Issue: The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for

Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides packages

containing foods that are good sources of nutrients typically lacking in the diets of the target population, along with

nutrition education and referrals to health care. The provision of supplemental foods is assumed to lead to increased

consumption of these foods, which in turn is expected to

improve the health of program participants. The relationship between participation in WIC and increased consumption of WIC foods has not been fully examined. 

The types of food included in the WIC packages have

remained basically unchanged since the 1970s. Since then,

food consumption patterns have changed, nutritional standards have been revised, and the WIC participant population has become more ethnically diverse. As a result, the

composition of the WIC food packages is receiving

increased attention, and some observers have recommended

changes to better help program participants meet standards

for a healthful diet. In addition, the dramatic increase in

obesity and overweight among children has raised questions

as to whether providing free supplemental foods through

WIC increases children's caloric intake. The U.S.

Department of Agriculture is thus considering redesigning

the WIC food packages and needs to determine how they

should be revised to improve the nutritional intake, health,

and development of participants.

Understanding WIC's effect on consumption of the kinds of

food in the WIC packages and on caloric intake will aid

decisions on change. This issue brief focuses on two major

concerns:

(1) How does participation in WIC affect the consumption

of WIC-approved foods, not just from the WIC packages,

but in the overall diet?

(2) Does participation in WIC result in increased caloric

intake? 

Background: WIC is based on the premise that early food

interventions during critical times of growth and development will improve the health status of participants and help

prevent later health problems. Low-income women, infants,

and children who are at nutritional risk are eligible to participate in the program. (Family income must fall at or

below 185 percent of the Federal poverty guidelines or the

applicant or certain family members must participate in

specified assistance programs.) About a quarter of all children 1-4 years of age in the United States participate in the

program. WIC provides participants with supplemental

foods that are high in five target nutrients—protein, iron,

vitamins A and C, and calcium. Federal regulations specify

the types of supplemental foods that may be prescribed to

WIC participants. The WIC-authorized foods included in

the food package for children 1-4 years of age are iron-fortified adult cereal, vitamin C-rich fruit and/or vegetable

juice, protein/iron-rich eggs, calcium/protein-rich milk and

cheese, and protein-rich peanut butter and dried beans/peas

(table 1). Only low-sugar cereals (with no more than 6

grams of sugar per dry ounce of cereal) and 100 percent

juice (i.e., unsweetened) are allowed. 

WIC regulations specify the maximum quantities of supplemental foods that may be distributed to WIC participants.

Typically, food benefits are provided in the form of a food

"instrument" (a voucher or check) that participants use to

purchase approved foods at authorized grocery stores. The

food instrument specifies the type and amount of supplemental foods that can be obtained. 

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Economic 

Research

Service

Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report Number 26-11 February 2005

Effects of WIC Participation on 

Children's Food Consumption

Victor Oliveira 

Ram Chandran

IN FOOD ASSISTANCE
Methodology: The source of data for this study was the

Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII)

1994-96, 1998, which has information on the socioeconomic

characteristics of individuals as well as their food intake,

specifically, the kinds and amounts of food consumed on

each of 2 nonconsecutive days using 24-hour dietary 

recalls. Descriptions of every food item eaten were obtained

from the respondents and then matched to descriptions of

foods in a food coding database consisting of almost 7,500

unique food codes. ERS researchers identified the specific

food codes that seemed to best represent "WIC-approved"

foods, based on Federal WIC program regulations and a

review of selected State's lists of WIC-allowed foods. In

addition, other (i.e., non-WIC) cereal and beverages (such

as soft drinks) were identified.

To determine WIC's effect on the consumption of WICapproved foods, the consumption patterns of WIC participants were compared with those of eligible nonparticipants

living in non-WIC households (eligibility of children was

proxied by the annual income of the household). Two additional comparison groups were constructed to account for

the possibility of spillover effects whereby WIC foods are

shared among non-WIC household members (eligible non2 Economic Research Service / USDA

Children’s Consumption of WIC-Approved Foods / FANRR 26-11

Table 1—WIC food package for children 1 to 5 years: maximum monthly quantities1

Milk:

Fluid whole milk 24 qts (22.7 L)

or

Fluid skim or low-fat milk May be substituted for fluid whole milk on a quart-for-quart (.9 L) basis.

or

Cultured buttermilk May be substituted for fluid whole milk on a quart-for-quart (.9 L) basis.

or

Evaporated whole milk May be substituted for fluid whole milk at the rate of 13 fluid oz (.4 L)

per qt (.9 L) of fluid whole milk.

or

Dry whole milk May be substituted for fluid whole milk at the rate of 1 lb (.4 kg) per 3 qts (2.8 L) of fluid 

whole milk.

or

Nonfat or lowfat dry milk May be substituted for fluid whole milk at the rate of 1 lb (.4 kg) per 5

qts (4.7 L) of fluid whole milk.

or

Cheese May be substituted for fluid whole milk at the rate of 1 lb (.4 kg) per 

3 qts (2.8 L) of fluid whole milk. The maximum amount that may be 

substituted is 4 lbs (1.8 kg).2

Eggs:

Fresh eggs 2 doz. or 2 1⁄2 doz.

or

Dried egg mix May be substituted at the rate of 1.5 lbs (.7 kg) egg mix per 2 doz. fresh

eggs or 2 lb. (.9 kg) egg mix per 2 1⁄2 doz. fresh eggs.

Cereals (hot or cold) 36 oz dry (1 kg)

Juice:3

Single-strength juice 276 fluid oz (8.2 L)

or

Frozen concentrated juice 288 fluid oz reconstituted (8.5 L)

Legumes:

Dry beans or peas 1 lb (.4 kg)

or

Peanut butter 18 oz (.5 kg) 

1As defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR 246.10).

2Additional cheese may be issued on an individual basis in cases of lactose intolerance, provided the need is documented in the participant's file by

the competent professional authority.

3Combinations of single-strength and frozen concentrated juice may be issued as long as the total volume does not exceed the amount specified for

single-strength juice.
participants living in WIC households), and for the effect of

higher household incomes (ineligible nonparticipants).

Failure to control for spillover and income can confound

effects due to WIC. 

A Tobit multivariate regression analysis, which controls for

observed differences between the groups of children, was

used to compare the consumption patterns of WIC children

with those of the other three groups of children. A weightbased measure—grams—was used to determine the amount

of the individual WIC-approved food consumed. Since the

study was also interested in whether WIC contributes to

overweight, the food energy content—measured in calories—was used to determine the total amount of WICapproved food consumed and the total amount of all foods

and beverages consumed. 

Findings: WIC-approved foods are important in the diets of

children 1 to 4 years old whether or not they participate in

the program. On average, WIC-approved foods accounted

for a quarter of the total calories from food and beverages

consumed by children in this age group.

After controlling for other observed factors, the analysis

found that WIC participants consumed significantly more

WIC-approved juice, and significantly less of other (i.e.,

non-WIC) beverages such as soft drinks, than each of the

three comparison groups. WIC participants also consumed

significantly more WIC-approved cereal than did nonparticipants living in non-WIC households and ineligible nonparticipants. The association between increased consumption of WIC-approved foods and participation in WIC was

substantial for some types of food. Holding other factors

constant, participation in WIC was associated with an

increase of about 75 percent in the amount of WICapproved cereal consumed, compared with eligible nonparticipants in non-WIC households and ineligible nonparticipants. Depending on the comparison group, WIC participation was also associated with a 24- to 45-percent increase in

the amount of WIC-approved juice consumed and a 17- to

26-percent decrease in the amount of other beverages consumed (figs. 1 and 2). 

WIC constrains participants' choices of cereal and beverages more than their choices of the other WIC foods.

Consumers probably have stronger brand loyalties and taste

preferences in cereals and, to a lesser degree, in juices than

for foods in the other WIC food groups. However, WIC participants can only use their WIC vouchers for specific

brands of cereal that are iron-fortified and low-sugar.

Cereals that do not meet WIC requirements constitute a

considerable share of the market. Therefore, to take advantage of the free food provided by WIC, participants must

purchase cereals that may be different from the ones they

would otherwise choose if there were no restrictions.

Similarly, WIC participants are required to use their WIC

vouchers on products containing 100-percent juice, which

competes with other beverages in the diets of children. 

The analysis found few statistically significant differences

in the consumption of the other WIC-approved food groups

such as milk, cheese, eggs, dry beans/peas, and peanut butter. WIC regulations place fewer restrictions on the types of

these WIC foods that participants can purchase with their

WIC vouchers, and there is less product differentiation

Economic Research Service / USDA 3

Children’s Consumption of WIC-Approved Foods / FANRR 26-11

Figure 1

Eligible

(Non-WIC

households)

Eligible

(WIC households)

Ineligibles

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Estimated effects of WIC on the consumption of 

WIC-approved juice: WIC participants vs. three 

comparison groups

Percent of grams consumed

Figure 2

Estimated effects of WIC on the consumption of 

other beverages: WIC participants vs. three 

comparison groups

Percent of grams consumed

Eligible

(Non-WIC

households)

Eligible

(WIC

households)

Ineligibles -30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0
among brands of milk, eggs, dry beans/peas, etc. So WIC

participants are likely to purchase the same types of these

foods as non-WIC participants.

The results clearly show that participation in WIC is statistically associated with increased consumption of some

WIC-approved foods, such as cereal and juice. However,

because of potential factors that could not be controlled for

in the statistical analysis, such as the parent's motivation to

improve the child's nutrition, it is not possible to prove that

WIC participation per se is the cause of the increased consumption of WIC foods. However, the finding of basically

similar results across three different comparison groups

(eligible nonparticipants in non-WIC households, eligible

nonparticipants in WIC households, and ineligible nonparticipants) provides strong evidence that participation in

WIC does in fact increase the consumption of some WICapproved foods and decreases the consumption of other

non-WIC foods.

WIC participants consumed 11 to 14 percent more calories

from all WIC-approved foods combined than each of the

three groups of nonparticipants. At the same time, there was

no significant difference in total calories consumed between

WIC recipients and the two groups of eligible nonparticipants. This suggests that WIC-approved foods replace other

food items in the diets of WIC participants rather than

adding to total food consumed. Although WIC participants

consumed about 5-percent more total calories than ineligible nonparticipants, this may be due more to fundamental

differences in household resources and parents' knowledge

of nutrition than to WIC status. 

Conclusions: This study found that although WIC participation had little effect on the consumption of some types of

food, it had a substantial impact on the consumption of

other types, such as WIC-approved cereal and juice and

other (i.e., non-WIC) beverages. The study also found significant differences in the consumption of WIC-approved

foods by race/ethnicity and geographic regions, suggesting

strong cultural and regional dietary patterns. These results

highlight the importance of determining the specific foods

to provide in the WIC food packages to influence change in

the dietary patterns of participants.

Although participation in WIC was associated with a significant increase in the amount of calories consumed from

all WIC-approved foods combined, there was no significant

difference in the amount of total calories consumed from all

foods and beverages between WIC participants and lowincome nonparticipants. Thus, there is little evidence that

participation in WIC contributes to increased caloric intake

among low-income children eligible to participate in the

program. 

Information Sources:

Olivera,Victor, and Ram Chandran. Children’s

Consumption of WIC-Approved Foods. FANRR-44.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research

Service. February 2005.

http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/fanrr44/

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research

Service. Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals

1994-96, 1998. CD-Rom. 2000a.

4 Economic Research Service / USDA

Children’s Consumption of WIC-Approved Foods / FANRR 26-11

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