
U.S. Department of

Health and Human Services

Public Health Service

Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality

2101 East Jefferson Street, Suite 501

Rockville, Maryland 20852

www.ahrq.gov

AHRQ Pub. No. 02-0018

April 2002