BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS

A WORLD CATALOGUE OF AGENTS 

AND THEIR TARGET WEEDS

FIFTH EDITION
For additional copies of this publication, contact:

Mark Schwarzländer

University of Idaho

PSES Department

Moscow, ID 83844

208.885.9319

markschw@uidaho.edu

Richard C. Reardon

U.S. Forest Service

180 Canfield Street

Morgantown, WV 26505

304.285.1566

rreardon@fs.fed.us

The Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team (FHTET) was created in 

1995 by the Deputy Chief for State and Private Forestry, Forest Service, U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, to develop and deliver technologies to protect and 

improve the health of American forests. This book was published by FHTET 

as part of the technology transfer series.

http://www.fs.fed.us/foresthealth/technology/

Winston, R.L., M. Schwarzländer, H.L. Hinz, M.D. Day, M.J.W. Cock and M.H. Julien, Eds. 

2014. Biological Control of Weeds: A World Catalogue of Agents and Their Target Weeds, 

5th edition. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Morgantown, 

West Virginia. FHTET-2014-04. 838 pp.

Photo Credits

Front Cover: Tambali Lagoon, Sepik River, Papua New Guinea before (left) and 

after (right) release of Neochetina spp. (center). Photos (left and right) by Mic 

Julien and (center) by Michael Day, all via the Commonwealth Scientific and 

Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). 

Back Cover: Nomorodu, New Ireland, Papua New Guinea before (left) and 

after (right) release of Cecidochares connexa. Photos (left and right) by 

Michael Day, Queensland Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry 

(DAFF), and (center) by Colin Wilson, Kangaroo Island Natural Resources 

Management Board, South Australia. 

Title Page: Caboolture River, Queensland, Australia before (left) and after (right) 

release of Agasicles hygrophila. Photos by Queensland DAFF. 

www.ibiocontrol.org/catalog/
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS

A WORLD CATALOGUE OF AGENTS 

AND THEIR TARGET WEEDS

FIFTH EDITION

Edited by Rachel L. Winston, Mark Schwarzländer, Hariet L. Hinz, 

Michael D. Day, Matthew J.W. Cock, and Mic H. Julien; 

with assistance from Michelle Lewis

Rachel L. Winston, MIA Consulting, 316 N. Hansen Ave., 

Shelley, ID 83274 USA, rachel@getmia.net

Mark Schwarzländer, University of Idaho, Department of Plant, 

Soil and Entomological Sciences, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 2339, 

Moscow, ID 83844-2339 USA, markschw@uidaho.edu

Hariet L. Hinz, CABI, Rue des Grillons 1, CH-2800, Delémont, 

Switzerland, h.hinz@cabi.org

Michael D. Day, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, 

Ecosciences Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, Qld 4001 Australia, 

michael.day@daff.qld.gov.au

Matthew J.W. Cock, CABI, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, 

TW20 9TY, United Kingdom, m.cock@cabi.org

Mic H. Julien, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, 

QLD 4102, Australia, mic.julien@csiro.au

Michelle Lewis, MIA Consulting, 316 N. Hansen Ave., 

Shelley, ID 83274 USA, michelle@getmia.net
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and 

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To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, 

Whitten Building, 1400 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 

202-720-5964 (voice and TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Federal Recycling Program

Printed on recycled paper

The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information 

and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement 

or approval by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or the Forest Service of any product 

or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable.
Table of Contents

Geographic Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Contact the Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Table 1. Exotic Organisms 

Intentionally Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 2. Native Organisms 

Intentionally Redistributed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

Table 3. Previously Used or Potential Agents 

Found in Exotic Ranges where their 

Deliberate Release is not Recorded . . . . . . . 571

Table 4. Bioherbicides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719

Research Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737

Indexes

Scientific Names of Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825

Families of Weeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829

Scientific Names of Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830

Agent Families (Insects and Mites)

and Orders (Fungi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837

Geographic Abbreviations

Australia

ACT Australian Capital Territory

NSW New South Wales

NT Northern Territory

QLD Queensland

SA South Australia

TAS Tasmania

VIC Victoria

WA Western Australia

Canada

AB Alberta

BC British Columbia

MB Manitoba

NB New Brunswick

NL Newfoundland and Labrador

NS Nova Scotia

NT Northwest Territories

NU Nunavut

ON Ontario

PEI Prince Edward Island 

QC Quebec 

SK Saskatchewan

YT Yukon

Hawaii USA

HA Hawai’i

KA Kaua’i

LA	 Lāna’i

MA Maui

MO Moloka’i

NI Ni’ihau

OA O’ahu

Papua New Guinea

CHM Chimbu (Simbu)

CTL Central

EHL Eastern Highlands

ENB East New Britain

ENG Enga

ESP East Sepik

GLF Gulf

HEL Hela

MBP Milne Bay

MDG Madang

MNS Manus

MRB Morobe

NCD National Capital District

NIP New Ireland

NSP North Solomons 

(Bougainville autonomous 

region)

SHL Southern Highlands

WHP Western Highlands

WNB West New Britain

WSP West Sepik (Sandaun)

WST Western Province (Fly)

Republic of South Africa

EC Eastern Cape

FS Free State

GP Gauteng

KZN KwaZulu-Natal

LP Limpopo (formerly Northern 

Province)

MP Mpumalanga

NC Northern Cape

NWP North West

WC Western Cape

United States of America

AK Alaska 

AL Alabama 

AR Arkansas 

AZ Arizona 

CA California 

CO Colorado 

CT Connecticut 

DE Delaware 

FL Florida 

GA Georgia 

HI Hawaii 

IA Iowa 

ID Idaho 

IL Illinois 

IN Indiana 

KS Kansas 

KY Kentucky 

LA Louisiana 

MA Massachusetts 

MD Maryland 

ME Maine 

MI Michigan 

MN Minnesota 

MO Missouri 

MS Mississippi 

MT Montana 

NC North Carolina 

ND North Dakota 

NE Nebraska 

NH New Hampshire 

NJ New Jersey 

NM New Mexico 

NV Nevada 

NY New York 

OH Ohio 

OK Oklahoma 

OR Oregon 

PA Pennsylvania 

RI Rhode Island 

SC South Carolina 

SD South Dakota 

TN Tennessee 

TX Texas 

UT Utah 

VA Virginia 

VT Vermont 

WA Washington 

WI Wisconsin 

WV West Virginia 

WY Wyoming 

i

Biological Control of Weeds 

Biological control is a fascinating discipline where experimental 

projects are conducted at ecoregional scales. Biological control 

using natural enemies and native organisms is an important tool in 

the land manager’s arsenal of weed control techniques. The practice 

has been expanding from use primarily on rangelands and aquatic 

systems into other environments. The editors of this comprehensive 

work have embarked on the difficult task of cataloging the biological 

control of invasive plants (noxious weeds) on a global scale. With 

each successive edition of this World Catalogue of Biological Control 

of Weeds since 1982, the monumental task of pulling together so 

much information has been compounded by the ever changing geopolitical landscape and the increasing number of targeted weeds and 

new biocontrol agents. This book will serve as a valuable reference 

to practitioners and scientists throughout the world, help foster 

cooperation of partnerships on new and old projects, and advance the 

science of biocontrol. Some biological control agents are redistributed 

to countries, states, regions, etc., where the political entity has relied on 

host specificity testing conducted in another country or by an adjoining 

neighbor. 

Since the Fourth Edition by M.H. Julien and M.W. Griffiths (1998), the 

science of plant taxonomy has been greatly enhanced through genetic 

analysis, often redefining the associations among genera and families 

beyond that which was previously done through plant morphology. 

This has led to a slowdown in the approval rate of classical biological 

control agents in some countries, as they scramble to redefine host 

specificity protocols. This should, however, lead to the increased safety 

of implementing biocontrol in the long run. 

Foreword

Biological control is not without risk, but with each passing decade 

it has become safer when compared to the alternative of allowing 

invasive weeds to spread unchecked. In recent years there has been 

a greater concern about evolutionary processes and how these may 

affect biocontrol agents after they are released in novel environments, 

and how native plants and crops may be at risk. We should be aware, 

but cautious, when comparing nontarget impacts of old projects and 

protocols against new host specificity testing methodology.

For each weed biocontrol system, the editors report the validated 

status by: the weed and its origin; biocontrol agent, country, release 

year; notes on establishment, abundance, success/failure; research 

organization; and references. It is easiest to report the status of 

biocontrol agents by political units, as there are specific boundaries 

and conditions that can be easily recorded. It would be nice to report 

status by ecoregion, since that is where the evolutionary forces act 

upon their populations, but those units are not always well defined, 

making reporting more difficult. Care should be taken when analyzing 

the data herein, as the subjectivity is proportional to the scale at which 

it is applied. 

Not all regional experts are equal in their experience. It has been my 

personal experience to observe that about one third of all biocontrol 

agents reported to have failed were later found to have established. 

There are numerous examples of this reported in this Fifth Edition. 

However, just because a biocontrol agent is established, this does not 

mean it is successful or widespread. Regional success usually requires 

several decades; therefore care should be exercised when analyzing the 
 Biological Control of Weeds

success of projects. Biocontrol projects less than 10 years old should 

generally not be included in the analysis of efficacy. Furthermore, 

the successful control of a weed in some habitats does not always 

guarantee overall success, especially where land management practices 

do not change and other weeds present in the system simply move 

up the ladder. The generally accepted success rate of one third of 

biocontrol agents being successful is still a very good track record, 

when one considers those weed systems were likely spreading 

unchecked before biocontrol was implemented. 

Biological control should be part of an interdisciplinary integrated 

approach to ecologically based vegetation management. This catalog 

is a great and convenient resource to land managers and practitioners 

alike, as they apply ecological principles and sound management 

practices to control noxious and invasive plants. I encourage those 

who practice weed biological control to continue to make important 

observations, report their findings, and promote interaction amongst 

their peers, so that this important World Catalogue may continue to be 

updated in the future.

Eric M. Coombs

Biological Control Entomologist

Oregon Department of Agriculture

635 Capitol St. NE

Salem, OR 97301 USA
Biological Control of Weeds 

Biological Control - A World Catalogue of Target Weeds and Their 

Agents has proven to be one of the most important publications in the 

field of biological control. By 2010, the steady citation of the Fourth 

Edition (despite its publication date in 1998) illustrated the great need 

for a new revision. While brainstorming ways to make this possible, 

it became apparent that any new update should be expanded to 

incorporate technological and academic advancements of the previous 

decade. In addition to updating all of the information collated in 

previous editions, it was our desire to create a database with greater 

accessibility, usability, and potential for future growth. We needed four 

main components in order to accomplish this goal: the expertise of 

the creator and lead author of the previous editions of the catalogue, 

collaborations with biocontrol practitioners worldwide, human 

resources capable of orchestrating the new expanded approach, and a 

funding body willing to publish the new edition as well as house a new 

comprehensive and electronic database.

All four previous editions of this catalogue were collated and edited 

by Mic H. Julien (CSIRO retired), with support from other key 

individuals. Those earlier editions were compiled at a time when 

references were more difficult to obtain and contacts were more 

challenging and time-intensive to establish worldwide. This Fifth 

Edition would not have been possible were it not for Mic’s willingness 

to share his painstakingly collected data, references, and contacts. 

Despite retiring prior to the onset of this major effort, Mic played 

a crucial role in the revision. He always made himself available for 

guiding us through all questions and issues we encountered. He also 

personally handled the collation and updating of numerous weed 

systems spanning multiple countries. Mic’s dedication to this project 

through all five editions helps explain why many in our discipline 

continue to affectionately refer to this and previous versions simply 

as “Julien’s Catalogue”. We are very grateful to have been able to join 

him in this effort.

Michelle Lewis (Private Contractor, Idaho, USA) was key to the 

revision process. Michelle designed the electronic database, migrated 

existing information to the new format, completed the entire first 

draft of the update and expansion, and maintained the integrity of the 

database during subsequent editing phases. Long after her involvement 

with the effort was to have ended, she continued to volunteer her time 

and skills to ensure this project was completed and with the highest 

quality possible.

An enormous amount of collaboration and cooperation with biocontrol 

practitioners worldwide was required to make this revision possible. 

Many researchers contributed newly discovered and/or unpublished 

information for this and earlier revisions of the catalogue. Some were 

helpful on weed systems of their particular expertise, while others 

coordinated and/or collated larger amounts of material from particular 

regions, countries, or organizations. Numerous taxonomists were 

also integral to this effort. We are immensely grateful for all input 

received. While much of this help is documented with “personal 

communication” citations included throughout the reference list, 

the “Contributors” section which follows also includes individuals 

who provided significant help and information during this project. In 

particular, we wish to extend our sincere gratitude to the following 

individuals, whose contributions usually addressed numerous entries 

and required back and forth communication often spanning several 

days, months, or even years: Obi Ajuonu, Dan W. Bean, Rob S. 

Bourchier, Ted D. Center, Christian Cocquempot, Enzo Colonnelli, 

Acknowledgments
 Biological Control of Weeds

Pat Conant, Eric M. Coombs, Rosemarie A. De Clerck-Floate, 

Carol A. Ellison, Simon V. Fowler, John A. Goolsby, Richard W. 

Hansen, Lynley Hayes, Tim A. Heard, Martin P. Hill, John H. 

Hoffmann, Royce H. Holtkamp, John R. Hosking, Fiona A.C. 

Impson, John E. Ireson, Hildegard Klein, Janis N. Matsunaga, 

Alec S. McClay, Rachel E. Crutwell McFadyen, Louise Morin, 

Hernán Norambuena, William A. Palmer, Mike J. Pitcairn, Paul 

D. Pratt, Sergey Ya. Reznik, Urs Schaffner, Richard H. Shaw, 

Philip W. Tipping, Ivo Tosevski, Alan J. Urban, Baldo Villegas, 

Arne Witt, Alan R. Wood, Costas Zachariades, Zhong-Shi Zhou, 

and Helmuth G. Zimmermann. The table on bioherbicides was 

developed with key input from Raghavan Charudattan, David O. 

TeBeest, William L. Bruckart III, and Susan M. Boyetchko.

Carol Randall (U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Protection) and 

Richard Reardon (U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Technology 

Enterprise Team) funded the production costs of this Fifth Edition of 

the printed catalogue as well as provided the financial resources that 

allowed us to compile and analyze all the information included herein. 

This revision effort included many elements not originally anticipated. 

Without the continued support and dedication of Carol and Richard 

there would, in all likelihood, be no Fifth Edition. They have provided 

an invaluable service to the discipline of biological weed control. 

Additional financial support was provided by the U.S. Bureau of Land 

Management, the University of Idaho and CABI Switzerland.

Many thanks to Wendy W. Harding for her patience and skill in 

designing the layout.
Biological Control of Weeds 

Adair, R.J. Australis Biological, PO Box 151, Bittern 2918 Australia

Ajuonu, O. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture-Benin, 

08 BP 0932 Tri Postal, Cotonou, Republic of Benin

Akpabey, F.J. CSIR Water Research Institute, P.O. Box AH 38, 

Achimota-Accra, Ghana

Andreas, J.E. Washington State University Extension, Integrated 

Weed Control Project, Puyallup Research Center, 2606 W. Pioneer, 

Puyallup, WA 98371 USA

Bean, D.W. Colorado Department of Agriculture, Conservation 

Services, 750 37.8 Rd., Palisade, CO 81526 USA

Bhumannavar, B.S. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important 

Insects, P.Bag No:2491, H.A. Farm Post, Bellary Road, Bangalore 

- 560 024. Karnataka, India

Biondi, M. Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali, University of 

L’Aquila, 67100 Coppito-L’Aquila, Italia

Blossey, B. Cornell University, Department of Natural Resources, 

211 Bruckner Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA

Boughton, A.J. University of Florida, Tropical Research & Education 

Center 18905 S.W. 280 Street, Homestead, FL 33031 USA

Bourchier, R.S. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Weed Biocontrol, 

Lethbridge Research Centre, 5403 1 Ave S, Lethbridge, Alberta, 

Canada T1J 4B1

Boyetchko, S.M. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 

107 Science Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0X2 Canada

Briese, D.T. (Retired) Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 

Research Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, GPO Box 1700, 

Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia

Brinon, L. Southern Province, Department of Rural Development, 

BP. 2386 - 98 846 Nouméa cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie

Bruckart, W.L., III United States Department of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Research Service, Foreign Disease-Weed Science 

Research Unit, 1301 Ditto Ave., Ft. Detrick, MD 21702 USA

Bule, S. Biosecurity Vanuatu, Private Mail Bag 9095, Port Vila, 

Vanuatu

Byrne, M.J. University of the Witwatersrand, School of Animal, 

Plant and Environmental Sciences, Private Bag 3, Johannesburg, 

2050 South Africa

Cabrera Walsh, G. Fundación para el Estudio de Especies Invasivas, 

Bolivar 1559, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Caldara, R. Via Lorenteggio 37, I-20146 Milano, MI, Italia

Center, T.D. (Retired) United States Department of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Research Service, Invasive Plant Research Laboratory, 

3225 College Ave., Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 USA

Charudattan, R. BioProdex, Inc.; Emeritus Professor, University of 

Florida, Plant Pathology Department, 3131 NW 13th Street, 

Suite 54, Gainesville, FL 32609-2183 USA

Cocquempot, C. INRA - UMR 1062 CBGP, International Campus of 

Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montférrier-sur-Lez cedex, France

Colonnelli, E. Via delle Giunchiglie, 56, 00172 Roma, Italia

Conant, P. Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Plant Pest Control 

Branch, Hilo, Hawaii 96720 USA

Cook, R. National Park Service, 99 Marconi Site Road, Wellfleet, MA 

02667 USA

Contributors
 Biological Control of Weeds

Coombs, E.M. Oregon Department of Agriculture, Noxious Weed 

Control Program, 635 Capitol St. NE, Salem, OR 97301 USA

Cuda, J.P. University of Florida, Entomology and Nematology 

Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food 

and Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA

Cullen, J.M. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, 

Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia

De Clerck-Floate, R.A. Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Weed 

Biocontrol, Lethbridge Research Centre, 5403 1 Ave S, Lethbridge, 

Alberta, Canada T1J 4B1

Dhileepan, K. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, 

Ecosciences Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, Qld 4001 Australia

Dolgovskaya, M. Russian Academy of Sciences, Zoological Institute, 

199034 St. Petersburg, Russia

Ellison, C.A. CABI, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, 

United Kingdom

Fowler, S.V. Land Care Research, Biodiversity and Conservation, 

P.O. Box 69040, Lincoln 7640 New Zealand

Ganeshan, S. Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research Institute, 

Crop Protection Programme, Reduit, Mauritius

Garcia, J.N. Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Plant Pest Control 

Branch, Honolulu, Hawaii 96814 USA

Gaskin, J.F. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural 

Research Service, Northern Plains Agricultural Research 

Laboratory, 1500 North Central Avenue, Sidney, MT 59270, USA.

Gatimel, B. Southern Province, Department of Rural Development, 

BP. 2386 - 98 846 Nouméa cedex, Nouvelle-Calédonie

Gitonga, W. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute- Mwea, 

P.O. Box 298-10300, Kerugoya, Kenya

Goolsby, J.A. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural 

Research Service, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects 

Research Laboratory, Cattle Fever Tick Research Laboratory, 

22675 N. Moorefield Rd., Moore Airbase, Building 6419, 

Edinburg, Texas 78541 USA

Gordon, A.J. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X5017, Stellenbosch 

7600 South Africa

Grevstad, F.S. Oregon State University, Department of Botany and 

Plant Pathology, 2082 Cordley Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-2902 

USA

Gültekin, L. Atatürk University, Faculty of Agriculture, 

Plant Protection Department, 25240, Erzurum, Turkey

Hansen, R.W. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural 

Research Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine, Center for 

Plant Health Science and Technology, 2301 Research Bldg., 

Suite 108, Fort Collins, CO 80526-1825 USA

Harding, G. Invader Plant Specialists, P.O. Box 3879, Durbanville 

7551 South Africa

Hayes, L. Land Care Research, Biodiversity and Conservation, 

P.O. Box 69040, Lincoln 7640 New Zealand

Heard, T.A. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, 

QLD 4102, Australia

Hemachandra, K.S. University of Peradeniya, Department of 

Agricultural Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, Peradeniya, 

Sri Lanka

Heystek, F. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Queenswood, Pretoria 

0121 South Africa
Biological Control of Weeds 

Hight, S. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural 

Research Service, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary 

Entomology, 6383 Mahan Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32308 USA

Hill, M.P. Rhodes University, Zoology and Entomology, P.O. Box 94, 

Grahamstown 6140 South Africa

Hoffmann, J.H. University of Cape Town, Department of Biological 

Sciences, P/B, Rondebosch 7701 South Africa

Holtkamp, R.H. Tamworth Agricultural Institute, NSW DPI, 

4 Marsden Park Road, Calala, NSW 2340, Australia

Hosking, J.R. Tamworth Agricultural Institute, NSW DPI, 

4 Marsden Park Road, Calala, NSW 2340, Australia

Hough-Goldstein, J. University of Delaware, Department of 

Entomology & Wildlife Ecology, Newark, DE 19716 USA

Impson, F.A.C. University of Cape Town, Department of Biological 

Sciences, P/B, Rondebosch 7701 South Africa; Agricultural 

Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute, Weeds 

Research, P/Bag X5017, Stellenbosch 7600 South Africa

Ireson, J.E. University of Tasmania, Tasmanian Institute of 

Agriculture, New Town Research Laboratories, 

13 St John’s Avenue, New Town 7008 Australia

Johnson, J.D. University of Idaho, Department of Plant, Soil and 

Entomological Sciences, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 2339, 

Moscow, ID 83844-2339 USA

Kikodze, D. Ilia State University, Institute of Botany, 1 Kojori Road, 

0105, Tbilisi, Georgia

King, A. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Queenswood, Pretoria 

0121 South Africa

Klein, H. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Queenswood, Pretoria 

0121 South Africa

Korotyaev, B. Russian Academy of Sciences, Zoological Institute, 

199034 St. Petersburg, Russia

Kurose, D. National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, 

Natural Resources Inventory Center, 3-1-3 Kannondai, Tsukuba, 

305-8604, Japan

Kurugundla, C.N. Principal Botanist, Private Bag 002, Maun, 

Botswana

Le Bourgeois, T. Cirad, UMR AMAP, TA A51/PS2, Boulevard de la 

Lironde, F34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France

Littlefield, J. Montana State University, Department of Land 

Resources & Environmental Sciences, PO Box 173120, 

Bozeman, MT 59717-3120 USA

Madire, L.G. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Pretoria 0001 

South Africa

Mahmood, R. CABI, Opposite 1-A, Data Gunj Baksh Road, 

Satellite Town, P.O. Box 8, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

McClay, A.S. McClay Ecoscience, 15 Greenbriar Crescent, 

Sherwood Park, Alberta, Canada T8H 1H8

McConnachie, A.J. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag 6006, Hilton 3245 

South Africa

McFadyen, R.E. Crutwell PO Box 88, Mt Ommaney Qld 4074 

Australia

Merickel, F.W. University of Idaho, Department of Plant, Soil and 

Entomological Sciences, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 2339, 

Moscow, ID 83844-2339 USA

Meyer, J.-Y. Délégation à la Recherche, Gouvernement de la 

Polynésie Française B.P. 20981 Papeete, Tahiti

Miles, J.E. Bureau of Agriculture, P.O. Box 460 Ministry of Natural 

Resources, Environment & Tourism, Republic of Palau 96940
 Biological Control of Weeds

Morin, L. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, 

Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia

Neser, S. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Queenswood, Pretoria 

0121 South Africa

Norambuena, H. Pasaje El Acantilado Oriente 740, Temuco, Chile

O’ Brien, C.W. 2313 W. Calle Balaustre, Green Valley, AZ 

85622-8047 USA

Olckers, T. University of Kwazulu-Natal, School of Biological & 

Conservation Sciences, Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209 

South Africa

Orapa, W. National Agricultural Quarantine and Inspection Authority, 

PO Box 741, Port Moresby, NCD, Papua New Guinea

Palmer, W.A. Research Fellow, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries 

& Forestry, Ecosciences Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, 

Qld 4001 Australia; Adjunct Associate Professor, University of 

Queensland, School of Biological Sciences

Park, I.J. University of Idaho, Department of Plant, Soil and 

Entomological Sciences, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 2339, 

Moscow, ID 83844-2339 USA

Peschken, D.P. (Retired) 2900 Rae Street Regina, SK S4S 1R5 

Canada

Petanović, R. Department of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 

11080 BelgradeZemun, Serbia

Pitcairn, M.J. California Department of Food and Agriculture, 

Biological Control Program, 3288 Meadowview Road, 

Sacramento, California 95832 USA

Poswal, A. CABI, Opposite 1-A, Data Gunj Baksh Road, Satellite 

Town, P.O. Box 8, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Pratt, P.D. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural 

Research Service, Invasive Plant Research Laboratory, 

3225 College Ave., Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 USA

Purea, M. Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 96 Rarotonga, 

Cook Islands

Reddy, G.V.P. Montana State University, Western Triangle Ag 

Research Center, 9546 Old Shelby Rd, Conrad, MT 59425 USA

Reznik, S.Ya. Zoological Institute, Universitetskaya nab., 1, 

St. Petersburg 199034 Russia

Rodríguez, N.S. Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Xochimilco, 

Departamento de Producción Agrícola y Animal, Calzada del 

Hueso No. 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, CP 04960, México

Sastroutomo, S.S. CABI Southeast and East Asia, P.O. Box 210, 

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Schaffner, U. CABI, Rue des Grillons 1, CH-2800 Delémont, 

Switzerland

Schooler, S.S. University of Wisconsin-Superior, Lake Superior 

National Estuarine Research Reserve, 14 Marina Drive, Superior, 

WI 54880 USA

Scott, J.K. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, P/B 5, PO Wembley, WA 6913 

Australia

Shaw, R.H. CABI, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, 

United Kingdom

Sheppard, A.W. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, 

Australian Capital Territory 2601 Australia

Shivas, R.G. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries & Forestry, 

Ecosciences Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, Qld 4001 Australia

Shrestha, B.B. Tribhuvan University, Central Deptartment of Botany, 

Kirtipur, PO Box 5275, Kathmandu, Nepal
Biological Control of Weeds 

Sing, S.E. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 

Rocky Mountain Research Station, 1648 South 7th Avenue – MSU 

Campus, Bozeman, MT 59717-2780 USA.

Sohn, J.C. University of Maryland, Department of Entomology, 

College Park, MD 20742 USA

Strathie, L.W. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag 6006, Hilton 3245 

South Africa

Szűcs, M. Colorado State University, Department of Bioagricultural 

Sciences and Pest Management, 1177 Campus Mail, Fort Collins, 

CO 80523 USA

TeBeest, D.O. University of Arkansas, Plant Sciences Building 210 , 

495 N. Campus Drive, Fayetteville, AR 72701 USA

Tipping, P.W. United States Department of Agriculture, 

Agricultural Research Service, Invasive Plant Research Laboratory, 

3225 College Ave. Fort Lauderdale, FL 33314 USA

Tosevski, I. CABI, Rue des Grillons 1, CH-2800 Delémont, 

Switzerland

Turner, S.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource 

Operations, Provincial Range Operations - Kamloops, 

441 Columbia Street, Kamloops, BC V2C 2T3

Tzean, S.S. Taiwan National University, Department of Plant 

Pathology and Microbiology, No.1, Sec.4, Roosevelt Road, 

Taipei 106, Taiwan, ROC

Urban, A.J. (Retired) Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X134, Queenswood, 

Pretoria 0121 South Africa

van Harten, A. (Retired) Vaiamonte, Portugal

van Klinken, R.D. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organisation, Ecosystem Sciences, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, 

QLD 4102, Australia

van Valkenburg, J. National Reference Centre, National Plant 

Protection Organization, Geertjesweg 15, 6708 EA Wageningen, 

The Netherlands

Vargo, D. American Samoa Community College, Community and 

Natural Resources, P.O. Box 5319, Pago Pago, American Samoa 

96799-5319

Vassiliou, V.A. Agricultural Research Institute, Plant Protection 

Section, P.O. Box 22016, 1516 Nicosia, Cyprus

Villegas, B. Formerly California Department of Food and Agriculture; 

currently 7556 Hickory Avenue, Orangevale, CA 95662 USA

Volkovitch, M.G. Russian Academy of Sciences, Laboratory of Insect 

Taxonomy, Zoological Institute, Universitetskaya nab. 1, 199034 

St. Petersburg, Russia

Watson, A.K. McGill University, 21,111 Lakeshore Rd., 

Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec, Canada H9X 3V9

Weaver, D.K. Montana State University, Department of Land 

Resources & Environmental Sciences, 334 Leon Johnson Hall, 

Bozeman, MT 59717-3120 USA

Weiss, J. La Trobe University, Department of Environment and 

Primary Industries, CRC for Plant Biosecurity, AgriBio, Centre for 

AgriBioscience, 5 Ring Road, Bundoora, Vic, 3083 Australia

Wilson, D. University of Ghana, Department of Animal Biology & 

Conservation Sciences, P.O. Box LG 67, Legon-ACCRA, Ghana

Windham, M.T. University of Tennessee, Entomology and Plant 

Pathology Department, 2505 E. J. Chapman Drive, 

138 Biotechnology Bldg., Knoxville, TN 37996-4560 USA

Winotai, A. Biological Control Research Group, Plant Protection 

Research and Development Office, Department of Agriculture, 

Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Witt, A. CABI, ICRAF Complex, United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, 

P.O. Box 633-00621, Nairobi, Kenya
10 Biological Control of Weeds

Wood, A.R. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag X5017, Stellenbosch 7600 

South Africa

Zachariades, C. Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Weeds Research, P/Bag 6006, Hilton 3245 

South Africa

Zhou, Z.S. Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of 

Plant Protection, Biological Invasion Department, Beijing, China

Zimmermann, H.G. Helmuth Zimmermann & Associates, 

P.O. Box 974, Faerie Glen 0043, South Africa
Biological Control of Weeds 11

Contact the Editors

This edition of the catalogue documents biological control work 

conducted through December 31, 2012. A more updated version 

of this dataset has been created in electronic format with 

cooperation between the U.S. Forest Service, University of Georgia, 

University of Idaho, and MIA Consulting. It can be accessed at 

www.ibiocontrol.org/catalog/. Its purpose is to present an expanded 

biological control dataset in a freely accessible, searchable format.

The integrity of the information presented in this printed edition and 

included in the electronic database relies greatly on past, current, and 

continued assistance from researchers worldwide. Please notify us 

of omissions, inaccurate information, or updates to any and all weed 

biological control systems. All edits and updates can be sent to:

Rachel L. Winston

rachel@getmia.net

For additional copies of this printed catalogue, please contact:

Mark Schwarzländer

University of Idaho

PSES Department

Moscow, ID 83844

208.885.9319

markschw@uidaho.edu

Richard Reardon

U.S. Forest Service

180 Canfield Street

Morgantown, WV 26505

304.285.1566

rreardon@fs.fed.us
12 Biological Control of Weeds

Introduction

This Fifth Edition of the catalogue includes all previously catalogued 

releases with updated information and updated references where 

applicable. It also includes information on releases made since the 

previous edition was collated, that is, releases made after 1996 until the 

end of 2012. Releases overlooked in previous editions which occurred 

prior to 1996 have also been added.

The original catalogue (published in 1982) recorded 499 releases of 

exotic agents between the late 19th century and 1980. The Second 

Edition (published in 1987) recorded 100 new releases in the 5 year 

period to the end of 1985. The Third Edition (published in 1992) 

recorded 130 new releases in the 5 year period to the end of 1990. The 

Fourth Edition (published in 1998) recorded 220 new releases during 

the 6 years since the Third Edition. This Fifth Edition records 319 new 

releases during the 16 years since the Fourth Edition. 

The 2,042 entries in this Fifth Edition span 130 countries and 551 

biocontrol agents targeting 224 weeds (when groups such as Opuntia

spp. are counted as a single target weed). The most active countries 

continue to be the USA, Australia, Canada, South Africa and New 

Zealand. The Fourth Edition highlighted the absence of weedy grass 

species as targets for biological control. Since that time, Poa annua L. 

has been targeted by a registered bioherbicide in Japan, Arundo donax

L. has been targeted for classical biocontrol on the border of the USA 

and Mexico, and two Spartina spp. have been targeted in the USA with 

native agents.

New to this Edition

Previous editions of this catalogue contained four distinct sections, 

referred to as four different “Lists”. This Fifth Edition of the 

catalogue replaces “List” with “Table”. Vertebrate weed biological 

control is omitted in this version, but added is a dedicated section on 

bioherbicides (Table 4). 

The dataset has been greatly expanded in this edition, with additional 

information added to each entry of all tables. All information is 

presented with more detail and with increased separation compared to 

previous editions, making specific content easier to locate within table 

entries. 

In the interest of space, not all additional information could be included 

in this print version. In particular, the majority of release/redistribution 

history and establishment information that was collected at the subcountry level (e.g. state, province, island) is omitted. The complete 

dataset has been maintained, however, and is publicly available in an 

online, searchable format accessible at: www.ibiocontrol.org/catalog/.

In this Catalogue:

Table 1

Table 1 lists exotic organisms that have been intentionally 

introduced and released for the biological control of their target 

weeds. The numerous organisms that have been studied, and in many 

cases introduced into quarantine facilities in exotic countries, but were 

not released, are not included in this catalogue. Organisms that were 

introduced accidentally or illegally into a country prior to their official 

approval and subsequent redistribution are not listed in this section but 

are included in Table 3.
Biological Control of Weeds 13

Table 2

Table 2 lists native organisms utilized within their native ranges to 

control weeds. Only those organisms that have been intentionally 

redistributed are included in this catalogue.

Table 3

Far too many exotic organisms have been found adventively attacking 

weeds within the introduced range for all to be listed in this catalogue. 

Table 3, therefore, includes only those exotic organisms that are 

currently utilized and/or are of particular interest to weed biological 

control practitioners. This table typically includes exotic organisms

which have been released as biological control agents and now occur 

in countries other than those into which they were released. In 

other words, they were accidentally or illegally moved, or they spread 

naturally to another country. This table also includes organisms which 

are found in exotic ranges where they were not deliberately released 

but have since been intentionally redistributed or are of interest to 

researchers or practitioners to potentially be approved for future use. 

It should be noted that even when an organism on this table has been 

intentionally redistributed, this redistribution could have been done 

illegally and further inquiry should be made before extending the 

practice.

Table 4

Table 4 deals solely in bioherbicides. The term “bioherbicide” is 

applied to various types of biologically based herbicides. In this 

catalogue, bioherbicide refers to a pathogen that is utilized in a 

manner akin to a chemical herbicide application—namely in a 

deliberate, prescriptive, intensively managed, and relatively large-scale 

application where the pathogen of interest is the active ingredient of a 

standardized product. Bioherbicide research is an active field that has 

tested an extensive number of pathogens and formulations. Included in 

this catalogue are only those that have been or currently are formally 

registered, as well as those that are approved for public use without 

registration. When utilizing bioherbicides for weed control, it is 

important to always follow the label or official guidelines for properly 

applying the organism and to only use the product in the manner for 

which it was designed.

Table Structure

An explanation of the sections and headings are given below. There 

are differences in the structure and information included in each table; 

consequently, separate explanations are provided at the start of each 

section. Weed and agent taxonomy, research organizations, and the use 

of references are similar for all tables.

Weed Taxonomy

In Tables 1-3, the target weeds are listed alphabetically in green 

shaded boxes under their respective plant family names which are also 

listed alphabetically. In Table 4, entries are first listed alphabetically 

according to the name of the biological control agent. Table 4 entries 

are then secondarily listed alphabetically by target weed name. The 

country or region of origin of the weed is included in all four tables. 

Every effort was made to utilize the most updated and accurate 

taxonomy for each weed species. This was accomplished with help 

from numerous taxonomists as well as worldwide and regional Floras. 

Many weeds have been previously associated with several different 

names. In this catalogue, we include only those past names that appear 

in the literature cited for this catalogue. Past names known to have 

been misidentifications or misspellings are included under the heading 

“Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms”. All past names are included in the 

index, with appropriate referencing to the currently accepted name 

used in the tables. Common names listed in the literature cited for 

this catalogue are included in the table entries for each weed. When 

more than 10 common names appear in the literature, only the most 

frequently encountered are included in this catalogue. 
14 Biological Control of Weeds

Agent Taxonomy

In Tables 1-3, biological control agents are listed alphabetically in 

tan shaded boxes following their target weed. Table 4 entries are 

listed first alphabetically by agent and secondarily by target weed. 

In all tables, class and order are included for fungi, while order and 

family are included for insects, mites, and nematodes. Every effort 

was made to utilize the most updated and accurate taxonomy for each 

species. This was accomplished with help from numerous taxonomists, 

references, and taxonomic databases. Many agents have been 

previously associated with several different names. In this catalogue, 

we include only those past names that appear in the literature cited for 

this catalogue. Past names known to have been misidentifications or 

misspellings are included under the heading “Incorrect Past Names/

Synonyms”. All past names are included in the index, with appropriate 

referencing to the currently accepted name used in the tables. 

Research Organizations

Abbreviations/acronyms for the research entities involved with the 

releases are given when known. A list of the acronyms and the full 

organization names is provided following Table 4. Please note that 

many organization names have since changed; the new names are 

added whenever these changes are known. Research organization 

abbreviations in the tables that are followed by an asterisk no longer 

exist.

References

All references utilized in the catalogue are referred to by numbers. 

The numbered references are listed numerically following the 

“Research Organizations” section. The reference list is not exhaustive 

for the biological control of a particular weed species. It is limited 

to only those references that provided the information included in 

the catalogue. Where published references were not available for 

information cited, the name of the expert who provided the information 

via a personal communication is included, along with their current 

address. Some information stated in previous editions of this catalogue 

was gleaned from very old personal communications. All attempts 

were made during this revision to use new and/or published references 

to update this information. Where this was not possible, personal 

communications from previous editions of the catalogue are retained 

and cited, using the old dates and contact information provided at the 

time. In the interest of space, references utilized solely for weed and 

agent taxonomy, weed common names and origin are not included, 

unless the accepted name of the weed or agent has changed since the 

last version of this catalogue. 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 15

Table

1

TABLE 1. EXOTIC ORGANISMS INTENTIONALLY INTRODUCED

Release Information 

Releases are listed alphabetically according to the country of release 

and are accompanied by the year the first field release was made. Some 

species have been released in the same country multiple times. When 

subsequent releases originated from different sources, were separated 

by five years or more, or were successfully established following the 

failure of the original release(s), then these subsequent releases are 

given their own entries. In those cases, sequential entries are listed 

numerically by the release year. The original source of release material 

is preceded by “Ex.” When the release material was not obtained 

directly from its native range, the countries or regions from where it 

was obtained are given, preceded by “via”. For example: “Australia; 

Ex. Argentina via USA via India” means that the species that was 

released in Australia originated in Argentina (probably its native range) 

from where it was sent to the USA. Thereafter a colony was sent to 

India, and Australia obtained material from India. 

Current Status 

The establishment status of each species is given when known. The 

current abundance and impact of established agents are then stated 

using key choices pre-determined for the ease of quick data summary. 

Agent abundance is represented by seven categories: Rare, Limited, 

Moderate, High, Variable, Too early post release, and Unknown. Agent 

impact is represented by eight categories: None, Slight, Medium, 

Heavy, Variable, Too early post release, Unknown, and Compromised 

(the latter for sites destroyed post release). In order to place the 

agent impact into a geographical context, the scale of impact is also 

provided. The four categories for scale of impact include: Localized, 

Regional, Widespread throughout range, and Unknown. Because 

the choices selected for abundance, impact, and scale of impact are 

subjective estimates by the editors, an additional notes section is 

provided which includes a brief summary of the status for each release 

system. Abbreviations used in the notes section to denote sub-regions 

of a country are provided along with their corresponding regions at the 

front of this catalogue immediately following the Table of Contents. 

If the biocontrol agent has been observed in the field attacking 

plant species other than those targeted for control, this information 

is included. Likewise, factors believed to limit the efficacy of any 

particular release are listed when known.
16 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Agasicles hygrophila (continued)

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) 

Griseb.

Can grow as a terrestrial and aquatic 

plant. Terrestrial form produces solid 

stems; aquatic form produces buoyant 

hollow stems.

South America

alligator weed, alligatorweed

Agasicles hygrophila Selman & Vogt

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Successful control of floating mats within 

2 years of release. No effect in terrestrial 

habitat.

Habitat

CSIRO

934, 942

New Zealand

1982

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

Can destroy large amounts of foliage 

annually, which suppresses weed. In 

other locations, weed mat regrows 

in spring. Efficacy restricted by low 

temperatures and flooding. Not able to 

attack terrestrial infestations.

Climate; Habitat

DSIR

720, 761, 1064, 1493, 1575, 1576, 1725

People’s Republic of China

1986

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Provides good control of aquatic 

infestations in rivers, ponds and lakes; 

causes heavy damage to terrestrial 

plants growing nearby but does not 

provide control. Cannot overwinter in 

cooler areas, but inoculative releases 

after winter provide significant control.

Climate

CAAS-BCI

350, 418, 920, 1095, 1119, 1935, 2063

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 17

Table

1

Puerto Rico

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Weed has been successfully controlled 

by this agent at original two release 

sites and replaced by Lemna sp. and 

Eichhornia crassipes.

USAE, UPR

2, 237, 1528

Thailand

1981

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Firmly established throughout range of 

weed. Substantial control seasonally.

Season

NBCRC

934, 942, 1326, 1328, 1939

United States of America

1964

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Abundance varies by season; 

populations decline during summer 

due to reduced fecundity associated 

with high temperature. Impact variable. 

Highly successful in FL and warmer, 

coastal areas where the insects can 

overwinter, variable elsewhere. Not 

effective against terrestrial form. No 

evidence insects released later from the 

southernmost part of the native range 

performed better than these populations 

established since 1964. 

Climate

USDA (3,5,7,13)

195, 196, 197, 350, 1578, 1719

United States of America

1964

Ex. Uruguay

Yes

Variable

Variable

Not differentiated from Argentina 

population. Abundance varies by 

season; populations decline during 

summer due to reduced fecundity 

associated with high temperature. 

Impact variable. Highly successful in 

FL and warmer, coastal areas where 

the insects can overwinter, variable 

elsewhere. Not effective against 

terrestrial form. No evidence insects 

released later from the southernmost 

part of the native range performed better 

than these populations established since 

1964. 

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Agasicles hygrophila (continued)

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Agasicles hygrophila (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes
18 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Country

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Agasicles hygrophila (continued)

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides (continued)

United States of America (continued)

USDA (3,5,7,13)

195, 196, 197, 350, 1719

United States of America

1979

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Variable

Released in attempt to increase cold 

tolerance. No evidence these insects 

from the southernmost part of the native 

range performed better than populations 

established since 1964. Abundance 

varies by season; populations decline 

during summer due to reduced fecundity 

associated with high temperature. 

Impact variable. Highly successful in 

FL and warmer, coastal areas where 

the insects can overwinter, variable 

elsewhere. Not effective against 

terrestrial form. 

Climate

USDA (3,5,7,13)

195, 196, 197, 199, 1719

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Amynothrips andersoni O’Neill

(Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

United States of America

1967

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Damage usually light, causing some 

leaf deformation. Least widespread 

of species released in USA but most 

cold tolerant; only species to impact 

terrestrial form. Predation limits some 

populations.

Predation

USDA (3,5,7,13)

195, 197, 303, 350, 1578, 1921
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 19

Table

1

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Arcola malloi (Pastrana)

Vogtia malloi Pastrana

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Variable

Effects masked by Agasicles hygrophila

damage in aquatic infestations. Effective 

in small semi-aquatic habitats not 

destroyed by A. hygrophila. Present but 

not effective in terrestrial situations. 

Habitat

CSIRO

934, 939, 942

New Zealand

1984

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

No

Establishment failure likely influenced by 

microsporidia infection.

Disease

DSIR

1493, 1575

New Zealand

1987

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Variable

Large populations aid in successful 

control in some lakes and ponds. Not 

as abundant as Agasicles hygrophila. 

Can establish on edge of terrestrial 

infestations but still does not control 

these populations. Efficacy limited by 

low temperatures and flooding.

Climate; Habitat

DSIR

720, 1064, 1493, 1575, 1725

United States of America

1971

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Regional

Larval burrowing causes stem collapse 

and waterlogging. Useful adjunct to 

(but not as good a competitor as) 

Agasicles hygrophila, but individual 

effects difficult to parse out. Contributes 

effectively to control in MS and FL, 

and in TX when not limited by adverse 

conditions. Excellent dispersal ability 

with annual spread of up to 1,000 km; 

likely overwinters in warmer areas and 

migrates to inland infestations. Most 

effective against floating plant mats.

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Arcola malloi (continued)
20 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America (continued)

Collected from the native Philoxerus 

vermicularis (L.) Sm. whose name has 

since been changed to Blutaparon 

vermiculare (L.) Mears

USDA (3,5,7,13)

195, 196, 197, 231, 303, 350, 1921

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Disonycha argentinensis Jacoby

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Brazil (south eastern)

No

CSIRO

942, 943

New Zealand

1982

Ex. Brazil (southern) via Australia

No

Establishment failure likely due to lack 

of warm temperatures at release sites in 

New Zealand.

Climate

DSIR

720, 1575, 1576, 1725

Amaranthaceae

Alternanthera philoxeroides; Arcola malloi (continued) Anacardiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Anacardiaceae

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

South America

christmas berry, Brazilian pepper tree, 

Brazilian holly, wilelaiki, Florida holly

Crasimorpha infuscata Hodges

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1961

Ex. Brazil

No

HDOA

407, 635, 796, 1022, 1024, 1035

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Episimus unguiculus Clarke

Episimus utilis Zimmerman, 

Episimus sp.

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

326, 1552

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

None

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 21

Table

1

Anacardiaceae

Schinus terebinthifolius; Episimus unguiculus (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA (continued)

Though widespread and well 

established, impact negligible.

Parasitism

HDOA

326, 373, 398, 635, 762, 796, 1024, 

1951, 2068

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Lithraeus atronotatus (Pic)

Bruchus atronotatus Pic, 

Acanthoscelides atronotatus (Pic)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1960

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Limited

None

Though well established initially, 

control only partial on KA, OA and HA. 

Subsequently believed to have been 

displaced for most part by accidentally 

introduced Megastigmus transvaalensis.

Interspecific competition

HDOA

44, 326, 400, 762, 796, 1022, 1024, 

1035, 1964

Apocynaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Apocynaceae

Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br.

Madagascar

rubber vine

Euclasta whalleyi Popescu-Gorj & 

Constantinescu

Euclasta gigantalis Viette

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

1218, 1251, 1425

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1988

Ex. Madagascar

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Not recovered until four years after 

releases ceased. Initially caused total 

defoliation during localized outbreaks, 

but more recently impacts considered 

minimal. 

Minor spillover attack occurs on the 

native Gymnanthera oblonga (Burm.

F.) P.S. Green, only when it is growing 

in close association with Cryptostegia 

grandiflora R. Br. plants.

QLD State

1218, 1227, 1251, 1418, 1425, 1916
22 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Apocynaceae

Cryptostegia grandiflora (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Maravalia cryptostegiae (Cummins) 

Ono

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. Madagascar

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Strain IMI 331455, isolated from 

Cryptostegia madagascariensis. 

Established initially though did not cause 

severe symptoms on the weed. Due to 

difficulty in distinguishing from second 

strain which did establish, currently 

unknown if this first strain is established 

as well. If established, impact likely 

negligible.

Climate; Specificity

IIBC, QLD State

556, 1413, 1425

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Madagascar

Yes

High

Variable

Strain IMI 366461, isolated from 

Cryptostegia grandiflora. Established 

rapidly and significant damage observed 

20 months after release in both wet 

and drier areas. Rust activity highest in 

wet regions where weed populations 

decreasing significantly due to reduction 

of seed bank and seedling recruitment. 

At drier sites sub-optimal for the rust, 

weed continues to spread.

Climate

IIBC, QLD State

556, 1425, 1814, 1815

Apocynaceae

Cryptostegia grandiflora; Maravalia cryptostegiae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 23

Table

1

Araceae Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes L.

tropical Americas, Asia, Malesia, 

Australia (NT)

water lettuce, Nile cabbage, chok, 

jawg

Neohydronomus affinis Hustache

Neohydronomus pulchellus Hustache

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1982

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Variable

Successful control in northern QLD. 

Southern QLD Pistia stratiotes

populations fluctuate widely and are 

less conducive to maintaining high 

populations of Neohydronomus affinis. 

Agent reintroduced often from other 

populations in state.

Land use; Climate

CSIRO

417, 716, 718

Benin

1995

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Spread rapidly throughout country. 

Total plant biomass and weed cover 

declined ten-fold. After 3 to 4 years, 

Pistia stratiotes had disappeared almost 

completely from many sites.

IITA, GTZ

16, 505, 1346, 1347

Botswana

1987

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Weed was not a serious problem in 

Botswana but agent introduced as 

preventative measure to reduce risk of 

spread within the country. Very effective 

in stopping spread of weed, eradicating 

infestations at release locations and 

keeping other infestations under control.

DWAB, CSIRO

113, 578, 1040, 1041
24 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cote d’Ivoire

1998

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Deliberately released in 1998, though 

found to already be present in some 

regions likely as a result of natural 

spread from Ghana. Populations 

subsequently not differentiated. 

Less than two years post release, 

Neohydronomus affinis had controlled 

over 90% of the weed at the six major 

infestations that were inspected.

IITA

939, 1347

Ghana

1996

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Complete control of Pistia stratiotes

occurred within a year although the 

effect may not be solely attributed to the 

introduction of Neohydronomus affinis.

EPA

22, 297, 448, 449, 450, 1347

Kenya

1999

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

At time of release, dam receiving agents 

completely filled with the weed. Project 

considered successful as no further 

infestations of Pistia stratiotes reported 

after late 1999. Establishment not 

verified in recent times due to assumed 

control success.

KARI, KENGEN, ARC-PPRI

279, 297, 505, 630, 894, 1347

Nigeria

1997

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe 

via Benin

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Unknown

Intentionally introduced from Benin in 

1997; additional populations from Benin 

also spread naturally across the western 

border of Nigeria. Though formal 

evaluation lacking, mats observed with 

heavy infestations.

IITA

14, 16, 505, 1347, 1382

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 25

Table

1

Papua New Guinea

1985

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Very good control in the Sepik River 

systems, variable control in other lakes 

and ponds. Seasonal flooding may limit 

population in some areas.

Flooding

PNGDAL, CSIRO

718, 1078, 1347, 1401

Puerto Rico

1998

Ex. Brazil via Australia via USA (FL)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

USAE, UPR

2, 237

Republic of Congo

1999

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of Congo (continued)

By 2003, no water lettuce could be 

found in release area in the Cuvette 

and coverage on lakes in south had 

diminished considerably. Because of 

weevil’s mobility, the releases in the 

Congo (Brazzaville) may spread to 

infestations in the Democratic Republic 

of Congo.

IITA, PPRIZ, MFE

1177, 1347

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Well established at various sites and 

considered complete success in South 

Africa. Rapidly successful in dams 

and large perennial rivers. In eutrophic 

waters, still successful though full 

control takes more time. Results poorer 

when released on fast flowing rivers 

and in areas subject to alternate wet 

and dry regimes or frosting. In these 

areas chemical control and continuous 

inundative releases still required. 

Climate

ARC-PPRI

270, 274, 281, 297, 417, 522, 800, 992, 

1253

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
26 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

République Togolaise

2001

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

UGL

21, 297, 1347, 1987

Senegal

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Populations sourced from Benin were 

laboratory colonies as this species had 

not yet been field released in Benin at 

the time of release in Senegal. Very 

effective. Water bodies cleared of water 

lettuce within 8 months of release. At 

water body 150 km away where no 

release occurred, control achieved 

within 18 months of original release.

IITA, GTZ

505, 1346, 1347

Senegal

2005

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Weed reappeared in 2005, but 

controlled completely within the year 

following new releases.

ARC-PPRI, DPV

297, 505, 1347

United States of America

1987

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Weed eliminated from three of four 

original release sites in FL within 18-30 

months of release, but establishment 

and control not universal. Disperses well 

naturally.

USAE, USDA (3,4,13), State (3,18,19)

235, 238, 335, 522, 523, 684, 1347

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 27

Table

1

Vanuatu

2006

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Papua New 

Guinea

Yes

High

Variable

Populations still increasing post release. 

Effective control thus far in full sunlight 

but lacking in shady areas.

Habitat

SPC, DLQS

418, 718, 1347, 1401, 1402, 1940

Zambia

1991

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Zimbabwe

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

At the time of this release, the weevil 

was found to be already present. 

Both populations subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Providing 

excellent control in the region of release.

PPRIZ

255, 1314, 1347, 1587

Zimbabwe

1988

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Successful control within 16 months 

such that Pistia stratiotes no longer 

considered problematic in Zimbabwe. 

Reduced infestation by 80% or more at 

all release sites and spread up to 9 km. 

PPRIZ, CSIRO

255, 257, 261, 417, 418, 1347

Zimbabwe

1998

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

In 1998, new infestations appeared 

in eastern part of country and 

Neohydronomus affinis was released 

again from a population sourced in 

South Africa. Release immediately 

resulted in control; Pistia stratiotes

no longer considered problematic in 

Zimbabwe.

PPRIZ, ARC-PPRI

418, 800, 1347

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
28 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Spodoptera pectinicornis (Hampson)

Namangana pectinicornis (Hampson), 

Epipsammea pectinicornis (Hampson)

Epipsammia pectinicornis, Episammia 

pectinicornis (Hampson)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Thailand

No

Initially believed to have established 

following multiple and varying release 

attempts; populations have since 

dwindled and are no longer detectable.

USAE, USDA (4), State (3), NBCRC

235, 417, 521, 523, 680, 1347

Asparagaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asparagaceae

Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce

southern Africa

bridal creeper, smilax

Crioceris sp. undescribed 

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2002

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Established at just one site in SA and 

two in WA. Ineffective agent, likely due 

in part to predation.

Possibly Predation and Parasitism

CSIRO

1261, 1267, 1269
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 29

Table

1

Asparagaceae

Asparagus asparagoides (continued)

Puccinia myrsiphylli (Thüm.) Wint.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2000

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Variable

Provides substantial reduction of 

biomass and shoot production in wet 

conditions; effects increased over 

sequential years and in combination with 

undescribed leafhopper. Impact minimal 

in dry inland infestations. Helping to 

suppress the weed on Flinders Island, 

TAS; impact on mainland TAS unknown.

Climate

CSIRO

883, 886, 1261, 1267, 1269

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Tribe Erythroneurini undescribed

Zygina sp.

(Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Undescribed genus of Erythroneurini 

leafhopper. There are no plans to 

describe and name this insect.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1999

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Variable

Variable

Has caused significant damage in some 

years and at some sites, but populations 

fluctuate widely, likely a result of 

parasitism. Impacts can be greater in 

combination with rust, but may also 

(when at high densities) regulate the 

weed alone in drier inland areas less 

conductive for the rust.

Parasitism; Possibly Climate

CSIRO

883, 886, 921, 1261, 1267, 1269

Asparagaceae

Asparagus asparagoides (continued)
30 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. M. 

King & H. Rob.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., 

Eupatorium glandulosum Michx.

Mexico

crofton weed, Mexican devil weed, 

Maui pamakani, pamakani, banmara

Oidaematophorus beneficus Yano & 

Heppner

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1973

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Weed now confined mostly to wet rocky 

cliffs, and riparian areas on MA and 

OA, though not clear if biocontrol alone 

can be credited. This agent introduced 

originally for the control of Ageratina 

riparia so impact likely slight to none 

on A. adenophora. On A. riparia, most 

effective above 2,000 ft. 

HDOA

322, 325, 413, 762, 1325, 1824

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Passalora ageratinae Crous 

& A.R. Wood

Phaeoramularia sp.

Cercospora eupatorii Peck, 

Phaeoramularia eupatorii-odorati

(Yen) Liu & Guo

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

362, 987

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. Unknown via Hawaii USA via 

Australia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

In NWP up to 95% of plants infected; 

however, infection severity is low with 

<50% of leaves on individual stems 

infected. No evaluation of impact in 

KZN, MP, WC. Observed that weed 

is not as aggressive an invader as 

expected in the bioclimatically ideal 

KZN interior. Neither the fly nor 

pathogen, individually or in combination, 

significantly affects vegetative growth 

of the weed. Additional introductions 

warranted.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

190, 791, 992, 995, 1281, 1307, 2006
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 31

Table

1

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Procecidochares utilis Stone

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Procecidochares utilis (continued)

Australia

1952

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established readily and spread rapidly 

with initially high impacts. Populations 

have since decreased to ineffective 

levels. Though still widespread, agent 

numbers are kept in check by high 

levels of parasitism. 

Parasitism

QLD State

513, 1223, 1307, 1989

Hawaii USA

1945

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Hawaii USA (continued)

Control substantial to complete 

throughout MA, partial on OA, low on 

MO. Weed now confined mostly to 

wet rocky cliffs, and riparian areas on 

MA and OA. Parasitism and predation 

impact efficacy but vary by climate. 

Control high in areas of low moisture, 

moderate in areas of intermediate 

moisture, lower in areas of high 

moisture.

Parasitism; Predation; Climate

HDOA

111, 112, 325, 512, 612, 635, 762, 1452

India

1963

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via New Zealand

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes some reduction in vigor, growth, 

and density of the plant; however, heavy 

parasitism has reduced efficacy.

Parasitism

IIBC

965, 1307, 1548, 1607
32 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Country

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Procecidochares utilis (continued)

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Procecidochares utilis (continued)

New Zealand

1958

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established readily and spread rapidly 

with initially high impacts. Populations 

have since decreased, due at least in 

part to parasitism. No formal impact 

evaluation occurred so it is uncertain if 

subsequent decrease in weed was due 

entirely to impact from the fly and fungus 

or changes in land management. Most 

effective under dry conditions.

Parasitism; Climate

DSIR

807, 857, 1307

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

30% of stems are galled and 10% 

exhibit repeated galling. May reduce 

reproductive potential of the plant. 

Populations limited by parasitism and 

phenological asynchrony with the weed. 

Neither the fly nor pathogen, individually 

or in combination, significantly affects 

vegetative growth of the weed. 

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Parasitism; Agent-host synchronization

ARC-PPRI

190, 788, 791, 992, 995, 1307

Thailand

1991

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

Though initially believed to have failed 

establishment, has since been observed 

in northern Thailand. Though abundance 

is high in this region, impact is limited.

NBCRC

1329, 1997

Agent

Species

Classification

Xanthaciura connexionis Benjamin

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1955

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

325, 1951
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 33

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia (Regel) R. M. King 

& H. Rob.

Eupatorium riparium Regel

Mexico

mistflower, Hamakua pamakani, 

creeping crofton weed

Entyloma ageratinae Barreto & Evans 

Cercosporella ageratina, 

Cercosporella sp., Entyloma 

compositarum Farlow, Entyloma 

compositarum f.sp. ageratinae

(Exobasidiomycetes: Entylomatales)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1975

Ex. Jamaica

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

In combination with Procecidochares 

alani and Oidaematophorus beneficus

provides substantial to complete control 

throughout the island of HA. Ageratina 

riparia not an important pasture pest 

on other islands. Agent does well in 

areas with high rainfall and favorable 

temperatures.

Climate

State (52), HDOA

325, 413, 598, 1047, 1324, 1824, 1826

New Zealand

1998

Ex. Jamaica via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Spread rapidly and unaided throughout 

North Island infestations. Reduced 

percentage cover of weed dramatically 

at all study sites within 4-5 years of 

release, corresponding with increase in 

native plants.

MWLR

85, 413, 587, 598, 761, 1061, 1064

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. Jamaica via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Though not formally evaluated since 

establishment in 1990, by 2009 

Ageratina riparia rarely observed in the 

field, and Entyloma ageratinae noted to 

be present over most of weed’s range, 

providing circumstantial evidence the 

weed has been brought under biological 

control by this fungus.

ARC-PPRI

413, 791, 992, 1281, 2006

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia; Entyloma ageratinae (continued)
34 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Oidaematophorus beneficus Yano & 

Heppner

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1973

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

Released intentionally on Ageratina 

adenophora but found fortuitously 

attacking A. riparia. In combination with 

Procecidochares alani and Entyloma 

ageratinae provides substantial to 

complete control on the island of HA, 

especially at elevations above 2,000 ft. 

Ageratina riparia not an important 

pasture pest on other islands. Parasites 

observed attacking this agent.

Elevation; Parasitism

HDOA

322, 325, 413, 612, 762, 1047, 1170, 

1324, 1325, 1951, 2045

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Procecidochares alani Steyskal

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1986

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established in northeastern 

NSW and southeastern QLD, but effects 

negligible due to high amounts of 

parasitism. 

Parasitism; Predation (also an effect of 

elevation)

CSIRO

1623, 1625, 1978

Hawaii USA

1974

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 35

Table

1

Hawaii USA (continued)

Beneficial indirectly by stunting 

Ageratina riparia, favoring competing 

vegetation. In combination with 

Oidaematophorus beneficus and 

Entyloma ageratinae contributes to 

substantial to complete control on island 

of HA, especially at elevations below 

3,000 feet. Populations hampered by 

parasitism. Ageratina riparia not an 

important pasture pest on other islands. 

Elevation; Parasitism

HDOA

325, 413, 598, 612, 762, 1047, 1323, 

1324, 1349

New Zealand

2001

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Impacts of this species not formally 

evaluated in New Zealand. Gall counts 

higher in New Zealand than Hawaii 

where galls stunt plants, favoring 

competing species and contributing 

indirectly to control. 

MWLR

85, 413, 598, 1061, 1064

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia; Procecidochares alani (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Xanthaciura connexionis Benjamin

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1960

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

325, 400

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia (continued)
36 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

North America

common ragweed, ragweed, annual 

ragweed

Epiblema strenuana (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

Australia

1984

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Causes significant reduction in plant 

size and vigor. Provides good control 

in most areas of eastern Australia. 

Parasitism has been recorded though is 

generally quite low.

Parasitism

IIBC, QLD State

1215, 1421

People’s Republic of China

1990

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

(continued at top of next column)

People’s Republic of China (continued)

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Reduces seed yields and may stunt 

plant growth. Alone does not suppress 

weed population absolutely, but in 

conjunction with Ophraella communa, 

control is often complete.

CAAS-BCI

499, 624, 696, 920, 1123, 1933, 2064, 

2065

Country

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Epiblema strenuana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Euaresta bella (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Former Union Of Soviet Socialist 

Republics

1969

Ex. USA

No

ZIAS, USDA (1)

624, 1016, 1567, 1568

People’s Republic of China

1987

Ex. USA via Canada

No

CAAS-BCI

624, 696, 2064
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 37

Table

1

Russia

1977

Ex. USA (MD), Canada

No

ZIAS, USDA (1)

351, 624, 1016, 1017, 1567, 1568

Russia

1988

Ex. USA

No

ZIAS

624, 1014, 1017, 1567, 1568

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Euaresta bella (continued)

Ponometia candefacta (Hübner)

Tarachidia candefacta (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Russia

1969

Ex. Canada, USA (CA)

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Populations steadily increasing in recent 

years, possibly due to warmer weather 

and limited insecticide usage. Despite 

higher numbers, overall impact limited.

AUPPI, AAFC, ZIAS, State (5)

628, 640, 1014, 1015, 1020, 1168, 1520, 

1567, 1568

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (continued)

Stobaera concinna (Stål)

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1984

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Populations small and effects negligible.

QLD State

960

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Trigonorhinus tomentosus (Say)

Brachytarsus tomentosus (Say)

(Coleoptera: Anthribidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Russia

1977

Ex. USA (MD)

No

ZIAS, USDA (1)

351, 624, 1014, 1567, 1568
38 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Trigonorhinus tomentosus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Russia

1990

Ex. USA

No

ZIAS

624, 1017, 1567, 1568

Agent

Species

Classification

Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Widely established but only locally 

abundant as populations vary by 

location and season. Together with 

Epiblema strenuana provides effective 

control except in cooler areas or where 

rain is delayed until late in year.

Parasitism; Predation; Climate

IIBC, QLD State

1215, 1219, 1421

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Zygogramma disrupta (Rogers)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Russia

1980s

Ex. USA (KS, NE, OK, TX)

No

Repeatedly released in 1980s, but never 

established.

ZIAS

624, 1017, 1019, 1567, 1568

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Zygogramma suturalis (Fabricius)

Zygospila suturalis (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1990

Ex. Tennessee USA

No

Rearing difficulties due to inadequate 

daylight periods in subtropical 

introduced region compared to 

temperate native region led to 

insufficient release sizes.

Small release size; Biome differences

QLD State

1421
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 39

Table

1

Former Yugoslavia

1985

Ex. USA (MD, MO, NE, KS)

Yes

Limited

None

Though established, populations too low 

to inflict significant impact. Population 

from Russia contaminated by Beauveria, 

likely contributing to overwintering 

mortality at Zagreb.

Disease

USDA (9), UZ

352, 864, 865, 1567

Former Yugoslavia

1990

Ex. Canada, USA via Russia

Yes

Limited

None

This second release from Russia 

made at Zagreb and subsequently 

not differentiated from the original 

introduction in Zagreb sourced from the 

USA. Though established, populations 

too low to inflict significant impact. 

Population from Russia contaminated 

by Beauveria, likely contributing to 

overwintering mortality at Zagreb.

Disease

ZIAS, UZ

865, 1567

Georgia

1978

Ex. Canada, USA (OH, MD)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Establishment still not confirmed. Very 

few experts in insects available in 

Georgia and none are dealing with this 

group.

ZIAS, AAFC, USDA (1)

351, 352, 980, 1017

Kazakhstan

1978

Ex. Canada, USA

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established readily, but abundance and 

impact unknown.

ZIAS

624, 1017, 1019

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Zygogramma suturalis (continued)

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Zygogramma suturalis (continued)
40 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

People’s Republic of China

1987

Ex. Canada

No

Initially believed to establish in 

low numbers; limited by predation. 

Establishment subsequently considered 

failed.

Predation

CAAS-BCI

696, 920, 1123, 1932, 2064

People’s Republic of China

1988

Ex. Canada, USA via Former Union Of 

Soviet Socialist Republics

No

Initially believed to establish in 

low numbers; limited by predation. 

Establishment subsequently considered 

failed.

Predation

CAAS-BCI

696, 920, 1123, 1567, 1932, 2064

Russia

1978

Ex. Canada, USA (OH, MD)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Russia (continued)

Initially reached high population levels, 

causing severe damage and eliminating 

the weed in localized areas. Populations 

since plummeted. Where densities are 

high, causes some damage to plants but 

overall ineffective. Cropping practices 

interfere with population build up.

Land use

ZIAS, AAFC, USDA (1)

351, 1016, 1564, 1565, 1566, 1567, 

1568, 1569

Ukraine

1980s

Ex. Canada (ON), USA (OH, MD, FL) 

via Stavropol Territory

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Though not formally studied, abundance 

and impact are most likely similar to 

Russia where agent initially successful 

but more recently limited in abundance 

and impact.

ZIAS, AAFC, USDA (1)

352, 1016, 1291, 1568

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Zygogramma suturalis (continued)

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Zygogramma suturalis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 41

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ambrosia psilostachya DC.

North America

western ragweed

Ponometia candefacta (Hübner)

Tarachidia candefacta (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Russia

1969

Ex. Canada, USA (CA)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Introduced primarily on Ambrosia 

artemisiifolia but also released on 

A. psilostachya. Establishment not 

confirmed.

AUPPI

624, 628, 640, 641, 1015, 1020, 1567, 

1568

Asteraceae

Ambrosia psilostachya (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Zygogramma suturalis (Fabricius)

Zygospila suturalis (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Kazakhstan

1978

Ex. Canada, USA

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established readily, but abundance and 

impact unknown.

ZIAS

624, 1017, 1019

Russia

1978

Ex. Canada, USA (OH, MD)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Introduced primarily on Ambrosia 

artemisiifolia but also released on 

A. psilostachya. Initially believed to have 

established, but establishment no longer 

considered confirmed.

ZIAS

351, 1016, 1017, 1019, 1567, 1568
42 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia L.

North America

groundsel bush, sea myrtle, 

consumption-weed

Anacassis fuscata (Klug)

Stolas fuscata (Klug)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

1975

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State

1203, 1424, 1976

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Anacassis phaeopoda Buzzi

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1975

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State

1203, 1424, 1976

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Aristotelia ivae Busck

Aristotelia sp.

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1969

Ex. USA

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Though established widely, population 

densities vary according to site 

conditions and are typically too low to 

provide any significant control.

QLD State

502, 1203, 1424, 1976

Agent

Species

Classification

Bucculatrix ivella Busck

(Lepidoptera: Bucculatricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1989

Ex. USA

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 43

Table

1

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia; Bucculatrix ivella (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia (continued)

Though established widely, population 

densities vary and overall exhibit little to 

no control.

QLD State

1414, 1424, 1813

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Heilipodus intricatus (Boheman)

Helipodus intricatus (Boheman)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. Brazil

No

Colonies never mass reared and only 

few individuals released.

Small release size

QLD State

346, 1424

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hellinsia balanotes (Meyrick)

Oidaematophorus balanotes (Meyrick)

Hellensia balanotes (Meyrick)

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1969

Ex. USA

No

Release sizes likely too small for 

successful establishment.

Small release size

QLD State

1203, 1416, 1424

Australia

1985

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can be very damaging visually, but has 

little impact overall as weed can recover 

rapidly

QLD State

1416, 1424

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)
44 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Former Union Of Soviet Socialist 

Republics

1990

Ex. USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ZIAS

1017, 1424

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia; Hellinsia balanotes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lioplacis elliptica Stål

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1977

Ex. Brazil

No

Thousands of adults and eggs released. 

Recoveries made up to 3 years after 

release, but damage and numbers low, 

and subsequently field populations 

slowly declined to extinction.

QLD State

1203, 1207, 1424, 1976

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)

Lorita baccharivora Pogue

Phalonia sp. 

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1969

Ex. USA

No

Only one release made; consisted of 90 

adults.

QLD State

1203, 1413, 1976

Australia

1986

Ex. USA

No

QLD State

502, 1424
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 45

Table

1

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Megacyllene mellyi (Chevrolat)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1978

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Established only in coastal areas 

having shallow, saline soils. On such 

sites, and particularly in sunny or lightly 

shaded areas, plant densities have been 

reduced by 50-100%. Ineffective on 

plants growing in better soil where larval 

mortality is high from heavier plant sap 

flow.

Habitat

QLD State

1204, 1424, 1812, 1818

Agent

Species

Classification

Metallactus nigrofasciatus Suffrian

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1982

Ex. Brazil

No

Releases likely only limited at best.

Small release size

QLD State

1206, 1413, 1424

Agent

Species

Classification

Metallactus patagonicus Suffrian

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1975

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State

1203, 1208, 1413, 1424, 1976
46 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia evadens Harkn.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1997

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

Initially caused severe dieback in 

shaded areas and on small plants. More 

recent studies indicate impact is minimal 

and may even promote growth.

Habitat

QLD State

1413, 1418, 1424, 1818

Agent

Species

Classification

Rhopalomyia californica Felt

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia; Rhopalomyia californica (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1969

Ex. USA (CA)

No

Establishment failure likely influenced by 

only small releases being made.

Small release size

QLD State

1205, 1413, 1415, 1424

Australia

1982

Ex. USA (CA)

Yes

Moderate

Variable

Initially very effective in reducing 

growth and fecundity when galls were 

abundant, particularly in wetter, cooler 

regions. More recently populations are 

limited by parasitism.

Parasitism

QLD State

1205, 1415, 1424

Australia

1989

Ex. USA (CA)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Introduced from hotter, drier region 

in attempt to increase efficacy in dry 

areas. As the cooler, wetter population 

was already widespread and abundant, 

establishment of the new introduction 

could not be confirmed. Efficacy in hot, 

dry regions did not increase following 

this release.

QLD State

1413, 1415, 1424

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 47

Table

1

Former Union Of Soviet Socialist 

Republics

1989

Ex. USA (CA) via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ZIAS

1017, 1424

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia; Rhopalomyia californica (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Trirhabda bacharidis (Weber)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1969

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established at only two sites in QLD. 

Poor establishment due largely to 

change in phenology (it overwinters in 

the egg stage in its native range and as 

pupae in Australia).

Change in phenology (possibly result of 

climate)

QLD State

1203, 1417, 1424, 1976

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Introduced from different source in 

attempt to prevent change in phenology, 

but change still occurred and impact/

establishment did not increase.

Change in phenology (possibly result of 

climate)

QLD State

1417, 1424

Former Union Of Soviet Socialist 

Republics

1990

Ex. USA (GA, MD)

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ZIAS

1017, 1424

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia; Trirhabda bacharidis (continued)
48 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides L.

Europe, Asia, northern Africa

plumeless thistle, spiny plumeless 

thistle, bristly thistle

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Argentina

1981

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada 

via USA and via Canada via New 

Zealand

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though the weevil reduces healthy 

achene production by up to 80%, 

resulting impact on overall population 

has not been studied. Efficacy likely 

decreased by large suite of parasites.

Parasitism

INTA

344, 540, 541, 563, 1609

Canada

1968

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Reduces seed production by 

approximately 10%, as only the early 

capitula are attacked.

Agent-host synchronization

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC, MU

432, 437, 729, 735, 742, 748, 1186, 

1628

Canada

1969

Ex. France, USSR

No

Released in attempt to increase 

establishment results.

AAFC, MU

729

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 49

Table

1

New Zealand

1977

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Redistributed from Carduus nutans

subsp. nutans to C. acanthoides. Impact 

to C. acanthoides not studied formally; 

however, impact on its preferred host 

(C. nutans subsp. nutans) insufficient to 

control the weed population.

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

DSIR

688, 689, 761, 915, 916, 918, 1064, 

1650

United States of America

1969

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Sourced from Carduus nutans. 

Anecdotal evidence suggests successful 

in some areas, however field studies 

indicate provides only partial control of 

C. acanthoides because ovipositional 

period only coincides with development 

of terminal thistle buds and not lateral 

buds that develop later in growing 

season.

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (1), State (1,9)

335, 1011, 1457, 1501, 1502, 1506, 

1578, 1600, 1750, 1751, 1799

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
50 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

Ceuthorhynchidius horridus (Panzer)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The authors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. 

n.” However, because specimens 

in North America have not been 

examined in greater detail utilizing 

the new keys, the editors of this 

catalogue must refer to them all with 

the only name under which they have 

appeared in North American literature, 

T. horridus. All three species are 

supposedly present in Australia. While 

it is believed Australia sourced their 

T. mortadelo from New Zealand, 

surveys in New Zealand yielded 

T. horridus only, regardless of 

whether the host surveyed was 

Cirsium or Carduus. Molecular 

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides (continued)

studies are currently underway to 

determine if the species complex is 

truly a complex, and to what level, 

but until new results are published 

the editors of this catalogue follow 

the published conclusion that three 

distinct Trichosirocalus species have 

been utilized in thistle weed biological 

control.

27, 689

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides (continued)

(continued at top of next column)

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1983

Ex. Italy via USA

No

INTA

344, 540, 563

Canada

1975

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

ON populations result of redistribution 

from Carduus nutans to C. acanthoides. 

Damage overall is limited on C. 

acanthoides. Where large rosettes 

attacked, they frequently survive to 

produce seed later in the season.

AAFC, MU

25, 117, 432, 729, 735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 51

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

Variable

In some areas, substantial declines 

in Carduus acanthoides densities 

attributed at least in part to 

Trichosirocalus horridus alone or in 

combination with Rhinocyllus conicus. 

Successful sites had high amounts of 

grass competition. At most locations, 

this agent is seldom effective alone. 

Here, weed reductions have not been 

observed, with some infestations 

actually increasing. Prefers C. nutans

over C. acanthoides. 

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. 

Observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

USDA (1), State (1)

47, 226, 335, 710, 1007, 1008, 1011, 

1012, 1502, 1506, 1578, 1778

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus acanthoides (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora solstitialis (L.)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Canada

1990

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Overall impact limited. Average of 

4.5 larvae in seed heads of Carduus 

acanthoides. Believed to be no conflict 

between this agent and Rhinocyllus 

conicus.

INTA

25, 432, 735

United States of America

1993

Ex. Italy

No

State (20)

1011, 1506, 1578, 1799

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
52 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans L.

Carduus thoermeri (Weinman)

Carduus nutans is part of a variable 

complex that has been treated as one 

to several species or, more recently, 

as a single species with several 

subspecies. Various intermediates 

are evident, and many North and 

South American specimens cannot 

be reliably assigned. It is believed 

Canadian populations comprise 

two subspecies with C. nutans

subsp. nutans distributed in eastern 

Canada from NL to ON and C. 

nutans subsp. leiophyllus, which 

is considered synonymous with C. 

thoermeri (Weinman), from ON to 

BC. In the USA, subspecies include 

subsp. nutans, subsp. leiophyllus

[Petrovic] Stoj. and Stef., and subsp. 

macrocephalus [Desf.] Nyman). 

Presumably, subsp. nutans is mainly 

distributed in the eastern part of the 

country, while only subsp. leiophyllus

and subsp. macrocephalus are 

present in the Great Plains. 

Europe, Asia, northern Africa

musk thistle, nodding thistle, nodding 

plumeless thistle

Cheilosia grossa (Fallén)

Cheilosia corydon (Harris)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Italy

No

Damage similar to that caused by this 

agent has been observed in several 

native thistles species (Cirsium edule

group), thus caution should be used 

when considering introduction of this fly 

into new areas. 

USDA (10,12), State (7,15,20)

332, 334, 335, 620, 621, 1105, 1506, 

1799

Agent

Species

Classification

Psylliodes chalcomera (Illiger)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1997

Ex. Italy

No

USDA (12), State (20)

620, 1506
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 53

Table

1

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia carduorum Jacky

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1987

Ex. Turkey

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Isolate III. Intentionally introduced 

on Carduus nutans in 1987 for 

experimental field release but quickly 

spread across numerous states. This 

strain very specific to Carduus nutans; 

attacking C. nutans subsp. leiophyllus

but with zero to low incidence on C. 

nutans subsp. nutans and C. nutans

subsp. macrocephalus during specificity 

trials. Reduces seed set and quality in 

C. nutans subsp. leiophyllus; effects of 

rust and established insect biocontrol 

agents additive.

State (1,2,14)

87, 183, 184, 473, 620, 1009, 1506, 

1519, 2002

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1981

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada 

via USA and via Canada via New 

Zealand

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though significantly reduces healthy 

achene production, impact of this on 

overall population has not been studied. 

Efficacy likely decreased by large suite 

of parasites.

Parasitism

INTA

343, 344, 540, 1609
54 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Country

Notes (continued)

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1968

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

High

Variable

Reduces seed production by ~50% and 

attacks the heads often over 90%. In SK 

has reduced Carduus nutans in pastures 

to less than 10% of its former density, 

but has less effect where the thistle is 

growing without competition. In BC has 

controlled C. nutans for several years.

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC

117, 432, 729, 742, 748, 1186, 1628, 

1841, 2080

United States of America

1969

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

High

Variable

Sourced from Carduus nutans. In 

some states, substantial declines in 

C. nutans densities attributed at least 

in part to Rhinocyllus conicus alone 

or in combination with Trichosirocalus

horridus. However, many of these claims 

based on anecdotal observations. At 

several other locations, reductions 

have not been observed. More recent 

studies indicate R. conicus, alone or 

in combination with T. horridus, only 

effective when interspecific plant 

competition high. Parasitism may limit 

efficacy in some areas.

Parasitism

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (1,7,9,10,11), State (1,9,13,14,15)

47, 83, 231, 332, 335, 620, 1013, 1239, 

1242, 1457, 1506, 1540, 1557, 1578, 

1731

United States of America

1974

Ex. Italy

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Sourced from Silybum marianum. 

In Siskiyu County CA, new weed 

populations spring up following soil 

disturbance. Rhinocyllus conicus

continues to provide exellent control of 

these populations within 10+ years of 

their re-emergence.

USDA (7), State (14)

231, 785, 1512

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 55

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

Ceuthorhynchidius horridus (Panzer)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The authors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However, because specimens 

in North America have not been 

examined in greater detail utilizing 

the new keys, the editors of this 

catalogue must refer to them all with 

the only name under which they have 

appeared in North American literature, 

T. horridus. All three species are 

supposedly present in Australia. While 

it is believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(continued)

Species

Notes (continued)

References

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1983

Ex. Italy via USA

No

INTA

344, 540

Canada

1975

Ex. Austria, Germany, Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Damage overall is limited. Where large 

rosettes are attacked, they frequently 

survive to produce seed later in the 

season.

AAFC

25, 117, 432, 729, 1628

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)
56 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1974

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

Variable

In some states, substantial declines 

in Carduus nutans densities attributed 

at least in part to Trichosirocalus

horridus alone or in combination with 

Rhinocyllus conicus. At several other 

locations, reductions have not been 

observed by this agent alone. More 

recent studies indicate T. horridus, 

alone or in combination with R. conicus, 

only effective when interspecific plant 

competition high. Some populations may 

be hindered by Nosema infection.

Disease

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. Also 

observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

USDA (1,7,9,12), 

State (1,7,9,10,11,13,15,20)

47, 74, 226, 332, 335, 620, 710, 1007, 

1008, 1242, 1502, 1506, 1578, 1731, 

1778, 1799, 1968

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora solstitialis (L.)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Austria

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

AAFC

117, 432, 735

United States of America

1993

Ex. Italy

No

USDA (10)

334, 335, 620, 1105, 1506, 1578, 1799

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 57

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans

Carduus nutans is part of a variable 

complex that has been treated as one 

to several species or, more recently, 

as a single species with several 

subspecies. Carduus nutans subsp. 

nutans is the predominant form of the 

weed in Australia and New Zealand. 

C. nutans subsp. leiophyllus occurs 

in Australia, but only as a ruderal 

of minor importance, confined to 

southeastern QLD.

Europe, Asia, northern Africa

nodding thistle, musk thistle

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia (continued)

This population slow to increase 

despite climatically matching region of 

release. Eventually built up and mixed 

with population from New Zealand. 

Insufficient to control Carduus nutans

alone but in conjunction with other 

species significantly reduces seed 

banks and rosette density.

CSIRO

384, 2012, 2013

Australia

1988

Ex. France (northern: Alsace) via 

Canada via New Zealand

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Three different populations of 

Rhinocyllus conicus were released in 

an attempt to climate match to different 

regions where Carduus nutans was 

problematic. Most successful of the 

three populations introduced but 

insufficient to control C nutans alone. 

In conjunction with other species 

significantly reduces seed banks and 

rosette density.

CSIRO

384, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1988

Ex. Franc (southern: Larzac)

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
58 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans (continued)

Australia

1989

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Only weakly established despite 

climatically matching region of release. 

Where present, insufficient to control 

Carduus nutans alone but in conjunction 

with other species significantly reduces 

seed banks and rosette density.

CSIRO

384, 2012, 2013

New Zealand

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout the 

range of the weed. Can significantly 

reduce seed production in Carduus 

nutans subsp. nutans early in season; 

however many later inflorescences 

escape damage such that overall impact 

insufficient to control weed population. 

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

DSIR

688, 761, 914, 915, 916, 918, 975, 

1064, 1650

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The editors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However, because specimens 

in North America have not been 

examined in greater detail utilizing 

the new keys, the editors of this 

catalogue must refer to them all with 

the only name under which they have 

appeared in North American literature, 

T. horridus. All three species are 

supposedly present in Australia. While 

it is believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 59

Table

underway to determine if the species 1

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)

New Zealand

1979

Ex. Italy

No

Establishment failure likely due to low 

numbers of insects released.

Small release size

DSIR

720, 916

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1984

Ex. Germany via Canada

Yes

Variable

Variable

At many sites, Carduus nutans subsp. 

nutans populations appear to have 

declined within 5 years of release, 

however efficacy varies and majority of 

data is anecdotal.

Also feeds on the exotic Carduus 

acanthoides L., Ca. pycnocephalus L., 

Ca. tenuiflorus Curtis, Cirsium vulgare

(Savi) Ten., Ci. palustre (L.) Scop., 

Onopordum acanthium L. and hybrids 

of C. nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

C. acanthoides.

DSIR

689, 720, 761, 916, 1064

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
60 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Trichosirocalus mortadelo AlonsoZarazaga & Sanchez-Ruiz

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

pars, Ceuthorhynchidius horridus

(Panzer) pars

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. All three are 

supposedly present in Australia. 

Because there is a disagreement 

for the morphological parameters 

selected by taxonomists for this 

separation, molecular studies are 

currently underway to determine 

if the species complex is truly a 

complex, and to what level. Until new 

conclusions are reached, the editors 

of this catalogue follow the three 

published names of the separation.

27, 689

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Trichosirocalus mortadelo (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. Germany via Canada via 

New Zealand

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released under the assumption the 

species was Trichosirocalus horridus, 

but has since been identified as the 

cryptic T. mortadelo. Most effective of 

the three species established on this 

weed. Reduces seed production by 72% 

alone or 81% in combination with other 

two species. In addition, larval feeding 

kills some over-wintering rosettes.

CSIRO

384, 886, 2011, 2012

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora solstitialis (L.)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Australia

1991

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 61

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Though widely distributed, poorly 

synchronized with Carduus nutans 

bud production which limits population 

size. Still second most effective agent 

established. In conjunction with other 

species significantly reduces seed 

banks and rosette density

CSIRO

384, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015

New Zealand

1990

Ex. Austria

Yes

Variable

Variable

Densities limited due to interactions 

with Rhinocyllus conicus, thus hindering 

ability to significantly impact weed 

populations.

Agent-host synchronization; Interspecific 

competition

DSIR

688, 720, 761, 1064

New Zealand

1992

Ex. France via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Urophora solstitialis (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

New Zealand (continued)

This second introduction obtained 

from Australia because of difficulties 

re-phasing Austrian population to 

Southern Hemisphere conditions. 

Both introductions established and 

subsequently not differentiated. 

Densities limited due to interactions 

with Rhinocyllus conicus, thus hindering 

ability to significantly impact weed 

populations.

Interspecific competition

MWLR

688, 720, 761, 1064

Asteraceae

Carduus nutans ssp. nutans; Urophora solstitialis (continued)
62 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus L.

Europe, Asia, northern Africa

slender winged thistle, Italian thistle

Cheilosia grossa (Fallén)

Cheilosia corydon (Harris)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1993

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Not overly abundant but where 

established, plants with large stem 

diameters (>10 mm) often attacked. 

Larval mining interferes with plant 

function and ultimately results in 

decrease of seed production, 

sometimes even death.

Damage similar to that caused by this 

agent has been observed in several 

native thistles species (Cirsium edule

group), thus caution should be used 

when considering introduction of this 

fly into new areas. Also rarely found 

attacking Carduus acanthoides L., 

especially plants with large diameter 

stems (>10 mm).

USDA (10), State (15)

332, 334, 1506, 2002

Puccinia cardui-pycnocephali P. Syd. 

& Syd.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. Italy (strain IT2), France (strain FR3)

Yes

Unknown

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Strains IT2 and FR3. Rust infection 

decreases reproductive output and 

plant dry weight. Both strains will 

attack Carduus pycnocephalus

and C. tenuiflorus, though IT2 from 

Italy is much more virulent on C. 

pycnocephalus. A third strain of this rust 

(shown to be ineffective) was known 

from Australia prior to this release.

VIC State

122, 248, 692, 693, 886

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 63

Table

1

Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Initially released on Carduus 

nutans subsp. nutans; attack to C. 

pycnocephalus largely spillover and 

highest early in season. Even on 

its preferred host (C. nutans subsp. 

nutans), impact insufficient to control 

weed population. 

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

DSIR

688, 761, 914, 915, 916, 918, 1064, 

1521, 1650

United States of America

1973

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

Sourced from Carduus pycnocephalus. 

Though widespread in CA and OR, 

populations limited in ID. Reductions 

of thistle density occur in pastures not 

burned annually, but usually only under 

conditions of high plant competition. 

Large number of seeds escape 

predation when capitula produced late in 

season after oviposition has ceased.

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (7), State (5,14,15)

332, 334, 335, 621, 642, 644, 1457, 

1578, 1837

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
64 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The editors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However, because specimens 

in North America have not been 

examined in greater detail utilizing 

the new keys, the editors of this 

catalogue must refer to them all with 

the only name under which they have 

appeared in North American literature, 

T. horridus. All three species are 

supposedly present in Australia. While 

it is believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

(continued aat top of next column)

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1994

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Redistributed from Carduus nutans to 

C. pycnocephalus. Developing larvae 

often cause main stem to die and lead 

to development of several smaller 

stems. Adults feed on leaves and cause 

pitting of stems. However, anecdotal 

observations indicate other agents more 

important on C. pycnocephalus, and this 

agent prefers C. nutans. 

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. 

Observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

State (15)

47, 332, 334, 335, 710, 1012, 1506, 

1578, 1778

Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus pycnocephalus; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 65

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis

western Europe, northern Africa

winged thistle, slenderflower thistle

Cheilosia grossa (Fallén)

Cheilosia corydon (Harris)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Widespread where weed infestations 

occur in OR. Plants with large stem 

diameters (>10 mm) often attacked. 

Larval mining interferes with plant 

function and ultimately results in 

decreased seed production, sometimes 

even death though overall impact minor. 

Impact and abundance in MD unknown.

Damage similar to that caused by this 

agent has been observed in several 

native thistles species (Cirsium edule

group), thus caution should be used 

when considering introduction of this 

fly into new areas. Also rarely found 

attacking Carduus acanthoides L., 

especially plants with large diameter 

stems (>10 mm).

USDA (12), State (20)

332, 334, 335, 621, 690, 1506, 2002

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia cardui-pycnocephali P. Syd. 

& Syd.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. Italy (strain IT2), France (strain FR3)

Yes

Unknown

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Strains IT2 and FR3. Rust infection 

decreases reproductive output and 

plant dry weight. Both strains will 

attack Carduus tenuiflorus and 

C. pycnocephalus, though FR3 

from France is much more virulent on 

C. tenuiflorus. A third strain of this rust 

(shown to be ineffective) was known 

from Australia prior to this release.

VIC State

122, 248, 692, 693, 886
66 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Initially released on Carduus nutans

subsp. nutans; attack to C. tenuiflorus

largely spillover and highest early 

in season. Even on preferred host 

(C. nutans subsp. nutans), impact 

insufficient to control weed population. 

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

DSIR

688, 761, 914, 915, 916, 918, 1064, 

1650

United States of America

1979

Ex. Italy

Yes

High

Variable

Sourced from Carduus pycnocephalus. 

Reductions of thistle density occur 

in pastures not burned annually, but 

usually only under conditions of high 

plant competition. Populations fare 

poorly nearer the ocean.

Habitat

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

State (15)

332, 334, 335, 621, 1457, 1512

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus (continued)

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The editors of 

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 67

Table

1

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus (continued)

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However, because specimens 

in North America have not been 

examined in greater detail utilizing 

the new keys, the editors of this 

catalogue must refer to them all with 

the only name under which they have 

appeared in North American literature, 

T. horridus. All three species are 

supposedly present in Australia. While 

it is believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1994

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Initially introduced onto Carduus 

acanthoides and C. nutans. Spread 

naturally to C. tenuiflorus. Developing 

larvae often cause main stem to die and 

lead to development of several smaller 

stems. Adults feed on leaves and cause 

pitting of stems. However, anecdotal 

observations indicate other agents more 

important on C. tenuiflorus, and this 

agent prefers C. nutans. 

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. 

Observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

State (15)

47, 332, 334, 710, 1012, 1506, 1578, 

1778

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)
68 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Centaurea calcitrapa (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea calcitrapa L.

Eurasia

purple starthistle

Bangasternus fausti (Reitter)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1999

Ex. Greece

No

Originally released on Centaurea 

diffusa. Redistribution attempted from 

C. calcitrapa but did not establish.

State (14,22)

508, 1735, 2017

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus minutus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Greece, Romania

No

Originally released on Centaurea 

diffusa. Redistribution attempted from 

C. calcitrapa but did not establish.

State (14,22)

508, 1074, 2017, 2032

Agent

Species

Classification

Terellia virens (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Austria, Switzerland

No

Originally released on Centaurea 

diffusa. Redistribution attempted from 

C. calcitrapa but did not establish.

State (14,22)

508, 1728, 2017, 2032
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 69

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea cyanus L.

Eurasia

cornflower, bachelor’s button

Chaetorellia australis Héring

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1988

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially introduced on Centaurea 

solstitialis, but quickly established on 

C. cyanus as well. C. cyanus often used 

by first generation of insects at time 

when seed heads of intended host, 

C. solstitialis, are not available. At some 

sites, presence of C. cyanus may be 

requirement to sustain populations of 

the insect, and attack rates often higher 

on this plant compared to C. solstitialis. 

Can reduce seed production by up to 

70% at sites in WA, though overall it is 

not leading to control.

USDA (7), State (9,14,15)

76, 78, 79, 332, 334, 1502, 1513, 1838

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa Lam.

Eurasia

diffuse knapweed

Agapeta zoegana (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1982

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Variable

High populations may have significant 

impact on knapweed populations, 

especially when in conjunction with 

other biocontrol agents. Though this 

agent is widespread throughout BC, 

densities decrease as distribution/

dispersal increase.

AAFC

117, 153, 432, 1299, 1315, 1724

Asteraceae (continued)
70 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1984

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Principal host Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. which it does not damage 

appreciably. Damages C. diffusa to an 

even lesser extent. 

USDA (10,14), State (6,7,9,15)

332, 334, 335, 490, 1509, 1578, 1731, 1735

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Agapeta zoegana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bangasternus fausti (Reitter)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Greece

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can destroy up to 100% of the seed in 

attacked capitula. However, abundance 

limited, not likely due to interspecific 

competition. Prefers hot, dry areas and 

does not do well in areas with prolonged 

rain or at high elevations. Other causes 

limiting success not well known.

Climate; Elevation

USDA (7,10), State (9,14,15)

332, 335, 708, 928, 1105, 1502, 1700, 

1729, 1735

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyphocleonus achates (Fåhraeus)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1987

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Preferred host is Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. so although distributed widely 

throughout BC, populations limited on 

C. diffusa. Does best in hot and dry 

climates with loose soil and in patches 

with open canopy. Significantly reduced 

plant density, size, and reproductive 

output in caged field experiment.

Habitat

AAFC

117, 150, 153, 432, 1315, 1724, 1870

United States of America

1988

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 71

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Cyphocleonus achates (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Principal host is Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat.; also damages C. diffusa but 

to lesser extent so is less abundant 

on this species. Impacts to C. diffusa

not studied extensively, but likely less 

important than other agents (particularly 

Larinus spp.). Impacts also likely greater 

under drought conditions when plants 

less capable of compensation.

USDA (10), State (7,15)

332, 334, 335, 708, 1105, 1509, 1635, 

1727, 1735

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus minutus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Greece

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding decreases seed output; 

adult feeding decreases plant function. 

High weevil populations correspond to 

widespread decreases in density and 

cover of Centaurea diffusa, which is 

preferred host over C. stoebe sens. lat. 

More than 5 years required post release 

before reductions noticeable. Spreads 

up to 2km/year.

AAFC

150, 153, 432, 1315, 1724, 1870

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Larinus minutus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1991

Ex. Greece, Romania

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding decreases seed output, 

adult feeding decreases plant function. 

Causes widespread decreases in 

density of Centaurea diffusa, which is 

preferred host over C. stoebe sens. lat. 

Replacing Bangasternus fausti at many 

CA sites. Mice predation can be high at 

some sites.

Predation

USDA (10,14), State (9,14,15), 

USDA-APHIS

39, 332, 334, 335, 928, 1074, 1105, 

1635, 1735, 2018

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus obtusus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1992

Ex. Romania, Serbia

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)
72 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Larinus obtusus (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America (continued)

Principal host is Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat., but also damages C. jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis and C. diffusa to 

lesser extent. Limits seed production, 

but not as important as Larinus minutus

on this species.

State (9,15), USDA (10)

335, 1635, 1735

Agent

Species

Classification

Metzneria paucipunctella Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1981

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Rare

None

Preferred host is Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. Only rarely found in C. diffusa

seed heads when both weeds grow 

together.

Also attacks the invasive Centaurea 

jacea L. nothosubsp. pratensis

(W.D.J. Koch) Čelak.

AAFC

117, 153, 432, 739

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Metzneria paucipunctella (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1980

Ex. Switzerland via Canada

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Principal host is Centaurea stoebe sens. 

lat., but spread naturally and damages 

C. diffusa to a lesser extent. Typically 

less than 5% seed heads attacked; 

overall seed reduction minor.

State (9,15)

332, 335, 1502, 1578, 1729, 1732, 1735

Agent

Species

Classification

Pelochrista medullana (Staudinger)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Canada

1982

Ex. Austria

No

Preferred host is Centaurea diffusa, but 

establishment not confirmed on either 

C. diffusa or C. stoebe sens. lat. Failure 

likely due to overwintering mortality.

Climate

AAFC

117, 153, 432

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 73

Table

1

United States of America

1984

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Has been very slow to establish for 

unknown reasons.

USDA (7,10), State (7)

897, 1731, 1732, 1735

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Pelochrista medullana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Pterolonche inspersa Staudinger

(Lepidoptera: Pterolonchidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1986

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Successfully dispersed up to 20km from 

some release sites. Dispersal limited 

by widely spaced Centaurea patches, 

and populations limited to arid climate 

with period of summer drought. Stunts 

plants and may reduce number and size 

of inflorescences though overall impact 

has not been separated from other 

agents.

Climate

AAFC

117, 152, 153, 432

United States of America

1986

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Greece

Yes

Rare

None

Though still exists in one region in OR, 

has dwindled to low levels because of 

dramatic control of Centaurea diffusa by 

Larinus spp.

USDA (7,10,12), State (6,7,9,15)

39, 332, 334, 335, 897, 1735

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Pterolonche inspersa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Sphenoptera jugoslavica Obenberger

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Canada

1976

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

High

Medium

Localized

Preferred host is Centaurea diffusa, on 

which it is widely distributed through 

driest range of weed. At high beetle 

densities can decrease weed stature 

and seed production, and reduce 

densities of seedlings and rosettes. 

Beetle populations can fluctuate within 

sites, leading to isolated impacts. Best 

in combination with other biocontrol 

agents.

(continued on next page)
74 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Sphenoptera jugoslavica (continued)

Canada (continued)

Climate

UBC

117, 153, 432, 739, 742, 1299, 1525, 

1724

United States of America

1980

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in CA, CO, ID, MT, OR, 

and WA but limited in NV, UT, WY and 

elsewhere. Causes some reductions in 

plant density and seed output, especially 

among competing vegetation. Does best 

at hot, dry sites.

Climate

USDA (7,10,14), State (6,7,9,14,15), 

USDA-APHIS

39, 74, 332, 335, 897, 928, 1501, 1509, 

1578, 1635, 1731, 1735

Country

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Subanguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Brzeski

Paranguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Kirjanova & Ivanova, Mesoanguina 

picridis (Kirjanova) Chizhov & 

Subbotin

(Tylenchida: Anguinidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1985

Ex. Kazakhstan

No

Redistributed from Rhaponticum repens

to Centaurea diffusa but failed to 

establish.

AAFC

117, 735, 1944

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora affinis (Frauenfeld)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1970

Ex. France

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 75

Table

1

Canada (continued)

High fly populations create numerous 

galls that stunt plant growth and 

decrease seed production. Still, no 

apparent decline in plant density even 

though flies reduce knapweed seed 

production substantially.

AAFC, UBC

152, 153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 742, 

1299, 1315

Canada

1972

Ex. Russia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

No longer differentiated from first 

release. High fly populations create 

numerous galls that stunt plant growth 

and decrease seed production. Still, no 

apparent decline in plant density even 

though flies reduce knapweed seed 

production substantially.

AAFC, UBC

152, 153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 742, 

1299, 1315

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Urophora affinis (continued)

United States of America

1973

Ex. Austria, France; Ex. Russia, France 

via Canada

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Well established throughout most 

Centaurea diffusa and C. stoebe sens. 

lat.-infested areas of USA, particularly 

the Northwest. More abundant than 

Urophora quadrifasciata but together 

contribute to seed reduction of more 

than 50% at some sites. Seed reduction 

may retard the rate at which weed 

spreads, but has not appreciably 

lowered stand density because 

sufficient seeds remain. Not considered 

as important or effective as Larinus

spp. on this weed, and frequently 

inferior competitor to Larinus spp. and 

Metzneria. Being displaced by other 

seed feeders in CA.

Interspecific competition

USDA (7,10,14), State (6,7,9,13,14,15)

39, 83, 332, 335, 728, 1501, 1509, 

1578, 1635, 1731, 1735, 2018

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Urophora affinis (continued)
76 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1972

Ex. Russia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

High fly populations create numerous 

galls that stunt plant growth and 

decrease seed production. Still, no 

apparent decline in plant density even 

though flies reduce knapweed seed 

production substantially.

AAFC, UBC

153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 742, 1299, 

1315

United States of America

1994

Ex. Greece

No

Redistributed from Centaurea solstitialis

to C. iberica but did not establish.

State (14,22)

1130, 2026

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng.

Eurasia

Iberian starthistle

Bangasternus orientalis (Capiomont)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Asteraceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 77

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea L. nothosubsp. 

pratensis (W.D.J. Koch) Čelak.

Centaurea xmoncktonii C. E. Britton, 

Centaurea jacea x nigra

Centaurea pratensis auct. N. Amer.

Meadow knapweed represents an 

array of intermediates derived by 

hybridization and backcrossing 

among the various cytotypes of the 

Centaurea jacea complex.

Europe

meadow knapweed, Protean 

knapweed, Bemis grass

974

Bangasternus fausti (Reitter)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Greece

No

Redistributed from other Centaurea spp. 

to C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis but 

failed to establish.

State (14,15)

335, 1512, 1735, 1899

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea nssp. pratensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyphocleonus achates (Fåhraeus)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

No

Redistributed from other Centaurea spp. 

to C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis but 

failed to establish.

State (14,15)

335, 1727, 1897, 1899

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus minutus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1998

Ex. Greece, Romania

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)
78 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea nssp. pratensis; Larinus minutus (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America (continued)

Spread naturally and artificially from 

other Centaurea spp. to C. jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis. 76% of seed 

heads attacked by Larinus spp. in CA 

with majority of seeds eaten, though 

whether this affects overall population 

unknown. Lower abundance and impact 

in OR and WA. Differentiation between 

brown and meadow knapweed often 

difficult in WA and other parts of Pacific 

Northwest. Additional attention required 

to confirm identities of past reported 

infestations.

State (9,15), USDA (7)

38, 39, 334, 335, 1074, 1512, 1899, 

2020

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus obtusus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1999

Ex. Romania, Serbia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Spread naturally and artificially from 

other Centaurea spp. to C. jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis. 76% of seed 

heads attacked by Larinus spp. in CA 

with majority of seeds eaten, though 

whether this affects overall population 

unknown. Lower abundance and impact 

in OR and WA. Differentiation between 

brown and meadow knapweed often 

difficult in WA and other parts of Pacific 

Northwest. Additional attention required 

to confirm identities of past reported 

infestations.

USDA (10), State (9,14,15)

38, 39, 334, 335, 1735, 2020

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea nssp. pratensis; Larinus obtusus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Metzneria paucipunctella Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1983

Ex. Switzerland via Canada

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Principal host is Centaurea stoebe sens. 

lat., but damages C. jacea nothosubsp. 

pratensis to a lesser extent. Overall 

seed reduction minor and populations 

decreasing due to impact of Larinus

obtusus.

Interspecific competition

State (15)

332, 334, 1735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 79

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea nssp. pratensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Sphenoptera jugoslavica Obenberger

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Greece

No

Redistributed from other Centaurea spp. 

to C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis but 

failed to establish.

State (15)

335, 1735

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Russia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

More commonly found on Centaurea 

stoebe sens. lat. than C. jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis. High fly 

populations on the former create 

numerous galls that stunt plant growth 

and decrease seed production. Still, no 

apparent decline in plant density even 

though flies reduce knapweed seed 

production substantially. Impact on 

C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis is likely 

even less. 

AAFC

117, 153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 1299

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea nssp. pratensis (continued)
80 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea L. subsp. jacea

Centaurea jacea L.

Europe

brown knapweed

Larinus obtusus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2004

Ex. Romania, Serbia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally released on other 

Centaurea spp. Principal host is 

Centaurea stoebe sens. lat., but also 

damages seeds of other Centaurea

spp., though to lesser extent. Spread 

naturally from Centaurea jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis to C. jacea

subsp. jacea. High attack rates in OR 

providing good to moderate control for 

all of C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis, 

C. jacea subsp. jacea, and C. jacea

subsp. nigra in OR where weed 

infestations often made up of mix of 

these three species.

State (9,15), USDA (10)

335, 1735

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea L. subsp. nigra (L.) 

Bonnier & Layens

Centaurea nigra L.

Europe

black knapweed

Larinus obtusus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2004

Ex. Romania, Serbia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally released on other 

Centaurea spp. Principal host is 

Centaurea stoebe sens. lat., but also 

damages seeds of other Centaurea

spp., though to lesser extent. Spread 

naturally from Centaurea jacea

nothosubsp. pratensis to C. jacea

subsp. nigra. High attack rates in OR 

providing good to moderate control for 

all of C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis, 

C. jacea subsp. jacea, and C. jacea

subsp. nigra in OR where weed 

infestations often made up of mix of 

these three species.

State (9,15), USDA (10)

335, 1735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 81

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis L.

Eurasia, Mediterranean

yellow starthistle

Bangasternus orientalis (Capiomont)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1985

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially most widespread of established 

agents. Larval feeding typically destroys 

60% of seeds within attacked seed 

heads. However, densities of the weevil 

have been declining since their peak a 

few years after initial release; current 

attack rate only 1% of available capitula. 

Predation, parasitism, and displacement 

by other established agents limit 

populations in some areas.

Interspecific competition; Parasitism; 

Predation

USDA (7,12), State (6,9,14,15)

124, 334, 335, 1130, 1513, 1515, 1578, 

1835, 2026

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chaetorellia australis Héring

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1988

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding destroys up to 90% of 

seeds within attacked seed heads. 

However, attack rates have typically 

have not exceeded 10% of available 

capitula, likely due to poor synchrony 

with Centaurea solstitialis. Spring 

emerging flies often rely on C. cyanus

because seed heads of C. solstitialis not 

yet available, which limits effectiveness 

and distribution of this insect. 

Abundance varies, often in relation to 

C. cyanus presence.

Agent-host synchronization

USDA (7,12), State (6,9,14,15)

76, 78, 334, 335, 1513, 1514, 1767, 

1838
82 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Eustenopus villosus (Boheman)

Eustenopus hirtus cf. abbreviatus

Faust, Eustenopus hirtus (Waltl)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding destroys up to 100% 

of seeds within attacked seed heads. 

Adult feeding causes abortion of 

attacked seed heads, having the largest 

total effect on the weed’s fecundity. 

However, bud herbivory reduces plant’s 

attractiveness to ovipositing seed 

predators, reducing direct negative 

effects of bud herbivory. In conjunction 

with Chaetorellia succinea, can reduce 

seed production by >70% overall. Only 

at low initial plant densities can this 

impact population growth; at many study 

sites plants compensate for decreased 

seedling density by growing larger and 

producing more seeds. Consumes 

higher proportion of seeds when plants 

uninfected with Puccinia jacea var. 

solstitialis. Parasitism and predation 

negates impact at some sites.

Parasitism; Predation

USDA (7,12), State (6,9,14,15)

327, 332, 334, 335, 573, 616, 723, 

1369, 1513, 1514, 1515, 1764, 1765, 

1766, 1767, 1890, 1892

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Larinus curtus Hochhut

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

USDA-APHIS revoked permits in 

2009 for the interstate transportation 

of Larinus curtus due to concerns 

of spreading Nosema, an internal 

parasite.

334

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1992

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding destroys up to 100% 

of seeds within attacked seed heads. 

However, attack rates typically low in 

field. Abundance plateaued within few 

years of introductions; now varies from 

high in portions of OR, to moderate 

in WA, and becoming more limited in 

ID and CA. Less abundant than other 

seed feeding agents which have been 

unable to impact Centaurea solstitialis

population trajectories. Some weevil 

populations limited by Nosema sp. 

protozoans.

Parasitism

USDA, State (6,9,14,15)

39, 124, 332, 335, 616, 1513, 1514, 

1515, 1705, 1764, 1835, 1891
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 83

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia jacea var. solstitialis Savile

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2003

Ex. Turkey

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Under optimal conditions (moist, mild 

temperatures) can reduce biomass 

and number of capitula, especially in 

conjunction with high plant competition. 

At drier sites, impact decreased and 

likely to be of only minor biological 

significance. Across much of weed’s 

range, suboptimal conditions for rust 

prevent its persistence and/or significant 

impact. Infection by this rust sometimes 

additive with effects of seed predators; 

under other conditions indirectly causes 

reduction of seed predation which can 

cancel out entirely the direct negative 

impact of the rust.

Climate

State (15,22), USDA (2,7)

334, 335, 565, 566, 567, 1369, 1763, 

1767, 2022, 2023

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora jaculata Rondani

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1969

Ex. Italy

No

Released in belief it was Urophora 

sirunaseva. Failed to establish because 

U. jaculata is specific to Centaurea 

solstitialis populations in Italy.

Specificity

USDA (7,12), State (4,14)

1835, 1965

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora sirunaseva (Héring)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1984

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
84 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis; Urophora sirunaseva (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

United States of America (continued)

Gall formation decreases seed 

production, though multiple galls 

required per seed head before seed 

reduction is significant. High gall density 

per capitulum not common. Though 

widely distributed, abundance low. 

Attack rates have decreased from peaks 

around 50% within few years following 

successful establishment to usually 

around 10%. Overall impact limited. 

Populations at some sites hindered due 

to competition with other seed head 

agents.

Interspecific competition

USDA (7,12), State (6,9,14,15)

124, 332, 334, 335, 1513, 1514, 1515, 

1767, 1839, 2029

United States of America

1984

Ex. Turkey

No

1800

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe L. sens. lat.

Centaurea stoebe L. subsp. 

micranthos (Gulger) Hayek, 

Centaurea maculosa Lam.

The two cytotypes of Centaurea 

stoebe L. sens. lat. are recognized 

as different species: C. stoebe L. is 

the appropriate name for the diploid 

form present throughout Europe while 

the appropriate nomenclature for 

the tetraploid form invasive in North 

America remains to be resolved. The 

editors of this catalogue will refer to 

this species as Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. until the resolution is made.

Eurasia

spotted knapweed

1296

Agapeta zoegana (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Asteraceae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Canada

1982

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Variable

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 85

Table

1

Canada (continued)

High populations may have significant 

impact on knapweed populations, 

especially when in conjunction with 

Cyphocleonus achates and Larinus

spp. However, though this agent is 

widespread throughout BC, densities 

decrease as distribution/dispersal 

increase.

AAFC

117, 153, 432, 1299

United States of America

1984

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can cause significant reduction in 

above-ground biomass and number 

of capitula per plant, but has not 

demonstrated any obvious effect on 

plant density. Expected to primarily 

affect large plants.

USDA (7,10), State (6,7,9,14,15), 

USDA-APHIS

335, 708, 1105, 1509, 1578, 1701, 1728, 

1732, 1733, 1734, 1735, 2025

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Agapeta zoegana (continued)

Release

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bangasternus fausti (Reitter)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1992

Ex. Greece

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Redistributed from Centaurea diffusa

to C. stoebe sens. lat. Can destroy up 

to 100% of seed in attacked capitula. 

However, abundance limited, not 

likely due to interspecific competition. 

Prefers hot, dry areas and does not do 

well in areas with prolonged rain or at 

high elevations. Other causes limiting 

success not well known.

Climate; Elevation

USDA (10), State (15)

332, 335, 708, 1700, 1728, 1729, 1735
86 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chaetorellia acrolophi White & 

Marquardt

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Canada

1991

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially believed to have failed, but 

establishment confirmed in 2008.

AAFC

117, 150, 153

United States of America

1992

Ex. Austria, Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding reduces seed production, 

however densities limited throughout 

established range so overall impact 

minimal. In ID, populations do not vary 

with abundance of other agents; at 

some OR sites interspecific competition 

limits populations.

Interspecific competition

State (9,15), USDA (10)

332, 335, 708, 1502, 1728, 1735, 2001

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyphocleonus achates (Fåhraeus)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Canada

1987

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Found at higher densities on this 

species compared to Centaurea diffusa. 

Does best in hot and dry climates 

with loose soil and in patches with 

open canopy. High weevil populations 

can decrease knapweed density and 

stature, though evidence supporting 

this is anecdotal. Impact greatest in 

conjunction with other biocontrol agents. 

Adults sedentary, moving 0.27m/day.

Habitat

AAFC

117, 150, 153, 432

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 87

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Cyphocleonus achates (continued)

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

United States of America

1988

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

Yes

Variable

Variable

Abundance and impact vary. In some 

locations, has been attributed with 

reducing Centaurea stoebe longevity, 

reproductive output, and density. In 

other studies, reproductive output 

unchanged, and decreased adult 

densities (where present) leads to 

increased seedling recruitment and no 

change in population overall. Numerous 

studies claim agent can be effective, 

but largely in combination with Larinus

spp. (most important), with high plant 

competition, under dry conditions, and in 

loose soil.

Climate; Habitat

USDA (10), State (7,9,14,15), 

USDA-APHIS

332, 335, 898, 1004, 1005, 1105, 1406, 

1727, 1728, 1733, 1735, 1744, 2025, 

2035

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus minutus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Canada

1991

Ex. Greece

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Frequently occurs in mixed populations 

with Larinus obtusus. Preferred host 

is Centaurea diffusa so although 

distributed widely throughout BC, 

populations are limited on C. stoebe

sens. lat. Where populations sufficiently 

large, may decrease seed output and 

plant stature from larval and adult 

feeding, respectively. 

AAFC

117, 150, 153, 432

United States of America

1991

Ex. Greece, Romania

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
88 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Larinus minutus (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Populations slower to build on this 

species compared to Centaurea diffusa. 

Abundance high in Pacific Northwest 

and portions of CO, limited in UT. 

Larval feeding decreases seed output, 

adult feeding decreases plant function. 

Weed may compensate early in season 

and in periods of excess precipitation, 

but during droughts and late in 

season impacts on population often 

significant. Works well in conjunction 

with high competing vegetation and 

Cyphocleonus achates but Larinus 

minutus and L. obtusus cause greater 

impact than C. achates at many sites.

Predation; Climate; Habitat

USDA (7,10), State (9,14,15)

39, 332, 335, 490, 1005, 1074, 1105, 

1728, 1735, 1736, 2025, 2035

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus obtusus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Canada

1992

Ex. Romania

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada (continued)

Frequently occurs in mixed populations 

with Larinus minutus. Larval feeding 

decreases seed output, adult feeding 

decreases plant function. High weevil 

populations correspond to widespread 

density decreases of Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. Prefers moister conditions, so 

has smaller distribution than L. minutus. 

Habitat

Also attacks the invasive Centaurea 

jacea L. nothosubsp. pratensis (W.D.J. 

Koch) Čelak.

AAFC

117, 153, 432

United States of America

1992

Ex. Romania, Serbia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Larval feeding decreases seed output, 

adult feeding decreases plant function. 

Very effective in OR, decreasing in 

abundance and efficacy in WA and 

ID. Along with Larinus minutus infests 

47% seed heads in MT, contributing to 

84-90% reductions in seed production 

along with Urophora spp. Still insufficient 

to reduce plant density at many sites 

even where abundance high.

USDA (10), State (9,15)

39, 332, 335, 1105, 1728, 1735, 1736

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Larinus obtusus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 89

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Metzneria paucipunctella Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Canada

1973

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Contributes to overall consumer 

pressure on knapweed seed heads, 

but generally not at levels sufficient to 

decrease weed populations. Limited 

population growth likely due to predation 

and overwintering mortality.

Climate; Predation

Also attacks the invasive Centaurea 

jacea L. nothosubsp. pratensis (W.D.J. 

Koch) Čelak.

AAFC, UBC

117, 153, 432, 739, 1469

United States of America

1980

Ex. Switzerland via Canada

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Limited in CO MT and VA. Widespread 

in ID OR WA where reduces seed 

production, but less than Urophora

spp. Suffers from high overwintering 

mortality, predation, and parasitism. 

Climate; Parasitism; Predation

USDA (7,10), State (1,6,7,9,15)

39, 332, 335, 1175, 1578, 1728, 1729, 

1731, 1732, 1735, 1736

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Metzneria paucipunctella (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Pelochrista medullana (Staudinger)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1986

Ex. Austria

No

Preferred host is Centaurea diffusa; 

establishment not confirmed on either 

C. diffusa or C. stoebe sens. lat. Failure 

likely due to overwintering mortality.

Climate

AAFC

117, 153, 432
90 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Pelochrista medullana (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1984

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Has been very slow to establish for 

unknown reasons.

USDA (7), State (7)

334, 1728, 1732, 1735

Agent

Species

Classification

Pterolonche inspersa Staudinger

(Lepidoptera: Pterolonchidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Hungary, Austria

No

Preferred host is Centaurea diffusa. 

Released on C. stoebe sens. lat. and 

initially recovered, but not observed on 

this species in recent years even when 

it is growing among moth-infested 

C. diffusa.

AAFC

117, 152, 153, 432

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Pterolonche inspersa (continued)

United States of America

1988

Ex. Hungary

No

USDA (7,10), State (7,9,15)

335, 1728, 1732

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Sphenoptera jugoslavica Obenberger

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Greece (northern)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Redistributed from Centaurea diffusa to 

C. stoebe sens. lat. Preferred host is C. 

diffusa, but can be found on C. stoebe

sens. lat. growing in hot dry areas where 

the beetle decreases seed production 

and plant stature. Most C. stoebe sens. 

lat. infestations too moist to support 

beetle populations. 

Climate

AAFC

117, 153, 432
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 91

Table

1

United States of America

1987

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Variable

Preferred host is Centaurea diffusa

but spread naturally and artificially to 

C. stoebe sens. lat. which it attacks to 

lesser extent. Limited distribution and 

poor efficacy in most states. Widespread 

in OR and moderate in WA; attack rates 

at both are good at some sites and may 

be displacing Agapeta zoegana at some 

locations.

USDA (10), State (15)

39, 332, 334, 335, 708, 1105, 1635, 

1729, 1735, 1752

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Sphenoptera jugoslavica (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Terellia virens (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Austria, Switzerland

No

Established initially, but flies not 

recovered in recent monitoring efforts. 

Competition with other biocontrol agents 

likely responsible. 

Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 153

United States of America

1992

Ex. Austria, Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Appears to be having difficult time 

establishing at many sites because 

of competition with Urophora spp. 

and Larinus spp. Causes only minor 

reductions in seed production.

Interspecific competition

Attacks Centaurea diffusa Lam. to a 

lesser extent.

USDA (10,17), State (9,14,15)

39, 332, 335, 1105, 1728, 1735, 2025, 

2027, 2028

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Terellia virens (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora affinis (Frauenfeld)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1970

Ex. France

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
92 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Urophora affinis (continued)

Canada (continued)

High fly populations create numerous 

galls that stunt plant growth and 

decrease seed production. Still, no 

apparent decline in plant density even 

though flies reduce knapweed seed 

production substantially.

AAFC

153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 742, 1299

United States of America

1973

Ex. Austria, France; Ex. Russia, France 

via Canada

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Well established throughout most 

Centaurea diffusa and C. stoebe sens. 

lat.-infested areas of USA, particularly 

the Northwest. More abundant than 

Urophora quadrifasciata but together 

contribute to seed reduction of more 

than 50% at some sites. Seed reduction 

may retard rate at which weed spreads, 

but has not appreciably lowered stand 

density because sufficient seeds remain. 

At other sites, direct effect of Urophora

galls on seed production negligible. Not 

considered as important or effective 

as Larinus spp. on this weed, and 

frequently inferior competitor to Larinus

spp. and Metzneria.

Interspecific competition

USDA (1,7,10), State (6,7,9,13,15)

39, 332, 334, 335, 728, 1005, 1501, 

1578, 1728, 1732, 1735, 1736, 1992, 

2001, 2025

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Canada

1975

Ex. Russia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally released on Centaurea 

diffusa but naturally spread to C. stoebe

sens. lat. by 1975 and intentionally 

redistributed thereafter. High fly 

populations create numerous galls that 

stunt plant growth and decrease seed 

production. Still, no apparent decline in 

plant density even though flies reduce 

knapweed seed production substantially.

AAFC, UBC, MU

153, 432, 727, 728, 739, 742, 1299

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 93

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata Lam. subsp. 

squarrosa (Boiss.) Gugler

Centaurea squarrosa Willd.

Eurasia, Asia Minor

squarrose knapweed

Agapeta zoegana (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1994

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

USDA (10), State (21)

335, 490, 1578, 1735

Agent

Species

Classification

Bangasternus fausti (Reitter)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1993

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Redistributed from Centaurea diffusa

to C. virgata subsp. squarrosa. Can 

destroy up to 100% of seed in attacked 

capitula. Attack rates increasing in CA. 

Believed to be contributing to significant 

control of this weed in conjunction with 

Larinus minutus, though expected to 

replace L. minutus at most sites due to 

earlier emergence. Abundance limited 

in UT.

Climate; Elevation

State (14,15)

490, 1105, 1735, 1912, 1913, 2019, 

2030, 2031, 2033, 2034

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata ssp. squarrosa (continued)
94 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyphocleonus achates (Fåhraeus)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1995

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Romania

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Initially introduced onto Centaurea 

stoebe sens. lat. (primary host) and 

C. diffusa. Redistributions attempted 

on C. virgata subsp. squarrosa with 

unknown establishment.

USDA (16), State (7), USAE

335, 1727, 1897, 2033, 2034

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus minutus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

United States of America

1997

Ex. Greece, Romania

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America (continued)

Initially introduced onto Centaurea 

stoebe sens. lat. and C. diffusa. 

Redistributions attempted on C. virgata

subsp. squarrosa. Attacks over 90% 

of seed heads at some sites in CA, 

destroying up to 100% seeds in attacked 

capitula. Believed to be contributing 

to significant control of this weed in 

conjunction with Bangasternus fausti, 

though expected to be replaced by 

B. fausti at most sites due to later 

emergence. Status in UT unknown.

State (14)

335, 1074, 1912, 1913, 2019, 2030, 

2031, 2033

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata ssp. squarrosa (continued)

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata ssp. squarrosa; Larinus minutus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Pterolonche inspersa Staudinger

(Lepidoptera: Pterolonchidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Greece

No

Eggs distributed to Centaurea virgata

subsp. squarrosa but failed to establish.

USDA (10), State (21)

335, 553, 1105, 1735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 95

Table

1

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata ssp. squarrosa (continued)

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata ssp. squarrosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Sphenoptera jugoslavica Obenberger

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1996

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Variable

Redistributed from Centaurea 

diffusa and C. stoebe sens. lat. to C. 

virgata subsp. squarrosa. Somewhat 

widespread and effective against this 

weed in CA; distribution limited in UT.

State (14)

335, 553, 1735, 1912, 1913, 2017, 2033

Agent

Species

Classification

Terellia virens (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

United States of America

1998

Ex. Austria, Switzerland

No

Redistributed from Centaurea diffusa

and C. stoebe sens. lat. to C. virgata

subsp. squarrosa but failed to establish.

1728, 1912, 2017

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora affinis (Frauenfeld)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1988

Ex. Austria, France; Ex. Russia, France 

via Canada

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Spread naturally and artificially from 

other Centaurea spp. to C. virgata

subsp. virgata. Established in only small 

numbers on this species. Attack rates to 

Centaurea diffusa and C. stoebe sens. 

lat. much higher.

USDA (10), State (15,21)

335, 728, 1572, 1578, 1580, 1732, 

2017, 2033
96 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea L.

There are three forms of this 

weed in Australia: narrow-leaf (A) 

which was initially most common, 

intermediate-leaf (B), broad-leaf (C). 

Seven genotypes of this weed are 

recognized in North America; five in 

the Pacific Northwest and two on the 

East Coast.

Eurasia

skeleton weed, rush skeletonweed

Aceria chondrillae (Canestrini)

Eriophyes chondrillae (Canestrini)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

32, 1698

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1989

Ex. Italy via USA

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

INTA

343, 344, 379, 1698

Australia

1971

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Variable

Established readily but spread slowly 

requiring widespread redistribution. 

Largely specific to common, narrowleaf form of the weed (A), though 

infrequently attacks form B. Can cause 

severe stunting and premature death of 

stems but not uniformly.

CSIRO

375, 379, 381, 456

Australia

1985

Ex. Greece

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

This introduction made for intermediateleaf form of weed (B). Did not provide 

effective control, but the importance 

of that form never reached that of the 

common form (A) and skeleton weed 

is no longer considered a significant 

problem.

CSIRO

379, 380, 380

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Aceria chondrillae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 97

Table

1

United States of America

1977

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

Widespread in OR and WA where 

reduces flowering and seed production 

by 50-90%, depending on plant size 

and environmental conditions. Efficacy 

limited in CA due to predation and in ID 

due to high overwintering mortality.

Predation; Climate

USDA (7), State (6,9,14,15)

334, 335, 1241, 1505, 1508, 1578, 

1698, 1749, 2004

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Aceria chondrillae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bradyrrhoa gilveolella (Treitschke)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1992

Ex. Greece

No

Released in low numbers. Reproduced 

for one generation after release but 

subsequently considered failed.

Small release size

INTA

344, 379

Australia

1974

Ex. Greece

No

Establishment failure due to rearing 

difficulties and inbreeding of surviving 

adults. 

CSIRO

377, 379, 456

Australia

1978

Ex. Greece

No

Established initially in ACT, though not 

recovered since despite numerous 

additional releases.

CSIRO

377, 379, 456

Canada

2007

Ex. Greece via USA (ID, MT)

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

AAFC

117, 437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Bradyrrhoa gilveolella (continued)
98 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

2002

Ex. Greece

Yes

Moderate

Too early post release

Becoming locally abundant at original 

ID and OR release sites. Too early to 

determine impact and dispersal, though 

large scale monitoring efforts recently 

initiated. WA status unknown.

State (6,9)

334, 968, 1508, 1630

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Bradyrrhoa gilveolella (continued)

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Cystiphora schmidti (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cystiphora schmidti (Rübsaamen)

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Argentina

1982

Ex. Greece via Australia

No

INTA

363, 379, 1356

Australia

1971

Ex. Greece

Yes

High

Variable

Established widely and generally 

common, complementing damage by 

Puccinia chondrillina. In early spring/

summer can be particularly damaging to 

flowering stems of all forms of the weed. 

Parasitism first recorded in 1978 can 

reach 100% at end of summer, limiting 

efficacy on late growth. 

Parasitism

CSIRO

375, 376, 379, 456

United States of America

1975

Ex. Greece via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Attacks all biotypes present in the 

northwestern USA. Infested plants 

stunted and have decreased seed 

production. Impact in many areas limited 

by parasitism and predation.

Parasitism; Predation

USDA (7), State (6,9,14,15)

332, 334, 335, 1501, 1505, 1508, 1749, 

2004

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 99

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia chondrillina Bubák & Syd.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Release

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Argentina

1982

Ex. Italy via USA

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initial releases failed to establish. 

Established after further releases in 

1984 and present in most areas where 

weed occurs, but at low densities. 

Negligible impact because strain not 

virulent enough against weed form 

established in Argentina.

INTA

343, 344, 379, 1356

Australia

1971

Ex. Italy

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Strain IT32. Strain is specific to most 

widespread (narrow-leaf, A) form 

of weed only. Provided very high 

level of control such that remaining 

less-common forms of weed (B, C) 

subsequently increased in density 

and distribution. Forms B and C not 

controlled by combined agents, but are 

less economically important weeds.

Specificity

CSIRO

375, 376, 379, 382, 751

Australia

1980

Ex. Turkey

No

Strain TU21. Strain is specific to 

intermediate-leaf form (B) of weed. 

Persisted 1-2 years following release 

but has since disappeared. Considered 

establishment failure. 

CSIRO

379, 380, 456

Australia

1982

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Puccinia chondrillina (continued)
100 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Strain IT36. Released against 

intermediate-leaf form of weed (B). 

Widespread throughout the form’s range 

except the hotter, drier mallee. Impact 

has not been measured but much less 

than that of IT32.

CSIRO

379, 380, 380, 751

Australia

1996

Ex. Turkey

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Strain TU788. Strain attacked the broadleaf form (C) during early studies but 

was more virulent on the intermediateleaf form (B). Established and spread 

initially; fate thereafter unknown. No 

recoveries from hot, dry mallee and 

impossible to distinguish from strain 

IT36 in cooler regions. Not recorded on 

form C in the field. 

CSIRO

378, 379, 380, 380, 751

United States of America

1976

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

Strains PC-1 and PC-16. Efficacy 

varies by fungus strain, weed genotype, 

and site conditions. Considered most 

effective agent in CA where decreases 

plant size and reproductive output. Less 

effective in ID and OR. Fares poorly on 

hot and dry sites. One strain parasitized.

Climate; Specificity (genotypes have 

differing susceptibility to fungus strains); 

Parasitism

USDA (2), State (6,9,14,15)

332, 334, 335, 1082, 1501, 1505, 1508, 

1578, 1749, 2004

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Puccinia chondrillina (continued)

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Puccinia chondrillina (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 101

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King 

& H. Rob.

Eupatorium odoratum (L.)

Two biotypes of Chromolaena 

odorata have been identified. The 

form in southern Africa (SA) differs 

substantially both morphologically and 

in its higher cold tolerance from the 

more widespread invasive form found 

in Asia and West and Central Africa 

(A/WA). While the widespread A/WA 

biotype can be found throughout the 

tropical Americas and the Caribbean, 

recent molecular studies provide 

strong support for a Cuban or 

Jamaican origin for the SA biotype.

Caribbean, tropical and subtropical 

Americas

chromolaena, Siam weed, triffid weed, 

paraffienbos, kirinyu, kumpai jepang, 

rumput gol kar, sam-solokh, sap sua, 

ya-su’a-mop, Akyeampong weed, 

hagonoy, agonoi, huluhagonoi, pokok 

Tjerman, Awolowo weed, cò hoi

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Costa Rica

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

Can cause severe defoliation in 

locations with high moth populations, 

leading to control of plant in 

conjunction with Actinote thalia 

pyrrha, Cecidochares connexa, 

and Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata. 

Populations somewhat limited by 

predation.

Predation

IOPRI

426, 486, 2054, 2056

Agent

Species

Classification

Actinote anteas (Doubleday)

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
102 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Actinote thalia pyrrha Fabricius

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Can cause severe defoliation in 

locations with high moth populations, 

leading to control of plant in conjunction 

with Actinote anteas, Cecidochares 

connexa, and Pareuchaetes 

pseudoinsulata.

Also feeds on the exotic 

Austroeupatorium inulaefolium (Kunth) 

R.M. King & H. Rob.

IOPRI

426, 486, 2054, 2056

Actinote thalia thalia Keifer

Actinote anteas (Doubleday)

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Venezuela

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Only established at two sites; 

considered not as successful as other 

Actinote spp. 

IOPRI

486, 1309, 2054, 2056

Apion brunneonigrum BéguinBillecocq

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Ghana

1975

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

287, 288, 316, 317, 1309

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 103

Table

1

Guam

1984

Ex. Trinidad

No

Released at beginning of dry season 

when host plants in poor condition.

Poor host quality

UOG

1305, 1309, 1317

India

1972

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC, IIHR

250, 288, 313, 317, 1309

Malaysia

1970

Ex. Trinidad

No

Persisted for 1 year but then not 

recovered.

DAMA

55, 288, 312, 313, 1309, 1398

Nigeria

1970

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

287, 288, 312, 1309, 2052

Sri Lanka

1975

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

288, 316, 317, 1221

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Apion brunneonigrum (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Apion brunneonigrum (continued)
104 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Calycomyza eupatorivora Spencer

Calycomyza flavinotum Frick pars

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Originally identified as Calycomyza 

flavinotum Frick. It was subsequently 

determined that C. flavinotum is 

a Nearctic species and tropical 

specimens previously included 

in this species and collected on 

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King 

& H. Rob. in Jamaica have since been 

described as a new species, 

C. eupatorivora Spencer.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Papua New Guinea

2005

Ex. Jamaica via Republic of South Africa

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

small release size caused by rearing 

difficulties attributed to the climate being 

too hot.

Climate; Small release size

NARI

418, 419, 2054

Republic of South Africa

2003

Ex. Jamaica

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Displays a preference for shady 

conditions where it may curb recruitment 

of the weed by stunting the growth of 

young plants. High larval mortality and 

highly selective oviposition by females 

likely to impede fly population growth. 

Climate; Habitat

ARC-PPRI

992, 1742, 2053, 2054, 2056, 2057

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Calycomyza eupatorivora (continued)

Cecidochares connexa Macquart

Procecidochares connexa Macquart

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cote d’Ivoire

2003

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

As of 2009, had spread 100 km from 

release site.

IOPRI

484, 488, 1226, 2052, 2053
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 105

Table

1

Federated States of Micronesia

2004

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via Guam

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Most successful biocontrol program 

in Micronesia to date. Chromolaena 

suppressed and no longer a concern 

on islands wherein Pareuchaetes 

pseudoinsulata and Cecidochares 

connexa have established.

UOG

1226, 1304, 1309

Guam

2002

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

2002 release site destroyed by Typhoon, 

so additional release made in 2003. 

Most successful biocontrol program 

in Micronesia to date. Chromolaena 

suppressed and no longer a concern 

on islands wherein Pareuchaetes 

pseudoinsulata and Cecidochares 

connexa have established.

UOG

364, 1226, 1304, 1309

India

2005

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Most damaging of established agents. 

Significantly reduces plant growth and 

reproductive output in low elevation 

areas and regions with longer wet 

season. Less effective at high elevations 

and regions with long dry season where 

populations slower to build. 

Climate

BIOTROP, ICAR

115, 1226, 2054

Indonesia

1995

Ex. Colombia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Most damaging of established agents. 

Significantly reduces plant growth 

and density in low elevation areas 

and regions with longer wet season. 

Less effective at high elevations and 

regions with long dry season where 

populations slower to build. Parasitism 

and predation locally limit populations 

but overall impact on this insect patchy 

and isolated.

Climate; Elevation; Parasitism; Predation

IOPRI, BIOTROP

426, 485, 488, 1216, 1226, 1303, 1309, 

1807, 1810, 1985, 2054

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Cecidochares connexa (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Cecidochares connexa (continued)
106 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Northern Mariana Islands

2003

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via Guam

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

2003 releases failed while 2005, 2006 

releases established. Most successful 

biocontrol program in Micronesia 

to date. Chromolaena suppressed 

and no longer a concern on islands 

wherein Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata

and Cecidochares connexa have 

established.

UOG

1226, 1304, 1309, 2054

Palau

1999

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via Guam

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread and high numbers 

of galls found on most plants, 

Chromolaena odorata is still widespread 

and vigorous, blooming and seeding 

profusely. Impact likely minor at best. 

Predation may limit populations in some 

areas.

Predation

UOG, PLC

549, 1226, 1243, 1304, 1309

Papua New Guinea

2001

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via 

Philippines

Yes

Variable

Variable

Most damaging of established agents. 

Significantly reduces plant height and 

percent cover in more moist regions 

and at low elevations. In drier provinces 

populations slower to build and large 

stands of chromolaena still exist.

Climate

QLD State, PNGDAL

134, 418, 419, 420, 426, 1309, 1404, 

2054

Philippines

2001

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Causes a dieback of stems and 

branches, though overall status 

unknown.

IOPRI, BIOTROP, PCA

61, 426, 487, 1216, 1226, 1309

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Cecidochares connexa (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Cecidochares connexa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 107

Table

1

Thailand

2002

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via 

Philippines via Papua New Guinea

No

NBCRC

426, 939, 1213, 1226, 1309, 2054

Thailand

2009

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via 

Philippines via Papua New Guinea

No

Recent attempts at establishment failed, 

though releases are likely continuing.

NBCRC

418, 426, 1226

Timor Leste

2005

Ex. Colombia via Indonesia via 

Philippines via PNG

Yes

Variable

Variable

Controls plant in some regions, 

particularly moist areas at low 

elevations. In drier regions populations 

slower to build.

Climate

QLD State, MAFF, UNTL

418, 421, 426, 966, 1226, 1309, 2054

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Cecidochares connexa (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lixus aemulus Petri

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2011

Ex. Brazil

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ARC-PPRI

992, 1002, 2053, 2056, 2057

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Pareuchaetes aurata aurata (Butler)

Pareuchaetes aurata (Butler)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

998, 1742, 2059

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. Argentina

No

All attempts to free this insect of 

microsporidia failed.

Disease

SASRI, DWAF, ARC-PPRI

992, 998, 999, 1742, 2054, 2058
108 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Pareuchaetes insulata (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

Introduced from three different sources 

in an attempt to increase host and 

climate matching. Though one release 

site confirmed successful and the 

population subsequently spread rapidly, 

attempted redistributions failed and 

populations later dwindled. Populations 

now typically low but vary by site or 

year. Can cause high levels of localized 

damage when populations high or in 

periods/sites with high moisture.

Climate; Habitat

Also found on the exotic Ageratum 

conyzoides L. growing in the vicinity of 

outbreaks.

SASRI, DWAF, ARC-PPRI

992, 1741, 1742, 2053, 2054, 2057

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2002

Ex. Jamaica

No

The successfully established population 

from Florida eventually intersected at 

least two Jamaica-sourced release 

sites further south. Because these two 

source populations are genetically 

indistinguishable and have shown no 

evidence of reproductive isolation, it 

is possible they have hybridized in 

the field. Given the failure of all other 

Jamaican and Cuban releases for this 

species, the editors of this catalogue are 

maintaining Florida as the source of the 

successfully established populations in 

South Africa.

SASRI, DWAF, ARC-PPRI

1741, 1742, 2053, 2057

Republic of South Africa

2003

Ex. Cuba

No

SASRI, DWAF, ARC-PPRI

1741, 1742, 2053, 2057

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes insulata (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 109

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Rego 

Barros

Ammalo insulata Walker, 

Ammalo arravaca Jord.

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Release

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Cote d’Ivoire

1991

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

No

Initially believed to have established, but 

subsequently considered failed. Failure 

attributed to predation.

Predation

IDEFOR, CIRAD-IRHO

250, 1309, 1797, 2052, 2060

Federated States of Micronesia

1988

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Federated States of Micronesia 

(continued)

Most successful biocontrol program 

in Micronesia to date. Chromolaena 

suppressed and no longer a concern 

on islands wherein Pareuchaetes 

pseudoinsulata and Cecidochares 

connexa have established. 

P. pseudoinsulata populations and 

impact high initially, but decreased 

and variable here and other islands 

subsequently.

UOG

250, 551, 1304, 1305, 1306, 1309, 2054

Ghana

1973

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

Although small amounts of feeding 

damage observed shortly after releases, 

no recoveries made. Establishment 

failure attributed to predation by ants.

Predation

IIBC

158, 287, 288, 292, 314, 315, 1862
110 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Ghana

1991

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations vary by site and are 

higher during wet season. Causes 

noticeable damage to weed throughout 

established range. In some areas, 

damage too minimal and insignificant 

to affect growth rate. At other sites, 

Chromolaena odorata cover and density 

have decreased significantly due to this 

agent.

Climate

CRIG

158, 250, 1309, 1796, 1797, 1862

Guam

1985

Ex. Trinidad; Ex. Trinidad via India via 

Sri Lanka via India

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Guam (continued)

First releases failed due to predation. 

Causes 100% defoliation in some 

areas. By 1989 this weed no longer 

predominant weed species in Guam; 

infestations reduced from thickets 

to scattered patches. One of few 

countries where impact by this agent 

has been sustained long-term. Currently 

effectiveness sometimes reduced by 

insect-induced defense in Chromolaena 

odorata, and agent’s weakness in 

colonizing scattered distributions of 

weed.

Predation; Host plant resistance

UOG

250, 364, 1303, 1304, 1305, 1309, 1311, 

1317, 1638, 2054

India

1973

Ex. Trinidad

No

Establishment failure likely due to ant 

predation and viral infection.

Predation; Disease

IIBC, IIHR

115, 250, 288, 292, 910, 1309, 1612, 

1692
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 111

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

India

1984

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Because population introduced from 

Trinidad eventually failed to field 

establish in India while surviving 

a later redistribution to Sri Lanka, 

it was subsequently reintroduced 

(successfully) from Sri Lanka. Initially 

this introduction did well and caused 

significant defoliation. Agent populations 

have since crashed and the weed 

has largely recovered. Predation, viral 

infection, poor climate matching blamed 

for limited efficacy. 

Predation; Disease; Climate

IIHR, KAU

115, 250, 288, 910, 932, 1612, 1692

Indonesia

1992

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Indonesia (continued)

Likely intermixed with individuals 

spreading naturally from East Malaysia. 

Also likely naturally spread from East 

Malaysia to Sulawesi. Causes massive 

defoliation during outbreaks, however 

outbreaks infrequent and sporadic and 

possibly limited by parasitism. Inflicts 

most damage in conjunction with 

Cecidochares connexa.

Parasitism

BIOTROP, IOPRI

250, 416, 485, 488, 1211, 1216, 1309, 

1807, 1808, 1984, 1985, 2054

Malaysia

1970

Ex. Trinidad via India

Yes

Limited

Variable

Population persisted for a few years at 

release site but then not located until 

early 1980s. Now widely distributed at 

low densities. Outbreaks can cause 

severe damage. Weed still not under 

control.

Predation

DAMA

287, 288, 292, 1309, 1398, 2054
112 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Nigeria

1973

Ex. Trinidad via India via Ghana

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Initially believed to have failed 

establishment, but discovered in 2009. 

Unclear if result of initial release, or if 

naturally spread from nearby Ghana 

where released and established in 1991. 

Abundant where observed in Edo State 

and populations increasing with rainy 

season. Additional surveys warranted 

to determine overall establishment, 

abundance, and impact throughout 

Nigeria.

IIBC

287, 288, 292, 314, 1309, 1863, 2052

Northern Mariana Islands

1986

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

Yes

Variable

Variable

Initially spectacular population increases 

caused widespread defoliation and high 

plant mortality; however, after 1-2 years 

agent population declined and weed 

recovered. Outbreaks still occur but 

infrequent and less spectacular.

UOG

250, 1304, 1305, 1309, 1311, 1317, 

1638, 2054

Palau

1989

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

No

250, 1301, 1304, 1305, 1309

Palau

2005

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam via Federated States of 

Micronesia

No

250, 1302, 1304, 1309, 2054

Papua New Guinea

1999

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

Yes

Variable

Variable

Only seasonally damaging. After 

wet season larvae cause defoliation; 

however, in dry season numbers are low 

and damage to plants minimal.

Climate

QLD State, PNGDAL

134, 250, 418, 419, 420, 1309, 2054
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 113

Table

1

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

No

Heavy egg predation by ants probable 

cause of failure.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

250, 992, 996, 997, 1309, 1740, 1939, 

2057, 2058

Republic of South Africa

1998

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam via Indonesia

No

Initially highly effective at release site 

but not found in subsequent years. 

Establishment failure likely due to poor 

climatic matching.

Climate; Habitat

DWAF, ARC-PPRI

250, 992, 1309, 1740, 2053, 2057, 2058

Sri Lanka

1973

Ex. Trinidad via India

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Sri Lanka (continued)

Releases made from stock originating 

from lab colonies in India as this 

species failed to field establish in India 

following initial 1973 field releases. 

Initially spectacular population increase 

caused widespread defoliation and 

high plant mortality; however, after 1-2 

years agent population declined and 

weed recovered. Outbreaks still occur, 

especially during rainy season, but 

infrequent and less spectacular.

IIBC

287, 288, 292, 491, 1309, 2054

Thailand

1987

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam

No

After repeated releases at numerous 

sites until 1988, initially believed to be 

established. Subsequently considered 

failed.

NBCRC

55, 250, 1309, 1326, 1329, 1331, 1332

Vietnam

1988

Ex. Trinidad via India via Sri Lanka via 

India via Guam via Thailand

No

VNBCRC, NBCRC

250, 944, 1309, 1326, 1329, 2054
114 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Phestinia costella Hampson

Mescinia nr parvula Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1710, 2054

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Guam

1984

Ex. Trinidad

No

Released in very low numbers.

Small release size

UOG

1309, 1317, 1638

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chrysanthemoides monilifera (L.) 

Norl. subsp. monilifera

southern Africa

boneseed

Aceria sp. 

Aceria neseri Meyer

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2008

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Too early post release

Small colonies persisted 12 months 

post release. Establishment failure 

at some sites attributed to drought 

conditions and possibly predatory mites. 

Surviving well at only one site in TAS 

and establishment still uncertain. Under 

evaluation.

Possibly Predation; Climate

VIC State, SA State, TAS State, CSIRO

7, 883, 1698

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 115

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Chrysolina fasciata (De Geer)

Chrysolina picturata (Clark)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

116

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1992

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

VIC State, NSW State, SA State, NT, 

CSIRO

6, 7, 8, 519

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina scotti Daccordi

Chrysolina sp., Chrysolina sp. 1

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation by ants and/or spiders.

Predation

VIC State, CSIRO

6, 7, 8, 519, 843, 885

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina sp. B 

Chrysolina sp. 2

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1994

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

CSIRO, VIC State, NSW State, 

SA State, NT

6, 7, 8, 519, 885

Comostolopsis germana Prout

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Initially established at just one site in 

VIC where rearing of the moth took 

place in field plots. Subsequently 

considered establishment failure, 

possibly due to predation, poor climate 

matching and host preference.

Predation; Climate; Specificity

VIC State, NSW State, SA State, NT, 

CSIRO, QLD State

6, 7, 519, 843, 885, 1958
116 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Mesoclanis magnipalpis Bezzi

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

VIC State, NSW State

7, 519, 1272, 1273, 1279

Australia

2005

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

VIC State

7, 519, 1272, 1273, 1279

Australia

2009

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

VIC State

7, 1273

Mesoclanis polana Munro

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera (continued)

Australia

1996

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Intentionally released against 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. 

rotundata, it was hoped that spillover 

attack would occur on C. m. monilifera

where the two subspecies overlapped 

in NSW.

VIC State, NSW State, CSIRO

7, 530

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Tortrix s.l. subsp. chrysanthemoides

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

This species is referred to as Tortrix

sp. in Australia and Tortrix s.l. subsp. 

chrysanthemoides in New Zealand.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

New Zealand

2007

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 117

Table

1

New Zealand (continued)

Present at several release sites on the 

North Island. Impact small to date given 

short length of establishment. Predation 

and parasitism also hinder populations.

Predation; Parasitism

MWLR

161, 761, 1064, 1070

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae; Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. monilifera

Tortrix ssp. chrysanthemoides (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Tortrix sp.

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

This species is referred to as Tortrix

sp. in Australia and Tortrix s.l. subsp. 

chrysanthemoides in New Zealand.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2000

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Collected from Chrysanthemoides

monilifera subsp. monilifera. 

Predation

VIC State, NSW State, CSIRO, 

TAS State

5, 7, 519, 841, 885

Asteraceae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Cassida sp. 3 

Cassida sp.

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established at most release sites but 

populations low and impact negligible.

VIC State, NSW State

7, 519

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chrysanthemoides monilifera (L.) 

Norl. subsp. rotundata (DC.) Norl.

southern Africa

bitou bush
118 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina sp. B 

Chrysolina sp. 2

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

CSIRO, VIC State, NSW State, 

SA State, NT

7, 8, 519

Agent

Species

Classification

Comostolopsis germana Prout

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Australia

1989

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Spread rapidly and now well established 

throughout range of this subspecies. 

Overall impact insufficient to control 

weed alone, but can significantly reduce 

flowering and seed production leading to 

decreases in seed bank persistence and 

dispersal. Impact limited by parasitism at 

some locations. 

Parasitism

VIC State, NSW State, SA State, NT, 

CSIRO, QLD State

6, 7, 519, 843, 1958

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina scotti Daccordi

Chrysolina sp., Chrysolina sp. 1, 

Chrysolina sp. A

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1990

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation by ants and/or spiders.

Predation

VIC State

6, 7, 8, 519, 843

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 119

Table

1 Mesoclanis magnipalpis Bezzi

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

2005

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

VIC State, NSW State

7, 1272, 1279

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (continued)

Asteraceae 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (continued)

Mesoclanis polana Munro

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1996

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Spread rapidly and now well established 

throughout range of this subspecies. 

Overall impact insufficient to control 

weed alone, but can significantly reduce 

flowering and seed production leading 

to decreases in seed bank persistence 

and dispersal. More effective at northern 

locations in Australia than southern. 

VIC State, NSW State

5, 7, 519, 529, 530, 841

Australia

2000

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Collected from Chrysanthemoides

monilifera subsp. monilifera.

VIC State, NSW State

774

Australia

2001

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Collected from Chrysanthemoides

monilifera subsp. rotundata. Established 

at only small percentage of release 

sites. Predation limits populations such 

that this is an ineffective agent.

Predation

VIC State, NSW State

7, 519, 841, 1418, 1756, 1757

Tortrix sp.

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

This species is referred to as Tortrix

sp. in Australia and Tortrix s.l. subsp. 

chrysanthemoides in New Zealand.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes
120 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Eurasia

Canada thistle, creeping thistle, 

Californian thistle, field thistle

Altica carduorum Guérin-Méneville

Haltica carduorum Guérin-Méneville

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1963

Ex. France, Switzerland

No

Slow development in cool summers 

exposed larvae to high predation. 

Unsuccessful in cold regions.

Predation; Climate

AAFC

361, 725, 1186, 1468, 1469, 1471, 1628

England

1969

Ex. France

No

Overwintered successfully in cages, but 

climate unsuitable for survival.

Climate

IIBC, IC, MAFF

72, 283, 1647

New Zealand

1979

Ex. Switzerland

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

unfavorable climatic conditions.

Climate

DSIR

361, 720, 917, 1064

New Zealand

1990

Ex. Switzerland

No

Initially believed to have established 

on both North and South Island 

following widespread release effort, but 

subsequently not recovered.

DSIR

361, 720, 1064

United States of America

1966

Ex. Switzerland via Canada

No

USDA (1,7), State (12)

44, 332, 361, 1504, 1506, 1628, 1730

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Altica carduorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 121

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1970

Ex. France (Atlantic Coast)

No

USDA (1,7), State (12)

361, 1504, 1628

United States of America

1982

Ex. Italy

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation by native carabid.

Predation

USDA (1,7), State (12,20)

83, 1182, 1578

Wales

1969

Ex. France

No

Overwintered successfully in cages, but 

climate unsuitable for survival.

Climate

IIBC, IC, MAFF

72, 283, 1647

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Altica carduorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cassida rubiginosa O.F. Müller

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

New Zealand

2007

Ex. Austria, France, Switzerland

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Though too early to definitively declare 

field impact, a field-release experiment 

indicated competition from typical 

New Zealand pasture species is more 

important factor than herbivory by 

Cassida rubiginosa and this agent will 

likely have insignificant impact on weed 

though formal evaluation studies will 

commence soon.

MWLR

360, 361, 664, 761, 1059, 1064
122 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Release

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ceratapion onopordi (Kirby)

Apion onopordi Kirby

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2008

Ex. Austria, France, Switzerland

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Only a limited number of releases made 

as mass-rearing proved difficult.

MWLR

361, 664, 1064

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Hadroplontus litura (Fabricius)

Ceutorhynchus litura (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

307, 361

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1965

Ex. France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Though established at most release 

sites, the weevil has low reproductive 

and dispersal ability. Mining over 

multiple years decreases root biomass, 

when in conjunction with other stresses. 

Even in conjunction with other agents, 

overall impact limited.

AAFC

361, 1138, 1186, 1471, 1474, 1476, 

1483, 1628

New Zealand

1976

Ex. Switzerland

No

DSIR

361, 720, 917

New Zealand

1988

Ex. Great Britain

No

Establishment failure possibly due to the 

limited number of individuals released.

Small release size

DSIR

361, 720, 761, 917

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Hadroplontus litura (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 123

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1971

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though some reports indicate very 

effective due to reduced overwintering 

survival of Cirsium arvense, most 

studies show lack of impact. Likely 

due to only non-essential parenchyma 

tissue being consumed by larvae, 

leaving vascular tissues untouched. 

Some populations infected with Nosema

pathogens.

Disease

USDA (1,7,10), State (6,7,9,13,15)

83, 332, 335, 361, 1182, 1501, 1504, 

1506, 1512, 1558, 1578, 1730, 1731

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Hadroplontus litura (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Larinus carlinae (Olivier)

Larinus planus (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

694

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Canada

1990

Ex. Unknown via USA (MD)

Yes

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Larinus carlinae (continued)

Canada (continued)

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Although its first arrival was 

unintentional, this species was 

intentionally redistributed to four other 

Canadian provinces. This second 

population was intentionally introduced. 

Abundance and survival hindered by 

harsh overwintering conditions and 

parasitism.

Parasitism; Climate

Also attacks native thistle spp.

361, 432, 1186

Country

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Lema cyanella (L.)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1983

Ex. Switzerland

No

AAFC

361, 1186
124 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Canada

1993

Ex. Switzerland, France via 

New Zealand

No

Initially one population established at 

low densities in AB, but concerns over 

nontarget attack led to eradication of 

the population. No longer considered 

established. 

Fed upon native nontarget thistles which 

led to the intentional eradication of the 

insect.

AAFC

361, 1186

New Zealand

1983

Ex. Switzerland via Canada

No

DSIR

720, 761, 917, 1186

New Zealand

1990

Ex. Switzerland, France

Yes

Rare

None

Established at only one site despite wide 

release history. Considered insignificant 

biocontrol agent.

DSIR

361, 720, 1064, 1186

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Lema cyanella (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1968

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Naturally spread from releases and/

or redistributions made on Carduus 

acanthoides and Ca. nutans, but 

also redistributed from Ca. nutans to 

Cirsium arvense. Though increasingly 

widespread on Ci. arvense in western 

provinces, Carduus spp. (especially 

nutans) are more preferred and receive 

higher attack, albeit still insufficient 

to reduce weed stands in absence of 

competition. Weevils emerging from 

Cirsium spp. heads smaller than from 

Ca. nutans; low impact on Ci. arvense

overall.

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC

117, 361, 437, 729, 735, 742, 1185, 

1186, 1628, 2080

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 125

Table

1

New Zealand

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Initially released on Carduus nutans

subsp. nutans but also found feeding on 

Cirsium arvense. Capitulum attack rates 

lower on Ci. arvense than the preferred 

host (Carduus nutans subsp. nutans) 

on which attack levels still insufficient 

to control weed. Ineffective strategy for 

controlling Ci. arvense since established 

populations of weed reproduce primarily 

by vegetative means.

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

361, 688, 761, 914, 915, 916, 1064, 

1650

United States of America

1973

Ex. Italy, France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America (continued)

Agents sourced from Carduus nutans

(Ex. France) and Ca. pycnocephalus

(Ex. Italy) found attacking Cirsium 

arvense secondarily. Redistributed 

intentionally from Ca. nutans to Ci. 

arvense. Affects seed production 

potential which is unlikely to impact 

Ci. arvense since established plants/

infestations reproduce mainly by 

vegetative means.

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

State (15)

332, 334, 335, 361, 1457, 1501, 1506, 

1578

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora cardui (L.)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1974

Ex. Austria, France, Germany 

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
126 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Urophora cardui (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada (continued)

Populations vary across Canada and 

by year but are highest in areas with 

sheltering canopy, near water, and in 

climates with mild winter temperatures. 

Rare in the prairie region. Under 

favorable conditions can reduce density 

and stature of Cirsium arvense. In 

other areas, even in combination with 

Hadroplontus litura has no measurable 

impact.

Climate; Habitat

AAFC, UG, MU

437, 735, 1186, 1469, 1471, 1477, 1478, 

1628

Canada

1986

Ex. Finland

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Populations vary by location and year 

but are highest in areas with sheltering 

canopy, near water, and in climates 

with mild winter temperatures. Under 

favorable conditions can reduce density 

and stature of Cirsium arvense. In 

other areas, even in combination with 

Hadroplontus litura has no measurable 

impact.

Climate; Habitat

AAFC

1186, 1478

Canada

1996

Ex. Austria, France via USA (OR)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established initially but not intentionally 

surveyed since 2000 so may no longer 

be present.

AAFC

152, 1185, 1186, 1578

New Zealand

1976

Ex. Switzerland; Ex. Austria, France, 

Germany via Canada

No

Material received from Switzerland was 

intermixed with material received from 

Canada (original source Austria, France, 

Germany). Survived for several years at 

low densities at one site on South Island 

but died out by 1985.

DSIR

720, 917, 1064

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Urophora cardui (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 127

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1995

Ex. Austria, Finland, France, Germany 

via Canada

Yes

Rare

Unknown

Unknown

Impact unknown but likely negligible 

given that galls commonly eaten by 

stock.

Predation

MWLR

361, 761, 1064

New Zealand

1996

Ex. Austria, France via USA (OR)

Yes

Rare

Unknown

Unknown

No longer differentiated from population 

sourced via Canada. Impact unknown 

but likely negligible given that galls 

commonly eaten by stock.

Predation

MWLR

361, 761, 1064, 1578

United States of America

1977

Ex. Austria, France

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Attacked plants may be stunted and 

produce fewer seeds; however overall 

impact largely limited. Restricted to 

shaded infestations, close to riparian 

areas. Larvae in galls preyed on by 

birds, rodents, ants, and unidentified 

mite.

Habitat; Predation

USDA (1,7,10), State 

(1,6,7,9,13,14,15,21)

332, 334, 335, 361, 1182, 1501, 1504, 

1506, 1578, 1731

United States of America

1985

Ex. Austria, France, Germany via 

Canada

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Galls recovered at two sites in 1987, 

but none recovered since then. If 

established, impact likely minor (similar 

to efficacy of this agent elsewhere).

Habitat; Predation

USDA (1), State (1)

361, 1008, 1182, 1506, 1578

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Urophora cardui (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium arvense; Urophora cardui (continued)
128 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cirsium palustre (L.) Scop.

Eurasia

marsh thistle

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Canada

1997

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Limited

None

Redistributed from Carduus nutans

in field, Cirsium palustre lab colonies, 

and Cirsium arvense in field to field 

Ci. palustre. Carduus spp. (especially 

nutans) are more preferred and receive 

higher attack, though still insufficient 

to reduce weed stands in absence of 

competition. Impact on Ci. palustre has 

not been formally studied but is believe 

to be negligible. Though field survival in 

BC has been achieved in limited regions, 

populations remain low. Sustained 

survival has been difficult in other regions 

of BC. Establishment trials currently 

underway to determine limiting factors.

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC

117, 432, 729, 1185, 1186, 1841, 2080

New Zealand

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially released on Carduus nutans

subsp. nutans but also found feeding on 

Cirsium palustre. Impact to Ci. palustre

not studied formally; however, impact 

on preferred host (Ca. nutans subsp. 

nutans) insufficient to control the weed 

population.

Also feeds on the exotic hybrid of 

Carduus nutans L. subsp. nutans and 

Ca. acanthoides L. as well as the exotic 

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

DSIR

688, 761, 914, 915, 916, 1064, 1650

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium palustre; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 129

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium palustre (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The authors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However because specimens in North 

America have not been examined in 

greater detail utilizing the new keys, 

the editors of this catalogue must 

refer to them all with the only name 

under which they have appeared in 

North American literature, T. horridus. 

All three species are supposedly 

present in Australia. While it is 

believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Species

Notes (continued)

References

(continued at top of next column)

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

Canada

2007

Ex. Germany

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Redistributed from Carduus spp. to 

Cirsium palustre.

AAFC

117, 729

Asteraceae 

Cirsium palustre (continued)
130 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Asteraceae

Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.

Eurasia, northern Africa

spear thistle, bull thistle, Scotch 

thistle, common thistle, Fuller’s thistle

Cheilosia grossa (Fallén)

Cheilosia corydon (Harris)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2001

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Intentionally released on Carduus spp. 

but occasionally found attacking large 

rosettes of Cirsium vulgare, decreasing 

plant function and seed production. 

However, Carduus species are preferred 

over Cirsium.

Damage similar to that caused by this 

agent has been observed in several 

native thistles species (Cirsium edule

group), thus caution should be used 

when considering introduction of this 

fly into new areas. Also rarely found 

attacking Carduus acanthoides L., 

especially plants with large diameter 

stems (>10 mm).

State (15)

332, 334, 1506, 2002

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1990

Ex. France

No

VIC State

186, 1602

Australia

1994

Ex. France

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Isolated populations are established 

in VIC, some of which have spread up 

to 22 km from release sites. Formal 

evaluation is lacking. Next generation 

recoveries made in TAS though still too 

early to claim establishment.

VIC State, TAS State

186, 883, 1602
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 131

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1968

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Naturally spread from releases and/

or redistributions made on Carduus 

acanthoides and Ca. nutans. Carduus

spp. (especially nutans) are more 

preferred and receive higher attack, 

though still insufficient to reduce weed 

stands in absence of competition. 

Impact on Cirsium vulgare has not been 

formally studied but is likely to be low.

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC

117, 729, 742, 1186, 1628, 2080

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. France (western)

No

Compromised

Cirsium vulgare plants in area destroyed 

with herbicides soon after the release.

Other control methods

ARC-PPRI

821, 2073

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Release made on Silybum marianum

in 1985, which was subsequently 

considered failed due to herbicidal 

control. However, weevils successfully 

established at this site on Cirsium 

vulgare. Infected seed heads have 

significantly fewer seeds compared 

to uninfected seed heads. However 

weevils have been slow to disperse and 

numbers remain low overall; only 12.6% 

of seed heads attacked at release site, 

and damage decreases as the season 

progresses.

ARC-PPRI

637, 821, 992, 2073

Republic of South Africa

1986

Ex. France (western)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
132 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Population not distinguished from 

1985 release in the literature. Infected 

seed heads have significantly fewer 

seeds compared to uninfected seed 

heads. However weevils have been 

slow to disperse and numbers remain 

low overall; only 41.5% of seed heads 

attacked at release site, and damage 

decreases as the season progresses.

ARC-PPRI

821, 992, 2073

United States of America

1973

Ex. Italy, France (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Agents sourced from Carduus nutans

(Ex. France) and Ca. pycnocephalus

(Ex. Italy) found attacking Cirsium 

vulgare secondarily. Because Ci. 

vulgare flowers much later than the 

primary hosts, impact to this species is 

minimal.

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

State (15)

332, 335, 1457, 1506

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The authors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However because specimens in North 

America have not been examined in 

greater detail utilizing the new keys, 

the editors of this catalogue must 

refer to them all with the only name 

under which they have appeared in 

North American literature, T. horridus. 

All three species are supposedly 

present in Australia. While it is 

believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 133

Table

1 what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare (continued)

Australia

1996

Ex. Germany via Canada via New 

Zealand

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Redistributed from Carduus nutans

subsp. nutans to Cirsium vulgare. 

Individuals now established on Ca. 

nutans considered to be Trichosirocalus 

horridus while these on Ci. vulgare are 

T. horridus. Confirmed established at 

one site each in VIC and TAS though 

formal evaluation of dispersal and 

impact lacking. 

CSIRO, VIC State, NSW State

186, 886, 1602

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Following initial releases on Carduus 

acanthoides in VA, some 20% of 

Cirsium vulgare plants within release 

areas exploited by this agent. Also 

redistributed intentionally to Ca. 

acanthoides. Few plant roots found 

infested with this agent in WY. Status in 

KS unknown.

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. 

Observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

State (7,13)

47, 335, 710, 1010, 1578, 1778

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)
134 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora stylata (Fabricius)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

Evidence of insect presence in 

VIC varies by site and year. Where 

established, seed reduction up to 32% 

per capitulum has been recorded; 

capitula attack has varied 1 to 83%. 

Large amounts of seed still produced 

so control is not likely, though formal 

studies addressing impact are lacking. 

Establishment unconfirmed in NSW but 

confirmed for 2010 TAS release. 

CSIRO, VIC State, NSW State

186, 883, 886, 1602

Canada

1973

Ex. Germany, Switzerland

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Naturally dispersed from all release sites 

and now abundant. Cirsium vulgare

has decreased at most sites, likely due 

to combination of land use and attack 

by Urophora stylata and Rhinocyllus 

conicus.

AAFC, MU

117, 432, 437, 735, 744, 1469, 1628

Canada

1976

Ex. France, Austria

No

Compromised

Release site mowed one year after 

release and colony disappeared.

Land use

AAFC, MU

744, 1469, 1628

New Zealand

1998

Ex. France via Australia

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

Impact has not been evaluated in 

New Zealand.

MWLR

749, 761, 1051, 1064, 1602

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Urophora stylata (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 135

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1999

Ex. Germany, Switzerland via Canada 

via USA

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

Intermixed with and no longer 

differentiated from earlier release 

via Australia. Impact has not been 

evaluated in New Zealand.

MWLR

744, 761, 1051, 1064, 1506

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Germany (western)

No

Main population accidentally destroyed 

by herbicidal application. Secondary 

release site failed as well for unknown 

reasons.

Other control methods

ARC-PPRI

992, 2073

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. Germany (western), France 

(western)

No

ARC-PPRI

992, 2073

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. Germany (Rhine Valley)

No

ARC-PPRI

992, 2073

United States of America

1983

Ex. Germany, Switzerland via Canada

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations cyclical in OR, limited in 

CA, CO and WA. From 60 to 90% of 

seed heads attacked in some areas, 

which has reduced seed production by 

up to 60%. However, in general, difficult 

to maintain high fly populations on this 

short-lived weed.

USDA (1,7), State (9,14,15)

332, 334, 335, 926, 927, 1501, 1506, 

1578, 1799, 1902

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Urophora stylata (continued)

Asteraceae 

Cirsium vulgare; Urophora stylata (continued)
136 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Elephantopus mollis Kunth

Elephantopus scaber L. 

In the 4th edition of this catalogue, 

Elephantopus scaber L. was listed 

as a synonym for Elephantopus 

mollis Kunth. Though some release 

records indicate releases were made 

on both species in various regions, 

it is unclear if two species were truly 

present, or if both names were used 

for the same species. More recent 

references indicate the species are 

indeed separate and that the weed 

targeted for biological control is 

E. mollis. Consequently, the editors 

of this version of the catalogue refer 

to E. mollis alone, and list E. scaber

as a name that has been incorrectly 

applied to E. mollis. 

Central America, Caribbean

elephant’s foot, tobacco weed, lata 

hina, tobacco weed, tavoko ni veikau

817, 846

Tetraeuaresta obscuriventris (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Asteraceae 

Elephantopus mollis; Tetraeuaresta obscuriventris (continued)

Fiji

1957

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Though parasitized, agent is widely 

established with vast numbers. Control 

value documented as substantial, 

though formal evaluation of impact 

lacking.

Parasitism

DAF

288, 635, 961, 1376, 1547, 1940

Hawaii USA

1961

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji

Yes

High

Slight

Localized

Widespread and abundant following 

release. Partial control on KA initially, 

but more recently appears to be 

ineffective agent.

HDOA

30, 44, 407, 408, 409, 1149, 1349, 1940
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 137

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Gutierrezia spp.

Encompasses numerous species 

in the genus Gutierrezia, including 

the most problematic Gutierrezia 

sarothrae (Pursh) Britton & Rusby and 

G. microcephala (DC.) A. Gray

North America, South America

snakeweeds

Heilipodus ventralis (Hustache)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1988

Ex. Argentina

No

The target weed species are native to 

the USA.

USDA (3,13), State (35,40)

346, 460, 464

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Jacobaea vulgaris Gaertn.

Senecio jacobaea L.

Eurasia, northern Africa

ragwort, tansy ragwort

434, 891, 1064, 1450, 1777

Botanophila jacobaeae (Hardy)

Hylemyia jacobaeae (Hardy), 

Pegohylemyia jacobaeae (Hardy)

Hylemyia seneciella (Meade)

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

The introduction from New Zealand 

to Australia contained flies that were 

incorrectly identified as both Hylemyia 

seneciella (Meade) and H. jacobaeae

(Hardy). However a closer inspection 

showed they were all H. jacobaeae.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1959

Ex. England via New Zealand

No

CSIRO

305, 456, 564, 886, 891
138 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Botanophila jacobaeae (continued)

New Zealand

1936

Ex. England

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Can destroy large number of seeds in 

attacked heads, however most seed 

heads bloom later in season and escape 

herbivory.

Agent-host synchronization

DSIR

527, 720, 761, 835, 1064, 1246, 1769

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Botanophila seneciella (Meade)

Pegohylemyia seneciella (Meade), 

Hylemyia seneciella (Meade)

Hylemya seneciella (Meade)

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1968

Ex. France via USA (CA)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Botanophila seneciella (continued)

Canada (continued)

Though widely distributed throughout 

BC, abundance is low. Populations often 

restricted to small relic populations of 

weed less desired by other biocontrol 

agents. Unable to control weed alone 

but contributes to partial control in 

combination with Longitarsus spp. and 

Cochylis atricapitana.

Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 432, 434, 437, 594, 745, 746, 1469

New Zealand

1936

Ex. England

No

DSIR

527, 720, 835, 1064, 1246, 1769

United States of America

1966

Ex. France

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Least effective of the three tansy ragwort 

biological control agents established 

in the USA. Only early seed heads 

are utilized; later-developing capitula 

generally escape attack. Best used as a 

complement to the other two.

USDA (7,12), State (8,9,15)

332, 335, 338, 594, 1202, 1501, 1578, 

1836, 2003

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 139

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris (continued)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Cochylis atricapitana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cochylis atricapitana (Stephens)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1987

Ex. Spain

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Causes significant damage in VIC and 

TAS by reducing plant size and survival.

Possibly Predation

VIC State, TAS State

564, 886, 890, 891, 1228, 1229

Canada

1990

Ex. Spain via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Established readily in NS where 

controlled weed within 5 years and 

dispersed widely. In BC populations 

smaller and restricted to coastal regions; 

introductions into interior climates failed. 

Though likely contributes to partial 

control with Longitarsus spp., formal 

evaluation of impact lacking.

Climate

AAFC

117, 432, 434, 2003

New Zealand

2006

Ex. Spain via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

No evidence yet the agent has 

established.

MWLR

761, 891, 1064

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Longitarsus flavicornis (Stephens)

Longitarsus jacobaeae (Waterhouse)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The first release of Longitarsus 

flavicornis (Stephens) was originally 

misidentified as Longitarsus 

jacobaeae (Waterhouse) and released 

under that name in Australia in 

1979. The true L. jacobaeae was 

subsequently released in Australia 

in 1987.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1979

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)
140 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus flavicornis (continued)

Australia (continued)

Substantial to complete control in 

TAS. Less effective where there is 

winter flooding or water logging. In VIC 

effective above 500m at high rainfall 

sites, but failed to establish in warm, 

drier, coastal areas.

Climate; Habitat

VIC State

383, 564, 886, 887, 890, 891, 1229, 

1523

Australia

1985

Ex. Spain

Yes

Variable

Variable

This second introduction intermixed 

with earlier release and no longer 

differentiated. Substantial to complete 

control in TAS. Less effective where 

there is winter flooding or water logging. 

In VIC effective above 500m at high 

rainfall sites, but failed to establish in 

warm, drier, coastal areas.

Climate; Habitat

VIC State

564, 886, 891, 1229, 1523

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus jacobaeae (Waterhouse)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1987

Ex. Italy via USA (OR) via New Zealand

Yes

Variable

Variable

Establishment, spread and impact 

minimal in VIC. In TAS, populations 

established, however they overlap with 

the very similar Longitarsus flavicornis, 

and the species are no longer 

differentiated. 

VIC State

564, 886, 890, 891, 1229

Canada

1971

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations from numerous sources 

released in 1970s and not differentiated. 

Abundant in cool coastal climates but 

establishment failed or very limited 

in interior. Where populations large, 

controls weed well in conjunction with 

other biocontrol agents.

Climate

AAFC

25, 434, 437, 735, 745
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 141

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus jacobaeae (continued)

Canada

1972

Ex. England

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations from numerous sources 

released in 1970s and not differentiated. 

Abundant in cool coastal climates but 

establishment failed or very limited 

in interior. Where populations large, 

controls weed well in conjunction with 

other biocontrol agents.

Climate

AAFC

25, 434, 437, 735, 745

Canada

1973

Ex. Switzerland

No

Though originally recorded as 

established, subsequent establishment 

results and beetle phenology indicated 

the original Swiss biotype failed.

Climate

AAFC

25, 434, 437, 735, 745

Canada

1976

Ex. Italy via USA (OR)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations from numerous sources 

released in 1970s and not differentiated. 

Abundant in cool coastal climates but 

establishment failed or very limited 

in interior. Where populations large, 

controls weed well in conjunction with 

other biocontrol agents.

Climate

AAFC

25, 434, 437, 735, 745

Canada

2011

Ex. Switzerland via USA (MT)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Additional population from Switzerland 

released beginning to increase efficacy 

in cold habitats. Releases of this strain 

ongoing.

Climate

AAFC

434, 437, 745, 1538

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus jacobaeae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
142 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

New Zealand

1983

Ex. Italy via USA (OR)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Weed density declined dramatically at 

most sites soon after agent introduction. 

Sites with high rainfall less successful 

as these conditions favor the weed and 

hinder the agent.

Climate

DSIR

720, 761, 1064, 1769

United States of America

1968

Ex. Italy

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Most effective of established Jacobaea 

vulgaris agents. Has reduced J. vulgaris

populations densities by 90% at some 

coastal or mild-climate locations. Works 

well in conjunction with Tyria jacobaeae. 

USDA (7,12), State (8,9,15)

332, 338, 756, 1202, 1461, 1501, 1777, 

1836, 2003

United States of America

1969

Ex. Switzerland

No

USDA (7,12), State (8,9,15)

1777, 1836

United States of America

2002

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Better suited to climate where the Italian 

strain did poorly (inland, colder regions). 

Rapidly increasing at release sites in ID 

and MT, though populations still limited.

State (6,7), USDA (10)

334, 338, 1538, 1776, 1777, 2003

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus jacobaeae (continued)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus jacobaeae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 143

Table

1

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Platyptilia isodactyla (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1999

Ex. Spain

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Well established in VIC and TAS with 

capitulum production 48-67% less in 

attacked plants in VIC.

TAS State, VIC State

886, 891, 1275, 1418

New Zealand

2006

Ex. Spain via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Established readily and beginning 

to decrease weed population where 

released. Showing promising results 

complementing effects of Longitarsus 

jacobaeae.

MWLR

761, 891, 1064, 1084

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Tyria jacobaeae (L.)

Callimorpha jacobaeae (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1930

Ex. England via New Zealand

No

CSIR*

387, 564

Australia

1936

Ex. England

No

Establishment failure due to heavy 

predation by Harpobittacus nigriceps

(Selys) and other insects as well as 

disease outbreaks during laboratory 

rearing.

Predation; Disease

CSIR*

387, 564
144 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia

1955

Ex. England

No

Though some colonies initially survived 

in field, eventually disappeared due 

to heavy predation by Harpobittacus 

nigriceps (Selys) and other insects, 

parasitism, and disease outbreaks. 

Laboratory rearing severely impacted by 

disease outbreaks. 

Predation; Disease; Parasitism

VIC State, CSIRO

140, 456, 564, 1622

Australia

1955

Ex. Italy

No

Imported stock ill-adapted to Australian 

conditions; no progeny survived to 

achieve successful pupation.

Agent-host synchronization

VIC State

140, 456, 564, 1622

Australia

1962

Ex. Switzerland, Austria

No

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Each release established for up to 

3 seasons but eventually disappeared 

due to build-up of predation by insects 

and birds, parasitism, and disease.

Predation; Disease; Parasitism

VIC State

456, 564, 1621

Australia

1978

Ex. Switzerland via Canada; Ex. France 

via USA (CA) via Canada

No

One population persisted for 4 years, 

but all eventually disappeared. 

Predation, disease and environmental 

factors (poor climate matching) likely 

factors in disappearance. 

Predation; Disease; Climate

VIC State

456, 564, 746, 755, 1622

Australia

1993

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

Rare

None

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 145

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Though some colonies survived initially 

in TAS, eventually disappeared due 

to predation, parasitism, and lack of 

suitable pupation sites. One population 

established in VIC since 1994, however 

not spreading and impact expected to 

be negligible.

Predation; Parasitism; Habitat

TAS State, VIC State

883, 886, 890, 891, 1229

Canada

1961

Ex. Sweden

No

Predation; Parasitism

AAFC

746

Canada

1962

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Can cause complete defoliation of 

Jacobaea vulgaris which can lead to 

decreased winter survivorship and 

decreased seed production in some 

locations at some times. However, 

J. vulgaris populations persist in all 

major infested areas despite even high 

cases of defoliation. Weather-induced 

fluctuations of weed control insect 

populations rather than vice versa. 

Climate

AAFC

434, 743, 745, 746, 747, 1469

Canada

1966

Ex. France via USA (CA)

No

AAFC

117, 437, 746, 755

New Zealand

1929

Ex. England

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations vary by year and location. 

At high densities, severe defoliation has 

been observed killing plants, though 

most New Zealand populations are able 

to regrow. Rarely sufficient to markedly 

impact the weed.

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes
146 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

New Zealand (continued)

Occasionally found causing spillover 

attack on the native Senecio minimus

Poir. and S. biserratus Belcher

CI

720, 761, 1064, 1246, 1768, 1769

United States of America

1959

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations fluctuate; high densities 

often completely defoliate plants. In mild 

regions of CA, OR, WA the weed often 

re-grows and recovers sufficiently to 

successfully overwinter and reproduce. 

In the colder, harsher Intermountain 

West, frosts usually kill regrowth before 

plants fully recover so moth is more 

effective at reducing weed populations. 

Complements effect of Longitarsus 

jacobaeae. Due to observed nontarget 

attack, interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders.

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

United States of America (continued)

Predation; Parasitism; Disease

Documented attacking the introduced 

Senecio vulgaris L. and S. seneca, the 

ornamental Senecio bicolor (Willd.) Tod. 

(whose name has since been changed 

to Jacobaea maritima [L.] Pelser & 

Meijden) and the native S. integerrimus

Nutt., S. triangularis Hook. and Packera 

pseudaurea (Rydb.) W.A. Weber & Á. 

Löve. Consequently, interstate transport 

not permitted, and some states have 

prohibited its redistribution within their 

borders.

USDA (7,12), State (8,9,15)

332, 334, 338, 755, 756, 758, 1202, 

1457, 1461, 1501, 1836, 2003

Country

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Jacobaea vulgaris; Tyria jacobaeae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 147

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Mikania micrantha Kunth

Central America, South America

mile-a-minute weed, mikania vine, wa 

bosucu, wa butako

Actinote anteas (Doubleday)

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Costa Rica

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

Released intentionally against 

Chromolaena odorata, but quickly 

spread and established on Mikania 

micrantha as well. Along with Actinote 

thalia pyrrha, helps control weed in 

some lowland areas. Populations 

somewhat limited by predation.

Predation

IOPRI

416, 486, 2054

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Actinote thalia pyrrha Fabricius

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Released intentionally against 

Chromolaena odorata, but quickly 

spread and established on Mikania 

micrantha as well. Along with Actinote 

anteas, helps control weed in some 

lowland areas.

Also feeds on the exotic 

Austroeupatorium inulaefolium (Kunth) 

R.M. King & H. Rob.

IOPRI

416, 486, 2054
148 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Liothrips mikaniae (Priesner)

(Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malaysia

1990

Ex. Trinidad

No

Establishment failure due to predation.

Predation

IIBC, PLANTI

55, 290, 416, 878, 879, 1096

Solomon Islands

1988

Ex. Trinidad

No

Initially believed to have established 

from the 1989 release as subsequent 

redistributions made. However believed 

to have died out by 1990.

MAL, IIBC

290, 416, 1438, 1864

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia spegazzinii De Toni

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fiji

2009

Ex. Ecuador

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Isolate IMI 393075. Establishment 

higher in wetter regions. Having impact 

at several sites locally and continuing 

to spread, though it is too soon to 

determine overall abundance and 

impact.

Climate

KRS, SPC

416, 418, 424, 537

India

2005

Ex. Trinidad

No

Isolate IMI 393067. Failed to establish 

in Assam where biotype of weed 

resistant to this pathotype, and where 

dry season is long. Initially believed to 

thrive in Kerala where dry season short. 

Subsequent observations show it failed 

to establish persistent populations in the 

field.

Specificity; Climate

CABI-United Kingdom, KFRI

114, 537, 539, 1606
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 149

Table

1

Papua New Guinea

2008

Ex. Ecuador

Yes

High

Too early post release

Isolate IMI 393075. Established and 

spread rapidly, especially in wet regions. 

Already reducing growth rate and cover 

at some sites, but too soon post release 

to know overall impact.

Climate

Found infecting the native species 

Mikania cordata (Burm. f.) B.L. Rob.

NARI

416, 418, 424, 537

People’s Republic of China

2006

Ex. Argentina

No

Isolate IMI 393078. Though there 

was spread at the release site initially, 

currently believed to have failed. Does 

not establish or perform well at dry sites. 

Climate

CABI-United Kingdom, CAAS-BCI, GEI

416, 537, 538

People’s Republic of China

2011

Ex. Ecuador via Papua New Guinea

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Isolate IMI 393075. Established at three 

sites.

Climate

CABI-United Kingdom, CAAS-BCI, GAF

418, 418, 424, 764

Taiwan

2008

Ex. Ecuador

Yes

Variable

Too early post release

Isolate IMI 393075. Though still too 

early post release to determine overall 

impact, rust spread already observed 

from southern to central Taiwan. Does 

not establish or perform well at dry sites; 

high disease severity corresponds with 

humid and shaded hillsides.

Climate

CABI-United Kingdom, TFB

416, 418, 537, 538, 1844

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha; Puccinia spegazzinii (continued)

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha; Puccinia spegazzinii (continued)
150 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Vanuatu

2012

Ex. Ecuador via Papua New Guinea

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Isolate IMI 393075. Established and 

spreading on Efate and Tanna but too 

soon to assess impact.

Climate

DLQS

204, 418, 424

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae 

Mikania micrantha; Puccinia spegazzinii (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Onopordum acanthium L.

Eurasia, northern Africa

Scotch thistle

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1998

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Redistributed from Carduus nutans

to Onopordum acanthium. The single 

release site was monitored and an 

unknown larva recovered, however it 

was not confirmed to be Rhinocyllus 

conicus. Site status remains unknown.

Also feeds on native Cirsium spp. 

AAFC

117, 729, 1186
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 151

Table

1

United States of America

1973

Ex. France (Rhine Valley)

No

Sourced from Carduus nutans. 

Redistributed from Ca. nutans to 

Onopordum acanthium. Failure to 

establish likely due to strain being 

collected from host species different 

from release target.

Specificity

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

State (15)

332, 1457, 1501, 1578

United States of America

1973

Ex. Italy

No

Sourced from Carduus pycnocephalus. 

Failure to establish likely due to strain 

being collected from host species 

different to release target.

Specificity

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (1), State (15)

332, 335, 1457

United States of America

1976

Ex. Unknown

No

Though this release was likely a 

within-CA redistribution from other local 

sources, it remains unclear from which 

species and host plant it was originally 

sourced.

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

State (14)

231, 924, 1457, 1512

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. The editors of 

this revision stated “it is highly likely 

that the introductions originally made 

into Canada from Germany to control 

Carduus spp., as well as those into 

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae 

Onopordum acanthium; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae 

Onopordum acanthium; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
152 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 the United States from Italy to control 

Carduus spp. and Cirsium vulgare are 

either T. mortadelo sp. n. or a mixture 

of T. horridus and T. mortadelo sp. n.” 

However because specimens in North 

America have not been examined in 

greater detail utilizing the new keys, 

the editors of this catalogue must 

refer to them all with the only name 

under which they have appeared in 

North American literature, T. horridus. 

All three species are supposedly 

present in Australia. While it is 

believed Australia sourced their T. 

mortadelo from New Zealand, surveys 

in New Zealand yielded T. horridus

only, regardless of whether the host 

surveyed was Cirsium or Carduus. 

Molecular studies are currently 

underway to determine if the species 

complex is truly a complex, and to 

what level, but until new results are 

published the editors of this catalogue 

follow the published conclusion that 

three distinct Trichosirocalus species 

have been utilized in thistle weed 

biological control.

27, 689

Species

Notes (continued)

References

Trichosirocalus horridus (Panzer) 

Asteraceae 

Onopordum acanthium (continued)

Asteraceae 

Onopordum acanthium; Trichosirocalus horridus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Germany

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Naturally spread from releases and/or 

redistributions made on Carduus spp. 

and Cirsium vulgare. Also redistributed 

intentionally from Ca. nutans to 

Onopordum acanthium.

AAFC

117, 729, 735

United States of America

1994

Ex. Italy

No

Redistributed from Carduus nutans to 

Onopordum acanthium but failed to 

establish.

Also found feeding on five native 

Cirsium spp. in the USA. Consequently, 

interstate transport not permitted, 

and some states have prohibited its 

redistribution within their borders. Also 

observed on the exotic Cirsium arvense

(L.) Scop., though impact likely minimal.

State (15)

47, 332, 335, 710, 1578, 1778
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 153

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Onopordum acaulon L.

Eurasia, northern Africa

stemless thistle

Eublemma amoena (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2000

Ex. France (southern)

No

Redistributed from Onopordum spp. 

complex (O. acanthium, O. illyricum, 

and their hybrids) to O. acaulon. 

Establishment failure possibly due to 

poor weather condition at release time 

and prolonged drought post release.

Climate

CSIRO

1608

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae 

Onopordum acaulon (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus latus Herbst

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2001

Ex. Greece

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Redistributed from Onopordum spp. 

complex (O. acanthium, O. illyricum, and 

their hybrids) to O. acaulon.

CSIRO

171, 1759
154 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp.

Comprises Onopordum acanthium

L. (Scotch thistle) and O. illyricum L. 

(Illyrian thistle) as a complex of parent 

and hybrid forms in Australia

Eurasia, northern Africa

Scotch thistle, Illyrian thistle

Botanophila spinosa Rondani

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1999

Ex. France (southern)

No

CSIRO

171, 172, 175, 1418

Agent

Species

Classification

Eublemma amoena (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Australia

1998

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Limited

Medium

Localized

Observed reducing size of attacked 

plants. Currently the restricted range 

and low population sizes limit impact 

overall. 

CSIRO

171, 172, 175

Country

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Larinus latus Herbst

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1992

Ex. Greece

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Infests the majority of capitula in 

Onopordum patches on the mainland, 

significantly decreasing production/

release of viable seed. In combination 

with other agents contributes to control, 

though impact decreased somewhat 

by large and long-lived seed bank. 

Establishment in TAS confirmed though 

too early (for recent releases) to 

determine impact.

CSIRO

171, 175, 883, 886, 1758, 2012

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp.; Eublemma amoena (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 155

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Lixus cardui Olivier

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Most widely established agent on 

mainland Onopordum. Significantly 

decreases plant stature and seed 

production. In combination with 

other agents contributes to control. 

Establishment in TAS confirmed though 

too early (for recent releases) to 

determine impact.

CSIRO

168, 171, 175, 176, 883, 886, 1762, 

2012

Agent

Species

Classification

Tephritis postica Loew

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Australia

1995

Ex. France (southern)

No

Establishment failure probably due to 

adult winter mortality and over-dispersal 

of survivors.

Climate

CSIRO

171, 172, 175, 2012

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Trichosirocalus briesei AlonsoZarazaga & Sanchez-Ruiz

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

A 2002 revision of Trichosirocalus 

horridus (Panzer) concluded that this 

species was in fact a complex of three 

species, with distinct host plant genus 

preferences: T. horridus, T. mortadelo

Alonso-Zarazaga & Sánchez-Ruiz, 

and T. briesei Alonso-Zarazaga & 

Sánchez-Ruiz with preferences for 

Cirsium, Carduus, and Onopordum

thistles, respectively. All three are 

supposedly present in Australia. 

(continued on next page)

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp. (continued)

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp. (continued)
156 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1997

Ex. Spain (northern)

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Observed reducing size of attacked 

plants and killing smaller rosettes. 

Currently the restricted range and low 

population sizes limit impact overall. 

CSIRO

171, 175

Trichosirocalus briesei AlonsoZarazaga & Sanchez-Ruiz (continued)

Because there is a disagreement 

for the morphological parameters 

selected by taxonomists for this 

separation, molecular studies are 

currently underway to determine 

if the species complex is truly a 

complex, and to what level. Until new 

conclusions are reached, the editors 

of this catalogue follow the three 

published names of the separation.

27, 171, 175

Species

Notes

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora terebrans (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2000

Ex. Italy (central)

No

Difficult to rear and discarded after 

Larinus latus became widespread.

CSIRO

171, 172, 175, 1418

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp. (continued)

Asteraceae

Onopordum spp. (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 157

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus L.

North America, Central America, 

South America

parthenium weed, parthenium, 

congress grass

Bucculatrix parthenica Bradley

Bucculatrix sp. D

(Lepidoptera: Bucculatricidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

1984

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely established, populations 

vary by season and weather—

increasing in summer/autumn with 

high rainfall and becoming scarce in 

dry times. In favorable conditions up to 

50% of total leaf area is destroyed, but 

in general populations are low with no 

obvious impact on the weed.

Climate; Season

QLD State, IIBC

497, 1194, 1209, 1215

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Carmenta sp. nr ithacae

(Beutenmüller)

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

The population of Carmenta ithacae

from Parthenium hysterophorus in 

Mexico may be a different species 

from the more polyphagous 

population from the USA, and hence 

is referred to as Carmenta sp. nr. 

ithacae.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Though initially believed to be of 

only limited abundance, in summer 

2012 widespread establishment seen 

throughout central QLD; abundance and 

impact expected to continue to increase.

QLD State

493, 497, 1418

AsteraceaE (continued) Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus (continued)
158 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Conotrachelus albocinereus Fiedler

Conotrachelus sp.

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though established in central QLD is 

neither widespread nor abundant.

QLD State

497, 1222

Agent

Species

Classification

Epiblema strenuana (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1982

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Widely established throughout range 

of weed, reaching densities of 20 to 

30 larvae per plant. Major contributor 

to substantial control, especially 

when young plants attacked and in 

presence of pasture competition. Heavy 

infestations reduce plant height and 

seed production. Insect populations 

decline after long dry periods.

QLD State, IIBC

496, 497, 1209, 1215

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Listronotus setosipennis (Hustache)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1982

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though populations widespread, 

typically low abundance and only 

seasonally present in large numbers 

causing significant damage locally. More 

effective in alluvial or black soil and in 

regions with prolonged dry seasons and 

erratic rainfall.

Climate; Soil

QLD State

496, 497, 1209, 1969

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus (continued)

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Epiblema strenuana (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 159

Table

1

Australia

1991

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Variable

Collected from drier areas with hot 

summers and cool winters in attempt 

to improve agent’s effectiveness under 

drier conditions. Subsequently not 

differentiated from Brazilian population. 

Though widespread, typically low 

abundance and only seasonally present 

in large numbers causing significant 

damage locally. More effective in 

alluvial or black soil and in regions 

with prolonged dry seasons and erratic 

rainfall.

Climate; Soil

QLD State

437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Platphalonidia mystica (Razowski & 

Becker)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Australia

1992

Ex. Argentina

Yes

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Limited

Slight

Localized

Confirmed established since reared 

from field-collected stems, though at 

low levels. Larvae difficult to distinguish 

from the widely established Epiblema 

strenuana.

QLD State

496, 497, 679

Country

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia abrupta Dietel & Holw. var. 

partheniicola (H.S. Jacks.) Parmelee

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1991

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Established easily in southern QLD 

where impact only minor. Sporadic or 

absent in rest of state due to unsuitable 

dry conditions.

Climate

IIBC, QLD State

497, 561, 1431

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Listronotus setosipennis (continued)

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Platphalonidia mystica (continued)
160 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Puccinia xanthii Schwein. var. 

parthenii-hysterophorae Seier, H.C. 

Evans & Á. Romero

Puccinia melampodii Dietel & Holway

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Australia

2000

Ex. Mexico, USA (TX)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Established readily in northern QLD 

where dry summers caused low 

population levels and only minor impact. 

Sporadic or absent in rest of state due to 

unsuitable dry conditions.

Climate

QLD State

494, 495, 497

Republic of South Africa

2010

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Establishment hampered by destruction 

of release sites and host plant death 

due to dry conditions post-release. 

Spread recorded from MP release sites. 

Additional releases ongoing.

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Land use; Climate

ARC-PPRI, SASRI, WFW

992, 1737, 1738, 1739

Country

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Smicronyx lutulentus Dietz

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1981

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Originally believed to have failed 

field establishment; populations did 

not become abundant until 14 years 

following release. Though now widely 

established, incidence is sporadic. 

Impact varies from negligible during dry 

periods to significant seed reduction due 

to high insect populations after rain.

Climate

QLD State

496, 497, 1209, 1215, 1219

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus (continued)

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Puccinia xanthii (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 161

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Stobaera concinna (Stål)

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established on Parthenium 

hysterophorus in north QLD and on 

Ambrosia artemisiifolia in southeast 

QLD.

QLD State

494, 497, 1209, 1215

Agent

Species

Classification

Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1980

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Though widespread and abundant 

on Ambrosia artemisiifolia two years 

following introduction, populations did 

not become abundant on Parthenium 

hysterophorus until 12 years following 

release. Outbreaks of Zygogramma 

bicolorata cause complete defoliation 

that reduces plant vigor, reproductive 

output, weed density and soil seed 

banks. Outbreaks occur with sufficient 

summer rain and in central QLD but not 

in north.

Climate

QLD State, IIBC

496, 497, 1209, 1215, 1219

India

1984

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Variable

In some regions causes 100% 

defoliation, reducing weed population. 

In other areas, high densities still 

insufficient to control weed alone. Failed 

to establish is hot, dry regions.

Climate

Also feeds on the economically 

important Helianthus annuus L. (thus 

far with no evidence of economic loss 

to sunflower crops) and the exotic 

Xanthium strumarium L.

IIBC, IIHR, ICAR, KAU

499, 555, 905, 1034

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus (continued)

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Zygogramma bicolorata (continued)
162 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Sri Lanka

2004

Ex. Mexico via India

No

DASL

82, 499, 778

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Zygogramma bicolorata (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Pilosella aurantiaca (L.) F. W. Schultz 

& Sch. Bip.

Hieracium aurantiacum L.

Europe

orange hawkweed

Aulacidea subterminalis Niblett

(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

2011

Ex. Switzerland

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae (continued)

Canada (continued)

Few galls observed one year following 

release, though too early post release 

to confirm sustained establishment. 

Pilosella aurantiaca is not preferred 

host, so additional release efforts will 

focus on P. flagellaris.

Specificity

AAFC, CABI-Switzerland

427

United States of America

2011

Ex. Switzerland

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

State (7), CABI-Switzerland

1102, 1103

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Pilosella aurantiaca; Aulacidea subterminalis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 163

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Pilosella flagellaris (Willd.) Arv.-Touv.

Hieracium flagellare Willd.

Europe

whiplash hawkweed

Aulacidea subterminalis Niblett

(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

2011

Ex. Switzerland

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Few galls observed one year following 

initial release. Too early post release to 

confirm sustained establishment.

AAFC, CABI-Switzerland

437

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum Vaill.

Hieracium pilosella L.

Eurasia

mouse-ear hawkweed

Aulacidea subterminalis Niblett

(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1999

Ex. Switzerland, Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Field impact not formally evaluated but 

anecdotal evidence suggests will not 

be able to control weed alone. Drought 

limits survival.

Climate

Also feeds on the introduced Pilosella 

aurantiaca (L.) F. W. Schultz & Sch. Bip.

MWLR

690, 761, 1056, 1064, 1696, 1702
164 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cheilosia psilophthalma (Becker)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2006

Ex. Switzerland, Germany

No

Rearing difficulties resulted in only 

limited release where establishment not 

confirmed. 

MWLR

1052, 1056, 1064, 1702

Agent

Species

Classification

Cheilosia urbana (Meigen)

(Diptera: Syrphidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2006

Ex. Switzerland, Germany

No

Rearing difficulties resulted in only 

limited release where establishment not 

confirmed. 

MWLR

1052, 1056, 1064, 1702

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Macrolabis pilosellae (Binnie)

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2002

Ex. Switzerland, Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Field impact not formally evaluated but 

anecdotal evidence suggests it will not 

be able to control weed alone. Drought 

limits survival.

Climate

Also feeds on the introduced Pilosella 

piloselloides (Vill.) Sojak subsp. praealta

and P. caespitosa (Dumort.) P. D. Sell & 

C. West

MWLR

690, 761, 1052, 1056, 1064, 1696, 1702

Agent

Species

Classification

Oxyptilus pilosellae Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

New Zealand

1999

Ex. Switzerland, Germany

No

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 165

Table

1

New Zealand (continued)

Rearing difficulties resulted in release at 

only one site where it did not establish. 

MWLR

1064, 1702

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum; Oxyptilus pilosellae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia hieracii var. piloselloidarum

(Probst) Jørst.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1998

Ex. Ireland

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Initially an unintentional introduction 

that was later redistributed, but many 

Pilosella officinarum populations were 

resistant. Consequently two additional 

strains were deliberately introduced 

from Ireland to aid in control. Widely 

distributed and suppresses growth by 

10-20%. Infection highest under moist 

conditions, but impact greatest when 

infection followed by drought conditions.

Climate

ARNZ

761, 1064, 1702

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Pluchea carolinensis (Jacq.) G. Don

Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.

Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis

Though listed as the correct name 

for this weed in select references, 

Pluchea symphytifolia (Mill.) Gillis is 

not a true synonym of this weed and 

is now synonomized with a different 

taxon.

tropical Americas

sour bush, hairy fleabane

326, 978

Acinia picturata (Snow)

Acinia fucata Fabricius

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1959

Ex. Guatemala

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though established throughout the 

state, populations never reached 

densities sufficient to suppress weed. 

Typical seed destruction as low as 

5-6%.

HDOA, State (52)

29, 44, 399, 406, 612, 762, 1026
166 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Pluchea carolinensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Dichomeris aenigmatica (Clarke)

Trichotaphe aenigmatica Clarke

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

326, 1605

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1957

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

None

Ineffective control agent; parasitism may 

play role.

Parasitism

HDOA

44, 399, 406, 612, 762, 1026, 1349

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo

Centaurea repens L., Acroptilon 

repens (L.) DC.

Central Asia

Russian knapweed

792

Aulacidea acroptilonica Tyurebaev

(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Asteraceae (continued)

Canada

2008

Ex. Uzbekistan

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

AAFC, CABI-Switzerland

1613, 1614

United States of America

2009

Ex. Uzbekistan

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Too early post release to determine 

overall abundance and impact, though 

populations have significantly increased 

at one MT site. Parasitism becoming 

apparent.

State (7), CABI-Switzerland

1103, 1613, 1614

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 167

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Jaapiella ivannikovi Fedotova

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

2009

Ex. Uzbekistan

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

AAFC, CABI-Switzerland

1613, 1614

United States of America

2009

Ex. Uzbekistan

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Establishment also likely for CA but 

confirmation only tentative. Though too 

early post release to determine overall 

abundance and impact, initial results 

from first WY release site indicate 

attack reduces seed output per shoot 

by 91% and above-ground biomass by 

34%. Established at several sites in MT, 

but populations have not significantly 

increased.

State (7), USDA (19), CABI-Switzerland

334, 1103, 1613, 1614

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (continued)

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Subanguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Brzeski

Paranguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Kirjanova & Ivanova, Mesoanguina 

picridis (Kirjanova) Chizhov & 

Subbotin

(Tylenchida: Anguinidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1977

Ex. Kazakhstan

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though initially established in BC and 

SK, many release sites lost due to 

subsequent land use. No evaluations 

conducted since 2002 to confirm 

current establishment, abundance and 

impact. If still present, likely limited in 

establishment and impact, but most 

promising for spring-moist and irrigated 

sites.

Land use

AAFC, MU

117, 152, 742, 1944

United States of America

1984

Ex. Kazakhstan via Canada

No

USDA (7,10), State (9,13,15,21)

1469, 1501, 1596, 1597, 1944
168 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens; Subanguina picridis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1990

Ex. Turkey, Uzbekistan

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Reduces plant biomass and flowering, 

though infections not consistent from 

year to year due to varying moisture 

conditions. Lack of moisture limits 

survival. Does not move readily; needs 

to be propagated and redistributed on 

large scale. Not cost-effective. 

Climate

Also attacks to a lesser extent the 

native Centaurea rothrockii Greenman 

(whose name has since been changed 

to Plectocephalus rothrockii (Greenm.) 

D. J. N. Hind), the cultivated Cynara 

scolymus L. (whose name has since 

been changed to Cynara cardunculus

L. subsp. cardunculus), and maybe also 

attacks the exotic Centaurea diffusa

Lam.

USDA (7,10), State (9,13,15,21)

39, 74, 334, 335, 1101, 1596, 1597, 

1735

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.

Mediterranean, southwest Europe, 

northern Africa

milk thistle, variegated thistle

Rhinocyllus conicus (Frölich)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

In the USA, interstate shipment 

permits revoked in 2000, and not 

recommended for redistribution within 

each state.

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Australia

1988

Ex. France

Yes

Limited

None

Established at a few sites and some 

dispersal has occurred, but no impact 

detected on the weed.

VIC State

186, 1274

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 169

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

No

Compromised

Soon after release, the plants were 

destroyed with herbicides and weevils 

never became established on Silybum 

marianum, though they did establish at 

this site on Cirsium vulgare.

Other control methods

ARC-PPRI

637, 821, 992, 2073

United States of America

1969

Ex. France (Rhine Valley) via Canada

No

Sourced from Carduus nutans. Failure 

to establish likely due to strain being 

collected from host species different to 

release target. In CA, newly hatched 

larvae failed to exit from the large, outer 

bracts of milk thistle capitula upon which 

eggs hatched.

Specificity

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (7,9), State (5,14,15)

637, 645, 1457, 1830

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1971

Ex. Italy

Yes

Moderate

None

Sourced from Silybum marianum. 

Capable of causing significant amount 

of damage to capitula but often feed 

below seeds; all seeds rarely killed in 

any attacked seed head. Oviposition 

typically ends before all capitula 

produced. In TX, only infestations in 

moist, shady conditions attacked.

Habitat

Attacks 22 of 90 Cirsium spp. native to 

the USA. Interstate shipment permits 

revoked in 2000, and not recommended 

for redistribution within each state.

USDA (7,9), State (5,14,15)

38, 137, 332, 335, 637, 645, 1457, 

1506, 1578, 1830, 1837

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Silybum marianum; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)

Asteraceae

Silybum marianum; Rhinocyllus conicus (continued)
170 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Sonchus arvensis L.

Eurasia

perennial sow-thistle

Cystiphora sonchi (Bremi)

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Canada

1981

Ex. Austria

Yes

Variable

None

Populations widespread in SK and 

initially high in AB but since decreased 

due to parasitism. Populations fluctuate 

in many locations; extremely dry or 

moist soils reduce number of emerging 

adults. Reduction of Sonchus arvensis

in NS needs further study to determine 

whether this agent is responsible. No 

noticeable impact in other parts of 

range.

Parasitism; Habitat

Also found attacking the exotic Sonchus 

oleraceus L.

AAFC

432, 1185, 1196, 1472, 1475, 1480

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Liriomyza sonchi Hendel

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Austria

No

AAFC

1196, 1475

Tephritis dilacerata (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1979

Ex. Austria

No

AAFC

742, 1196, 1470, 1472, 1475

Asteraceae

Sonchus arvensis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 171

Table

1 Asteraceae

Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. 

Bip.

Tripleurospermum maritimum (L.) 

W. D. J. Koch subsp. inodorum (L.) 

Appleq., Matricaria perforata Mérat

Diploid and tetraploid forms occur in 

both Europe and North America.

Eurasia

scentless chamomile

60, 1195

Microplontus edentulus (Schultze)

Ceutorhynchus edentulus Schultze

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Canada

1997

Ex. Austria

Yes

Rare

None

Established only at one site. No 

evidence of impact in field. Larval mining 

in stems occurs too late to impact plant 

fitness, and mining in receptacles does 

not destroy seeds. Parasitism may play 

role in low population levels.

Parasitism

ARC

432, 1185, 1195, 1197

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Tripleurospermum inodorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Omphalapion hookerorum (Kirby)

Apion hookeri Kirby

Omphalapion hookeri (Kirby)

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

1195, 1286, 1934

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1992

Ex. Germany

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Releases of this population were 

intermixed in populations of those 

already present adventively and 

subsequently not distinguished. 

Up to 78% seed heads attacked by 

Omphalapion hookerorum and up to 

32% by Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi. 

Estimated seed production reduced up 

to 19% by combination of both species. 

Up to 17 O. hookerorum adults found 

per seed head (mean 3.9); dispersing 

up to 2.8 km/yr.

ARC, AAFC

117, 432, 1139, 1185, 1188, 1195, 1197, 

1481
172 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Tripleurospermum inodorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi 

Skuhravá & Hinz

Rhopalomyia n. sp.

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1999

Ex. Austria

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Up to 78% seed heads attacked by 

Omphalapion hookerorum and up to 

32% by Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi. 

Estimated seed production reduced up 

to 19% by combination of both species. 

Plants often stunted by heavy galling 

and have decreased and/or delayed 

flower production. Anecdotal reports 

suggest weed populations declining in 

areas with heavy attack. Dispersing up 

to 5.2 km/yr.

ARC

117, 432, 1185, 1195, 1197

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium L.

Xanthium pungens Wallroth, Xanthium 

occidentale Bertol., Xanthium italicum

Moretti, Xanthium canadense Mill.

A dozen or more taxa (treated as 

species, subspecies, varieties, 

and/or forms) are often referred 

to as Xanthium strumarium sens. 

lat. in Europe and America and are 

lumped as well by the editors of this 

catalogue/database. Four of these 

species are recognized in Australia 

within the Noogoora burr complex 

(Xanthium occidentale Bertol., X. 

italicum Moretti, X. orientale L., and 

X. cavanillesii Schouw). All Australian 

entries under this complex pertain 

to releases made against what 

Australian biological control workers 

referred to as X. occidentale. The 

Euaresta aequalis Loew entry in 

Fiji pertains to observations on X. 

strumarium L. and X. canadensis

Mill. The Ophraella communa

LeSage entry in Japan pertains to 

observations on X. strumarium L., 

X. canadensis Mill., and X. italicum

Moretti.

North America, South America, 

Central America

noogoora burr, cocklebur
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 173

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Epiblema strenuana (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1984

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established but generally at 

low densities. Not impacting the weed 

at current population levels. Limiting 

factor possibly lack of hosts when adults 

emerge from winter diapause.

Agent-host synchronization

QLD State

1215, 1874, 1880, 1881

Papua New Guinea

2002

Ex. Mexico via Australia

No

Two releases were made; both cultures 

died out before establishment could be 

confirmed, likely due to release sizes 

being too small.

Small release size

NARI

418, 427, 1881

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Euaresta aequalis Loew

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1932

Ex. USA (CA, KS, TX)

Yes

Limited

None

Distribution limited and established at 

low levels. When burs attacked, usually 

only one seed fed upon leading to no 

significant impact.

CSIR*, CPPB*, QLD State

1880, 1881, 1989

Fiji

1951

Ex. USA via Australia

No

Severe flooding following release may 

have led to the establishment failure.

Flooding

KRS

1374, 1376, 1547
174 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium (continued)

Mecas cana subsp. saturnina

(LeConte)

Mecas saturnina LeConte

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

1099, 1252

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1963

Ex. USA (TX)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Previously established at one site. No 

recent recoveries; possibly died out.

QLD State, CSIRO

753, 1880, 1881, 1936

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Nupserha vexator (Pascoe)

Nupserha antennata Gahan

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Australia

1964

Ex. India

Yes

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely established and 

frequently found at high densities, has 

provided little control.

QLD State, CSIRO

753, 1880, 1881, 1936

Fiji

1971

Ex. India

No

KRS

960

Fiji

1971

Ex. India via Australia

No

KRS

960

Country

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium; Nupserha vexator (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 175

Table

1

Azollaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides Lam.

North America, Central America, 

South America

Azolla, water fern, red water fern, fairy 

fern

Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

1997

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has not failed to control a single site 

where released, typically in <10 months. 

Azolla filiculoides no longer a significant 

problem in South Africa.

Also found in very low numbers on 

what was originally believed to be the 

indigenous Azolla pinnata R. Br. subsp. 

africana (Desv.) R. M. K. Saunders & 

K. Fowler, but which has since been 

identified as Azolla microphylla Kaulf.

ARC-PPRI

297, 800, 805, 992, 1199

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Zimbabwe

1999

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Took ~11 months to control the weed 

100% at three sites in Zimbabwe. 

The weed no longer poses a threat to 

aquatic ecosystems in southern Africa.

ARC-PPRI

418, 797, 804, 1199

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)
176 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Basellaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Basellaceae

Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis

South America

Madeira vine, potato vine, mignonette 

vine, jalap vine

Plectonycha correntina Lacordaire

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2011

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Release program ongoing. Initial results 

promising, but too early to assess 

overall impact and establishment at 

many sites.

QLD State, NSW State

118, 841, 1413, 1423, 1704

Bignoniaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandra unguis-cati (L.) L. G. 

Lohmann

Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) 

A.H.Gentry

tropical Americas

cat’s claw creeper

Carvalhotingis hollandi Drake

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Brazil, Argentina

Yes

Too early post release

Unknown

Unknown

Though confirmed established, impact 

unknown. Population build-up hindered 

by dry and hot climatic conditions and 

exposed sites.

Climate; Habitat

ARC-PPRI

982, 984, 992
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 177

Table

1

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandra unguis-cati (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Carvalhotingis visenda Drake & 

Hambleton

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2007

Ex. Paraguary; Ex. Brazil, Argentina via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Too early post release

Rate of spread from release sites slow. 

Under evaluation.

QLD State

492, 494, 500, 501

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Brazil, Argentina

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

Populations increasing; abundant at a 

local scale but not at all sites. Where 

large, causes die-back at points of 

growth on stems and widespread leaf 

defoliation. Establishment and population 

build-up hindered by dry and hot climatic 

conditions and exposed sites.

Climate; Habitat

ARC-PPRI

982, 984, 992

Agent

Species

Classification

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandra unguis-cati (continued)

Charidotis auroguttata Boheman

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1999

Ex. Venezuela

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Minimal population build-up and 

no signs of spread. Predation and 

parasitism tentatively assigned as 

factors limiting establishment and 

population growth.

Predation; Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

984, 992, 1713, 1971, 1972

Agent

Species

Classification

Hylaeogena jureceki Obenberger

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

2012

Ex. Brazil, Argentina via Republic of 

South Africa

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)
178 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Larvae and adults recovered from many 

release sites in QLD, but it is too early to 

confirm field establishment.

QLD State

494, 500

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though still too early to determine, 

establishment and population build-up 

not as successful as for Carvalhotingis 

visenda; both are hindered by dry and 

hot climatic conditions and exposed 

sites. Where established, foliar damage 

is minimal and no measurable impact 

on plant growth or biomass has been 

recorded.

Climate; Habitat

ARC-PPRI

982, 984, 992

Release

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandra unguis-cati; Hylaeogena jureceki (continued)

Bignoniaceae

Dolichandra unguis-cati (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2008

Ex. Brazil, Argentina via Republic of 

South Africa

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Larvae initially recovered from some 

release sites, but field establishment still 

not yet confirmed.

QLD State

492, 500, 1418

Republic of South Africa

2010

Ex. Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Establishment not yet confirmed. Under 

evaluation.

ARC-PPRI

498, 982, 984, 992
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 179

Table

1 Bignoniaceae

Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth var. 

stans

tropical Americas

yellow bells

Prospodium transformans (Ellis & 

Everh.) Cummins

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2010

Ex. Mexico

No

Establishment failure due possibly to 

combination of incomplete compatibility 

and very high temperatures post 

inoculation that appear to kill off 

infections. Evaluation underway.

Possibly host plant incompatibility; 

possibly climate

ARC-PPRI

1131, 2006

Bignoniaceae (continued) Boraginaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem. & 

Schult.

Cordia macrostachya (Jacq.) Roem. & 

Schult., Cordia cylindrostachya (Ruiz 

& Pav.) Roem. & Schult.

South and Central America, 

Caribbean

black sage

Eurytoma attiva Burks

Eurytoma sp. nr howardii D.T.

(Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Malaysia

1977

Ex. Trinidad via Mauritius

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Rapidly spread throughout country. 

Helped limit spread and dispersal 

by seed. Heavily parasitized, 

though populations recovered. With 

Metrogaleruca obscura reduced 

dominance of this weed such that 

it is no longer a problem.

Parasitism

DAMA

55, 71, 288, 318, 1396, 1678, 1845
180 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Mauritius

1949

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Destroys large proportion of fruit, 

severely limiting dispersal of plant. In 

conjunction with Metrogaleruca obscura, 

has led to complete control of plant such 

that it is no longer considered a weed on 

Mauritius.

IIBC

288, 586, 668, 1973

Sri Lanka

1978

Ex. Trinidad via Mauritius via Malaysia

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Spread quickly. Locally, damage 

observed to be severe with up to 80% 

of seed destroyed. Overall impact 

not recently evaluated, but along with 

Metrogaleruca obscura, successful 

control had been predicted to be likely 

soon after original releases.

IIBC, DASL

288, 1679

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Boraginaceae

Cordia curassavica; Eurytoma attiva (continued)

Boraginaceae

Cordia curassavica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Metrogaleruca obscura (Degeer)

Schematiza cordiae Barber

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Malaysia

1977

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Spread throughout peninsular Malaysia. 

Caused extensive defoliation and 

reduced plant size. Heavily predated, 

though populations recovered. With 

Eurytoma attiva reduced dominance 

of this weed such that it is no longer a 

problem.

Predation

DAMA

55, 71, 288, 318, 1678, 1845

Mauritius

1948

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 181

Table

1

Boraginaceae

Cordia curassavica; Metrogaleruca obscura (continued)

Mauritius (continued)

Causes complete defoliation and 

suppression of flowering over large 

areas. In conjunction with Eurytoma 

attiva, has led to complete control of 

plant such that it is no longer considered 

a weed on Mauritius.

IIBC

288, 586, 668, 1675, 1973

Sri Lanka

1978

Ex. Trinidad via Malaysia

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Established, spreading and causing 

extensive defoliation at local level. 

Overall impact not recently evaluated, 

but along with Eurytoma attiva, 

successful control had been predicted to 

be likely soon after original releases.

IIBC, DASL

288, 1679

Release

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Boraginaceae

Cordia curassavica (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Physonota alutacea Boheman

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1947

Ex. Trinidad

No

Not established, apparently due to ant 

predation.

Predation

IIBC

288, 586, 668, 1675
182 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Cynoglossum officinale L.

Eurasia

houndstongue

Longitarsus quadriguttatus

(Pontoppidan)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1998

Ex. Austria

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Last confirmed present in AB in 2009, 

but Mogulones crucifer subsequently 

destroyed all known individuals of 

Cynoglossum officinale and Longitarsus 

quadriguttatus has not been found 

since. No formal evaluations conducted 

where still present in BC. Recent 

qualitative observations on decreases 

in agent populations may suggest that 

overall impact is limited. Given high 

success of M. crucifer, continued use of 

L. quadriguttatus not recommended.

AAFC

117, 432, 436, 437, 440, 1629

Boraginaceae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Mogulones crucifer (Pallas)

Mogulones cruciger Herbst, 

Ceutorhynchus cruciger Herbst

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1997

Ex. Hungary, Serbia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Readily established, rapidly reduced 

weed populations throughout release 

area and beyond

Also feeds on native and other 

introduced species in the Boraginaceae, 

but sporadically and to a lesser amount 

than on its preferred host Cynoglossum 

officinale L.

AAFC

40, 117, 432, 435, 436, 440, 442

Boraginaceae

Cynoglossum officinale (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 183

Table

1

Boraginaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum L.

Spain, Portugal, northern Africa

Paterson’s curse, salvation Jane

Dialectica scalariella (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1980

Ex. France, Portugal

No

Loss of plants due to drought and 

grasshoppers contributed to failure at 

some sites. Further releases prevented 

by High Court injunction.

Climate; Predation

CSIRO

454, 458, 1661

Australia

1988

Ex. France, Portugal

Yes

Moderate

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Releases resumed in 1988 following 

the lifting of High Court injunction after 

government inquiries found that control 

of the weed would be in the national 

interest. Spread throughout temperate 

range of weed but failed in upland 

areas of VIC and likely all TAS due to 

high mortality in winter. Lack of host 

over summer second factor implicated 

limiting population growth. Occasional 

heavy damage, particularly to droughtstressed plants, but in general not 

contributing to control.

Agent-host synchronization; Climate

Commonly attacks other temperate 

herbaceous native and introduced 

Boraginaceae.

VIC State, QLD State, NSW State, 

SA State, WA State

121, 458, 886, 1335, 1500, 1574, 1656, 

1661, 1929

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum; Dialectica scalariella (continued)
184 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus aeneus Kutschera

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. France, Spain

No

Could not rear in quarantine and 

direct field release of larvae-infested 

plants failed to establish due to poor 

seasonal synchrony of release and 

synchronization with host plant. 

Agent-host synchronization

CSIRO, VIC State

1500, 1655, 1656, 1661

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus echii (Koch)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1996

Ex. France, Spain

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Establishment rates of 84%. Kills plants 

before flowering, causes economically 

significant reductions in plant density. 

Abundance and impact typically high on 

mainland, but can be variable as most 

effective agent in drier Mediterranean 

climate areas. Early TAS releases failed 

due to site management issues, but 

establishment confirmed following 2008 

releases.

Climate; Land use

CSIRO, VIC State

121, 366, 883, 886, 1277, 1574, 1655, 

1656, 1661

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum; Longitarsus echii (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Meligethes planiusculus (Heer)

(Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1996

Ex. France, Portugal

Yes

Moderate

None

Spread rapidly and currently established 

widely but not at high enough densities 

to limit seeding. Overall impacts 

negligible.

CSIRO

121, 366, 1335, 1574, 1655, 1656, 

1661, 1760
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 185

Table

1

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Mogulones geographicus (Goeze)

Ceutorhynchus geographicus (Goeze)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. France, Portugal

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Widespread. Initially observed 

dispersing prior to population build-up; 

more recently populations increasing 

greatly at several locations around 

Australia. Attack more frequent on 

larger plants. While significant damage 

observed locally, contribution to control 

difficult to measure overall.

CSIRO, VIC State

121, 366, 886, 1335, 1500, 1574, 1655, 

1656, 1661, 1761

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Mogulones larvatus (Schultze)

Ceutorhynchus larvatus Schultze

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Australia

1990

Ex. France

No

Establishment failure due to low release 

numbers and being out of synchrony 

with the Australian season.

Agent-host synchronization; Small 

release size

CSIRO

366, 1651, 1655, 1656, 1661

Australia

1992

Ex. France, Portugal

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Established widely building up to very 

high densities locally on mainland. 

Causes pre-flowering plant mortality 

50-80%. Negatively affected by 

drought and late autumn rains that limit 

aestivation survival. Major contributor 

to control of this weed in high rainfall 

areas. Early TAS releases failed 

due to site management issues, but 

establishment confirmed following 

2008 releases.

(continued on next page)
186 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Boraginaceae

Echium plantagineum; Mogulones larvatus (continued)

Country

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia (continued)

Climate; Land use

Also attacks the exotic Echium vulgare L.

CSIRO, VIC State, WA State, SA State, 

NSW State

121, 366, 883, 886, 1276, 1500, 1655, 

1656, 1661, 1662

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Opsilia coerulescens (Scopoli)

Phytoecia coerulescens (Scopoli)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

293, 1108

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

None

Only present in low numbers in NSW but 

widespread in northern VIC. Ineffective; 

no difference found in plant performance 

between attacked and unattacked 

plants. 

Also attacks the exotic Echium vulgare

L. and the native Cynoglossum australe

R.Br. Damage on the latter was very low 

and the larvae were small, restricted by 

the size of the flowering stem.

CSIRO, VIC State

1107, 1335, 1574, 1656, 1661

Boraginaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium amplexicaule Vahl

South America

blue heliotrope

Deuterocampta quadrijuga (Stäl)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2001

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Observed causing severe localized 

damage though formal evaluation of 

overall impact lacking.

CSIRO

170, 177, 178, 1418
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 187

Table

1

Boraginaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium europaeum L.

Mediterranean Europe, northern Africa

common heliotrope

Longitarsus albineus (Foudras)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1979

Ex. Greece

No

Though small numbers found season 

following release, subsequent drought 

conditions limited host availability and 

insects died out. 

CSIRO

453, 456, 457, 1659

Australia

1981

Ex. France, Greece

No

Though small numbers found season 

following release, subsequent drought 

conditions limited host availability and 

insects died out. 

CSIRO

456, 457, 1659

Australia

1987

Ex. Unknown

No

Thousands of mass-reared adults 

released though establishment failed. 

Small numbers found few seasons 

following releases but never again after 

1992 despite presence of host.

CSIRO

457, 1656, 1659

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium europaeum; Longitarsus albineus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Uromyces heliotropii Sred.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1991

Ex. Turkey

Yes

Rare

None

Occasional sightings but no apparent 

impact. Poor establishment due to 

climate (too dry at some release sites) 

and inability of overwintering teliospores 

to synchronize germination with 

reappearance of target in spring; target 

annual and ephemeral. 

Climate; Agent-host synchronization 

CSIRO

457, 752, 1656, 1658, 1659
188 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) 

Hummelinck

Acanthocereus pentagonus (L.) 

Britton & Rose

southern North America to northern 

South America

sword pear

1112, 1224

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles) (continued)

Species

Notes (continued)

(continued at top of next column)

Cactaceae

Acanthocereus tetragonus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

This cactus species slower growing and 

has fewer spine clusters than others, 

leaving Hypogeococcus festerianus

more vulnerable to predation and 

limiting population size. Weed only 

occurs in limited areas in central QLD 

where H. festerianus causes deformed 

growth. No evaluation undertaken on 

this cactus, but main infestation has 

greatly reduced in extent and control is 

regarded as adequate.

Predation

QLD State

847, 1224
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 189

Table

1

New Caledonia

2003

Ex. Argentina via Australia

No

Establishment failure likely due to too 

small of release number, a result of 

difficulties in quarantine rearing.

Small release size

QLD State, DDR

179, 1224

New Caledonia

2007

Ex. Argentina via Australia

No

Establishment failure due to difficulties 

in rearing and observations that 

Acanthocereus tetragonus might be 

unsuitable host.

Specificity

QLD State, DDR

623, 1216, 1224

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae; Acanthocereus tetragonus 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

Cactaceae

Acanthocereus tetragonus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher)

Alcidion cereicola Fisher

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252, 1437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1979

Ex. Argentina

No

QLD State

1216, 1217, 1220, 1224
190 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Cereus jamacaru DC. subsp. 

jamacaru

Cereus jamacaru DC.

Cereus peruvianus (L.) Miller

For many years the South African 

populations have been referred to by 

the misapplied name C. peruvianus

(L.) Miller, and more recently to C. 

jamacaru DC. In the present work, 

South African populations have 

largely been assigned to two taxa: 

Cereus hildmannianus K. Schum. 

subsp. uruguayanus (R. Kiesling) 

N. P. Taylor is cultivated in South 

Africa and should be treated at 

least as potentially invasive while 

C. jamacaru DC. subsp. jamacaru

is widely naturalized and invasive 

in South Africa. Biological control 

efforts of Cereus spp. have largely 

been reported for C. jamacaru subsp. 

jamacaru, but could also apply to C. 

hildmannianus subsp. uruguayanus.

South America

queen of the night, bobbejaanpaal, 

môrester, nagblom

1930

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Cactaceae (continued) Cactaceae

Cereus jamacaru (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 191

Table

1

Cactaceae

Cereus jamacaru; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released onto Harrisia martinii but 

also attacked Cereus jamacaru subsp. 

jamacaru on which it reduces fruit 

production and leads to death of both 

seedlings and large plants. Biocontrol 

program against this weed is now 

considered complete.

ARC-PPRI

991, 992, 993, 1340, 1437

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher)

Alcidion cereicola Fisher

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252, 1437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Released onto mixed cacti stand 

containing both Harrisia martinii and 

Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru in 

1990. Redistributed from C. jamacaru

subsp. jamacaru to another mixed stand 

with H. martinii and C. jamacaru subsp. 

jamacaru in 1997. Only established at 

a few sites but does extensive damage 

where populations reach high levels, 

causing large stem sections to break 

off, or entire plant to collapse. Biocontrol 

program against this weed now 

considered complete, though throughout 

much of South Africa this is largely due 

to Hypogeococcus festerianus.

ARC-PPRI

991, 992, 993, 1258, 1437

Cactaceae

Cereus jamacaru (continued)
192 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. fulgida

Cylindropuntia rosea (DC.) Backeb.

In South Africa, Cylindropuntia fulgida

(Engelm.) F.M. Knuth var. fulgida was 

known for many years incorrectly 

as C. rosea (DC.) Backeb., which is 

similar and closely related.

Mexico, southern USA

chain-fruit cholla

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Republic of South Africa

1970

Ex. USA (TX) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Imbricata biotype, redistributed from 

Cylindropuntia imbricata to C. fulgida

var. fulgida. Following release, not 

as effective as on C. imbricata and 

C. leptocaulis. This was later shown 

to be due to existence of different 

biotypes, with this “Imbricata” biotype 

not preferring C. fulgida var. fulgida. 

Presently kills some small plants, but 

largely ineffective against large plants. 

Overall impact minimal.

Specificity

ARC-PPRI

840, 992, 993, 1165, 1167, 1258, 1437

Republic of South Africa

2003

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Cholla biotype. Established rapidly 

and colonized entire infestations at 

most sites of release. Pugnacious ants 

preventing establishment at some 

sites in NC. Now redistributed in lieu 

of herbicide applications. Particularly 

effective against small plants but 

also defoliates large plants which, 

following hand felling, then succumb 

without reproducing. Despite additional 

predation by coccinellids, Cylindropuntia 

fulgida var. fulgida is now considered 

under complete control.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

992, 993, 1166, 1167, 1258, 1437

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae; Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida 

Dactylopius tomentosus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 193

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

2011

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. mamillata (A. Schott ex 

Engelm.) Backeb.

Mexico, southern USA

boxing glove cactus (applied only 

to the crested morphotype, forma 

monstrosa), coral cactus

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Cholla biotype, redistributed from 

Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida to 

C. fulgida var. mamillata. Has nearly 

wiped out the plants at first release site. 

Though releases have been limited 

thus far, establishment has occurred at 

most sites. Pugnacious ants preventing 

establishment at some locations, and 

some populations limited by coccinelid 

predation.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

993, 1437

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae; Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata 

Dactylopius tomentosus (continued)
194 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia imbricata (Haw.) F.M. 

Knuth

Opuntia imbricata (Haw.) DC.

Mexico, southern USA

imbricate prickly pear, kabelturksvy, 

devil’s rope, rope pear

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

Dactylopius newsteadi

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Australia

1925

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Rapid establishment and very effective 

on small or re-growing plants, but less 

so on larger plants. Populations initially 

high but decreased once small target 

weeds largely eradicated. Populations 

also somewhat limited by predation. 

Still controls the weed to a very low 

distribution, killing any seedlings 

around established plants.

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Australia (continued)

Predation

Also established on the introduced 

Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) F.M. 

Knuth and C. tunicata (Lehm.) F.M. 

Knuth on which it has significant impact 

and on the introduced C. rosea (DC.) 

Backeb. on which it is ineffective.

CPPB*

509, 753, 840, 847, 1989

Republic of South Africa

1970

Ex. USA (TX) via Australia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Imbricata biotype. Particularly 

effective against small plants but 

also defoliates large plants which, 

following hand felling, then succumb 

without reproducing. Chemical or 

mechanical control needed occasionally 

to supplement the agents, but overall 

impacts of biological control are 

significant. 

ARC-PPRI

840, 992, 993, 1165, 1167, 1258, 1342, 

1437

Country

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae 

Cylindropuntia imbricata; Dactylopius tomentosus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 195

Table

1 Metamasius spinolae (Gyllenhal)

(Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

1974

Ex. Mexico

No

Redistributed from Opuntia ficus-indica

to Cylindropuntia imbricata.

ARC-PPRI

50, 992, 1258

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae 

Cylindropuntia imbricata (continued) Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) F.M. 

Knuth

Mexico, southern USA

pencil cactus, desert Christmas 

cactus, desert Christmas cholla, 

potloodkaktus

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1977

Ex. USA (TX) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Imbricata biotype, redistributed 

from Cylindropuntia imbricata to C. 

leptocaulis. Successfully controlled 

practically all known infestations. 

Isolated plants are still found, but 

no additional control measures are 

necessary.

ARC-PPRI

840, 992, 993, 1258, 1437, 1930
196 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Cactaceae

Harrisia balansae (K. Schum.) N. P. 

Taylor & Zappi

Harrisia bonplandii (Pfeiff.) Britton & Rose

South America

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Cactaceae 

Harrisia balansae; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2006

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Though initially introduced for control 

of Harrisia martinii, causing extensive 

damage to H. balansae as well.

ARC-PPRI

992, 1224
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 197

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Harrisia martinii (Labour.) Britton

Eriocereus martinii (Labour.) Riccob.

Argentina, Paraguay

Harrisia cactus, moon cactus, 

toukaktus

Cactoblastis sp. nr doddi

Cactoblastis sp.

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1978

Ex. Argentina

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially believed to have failed 

establishment. Small population 

possibly found on Cylindropuntia 

tunicata in central QLD in 2013. As C. 

tunicata is not the normal field host, 

small population may be persistent on 

Harrisia spp. Confirmation in 2013/2014 

required.

QLD State

847, 1214, 1216, 1220, 1224

Eriocereophaga humeridens O’Brien

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1976

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment occurred at some sites 

but colonies died out as host plant 

was destroyed by Hypogeococcus 

festerianus. Not established. 

Interspecific competition

QLD State

847, 1220, 1224

Cactaceae 

Harrisia martinii (continued)
198 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1975

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established rapidly and developed large 

populations. Within 3 years large plants 

killed, by 1979 chemical treatment was 

ended in favor of biological control using 

this insect.

QLD State

847, 1220, 1224, 1816

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Despite heavy predation in the field, has 

been a very effective biocontrol agent 

and has killed off large infestations of 

the weed in South Africa. Biocontrol 

program against this weed now 

considered complete.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

991, 992, 1224, 1258, 1437

Cactaceae 

Harrisia martinii (continued)

Cactaceae 

Harrisia martinii; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 199

Table

1

Cactaceae 

Harrisia martinii (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher)

Alcidion cereicola Fisher

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252, 1437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1974

Ex. Argentina

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially widely established and very 

effective in killing top growth of large 

Harrisia plants. Spread slow. Small 

plants and regrowth not suitable for 

larval development; progressively 

out-competed by Hypogeococcus 

festerianus. Not surveyed specifically 

since 1990s so unknown if still present. 

If established, populations likely rare 

and with negligible impact.

Interspecific competition

QLD State

1216, 1217, 1220, 1224, 1816

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

First released onto mixed cacti stand 

containing both Harrisia martinii and 

Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru. 

Redistributed from C. jamacaru subsp. 

jamacaru to another mixed stand with 

H. martinii and C. jamacaru subsp. 

jamacaru. Only limited establishment. 

Where populations reach high densities, 

can cause large stem sections to 

break off. Plants can re-grow following 

attack. Biocontrol program against 

this weed now considered complete, 

though throughout much of South Africa 

this is largely due to Hypogeococcus 

festerianus.

ARC-PPRI

991, 992, 993, 1258

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae 

Harrisia martinii; Nealcidion cereicola (continued)
200 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Harrisia regelii (Weing.) Borg

Eriocereus regelii (Weing.) Backeb.

Harrisia pomanensis (F. A. C. Weber 

ex K. Schum.) Britton & Rose, Harrisia 

bonplandii (Parmentier) Britton & 

Rose, Eriocereus ?bonplandii (Parm. 

ex Pfeiff.) Riccob.

Initially identified as Eriocereus regelii

(Weing.) Backeb. in Australia. This 

was subsequently believed to have 

been a misidentification so the name 

was later reported as Eriocereus

?bonplandii (Parm. ex Pfeiff.) Riccob.; 

E. bonplandii was later synonomized 

with Harrisia pomanensis (F. A. C. 

Weber ex K. Schum.) Britton & Rose. 

A recent re-examination of Australian 

material indicated the species in 

question is H. regelii (Weing.) Borg 

(the new name for E. regelii). 

Argentina

Harrisia cactus

35, 588, 1092

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

(continued at top of next column)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles) (continued)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Species

Notes

Cactaceae 

Harrisia regelii (continued)

Australia

1982

Ex. Argentina

Yes

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 201

Table

1

Australia (continued)

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Provides effective control.

QLD State

847, 1216, 1224

Country

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae 

Harrisia regelii; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher)

Alcidion cereicola Fisher

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252, 1437

Australia

1974

Ex. Argentina

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially widely established and very 

effective in killing top growth of large 

Harrisia plants. Spread slow. Small 

plants and regrowth not suitable for 

larval development; progressively 

out-competed by Hypogeococcus 

festerianus. Not surveyed specifically 

since 1990s so unknown if still present. 

If established, populations likely rare 

and with negligible impact.

Interspecific competition

QLD State

1216, 1217, 1224

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae (continued)

Cactaceae

Harrisia tortuosa (J. Forbes ex Otto & 

A. Dietr.) Britton & Rose

Eriocereus tortuosus (J. Forbes ex 

Otto & A. Dietr.) Riccob.

Harrisia tortuosus (Forbes) Britton & 

Rose

Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay

Millmerran Harrisia cactus

Cactoblastis sp. nr doddi

Cactoblastis sp.

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Argentina

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially believed to have established 

while causing very little damage; 

later recorded as not established. 

Small population possibly found on 

Cylindropuntia tunicata in central QLD 

in 2013. As C. tunicata is not the normal 

field host, small population may be 

persistent on Harrisia spp. Confirmation 

in 2013/2014 required.

QLD State

847, 1214, 1216, 1224
202 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Harrisia tortuosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Cactaceae

Harrisia tortuosa; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1976

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established rapidly and developed large 

populations. Within 3 years large plants 

killed, by 1979 chemical treatment was 

ended in favor of biological control using 

this insect.

QLD State

847, 1216, 1220, 1224

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Nealcidion cereicola (Fisher)

Alcidion cereicola Fisher

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252, 1437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1976

Ex. Argentina

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 203

Table

1

Cactaceae

Harrisia tortuosa; Nealcidion cereicola (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia (continued)

Initially widely established and very 

effective in killing top growth of large 

Harrisia plants. Spread slow. Small 

plants and regrowth not suitable for 

larval development; progressively 

out-competed by Hypogeococcus 

festerianus. Not surveyed specifically 

since 1990s so unknown if still present. 

If established, populations likely rare 

and with negligible impact.

QLD State

847, 1216, 1217, 1224

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca Lindl.

Argentina, Uruguay

jointed cactus, tiger pear, katjie

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1926

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Australia (continued)

Initially released against Opuntia stricta, 

but naturally spread and attacks this 

species as well. Contributes to control 

in some areas by killing small stems 

and young growth; in most regions plant 

recovers quickly and not killed by attack.

Also attacks the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck, O. elatior

Mill., and O. humifusa (Raf.) Raf. 

Spillover attack found on melons and 

tomatoes.

CPPB*

130, 509, 510, 511, 753, 844, 845, 847, 

1989

Republic of South Africa

1933

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Released intentionally and redistributed 

on Opuntia ficus-indica, but naturally 

spread to O. aurantiaca growing in 

the vicinity of release sites. Causes 

temporary destruction of above ground 

surface parts of weed, though the plant 

recovers rapidly. Small plants which 

have not formed tuberous underground 

growth, however, often completely killed. 

Overall not effective in the control of this 

cactus.

(continued on next page)

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
204 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Occasionally found providing 

incomplete control on the exotic 

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. fulgida, C. imbricata (Haw.) 

F.M. Knuth., Opuntia monacantha

(Willd.) Haw., O. spinulifera SalmDyck, O. salmiana J. Parm. ex Pfeiff., 

and Austrocylindropuntia subulata

(Muehlenpf.) Backeb.

ARC-PPRI

992, 1258, 1259, 1490, 2071

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Australia

1933

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Increased rapidly following introduction. 

Provides successful control in all areas. 

Most damaging in hot dry times and less 

so in hot wet seasons.

Climate

CPPB*

511, 844, 845, 847, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1935

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Variable

High populations can decimate 

Opuntia aurantiaca populations, 

however populations of Dactylopius 

austrinus are variable. O. aurantiaca

infestations increase in density during 

wet years, which favor the plant but 

not D. austrinus, and decrease during 

dry years. The insect has successful 

wave of attack then deteriorates due to 

extensive regrowth from underground 

tubers and loose lying joints. Predation 

significant in the past, but rarely 

problematic in mature colonies at 

present.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

992, 993, 1256, 1259, 1342, 1490

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca; Dactylopius austrinus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 205

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1935

Ex. Argentina

No

CPPB*

511, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara prodenialis Walker

Zophodia prodenialis Walker, 

Melitara bollii (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1928

Ex. USA (TX)

No

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 944, 1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Mimorista pulchellalis Dyar

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1979

Ex. Argentina

No

Initially established at low levels. 

Subsequently assumed to have died 

out.

ARC-PPRI

992, 1259, 1348

Agent

Species

Classification

Nanaia sp.

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Peru

No

ARC-PPRI

834, 992, 1259, 2074
206 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Tucumania tapiacola Dyar

Zophodia tapiacola (Dyar)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1935

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Rare

Variable

Can be locally damaging in some areas 

at some times but generally rare in field.

Also attacks (albeit mildly) the exotic 

Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf., O. stricta

(Haw.) Haw. and Harrisia martinii

(Labour.) Britton

CPPB*

844, 845, 847, 1989

Republic of South Africa

1976

Ex. Argentina

No

Initially believed to have established, but 

has since died out. Predation and hostplant incompatibility limited populations.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

992, 1256, 1259

Republic of South Africa

1982

Ex. Argentina

No

Predation limited populations.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

992, 1259

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia aurantiaca; Tucumania tapiacola (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia elatior Mill.

Caribbean, Central America, 

Colombia, Venezuela

prickly pear

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

India

post 1863

Ex. Brazil, Mexico

No

Redistributions from Opuntia 

monacantha to O. elatior failed as this 

species is specific to O. monacantha.

Specificity

1548, 1831
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 207

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia elatior (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

India

1926

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia via 

Sri Lanka

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widely established giving complete 

control.

635, 1542, 1548

Indonesia

1935

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established rapidly throughout Sulawesi 

Island, providing complete control by 

1939.

DAI

635, 1548

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex 

Engelm.

Opuntia lindheimeri Engelm., Opuntia 

tardospina Griffiths, Opuntia aff. 

lindheimeri Engelm.

This species was not found during 

a recent survey of Cactaceae on 

Nevis. It is unclear if this is because 

other control measures successfully 

eradicated the plant, or if the original 

species identification was incorrect.

North America

Texas prickly pear, small round-leaved 

prickly pear, kleinrondeblaarturksvy

Agent

Species

Classification

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Antigua

1960

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis 

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially released on Opuntia triacantha

but spread to O. engelmannii var. 

lindheimeri. Isolated clumps that 

previously escaped attack were heavily 

infested and collapsing by 1970.

(continued on next page)
208 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Antigua (continued)

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

DAA

99, 288, 1680, 2071, 2079

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa

No

Initial reports claimed Cactoblastis 

cactorum rapidly provided control of 

this species in pastures. However, 

Opuntia engelmannii var. lindheimeri

was not found during a recent survey 

of Cactaceae on Nevis. It is unclear 

if this is because control measures 

successfully eradicated the plant, or if 

the original species identification was 

incorrect.

IIBC

99, 288, 1459, 1680, 2071

Republic of South Africa

1938

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Limited

None

(continued at top of next column)

Cactaceae

Opuntia engelmannii; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Redistributed from Opuntia ficus-indica

to O. engelmannii. Heavy mortality 

occurs among larvae because of 

the very excessive excretions of 

highly mucilaginous sap where they 

attempt entrance. Does not thrive in or 

accomplish as much destruction on this 

species as O. ficus-indica, and often 

serves as a trap by attracting (mortally) 

many individuals away from O. ficusindica when the two weed species grow 

together.

Occasionally found providing incomplete 

control on the exotic Cylindropuntia 

fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. Knuth var. fulgida, 

C. imbricata (Haw.) F.M. Knuth., Opuntia 

monacantha (Willd.) Haw., O. spinulifera

Salm-Dyck, O. salmiana J. Parm. 

ex Pfeiff., and Austrocylindropuntia 

subulata (Muehlenpf.) Backeb.

ARC-PPRI

992, 993, 1258, 1342, 1490, 2071

Cactaceae

Opuntia engelmannii; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 209

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa

No

IIBC

99, 288, 446, 1459, 1680

Cactaceae

Opuntia engelmannii (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. USA via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

No

IIBC

99, 288, 1459, 1490, 1680

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1938

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Ficus biotype, redistributed from 

Opuntia ficus-indica to O. engelmannii. 

Successful control when its predators 

can be kept at a negligible level. 

Re-inoculations frequently necessary 

to keep target plants in check.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

635, 833, 992, 993, 1258, 1342, 1490

Cactaceae

Opuntia engelmannii; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)
210 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

Opuntia cordobensis Spegazzini, 

Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck

Previous literature referred to this 

release as occurring on Opuntia 

cordobensis Spegazzini which has 

since been synonymized with O. 

ficus-indica (L.) Mill. While some 

authors consider O. ficus-indica to 

be a spineless cultivar derived from 

O. megacantha, many other authors 

consider O. megacantha to also be 

a cultivated taxon or a name applied 

to multiple ruderal reversions to 

spininess from the escaped, cultivated 

O. ficus-indica and they treat O. 

megacantha as a later synonym. The 

editors of this catalogue are in the 

latter group.

Mexico

Indian fig, mission prickly pear, 

grootdoringturksvy

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hawaii USA

1950

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Overall, weed under substantial levels 

of control. Together with Dactylopius 

opuntiae provides excellent control in 

lowland and coastal regions. Following 

initial control there is indication of 

resurgence at certain mid range 

elevations. Infestations at elevations 

higher than 914m remain unaffected.

Elevation

HDOA

325, 326, 413, 601, 612, 762, 1452, 

1453, 1948

Republic of South Africa

1933

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 211

Table

1

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Helpful in checking regrowth as it 

attacks mainly young plants on the 

outskirts of infestations. Nearly 90% of 

the originally infested area of 900,000 

ha was reclaimed by the action of 

mainly Dactylopius opuntiae and, to a 

lesser extent, Cactoblastis cactorum. 

Populations limited by predation, and 

the inability of larvae to penetrate thick 

cuticles of older stems or to survive thick 

mucilaginous exudate.

Predation

Occasionally found providing 

incomplete control on the exotic 

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. fulgida, C. imbricata (Haw.) 

F.M. Knuth., Opuntia monacantha

(Willd.) Haw., O. spinulifera SalmDyck, O. salmiana J. Parm. ex Pfeiff., 

and Austrocylindropuntia subulata

(Muehlenpf.) Backeb.

ARC-PPRI

50, 51, 668, 992, 993, 1258, 1342, 

1490, 2071, 2075

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius sp.

Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1949

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Overall, weed under substantial levels 

of control. More effective in areas of 

low rainfall. Together with Cactoblastis 

cactorum provides excellent control in 

lowland and coastal regions. Following 

initial control there is indication of 

resurgence at certain mid range 

elevations. Infestations at elevations 

higher than 914m remain unaffected.

Elevation; Climate

HDOA

325, 326, 413, 601, 612, 1452, 1453, 

1948

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (continued)
212 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1949

Ex. USA (CA)

No

Originally tested on Opuntia ficus-indica

but did not survive. Released on HA on 

what was believed to be O. cordobensis, 

a plant found near the shore of northwest side of island of HA but not seen or 

reported thereafter. O. cordobensis has 

since been synonomized with O. ficusindica. Insect established initially but 

was quickly exterminated by predaceous 

ants. 

Predation

BAF

35, 413, 601, 635, 762, 1948

Republic of South Africa

1938

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Ficus biotype. Aided by hand-felling, 

contributed most to the spectacular 

clearance of nearly 90% of the 

originally infested area. About 900,000 

ha reclaimed by the action of mainly 

Dactylopius opuntiae and, to lesser 

extent, Cactoblastis cactorum. 

Subsequently redistributed throughout 

South Africa. Though widespread, still 

many plants in most provinces free of 

this agent. Populations largest and most 

effective when predators chemically 

controlled and in areas of lower rainfall.

Predation; Climate

ARC-PPRI

50, 51, 635, 833, 992, 993, 1258, 1342, 

1490, 2075

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 213

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Lagocheirus funestus Thomson

Archlagocheirus funestus (Thomson)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252

Hawaii USA

1951

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Can cause total destruction of plants, 

however distribution very limited. 

Replaced Dactylopius opuntiae and 

Cactoblastis cactorum at higher altitudes 

in some areas.

HDOA

399, 413, 601, 612, 1452, 1453

Republic of South Africa

1943

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Still localized around original release 

sites, but rare and has played only minor 

role in biological control of Opuntia ficusindica.

ARC-PPRI

50, 51, 992, 1342

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara dentata (Grote)

Melitara doddalis Dyar

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1949

Ex. USA (TX)

No

HDOA

413, 601, 635, 1948

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara prodenialis Walker

Melitara bollii (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1949

Ex. USA (TX)

No

HDOA

413, 601, 635, 1948
214 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Metamasius spinolae (Gyllenhal)

Cactophagous spinolae (Gyllenhal)

(Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1948

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Very local distribution. Abundant 

and destructive at two localities only. 

Dispersal extremely slow.

ARC-PPRI

50, 51, 992, 1342

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Moneilema armatum LeConte

Monilema crassum LeConte, 

Moneilema crassum Melsheimer

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

326, 1099

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1950

Ex. USA (TX)

No

HDOA

413, 601, 635, 1948

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf.

North America

creeping prickly pear, large-flowered 

prickly pear

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2000

Ex. North America via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

Stricta biotype. Redistributed from 

Opuntia stricta to O. humifusa.

ARC-PPRI

833, 993, 1258
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 215

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (Engelm.) Cockerell

southwestern coastal USA including 

Santa Cruz Island and Baja California, 

Mexico

prickly pear, coastal prickly pear

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius sp.

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to certain 

Opuntia species and not to others.

833

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1951

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Main agent for control on Santa Cruz 

Island; reduced cactus by 75% by 1979. 

Opuntia oricola is less susceptible than 

O. littoralis; high initial attack rates on 

O. littoralis and hybrids have replaced 

many stands with less attacked O. 

oricola. This and predation have slowed 

rate of destruction in more recent times. 

Target weed considered native.

Predation

State (4,5)

635, 638, 639, 643

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.

Opuntia vulgaris Mill., 

Opuntia monocantha (Willd.) Haw.

Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay

prickly pear, drooping prickly pear, 

smooth tree pear, suurturksvy

35, 845, 1091, 1930

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1950

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Weed initially controlled by Dactylopius, 

however subsequent predation led to 

increase in Opuntia spp. Cactoblastis 

cactorum established immediately and 

restored control to weed population. 

Wild Opuntia spp. now rare on Mauritius 

and always attacked by C. cactorum.

MAM

586, 668, 2071
216 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1914

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established rapidly and readily 

controlled the weed in all areas. 

Also attacks the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck

PPTC, QLD State

509, 845, 847, 1989

India

1795

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

India (continued)

Introduced for commercial purposes in 

the mistaken belief it was Dactylopius 

coccus Costa. Established and 

provided complete control. Populations 

now variable because weed 

infestations typically decimated locally. 

Redistribution of insects to southern 

India in 1836 and Sri Lanka in 1865 

mark the first attempt at biological 

control of a weed.

635, 636, 1542, 1548, 1831, 2077

India

1821

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

This release again made for commercial 

purposes in the mistaken belief it was 

Dactylopius coccus Costa. Was found 

to be identical to the agents already 

common in India from the 1795 release; 

the populations were subsequently not 

differentiated. Established and provided 

complete control. Populations now 

variable because weed infestations 

typically decimated locally. 

635, 1542, 1831, 2077

Country

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha; Dactylopius ceylonicus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 217

Table

1

Mauritius

1914

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

By 1928 had almost completely cleared 

the island of Opuntia monacantha. 

Subsequently, introduction of a predator 

reduced effectiveness. Cactoblastis 

cactorum then introduced and controlled 

weed. Dactylopius spp. not seen in 

recent surveys so may be extinct from 

Mauritius, though because Opuntia spp. 

now restricted to inaccessible sites, may 

still be present.

Predation

MAM

586, 635, 668, 1293

Republic of South Africa

1913

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Within a few years brought Opuntia 

monacantha under control. Populations 

of the weed still flare, though no 

additional control measures needed, 

aside from utilizing this biocontrol agent.

ARC-PPRI

51, 635, 992, 1258, 1342

Sri Lanka

1865

Ex. Brazil via India

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widely established and providing 

complete control of the weed over 

vast areas. Populations now variable 

because weed infestations typically 

decimated locally. 

635, 636, 1542, 1548, 2077

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha; Dactylopius ceylonicus (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha; Dactylopius ceylonicus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell)

Dactylopius greenii Cockerell

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1915

Ex. South America via Germany via 

Republic of South Africa

No

PPTC, QLD State

635, 1989
218 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia

1926

Ex. South America via Germany via 

Republic of South Africa

No

Initially established but failed to survive 

when food source destroyed by 

Dactylopius ceylonicus.

Interspecific competition

CPPB*

635, 1989

India

1836

Ex. South America via Germany via 

Republic of South Africa

No

446, 635, 1831

India

1838

Ex. South America via Germany via 

Republic of South Africa

No

446, 635, 1831

Republic of South Africa

1832

Ex. South America via Germany

No

Intentionally introduced in an attempt to 

collect dye, though the misidentification 

of this species led to it causing some 

of the first (though inadvertent) effects 

of biological control of weeds. Not 

recorded recently, probably as a result 

of the destruction of the weed by 

Dactylopius ceylonicus.

Private

51, 446, 635

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha; Dactylopius confusus (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha; Dactylopius confusus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 219

Table

1

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lam.)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1928

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia via 

Sri Lanka

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially effective control, followed by 

slow increase in weed, probably as 

a result of predation by deliberately 

introduced biocontrol agent. Cactoblastis 

cactorum then introduced and controlled 

weed. Dactylopius spp. not seen in 

recent surveys so may be extinct from 

Mauritius, though because Opuntia spp. 

now restricted to inaccessible sites, may 

still be present.

Predation

MAM

586, 635, 668, 1293

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola Philbrick

southwestern coastal USA including 

Santa Cruz Island and Baja California, 

Mexico

prickly pear, chaparral prickly pear

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius sp.

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1951

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Opuntia oricola less susceptible than 

O. littoralis. This and predation have 

slowed the rate of destruction in recent 

times. Target weed considered native.

Predation

State (4,5)

635, 638, 639, 643

Cactaceae (continued)
220 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.

A few releases now attributed to this 

group were listed under Opuntia 

vulgaris in previous versions of this 

catalogue (a species now referred to 

as Opuntia monacantha). However, all 

references cited then and now do not 

differentiate which Opuntia species 

it was that received this release. 

Consequently, the entries have been 

changed to Opuntia spp.

North and South America adjacent to 

Caribbean Islands, Caribbean Islands

prickly pear, raketa, Malagasy cactus

446, 668

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Ascension Island

1973

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Antigua and Nevis via 

St Helena

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Now in a state of controlled equilibrium; 

Opuntia spp. no longer a problem.

IIBC

582, 584, 2071

Cayman Islands

1970

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis and Antigua

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Initially released on Opuntia stricta

but spread to other Opuntia species. 

Nursery plants so heavily attacked 

that cultivation proving difficult. Still not 

present on Cayman Brac.

IIBC

288, 312, 2071, 2079

Israel

pre 1970

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa via Nevis via Antigua

No

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 221

Table

1

Israel (continued)

Reference Bennett 1970 indicates 

Cactoblastis cactorum from Trinidad was 

shipped to both Kenya and Israel pre 

1970 for release against Opuntia spp. 

This biological control agent originated 

in Argentina, not Trinidad. Other 

references confirm the material sent to 

Kenya originated in Argentina, and was 

sent through a variety of countries prior 

to shipment to Kenya. It is assumed by 

the editors of this catalogue that the 

cultures utilized in Trinidad laboratories 

before shipment to Israel originated from 

Argentina. Because the only reference 

available documenting the release in 

Israel lumped this release along with 

that of Kenya, the “via” nations listed for 

Kenya are also listed for Israel.

IIBC

98, 2071

Kenya

1966

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa via Nevis via Antigua

No

One egg stick found following release, 

but since believed to have died out.

IIBC

308, 668, 2071

Kenya

1971

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa via Nevis via Antigua

No

Compromised

Passed through two generations at 

one site near Nairobi, but subsequently 

may have died out as release area was 

cleared.

Land use

IIBC

312, 670, 2071

Pakistan

1994

Ex. Argentina via Australia

No

Larval feeding observed soon after 

release, but establishment later deemed 

unsuccessful. 

IIBC, VIC State

880, 1134, 1989, 2076

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References
222 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

St Helena

1971

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Antigua and Nevis

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Although no quantitative data are 

available, agent appears to have 

reduced abundance of Opuntia spp. 

substantially. Impact somewhat 

controversial as some residents 

preferred cactus covered slopes to bare 

rock, and used the fruit for wine.

IIBC

312, 582, 2071, 2077

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Kenya

1958

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka via 

Republic of South Africa via Tanzania

Yes

Unknown

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Kenya (continued)

Some control in coastal region (Coast) 

and Lake Victoria areas (Nyanza) but 

not satisfactory as additional agents 

sought.

DAK

635, 668

Tanzania

1957

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Substantial control in the Lake Victoria 

area.

DAT

635, 668

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Dactylopius ceylonicus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 223

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Kenya

post 1958

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa via Tanzania

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

Kenya (continued)

Ficus biotype. Abundant and effective; 

near one community in Rift Valley has 

largely wiped out most plants. [Reported 

in previous edition of this catalogue 

as an accidental introduction probably 

from the USA via South Africa via 

Tanzania in 1958 when Dactylopius

ceylonicus was intentionally introduced. 

References cited at the time do not 

confirm the introduction, so the source 

of this information remains unknown. 

An alternative reference (Goeden 

1978) indicates the species was 

introduced intentionally. Because current 

researchers are unsure of the avenue 

of introduction, it is possible the species 

was introduced via both channels. 

Consequently two entries are given for 

this species, and the editors of this new 

version of the catalogue assume the 

different source populations (if more 

than one) have since intermixed and are 

no longer differentiated.]

DAK

446, 635, 944, 970, 2005

Tanzania

1958

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Ficus biotype. Providing excellent 

control.

DAT

635, 2005

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp. (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)
224 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius sp.

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Though a key reference in previous 

versions of the catalogue (Greathead 

1971) refers to this species on 

Madagascar as Dactylopius 

opuntiae, the same reference states 

elsewhere the agent was introduced 

to Madagascar from La Réunion, 

where the identity of the Dactylopius

sp. remains unclear. More recent 

references indicate the identity of 

the agent on Madagascar remains 

unclear, so the editors of this version 

of the catalogue are following suit.

668

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Madagascar

1923

Ex. Unknown

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Led to complete control of previously 

widespread Opuntia spp. within 5 years.

MAMA

668, 1076, 1240

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp. (continued)

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

(Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Caledonia

1962

Ex. Argentina via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Well established and providing very 

good control.

NCC

286, 635, 1548, 1775
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 225

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha Lem.

Mexico

Westwood pear, white spine prickly 

pear

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially released against Opuntia stricta, 

but naturally spread and attacks this 

species as well. Larvae develop in 

young plants, frequently destroying 

them. Old stems too woody for larval 

development. The weed serves as a 

reservoir for the moth in central QLD.

Also attacks the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck, O. elatior

Mill., and O. humifusa (Raf.) Raf. 

Spillover attack found on melons and 

tomatoes.

CPPB*

130, 509, 510, 511, 753, 845, 847, 1989

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea tabulata (Burmeister)

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1922

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Limited

None

Populations initially high on Opuntia 

stricta so spread naturally to this species 

where it never provided any degree 

of control. Destruction of main host 

O. stricta by Cactoblastis cactorum

dramatically decreased populations of 

this insect. O. streptacantha remains an 

important host.

Found feeding on nectarines, dates, 

peaches, ripe grapes, rock melons, 

watermelons, and tomatoes when dense 

populations were suddenly deprived of 

their host by the collapse of the prickly 

pear stands. There have been no 

reports of damage since 1931.

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 733, 944, 1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha (continued)
226 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea vittiger Uhler

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1925

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established with difficulty on primary 

host Opuntia stricta, increased, 

then declined following widespread 

destruction of O. stricta by Cactoblastis 

cactorum. Not recorded on O. 

streptacantha since 1934.

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 1989

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1928

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established readily giving useful control 

in heavy weed infestations by destroying 

young plants. After mechanical clearing 

regrowth effectively controlled by this 

agent. Remains a significant factor in 

control of this weed.

CPPB*

511, 635, 847, 1989
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 227

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia streptacantha (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Lagocheirus funestus Thomson

Archlagocheirus funestus (Thomson)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1936

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Established readily and initially had 

significant impact; gregarious larvae 

feeding in heavy woody stems caused 

collapse of even very large plants. 

Populations more recently declined and 

now uncommon in field. Larvae and 

pupae are subject to predation by crows, 

rodents and lizards.

Predation

CPPB*

635, 753, 944, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Moneilema blapsides (Newman) 

subsp. ulkei Horn

Moneilema ulkei

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

1099, 1252

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Initially destroyed large plants but due 

to small isolated populations did not 

provide effective control. Has not been 

recovered for many years.

CPPB*

635, 753, 1989
228 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawler) Haw., 

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. 

dillenii (Ker Gawl.) L. D. Benson, 

Opuntia inermis DC., Opuntia stricta

(Haw.) Haw. var. stricta

This species is sometimes split in 

various ways by different taxonomists 

and is currently under debate. The 

editors of this version of the catalogue 

currently support the idea it is all one 

highly variable Opuntia stricta (Haw.) 

Haw.

North and South America adjacent to 

Caribbean Islands, Caribbean Islands

spiny pest pear, common prickly 

pear, prickly pear, sweet prickly pear, 

Australian pest pear, prickly pear

135, 845, 846, 1459

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Antigua

1960

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis 

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Antigua (continued)

Initially released on Opuntia triacantha

but spread to O. stricta which is 

considered native to Antigua. Few 

individual cactus plants remain from 

historically large populations. The moth 

is still present; remaining plants persist 

despite attack.

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

DAA

35, 99, 288, 1680, 2071, 2077, 2079

Australia

1926

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Variable

Rapid establishment and destruction of 

the weed by 1934 and of regrowth by 

1935, especially in scrub country. Not 

able to control the weed in cooler areas 

where cannot complete two generations 

each year, nor in places where always 

hot and the plant segments dehydrated.

Climate

Also attacks the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck, O. elatior

Mill., and O. humifusa (Raf.) Raf. 

Spillover attack found on melons and 

tomatoes.

CPPB*

130, 509, 510, 511, 845, 847, 1989

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 229

Table

1

Cayman Islands

1970

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis and Antigua

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Few individual cactus plants remain 

from historically large populations. 

Moth is still present; remaining plants 

persist despite high attack. Target weed 

considered native.

IIBC

35, 98, 99, 288, 312, 2071, 2077, 2079

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Released on Nevis, spread naturally 

to St Kitts. Initially very abundant and 

effective, significantly reducing the 

cactus population. Recent surveys 

indicate current moth populations lower 

than previously, which enables some 

cactus individuals to escape attack. The 

plant (considered native) continues to 

thrive in small scattered populations on 

both islands.

(continued at top of next column)

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis 

(continued)

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck (previously referred to as 

Opuntia cochenillifera (L.) Mill.).

IIBC

99, 288, 610, 1459, 1680, 2071, 2077, 

2079

Montserrat

1960

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis 

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released on Opuntia triacantha but 

spread to O. stricta (considered native). 

Few individual cactus plants remain 

from historically large populations. Moth 

is still present; remaining plants persist 

despite high attack.

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

DAM

35, 99, 288, 610, 1680, 2071, 2077, 

2079

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
230 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

New Caledonia

1932

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Well established in the release location 

within a year of release. Highly 

beneficial control.

NCC

635, 1548, 1754

Republic of South Africa

1980s

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Redistributed from Opuntia ficus-indica

to O. stricta and met with limited 

success throughout much of South 

Africa. In Kruger National Park, initially 

very abundant and dispersed rapidly, 

prior to decreasing again (likely due 

to predation). Though heavy attack 

results in larger plants collapsing and 

delayed maturity in larger plants, many 

smaller plants begin to grow from the 

fragmented portions. Unable to provide 

sufficient control alone.

Predation

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Occasionally found providing 

incomplete control on the exotic 

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. fulgida, C. imbricata (Haw.) 

F.M. Knuth., Opuntia monacantha

(Willd.) Haw., O. spinulifera SalmDyck, O. salmiana J. Parm. ex Pfeiff., 

and Austrocylindropuntia subulata

(Muehlenpf.) Backeb.

ARC-PPRI

832, 833, 992, 993, 1258, 2071

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea tabulata (Burmeister)

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Australia

1922

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Limited

None

Initially rapid establishment, increase 

and dispersal causing heavy destruction 

of fruit and new shoots. Exerted 

significant control prior to extensive 

destruction by Cactoblastis cactorum. 

Now numbers limited and ineffective in 

controlling the weed.

Interspecific competition

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 231

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Found feeding on nectarines, dates, 

peaches, ripe grapes, rock melons, 

watermelons, and tomatoes when dense 

populations were suddenly deprived of 

their host by the collapse of the prickly 

pear stands. There have been no 

reports of damage since 1931.

CPPB*

509, 510, 511, 635, 733, 753, 1989

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Chelinidea tabulata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea vittiger Uhler

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1925

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Slow establishment then began 

increasing rapidly. Subsequently 

declined following destruction of Opuntia 

stricta by Cactoblastis cactorum; none 

have been seen since 1940.

Interspecific competition

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa

No

Target plant is considered native.

IIBC

288, 446, 1459, 1680

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

India

post 1863

Ex. Brazil, Mexico

No

Redistributions from Opuntia 

monacantha to O. stricta failed as this 

species is specific to O. monacantha.

Specificity

1548, 1607, 1831
232 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell)

Dactylopius greenii Cockerell

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1933

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

None

Initial establishment rapid but population 

declined and was thought to have 

become extinct. Rediscovered in central 

QLD in 1967. Provides no appreciable 

control.

CPPB*

511, 515, 1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lam.)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Australia

1921

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX)

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Rapidly established. Provided excellent 

control of dense infestations in brigalow 

stands. Following heavy die-off of host 

species from attack by Cactoblastis 

cactorum, this agent now useful in 

cooler areas where C. cactorum cannot 

complete two generations in a year, 

and in hot dry areas where the plant 

segments are often dehydrated.

Interspecific competition

Also damages the introduced Opuntia 

elatior Mill. and Opuntia elata Link & 

Otto ex Salm-Dyck.

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 845, 847, 850, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 233

Table

1

Australia

1933

Ex. USA (TX)

No

Released in attempt to control 

regrowth of Opuntia stricta. All colonies 

disappeared following destruction of 

host plants by resurgent populations of 

Cactoblastis cactorum.

Interspecific competition

CPPB*

635, 1989

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. USA (AZ, TX) via Australia via 

Republic of South Africa

No

Target plant is considered native.

IIBC

288, 1258, 1459, 1490, 1680

India

1926

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia via 

Sri Lanka

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

India (continued)

Widely established giving complete 

control. Heavily infested areas became 

fit for cultivation within five or six years. 

Attacked by predaceous coccinellids, 

but apparently with limited impact to the 

agent’s population.

Predation

Also found attacking the widely 

cultivated Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck

635, 1542, 1548

Republic of South Africa

1997

Ex. North America via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Stricta biotype. Biomass of Opuntia 

stricta declined by 90% 6 years 

following release of this new biotype. 

Fruit production was halted, decreasing 

the long-range dispersal of this weed. 

Dactylopius opuntiae populations 

best suited to low rainfall areas and 

seasons. Low natural dispersal abilities 

have required continued manual 

redistribution.

ARC-PPRI

833, 992, 993, 1258, 1437

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)
234 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1980s

Ex. USA (AZ, TX) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Ficus biotype, redistributed from 

Opuntia ficus-indica to O. stricta. 

Despite multiple redistribution attempts, 

majority of releases failed. This biotype 

of Dactylopius opuntiae is better suited 

to O. ficus-indica and only occurs as 

spillover on O. stricta growing in the 

vicinity of O. ficus-indica. 

Specificity

ARC-PPRI

833, 993, 1258

Sri Lanka

1925

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widely established, giving very good 

control.

DASL

635, 1548

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Loxomorpha flavidissimalis (Grote)

Mimorista flavidissimalis (Grote)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1925

Ex. USA (TX)

No

CPPB*

509, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara dentata (Grote)

Melitara doddalis Dyar

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. USA (AZ, CO, TX)

No

CPPB*

635, 1989
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 235

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara prodenialis Walker

Zophodia prodenialis Walker, 

Melitara bollii (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

No

CPPB*

509, 511, 635

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melitara sp.

Zophodia prodenialis Walker, 

Melitara bollii (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1925

Ex. USA (TX)

No

CPPB*

1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Moneilema blapsides (Newman) 

subsp. ulkei Horn

Moneilema ulkei

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

1099, 1252

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially well established and damaging. 

Many release sites since lost to 

destruction by Cactoblastis cactorum. 

Though occasionally killed larger plants, 

did not give control and populations 

currently limited.

Interspecific competition

CPPB*

635, 1989
236 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Moneilema variolare Thomson

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1932

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

None

Established, but population too small to 

provide control.

CPPB*

511, 635, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Olycella junctolineella (Hulst)

Olyca junctolineella (Hulst)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1924

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established readily but never became 

factor in control of the weed and may no 

longer occur on it in Australia. 

CPPB*

509, 511, 1989

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa Salm-Dyck

Mexico, Guatemala

velvet opuntia, velvet tree pear

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Initially released against Opuntia stricta, 

but naturally spread and attacks this 

species as well. Larvae develop in 

young plants, frequently destroying 

them, but only occurs when weed 

growing among O. stricta. Old stems 

too woody for larval development/

oviposition.

Also attacks the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck, O. elatior

Mill., and O. humifusa (Raf.) Raf. 

Spillover attack found on melons and 

tomatoes.

CPPB*

130, 509, 510, 511, 753, 845, 847, 1989

Cactaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 237

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Cactoblastis doddi Heinrich

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1935

Ex. Argentina

No

CPPB*

1839

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea tabulata (Burmeister)

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Australia

1922

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Limited

None

Populations initially high on Opuntia 

stricta so spread naturally to this species 

where it never provided any degree 

of control. Destruction of main host 

O. stricta by Cactoblastis cactorum

dramatically decreased populations of 

this insect.

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Found feeding on nectarines, dates, 

peaches, ripe grapes, rock melons, 

watermelons, and tomatoes when dense 

populations were suddenly deprived of 

their host by the collapse of the prickly 

pear stands. There have been no 

reports of damage since 1931.

CPPB*

509, 511, 635, 733, 1989

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Dactylopius coccus Costa

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. Central America via Republic of 

South Africa

No

CPPB*

446, 1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa; Chelinidea tabulata (continued)
238 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1922

Ex. USA (AZ, TX)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Established readily. Effective in killing 

young seedlings, small older plants, and 

large plants in dense stands in scrubs. 

Less effective on large plants in the 

open unless they have been felled prior 

to introduction of insects. Efficacy limited 

by inefficient dispersal.

Habitat

Also damages the exotic Opuntia elata

Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck.

CPPB*

511, 635, 847, 1989

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Lagocheirus funestus Thomson

Archlagocheirus funestus (Thomson)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

992, 1252

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1936

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Rapid establishment and initially good 

control, but later declined and now 

considered nearly extinct. Larvae and 

pupae subject to predation by crows, 

rodents and lizards.

Predation

CPPB*

635, 753, 847, 944, 1989
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 239

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia tomentosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Moneilema blapsides (Newman) 

subsp. ulkei Horn

Moneilema ulkei

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

1099, 1252

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1926

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Capable of causing collapse of large 

plants but this rarely occurs. Populations 

small and isolated. Has not been 

recovered for many years.

CPPB*

635, 753, 1989

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha (Willd.) Sweet

Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles

suckers

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Antigua

1960

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis 

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Isolated clumps that previously escaped 

attack were heavily infested and 

collapsing by 1970. This target weed 

considered native to Antigua.

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

DAA

2046

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
240 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cayman Islands

1970

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis and Antigua

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Initially released on Opuntia stricta but 

spread to O. triacantha (considered 

native). Nursery plants so heavily 

attacked that cultivation proving difficult. 

Still not present on Cayman Brac.

IIBC

35, 288, 312, 2071, 2079

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis 

(continued)

Released on Nevis, spread naturally 

to St Kitts. Initially very abundant and 

effective, significantly reducing the 

cactus population. Recent surveys 

indicate current moth populations lower 

than previously, which enables some 

cactus individuals to escape attack. The 

plant (considered native) continues to 

thrive in small scattered populations on 

both islands.

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

IIBC

99, 288, 610, 1459, 1680, 2071, 2077, 

2079

Montserrat

1960

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa via Nevis 

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Well established and provided very 

good control. Due to lack of pasture 

management, the land became 

overgrown by Acacia spp. as the cactus 

was destroyed. Target weed considered 

native.

Also found attacking the cultivated and 

naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) 

Salm-Dyck.

DAM

35, 99, 288, 610, 1680, 2071, 2079

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 241

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. Argentina via Republic of South 

Africa

No

Target plant is considered native.

IIBC

288, 446, 1459, 1680

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1957

Ex. USA via Australia via Republic of 

South Africa

No

Target plant is considered native.

IIBC

288, 1459, 1490, 1680

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia tuna (L.) Mill.

Caribbean

prickly pear, barbary fig, elephantear 

prickly pear

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1950

Ex. Argentina via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Weed initially controlled by Dactylopius, 

however subsequent predation led to 

increase in Opuntia spp. Cactoblastis 

cactorum established immediately and 

restored control to weed population. 

Wild Opuntia spp. now rare on Mauritius 

and always attacked by C. cactorum.

MAM

586, 668, 2071
242 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cactaceae

Opuntia tuna (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius ceylonicus (Green)

Dactylopius indicus Green

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1914

Ex. Brazil via India via Sri Lanka via 

Republic of South Africa

No

Unable to live on Opuntia tuna.

Specificity

MAM

586, 635, 668, 1293

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lam.)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mauritius

1928

Ex. USA (AZ, CA, TX) via Australia via 

Sri Lanka

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially effective control, followed by 

slow increase in weed, probably as 

a result of predation by deliberately 

introduced biocontrol agent. Cactoblastis 

cactorum then introduced and controlled 

weed. Dactylopius spp. not seen in 

recent surveys so may be extinct from 

Mauritius, though because Opuntia spp. 

now restricted to inaccessible sites, may 

still be present.

Predation

MAM

586, 635, 668, 1293

Cactaceae

Opuntia tuna (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 243

Table

1

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Pereskia aculeata Mill.

tropical America, Caribbean

Barbados gooseberry, pereskia

Phenrica guerini Bechyné

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1991

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Variable

Populations limited and ineffective 

at two sites; high densities observed 

at additional site where damage is 

significant. Reasons for varying success 

not yet understood.

ARC-PPRI

991, 1437

Caryophyllaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Caryophyllaceae

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke

Eurasia

bladder campion

Cassida azurea Fabricius

Cassida hemisphaerica Herbst

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1989

Ex. Europe

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Cassida azurea populations at most 

sites too small to have impact on weed 

density. One AB site had heavy feeding 

on all plants and little of the weed was 

left, but unclear if due to C. azurea, plant 

competition, or mowing.

AAFC

432, 1479
244 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Chenopodiaceae Chenopodiaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Chenopodiaceae

Halogeton glomeratus (M. Bieb.) C. 

A. Mey.

Central Asia

halogeton

Coleophora parthenica Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Ex. Pakistan

No

Redistributed from Salsola tragus to 

Halogeton glomeratus but failed to 

establish.

USDA (7)

231, 335, 1454, 1511, 1512

United States of America

1976

Ex. Pakistan

No

Collected from and released on 

Halogeton glomeratus.

USDA (7)

231, 1512

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tragus L.

Salsola australis R. Br., Salsola iberica

(Sennen & Pau) Botsch., Salsola kali L. 

subsp. ruthenica (Iljin) Soó, Salsola kali

var. tenuifolia Tausch, Salsola pestifer A. 

Nelson, Salsola ruthenica Iljin

“Russian thistle” comprises seven 

distinct species in North America of 

which Salsola tragus is probably the 

most widespread. The correct name 

for the single species naturalized in the 

Hawaiian Islands is Salsola tragus L. 

Other names that have been associated 

with this widely naturalized species of 

Salsola have been misapplied in this 

region.

Eurasia

Russian thistle, tumbleweed

858, 1699, 1721, 1925

Coleophora klimeschiella Toll

(Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1977

Ex. Pakistan via USA (CA)

No

Compromised

Initially survived but population 

destroyed during flooding in 1979.

Natural disaster

AAFC

732
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 245

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1980

Ex. Pakistan via USA (CA)

No

HDOA

641, 759, 1046, 1047

United States of America

1977

Ex. Pakistan

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

May kill young plants; attacked older 

plants presumably produce less seed. 

Heavily parasitized and preyed upon 

which prevents populations from 

building sufficiently to have significant 

impact. Ineffective agent.

Predation; Parasitism

USDA (7), State (5,9)

334, 335, 641, 646, 759, 1511, 1578

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tragus; Coleophora klimeschiella (continued)

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tragus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Coleophora parthenica Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1975

Ex. Pakistan via USA (CA)

No

Not established in SK where summer 

too cool for breeding.

Climate

AAFC

641, 732, 757

Hawaii USA

1980

Ex. Pakistan via USA (CA)

No

HDOA

641, 757, 1047

United States of America

1973

Ex. Egypt

No

USDA (7), State (5)

641, 757
246 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1973

Ex. Pakistan

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

1974 releases onto southern CA 

Salsola tragus were Pakistan 

population intermixed with population 

from Turkey and subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Note: 

S. tragus redistributions made from 

CA stock originated in central CA 

and were sourced from Pakistani 

material. Feeding inside plant stems 

does not cause acute damage to vital 

plant tissues; however, plant may be 

chronically impacted gradually over 

summer as it becomes weakened hollow 

shell. Overall, feeding damage appears 

to have minimal impact, hindered greatly 

by parasitism, predation, poor host-plant 

synchronization.

Predation; Parasitism; Agent-host 

synchronization

USDA (7,9), State (5)

334, 335, 641, 759, 1297, 1298, 1511, 

1578

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Ex. Turkey

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

1974 releases onto southern CA 

Salsola tragus were Pakistan 

population intermixed with population 

from Turkey and subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Note: 

S. tragus redistributions made from 

CA stock originated in central CA 

and were sourced from Pakistani 

material. Feeding inside plant stems 

does not cause acute damage to vital 

plant tissues; however, plant may be 

chronically impacted gradually over 

summer as it becomes weakened hollow 

shell. Overall, feeding damage appears 

to have minimal impact, hindered greatly 

by parasitism, predation, poor host-plant 

synchronization.

Predation; Parasitism; Agent-host 

synchronization

USDA (7), State (5)

641, 757, 759, 1297, 1298, 1511

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tragus; Coleophora parthenica (continued)

Chenopodiaceae

Salsola tragus; Coleophora parthenica (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 247

Table

1

Commelinaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Commelinaceae

Tradescantia fluminensis Vell.

South America

tradescantia, wandering Jew

Lema basicostata Monros

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2012

Ex. Brazil

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

MWLR

735

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Neolema ogloblini (Monros)

Lema obscura

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2011

Ex. Brazil

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

MWLR

761, 1064

Commelinaceae

Tradescantia fluminensis (continued)
248 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae

Calystegia sepium (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br.

Convolvulus sepium L.

North America

hedge bindweed, hedge false 

bindweed

Aceria malherbae Nuzzaci

Aceria convolvuli (Nalepa), Eriophyes 

convolvuli Nalepa, Aceria malherbe

(Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1993

Ex. Greece

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

State (20)

335, 1104, 1799

Agent

Species

Classification

Tyta luctuosa (Denis & Schiffermüller)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1991

Ex. Italy

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Overwintered in field cage, but 

establishment unknown.

State (20)

83, 335, 1104, 1799
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 249

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Eurasia

field bindweed

Aceria malherbae Nuzzaci

Aceria convolvuli (Nalepa), 

Eriophyes convolvuli Nalepa, 

Aceria malherbe (Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Convolvulaceae (continued) Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis; Aceria malherbae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Canada

1989

Ex. Greece

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Locally abundant but established at only 

three sites in AB. Establishment appears 

to be better in moister microclimates. 

Galling damage found up to 1.4 km from 

one site. Some plants heavily galled 

and stunted though impact has not been 

evaluated quantitatively. Convolvulus 

arvensis continues to be a problematic 

weed in many parts of Canada.

Climate

AAFC, ARC

1189, 1191, 1698

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mexico

2004

Ex. Greece via USA (NM)

No

UAMX, CNR

138, 1582, 1583, 1584

Republic of South Africa

1994

Ex. Greece

No

Compromised

Establishment failure due to release 

sites subsequently being destroyed or 

converted to grazing land.

Land use

ARC-PPRI

354, 355, 992, 993, 1341, 2070

United States of America

1989

Ex. Greece

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)
250 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis; Aceria malherbae (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Abundance, attack levels and impact 

vary dramatically across and within 

states where established. No impact 

at some sites, >90% decrease in 

aboveground plant biomass at others. 

Reasons for variability not studied 

explicitly, but populations known to be 

impacted by climate and possibly host 

plant resistance.

Climate

USDA (7,10,12), State (9), 

USDA-APHIS

39, 138, 334, 335, 1104, 1105, 1595, 

1598, 1698, 1799

Agent

Species

Classification

Tyta luctuosa (Denis & Schiffermüller)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1989

Ex. Italy

No

Adults found one year after release 

in AB. Possible they still remain, but 

permanent establishment not confirmed.

AAFC, ARC

1185, 1189, 1191

United States of America

1987

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Establishment so limited to date that 

impact of larval feeding on flowers and 

foliage likely minor at best.

USDA (7,10,12), State (25,26), 

USDA-ARS

39, 83, 334, 335, 1045, 1104, 1502, 

1595, 1752

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis; Tyta luctuosa (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta americana L.

tropical Americas

love vine

Melanagromyza cuscutae Héring

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Bahamas

1966

Ex. Pakistan

No

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 251

Table

1

Bahamas (continued)

Heavy rain after initial release hindered 

establishment in 1966. 1968 releases 

mistakenly made onto Cassytha 

filiformis L. (Lauraceae) rather than 

Cuscuta spp.

Weather

IIBC

288, 309

Barbados

1967

Ex. Pakistan

No

Successfully propagated for three 

generations and released, but did not 

establish.

IIBC

98, 288, 308, 309, 629

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta americana; Melanagromyza cuscutae (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Smicronyx roridus Marshall

Smicronyx cuscutae Marshall

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Bahamas

1968

Ex. Pakistan

No

(continued at top of next column)

Bahamas (continued)

Releases mistakenly made onto 

Cassytha filiformis L. (Lauraceae) 

though intended for both Cuscuta 

americana and C. indecora.

IIBC

288, 309

Barbados

1967

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

98, 288, 308, 309, 629

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Smicronyx rufovittatus Anderson

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Barbados

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

288, 312, 313, 314, 629

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta americana; Smicronyx roridus (continued)
252 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Convolvulaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta indecora Choisy

North America, South America, 

Caribbean

love vine, dodder

Melanagromyza cuscutae Héring

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bahamas

1966

Ex. Pakistan

No

Heavy rain after initial release hindered 

establishment in 1966. 1968 releases 

mistakenly made onto Cassytha 

filiformis L. (Lauraceae) rather than 

Cuscuta spp.

Weather

IIBC

288, 309

Barbados

1967

Ex. Pakistan

No

Successfully propagated for three 

generations and released, but did not 

establish.

Small release size

IIBC

98, 288, 308, 309, 629

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta indecora (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Smicronyx roridus Marshall

Smicronyx cuscutae Marshall

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Bahamas

1968

Ex. Pakistan

No

Releases mistakenly made onto 

Cassytha filiformis L. (Lauraceae) 

though intended for both Cuscuta 

americana and C. indecora.

IIBC

288, 309

Barbados

1967

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

98, 288, 308, 309, 629
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 253

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Smicronyx rufovittatus Anderson

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Barbados

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

288, 312, 314, 629

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta indecora (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Asia

dodder

Smicronyx roridus Marshall

Smicronyx cuscutae Marshall

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Bangladesh

1968

Ex. Pakistan

No

Initially recovered but as weed 

infestations diminished, insect 

population declined and eventually 

disappeared.

IIBC

309, 629, 1548

Cucurbitaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt

East Africa

ivy gourd, scarlet gourd, scarlet-fruited 

gourd

Acythopeus burkhartorum O’Brien & 

Pakaluk

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Guam

2004

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA

No

Parasitism likely contributed to 

establishment failure.

Parasitism

UOG

326, 1310, 1554

Hawaii USA

1999

Ex. Kenya 

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)
254 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA (continued)

Initially seemed successful, though not 

currently known if establishment was 

permanent.

Predation

HDOA

266, 326, 386, 762, 1169

Northern Mariana Islands

2005

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA via Guam

No

Parasitism likely contributed to 

establishment failure.

Parasitism

UOG

326, 1310, 1554

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis; Acythopeus burkhartorum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Acythopeus cocciniae O’Brien & 

Pakaluk

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Guam

2003

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA

Yes

Unknown

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Guam (continued)

Causes defoliation in some areas. 

Efficacy likely limited by parasitism.

Parasitism

UOG

1310, 1554

Hawaii USA

1999

Ex. Kenya 

Yes

Limited

Variable

Substantial control on OA and HA at 

some sites where well established; 

however populations generally limited, 

at least in part due to parasitism. On 

MA, impact likely negligible due to active 

herbicide control program.

Parasitism; Other control methods

HDOA

266, 325, 326, 386, 762, 1169, 1310

Northern Mariana Islands

2003

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA via Guam

Yes

Unknown

Medium

Localized

Causes defoliation in some areas. 

Efficacy likely limited by parasitism.

Parasitism

UOG

1310, 1554

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis; Acythopeus cocciniae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 255

Table

1

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Melittia oedipus Oberthür

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Guam

2007

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Investigations into efficacy underway. 

Populations possibly limited by 

predaceous ants.

Predation

UOG

1310, 1554

Hawaii USA

1996

Ex. Kenya

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Substantial control on OA and HA where 

well established; predation occurs at 

some sites.

Predation

HDOA

266, 325, 326, 385, 386, 762, 1169, 

1310

Northern Mariana Islands

2007

Ex. Kenya via Hawaii USA via Guam

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Investigations into efficacy are 

underway.

UOG

1310, 1554

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cucurbitaceae

Coccinia grandis; Melittia oedipus (continued)
256 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cyperaceae Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus; Athesapeuta cyperi (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L.

cosmopolitan

nut grass, purple nutsedge, vucesa, 

soronakabani, oni ani, pakopako

Athesapeuta cyperi Marshall

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Barbados

1973

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

288, 314, 315, 1491

Cook Islands

1971

Ex. India, Pakistan

No

IIBC

312, 1940

Cook Islands

1974

Ex. India

No

DAC

315, 1539, 1940

Fiji

1936

Ex. Philippines via Hawaii USA

No

KRS

1373, 1940

Fiji

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

KRS

312, 960, 1940

Hawaii USA

1925

Ex. Philippines

Yes

Limited

None

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 257

Table

1

Hawaii USA (continued)

Spread slowly but eventually reached 

same distribution as Bactra venosana. 

Despite being widespread, populations 

low and considered ineffective control 

agent.

Parasitism

Also utilizes the native Cyperus 

polystachyos Rottb.

HDOA

44, 326, 612, 1349, 1457, 1518, 1940

Mauritius

1981

Ex. India

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially believed to have failed 

establishment, but by 2013 found in 

nearly all patches of Cyperus rotundus

on the island. Widespread but does not 

impact the weed population.

IIBC

320, 321, 328, 586, 608, 1171, 1172

Tonga

1971

Ex. India, Pakistan

Yes

Unknown

None

Established but of little control value. 

Weed remains a problem, especially on 

cultivated land.

IIBC

312, 962, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus; Athesapeuta cyperi (continued)

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus; Athesapeuta cyperi (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bactra minima Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Barbados

1974

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

288, 315

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
258 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cook Islands

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

312, 1539, 1940

Fiji

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

KRS

312, 960, 1940

Tonga

1971

Ex. India, Pakistan

Yes

Unknown

None

Established but of little control value. 

Weed remains a problem, especially on 

cultivated land.

IIBC

312, 962, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus; Bactra minima (continued)

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Bactra venosana (Zeller)

Bactra truculenta Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Barbados

1973

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

288, 314, 315, 1491

Cook Islands

1971

Ex. Pakistan

No

IIBC

312, 1539, 1940

Fiji

1936

Ex. Philippines via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

None

Scarce where the weed rampant; limited 

by indigenous parasites.

Parasitism

KRS

960, 1373, 1940
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 259

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fiji

1971

Ex. Pakistan

Yes

Unknown

None

No increase in impact following release 

of this population; limited by indigenous 

parasites.

Parasitism

KRS

312, 960, 1940

Hawaii USA

1925

Ex. Philippines

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Initially very effective, but then highly 

parasitized resulting in ineffective 

control.

Parasitism

HDOA

44, 326, 612, 1518, 1940, 2068

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus; Bactra venosana (continued) Dioscoreaceae 

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Dioscoreaceae 

Dioscorea bulbifera L.

Asia, Africa

air-potato, air potato

Lilioceris cheni Gressitt & Kimoto

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2011

Ex. China

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Too early post release to determine 

overall abundance and impact, though 

populations seem well established and 

effective.

USDA (3)

232, 237, 1260
260 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Ericaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Ericaceae

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull

Eurasia, northern Africa

heather

Lochmaea suturalis (Thomson)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1996

Ex. United Kingdom

Yes

Variable

Variable

Beetle populations have generally 

been very slow to build. At a few 

locations large-scale outbreaks severely 

damaged weed 10 years following 

release. Studies demonstrated high 

populations of beetles more effective 

than herbicides.

MWLR, DOCNZ

761, 1064, 1071, 1489

Euphorbiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias L.

Eurasia

cypress spurge

Aphthona cyparissiae (Koch)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1982

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Helps reduce Euphorbia cyparissias

in the immediate release areas. Most 

effective in dry, open sites.

Habitat

AAFC

25, 154, 622, 735, 1140, 1187

United States of America

1995

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 261

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Aphthona cyparissiae (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula to 

E. cyparissias. Abundant in RI, unknown 

densities in NH. Populations highest in 

dry, mesic sites with sandy loam soils. 

Under these conditions, plant density 

may decrease quickly but unattacked 

roots recover; numerous years under 

right conditions required for this agent to 

decrease populations permanently.

Habitat

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

560, 712, 1578

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Aphthona czwalinai (Weise)

Aphthona czwalinae Weise

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Incorrectly spelled as Aphthona 

czwalinae in select publications. While 

A. czwalinai has in some cases been 

recorded as the incorrect spelling, it 

has been confirmed by taxonomists 

that the correct genitive is “czwalinai” 

and not “czwalinae”.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Austria

No

AAFC

25, 152, 154, 735

United States of America

1995

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula

to E. cyparissias. Scarcer than other 

Aphthona spp. in RI where this and A. 

lacertosa being replaced by A. flava

and A. nigriscutis; unknown densities 

in NH. Does best in mesic habitats with 

cool summers. Under these conditions, 

plant density may decrease quickly but 

unattacked roots recover; numerous 

years under right conditions required 

for this agent to decrease populations 

permanently. Typically most impact in 

combination with other Aphthona spp.

Habitat

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

149, 560, 712, 1559, 1578

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Aphthona czwalinai (continued)
262 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Canada

1982

Ex. Hungary, Italy

No

AAFC

25, 154, 735

United States of America

1995

Ex. Italy, Hungary

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula to E. 

cyparissias. Abundant in RI where along 

with Aphthona nigriscutis replacing A. 

lacertosa and A. czwalinai; unknown 

densities in NH. Best suited to mesicto-dry habitats, in alluvial soils above 

flood lines, and light shade. Probably 

less likely to survive low temperatures 

than other Aphthona spp. Under ideal 

conditions, plant density may decrease 

quickly but unattacked roots recover; 

numerous years under right conditions 

required for this agent to decrease 

populations permanently.

Habitat

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

149, 560, 712

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona flava Guillebeau

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona lacertosa Rosenhauer 

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1995

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Former Yugoslavia

Yes

Variable

Slight

Regional

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula

to E. cyparissias. Scarcer than other 

Aphthona spp. in RI where this and A. 

czwalinai being replaced by A. flava

and A. nigriscutis, unknown densities in 

NH. Does best in loamy soils, can adapt 

locally to both dry and wet habitats. 

Under some conditions, plant density 

may decrease quickly but unattacked 

roots recover; numerous years under 

right conditions required for this agent 

to decrease populations permanently. 

Typically most impact in combination 

with other Aphthona spp.

Habitat

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

149, 560, 712, 1559, 1578
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 263

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona nigriscutis Foudras

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1986

Ex. Hungary

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Helps reduce Euphorbia cyparissias

in the immediate release areas. Most 

effective in very dry, open sites.

AAFC

25, 152, 154

United States of America

1995

Ex. Hungary via Canada

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula to 

E. cyparissias. Abundant in RI where 

along with Aphthona flava replacing A. 

lacertosa and A. czwalinai, unknown 

densities in NH. Prefers sandy or gravel 

soil and typically drier sites. Under ideal 

conditions, plant density may decrease 

quickly but unattacked roots recover; 

numerous years under right conditions 

required for this agent to decrease 

populations permanently.

Habitat

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

149, 560, 1456

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Aphthona nigriscutis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chamaesphecia empiformis Esper

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Canada

1970

Ex. Austria, Germany, Switzerland

No

AAFC

25, 152, 154, 730

Canada

1989

Ex. Austria, Germany, Switzerland

No

AAFC

25, 152, 154

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
264 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1975

Ex. Austria, Germany, Switzerland

No

USDA (7,10), State (6,7,15)

36, 711, 712, 1559

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Chamaesphecia empiformis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hyles euphorbiae (L.)

Celerio euphorbiae (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Canada

1965

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Increasingly common in AB and other 

provinces. Densities may be decreased 

by predation at some sites. Even 

when populations high, plants recover 

from defoliation. Limited biocontrol 

value alone, but may stress weed in 

combination with other agents

Predation; Parasitism

AAFC

25, 152, 154, 730, 736, 1087

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1976

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland via 

Canada

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Established on the fertile tetraploid form 

of weed in NY. Initially high densities 

have since decreased due to high levels 

of predation. Even where high densities 

have resulted in total defoliation, impact 

insignificant as plant populations can 

tolerate yearly defoliation. 

Predation

USDA (1)

83, 86, 560, 730, 1456, 1578

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Hyles euphorbiae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lobesia euphorbiana (Freyer)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Italy

No

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula to 

E. cyparissias but failed to establish.

AAFC

154, 735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 265

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Oberea erythrocephala (Schrank)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1986

Ex. Switzerland

No

AAFC

25, 152, 154

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Pegomya euphorbiae (Kieffer)

Pegomya argyrocephala (Meigen) 

pars

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Previously included with Pegomya 

curticornis (Stein) under Pegomya 

argyrocephala (Meigen) 

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1989

Ex. Hungary

No

Initially survived in cages but 

redistribution failed; currently no 

established field populations.

AAFC

25, 154, 622

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Spurgia capitigena (Bremi)

Bayeria capitigena Bremi

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Previously included with Spurgia 

esulae Gagné under Bayeria 

capitigena Bremi. The agent was 

transferred to Spurgia and separated 

into two distinct species in 1990 

by the entomologist R.J. Gagné. 

More recent studies with these 

species revealed no evidence for 

two fly species, or two fly species 

separated by host plant. However, a 

revision of this group has not been 

published, so the two names created 

by Gagné remained valid at the time 

of publication of this version of the 

catalogue.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1990

Ex. Italy via USA

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Galls prevent flower formation and 

seed production though overall impact 

appears negligible.

AAFC

25, 152, 154, 622
266 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Spurgia esulae Gagné

Bayeria capitigena Bremi

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Previously included with Spurgia 

capitigena (Bremi) under Bayeria 

capitigena Bremi. The agent was 

transferred to Spurgia and separated 

into two distinct species in 1990 

by the entomologist R.J. Gagné. 

More recent studies with these 

species revealed no evidence for 

two fly species, or two fly species 

separated by host plant. However, a 

revision of this group has not been 

published, so the two names created 

by Gagné remained valid at the time 

of publication of this version of the 

catalogue.

Canada

1990

Ex. Italy via USA

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Released at one site but with no record 

of follow up on establishment.

AAFC

152, 154, 622

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1995

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

None

Redistributed from Euphorbia esula to 

E. cyparissias. Sporadic in NH, 

abundant at one site in RI. No damage 

apparent, galls form following flowering 

so overall impact insignificant.

State (7,11), USDA (10), USDA-APHIS

149, 560

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia cyparissias; Spurgia esulae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 267

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula L.

A controversial and morphologically 

variable species considered to 

represent a complex of forms, 

species and hybrids.

Eurasia

leafy spurge

149, 622

Aphthona abdominalis (Duftschmidt)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1993

Ex. Italy

No

State (15,28), USDA (10,14)

149, 332, 334, 335, 622, 710, 712, 1586

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona cyparissiae (Koch)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1982

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Switzerland

Yes

Variable

Variable

High populations effectively control 

Euphorbia esula populations in dry, 

open sites but insect densities too low 

and ineffective elsewhere.

Habitat

AAFC

117, 154, 432, 622, 734, 735, 1140, 

1187

United States of America

1986

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Italy, Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)
268 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America (continued)

Well established at few release sites 

but overall much less abundant than 

other Aphthona spp. Populations 

highest at dry, mesic sites with sandy 

loam soils. Under these conditions, 

plant density may decrease quickly but 

unattacked roots recover; numerous 

years under right conditions required 

for this agent to decrease populations 

permanently. Damage typically greatest 

in combination with other Aphthona spp.

Habitat

USDA (7,10,14), State (7,9,11,13,15,28), 

USDA-APHIS

36, 332, 334, 622, 711, 712, 1122, 1367, 

1456, 1458, 1578, 1586

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona cyparissiae (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Aphthona czwalinai (Weise)

Aphthona czwalinae Weise

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Incorrectly spelled as Aphthona 

czwalinae in select publications. While 

A. czwalinai has in some cases been 

recorded as the incorrect spelling, it 

has been confirmed by taxonomists 

that the correct genitive is “czwalinai” 

and not “czwalinae”.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1985

Ex. Austria

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Does best in mesic habitats with 

cool summers, though distribution 

limited throughout range. Release 

sites now dominated by Aphthona 

lacertosa. Sampling over 100 release 

mixed locations from 1999-2012 have 

yielded extremely low numbers of 

A. czwalinai; populations appear to 

be morphologically all A. lacertosa. 

Resampling efforts currently underway 

at initially pure A. czwalinai sites and 

pure A. lacertosa sites throughout 

Canada for molecular analysis.

Habitat

AAFC

152, 154, 432, 622, 735, 1187, 1585
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 269

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona czwalinai (continued)

Canada

1995

Ex. Austria, Hungary via USA

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Does best in mesic habitats with 

cool summers, though distribution 

limited throughout range. Release 

sites now dominated by Aphthona 

lacertosa. Sampling over 100 release 

mixed locations from 1999-2012 have 

yielded extremely low numbers of 

A. czwalinai; populations appear to 

be morphologically all A. lacertosa. 

Resampling efforts currently underway 

at initially pure A. czwalinai sites and 

pure A. lacertosa sites throughout 

Canada for molecular analysis.

Habitat

AAFC

117, 151, 152, 154, 432, 959, 1187, 

1578, 1585

United States of America

1987

Ex. Austria, Hungary

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Does best in mesic sites. Control 

of leafy spurge on local level within 

specific habitats achieved primarily by 

Aphthona nigriscutis, A. czwalinai and 

A. lacertosa. A. czwalinai thought to 

have been a major component in early 

years of biocontrol program until it 

was discovered that most of what was 

being called A. czwalinai was in fact 

A. lacertosa. Subsequently considered 

insignificant, until large populations 

recently found in ND.

Habitat

USDA (7,10,12,15), State (7), 

USDA-APHIS

36, 207, 334, 560, 622, 711, 712, 1367, 

1456, 1578, 1585, 1586

United States of America

1993

Ex. Russia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Released at one remote location that 

has since experienced large range fire. 

Follow up evaluation lacking so remains 

unknown if this population established.

USDA (7,10,12,15), State (7), 

USDA-APHIS

1103, 1578

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona czwalinai (continued)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
270 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona flava (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona flava Guillebeau

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Canada

1982

Ex. Hungary, Italy

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

Not as abundant as Aphthona 

nigriscutis. Euphorbia esula density 

declined where populations of A. flava

high, however not possible to attribute 

the reduction to A. flava alone as the 

site has been grazed by sheep, and 

A. nigriscutis also present. Does best 

at mesic-dry sites with sandy soil and 

warm temperatures.

Habitat

AAFC

152, 154, 432, 1187, 1585

United States of America

1985

Ex. Italy, Hungary

Yes

Limited

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Best suited to mesic-to-dry habitats, in 

alluvial soils above flood lines, and light 

shade. Probably less likely to survive 

low temperatures than other Aphthona

spp. In one area in MT its effect has 

been spectacular, but overall is much 

less abundant than other Aphthona spp.; 

persists at fairly low levels with little 

noticeable impact on infestations.

Habitat

USDA (7,10,12) State (6,7,9,11,13,15), 

USDA-APHIS

36, 149, 332, 334, 560, 711, 712, 1122, 

1367, 1456, 1460, 1578, 1586

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona lacertosa Rosenhauer 

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1987

Ex. Hungary, Former Yugoslavia

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 271

Table

1

Canada (continued)

High beetle densities significantly 

reduce Euphorbia esula stem density. 

This species best suited for mesic 

to moist sites. Sampling over 100 

Aphthona czwalinai release locations 

from 1999-2012 have yielded extremely 

low numbers of A. czwalinai; populations 

are morphologically all A. lacertosa. 

Resampling efforts currently underway 

for pure A. czwalinai release sites and 

pure A. lacertosa sites throughout 

Canada for phylogenetic analysis.

Habitat

AAFC

151, 152, 154, 432, 735, 959, 1187, 

1585

Canada

1995

Ex. Hungary via USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

High beetle densities significantly 

reduce Euphorbia esula stem density. 

This species best suited for mesic to 

moist sites.

Habitat

AAFC

117, 151, 152, 154, 432, 959, 1187, 

1585

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1993

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Former Yugoslavia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Does best in loamy soils, can adapt 

locally to both dry and wet habitats. 

Along with Aphthona nigriscutis, 

significantly reducing plant density at 

local level in most regions. Not effective 

at all sites.

Habitat

State (15), USDA-APHIS

36, 207, 334, 335, 560, 622, 711, 712, 

1122, 1367, 1559, 1578, 1586, 1895, 

1904

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona lacertosa (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona lacertosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphthona nigriscutis Foudras

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Canada

1983

Ex. Hungary

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)
272 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Canada (continued)

Extremely effective at reducing or 

removing Euphorbia esula in open, 

warm, very dry habitats with lighter soils. 

Populations low or absent at moist, 

sheltered sites on heavy soil.

Habitat

AAFC

25, 117, 151, 154, 432, 734, 735, 959, 

1187

United States of America

1989

Ex. Hungary via Canada

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Prefers sandy or gravel soil and 

typically drier sites. Along with Aphthona 

lacertosa, significantly reducing plant 

density at local level in most regions. 

Not effective at all sites. Impact may be 

hindered by bacterium which causes 

high mortality in males, resulting in 

female biased populations.

Habitat; Disease

Spillover feeding observed on the 

native Euphorbia robusta (Engelm.); as 

Euphorbia esula L. density declined, so 

did feeding on E. robusta and E. robusta

populations increased.

USDA (10,14), State (6,7,9,11,13,15,28), 

USDA-APHIS

73, 149, 207, 334, 560, 622, 711, 712, 

1090, 1122, 1456, 1586, 1904

Release

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Aphthona nigriscutis (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chamaesphecia astatiformis HerrichSchäffer

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1993

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

No

Though has overwintered successfully 

in cages at AB, did not establish in open 

releases on prairies.

AAFC

154, 622, 735

Agent

Species

Classification

Chamaesphecia crassicornis Bartel

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1994

Ex. Hungary

No

Though has overwintered successfully 

in cages at AB, did not establish in open 

releases on prairies.

AAFC

154, 622, 735
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 273

Table

1

United States of America

1994

Ex. Romania

No

USDA (10,14), State (15)

149, 332, 334, 335, 622, 712

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Chamaesphecia crassicornis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chamaesphecia hungarica Tomala

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

No

Though has overwintered successfully 

in cages at AB, did not establish in open 

releases on prairies.

AAFC

154, 622, 735

United States of America

1993

Ex. Hungary, Former Yugoslavia

No

Initially recovered and well established 

at one site by 1996 but has since been 

considered a failure.

USDA (10,14), State (7)

622, 711, 712

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chamaesphecia tenthrediniformis

(Denis & Schiffermüller)

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1971

Ex. Austria, Greece

No

Did not develop on Euphorbia esula

targets in Canada.

AAFC

154, 622, 730

United States of America

1975

Ex. Austria

No

Establishment failure due to agent being 

so specific as to not be able to survive 

on North American biotypes of this 

weed.

Specificity

USDA (7,10), State (6,7,15)

622, 712, 1456, 1731
274 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Hyles euphorbiae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hyles euphorbiae (L.)

Celerio euphorbiae (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1966

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Scattered but widespread in ON, though 

increasingly common in AB and other 

provinces. Densities often low due to 

predation. Even when populations high, 

plants recover from defoliation. Limited 

biocontrol value alone, but may stress 

weed in combination with other agents.

Predation

AAFC

152, 154, 432, 730, 736, 1185, 1187

United States of America

1966

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland via 

Canada

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Though moth densities may be locally 

high in some years, disease and 

predation typically prevent densities 

from developing to levels substantial 

enough to impact leafy spurge 

populations in some areas. Even where 

high densities resulted in total plant 

defoliation, impact insignificant as this 

does not kill plants. 

Disease; Predation

USDA (7,10), State (6,7,9,13), 

USDA-APHIS, USDA-ARS

36, 83, 86, 149, 332, 560, 710, 712, 

730, 1456, 1512, 1731

United States of America

1980

Ex. Hungary

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

This release not differentiated from 

earlier release sourced via Canada. 

Though moth densities may be locally 

high in some years, disease and 

predation typically prevent densities 

from developing to levels substantial 

enough to impact leafy spurge 

populations in some areas. Even where 

high densities resulted in total plant 

defoliation, impact insignificant as this 

does not kill plants. 

State (7,15), USDA (10)

36, 149, 332, 334, 712, 1456, 1578

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 275

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lobesia euphorbiana (Freyer)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1983

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

Densities vary with plant populations; 

low in some provinces but high enough 

for redistribution in BC and MB. 

Repeated heavy attack may kill target 

plant.

AAFC

117, 154, 432, 622, 735, 1187

Agent

Species

Classification

Minoa murinata (Scopoli)

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Germany, Austria

No

Initially survived in field cages in AB and 

SK, being abundant in AB cages in 1996 

and with a few individuals found outside. 

In subsequent years, considered to have 

failed establishment at any field site.

AAFC

152, 154, 622, 1185, 1187

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Oberea erythrocephala (Schrank)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1979

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Rare

None

At high densities small plants can be 

killed, however field populations too low 

to have significant impact.

AAFC

117, 152, 154, 730, 1187

United States of America

1980

Ex. Italy

No

USDA (7,10), State (7,13,15), USDAAPHIS

334, 1456, 1560
276 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1982

Ex. Austria, Hungary, Italy

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially believed to potentially greatly 

depress leafy spurge populations, but 

densities have remained too low to 

impart significant impact in the field. 

Believed to cause decline of larger 

plants at some infestations. This species 

may attack only specific biotypes of 

leafy spurge, thus limiting its efficacy in 

many areas.

Specificity

USDA (7,10), State (7,13,15)

332, 334, 335, 711, 712, 1367, 1456, 

1536, 1560, 1578, 1895

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Oberea erythrocephala (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Pegomya curticornis (Stein)

Pegomya argyrocephala (Meigen) 

pars

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Previously included with Pegomya 

euphorbiae (Kieffer) under Pegomya 

argyrocephala (Meigen) 

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Hungary

No

Said to have overwintered successfully 

for 1 year in Regina SK but these 

individuals were likely Pegomya 

euphorbiae because original host 

specificity testing indicated P. curticornis

would not develop on North American 

Euphorbia esula. It is possible all 

material released was P. euphorbiae. 

All Canadian P. euphorbiae populations 

failed to permanently establish in the 

field.

AAFC

152, 154, 1185, 1187
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 277

Table

1

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Pegomya euphorbiae (Kieffer)

Pegomya argyrocephala (Meigen) 

pars

(Diptera: Anthomyiidae)

Previously included with Pegomya 

curticornis (Stein) under Pegomya 

argyrocephala (Meigen) 

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Hungary

No

Survived in field cages in AB for 4 years 

but redistribution failed; currently no 

established field populations.

AAFC

152, 154, 735, 1185, 1187

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Spurgia capitigena (Bremi)

Bayeria capitigena Bremi

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Previously included with Spurgia 

esulae Gagné under Bayeria 

capitigena Bremi. The agent was 

transferred to Spurgia and separated 

into two distinct species in 1990 

by the entomologist R.J. Gagné. 

More recent studies with these 

species revealed no evidence for 

two fly species, or two fly species 

separated by host plant. However, a 

revision of this group has not been 

published, so the two names created 

by Gagné remained valid at the time 

of publication of this version of the 

catalogue.

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula (continued)

Canada

1987

Ex. Italy via USA

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Galls prevent flower formation and 

seed production though overall impact 

appears negligible.

AAFC

152, 154, 432, 622

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
278 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

2001

Ex. France

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Released at two locations in ND; only 

the first yielded galls during subsequent 

surveys. Current abundance and 

impact unknown. Different population 

believed to be present after inadvertent 

introduction as contaminant in one 

release of Spurgia esulae collected from 

Italy.

USDA (16)

1106, 1142

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Spurgia esulae Gagné

Bayeria capitigena Bremi

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Previously included with Spurgia 

capitigena (Bremi) under Bayeria 

capitigena Bremi. The agent was 

transferred to Spurgia and separated 

into two distinct species in 1990 

by the entomologist R.J. Gagné. 

More recent studies with these 

species revealed no evidence for 

two fly species, or two fly species 

separated by host plant. However, a 

revision of this group has not been 

published, so the two names created 

by Gagné remained valid at the time 

of publication of this version of the 

catalogue.

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1987

Ex. Italy via USA

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Galls prevent flower formation and 

seed production though overall impact 

appears negligible.

AAFC

117, 152, 154, 432, 622, 1185, 1187

United States of America

1985

Ex. Italy

Yes

Limited

None

No damage apparent. Densities 

generally low, but even where most 

abundant, galls form following flowering 

so overall impact insignificant.

USDA (7,10,12,14), State 

(7,11,13,15,28), USDA-APHIS

39, 149, 335, 560, 711, 712, 1106, 1449, 

1456

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Spurgia capitigena (continued)

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Spurgia esulae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 279

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia oblongata Griseb.

Europe

oblong spurge

Hyles euphorbiae (L.)

Celerio euphorbiae (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland via 

Canada

No

USDA (7)

231, 712, 1512

Euphorbiaceae (continued) Euphorbiaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Euphorbiaceae

Jatropha gossypiifolia L.

Mexico, Caribbean, South America

bellyache bush

Agonosoma trilineatum (Fabricius)

(Heteroptera: Scutelleridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

2003

Ex. Venezuela, Curaçao (formerly 

Netherlands Antilles)

No

CSIRO, QLD State, NT

768, 770
280 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia baileyana F. Muell.

Australia

Bailey’s wattle

Melanterius maculatus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2006

Ex. Australia

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Release is too recent for meaningful 

evaluation; establishment has been 

confirmed at one release site, but further 

overseas collections are required to 

facilitate introductions into new areas.

ARC-PPRI

869, 871, 992

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia cyclops A. Cunn. ex G. Don

Australia

red eye/rooikrans

Dasineura dielsi Rübsaamen

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Variable

Established in WC during 2001 

field host-specificity testing. Official 

approval for release was subsequently 

obtained. High populations initially led to 

enormous gall loads, virtually eliminating 

pod production in some areas. At many 

other sites, levels of pod suppression 

vary from year to year, driven largely 

by considerable fluctuations in the 

extent and duration of annual plant 

flowering. Parasitism (typically <10%) 

and predation limit populations at some 

areas and in some years.

Parasitism; Predation

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 281

Table

1

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Also attacks other exotic but sometimes 

commercially important Acacia spp. 

including: A. floribunda (Vent.) Willd., 

A. implexa Benth., A. longifolia (Andr.) 

Willd., A. melanoxylon R. Br., A. pendula

A. Cunn. Ex G. Don., and A. saligna

(Labill.) H.L. Wendl. though the impact is 

expected to be negligible.

ARC-PPRI

4, 869, 871, 874, 992, 1522

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Acacia cyclops; Dasineura dielsi (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Melanterius servulus Pascoe

Melanterius servulus Pascoe (type A)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1991

Ex. Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Initially slow to disperse, eventually 

widespread. Adult and larval feeding 

causes seed mortality highly 

variable between sites; overall 

impacts moderate. Initially believed 

inconsistencies in pod availability (due 

to heavy Dasineura dielsi impact) might 

cause lasting declines and even local 

extinctions of this agent, but the weevil 

has since demonstrated an ability to 

persist through periods of extremely low 

pod availability and to rebound when 

pods become available again.

Interspecific competition

ARC-PPRI

477, 867, 869, 871, 872, 874, 992

Fabaceae

Acacia cyclops (continued)
282 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia dealbata Link

Australia

silver wattle

Melanterius maculatus Lea

Melanterius sp. nr maculatus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1994

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Seed damage has ranged from 64-93% 

(mean 79%) at the few sites where 

establishment is confirmed. Additional 

monitoring needed.

ARC-PPRI

477, 869, 871, 992

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia decurrens (Wendl.) Willd.

Australia

green wattle

Melanterius maculatus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1998

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Seed damage has ranged from 42-93% 

(mean 63%) at the few sites where 

establishment is confirmed. Additional 

monitoring needed.

ARC-PPRI

867, 869, 871, 992
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 283

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd.

Australia

long-leaved wattle

Melanterius ventralis Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially slow to disperse, but currently 

widely distributed throughout weed 

range. Highly active and extremely 

efficient at locating pods. Reduces 

seed production by average of 

72.5% during pod growing season, 

complementing impact of Trichilogaster 

acaciaelongifoliae earlier in the season. 

The two species together have reduced 

seed production to only 1% of levels 

formerly found in South Africa; Acacia 

longifolia now found only in localized 

and generally isolated thickets with 

no indications of expanding into 

surrounding areas. 

ARC-PPRI

476, 477, 514, 867, 869, 871, 992

Fabaceae

Acacia longifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae

(Froggatt)

(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Republic of South Africa

1982

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Can reduce seed production >95% 

directly by galling reproductive buds 

and indirectly by increasing abscission 

of some remaining inflorescences. 

Causes some mortality of adult trees 

at sites under stressful environmental 

conditions. Impact initially varied by 

location; lower efficacy in hot inland 

valleys and elevated cooler mist belt 

regions was attributed to poor climatic 

matching. Given more time for dispersal, 

there were no indications climatic 

conditions were influencing distribution. 

In conjunction with Melanterius ventralis, 

reduces seed production of Acacia 

longifolia to only 1% of levels formerly 

found in South Africa. A. longifolia now 

found only in localized and generally 

isolated thickets with no indications of 

expanding into surrounding areas. High 

levels of parasitism by native parasitoids 

do not seem to decrease efficacy 

significantly.

(continued on next page)
284 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae

Acacia longifolia; Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae (continued)

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Also attacks other exotic but sometimes 

commercially important Acacia spp. 

including: A. floribunda (Vent.) Willd. 

and A. melanoxylon R. Br. as well as 

the closely related Paraserianthes 

lophantha (Willd.) Nielsen.

ARC-PPRI

475, 476, 477, 478, 514, 867, 869, 871, 

992, 1339

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia mearnsii De Wild.

Australia

black wattle

Melanterius maculatus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1993

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Variable

Can cause substantial levels of seed 

reduction, however damage is not 

consistent (ranging from 4-78%, mean 

49%) and considerable quantities of 

seed are still produced annually. 

ARC-PPRI

477, 869, 870, 871, 992

Fabaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 285

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia melanoxylon R. Br.

Australia

Australian blackwood

Melanterius acaciae Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1986

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially slow to disperse, but currently 

widely distributed causing significant 

seed damage, typically >90%. Concerns 

about the invasiveness of Acacia 

melanoxylon have diminished since the 

proliferation of Melanterius acaciae.

Spillover attack occurs on the exotic 

Acacia cyclops A. Cunn. ex G. Don and 

A. saligna (Labill.) H.L. Wendl. when 

growing near A. melanoxylon R. Br. 

when pods of A. melanoxylon are not 

available.

ARC-PPRI

476, 477, 869, 871, 992

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia podalyriifolia A. Cunn. ex G. 

Don

Australia

pearl acacia

Melanterius maculatus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2008

Ex. Australia

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

ARC-PPRI

871, 992
286 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia pycnantha Benth.

Australia

golden wattle

Melanterius maculatus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Taxonomic and molecular evidence 

have revealed no intra-specific 

differences in different provenances of 

Melanterius maculatus, but patterns 

of host-use indicate that host-specific 

strains may occur.

871

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2005

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Since 2006, seed damage levels 

have reached 56% at some sites. 

Though populations still increasing, 

all indications are that because of 

combination of this species with 

Trichilogaster signiventris, Acacia 

pycnantha is no longer a threat to 

natural habitats in South Africa.

ARC-PPRI

871, 874, 992

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Trichilogaster signiventris (Girault)

Trichilogaster sp. B, Trichilogaster sp.

(Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Initially believed both releases failed to 

establish; by 1995 was realized the 1992 

release succeeded. Besides substantial 

reductions in seed production, galls 

serve as nutrient sinks. In some cases, 

extensive galling causes collapse of 

branches and toppling of whole trees. 

Still, many seed pods successfully 

produced. Melanterius maculatus

released in 2005 to complement wasp 

effects. Though M. maculatus is still 

increasing, all indications are that both 

agents combined have made Acacia 

pycnantha no longer a threat to natural 

habitats in South Africa.

ARC-PPRI

477, 479, 825, 869, 871, 874, 992

Fabaceae

Acacia pycnantha (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 287

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Acacia saligna (Labill.) H. L. Wendl.

Australia

Port Jackson willow

Melanterius compactus Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Regional

Very effective in established locations 

where seed damage typically 

>90%. Nicely complements impacts 

by Uromycladium tepperianum. 

Redistributions to additional Acacia 

saligna infestations a priority.

ARC-PPRI

869, 871, 874, 992

Agent

Species

Classification

Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) 

McAlpine

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Prevalent wherever Acacia saligna

occurs. Has caused dramatic decline 

in population density and longevity of 

mature trees, as well as reduction in 

canopy cover and seed production. 

Though highly effective, takes ~5 years 

to kill infected plants and ~5 more to 

reduce tree densities to low levels, 

allowing infected trees to set seeds for 

number of years before succumbing. 

Efficacy increased in conjunction 

with Melanterius compactus, whose 

populations are continuing to increase. 

Parasitism observed, though its impact 

on rust efficacy unknown.

Possibly Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

871, 874, 992, 1281, 1282, 2007

Fabaceae

Acacia saligna (continued)
288 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston

May exist as several biotypes

Asia

Mauritius thorn, Kraaldoring

Sulcobruchus subsuturalis (Pic)

Sulcobruchus bakeri Kingsolver, 

Bruchus subsuturalis Pic, 

Bruchus ocularis Pic

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1999

Ex. India

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Tentatively believed established. Though 

widely released, remains scarce where 

present. Causes high seed mortality 

in the laboratory when populations are 

large, but which may have limited to no 

effect on the population dynamics of 

Caesalpinia decapetala in the field. High 

levels of parasitism and predation likely 

limit populations. C. decapetala may 

exist as several biotypes, and the local 

variety may not be a suitable host for the 

form of Sulcobruchus subsuturalis that 

has been imported into South Africa.

Parasitism; Predation; Specificity

ARC-PPRI, WUSA

209, 211, 299, 301, 958, 992

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link subsp. 

scoparius, Sarothamnus scoparius

(L.) Wimm. ex W. D. J. Koch

Europe

Scotch broom, broom

Aceria genistae (Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Research indicates Aceria genistae

includes a number of distinct strains, 

each of which is specific to one 

species of plant. 

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2008

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Though established on mainland, impact 

not yet known. Field studies currently 

underway. Well established in TAS and 

starting to disperse; causing severe 

damage to target plants at some sites.

TAS State, VIC State, CSIRO

848, 883, 1601, 1698
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 289

Table

1

New Zealand

2007

Ex. France

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Some sites have very large numbers of 

galls with plants clearly exhibiting leaf 

loss, stem-tip dieback, and mortality. 

At other sites agent populations still 

increasing post release.

MWLR

761, 848, 1063, 1064, 1443, 1601, 1698

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Aceria genistae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Agonopterix assimilella Treitschke

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2007

Ex. England, France

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Despite multiple and ongoing releases, 

establishment has yet to be confirmed.

MWLR

542, 761, 1060, 1064

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Arytainilla spartiophila (Förster)

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1994

Ex. France via New Zealand

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Only few specimens ever collected 

in SA to confirm establishment there. 

Elsewhere, no recent comprehensive 

surveys carried out to verify long-term 

establishment, abundance or impact.

CSIRO, NSW State, SA State

119, 365, 848, 849, 1178, 1418

New Zealand

1993

Ex. England

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Damages new growth in spring and 

becoming common, but damaging 

outbreaks occur rarely; predation may 

limit populations in some areas. Formal 

evaluation lacking.

Predation

MWLR

720, 761, 1064, 1770
290 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bruchidius villosus (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1995

Ex. France; Ex. England via New 

Zealand

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Easy to find at one NSW site, 

established in limited numbers at 

only one VIC site. Additional studies 

warranted but evidence suggests weed 

populations not significantly impacted by 

this species. 

CSIRO, NSW State

848, 849

New Zealand

1987

Ex. England

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

New Zealand (continued)

Becoming common throughout New 

Zealand, though unable to destroy 

sufficient seed to suppress Cytisus 

scoparius populations alone. Seed 

destruction rates of 73% in combination 

with absence of honeybee pollination 

could cause C. scoparius extinction at 

many sites, though seed rain predicted 

to be sufficient to maintain C. scoparius

invasions over many sites largely due to 

continued presence of beehives.

Parasitism

Also feeds on the exotic Chamaecytisus 

prolifer (L. f.) Link subsp. prolifer

var. palmensis (Christ) A. Hansen & 

Sunding, a plant regarded as weedy 

in portions of New Zealand, but that 

also has benefits including use as 

fodder in high country farms when 

there is drought, as a pollen source for 

beekeepers, and as a supplementary 

food source for the threatened native 

pigeon in New Zealand.

DSIR

704, 720, 1064, 1445, 1652, 1773

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Bruchidius villosus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 291

Table

1

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Exapion fuscirostre (Fabricius)

Apion fuscirostre Fabricius

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1964

Ex. Italy

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Seed reduction between 20-60% 

insufficient to impart significant control 

of plant populations alone, but may 

contribute to slowed rate of spread. 

More studies needed. Parasitism 

typically low but may limit populations 

in some regions.

Parasitism

USDA (7,12), State (9,15)

42, 46, 332, 335, 339, 340, 1578, 1752

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Gonioctena olivacea (Forster)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

2006

Ex. England

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Widespread and ongoing releases have 

led to establishment in some areas, 

though it is still too soon to formally 

evaluate impact. 

MWLR

542, 761, 1053, 1060, 1064
292 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Leucoptera spartifoliella (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. Unknown via New Zealand

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Well established at one site in NSW 

from where it was redistributed to VIC 

and later to TAS and SA. Recovered in 

TAS following most recent release but 

establishment needs to be confirmed. 

First release failed in SA; status of 

recent release unknown.

Parasitism

CSIRO, NSW State, VIC State

119, 848, 849, 886

United States of America

1960

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced in 1960 but 

found to have already been present. 

Both populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

Widespread in CA and OR but present 

at limited sites in WA. High population 

numbers can deform plants and cause 

stem dieback but plant density not 

affected and overall impact is negligible. 

Heavily parasitized and does not do well 

in hot, dry sites.

Parasitism; Habitat

USDA (7), State (15)

39, 42, 332, 335, 339, 340, 593, 1928

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Leucoptera spartifoliella (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 293

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Galega officinalis L.

western Asia, southern Europe

goat’s rue

Uromyces galegae (Opiz) Sacc.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Chile

1973

Ex. France via Switzerland

Yes

Unknown

None

Though established, impact negligible.

UACH

84, 1356, 1362, 1378

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

Mexico, Central America

leucaena, lead tree

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus

(Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1999

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Original laboratory colony sourced in 

Texas USA but later augmented with 

population from Florida when colony 

declined in quarantine. Literature does 

not differentiate between this population 

and the later release from Mexico. 

Widespread throughout KZN. Seed 

damage varies 2-62% and <30% on 

average. Extent of distribution elsewhere 

in the country unknown. Attack rates likely 

insufficient to regulate populations of 

Leucaena leucocephala in South Africa. 

Beetle populations hindered by several 

factors, including oviposition preferences, 

parasitism and low seed predation rates 

when seed abundance high. 

Parasitism; Agent-host synchronization

ARC-PPRI, UKZN

992, 1388, 1390, 1646, 1663
294 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

2005

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Literature does not differentiate between 

this population and the earlier release 

from the USA. Widespread throughout 

KZN. Seed damage varies 2-62% and 

<30% on average. Extent of distribution 

elsewhere in the country unknown. 

Attack rates likely insufficient to regulate 

populations of Leucaena leucocephala

in South Africa. Beetle populations 

hindered by several factors, including 

oviposition preferences, parasitism and 

low seed predation rates when seed 

abundance high.

Parasitism; Agent-host synchronization

ARC-PPRI, UKZN

992, 1388, 1390, 1646

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae; Leucaena leucocephala; 

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (continued) Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha C. Wright

Mimosa invisa Mart.

tropical Americas

giant sensitive plant, creeping 

sensitive plant, nila grass, vao 

fefe palagi, pikika’a papa’a, la’au 

fefe palagi, co gadrogadro, wa 

ngandrongandro ni wa, ngalelevu, 

wagadrogadro levu, limemeihr laud

1037, 1225, 1791

Heteropsylla spinulosa Muddiman, 

Hodkinson & Hollis

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

American Samoa

1997

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Samoa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has provided sustained suppression of 

the weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts.

DAFF, QLD State

427, 1037
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 295

Table

1

Australia

1988

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widely established. Plants severely 

stunted, shoot elongation reduced by 

84% and seed cluster density reduced 

by 80%. Successful control of the weed.

QLD State

1, 1225, 1979

Cook Islands

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has provided sustained suppression of 

the weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts.

SPC

427, 1037, 1868

Federated States of Micronesia

1992

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Suppressed weed within four years of 

release, requiring little or no additional 

management efforts. Where weed can 

be found in small patches on newly 

opened ground, Heteropsylla spinulosa

still well established.

COM, QLD State

427, 552, 1037, 1939

Fiji

1993

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)
296 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fiji (continued)

After the first release from Samoa 

was believed to have failed, a second 

population from Australia was released. 

It was eventually determined both 

populations successfully established 

and both were subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Has 

provided sustained suppression of the 

weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts. In some areas 

populations limited by climate as 

Heteropsylla spinulosa can get washed 

off plants in heavy rain.

Climate; Predation

KRS

418, 427, 1037, 1050, 1868, 1939

Fiji

1993

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Samoa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has provided sustained suppression of 

the weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts. In some areas 

populations limited by climate as 

Heteropsylla spinulosa can get washed 

off plants in heavy rain.

Climate; Predation

KRS

418, 427, 1037, 1050, 1868, 1939

Guam

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Federated 

States of Micronesia

No

UOG

552, 1553, 1939

Guam

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Palau

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

UOG

427, 1037, 1553, 1939

Niue

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Successful control in most areas.

418, 1225, 1401

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 297

Table

1

Northern Mariana Islands

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Federated 

States of Micronesia

No

NMC

552, 1553, 1939

Northern Mariana Islands

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Palau

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

NMC

427, 1037, 1553, 1939

Palau

1999

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Federated 

States of Micronesia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has provided sustained suppression 

of weed, requiring little or no additional 

management efforts.

427, 550, 1037, 1225, 1553, 1939

Papua New Guinea

1993

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Provided significant control within 12 

months at some release sites. Weed 

now patchy due at least in part to 

Heteropsylla spinulosa. Impact high in 

drier areas where insect populations 

high, but low in wetter areas where 

insect is less frequent.

Climate; Habitat

RSL, QLD State

418, 427, 1036, 1037, 1038, 1039, 1939

Samoa

1988

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially not believed to be widespread 

or effective. More recently, has 

provided sustained suppression of the 

weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts.

DAFF, QLD State

427, 1037, 1868, 1979

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)
298 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Solomon Islands

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Has provided sustained suppression of 

the weed requiring little or no additional 

management efforts.

SPC

427, 1037, 1403, 1868

Timor Leste

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

QLD State, MAFF, UNTL

418, 966, 1225

Tonga

2008

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Released at only Mimosa diplotricha

outbreak site known; now effective and 

suppressing the weed.

SPC

1403

Vanuatu

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Fiji

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Not very damaging. Populations 

impacted by heavy rains.

Climate

204, 418, 1401

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha; Heteropsylla spinulosa (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 299

Table

1

Fabaceae

Mimosa diplotricha (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Psigida walkeri (Grote)

(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Cook Islands

1994

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

SPC

1225, 1868, 1917

Agent

Species

Classification

Scamurius sp.

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Australia

1987

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State

765, 1225

Samoa

1988

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

DAFF, QLD State

1225

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra L.

Mimosa pigra L. var. pigra

tropical Americas

giant sensitive plant, mimosa, giant 

mimosa

Acanthoscelides puniceus Johnson

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Destroys up to 10% of seeds which may 

slow seedling recruitment on infestation 

edges. Alone, unlikely to have any 

significant impact wherever seed 

production is strongly seasonal. 

Agent-host synchronization

CSIRO, NT

765, 774, 1440, 1441, 1442, 1980, 1982
300 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Malaysia

1991

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Intentionally introduced, though 

separate population of unintentional 

individuals migrating from Thailand 

subsequently established in same 

regions and populations are no longer 

differentiated. Increasingly spreading, 

however attack rates minimal (less than 

12% damage to pods) and have limited 

impact on weed population.

MARDI, DOAM

55, 56, 58, 765, 774

Myanmar

1988

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand 

where it was intentionally introduced. 

Also intentionally introduced with 

both populations subsequently not 

differentiated. Overall status unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1327

Thailand

1983

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in all infested areas. With 

Acanthoscelides quadridentatus resulted 

in up to 100% plant infestation although 

seed destruction relatively low (less than 

50%). Unlikely to have significant impact 

on weed populations.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1327, 1328, 1746

Vietnam

1987

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

Yes

High

None

Though well established, has had no 

impact on seed production.

VNBCRC

219, 765, 774, 1327, 1329, 1711

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides puniceus (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides puniceus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 301

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Acanthoscelides quadridentatus 

(Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides quadridentatus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. Mexico

No

Established initially in NT, but has not 

persisted.

CSIRO, NT

765, 1440, 1980, 1982

Myanmar

1988

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand 

where it was intentionally introduced. 

Also intentionally introduced with 

both populations subsequently not 

differentiated. Overall status unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1327

Thailand

1983

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in all infested areas. With 

Acanthoscelides puniceus resulted in 

up to 100% plant infestation although 

seed destruction relatively low (less than 

50%). Unlikely to have significant impact 

on weed populations.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1327, 1328, 1746

Vietnam

1987

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

Yes

High

None

Though well established, has had no 

impact on seed production.

VNBCRC

219, 765, 774, 1327, 1329, 1711

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
302 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Carmenta mimosa Eichlin & Passoa

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Established in all catchments with 

Mimosa pigra in NT. Spreading at 

2 km/year. Weed infestations contracting 

when Carmenta mimosa is present due 

to reduced seed rain, seedling numbers 

and seed bank, increases in other 

vegetation, and susceptibility to fire. 

Further significant impact on stands is 

predicted.

CSIRO, NT

202, 765, 1408, 1441, 1444, 1982

Indonesia

1998

Ex. Mexico via Australia

No

Only released at one site and failed to 

establish.

NBCRC

765

Malaysia

1997

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Appeared to establish but recent 

information on progress lacking.

NBCRC

55, 56, 774

Thailand

1989

Ex. Mexico via Australia

No

NBCRC

774, 1328, 1746

Thailand

1993

Ex. Mexico via Australia

No

Believed to have established initially 

while being ineffective, but more 

recently considered a failed introduction.

NBCRC

774, 1329, 1746

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Carmenta mimosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 303

Table

1

Vietnam

1996

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Attacks only new shoots and young 

plants which limits efficacy when 

spreading naturally. Now mass-reared 

and released in combination with other 

methods such as cutting or pulling

VNBCRC

220, 774, 1329, 1711, 1982

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Carmenta mimosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chalcodermus serripes Fåhraeus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Australia

1996

Ex. Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Thought to have failed establishment 

until discovered in 2008. Now found 

in large populations over several river 

catchments. Increasing and causing 

heavy damage to flowers and seeds.

CSIRO, NT

765, 767

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chlamisus mimosae Karren

Chlamisus sp. nr. sidae

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1985

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established in low numbers in only 

one river system in NT despite wide 

releases. Not effective.

Predation

CSIRO, NT

765, 967, 1408, 1982

Thailand

1985

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Believed to have established initially, but 

soon disappeared from release sites. 

Current status unknown.

NBCRC

774, 967, 1326, 1327, 1328, 1746
304 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Vietnam

1990

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Thailand

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

This release was a single attempt with 

a small number of individuals; fate 

unknown.

NBCRC, VNBCRC

774, 1329

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Chlamisus mimosae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Coelocephalapion aculeatum (Fall)

Apion aculeatum Fall

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1992

Ex. Mexico

No

Initially reported to have established, 

but has not been found since 2002. 

This insect is an obligate flower feeder 

and probably failed to survive the dry 

seasons when flowers are absent.

CSIRO, NT

579, 765, 774, 1408, 1440

Thailand

1991

Ex. Mexico via Australia

No

NBCRC

579, 774, 1746

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Coelocephalapion aculeatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Coelocephalapion pigrae Kissinger

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1994

Ex. Venezuela

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established and spreading to 

isolated stands. Feeds on both flowers 

and leaves, enabling it to survive the dry 

season when no flowers are produced. 

Flower production reduced by up to 

10% only. 

CSIRO, NT

765, 772, 1408, 1442, 1599, 1914, 1915
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 305

Table

1

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Diabole cubensis (Arthur & 

J.R. Johnst.) Arthur

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Leuciris fimbriaria (Stoll)

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1996

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Though symptoms were found initially 

following inoculation, subsequently 

believed to have failed establishment. 

Detected again in NT in 2011.

IIBC, CSIRO, NT

765, 780, 781, 1639

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

2004

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Leuciris fimbriaria (continued)

Australia (continued)

Though widespread, densities low. 

Likely to have only slight localized 

impacts on Mimosa pigra infestations.

CSIRO, NT

765, 771

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Macaria pallidata (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2002

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Widespread. Populations fluctuate 

markedly; outbreak levels coincide with 

wet season rainfall. When abundant, 

causes significant damage in field. 

Formal study quantifying overall impact 

lacking.

Climate

CSIRO, NT

765, 771, 1599
306 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Malacorhinus irregularis Jacoby

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2000

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely established, abundance 

variable in space and time. Where 

populations high at one site, significant 

damaged observed. Formal study 

quantifying overall impact lacking.

CSIRO, NT

765, 775, 1599, 1914, 1915

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Nesaecrepida infuscata (Schaeffer)

Syphrea bibiana Bechyné

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

2007

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Unknown

Too early post release

(continued at top of next column)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Nesaecrepida infuscata (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia (continued)

Recovered at a release site 20 weeks 

after release in 2010, suggesting they 

are breeding in the field.

CSIRO, NT

762

Agent

Species

Classification

Neurostrota gunniella (Busck)

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed with greater 

abundance and impact at edges of 

stands where up to 50% reduction in 

seed production may occur.

Host plant resistance

Also found attacking native Neptunia 

major (Benth.) Winder growing adjacent 

to Mimosa pigra L., though impact 

determined to be low. Net effect 

determined beneficial for N. major as it 

colonized areas vacated by dying 

M. pigra.

CSIRO, NT

765, 1115, 1442, 1443, 1782, 1914, 

1915, 1981, 1982
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 307

Table

1

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Phloeospora mimosae-pigrae 

Evans & Carrión

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1994

Ex. Mexico

No

The fungus never developed to its 

sexual form in Australia, which is 

assumed to be vital for survival. Failed 

to survive beyond the wet season of its 

release.

IIBC, CSIRO, NT

554, 765, 780, 781, 1639

Agent

Species

Classification

Scamurius sp.

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1988

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State, NT

765, 1225

Agent

Species

Classification

Sibinia fastigiata Clark

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1997

Ex. Mexico, Brazil

No

CSIRO

765, 774, 777, 1408
308 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

Overall seed damage near WC release 

sites 81.5%. Establishment only recently 

occurred in EC. Redistributions of this 

species essential.

ARC-PPRI

476, 477, 871, 992

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Paraserianthes lophantha (Willd.) 

Nielsen

Albizia lophantha (Willd.) Benth.

Australia

stink bean

Melanterius servulus Pascoe

Melanterius servulus Pascoe (type B)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Fabaceae (continued)

Fabaceae

Parkinsonia aculeata L.

tropical and subtropical Americas

retama, Jerusalem thorn, palo verde, 

parkinsonia

Mimosestes ulkei (Horn)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1993

Ex. USA (AZ)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially believed to have established in 

NT where killed up to 5.3% of seeds, 

as well as WA and QLD. Not reported 

in past 10 years, despite intensive and 

widespread sampling.

NT, QLD State, WA State

285, 515, 570, 766, 1121, 1878

Fabaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 309

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Penthobruchus germaini (Pic)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established readily and rapidly reached 

high densities at all sites. Disperses 

well, even to isolated host plants. Seed 

predation rates of more than 30% rare, 

and generally peak before or after the 

period when most seeds available for 

predation. Consequently, not causing 

population level impacts.

Parasitism; Agent-host synchronization

NT, QLD State, WA State

285, 570, 1872, 1877, 1878

Agent

Species

Classification

Rhinacloa callicrates Herring

(Hemiptera: Miridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. USA (AZ)

Yes

Moderate

None

Widespread in central QLD but not in 

WA or NT. Causes no useful damage in 

field.

NT, QLD State, WA State

516, 1878

Fabaceae

Parkinsonia aculeata (continued)

Fabaceae

Parkinsonia aculeata (continued)
310 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Fabaceae

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, 

Venezuela

Mexican thorn

Algarobius prosopis (Le Conte)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Ascension Island

1997

Ex. USA (AZ) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Seed destruction rates vary from 5% 

within freshly matured pods to 50% 

within older pods, though could be 

underestimated. Possibly reducing 

spread but impact minor compared to 

Rhinocloa sp. Necessary research is 

lacking.

IIBC, ARC-PPRI

97, 582, 584, 585, 919, 1879, 1966, 

2072

Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Ascension Island

1997

Ex. USA (AZ) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

Rare

None

Initially considered to have failed 

establishment but has since been 

determined to be present albeit rare. 

Impact likely insignificant, though 

necessary research lacking.

IIBC, ARC-PPRI

97, 300, 582, 585, 1879, 1966

Fabaceae

Prosopis juliflora (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 311

Table

1 Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.

Comprises a complex of taxa 

occurring in mixed stands and often 

hybridizing freely. In Australia, these 

include Prosopis glandulosa Torrey 

(including both varieties, glandulosa

and torreyana), Prosopis pallida

(Humboldt & Bonpland ex Willd.) 

Kunth, and Prosopis velutina Wooton. 

A fourth species, Prosopis juliflora

(Sw.) DC., has been documented 

at a few sites in Australia but may 

no longer be present there. Species 

invasive in South Africa are Prosopis 

velutina Wooton, Prosopis glandulosa

Torrey (including both varieties, 

glandulosa and torreyana), Prosopis 

juliflora (Sw.) DC., and Prosopis

hybrids. Egypt species include 

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. and 

Prosopis glandulosa Torr. Species in 

Namibia include Prosopis chilensis

(Molina) Stuntz, Prosopis glandulosa

Torr. var. torreyana (L. D. Benson) 

M. C. Johnst., and Prosopis velutina

Wooton. In Yemen, the nonnative 

species include Prosopis chilensis

(Molina) Stuntz, Prosopis glandulosa

Torrey var. glandulosa, and Prosopis 

juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Americas

mesquite, prosopis, algaroba

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1997

Ex. USA (TX) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

Rare

None

Initially believed to have established 

widely but not recovered in recent 

surveys, indicating it is either rare or has 

gone extinct.

QLD State

1873, 1875, 1882, 2072

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. USA (TX)

No

Recovered in low numbers for a 

short period after the initial releases, 

but is now believed to have failed 

establishment.

ARC-PPRI

873, 992, 2055, 2072

Agent

Species

Classification

Algarobius bottimeri Kingsolver

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)
312 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Algarobius prosopis (Le Conte)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1996

Ex. USA (AZ) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely established, unlikely to 

be causing population level impacts as 

seed predation rates in mature pods low, 

always below 20%.

QLD State

1873, 1875, 1882, 2072

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. USA (AZ)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Has rapidly dispersed over most of the 

range of the weed, regularly destroying 

over 90% of the seeds in fenced 

areas where the pods are not grazed 

by vertebrate herbivores. In grazed 

settings, Algarobius prosopis able to 

utilize some of the seed in dung pellets. 

Even under the highest attack rates, 

sufficient seeds escape herbivory to 

maintain weed populations.

ARC-PPRI

868, 873, 992, 1879, 2055, 2072

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Evippe sp. #1

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Undescribed species externally similar 

to Evippe omphalopa Meyrick

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Variable

Widely distributed. High densities 

causing prolonged defoliation in 

the Pilbara region (WA) resulting in 

population suppression due to greatly 

reduced seed production and growth 

rates. No impact in NSW where insect 

is rare, only limited impact in NT and 

intermediate (still significant) impacts in 

QLD. 

CSIRO

1873, 1875, 1876, 1879, 1882

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.; Algarobius prosopis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 313

Table

1

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1993

Ex. USA (AZ)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, far less 

common than Algarobius prosopis, 

causing only 1-10% seed destruction 

inflicted by biocontrol agents within 

a year. Hindered by parasitism and 

inferior competitor to A. prosopis. Seed 

pods are frequently eaten by grazing 

animals, and seed within dung pellets 

inaccessible to Neltumius arizonensis, 

but can be utilized by A. prosopis. 

N. arizonensis alone and in combination 

with A. prosopis insufficient to control 

mesquite populations.

Parasitism; Interspecific competition

ARC-PPRI

300, 873, 1879, 2055

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Prosopidopsylla flava Burckhardt

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

None

Tenuous establishment in 2001 at only 

two locations in northwestern NSW and 

southwestern QLD, but not evaluated 

since. Limited establishment likely 

due to unfavorable climate at release 

locations. No impact.

Climate

CSIRO

1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1879
314 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Fabaceae

Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth.

South America

red sesbania

Neodiplogrammus quadrivittatus

(Olivier)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Two populations introduced and 

subsequently not differentiated in the 

literature. Larvae destroy vascular 

tissues on older plants. Though unlikely 

to be successful alone, in combination 

with Rhyssomatus marginatus and 

Trichapion lativentre, successfully 

controls Sesbania punicea throughout 

South Africa.

Also found on the native Sesbania 

macrantha Welw. ex E. Phillips & Hutch. 

and introduced Sesbania bispinosa

(Jacq.) W. Wight, but with no records of 

completing development on these hosts.

ARC-PPRI

823, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1987

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Two populations introduced and 

subsequently not differentiated in the 

literature. Larvae destroy vascular 

tissues on older plants. Though unlikely 

to be successful alone, in combination 

with Rhyssomatus marginatus and 

Trichapion lativentre, successfully 

controls Sesbania punicea throughout 

South Africa.

ARC-PPRI

823, 827, 829, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Sesbania punicea; Neodiplogrammus quadrivittatus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 315

Table

1 Rhyssomatus marginatus Fåhraeus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Can destroy approximately 84% of 

developing seeds, though this is 

insufficient to control the weed alone. In 

combination with Trichapion lativentre

and Neodiplogrammus quadrivittatus, 

successfully controls Sesbania punicea

throughout South Africa.

ARC-PPRI

823, 827, 829, 830, 992

Fabaceae

Sesbania punicea (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus L.

western Europe

gorse, furze

Agonopterix umbellana (Fabricius)

Agonopterix ulicetella (Stainton)

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

884

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Australia

2007

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

Unknown

Too early post release

VIC release site subsequently destroyed 

by fire. In TAS spread over 1 ha 

3 years after release. Additional studies 

warranted to confirm field establishment 

and efficacy. 

VIC State, TAS State

883, 884

Fabaceae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
316 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Chile

1997

Ex. England via New Zealand via Hawaii 

USA; Ex. Portugal via Hawaii USA

No

Colonized plants initially but populations 

decreased over time. No longer 

considered established.

INIA

1355, 1358, 1359

Chile

1998

Ex. England

No

Colonized plants initially but populations 

decreased over time. No longer 

considered established.

INIA

1355, 1358, 1359

Hawaii USA

1988

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA (continued)

While larval feeding can destroy high 

percentage of shoot tips and sometimes 

leads to dieback, plants frequently 

compensate by initiating growth of 

new shoots later in season when this 

agent no longer active. Impact limited 

by parasitism. Widespread on HA but 

well established only at high elevations 

(>1,000m) on MA.

Parasitism; Elevation

HDOA, USDA-FS

326, 385, 813, 1148, 1157, 1169, 2049

Hawaii USA

1991

Ex. Portugal

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

A warmer adapted population released 

in the hope that it would establish at 

lower elevations. Subsequent reports 

do not distinguish between this and 

the English introduction. While larval 

feeding can destroy high percentage 

of shoot tips and sometimes leads to 

dieback, plants frequently compensate 

by initiating growth of new shoots later 

in season when this agent no longer 

active. Impact limited by parasitism. 

Widespread on HA but well established 

only at high elevations (>1,000m) on MA.

Parasitism; Elevation

HDOA, USDA-FS

326, 385, 813, 1148, 1157, 1169, 2049

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Agonopterix umbellana (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Agonopterix umbellana (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 317

Table

1

New Zealand

1990

Ex. England

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Common in parts of South Island but still 

rare on North Island. Where outbreaks 

occur damage to gorse is noticeable, 

but plants frequently compensate later 

in growing season. Formal evaluation 

lacking.

DSIR/MWLR

720, 809, 813, 815, 1064

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Agonopterix umbellana (continued)

Apion sp. 

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Possibly Apion uliciperda Pandelle

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Hawaii USA

1958

Ex. Spain, Portugal

No

HDOA

398, 813, 1154

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Cydia succedana (Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1992

Ex. England, Portugal

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

In conjunction with Exapion ulicis can 

destroy up to 100% of spring/summer 

seed crop. However, New Zealand 

gorse produces greatest amount of seed 

in autumn when populations of Cydia 

succedana lower and only infest up to 

10% of pods.

Agent-host synchronization

Also attacks the exotic Cytisus 

scoparius L., Genista monspessulana

(L.) L. A. S. Johnson, Lupinus arboreus

Sims and Lotus spp.

MWLR

720, 808, 809, 813, 1064
318 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Exapion ulicis (Forster)

Apion ulicis (Forster)

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

814, 884, 2069

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1939

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout 

southeastern Australia. Studies in TAS 

show 12-55% destruction of mature 

seeds, insufficient to exert control.

SA State

396, 557, 884, 886, 1989

Chile

1976

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

At some sites can reduces biomass, 

seed production, and seedling 

colonization; however has no significant 

effect in diminishing gorse invasiveness.

INIA, UACH

1355, 1357, 1359, 1360, 1361, 1362

Hawaii USA

1926

Ex. England

No

HDOA

326, 635, 859, 1154, 1451

Hawaii USA

1949

Ex. England via New Zealand

No

Few adults were seen at release site in 

1953, but none later and all attempts 

considered unsuccessful.

HDOA

635, 1154

Hawaii USA

1955

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Exapion ulicis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 319

Table

1

Hawaii USA (continued)

After two failed releases, third 

consignment was sourced from more 

southerly regions in France to better 

match the climate in Hawaii. Initial 

HA release site subsequently treated 

and weevils did not survive but were 

successfully reintroduced from MA 

populations. Weevil populations 

variable between years and also 

below 1000m in elevation, possibly 

due to fungal infection. Though attack 

rates can exceed 95% of pods, this 

frequently has only limited impact on 

gorse invasiveness. Feeding damage 

may increase susceptibility of plants to 

pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum sp.

Disease

HDOA

635, 762, 813, 1154, 1155, 1157

Hawaii USA

1956

Ex. England

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Hawaii USA (continued)

This fourth consignment released on 

the same islands as 1955 release 

and both were subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Initial 

HA release site subsequently treated 

and weevils did not survive but were 

successfully reintroduced from MA 

populations. Weevil populations 

variable between years and also 

below 1000m in elevation, possibly 

due to fungal infection. Though attack 

rates can exceed 95% of pods, this 

frequently has only limited impact on 

gorse invasiveness. Feeding damage 

may increase susceptibility of plants to 

pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum sp.

Disease

HDOA

635, 762, 813, 1154, 1155, 1157

New Zealand

1931

Ex. England

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

In conjunction with Cydia succedana

can destroy up to 100% of spring/

summer seed crop. However, New 

Zealand gorse produces greatest 

amount of seed in autumn when weevils 

no longer present, so majority of seeds 

escape attack.

Agent-host synchronization

DSIR

353, 720, 810, 813, 1064, 1246

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Exapion ulicis (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Exapion ulicis (continued)
320 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1953

Ex. England (southern)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread throughout range of weed 

in Pacific Northwest. From 30-95% 

of seedpods attacked. May retard 

spread of plant, but does not reduce 

established stand density. Ineffective on 

seed maturing in autumn/winter. Most 

effective in open, sunny pastures and 

hillsides.

Habitat

USDA (7), State (9,14,15)

332, 334, 337, 813, 986, 1156, 1501, 

1578

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Exapion ulicis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Pempelia genistella (Duponchel)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1996

Ex. Portugal

No

Compromised

Initially recovered in small amounts. 

Release sites subsequently 

exterminated by fire and herbicides and 

agent populations did not survive.

Other control methods

USDA-FS, HDOA

326, 386, 762, 813, 1148, 1157

New Zealand

1996

Ex. Portugal

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Established at limited number of sites 

despite widespread release effort. At 

some locations damage to gorse is 

noticeable. Formal evaluation lacking so 

overall impact unknown.

MWLR

760, 761, 813, 881, 1064
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 321

Table

1

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Scythris grandipennis (Haworth)

(Lepidoptera: Scythrididae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1993

Ex. England

No

DSIR

720, 761, 809, 813, 877, 1064

Agent

Species

Classification

Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday

(Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2001

Ex. England via New Zealand

Yes

Moderate

None

Slow dispersal initially but now 

increasing more quickly in TAS and 

becoming widespread and abundant, 

albeit too low to cause observable field 

damage. 

VIC State

120, 883, 884, 888

Australia

2003

Ex. Portugal via Hawaii USA via 

New Zealand

Yes

Moderate

None

This second introduction made with 

individuals sourced from different 

population. These cannot be 

distinguished by behavioral traits and 

are becoming interspersed in the 

field. Slow dispersal initially but now 

increasing more quickly in TAS and 

becoming widespread and abundant, 

albeit too low to cause observable field 

damage. 

VIC State

120, 883, 884, 888

Hawaii USA

1991

Ex. England, Portugal

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread on HA, discernible 

bronzing of mature gorse plants only 

occasionally found, but not plant death. 

Thrips of Portuguese origin dispersed 

much faster than thrips from England 

following release. Subsequent accounts 

of this species did not differentiate 

between all populations. 

USDA-FS, HDOA

326, 385, 762, 814, 1156, 1157

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Sericothrips staphylinus (continued)
322 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1992

Ex. France

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread on HA, discernible 

bronzing of mature gorse plants only 

occasionally found, but not plant death. 

Infestations not monitored in recent 

years.

HDOA

326, 385, 762, 814, 1157

New Zealand

1990

Ex. England

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

Although widely established, spread 

slowly from release points because 

winged individuals rare. Second 

population released to increase 

dispersal; this established widely and 

intermixed. Thrips now typically common 

on gorse. Though severely damaged 

plants rare, impact not formally 

evaluated.

DSIR, IIBC

720, 761, 809, 814, 1064

New Zealand

2001

Ex. Portugal via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

This population released to increase 

dispersal; established widely and 

intermixed with existing English 

population. Thrips now typically common 

on gorse. Though severely damaged 

plants rare, impact not formally 

evaluated.

MWLR

761, 888, 1064

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Sericothrips staphylinus (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Sericothrips staphylinus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Stenopterapion scutellare (Kirby)

Apion scutellare Kirby

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

1286, 2069

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1961

Ex. Portugal

No

Compromised

Release site burned shortly after 

release.

Other control methods

HDOA

326, 385, 407, 408, 1154, 1156, 2049
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 323

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1989

Ex. Portugal

No

HDOA

326, 385, 893, 1157

Hawaii USA

1990

Ex. Spain

No

HDOA

326, 893, 1157

Hawaii USA

1991

Ex. France

No

HDOA

326, 385, 893, 1157

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Stenopterapion scutellare (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Tetranychus lintearius Dufour

(Acari: Tetranychidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1998

Ex. England, Portugal, Spain via 

New Zealand

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed. Initially effective at 

reducing weed growth but more recently 

impact restricted by predators.

Predation

VIC State

120, 395, 883, 884, 889

Chile

1997

Ex. England, Portugal, Spain via New 

Zealand via USA (OR) via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

(continued on next page)
324 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Chile (continued)

Two separate releases not differentiated 

in efficacy discussion in literature. 

Decreases rate of spread into new 

areas. Long term attack decreases 

competitive ability; gorse slowly being 

replaced by native species. Most 

effective in regions with low rainfall; 

impact hindered by predation.

Climate; Predation

INIA, UACH

333, 1359, 1360

Chile

1997

Ex. Portugal

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

Two separate releases not differentiated 

in efficacy discussion in literature. 

Decreases rate of spread into new 

areas. Long term attack decreases 

competitive ability; gorse slowly being 

replaced by native species. Most 

effective in regions with low rainfall; 

impact hindered by predation.

Climate; Predation

INIA, UACH

1359, 1360

Hawaii USA

1995

Ex. England, Portugal, Spain via New 

Zealand via USA (OR)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Partial to substantial control until 2000 

when predacious mites may have first 

appeared.

Predation

USDA (7), State (15), HDOA

326, 332, 333, 385, 813, 1157

New Zealand

1989

Ex. England

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in drier, cooler areas, but 

generally failed to establish in warmer 

and wetter climates. Initially effective at 

reducing gorse growth but more recently 

populations limited by predation.

Climate; Predation

DSIR

720, 761, 809, 811, 812, 813, 1064

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Tetranychus lintearius (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Tetranychus lintearius (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 325

Table

1

New Zealand

1991

Ex. Portugal, Spain

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Successfully established in warm, moist 

areas where English population failed. 

Populations high initially, reducing gorse 

growth but more recently limited by 

predation.

Predation

DSIR

720, 761, 809, 811, 813, 1064

St Helena

1995

Ex. England, Portugal via New Zealand

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Causing some local damage, but effects 

limited by predation from Phytoseiulus

spp. (Acari).

Predation

IIBC

582, 585, 1081

United States of America

1994

Ex. England, Portugal, Spain via New 

Zealand

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Initially widely distributed, leading to 

80% reduction in flowering in OR. Was 

most effective in open patches in inland 

areas susceptible to severe winters. 

Populations have since decreased 

significantly due to heavy predation. 

Now considered ineffective agent.

Predation; Habitat; Climate

USDA (7), State (9,14,15)

332, 334, 337, 813, 986, 1531

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Tetranychus lintearius (continued)

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Tetranychus lintearius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Uromyces pisi f.sp. europaei

M. Wilson & D.M. Hend.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

2000

Ex. England

No

In 2002, single pustule detected in HA 

near release site of 2 years previous; 

not detected since.

HDOA

326, 386, 813
326 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica

(Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr

Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile, Acacia 

nilotica (L.) Delile subsp. indica

(Benth.) Brenan

Following the International Botanical 

Congress in 2011, it was agreed the 

thorny Acacias belong to a separate 

genus Vachellia; consequently A. 

nilotica was transferred to V. nilotica. 

Australian populations of Vachellia 

nilotica are mostly comprised of 

subspecies indica, though a few 

individuals are genetically identical 

to an unidentified genotype from 

Pakistan not previously reported in 

Australia. 

Indian sub continent

prickly acacia

1043, 1791

Bruchidius sahlbergi Schilsky

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Australia

1982

Ex. Pakistan

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Though widely established and 

abundant, largely ineffective due to seed 

pod predation levels too low to impact 

populations. Efficacy may be higher in 

areas protected from cattle grazing.

Land use

QLD State, IIBC

1419, 1544, 1977

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Chiasmia assimilis (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Australia

1999

Ex. Kenya

No

Establishment failure likely impacted by 

release in areas with unsuitable climates 

and possibly to loss of genetic diversity 

in lab cultures.

Climate

QLD State

1419, 1420

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica; Bruchidius sahlbergi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 327

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2002

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Variable

Variable

Widely distributed in QLD though 

coastal populations much more 

abundant. Causes significant to 

complete defoliation at coastal sites; 

less effective at western QLD locations 

where climate is less suitable. More 

effective on seedlings growing beneath 

prickly acacia canopy than full sunlight, 

indicating may help limit the formation of 

dense infestations where plants already 

exist.

Climate

QLD State

1110, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1640

Agent

Species

Classification

Chiasmia inconspicua (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Kenya

No

Establishment failure likely impacted by 

release in areas with unsuitable climates 

and possibly to loss of genetic diversity 

in lab cultures.

Climate

QLD State

1418, 1419, 1420

Agent

Species

Classification

Cometaster pyrula (Hopffer)

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2004

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release size and the insect not doing as 

well on Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica

as the preferred host V. nilotica subsp. 

kraussiana.

QLD State

1413, 1419, 1422

Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica; Chiasmia assimilis (continued)

Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica (continued)
328 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Cuphodes profluens (Meyrick)

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1983

Ex. Pakistan

No

Released at 14 sites but indications 

of establishment occurred only at one 

coastal site. The prickly acacia at this 

site subsequently eradicated; insect 

now regarded as failed. Failure at other 

sites likely due to small release size and 

climate.

Climate; Small release size

QLD State, IIBC

1413, 1419, 1977

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Homichloda barkeri (Jacoby)

Weiseana barkeri Jacoby

Homicloda barkeri (Jacoby)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1996

Ex. Kenya

No

QLD State

1111, 1419

Fabaceae

Vachellia nilotica (continued) Haloragaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.

South America

parrot’s feather

Lysathia sp. 

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1994

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Lysathia sp. populations crash in 

winter, building up again throughout 

summer. Causes die-back of emergent 

vegetation. Regrowth occurs from 

submerged stems, which are again 

attacked by Lysathia sp. After several 

years of defoliation, the weed mat 

collapses and little to no regrowth 

occurs.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

276, 297, 804, 992
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 329

Table

1

Hydrocharitaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle

Two biotypes (dioecious and 

monoecious) are present in the 

continental USA

Africa, Asia, Australia, portions of 

Europe

hydrilla, Florida elodea

Bagous affinis Hustache

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1987

Ex. India

No

Initially recovered in CA and FL but 

permanent establishment not reported. 

Establishment limited by the agent 

requiring extensive drawdown conditions 

which expose the sediment surface 

and allow immatures access to buried 

tubers. 

Habitat

USDA (3,4,7,14,15), State (3,14), IIBC, 

USAE

77, 193, 194, 200, 239, 633, 682, 1963

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Bagous hydrillae O’Brien

Bagous n. sp. Z

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1991

Ex. Australia

No

Temporarily recovered in FL and TX but 

permanent establishment not reported. 

USAE, USDA (3,4,15), TVA

77, 200, 234, 682, 683, 1961, 1963

Agent

Species

Classification

Hydrellia balciunasi Bock

(Diptera: Ephydridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1989

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

None

Larval mining causes decay of leaves. 

No major impact has been observed 

in the field since populations have 

remained low and range expansion has 

been limited.

USAE, USDA (3,4,15), State (3)

77, 200, 335, 367, 681, 683
330 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hydrellia pakistanae Deonier

(Diptera: Ephydridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Mexico

1995

Ex. India via USA

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

USDA (7,14), State (14)

497

United States of America

1987

Ex. India

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Larval feeding on leaves decreases 

photosynthesis and reduces tuber 

numbers. High fly densities locally 

correlated with decreases in weed 

populations. Fly populations limited by 

parasitism and cold weather; densities 

decrease with decreasing temperatures.

Parasitism; Climate

IIBC, USAE, USDA (3,4,7,14), TVA, 

State (3,14,18)

77, 193, 200, 234, 240, 634, 683, 1962

United States of America

1990

Ex. Pakistan

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

This release no longer differentiated 

from earlier Indian release. Larval 

feeding on leaves decreases 

photosynthesis and reduces tuber 

numbers. High fly densities locally 

correlated with decreases in weed 

populations. Fly populations limited by 

parasitism and cold weather; densities 

decrease with decreasing temperatures.

Parasitism; Climate

USAE

77, 200, 234, 240, 683, 1962

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata; Hydrellia pakistanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 331

Table

1

United States of America

1992

Ex. China (northern)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

This population released to increase 

survival in more temperate regions. 

Subsequent visits to release sites in 

FL resulted in high fly populations, 

though it was impossible to determine 

which introduction (or all three) was 

responsible. Fly populations limited by 

parasitism and cold weather; densities 

decrease with decreasing temperatures.

Parasitism; Climate

USAE

200, 237, 240, 683, 1962

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata; Hydrellia pakistanae (continued) Hypericaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Hypericaceae

Hypericum androsaemum L.

Asia Minor, Europe, northern Africa

tutsan

Chrysolina hyperici (Forster)

Chrysomela hyperici Forster

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1948

Ex. England via Australia

No

Redistributed from Hypericum 

perforatum to H. androsaemum. 

Initially believed to have established, 

but died out by 1950. Though adults 

may sometimes feed on foliage, 

larvae develop slowly and die before 

maturation. Preferred host is H. 

perforatum.

Found feeding and laying eggs on the 

native Hypericum involutum (Labill.) 

Choisy.

DSIR

169, 686, 1054, 1058, 1246
332 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum L.

Asia, Europe, northern Africa

St John’s wort, St Johnswort, klamath 

weed, goatweed, San Juan herb

Actinotia hyperici (Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Australia

1985

Ex. France (southern)

No

Establishment failure suspected due to 

predation and parasitism.

Predation; Parasitism

CSIRO

169, 172, 173

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Aculus hyperici (Liro)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Australia

1991

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

High

Slight

Localized

Widely distributed. Reduced plant vigor 

and density at local sites but has not 

been widely evaluated. Some genotypes 

of Hypericum perforatum resistant to 

attack. Generally ineffective.

Small populations sustained on the 

native Hypericum gramineum Forst. 

ver, however impacts on growth and 

productivity appear minimal.

CSIRO, CRCWMS, VIC State, NSW 

State

173, 953, 954, 955, 1135, 1974

Hypericaceae (continued) Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 333

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Agrilus hyperici (Creutzer)

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1939

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

Rare

None

Established and showed initial promise 

but later confined to very restricted area. 

Only one remaining population known. 

No contribution to control. Release of 

Chrysolina spp. at the same time and in 

similar sites thought to have hindered 

establishment and efficacy.

Interspecific competition

CSIR*

166, 167, 173, 223, 455, 1435, 1988, 

1989

Australia

1984

Ex. France

No

CSIRO

167, 172, 173, 380

Australia

1989

Ex. France

No

Only one colony survived longer than 

the initial season of release but has 

since been considered a failure. 

CSIRO

167, 169, 172, 173, 380

Canada

1955

Ex. France via USA (CA)

No

Establishment failure possibly due to 

fungal attack at damp release sites.

Disease

AAFC

117, 635, 740, 741, 912

Canada

1964

Ex. France via USA (CA)

No

Establishment failure possibly due to 

fungal attack at damp release sites.

Disease

AAFC

117, 740, 741, 912

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Agrilus hyperici (continued)
334 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Canada

1977

Ex. France via USA (CA)

No

Shipping stress likely led to 

establishment failure.

Shipment stress

AAFC

117, 738, 912

Canada

1987

Ex. France via USA (ID)

Yes

Limited

None

Typically uncommon throughout range; 

at only one site were populations large 

enough to redistribute. Impact has been 

negligible.

AAFC

117, 912

Republic of South Africa

1974

Ex. France (southern) via Australia; Ex. 

France via USA (CA)

No

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Not established following release of 

small numbers on seven occasions until 

1981. On some occasions plants killed 

by Chrysolina quadrigemina.

Interspecific competition

ARC-PPRI

51, 173, 660, 992, 1503

United States of America

1950

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

Disperses widely but populations 

typically low until occasional explosions. 

Initially displayed ability to destroy 

Hypericum perforatum in CA but was 

displaced by Chrysolina quadrigemina; 

persisted only in some areas. Infestation 

levels reached up to 87% in WA. 

Contributed significantly to 

H. perforatum suppression in ID where 

it is still abundant. Populations now vary 

throughout Pacific Northwest. Typically 

found in mountainous areas; will attack 

plants in shady habitats frequently 

avoided by Chrysolina spp.

Attacks the native Hypericum 

concinnum Benth. 

USDA (7,10), State (4,6,7,9,15)

39, 222, 332, 1179, 1501, 1503, 1578, 

1731, 1992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Agrilus hyperici (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Agrilus hyperici (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 335

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Aphis chloris Koch

(Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1986

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

Though widely established, populations 

go through seasonal cycles of growth 

and dispersal without building to 

damaging levels. Drought, competition 

with Chrysolina quadrigemina and 

predation all limit populations.

Climate; Interspecific competition; 

Predation

CSIRO

164, 165, 169, 173, 174

Canada

1979

Ex. Austria, Germany, Hungary

Yes

Variable

Variable

Appears adapted only to NS and interior 

BC where it does best in cool, humid 

climates. Significant control at some 

sites, though populations fluctuate due 

to weather and abundance/impact of 

Chrysolina spp.

Climate; Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 432, 437, 738, 912, 1285

Republic of South Africa

1982

Ex. Germany via Canada

No

Though eggs were laid following adult 

release, they did not hatch because 

winter temperatures in the release areas 

were too mild.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

660, 912, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Aphis chloris (continued)
336 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Aplocera efformata (Guenée)

Anaitis efformata Guenée

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Australia

1936

Ex. England

No

Predation and climate probable causes 

of failure. 

Predation; Climate

CSIR*

169, 173, 387, 1989

Australia

1981

Ex. France

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation, parasitism and disease.

Parasitism; Predation; Disease

CSIRO

163, 169, 172, 173, 456

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. France via Australia

No

Though released adults successfully laid 

eggs and larvae hatched, larvae failed 

to overwinter.

ARC-PPRI

173, 660, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Aplocera efformata (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Aplocera plagiata (L.)

Anaitis plagiata L.

(Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Australia

1936

Ex. England

No

Predation and climate probable causes 

of failure. 

Predation; Climate

CSIR*

169, 173, 387, 726, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 337

Table

1

Canada

1967

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Initially believed to have failed 

establishment, but discovered at release 

site 14 years later. Populations from the 

three sources (Germany, Switzerland, 

France) intermixed following establishment and were subsequently not 

differentiated. Disperses readily throughout southern interior BC but populations 

remain low and do minimal damage.

AAFC

117, 432, 437, 738, 740, 741, 912

Canada

1977

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Populations from the three sources 

(Germany, Switzerland, France) 

intermixed following establishment and 

were subsequently not differentiated. 

Disperses readily throughout southern 

interior BC but populations remain low 

and do minimal damage. 

AAFC

117, 318, 432, 437, 738, 912

Canada

1980

Ex. France

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Populations from the three sources 

(Germany, Switzerland, France) 

intermixed following establishment and 

were subsequently not differentiated. 

Disperses readily throughout southern 

interior BC but populations remain low 

and do minimal damage. 

AAFC

117, 432, 437, 738, 912

United States of America

1989

Ex. France, Germany, Switzerland via 

Canada

Yes

Limited

Variable

Where locally abundant, defoliation 

hinders and may kill plants outright. 

Overall abundance limited. Most 

effective in warm, dry areas where the 

insect can complete two generations.

Climate

USDA (10), State (7,9,15)

117, 332, 334, 335, 473, 1179, 1503, 

1512, 1898

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Aplocera plagiata (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Aplocera plagiata (continued)
338 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina brunsvicensis

(Gravenhorst)

Chrysomela brunsvicensis

Gravenhorst

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1930

Ex. England

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation and unfavorable climatic 

conditions.

Predation; Climate

CSIR*

169, 173, 387, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina hyperici (Forster)

Chrysomela hyperici Forster

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1930

Ex. England

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

(Australia (continued)

Not recovered until five years after 

releases ceased. Initially abundant 

until outcompeted by Chrysolina 

quadrigemina. Although relatively rare 

compared to C. quadrigemina, more 

effective in cooler areas. In combination 

with C. quadrigemina provides good 

control in open areas. Plants frequently 

recover from defoliation.

Interspecific competition; Climate; Habitat

CSIR*

169, 173, 387, 455, 1435, 1988, 1989

Australia

1980

Ex. France

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Population selected from part of 

native range more climatically similar 

to release sites with high summer 

rainfall. Assumed established but 

could not be distinguished from earlier 

releases. No improvement in control 

by first introduction; in combination 

with Chrysolina quadrigemina provides 

good control in open areas and is more 

effective than C. quadrigemina in cooler 

areas. Plants frequently recover from 

defoliation.

Interspecific competition; Climate; Habitat

CSIRO

169, 173, 455, 456, 1989

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina hyperici (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 339

Table

1

Canada

1951

Ex. England via Australia via USA 

(CA, ID, OR)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Contributed to control along with 

(though not as effective as) Chrysolina 

quadrigemina 5-13 years following 

release. Does best in cool, moist 

climates of BC and Maritime provinces; 

on drier release sites has been 

completely or partially replaced by 

C. quadrigemina. In recent years 

populations decreased along with crash 

in weed population. As weed has been 

recovering, redistributions of this agent 

have resumed. Long term impact from 

this species minimal in cool regions 

where plants can recover from heavy 

defoliation in absence of drought stress. 

Climate

AAFC

117, 432, 635, 738, 740, 741, 912, 1285

Chile

1953

Ex. England via Australia via USA (CA)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Readily established. Provides effective 

control in most infestations.

MAC

84, 635, 649, 1362, 1889

New Zealand

1943

Ex. England via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

Established rapidly throughout 

distribution of weed, now frequently 

occurs in mixed populations with 

Chrysolina quadrigemina. Significant 

impact in some areas but overall level 

of control varies both temporally and 

spatially.

Found feeding and laying eggs on the 

native Hypericum involutum (Labill.) 

Choisy.

DSIR

169, 686, 687, 707, 720, 1064, 1245, 

1246, 1771

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina hyperici (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina hyperici (continued)
340 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1960

Ex. England via Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

51, 635, 992, 1342

Republic of South Africa

1973

Ex. England via Australia via USA via 

Canada

No

ARC-PPRI

51, 635, 992

United States of America

1945

Ex. England via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Initially credited (along with Chrysolina 

quadrigemina) with causing drastic 

reductions of the weed in CA and OR. 

Frequently mixed with populations of 

C. quadrigemina and still considered 

widespread and abundant in portions 

of Pacific Northwest, but more often 

believed to be limited and inferior 

compared to C. quadrigemina

throughout western states. Unknown 

if still established in CA. Does better 

than C. quadrigemina at sites with 

more moisture and colder winter 

temperatures.

Climate

USDA (7), State (4,6,7,9,15)

222, 332, 334, 335, 508, 837, 838, 1179, 

1501, 1503, 1731, 1992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina hyperici (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina hyperici (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 341

Table

1

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina quadrigemina (Suffrian)

Chrysomela quadrigemina Suffrian, 

Chrysomela gemellata Rossi, 

Chrysolina gemellata Rossi

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1939

Ex. France (southern)

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Became very common and displaced 

Chrysolina hyperici. Present throughout 

most of weed range. Has greatly 

assisted control in open infestations 

and can cause extensive defoliation 

over wide areas. Not well adapted to 

shade and high summer rainfall. Plants 

frequently recover from defoliation.

Climate; Habitat

CSIR*

162, 169, 173, 455, 1435, 1988, 1989

Australia

1980

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Population selected from part of native 

range more climatically similar to 

release sites with high summer rainfall. 

Could not be distinguished from earlier 

releases so impact similar to 1939 

introduction: most widespread and 

effective of Chrysolina spp. Has greatly 

assisted control in open infestations 

and can cause extensive defoliation 

over wide areas. Not well adapted to 

shade and high summer rainfall. Plants 

frequently recover from defoliation.

Climate; Habitat

CSIRO

162, 169, 173, 455, 456, 1989

Canada

1952

Ex. France via Australia via USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina quadrigemina (continued)
342 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Canada (continued)

Provided excellent control of weed 

5-13 years following release. Frequently 

mixed with Chrysolina hyperici but 

C. quadrigemina is the more effective 

agent. Does best in warm, dry regions 

where it has completely or partially 

replaced C. hyperici. In recent years 

populations decreased along with crash 

in weed population. As weed has been 

recovering, redistributions of this agent 

have resumed. 

Climate

AAFC

117, 432, 437, 635, 734, 735, 738, 740, 

741, 912

Chile

1953

Ex. France via Australia via USA (CA)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Readily established. Provides effective 

control in most infestations.

MAC

84, 635, 649, 1362, 1889

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. France via Australia via USA (CA)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Populations established throughout 

island of HA. Gives excellent control in 

combination with Zeuxidiplosis giardi.

HDOA

326, 401, 405, 411, 612, 635, 1149

New Zealand

1965

Ex. France via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially believed to have failed but found 

again in 1984. Subsequent releases of 

second population may have boosted 

numbers, though unknown if this was 

only result of first introduction increasing 

naturally. Species now widely distributed 

in mixed populations with Chrysolina 

hyperici, though C. quadrigemina

probably the more significant contributor 

of the two to high levels of defoliation. 

Along with C. hyperici, causes significant 

impact in some areas, especially warm 

regions. Overall program considered a 

success.

DSIR

169, 589, 686, 687, 707, 720, 761, 913, 

1064

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina quadrigemina (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina quadrigemina (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 343

Table

1

New Zealand

1990

Ex. France via Australia via USA via 

Canada

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

This population believed to be better 

adapted to New Zealand climatic 

conditions and released to increase 

efficacy of first release material. 

Unknown if the second introduction 

established; if it did, is indistinguishable 

from earlier releases, and monitoring 

was insufficient to say if this population 

established or not.

DSIR

635, 686, 720, 761

Republic of South Africa

1960

Ex. France via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Caused spectacular damage and the 

near destruction of dense stands within 

2-3 years. Together with Zeuxidiplosis 

giardi has since contained and 

controlled the weed in WC, where it 

remains an insignificant invader in a few 

localized areas.

ARC-PPRI

660, 992, 1342, 1386

United States of America

1946

Ex. France via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Within 10 years of its release, weed 

population reduced more than 99% 

in CA. Has since become main factor 

controlling the weed throughout 

western USA. At many locations where 

established, populations of both weed 

and agent follow boom/bust cycle. Not 

as effective as Chrysolina hyperici at 

sites with more moisture and colder 

winter temperatures.

Climate

Attacks the native Hypericum 

concinnum Benth. and the exotic 

H. calycinum L.

USDA (7), State (4,6,7,9)

133, 222, 332, 334, 335, 508, 837, 838, 

863, 1179, 1501, 1503, 1578, 1731

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina quadrigemina (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina quadrigemina (continued)
344 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Chrysolina varians (Schaller)

Chrysomela varians (Schaller)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1930

Ex. England

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

predation and unfavorable climatic 

conditions.

Predation; Climate

CSIR*

169, 173, 387, 1989

Canada

1957

Ex. Sweden

No

Establishment failure of initial release 

likely due to release sites being too dry. 

Second release initially established but 

failed to persist. 

Climate

AAFC

117, 740, 741, 912

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1950

Ex. Europe

No

USDA (7), State (4)

41, 222, 740, 1503

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Chrysolina varians (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Zeuxidiplosis giardi (Kieffer)

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Australia

1953

Ex. France via USA (CA)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed though not common. 

Populations not large enough to 

contribute significantly to control.

CSIRO

173, 455, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 345

Table

1

Canada

1955

Ex. France via USA (CA)

No

Populations thrived the first summer 

of release but were subsequently 

annihilated due to sudden sub-zero 

temperatures in mid-November. 

Climate

AAFC

635, 740, 741, 912

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. France via USA (CA) via Australia 

via New Zealand

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Establishment extensive on 

HA. Provides excellent control 

in combination with Chrysolina 

quadrigemina.

HDOA

326, 401, 405, 411, 612, 635, 1149

New Zealand

1961

Ex. France via USA (CA) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Well established only in northern 

parts of South Island. Unlikely to 

contribute significantly to control but not 

formally evaluated so impact on plant 

populations unknown.

DSIR

631, 635, 707, 720, 1064, 1068

Republic of South Africa

1972

Ex. France via USA (CA) via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causes death of seedlings and reduces 

growth and flowering. In conjunction 

with Chrysolina quadrigemina has since 

contained and controlled the weed in 

WC, where it remains an insignificant 

invader in a few localized areas.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

51, 173, 660, 661, 662, 992, 1386

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Zeuxidiplosis giardi (continued)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Zeuxidiplosis giardi (continued)
346 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1950

Ex. France

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Reduces growth in heavily infested 

plants. Heavily parasitized so 

populations limited. Seems to prefer 

damp locations with moderate to high 

relative humidity and high elevations. 

Parasitism; Climate

Found reproducing on the native 

Hypericum concinnum Benth. though in 

low numbers. 

USDA (7), State (4,6,7,9)

20, 41, 222, 235, 236, 242, 332, 334, 

635, 1501, 1503, 1731

United States of America

1992

Ex. France via USA (CA) via Australia 

via New Zealand via Hawaii USA

No

Several releases of adults were made, 

none of which established.

State (15)

332, 334, 635

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Lamiaceae

Clerodendrum chinense (Osbeck) 

Mabb.

Clerodendrum philippinum Schauer, 

Clerodendrum fragans Vent.

India, Myanmar, China, Laos, 

Cambodia, Vietnam

Honolulu rose

Phyllocharis undulata (L.)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum; Zeuxidiplosis giardi (continued) Lamiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Thailand

1990

Ex. Vietnam

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established and spreading slowly 7 

years following release. More recent 

status unknown.

NBCRC

1326, 1329, 1330
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 347

Table

1

Lamiaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Lamiaceae

Marrubium vulgare L.

southern and western Europe, 

central and western Asia, North Africa

horehound

Chamaesphecia mysiniformis Rambur

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1997

Ex. Spain

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

Causing plant mortality at release 

sites on mainland. Formal evaluation 

of impact lacking. No evidence of 

successful establishment in TAS when 

surveys last conducted in early 2012; 

high level of egg predation suspected.

Predation

VIC State, UASA, NSW State

284, 883, 1956, 1975

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Wheeleria spilodactylus (Curtis)

Pterophorus spilodactylus Curtis

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1994

Ex. France

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

Additional importation from France 

made in 1997 and released in SA; fared 

much better in field than the inbred first. 

Widely established. In moderate to high 

rainfall areas (>450mm) suppresses 

plant growth and reduces seed 

production.

Climate; Inbreeding of starter colony 

(first introduction)

VIC State, SA State, NSW State

284, 1418, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 

1975

Lamiaceae

Marrubium vulgare (continued)
348 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia

1997

Ex. Spain

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

Though released separately, this second 

introduction (from Spain) could now 

be intermixed in the field. Increasingly 

common. In moderate to high rainfall 

areas (>450mm) suppresses plant 

growth and reduces seed production.

Climate

VIC State, SA State, NSW State

284, 1954, 1955, 1956

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Lamiaceae

Marrubium vulgare; Wheeleria spilodactylus (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Lamiaceae

Salvia aethiopis L.

Eurasia

Mediterranean sage

Phrydiuchus spilmani Warner

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1969

Ex. Italy

No

USDA (7,12), State (15)

43, 332, 334, 336, 341

Phrydiuchus tau Warner

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1971

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Abundant in portions of CA, OR and 

ID; limited in other regions where 

established. High weevil populations 

associated with decreased Salvia 

aethiopis densities in communities 

with high competing perennial 

grasses. In salt desert scrub, annual 

grass-dominated and heavily grazed 

communities, little change in 

S. aethiopis density despite good 

weevil presence.

Habitat; Land use

USDA (7,12), State (6,14,15)

43, 332, 334, 336, 341, 1578, 1905, 

1908

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Lamiaceae

Salvia aethiopis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 349

Table

1

Loranthaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Loranthaceae

Phthirusa stelis (L.) Kuijt

Phthirusa adunca (G.Mey.) Maguire, 

Phthirusa spp.

South America

bird vine

1030

Ceratitella tomentosa De Meijere

Ceratitella asiatica Hardy

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Trinidad and Tobago

1978

Ex. Pakistan

No

Although adults lived for up to 29 days 

on Trinidad, no recoveries made at 

release site.

IIBC

288, 318, 319, 629

Lygodiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Lygodiaceae

Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.

Australia, Africa, Asia, Oceania

Old World climbing fern

Austromusotima camptozonale

(Hampson)

Cataclysta camptozonale (Hampson)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

United States of America

2004

Ex. Australia

No

Both Neochetina weevils responsible for 

significant reduction in water hyacinth 

extent. Weed now considered under 

substantial control on Lake Victoria, 

possibly aided by wind and wave action 

and weather events. On rivers in Tanga 

Region, weevils reduced amount of 

manual removal required to keep river 

channels open.

Predation; Low fertility

USDA (3,4), CSIRO

142, 145, 148, 237

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
350 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Floracarus perrepae Knihinicki & 

Boczek

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2008

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Too early post release

Though released widely, only 

established and persisted at limited 

number of sites. Variations in response 

to galling might be attributed to genetic 

differences in susceptibility to gall 

induction between different geographic 

populations of Lygodium microphyllum.

Host plant resistance

USDA (4), CSIRO

143, 147, 1698

Agent

Species

Classification

Neomusotima conspurcatalis (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2008

Ex. Australia

Yes

Variable

Too early post release

Though too early to evaluate overall 

impact, well established across wide 

areas of southeastern FL with period 

outbreak populations. Outbreaks of 

agent cause substantial damage to 

weed. Some regrowth from dormant 

lateral buds occurs after defoliation 

events; however regrowth subject to 

oviposition and subsequent rounds 

of larval defoliation. Low winter 

temperatures cause drastic population 

reductions of agent and enable partial 

recovery of fern. Several species of 

native parasitoid attack agent, but 

parasitism rates generally low and 

not likely high enough to substantially 

impact agent populations.

Climate

USDA (4), CSIRO

143, 144, 146, 148, 237, 1031, 1528

Lygodiaceae

Lygodium microphyllum (continued)

Lygodiaceae

Lygodium microphyllum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 351

Table

1

Lythraceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria L.

Europe, northern Africa, Asia

purple loosestrife

Galerucella calmariensis (L.)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Canada

1992

Ex. Germany

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

The most widely released agent on 

Lythrum salicaria in Canada due to 

its ease of rearing, reproduction, and 

redistribution. Frequently occurs with 

Galerucella pusilla. Together have 

provided excellent control throughout 

majority of the weed’s range.

Limiting feeding has been observed in 

the field on the native Lythrum alatum

Pursh and Decodon verticillatus (L.) 

Elliott, though this is believed to be 

temporary spillover.

AAFC

347, 432, 437, 480, 794, 1097

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1992

Ex. Germany

Yes

Variable

Variable

Well established in some states, 

infrequent in others. Galerucella 

calmariensis generally more abundant 

than G. pusilla, but the reverse is true 

at some sites for unknown reasons. 

High densities of Galerucella spp. 

have heavy impact by reducing seed 

production and stunting growth. At some 

sites, plant density has decreased up to 

90%, though at others density remains 

unchanged. Boom-bust cycles common 

for this system: as agent populations 

build, greater dispersal results in 

increases in weed population, followed 

by increases in agent populations. 

Impact greatest in mixed plant 

communities that provide competition to 

recovering Lythrum salicaria. Agents do 

best in habitats where dry overwintering 

sites available. Predation may limit 

populations at some locations.

Habitat; Predation

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Galerucella calmariensis (continued)
352 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America (continued)

Following mass outbreaks of beetles, 

limited spillover feeding observed on the 

native Salix discolor Muhl., Potentilla 

anserina L., Cornus stolonifera Michx. 

(whose name has since been changed 

to Cornus sericea L. subsp. sericea) 

and the exotic Rosa multiflora Thunb. 

Temporary adult feeding recorded on the 

native Decodon verticillatus (L.) Elliott 

and Lythrum alatum Pursh. (the latter 

only recorded in Canada). Spillover 

feeding on Lagerstroemia indica L. in a 

post-release open-field test near a mass 

outbreak of weevils, though reproduction 

did not occur on this species; no attack 

has thus far been recorded on L. indica

outside of this field experiment. 

USFWS, State (34,32,15); 

Additional contributions from State 

(1,9,31,37,38,39,42), USDA

127, 128, 130, 131, 335, 673, 794, 

1073, 1105, 1432, 1507, 1624, 1694, 

1896, 1901, 1903, 1909, 1910

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Galerucella calmariensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Galerucella pusilla (Duftschmidt)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Canada

1992

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Frequently occurs with Galerucella 

calmariensis. Together have provided 

excellent control throughout majority of 

the weed’s range. Initially widespread 

but more recent surveys indicate most 

Galerucella populations consist primarily 

or wholly of G. calmariensis.

AAFC

117, 347, 432, 437, 480, 794, 1097

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 353

Table

1

United States of America

1992

Ex. Germany

Yes

Variable

Variable

Well established in some states, 

infrequent in others. Galerucella 

calmariensis generally more abundant 

than G. pusilla, but the reverse is true 

at some sites for unknown reasons. 

High densities of Galerucella spp. 

have heavy impact by reducing seed 

production and stunting growth. At some 

sites, plant density has decreased up to 

90%, though at others density remains 

unchanged. Boom-bust cycles common 

for this system: as agent populations 

build, greater dispersal results in 

increases in weed population, followed 

by increases in agent populations. 

Impact greatest in mixed plant 

communities that provide competition to 

recovering Lythrum salicaria. Agents do 

best in habitats where dry overwintering 

sites available. Predation may limit 

populations at some locations.

Habitat; Predation

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

United States of America (continued)

Following mass outbreaks of beetles, 

limited spillover feeding observed on the 

native Salix discolor Muhl., Potentilla 

anserina L., Cornus stolonifera Michx. 

(whose name has since been changed 

to Cornus sericea L. subsp. sericea) 

and the exotic Rosa multiflora Thunb. 

Temporary adult feeding recorded on the 

native Decodon verticillatus (L.) Elliott 

and Lythrum alatum Pursh. (the latter 

only recorded in Canada). Spillover 

feeding on Lagerstroemia indica L. in a 

post-release open-field test near a mass 

outbreak of weevils, though reproduction 

did not occur on this species; no attack 

has thus far been recorded on L. indica

outside of this field experiment. 

USFWS, State (34,32,15); 

Additional contributions from State 

(1,9,31,37,38,39,42), USDA

126, 127, 128, 130, 335, 673, 794, 

1073, 1105, 1507, 1624, 1694, 1896, 

1901, 1903, 1909, 1910

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Galerucella pusilla (continued)

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Galerucella pusilla (continued)
354 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hylobius transversovittatus (Goeze)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Canada

1992

Ex. Germany, Finland

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

The limited populations and cryptic 

nature make this species difficult to 

study so its current status in Canada is 

largely unknown and requires further 

study.

AAFC

117, 125, 128, 347, 432, 437, 794, 1097, 

1138

United States of America

1991

Ex. Germany

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Slower to disperse and reproduce than 

other established agents. Believed to 

have well established populations in WA 

and ID, but largely limited elsewhere. 

Extensive root feeding by this agent can 

complement defoliation by Galerucella

spp., sometimes resulting in plant death. 

However, establishment and impact both 

difficult to assess as larvae are hidden 

feeders and adults are active at night. 

USFWS, State (34), USDA (10,14), 

State (32,15); Additional contributions 

from State (1,9,14,43,31,37,38,39,42), 

USDA

83, 127, 128, 129, 332, 335, 794, 925, 

1507, 1512, 1901, 1903, 1909, 1911

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Hylobius transversovittatus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 355

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Nanophyes marmoratus (Goeze)

(Coleoptera: Nanophyidae)

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria (continued)

Canada

1997

Ex. Germany

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

AAFC

37, 132, 347, 437, 1097

United States of America

1994

Ex. France, Germany

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Feeding on floral buds often results in 

abortion and failure to produce seeds, 

which does not kill plants but reduces 

population spread. Populations typically 

limited, but may be an important agent 

at sites with decreasing Lythrum 

salicaria and smaller populations of 

other agents. Does not do well at sites 

with high populations of Galerucella spp. 

(the more effective agents) as heavy 

defoliation by the leaf-feeders reduces 

food availability.

Interspecific competition

USFWS, State (34,15,9,32); Additional 

contributions from State (14,31,37,38)

127, 128, 129, 332, 334, 335, 1105, 

1432, 1502, 1507, 1512, 1752, 1893, 

1901, 1903, 1909

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Lythraceae

Lythrum salicaria; Nanophyes marmoratus (continued)
356 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Malvaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Malvaceae

Sida acuta Burm. f.

tropical Americas

spinyhead sida, broomweed, broom 

stick

Calligrapha pantherina Stål

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Australia

1989

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Regional

Causes severe defoliation, reducing 

seed production and plant density. 

Maximum impact on coastal and subcoastal stands. Survival during severe 

dry season can be poor as often needs 

to be reintroduced to areas where 

high densities present the previous 

dry season.

Climate

CSIRO, NT, QLD State

569, 577, 766, 769, 773, 1114, 1983

Fiji

2002

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Providing effective control.

SPC

418, 427, 769, 951, 1125, 1401

Papua New Guinea

2000

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Severe infestations brought under 

control within 12 months. Still spreading 

to additional provinces.

SPC

427, 769, 971, 1039, 1403

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malvaceae

Sida acuta; Calligrapha pantherina (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 357

Table

1

Samoa

pre 1998

Ex. Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

418

Vanuatu

2005

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Confirmed under control on all islands 

that have been surveyed.

SPC, DLQS

203, 204, 418, 427, 769, 1401, 1402

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malvaceae

Sida acuta; Calligrapha pantherina (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Eutinobothrus pilosellus (Boheman)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Australia

1997

Ex. Mexico

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Survived first dry season following 

release but subsequent status unknown.

CSIRO, NT

766, 769, 1418

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Eutinobothrus sp.

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Australia

1994

Ex. Mexico

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Survived first dry season following 

release but subsequent status unknown.

CSIRO, NT

423, 766, 769

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malvaceae

Sida acuta (continued)
358 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Malvaceae

Sida rhombifolia L.

tropical Americas

Paddy’s lucerne, common sida, 

broomweed, broom stick

Calligrapha pantherina Stål

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Australia

1989

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established at few sites in coastal 

northern QLD but failed to establish in 

southern QLD. Poorer performance on 

Sida rhombifolia than S. acuta thought 

to be due to climatic factors relating to 

S. rhombifolia’s distribution.

Climate

CSIRO, QLD State

577, 766, 769, 773

Fiji

2002

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Providing effective control.

SPC

418, 427, 769, 951, 1125, 1401

Papua New Guinea

2000

Ex. Mexico via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Severe infestations brought under 

control within 12 months. Still spreading 

to additional provinces.

SPC

427, 769, 971, 1039, 1403

Samoa

pre 1998

Ex. Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

427

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Malvaceae (continued) Malvaceae

Sida rhombifolia; Calligrapha pantherina (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 359

Table

1

Vanuatu

2005

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Confirmed under control on all islands 

that have been surveyed. In Vanuatu, 

Sida rhombifolia is not as problematic as 

the closely related S. acuta so biocontrol 

impact on S. rhombifolia is no longer 

recorded.

SPC, DLQS

203, 204, 418, 427, 769, 1401, 1402

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malvaceae

Sida rhombifolia; Calligrapha pantherina (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Eutinobothrus pilosellus (Boheman)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Australia

1998

Ex. Mexico

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Survived first dry season following 

release but subsequent status unknown.

CSIRO

766, 769, 1418

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Eutinobothrus sp.

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Australia

1994

Ex. Mexico

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Survived first dry season following 

release but subsequent status unknown.

CSIRO, NT

766, 769

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malvaceae

Sida rhombifolia (continued)
360 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Melastomataceae Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don

tropical Central and South America, 

Caribbean

Koster’s curse, the curse

Antiblemma acclinalis Hübner

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hawaii USA

1995

Ex. Tobago

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Established on OA and KA but rare, 

likely from parasitism.

Parasitism

HDOA

323, 326, 385, 386, 762, 1169

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Ategumia matutinalis (Guenée)

Ategumia ebulealis (Guenée), 

Blepharomastix ebulealis Guenée

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

324, 783

Hawaii USA

1970

Ex. Puerto Rico, Trinidad

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Although established, heavily parasitized 

so populations are suppressed and have 

had little impact on Clidemia hirta.

Parasitism

Also feeds on the exotic Melastoma 

septemnervium Lour. and Tibouchina 

semidecandra (Schrank & Mart. ex DC.) 

Cogn. though impact is believed to be 

negligible.

HDOA

324, 402, 403, 762, 1147, 1321, 1562, 

1959

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 361

Table

1

Palau

1972

Ex. Puerto Rico, Trinidad via Hawaii 

USA

No

UOG

324, 1627

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta; Ategumia matutinalis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Carposina bullata Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Carposinidae)

Hawaii USA

1995

Ex. Trinidad, Tobago

No

OA releases likely failed due to low 

numbers (3 and 4 individuals in 

1995 and 1998 respectively). Insects 

established initially on HA (recovered 

2002) but never recovered again for 

reasons unknown. 

Small release size

HDOA

324, 326, 385, 386, 1169

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Colletotrichum clidemiae B. Weir & 

P.R. Johnst.

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f.sp. clidemiae

E.E. Trujillo, Latterell & A.E. Rossi

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

987, 1967

Hawaii USA

1986

Ex. Panama

Yes

Variable

Variable

During variable outbreaks diseased 

plants common throughout all islands 

in cool, wet, windy areas, resulting in 

frequent defoliation. However impact 

typically low as infected plants often 

regenerate quickly. Natural dispersal 

of this fungus uncommon due to its 

production of spores in a mucoid mass. 

A volunteer-assisted redistribution 

program was initiated to aid in repeated 

inoculations and spread of this 

pathogen.

Climate

HDOA

253, 323, 324, 325, 326, 385, 489, 1147, 

1825, 1826

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (continued)
362 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Liothrips urichi Karny

(Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

American Samoa

1974

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji

Yes

Limited

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Believed to have provided reasonable 

level of control; inhibits growth and vigor 

of weed, preventing it from becoming 

dominant. Recent though very limited 

surveys yielded only isolated or patchy 

plants and no agents.

324, 331, 1712, 1779, 1885, 1940

Fiji

1930

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Excellent control in most areas. Able to 

reduce regrowth and competitive ability 

of weed. Little effect in very wet areas 

under dense shade or where grazing 

is intense as competing vegetation is 

unable to suppress the weed.

Climate; Habitat; Land use

DAF

288, 324, 606, 1373, 1547, 1682, 1683, 

1684, 1686

Hawaii USA

1953

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji

Yes

Variable

Variable

Provides excellent control in open 

pastureland of OA and MA but 

ineffective in shaded, forested 

watershed and conservation areas of 

both islands. Infrequently encountered 

on HA, even in open habitat. 

Habitat; Predation

HDOA

325, 405, 489, 612, 762, 1147, 1561, 

1563, 1949, 1959

Palau

1972

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Effective primarily in sunny areas.

Habitat

UOG

324, 1627

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta; Liothrips urichi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 363

Table

1

Solomon Islands

1938

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji

No

Establishment failure largely due to the 

very small numbers which survived the 

journey.

Small release size

MAL

288, 324, 1093, 1548

Solomon Islands

1973

Ex. Trinidad via Fiji

No

MAL

324, 1126

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta; Liothrips urichi (continued)

Melastomataceae

Clidemia hirta; Lius poseidon (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lius poseidon Napp

(Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Hawaii USA

1988

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Hawaii USA (continued)

Widespread throughout islands but 

uncommon. Damage may be greater 

in combination with Liothrips urichi, 

though damage to weed overall appears 

minimal. Parasitism may be factor. 

Parasitism

HDOA

323, 324, 325, 326, 385, 489, 762, 

1147, 1169

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Mompha trithalama Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Momphidae)

Hawaii USA

1995

Ex. Trinidad, Tobago

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Possible impact on viable seed 

production but needs formal evaluation. 

Widespread distribution and high 

abundance for multiple years indicate 

impact is low. Parasitism recently 

documented on island of HA. 

Parasitism

HDOA

324, 325, 326, 385, 386, 762, 1169

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
364 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Melastomataceae

Melastoma septemnervium Lour.

Melastoma candidum D. Don

Melastoma malabathricum L. 

Initially incorrectly identified as 

Melastoma malabathricum L. but 

subsequently corrected to 

M. candidum D. Don, a name that has 

since been synonymized with 

M. septemnervium Lour.

southeast Asia

Asian melastome; sometimes referred 

to as Indian rhododendron or Malabar 

melastome which were the common 

names of the incorrectly identified 

Melastoma malabathricum

326, 1924

Ategumia adipalis (Lederer)

Bocchoris adipalis (Lederer)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. Singapore, Malaysia (mainland) 

Yes

Limited

None

Low population levels; ineffective 

control.

HDOA

325, 405, 411, 612, 762

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ategumia fatualis (Lederer)

Bocchoris fatualis (Lederer)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Hawaii USA

1958

Ex. Philippines

Yes

Limited

None

Low population levels; ineffective 

control.

HDOA

398, 405, 406, 411, 612, 762, 1025, 

1169

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae (continued) Melastomataceae

Melastoma septemnervium (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 365

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Rhynchopalpus brunellus Hampson

Selca brunella Hampson

(Lepidoptera: Nolidae)

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. Singapore, Malaysia (mainland) 

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

In heavily infested localities foliar 

skeletonizing is moderate and fruits 

attacked, but control only partial.

Also attacks the exotic (occasionally 

cultivated) Melastoma sanguineum Sims 

and found established on the exotic 

Tibouchina urvilleana (DC.) Cogn.

HDOA

325, 326, 401, 405, 411, 612, 635, 762, 

836

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae

Melastoma septemnervium (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Melastomataceae

Miconia calvescens DC.

tropical Americas

miconia

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f.sp. miconiae

Killgore & L. Sugiyama

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Agent

Species

Classification

French Polynesia

2000

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Variable

Causes significant mortality of seedlings 

and partial defoliation of large plants 

which increases light penetration, in 

turn increasing recruitment by native 

species. Impact largely restricted to 

higher elevations with cool temperatures 

and high humidity.

Climate

HDOA, DRFP

1234, 1235, 1237, 1238

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Melastomataceae (continued)
366 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Melastomataceae

Miconia calvescens; Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (continued)

Hawaii USA

1997

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Can cause premature leaf drop in 

saplings, however restricted to wet and 

windy climatic conditions.

Climate

HDOA

325, 326, 386, 981

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Myricaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Myricaceae

Morella faya (Aiton) Wilbur

Myrica faya Aiton

Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands

firebush, firetree, faya, fayatree

678, 1100

Caloptilia coruscans (Walsingham)

Caloptilia schinella (Walsingham), 

Caloptilia nr schinella (Walsingham)

Phyllonorycter myricae Deschka

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hawaii USA

1991

Ex. Azores, Madeira

Yes

Limited

None

Established in only a few regions on 

island of HA. Largely no measurable 

effect, likely due to parasitism and 

predation.

Parasitism; Predation

USDA, HDOA

326, 386, 1083, 1145

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 367

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Septoria hodgesii D.E. Gardner

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Hawaii USA

1997

Ex. USA (NC)

Yes

Unknown

None

Though initially established at all release 

sites, appeared to have no effect 

on weed populations. Has not been 

monitored recently.

HDOA

325, 326, 386

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Strepsicrates smithiana Walsingham

Eucosma smithiana (Walsingham)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Hawaii USA

1956

Ex. USA (FL, GA)

No

Not established on Morella faya (Aiton) 

Wilbur on which it was released, but 

became established on the closely 

related but less problematic southern 

wax myrtle, Morella cerifera (L.) Small, 

on Hawaii.

HDOA

44, 386, 400, 406, 612, 1083, 1952

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Myricaceae

Morella faya (continued) Myrtaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Myrtaceae

Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) 

F. Muell.

Australia

Australian myrtle

Aristaea thalassias (Meyrick)

Parectopa thalassias Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1996

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Repeated mining and abscission of 

young leaves on seedlings can reduce 

their vigor and growth, but mature 

Leptospermum laevigatum trees are 

largely unaffected. Even in combination 

with Dasineura strobila, at some sites 

may contribute to a reduction in the 

growth and stature of L. laevigatum

seedlings, but overall suppression of the 

weed is negligible.

ARC-PPRI

654, 657, 992
368 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Myrtaceae

Leptospermum laevigatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Dasineura strobila Dorchin

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1997

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced and 

redistributed, though was then found to 

be already established. Both populations 

subsequently not differentiated in 

the literature. Initially developed very 

dense populations until it acquired 

several species of local predatory mites 

and parasitic wasps that caused a 

marked decline in population levels. In 

combination with Aristaea thalassias, 

at some sites may contribute to a 

reduction in the growth and stature of 

Leptospermum laevigatum seedlings, 

but overall suppression of the weed is 

negligible.

Predation

ARC-PPRI

517, 654, 657, 658, 992

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S. T. 

Blake

Australia, New Caledonia, 

New Guinea

melaleuca, broad-leaved paperbark

Boreioglycaspis melaleucae Moore

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

United States of America

2002

Ex. Australia

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Regional

Well established throughout FL, though 

seasonably variable and densities 

greatest in south. In combination with 

Oxyops vitiosa and Puccinia psidii, 

causes severe damage to mature 

melaleuca trees through reduced plant 

height, branching and biomass of 

surviving coppices as well as increased 

fruit abortion and seedling/sapling 

mortality. Saliva thought to be phytotoxic 

and cause premature leaf drop. Summer 

temperatures possibly reduce population 

growth; predation by generalists 

sometimes significant. Small population 

found near Los Angeles International 

Airport in CA in 2009. Unknown if 

originated from FL population, or native 

population in Australia.

(continued on next page)

Myrtaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 369

Table

1

Myrtaceae; Melaleuca quinquenervia

Boreioglycaspis melaleucae (continued)

Release

Country

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America (continued)

Climate; Predation

USDA (3,4)

80, 243, 244, 245, 246, 254, 1529, 

1530, 1551

Agent

Species

Classification

Fergusobia quinquenerviae Davies & 

Giblin-Davis

(Tylenchida: Neotylenchidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2005

Ex. Australia

No

Fergusobia quinquenerviae is a 

mutualistic nematode of the fly 

Fergusonina turneri that is deposited 

with eggs of the fly and appears to 

initiate gall formation. Both were 

released together. Failed to establish 

despite effort to increase number 

of individuals released and improve 

release timing with susceptible stage 

of host (buds). Along with F. turneri

temporarily colonized release sites, 

but disappeared completely after three 

generations.

USDA (3,4)

237, 245, 246, 626, 875

Myrtaceae 

Melaleuca quinquenervia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Fergusonina turneri Taylor

(Diptera: Fergusoninidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2005

Ex. Australia

No

Fergusobia quinquenerviae is a 

mutualistic nematode of the fly 

Fergusonina turneri that is deposited 

with eggs of the fly and appears to 

initiate gall formation. Both were 

released together. Failed to establish 

despite effort to increase number 

of individuals released and improve 

release timing with susceptible 

stage of host (buds). Along with 

F. quinquenerviae temporarily colonized 

release sites, but disappeared 

completely after three generations.

USDA (3,4)

237, 245, 246, 626, 875
370 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Myrtaceae 

Melaleuca quinquenervia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Lophodiplosis trifida Gagné

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2008

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Regional

Though only recently introduced, 

established successfully at all sites 

except one where agents killed by 

frost. Populations largely moderately 

abundant; high in areas with long 

hydroperiod (wetlands) but lower 

in upland systems where they are 

restricted to the lower canopy. While 

too early to determine fully, preliminary 

evidence indicates galling can kill 

seedlings and severely modify plant 

architecture. In concert with other 

established herbivores, decreases plant 

growth and survival. Currently under 

evaluation.

Habitat

USDA (3,4)

237, 246, 607, 875, 1527, 1528

Myrtaceae 

Melaleuca quinquenervia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Oxyops vitiosa Pascoe

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1997

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Well established throughout FL, 

though densities greatest in south. 

In combination with Boreioglycaspis 

melaleucae and Puccinia psidii, causes 

severe damage to mature melaleuca 

trees. Damage occurs as reduced 

plant height, branching and biomass of 

surviving coppices as well as increased 

seedling mortality. Repeated attack 

enables other plant species to colonize 

sites. Pupates in soil so persistent 

populations rare in permanently flooded 

habitats.

Habitat

USDA (3,4)

80, 245, 246, 247, 1529, 1530, 1551
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 371

Table

1

Orobanchaceae Orobanchaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche minor Sm.

Eurasia

broomrape

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Chile

1998

Ex. Morocco

No

Not recovered after initial releases.

INIA

994, 1355, 1356, 1941

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Orobanchaceae

Phelipanche ramosa (L.) Pomel

Orobanche ramosa L.

Eurasia

broomrape, branched broomrape

922, 1463

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Chile

1998

Ex. Morocco

No

Not recovered after initial releases.

INIA

994, 1354, 1355, 1356, 1941
372 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Orobanchaceae (continued) Orobanchaceae

Striga hermonthica (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Orobanchaceae

Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth.

Africa

purple witchweed

Eulocastra argentisparsa Hampson

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Ethiopia

1974

Ex. India

No

Recovery surveys not conducted for 

several years following release due 

to political unrest. Has since been 

determined agent did not establish.

IIBC, FAO

669, 1780

Agent

Species

Classification

Smicronyx albovariegatus Faust

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Ethiopia

1974

Ex. India

No

Recovery surveys not conducted for 

several years following release due 

to political unrest. Has since been 

determined agent did not establish.

IIBC, FAO

669, 1780

Ethiopia

1978

Ex. India

No

Recovered in 1979 but additional 

surveys not conducted for several years 

following release due to political unrest. 

Has since been determined agent did 

not establish.

IIBC, FAO

669, 1780

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 373

Table

1

Passifloraceae Passifloraceae

Passiflora tarminiana (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Passifloraceae

Passiflora tarminiana Coppens & 

V. E. Barney

Passiflora tripartita (Juss.) Poir. 

var. tripartita, Passiflora mollissima

(Kunth) L.H. Bailey, Passiflora 

tripartita var. mollissima (Kunth) 

Holm-Nielsen & P. Jørgensen

Now considered a hybrid between 

Passiflora mollissima (Kunth) L.H. 

Bailey (whose name has since been 

changed to P. tripartita var. mollissima

(Kunth) Holm-Nielsen & P. Jørgensen) 

and an additional species.

South America

banana poka

326, 342

Pyrausta perelegans Hampson

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hawaii USA

1991

Ex. Venezuela

Yes

Limited

None

Insect populations too low to have any 

significant impact.

Parasitism; Predation (only minor impact 

on efficacy)

USDA-FS, HDOA

221, 326, 596, 1146, 1151, 1153, 1861

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Scea necyria (Felder & Rogenhofer)

Cyanotricha necyria Felder

(Lepidoptera: Notodontidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1988

Ex. Colombia, Ecuador

No

Predation, parasitism, and lack of 

sufficient nectar for adults in release 

area may have contributed to 

establishment failure. 

Predation; Parasitism

USDA-FS, HDOA

221, 596, 614, 762, 1146, 1152, 1153, 

1861
374 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Passifloraceae

Passiflora tarminiana (continued)

Hawaii USA

1996

Ex. Colombia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Provides substantial reduction of 

biomass and early defoliation in wet and 

windy areas. However, regrowth can 

be vigorous and weed has continued 

to spread in many regions, especially 

those with dry climates or acid rain. 

Recent surveys on KA did not yield this 

pathogen, though it could still be present 

at higher elevations not visited.

Climate

HDOA, State (52)

326, 385, 596, 1006, 1146, 1826, 1828

Agent

Species

Classification

Septoria passiflorae Sydenham

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

(L.) Mill.

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill. subsp. 

dalmatica (L.) Maire & Petitm., Linaria 

dalmatica (L.) Mill.

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill.

Dalmatian and yellow toadflax can 

both be highly variable in North 

America, which is compounded 

by their ability to hybridize. The 

taxonomic status of this group of 

species and their hybrids remains 

uncertain. The editors of the current 

catalogue follow the interpretation that 

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill. is distinct 

from L. dalmatica (L.) Mill. and that L. 

dalmatica consists of two subspecies, 

of which only one (L. dalmatica subsp. 

dalmatica) is invasive and weedy in 

North America.

Eurasia

Dalmatian toadflax, broad-leaved 

toadflax

1534, 1687, 1820

Plantaginaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 375

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Brachypterolus pulicarius (L.)

(Coleoptera: Kateridae)

It was initially believed different 

biotypes of Brachypterolus pulicarius

had evolved sufficiently to be suited 

differently to Linaria vulgaris and L. 

dalmatica. Studies have since found 

no evidence to suggest that genetic 

variability between the host races has 

advanced to the point of speciation. 

B. pulicarius prefers and performs 

better on L. vulgaris; the use of L. 

dalmatica is incidental.

861

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1992

Ex. Unknown via Canada

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Initially found as an unintentional 

introduction on Linaria vulgaris in 

NY in 1919, from where it spread 

throughout the USA where it has been 

reported on both L. vulgaris and 

L. dalmatica. A population found feeding 

exclusively on L. dalmatica in Canada 

was subsequently redistributed to 

L. dalmatica and L. vulgaris in the USA. 

The two populations are not genetically 

different and are likely moving between 

the two Linaria species on their own so 

are indistinguishable for establishmnet, 

abundance and efficacy. Though 

widespread in USA, prefers Linaria 

vulgaris. Even beetles collected from 

L. dalmatica preferred L. vulgaris in 

trials. Found in only limited amounts on 

L. dalmatica throughout USA, except 

portions of ID OR WA where much 

more abundant. At high densities, stunts 

height and causes increased branching. 

Overall impact to flowering and seed 

production minimal at most sites.

State (7)

39, 332, 335, 861, 1105, 1127, 1364, 

1365, 1366, 1689, 1697, 1991

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae; Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica 

Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)
376 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Calophasia lunula (Hufnagel)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1962

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

Larval feeding decreases leaf area but 

does not disrupt photosynthetic capacity 

sufficiently to have much impact. 

Parasitism may decrease populations 

in some areas. Establishment limited by 

cold climates.

Climate; Parasitism

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

AAFC

438, 441, 731, 737, 1192, 1689, 1922, 

1991

Canada

1989

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

Larval feeding decreases leaf area but 

does not disrupt photosynthetic capacity 

sufficiently to have much impact. 

Parasitism may decrease populations 

in some areas. Establishment limited by 

cold climates.

Climate; Parasitism

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

AAFC

117, 432, 438, 441, 1190, 1192, 1689, 

1991

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Calophasia lunula (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 377

Table

1

United States of America

1968

Ex. Switzerland via Canada (ON)

Yes

Variable

Slight

Regional

Redistributed from Linaria vulgaris in 

Canada. Populations limited throughout 

much of range, moderate in ID and 

abundant in WA. High densities can 

lead to patch defoliation. Overall, larval 

feeding typically decreases leaf area but 

does not disrupt photosynthetic capacity 

sufficiently to have significant impact on 

target weeds. Establishment limited by 

cold climates.

Climate

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

USDA (7), State (6,7,9,13,15)

39, 332, 334, 335, 1192, 1201, 1364, 

1365, 1366, 1689, 1991

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Calophasia lunula (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Eteobalea intermediella Riedl

(Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. Serbia

No

Initially established on Linaria dalmatica

in BC and AB propagation plots, 

however these populations have since 

disappeared.

AAFC

117, 437, 438, 441, 1248

United States of America

1996

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

No

State (7), USDA (14)

1105, 1365, 1366, 1688, 1991
378 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Eteobalea serratella Treitschke

(Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1996

Ex. Italy

No

State (7), USDA (14)

1105, 1365, 1366, 1688, 1991

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski & 

Caldara

Mecinus janthinus Germar pars

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The agent released against Linaria 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in North 

America under the name Mecinus 

janthinus Germar has since been 

identified as two distinct species, 

with Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski 

& Caldara usually preferentially 

attacking L. dalmatica and 

M. janthinus preferring L. vulgaris. 

Recently, a population of 

M. janthiniformis has been found 

attacking hybrids of L. dalmatica and 

L. vulgaris in North America.

215, 441, 1688, 1821

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1992

Ex. Republic of Macedonia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Rapid buildup of outbreak-level 

populations in BC led to substantial 

damage (i.e., significant reduction in 

stem height), reductions in Linaria 

dalmatica density, and greater 

fragmentation of L. dalmatica stands. 

Some AB populations more recently 

reached outbreak levels, although colder 

overwinter temperatures and possible 

release of the wrong Mecinus species 

are thought to be involved with poor or 

delayed success. Parasitism is thought 

to effect populations at some sites 

in BC.

Climate; Parasitism

AAFC

433, 437, 438, 441, 1190, 1193, 1820, 

1821, 1871

Plantaginaceae; Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica 

Mecinus janthiniformis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 379

Table

1

United States of America

post 1996

Ex. Republic of Macedonia via Canada

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released as early as 1997 though 

unclear which Mecinus species (or both) 

was present in initial redistributions from 

Canada. Though initially slow to build 

at some sites, populations reached 

outbreak levels at many locations in 

subsequent years leading to reductions 

in Linaria dalmatica populations 

throughout much of its established 

range. Combination of adult and larval 

feeding reduces stem length, both 

above ground and root biomass, seed 

production, and primary physiological 

functioning.

State (7), USDA (14)

618, 663, 710, 900, 956, 1105, 1365, 

1366, 1615, 1689, 1690, 1820, 1821, 

1907, 1946, 1991, 2021

Plantaginaceae; Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica 

Mecinus janthiniformis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Mecinus janthinus Germar

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The agent released against Linaria 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in North 

America under the name Mecinus 

janthinus Germar has since been 

identified as two distinct species, 

with Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski 

& Caldara usually preferentially 

attacking L. dalmatica and 

M. janthinus preferring L. vulgaris.

215, 441, 1821

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Found present on Linaria dalmatica

during recent molecular studies, though 

populations limited and with unknown 

impact.

AAFC

432, 437, 438, 441, 618, 1820, 1821

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)
380 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Mecinus janthinus (continued)

United States of America

1996

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley); 

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley) via 

Canada

No

Released in 1996 from the Rhine Valley 

and as early as 1997 from the Rhine 

Valley via Canada, though is unclear 

which Mecinus species (or both) was 

present in initial redistributions from 

Canada. Despite being released 

numerous times on Linaria dalmatica, 

has not been collected from this species 

to date. Prefers L. vulgaris.

Specificity

State (7), USDA (14)

437, 618, 710, 1366, 1820, 1821, 1946

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinusa antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnetron antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnaetron antirrhini (Paykull)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

It is believed two “strains” of this 

species exist in Canada, with the 

intentionally introduced population 

preferring Linaria dalmatica over 

L. vulgaris, attacking even the 

broad-leaved form of L. dalmatica. 

Conversely, the adventive population 

prefers L. vulgaris over L. dalmatica. 

One may in fact be an unnamed 

sibling species. 

213, 214, 1690

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1993

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 381

Table

1

Canada (continued)

This strain intentionally introduced 

in 1993, though a different strain 

already introduced inadvertently prior 

to 1917. Decreases seed production. 

Though unknown how this affects 

Linaria dalmatica populations, similar 

attack rates by the L. vulgaris strain 

on L. vulgaris do not provide control. 

Competition between Rhinusa antirrhini

and Brachypterolus pulicarius prevents 

additive impact in many locations. 

Parasitism may also limit impact. 

However, localized populations 

have established well in BC and 

are spreading. Impact has yet to be 

investigated.

Parasitism; Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 432, 438, 441, 784, 1689, 1922

United States of America

1996

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

An unintentional introduction referred 

to as the vulgaris biotype was found on 

Linaria vulgaris in 1909 and L. dalmatica

(narrow-leaved form) by 1957. This 

additional strain (dalmatica biotype) 

was intentionally released against 

L. dalmatica in 1996. Unknown if 

releases were successful.

State (13)

1365, 1366, 1689

Release

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Rhinusa antirrhini (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Rhinusa linariae (Panzer)

Gymnetron linariae Panzer

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

213, 214, 441

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1996

Ex. Europe (central, southern), Russia 

(southern)

No

AAFC

117, 438, 441, 1190, 1922

United States of America

1996

Ex. Germany (Rhine Valley)

No

Confirmed established at only one 

Linaria dalmatica site in WY. Status 

unknown.

State (7), USDA (14)

306, 334, 335, 710, 1105, 1365, 1366, 

1689, 1752, 1991
382 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris Mill.

Yellow and Dalmatian toadflax can 

both be highly variable in North 

America, which is compounded 

by their ability to hybridize. The 

taxonomic status of this group of 

species and their hybrids remains 

uncertain.

Eurasia

yellow toadflax, common toadflax, 

butter-and-eggs

Brachypterolus pulicarius (L.)

(Coleoptera: Kateridae)

It was initially believed different 

biotypes of Brachypterolus pulicarius

had evolved sufficiently to be suited 

differently to Linaria vulgaris and 

L. dalmatica. Studies have since 

found no evidence to suggest that 

genetic variability between the host 

races has advanced to the point of 

speciation. B. pulicarius prefers and 

performs better on L. vulgaris; the use 

of L. dalmatica is incidental.

861

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Plantaginaceae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1997

Ex. Unknown via Canada

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially found as an unintentional 

introduction on Linaria vulgaris in NY 

in 1919, from where it spread 

throughout the USA where it has been 

reported on both L. vulgaris and 

L. dalmatica. A population found feeding 

exclusively on L. dalmatica in Canada 

was subsequently redistributed to 

L. dalmatica and L. vulgaris in the USA. 

The two populations are not genetically 

different and are likely moving between 

the two Linaria species on their own so 

are indistinguishable for establishmnet, 

abundance and efficacy. Widespread 

and abundant, preferring Linaria vulgaris

over L. dalmatica. Can delay flowering 

and reduce seed production of L. 

vulgaris by 80 to 90% at some locations. 

However, overall impact minimal.

State (7)

39, 332, 861, 1127, 1364, 1365, 1366, 

1689, 1697, 1991

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 383

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Calophasia lunula (Hufnagel)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1962

Ex. Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

Larval feeding decreases leaf area but 

does not disrupt photosynthetic capacity 

sufficiently to have much impact. 

Parasitism may decrease populations 

in some areas. Establishment limited by 

cold climates.

Climate; Parasitism

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

AAFC

393, 439, 731, 737, 1190, 1192, 1689, 

1991

Canada

1989

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Larval feeding decreases leaf area but 

does not disrupt photosynthetic capacity 

sufficiently to have much impact. 

Parasitism may decrease populations 

in some areas. Establishment limited by 

cold climates.

Climate; Parasitism

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

AAFC

117, 439, 1190, 1192, 1689, 1991

United States of America

1968

Ex. Switzerland via Canada (ON)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Populations limited throughout 

range. Overall, larval feeding may 

decrease leaf area but does not disrupt 

photosynthetic capacity sufficiently to 

have significant impact on target weeds. 

Establishment limited by cold climates.

Climate

In North America, caterpillars are known 

to feed and develop on snapdragons, 

including non-native, ornamental, and 

one native species, Antirrhinum virga

A. Gray.

State (6,7,15), USDA (14)

39, 332, 334, 335, 1364, 1365, 1366, 

1689, 1991

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Calophasia lunula (continued)
384 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Eteobalea intermediella Riedl

(Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1997

Ex. Former Yugoslavia

No

State (7)

1105, 1365, 1366, 1688

Eteobalea serratella Treitschke

(Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Canada

1992

Ex. Italy

No

Initially believed to have established 

in limited numbers, but subsequently 

considered failed.

AAFC

439, 1190, 1248

United States of America

1996

Ex. Italy

No

State (7)

1105, 1365, 1366, 1688

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski & 

Caldara

Mecinus janthinus Germar pars

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The agent released against Linaria 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in North 

America under the name Mecinus 

janthinus Germar has since been 

identified as two distinct species, 

with Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski 

& Caldara usually preferentially 

attacking L. dalmatica and 

M. janthinus preferring L. vulgaris. 

Recently, a population of 

M. janthiniformis has been found 

attacking hybrids of L. dalmatica and 

L. vulgaris in North America.

215, 441, 1688, 1821

Canada

2000

Ex. Republic of Macedonia

No

Redistributed from Linaria dalmatica

to L. vulgaris, but not recovered during 

subsequent site visits. Molecular 

studies underway which may identify 

populations of Mecinus janthiniformis on 

L. vulgaris.

AAFC

437, 439, 618, 1185, 1190, 1820

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 385

Table

1

United States of America

post 1996

Ex. Republic of Macedonia via Canada

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Released as early as 1997 though 

unclear which Mecinus species (or both) 

was present in initial redistributions 

from Canada. Found present on Linaria 

vulgaris during recent molecular studies, 

though populations limited and with 

unknown impact.

State (7), USDA (14)

1366, 1820, 1821, 1946

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Mecinus janthiniformis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Mecinus janthinus Germar

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The agent released against Linaria 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in North 

America under the name Mecinus 

janthinus Germar has since been 

identified as two distinct species, 

with Mecinus janthiniformis Toševski 

& Caldara usually preferentially 

attacking L. dalmatica and 

M. janthinus preferring L. vulgaris.

215, 441, 1821

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Mecinus janthinus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1991

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Densities have remained low with little to 

no apparent impact on Linaria vulgaris

at many sites, though formal evaluation 

has been limited. Parasitism and cold 

climates at release sites (leading to 

insufficient development time) may 

contribute to low populations and 

impact. Incorrect host/agent matching 

with the Mecinus janthinus/janthiniformis

complex likely also contributed to lower 

establishment rates. However, at one AB 

site, L. vulgaris has declined to very low 

density, with the few remaining stems 

heavily infested with M. janthinus.

Climate; Parasitism

AAFC

432, 437, 439, 618, 1190, 1193, 1820, 

1821
386 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

United States of America

1997

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley); 

Ex. France, Germany (Rhine Valley) via 

Canada

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Released in 1997 from the Rhine Valley 

and as early as 1997 from the Rhine 

Valley via Canada, though is unclear 

which Mecinus species (or both) was 

present in initial redistributions from 

Canada. Populations of this species on 

Linaria vulgaris far more limited than 

Mecinus janthiniformis on L. dalmatica. 

Recent increased efforts on M. janthinus

redistribution have led to establishment 

in few western states where weevil 

populations now increasing and having 

significant impact locally.

State (7), USDA (14)

39, 334, 437, 618, 710, 876, 1365, 

1366, 1630, 1688, 1820, 1821, 1946, 

1991

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Mecinus janthinus (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Rhinusa linariae (Panzer)

Gymnetron linariae Panzer

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

213, 214, 441

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1996

Ex. Europe (central, southern), Russia 

(southern)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Because populations are slow to build, 

redistributions made every 2-4 years. 

Adult foliage feeding and larval galling 

reduce plant nutrient reserves. However, 

populations too low for significant 

impact.

AAFC

117, 438, 439, 1190, 1922
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 387

Table

1

United States of America

1996

Ex. Germany (Rhine Valley)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

State (7), USDA (14)

335, 1365, 1689

United States of America

2008

Ex. Europe (central, southern), Russia 

(southern) via Canada (BC)

No

BCME, USDA (14), CDA

89, 1190

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Rhinusa linariae (continued) Poaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Poaceae

Arundo donax L.

Mediterranean Europe, Asia

giant reed, carrizo cane

Rhizaspidiotus donacis Leonardi

(Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Mexico

2011

Ex. France, Spain

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Several unique genotypes were 

intentionally introduced from Spain and 

France in order to better match the 

different invaded climates and different 

genetic clones of Arundo donax. Well 

established at release site along Rio 

Grande between USA and Mexico, but 

too early post release to determine 

abundance and impact.

USDA (18,17)

650, 651, 652, 1255
388 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Poaceae

Arundo donax; Rhizaspidiotus donacis (continued)

United States of America

2010

Ex. France, Spain

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Several unique genotypes were 

intentionally introduced from Spain and 

France in order to better match the 

different invaded climates and different 

genetic clones of Arundo donax. Well 

established at the release site along 

Rio Grande between USA and Mexico, 

but too early post release to determine 

abundance and impact.

USDA (18,17)

650, 651, 652, 1255

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Poaceae

Arundo donax; Tetramesa romana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Tetramesa romana Walker

(Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Mexico

2009

Ex. France, Spain

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

Mexico (continued)

Several unique genotypes were 

intentionally introduced from Spain and 

France in order to better match the 

different invaded climates and different 

genetic clones of Arundo donax. Impact 

under evaluation but appears similar to 

native range in Europe. Well established 

along Rio Grande and tributaries; 

highest impact closest to river or water 

source.

USDA (18,17)

651, 653, 1255

United States of America

2009

Ex. France, Spain

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

Several unique genotypes were 

intentionally introduced from Spain and 

France in order to better match the 

different invaded climates and different 

genetic clones of Arundo donax. Impact 

under evaluation but appears similar 

to native range in Europe. In TX well 

established along Rio Grande and 

tributaries; highest impact closest to 

river or water source. Establishment 

confirmed in CA.

USDA (18,17)

651, 653, 1255, 2024

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 389

Table

1

Polygonaceae Polygonaceae

Emex australis (continued)

Polygonaceae

Emex australis Steinh.

southern Africa

three cornered Jacks, doublegee, 

spiny emex, emex

Apion frumentarium (L.)

Apion miniatum Germar

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1998

Ex. Israel

No

CSIRO

1633, 2047, 2048

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Lixus linearis Olivier

Lixus cribricollis Boheman

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Morocco

No

CSIRO, VIC State, WA State

935, 1633, 2047

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion antiquum (Gyllenhal)

Apion antiquum Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Australia

1974

Ex. Republic of South Africa 

(Frankskraal, Ladismith, Grahamstown)

Yes

Limited

None

Different populations collected and 

released according to ecoclimatic 

similarity. For this population, large 

numbers released at numerous sites. 

Established at three sites only. Though 

populations persist, no control of weed 

achieved due to high mortality of adults 

over summer period in absence of 

growing host plants. 

Agent-host synchronization

CSIRO

935, 947, 2047

Australia

1975

Ex. Republic of South Africa via Hawaii 

USA

No

(continued on next page)
390 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Polygonaceae

Emex australis; Perapion antiquum (continued)

Australia (continued)

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release number and inability of adults 

to survive in absence of growing host 

plants over relatively long summer 

period.

Small release size; Agent-host 

synchronization

CSIRO

944, 2047

Australia

1984

Ex. Republic of South Africa (Oliphants 

River)

Yes

Limited

None

Though populations persist, no control 

of weed achieved due to high mortality 

of adults over summer period in 

absence of growing host plants. 

Agent-host synchronization

VIC State, WA State

191, 603, 1570, 2047

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1987

Ex. Republic of South Africa

No

Releases initially survived at summer 

irrigated site, however impact limited 

the following winter and population died 

out when summer irrigation ceased and 

host plants grew less over long summer 

period.

Agent-host synchronization

WA State, CSIRO

568, 939, 2047

Hawaii USA

1957

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Variable

Variable

Control substantial on MA, incomplete 

on OA, failed to establish on MO. On 

HA, control varying from complete 

(1200 m and above) to partial (above 

600 m) to no control (below 150 m).

Elevation

HDOA

44, 325, 406, 602, 612, 762, 1024, 1149

Polygonaceae

Emex australis; Perapion antiquum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 391

Table

1

Polygonaceae

Emex australis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion neofallax (Warner)

Apion neofallax Warner

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Morocco

No

HDOA

326, 408, 612, 1024, 1149

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion violaceum (Kirby)

Apion violaceum Kirby, Apion 

violaceum var. harcyniae Hübenthal

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Portugal

No

HDOA

326, 408, 612, 1024, 1149

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Polygonaceae

Emex spinosa (L.) Campd.

northern Africa, western Europe, 

western Asia

lesser Jacks, emex

Apion frumentarium (L.)

Apion miniatum Germar

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

2004

Ex. Israel

No

Released at 5 sites but failed to 

establish.

CSIRO

1989

Polygonaceae (continued)
392 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Polygonaceae

Emex spinosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion antiquum (Gyllenhal)

Apion antiquum Gyllenhal

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Australia

1974

Ex. Republic of South Africa 

(Frankskraal, Ladismith, Grahamstown)

Yes

Limited

None

Large numbers released at numerous 

sites using colonies collected from and 

released at ecoclimatically similar areas. 

Established at one site only. Though 

populations persist, no control of weed 

achieved due to high mortality of adults 

over summer period in absence of 

growing host plants. 

Agent-host synchronization

CSIRO

935, 2047

Hawaii USA

1957

Ex. Republic of South Africa

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA (continued)

Control substantial on MA, incomplete 

on OA, failed to establish on MO. On 

HA, control varying from complete 

(1200 m and above) to partial (above 

600 m) to no control (below 150 m).

Elevation

HDOA

44, 325, 406, 602, 612, 762, 1024

Polygonaceae

Emex spinosa; Perapion antiquum (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion neofallax (Warner)

Apion neofallax Warner

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Morocco

No

HDOA

326, 408, 612, 1024, 1149
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 393

Table

1

Polygonaceae

Emex spinosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Perapion violaceum (Kirby)

Apion violaceum Kirby, Apion 

violaceum var. harcyniae Hübenthal

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Portugal

No

HDOA

326, 408, 612, 1024, 1149

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Polygonaceae

Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse 

Decraene var. japonica

Asia

Japanese knotweed

Aphalara itadori Shinji

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

England

2010

Ex. Japan (southern)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Evidence of successful overwintering, 

but too early to confirm establishment.

IIBC

1647, 1648, 1649

Wales

2011

Ex. Japan (southern)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

IIBC

1647, 1648, 1649

Polygonaceae (continued)
394 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Polygonaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Polygonaceae

Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross

Polygonum perfoliatum L.

Asia

mile-a-minute weed

Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2004

Ex. China

Yes

Too early post release

Heavy

Localized

Additional time needed before overall 

impact can be fully assessed, but initial 

findings encouraging. Populations have 

increased considerably and rapidly 

dispersed from some sites; in NJ, 

weevil has already spread to all known 

weed infestations. Decreases plant 

density, cover, and seed production 

when attacking plants earlier in the year, 

less impact if attacking later. Greatest 

reduction in plant density and biomass 

occurs in communities with competing 

vegetation. 

USDA FS, State (45)

599, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 860, 1049

Polygonaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Polygonaceae

Rumex spp.

Includes Rumex conglomeratus

Murray, Rumex crispus L., Rumex 

obtusifolius L., and Rumex pulcher L.

Europe, Asia, northern Africa

docks

Pyropteron doryliformis

(Ochsenheimer)

Synansphecia doryliformis

(Ochsenheimer), Chamaesphecia 

doryliformis (Ochsenheimer)

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

1537, 1743

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1989

Ex. Morocco

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Development of an eggstick machine 

allowed for the dissemination of nearly 

31 million eggs from 1994-1999. Widely 

established and typically abundant 

throughout Rumex spp. infestations. 

Decreases plant densities significantly. 

Impact/abundance sometimes differ by 

species; most effective on R. crispus

and R. obtusifolius, followed by 

R. pulcher then R. conglomeratus. 

CSIRO, WA State

187, 572, 886, 1278, 1632, 1743
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 395

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

South America

water hyacinth, waterhyacinth, 

Majavani, keladi bunting, phak top 

chawaa, sawah, ècèng, etjeng padi, 

luc bình, beda bin, ye padauk

Cercospora piaropi Tharp

Cercospora rodmanii Conway

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Historically two species of Cercospora

were recognized in discussions 

regarding fungal biological control 

of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) 

Solms: C. piaropi Tharp and C. 

rodmanii Conway. Recent studies 

suggest the pathogens may be the 

same, and C. rodmanii should be 

recognized as a later synonym for the 

currently accepted C. piaropi. Though 

disagreements and difficulties remain 

in this taxonomic group, the editors of 

this catalogue support the idea that 

the Cercospora pathogens utilized 

for biological of E. crassipes are the 

same. Cercospora piaropi is among 

the most widespread and commonly 

found pathogens of E. crassipes

worldwide. Consequently, only those 

countries where this species has been 

utilized/distributed intentionally are 

listed in this catalogue.

987, 1284, 1789

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Cercospora piaropi (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1992

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Found to be present in 1986, though 

not introduced intentionally. A second 

population was intentionally introduced 

(under the name Cercospora rodmanii

Conway) in 1987. Both populations can 

no longer be differentiated in South 

Africa. Severe infections can lead to 

death of attacked leaves. Although it 

occurs extensively, there has been no 

significant decline in weed populations.

ARC-PPRI

992, 1280, 1283, 1284, 1789, 2006

Agent

Species

Classification

Cornops aquaticum (Brüner)

(Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2011

Ex. Brazil, Trinidad, Venezuela, Mexico

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ARC-PPRI

297, 801, 992
396 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho)

(Hemiptera: Miridae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Benin

1999

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

No

IITA, ARC-PPRI

13, 15, 17, 298, 802, 1345

Ghana

2009

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

ARC-PPRI

21, 22, 800, 937, 1784

Malawi

1996

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ARC-PPRI, IIBC, MFD

13, 806, 936, 1496

People’s Republic of China

2000

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

No

For unknown reasons, did not establish 

its population after 4 months.

CAAS-BCI, ARC-PPRI

504, 802

Republic of South Africa

1996

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Variable

Five to six years after release, 

populations were generally low and their 

impact slight. Alone the agent is typically 

not sufficient to reduce all aspects of 

water hyacinth vigor, especially at very 

high nutrient concentrations. However, 

more recently, several outbreaks of 

Eccritotarsus catarinensis have been 

seen, resulting in mats collapsing. 

More effective in low nutrient water, in 

conjunction with other agents, and sites 

where winter temperatures are not too 

low.

Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

208, 294, 295, 296, 297, 801, 802, 806, 

992, 1784

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Eccritotarsus catarinensis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 397

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Peru

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Field establishment not yet confirmed.

ARC-PPRI

800, 1784

Zambia

1997

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

No

ARC-PPRI, ECZ

249, 799, 802, 806, 936

Zimbabwe

1999

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

No

ARC-PPRI, PPRIZ

242, 279, 802, 806, 936

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Eccritotarsus catarinensis (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Megamelus scutellaris Berg

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2010

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Initially believed to have failed 

establishment in FL but subsequently 

found at original release sites. Too early 

post release to determine overall impact. 

Establishment in CA unknown.

USAE, USDA (4), State (14,36)

230, 237, 604, 1512, 1800

United States of America

2012

Ex. Argentina, Paraguay

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Establishment success looks promising, 

though additional time needed to 

confirm.

USDA (4)

1759
398 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina bruchi Hustache

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Australia

1990

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Variable population levels provide 

successful control in some catchments. 

No control where seasonal floods flush 

weed and agent to sea, thus limiting the 

time for agent population increase. Less 

effective where pesticide use continues 

and in cool temperate regions.

Climate; Other control methods; 

Flooding

CSIRO

937, 946, 2040

Benin

1992

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Benin (continued)

Neochetina eichhorniae became the 

dominant species and has helped 

reduce the weed overall from a serious 

pest to a moderate pest. N. bruchi, while 

still found attacking plants, remained 

confined to the release localities and in 

limited numbers.

IITA

13, 17, 298, 879, 946, 1346, 1883

Burkina Faso

1998

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Unknown

Anecdotal evidence suggests a 

substantial reduction of water hyacinth

IITA

95, 443, 946, 1409

Cote d’Ivoire

1998

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 399

Table

1

Cote d’Ivoire (continued)

Spread to the Cote d’Ivoire side of 

shared lagoon system by 1997 following 

release on the Ghana side in 1994. 

Introduced intentionally from Benin 

in 1998, though status of introduced 

population unknown.

IITA

95, 939, 946

Cuba

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via 

Honduras

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

236, 576, 670, 946, 1044

Egypt

2000

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

Neochetina spp. reduced water hyacinth 

by 90% within one year in Beheira; in 

Alexandria reduction slower due to 

water pollution.

ARCE

21, 389, 562, 946

Ghana

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Limited

Medium

Regional

Caused significant damage initially. 

Infested waters in Western seasonally 

flood, washing away weevil-infested 

plants. Water hyacinth rebounds 

annually from seed sprout, while weevil 

populations remain limited.

Flooding

EPA, IITA

21, 22, 448, 450, 946, 1494

Honduras

1989

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

EAP

236, 576, 936, 1356

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)
400 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

India

1984

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

In combination with Neochetina 

eichhorniae, provided excellent control 

in 1980s. There have since been some 

resurgence problems due in part to 

eutrophication of water bodies. Efficacy 

now variable.

IIHR

907, 1032, 1439, 1542, 1693

Indonesia

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though widespread, populations low 

and offers no overall control to weed. 

Predation limits population levels.

Predation

GTZ, NIHORT

936, 946, 969, 1809

Kenya

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Rare

Slight

Regional

By 1998, had not started affecting the 

growth of the weed significantly on 

Lake Naivasha. Additional introductions 

subsequently made which proved more 

effective.

IITA, KARI

625, 630, 894, 946, 1370

Kenya

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia; 

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Uganda; Ex. Argentina via 

USA (FL) via Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 401

Table

1

Kenya (continued)

On Lake Victoria, estimated 75% of 

mats on Kenyan shore had sunk within 

2 years of the release of both 

Neochetina spp. Entire Lake Victoria 

infestation considered under substantial 

control, possibly aided by wind and 

wave action and weather events. 

On Lake Naivasha, the additional 

introductions now widespread and 

significantly impact water hyacinth, 

reducing vigor and mat thickness, 

though other factors such as relatively 

lower water temperatures may also 

contribute. Neochetina eichhorniae

more common than N. bruchi on Lake 

Victoria; the opposite is true for Lake 

Naivasha.

KARI, CSIRO, ARC-PPRI, NARO

242, 625, 630, 894, 946, 1247, 1353, 

1370, 1371, 1990

Malawi

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via 

Zimbabwe

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Neochetina spp. have had some 

success, along with Orthogalumna 

terebrantis, though water hyacinth 

remains a problem.

IITA, IIBC, MFD

139, 881, 882, 946, 1496

Malaysia

1992

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established only in low numbers, 

insufficient to control weed.

DOAM, MARDI, PLANTI

55, 56, 57, 59, 71, 946, 2040

Mali

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

UGL

9, 13, 14, 279, 946, 1987

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References
402 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Mexico

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

Neochetina spp. in combination provide 

excellent control in some water bodies, 

but have limited impact in others unless 

additional agents/control methods 

utilized.

IMTA

11, 236, 699, 1161, 1163, 1164

Mozambique

1972

Ex. Unknown

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1494, 1495

Niger Republic

2011

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

IITA, BMA

14, 946

Nigeria

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Intentionally released in northwestern 

Nigeria beginning in 1995, though found 

already present in southern Nigeria 

in 1994 from populations naturally 

spreading from Benin. In Lake Kainji, 

90 percent of plants infested within 

2 years of release. By 2001, water 

hyacinth infestations visibly reduced 

compared to 1995 observations. Formal 

evaluation lacking throughout Nigeria.

GTZ, NIHORT, IITA

21, 388, 946

Panama

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

PCC

103, 936, 946, 1434

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 403

Table

1

Papua New Guinea

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widespread throughout country. 

In combination with Neochetina 

eichhorniae has provided very 

successful control.

CSIRO, PNGDAL

936, 939, 946, 949, 950, 1400, 1403, 

2040

People’s Republic of China

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Very effective at reducing cover in some 

regions, but less effective in others 

where weed still remains significant 

problem. Hampered by cold. 

Climate

CAAS-BCI

265, 298, 504, 920, 2061

Philippines

1992

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Thailand

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC, GTZ, BPI

936, 946, 1329

Republic of Congo

1999

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Established and spread rapidly, up to 

800 km following release. As of 2005, 

though widespread, impacts only 

beginning. Additional agents may be 

warranted.

CSIRO, IITA, MFE

937, 1177, 1345

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
404 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Well established at a few sites, where 

it causes moderate damage. Not as 

abundant or widespread as Neochetina 

eichhorniae. Flooding, low winter 

temperatures, and high water nutrient 

levels limit weevil populations.

Flooding; Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

208, 273, 297, 800, 801, 946, 992

Republic of South Africa

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via 

Zimbabwe

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Following low establishment rates 

from first release, this second 

introduction made. The two populations 

subsequently had opportunity to intermix 

and are no longer differentiated. Well 

established at a few sites, where it 

causes moderate damage. Not as 

abundant or widespread as Neochetina 

eichhorniae. Flooding, low winter 

temperatures, and high water nutrient 

levels limit weevil populations.

Flooding; Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

208, 800, 801, 946, 992

République Togolaise

2001

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Little to no efforts have been made to 

monitor impact.

UGL

14, 95, 279, 946, 1987

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 405

Table

1

Rwanda

2000

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Uganda

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Established in Eastern though failed 

in Northern due to cold conditions. 

Insufficient numbers released; resulting 

impact not large enough to control 

weed.

Small release size; Climate

NARO, ISAR

10, 279, 617, 946, 1254

South Sudan

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Medium

Regional

Contributes to control, but majority of 

impact due to Neochetina eichhorniae. 

Less abundant than N. eichhorniae

and Niphograpta albiguttalis, but more 

efficient than N. eichhorniae in checking 

growth of plant, while N. albiguttalis not 

effective.

21, 109, 110, 536, 892, 946, 1940

Sri Lanka

2005

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Thailand

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Establishment slow compared to 

Neochetina eichhorniae.

PPS

82, 418

Sudan

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Medium

Regional

Released into South Sudan beginning 

in 1979, which at the time was part 

of Sudan but which has since gained 

independence. Naturally spread (as 

intended) throughout the Nile system 

into present-day Sudan by 1982. This 

species contributes to control, but 

majority of impact due to Neochetina 

eichhorniae. Less abundant than 

N. eichhorniae and Niphograpta 

albiguttalis, but more efficient than 

N. eichhorniae in checking growth of 

plant, while N. albiguttalis not effective.

UKS

21, 109, 110, 536, 892, 946, 1940

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
406 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tanzania

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Both Neochetina weevils responsible for 

significant reduction in water hyacinth 

extent. Weed now considered under 

substantial control on Lake Victoria, 

possibly aided by wind and wave action 

and weather events. On rivers in Tanga 

Region, weevils reduced amount of 

manual removal required to keep river 

channels open.

IITA, MAT, PPD

21, 23, 28, 946, 1136, 1141, 1337, 1990

Thailand

1991

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established and widespread in almost 

all areas of the country. With Neochetina 

eichhorniae provides excellent control.

NBCRC, CSIRO

524, 936, 946, 1328, 1329, 1939, 1998, 

2040

Uganda

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Both Neochetina species widespread 

throughout Uganda. Dispersed rapidly 

in Northern administrative region 

where reduced cover and biomass of 

plants. Significant reduction in extent 

of weed on Lake Victoria shorelines 

evident by 1998 with many mats having 

sunk. Control possibly aided by wind 

and wave action and weather events. 

Presently, only small remnants of water 

hyacinth plants found in Ugandan 

waters of Lake Victoria except near 

wastewater outflows where insect 

populations negatively impacted by high 

toxicity. 

NARO, CSIRO, GTZ, IITA, CSC

23, 242, 298, 946, 1136, 1371, 1380, 

1494, 1990

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 407

Table

1

United States of America

1974

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Well established throughout Gulf 

Coast states but usually dominated 

by Neochetina eichhorniae. Damage 

between species difficult to differentiate, 

but likely complement each other. 

Weevils credited with reducing 

waterhyacinth abundance to 1/3 original 

levels in Gulf Coast states though other 

factors also important for reducing 

weed. Waterhyacinth still remains a 

problem in this region. Though well 

established in CA, cold temperatures 

limit overwintering success and impact.

Nontarget damage not recorded 

specifically from this species but 

because damage is difficult to 

differentiate from that of Neochetina 

eichhorniae, nontarget impacts from 

that species likely applies. Namely, 

spillover attack observed on the native 

Pontederia cordata L. and other native 

species intermixed with waterhyacinth, 

including Canna spp., though this attack 

is insignificant and temporary. 

USAE, USDA (3,4,7,13), State (14,18)

19, 130, 222, 235, 236, 238, 242, 288, 

298, 334, 335, 1179, 1503, 1512, 1726, 

1900

Vietnam

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

VNBCRC

219, 936, 946

Zambia

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Eichhornia crassipes has declined 

markedly in areas of Neochetina spp. 

release, however it is unknown if this is 

due to the weevils (whose abundance is 

limited) or to other factors such as water 

level manipulation and control of nutrient 

loading in infested waters.

ARC-PPRI, ECZ

249, 946, 963

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
408 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Zimbabwe

1990

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released as mix of both Neochetina

species first sourced from Florida USA 

then later from Benin. Weevils found 

established away from release sites 

of both introductions; it is assumed 

both introductions established and are 

no longer differentiated in the field. 

Following successful establishment 

along Manyame River system, 

widespread herbicide use led to crash in 

weed and Neochetina spp. populations. 

Weevil populations increased again, 

while weed held in check. Though 

physical and chemical control also 

contributed to overall dramatic decline 

of water hyacinth, much credit given 

to biological control. Weed considered 

under control in most lakes, with 

exception of eutrophic water bodies. 

High herbicide use can cause fungal 

outbreaks on weevil populations.

Disease (corresponding to high 

herbicide use)

PPRIZ

255, 256, 259, 260, 263, 418, 936, 946, 

1295

Zimbabwe

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released as mix of both Neochetina

species first sourced from Florida USA 

then later from Benin. Weevils found 

established away from release sites 

of both introductions; it is assumed 

both introductions established and are 

no longer differentiated in the field. 

Following successful establishment 

along Manyame River system, 

widespread herbicide use led to crash in 

weed and Neochetina spp. populations. 

Weevil populations increased again, 

while weed held in check. Though 

physical and chemical control also 

contributed to overall dramatic decline 

of water hyacinth, much credit given 

to biological control. Weed considered 

under control in most lakes, with 

exception of eutrophic water bodies. 

High herbicide use can cause fungal 

outbreaks on weevil populations.

Disease (corresponding to high 

herbicide use)

IITA

12, 256, 259, 260, 263, 418, 936, 946, 

1295

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 409

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina eichhorniae Warner

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Australia

1975

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

Widely established on mainland; 

failed on Norfolk Is. Good control at 

large infestations and infestations on 

permanent waters. No control where 

seasonal floods flush weed and agent 

to sea thus limiting the time for agent 

population increase. Less effective 

where pesticide use continues and in 

cool temperate regions.

Climate; Other control methods; 

Flooding

CSIRO

236, 937, 2037, 2039, 2040

Benin

1991

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Benin (continued)

More dominant than Neochetina bruchi. 

Caused substantial reduction in weed 

coverage at some localities; at other 

sites with shallow banks impact slow 

or ineffective. Overall, weed has been 

reduced from serious to moderate pest.

IITA, GTZ, BDF

13, 14, 17, 298, 878, 946, 1346, 1883

Benin

2011

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially released in 1991, cultures of 

this same stock were maintained in a 

laboratory and utilized to make a second 

release in 2011. Status unknown.

IITA

14, 18, 946

Burkina Faso

1998

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Unknown

Anecdotal evidence suggests a 

substantial reduction of water hyacinth.

IITA

95, 443, 946, 1409

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
410 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cote d’Ivoire

1998

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread to the Cote d’Ivoire side of 

shared lagoon system by 1997 following 

release on the Ghana side in 1994. 

Introduced intentionally from Benin 

in 1998, though status of introduced 

population unknown.

IITA

95, 939, 946

Egypt

2000

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

Neochetina spp. reduced water hyacinth 

by 90% within one year in Beheira; in 

Alexandria reduction slower due to 

water pollution.

ARCE

21, 389, 562, 946

Fiji

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially slow to spread, but eventually 

distributed throughout range of weed. 

Providing good to excellent control. 

Impact likely lower where seasonal 

floods flush out weed and agent, thus 

limiting the time for agent population 

increase.

Flooding

KRS

236, 288, 960, 1402, 1691

Ghana

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Limited

Medium

Regional

Caused significant damage initially. 

Infested waters in Western Region 

seasonally flood, washing away 

weevil-infested plants. Water hyacinth 

rebounds annually from seed sprout, 

while weevil populations remain 

limited. Both Neochetina spp. similar in 

abundance in Western.

Flooding

EPA, IITA

21, 22, 448, 450, 946, 1494

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

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References

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Abundance

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Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

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Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

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References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 411

Table

1

Honduras

1990

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

EAP

576, 936, 1356

India

1983

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL); 

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

In combination with Neochetina 

bruchi, provided excellent control in 

1980s. There have since been some 

resurgence problems due in part to 

eutrophication of water bodies. Efficacy 

now variable.

IIHR

906, 908, 1032, 1439, 1542, 1693

Indonesia

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though widespread, populations low 

and offers no overall control to weed. 

Predation limits population levels.

Predation

UKS

936, 946, 969, 1939

Kenya

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

Rare

Slight

Regional

By 1998, had not started affecting the 

growth of the weed significantly on 

Lake Naivasha. Additional introductions 

subsequently made which proved more 

effective.

IITA, KARI

625, 630, 894, 946, 1370

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Abundance

General Impact

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Release

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Year

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Notes

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

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References

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

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Notes

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References
412 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Kenya

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Republic 

of South Africa; Ex. Argentina via USA 

(FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

On Lake Victoria, estimated 75% 

of mats on Kenyan shore had sunk 

within 2 years of the release of both 

Neochetina spp. Entire Lake Victoria 

infestation considered under substantial 

control, possibly aided by wind and 

wave action and weather events. On 

Lake Naivasha, the additional releases 

now widespread and significantly impact 

water hyacinth, reducing vigor and mat 

thickness, though other factors such as 

relatively lower water temperatures may 

also contribute. Neochetina eichhorniae

more common than N. bruchi on Lake 

Victoria; the opposite is true for Lake 

Naivasha.

KARI, CSIRO, ARC-PPRI, NARO

242, 625, 630, 894, 946, 1247, 1353, 

1370, 1371, 1990

Malawi

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via 

Zimbabwe

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Neochetina spp. have had some 

success, along with Orthogalumna 

terebrantis, though water hyacinth 

remains a problem.

IITA, IIBC, MFD

139, 881, 882, 946, 1496

Malaysia

1983

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Thailand

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Intentionally introduced, though 

separate population of unintentional 

individuals migrating from Thailand 

subsequently established in same 

regions and populations are no longer 

differentiated. Though widespread 

throughout range, established only 

in low numbers; insufficient to control 

weed.

55, 56, 57, 71, 944

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

Country

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

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References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 413

Table

1

Mali

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

UGL

9, 13, 14, 279, 946, 1987

Mexico

1976

Ex. Argentina via USA

Yes

High

Variable

Approved and intentionally released, 

though was already present 

inadvertently since 1967. Intentional and 

inadvertent populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

Neochetina spp. in combination provide 

excellent control in some water bodies, 

but have limited impact in others unless 

additional agents/control methods 

utilized.

IMTA

11, 103, 236, 699, 1161, 1163, 1164, 

1368

Mozambique

1972

Ex. Unknown

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Intentionally introduced in 1972 into 

the Cahora Bassa, though the origin 

of release material is unknown. Also 

spread naturally from rivers in South 

Africa. Overall status of either population 

unknown.

1494, 1495

Myanmar

1980

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Thailand

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC, AC

936, 1326, 1327, 1329, 1939

Nauru

2008

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Fiji

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

418, 1401

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

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Year

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General Impact

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Research Organization

References

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
414 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Niger Republic

2011

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Status of this intentionally introduced 

population unknown. Different 

population spread naturally from 

releases on Niger River in Nigeria in 

1993. 

IITA, BMA

14, 18, 946

Nigeria

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Nigeria (continued)

Intentionally released in northwestern 

Nigeria beginning in 1993 and 

southwestern Nigeria in 1996, though 

found already present in southern 

Nigeria in 1994 from populations 

naturally spreading from Benin. 

Intentional and naturally spread 

populations subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Dispersed 

and established rapidly; within 2 years, 

recovered from sites as far as 200 

km from closest release point along 

River Niger. By 2001, water hyacinth 

infestations visibly reduced compared 

to 1995 observations. In southwestern 

states, Neochetina eichhorniae

widespread but not effectively controlling 

the weed. Formal evaluation lacking 

throughout Nigeria.

NASENI, NIHORT, CSIRO

9, 21, 388, 946, 1499, 1510

Papua New Guinea

1985

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widespread throughout country. In 

combination with Neochetina bruchi has 

provided very successful control.

CSIRO, PNGDAL

936, 939, 949, 950, 1077, 1400, 1403, 

1939, 2040

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

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Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

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Notes

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Year

Source

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Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 415

Table

1

People’s Republic of China

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Very effective at reducing cover in many 

regions. Less effective in other regions, 

especially those further north with 

cold winters, where weed still remains 

significant problem. 

Climate

CAAS-BCI

265, 298, 418, 504, 920, 2061

Philippines

1992

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Thailand

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC, GTZ, BPI

936, 1329

Republic of Congo

1999

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Established and spread rapidly, up to 

800 km following release. As of 2005, 

though widespread, impacts only 

beginning. Additional agents may be 

warranted.

CSIRO, IITA, MFE

937, 1177, 1345

Republic of South Africa

1974

Ex. Argentina; Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Variable

These first introductions had low 

establishment and efficacy. Second 

and (accidental) third introductions 

increased success, though were no 

longer differentiated in the literature. 

Neochetina eichhorniae is now the most 

widespread and abundant of Eichhornia 

crassipes agents in South Africa. Control 

success variable by site; very successful 

in some areas while ineffective in others. 

Flooding, low winter temperatures, and 

high water nutrient levels limit weevil 

populations.

Flooding; Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

103, 208, 273, 297, 801, 1340

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

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Year

Source

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Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

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416 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

The first introductions had low 

establishment and efficacy. Second 

and (accidental) third introductions 

increased success, though were no 

longer differentiated in the literature. 

Neochetina eichhorniae is now the most 

widespread and abundant of Eichhornia 

crassipes agents in South Africa. Control 

success variable by site; very successful 

in some areas while ineffective in others. 

Flooding, low winter temperatures, and 

high water nutrient levels limit weevil 

populations.

Flooding; Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

208, 273, 297, 801, 946, 1340

République Togolaise

2001

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Little to no efforts have been made to 

monitor impact.

UGL

14, 95, 279, 946, 1987

Rwanda

2000

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Uganda

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Established in Eastern though failed 

in Northern due to cold conditions. 

Insufficient numbers released; resulting 

impact not large enough to control 

weed.

Small release size; Climate

NARO, ISAR

10, 279, 617, 946, 1254

Solomon Islands

1982

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

No

Initially believed to have established, but 

subsequently considered failed because 

no adults observed since early 1983. 

Failure likely due to small release size 

and/or chemical contamination of the 

release site.

Small release size; Other control 

methods

MAL

1864, 1940

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

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Year

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

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Year

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Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 417

Table

1

Solomon Islands

1988

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Fiji

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Limited control. Does not impact weed 

ecology in short river systems where 

infestations occur. 

MAL

427, 1403, 1438, 1864, 1940

South Sudan

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released into Sudan in 1978. South 

Sudan has since gained independence 

from Sudan. Releases into regions 

falling with South Sudan borders did not 

occur until 1979. This species credited 

with majority of damage to water 

hyacinth, though Neochetina bruchi

contributes somewhat and Niphograpta 

albiguttalis slightly. Program considered 

a success; since 1982 all control 

activities have stopped.

21, 109, 110, 536, 892, 946, 1940

Sri Lanka

1988

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Populations vary depending on location 

but were never high enough to exert 

control of water hyacinth infestations. 

Mechanical removal of plants, wave/

wind action, eutrophication all decrease 

agent populations and efficacy.

Other control methods; Land use

NBCRC

911, 936, 946, 1588, 1939

Sudan

1978

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Credited with majority of damage to 

water hyacinth, though Neochetina 

bruchi contributes somewhat and 

Niphograpta albiguttalis slightly. 

Program considered a success; since 

1982 all control activities have stopped.

UKS

21, 109, 110, 536, 892, 946, 1940

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
418 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tanzania

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Both Neochetina weevils responsible for 

significant reduction in water hyacinth 

extent. Weed now considered under 

substantial control on Lake Victoria, 

possibly aided by wind and wave action 

and weather events. On rivers in Tanga 

Region, weevils reduced amount of 

manual removal required to keep river 

channels open.

IITA, MAT, PPD

21, 23, 28, 946, 1136, 1141, 1337, 1990

Thailand

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established and widespread in almost 

all areas of the country. With Neochetina 

bruchi provides excellent control.

NBCRC

524, 936, 946, 1326, 1329, 1939, 1998, 

2040

Uganda

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Both Neochetina species widespread 

throughout Uganda. Dispersed rapidly 

in Northern administrative region 

where reduced cover and biomass of 

plants. Significant reduction in extent 

of weed on Lake Victoria shorelines 

evident by 1998 with many mats having 

sunk. Control possibly aided by wind 

and wave action and weather events. 

Presently, only small remnants of water 

hyacinth plants found in Ugandan 

waters of Lake Victoria except near 

wastewater outflows where insect 

populations negatively impacted by high 

toxicity. 

NARO, CSIRO, GTZ, CSC, IITA

23, 242, 298, 946, 1136, 1371, 1380, 

1494, 1990

United States of America

1972

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Year

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

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Established

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Geographical Scale of Impact

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Release

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Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 419

Table

1

United States of America (continued)

Established throughout Gulf Coast 

states, usually along with and 

dominating Neochetina bruchi. 

Damage between species difficult to 

differentiate, but likely complement each 

other. Weevils credited with reducing 

waterhyacinth abundance to 1/3 original 

levels in Gulf Coast states though other 

factors also important for reducing 

weed. Waterhyacinth still remains a 

problem in this region.

Spillover attack observed on the native 

Pontederia cordata L. and other native 

species intermixed with waterhyacinth, 

including Canna spp., though this attack 

is insignificant and temporary. 

USDA (3,4,7,13), State (3,14,18), USAE

20, 130, 235, 236, 238, 242, 288, 298, 

685, 700, 705, 1512, 1726

Vanuatu

2004

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Fiji

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Providing good to excellent control at 

few sites where established. Water 

hyacinth itself only localized in Vanuatu.

SPC, DLQS

204, 418, 427, 1402, 

Vietnam

1984

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Thailand

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC, VNBCRC

936, 1327, 1328, 1329, 1939

Zambia

1971

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

103, 312, 799

Zambia

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Republic 

of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Eichhornia crassipes has declined 

markedly in areas of Neochetina spp. 

release, however it is unknown if this is 

due to the weevils (whose abundance is 

limited) or to other factors such as water 

level manipulation and control of nutrient 

loading in infested waters.

ARC-PPRI, ECZ

249, 799, 946, 963

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

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Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

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Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

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420 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zimbabwe

1990

Ex. South America via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released as mix of both Neochetina

species first sourced from Florida USA 

then later from Benin. Weevils found 

established away from release sites 

of both introductions; it is assumed 

both introductions established and are 

no longer differentiated in the field. 

Following successful establishment 

along Manyame River system, 

widespread herbicide use led to crash in 

weed and Neochetina spp. populations. 

Weevil populations increased again, 

while weed held in check. Though 

physical and chemical control also 

contributed to overall dramatic decline 

of water hyacinth, much credit given 

to biological control. Weed considered 

under control in most lakes, with 

exception of eutrophic water bodies. 

High herbicide use can cause fungal 

outbreaks on weevil populations.

Disease (corresponding to high 

herbicide use)

PPRIZ

255, 256, 259, 260, 263, 418, 936, 946, 

1295

Zimbabwe

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released as mix of both Neochetina

species first sourced from Florida USA 

then later from Benin. Weevils found 

established away from release sites 

of both introductions; it is assumed 

both introductions established and are 

no longer differentiated in the field. 

Following successful establishment 

along Manyame River system, 

widespread herbicide use led to crash in 

weed and Neochetina spp. populations. 

Weevil populations increased again, 

while weed held in check. Though 

physical and chemical control also 

contributed to overall dramatic decline 

of water hyacinth, much credit given 

to biological control. Weed considered 

under control in most lakes, with 

exception of eutrophic water bodies. 

High herbicide use can cause fungal 

outbreaks on weevil populations.

Disease (corresponding to high 

herbicide use)

IITA

12, 256, 259, 260, 263, 418, 936, 946, 

1295

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 421

Table

1

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren)

Epipagis albiguttalis (Warren), 

Sameodes albiguttalis (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Australia

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established through natural 

dispersal. Damage spatially and 

temporally patchy; the weed frequently 

outgrows damage making this agent 

less effective overall.

CSIRO

937, 2037, 2040

Benin

1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

No

IITA

13, 17, 298, 945, 1346, 1883 

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Ghana

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Republic of South Africa

No

EPA

21, 450, 945

Kenya

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Republic of South Africa

No

Introduced onto Lake Naivasha but 

failed to establish.

KARI, ARC-PPRI

630, 894, 945, 1136, 1247, 1494

Malawi

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Republic of South Africa

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

IIBC, MFD

936, 945, 1496

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

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Research Organization

References
422 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Malaysia

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Thailand

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established only in low numbers, 

insufficient to control weed.

MARDI, DOAM

56, 59, 71, 945

Panama

1977

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

First release in 1977 failed to establish 

due to ant predation; the fate of the 

second release in 1978 unknown.

Predation

PCC

936, 945, 1434

Papua New Guinea

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

No

CSIRO, PNGDAL

949, 950, 1400, 2040

Republic of South Africa

1990

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Rare

Medium

Localized

Can withstand severe winters which has 

led to its distribution across South Africa. 

However, its requirement for young 

and actively growing plants, which 

are not always found in Eichhornia 

crassipes mats, results in a patchy 

distribution both spatially and temporally. 

Consequently considered rare over the 

majority of the country. Where large 

populations occur, can be very effective 

locally. Parasitism may limit populations 

in some areas, though this has not been 

studied explicitly.

Plant phenology; possibly Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

273, 297, 800, 801, 945, 992

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 423

Table

1

South Sudan

1980

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

Though widespread, does not contribute 

successfully to control. Majority of 

impact attributed to Neochetina 

eichhorniae.

109, 110, 536, 892, 945, 1940

Sudan

1979

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

Released into South Sudan beginning 

in 1979, which at the time was part 

of Sudan but which has since gained 

independence. Naturally spread (as 

intended) throughout the Nile system 

into present-day Sudan by 1982. 

Though widespread, does not contribute 

successfully to control. Majority of 

impact attributed to Neochetina 

eichhorniae.

UKS

109, 110, 536, 892, 945, 1940

Thailand

1995

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC

936, 1329, 1998, 2040

United States of America

1977

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Larval tunneling destroys apical 

meristem; affected plants often die or 

lose buoyancy and sink. Establishes 

quickly, creates a great deal of damage, 

and then often disappears.

USAE, USDA (3,4,7,13), State (14)

233, 235, 236, 238, 242, 288, 302, 

1578, 1726

Zambia

1971

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

IIBC

103, 799, 936, 945

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
424 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zambia

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Republic of South Africa

No

ARC-PPRI, ECZ

249, 799, 936, 945

Zimbabwe

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

No

PPRIZ, CSIRO

256, 279, 418, 945

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Orthogalumna terebrantis Wallwork

(Acari: Galumnidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

India

1986

Ex. South America via USA (FL)

Yes

High

None

High populations cause browning of 

leaves but damage confined to older 

leaves and older or shaded plants. Does 

not control the weed by itself.

IIHR, ICAR, KAU

909, 931, 1542, 1693

Kenya

1997

Ex. Unknown via Republic of South 

Africa

No

Introduced onto Lake Naivasha but 

failed to establish.

KARI, ARC-PPRI

801, 894, 1136, 1247, 1494
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 425

Table

1

Zambia

1971

Ex. South America via USA (FL)

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely established, does not 

provide substantial control on its own.

IIBC

103, 345, 799, 963, 1159

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Orthogalumna terebrantis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Xubida infusella (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Xubida infusella (Walker)

Acigona infusella (Walker)

Xubida infusellus (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Australia

1981

Ex. Brazil

No

Recoveries made over period of 

13 months following release but not 

thereafter; agent since believed to have 

died out.

CSIRO

937, 1604, 2038, 2040

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1996

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Limited

None

Established at only one site in QLD 

despite being widely released in tropics 

and sub tropics. No impact.

CSIRO

841

Papua New Guinea

1997

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Recovered at one site in NCD, but 

establishment not confirmed.

CSIRO, PNGDAL

937, 939, 949, 950, 952, 1400

Thailand

1997

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC

936, 937, 945, 1996

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References
426 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Proteaceae

Hakea gibbosa (continued) Proteaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Proteaceae

Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav.

Australia

rock hakea, hairy needlebush

Aphanasium australe (Boisduval)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2003

Ex. Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Compromised

Establishment unknown but unlikely 

because one release site was burned 

while the Hakea gibbosa at the other 

was chopped down by the landowner.

Land use

ARC-PPRI

632

Agent

Species

Classification

Erytenna consputa Pascoe

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1979

Ex. Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

659

Republic of South Africa

2003

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Two sites lost to fire and mechanical 

disturbance. At remaining site, annual 

fruit loss due to larval damage over a 

4-year period had increased steadily 

to 15.4%. Over the same period, 

the average number of mature fruits 

recorded per plant increased 3-fold, 

indicating negative impact of Erytenna 

consputa on Hakea gibbosa seed 

production is not as pronounced as that 

on H. sericea.

Land use

ARC-PPRI

659
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 427

Table

1

Proteaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C. Wendl.

Australia

silky hakea, needlebush

Aphanasium australe (Boisduval)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though it has been over 10 years since 

release, populations are still limited. 

Larvae take up to two years to mature 

and many of the attacked plants are 

mature and large; both factors indicate 

a long time will be required before 

populations are high and impact is 

significant. Still increasing.

ARC-PPRI

656, 658, 659

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Carposina autologa Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Carposinidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1972

Ex. Australia

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Initially poorly established but new 

redistribution methods have increased 

populations. Development time long 

and hindered greatly by the pathogen 

Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae

as well as inability to distinguish 

between healthy and previously 

attacked fruits for oviposition. Not as 

common as Erytenna consputa, though 

populations still increasing. Often 

destroys fewer seeds than E. consputa, 

but reduces seed output by >50% at 

some sites. Does not kill existing trees 

and regenerating seedlings still exceed 

the parent population in existing stands 

in most cases. Limited following fires as 

this agent is slow to colonize recovering 

burned regions. Best in combination with 

measures that kill parent plants. 

Fire; Simultaneous attack of weed by 

pathogens

ARC-PPRI

51, 655, 658, 659, 992, 1000, 1341
428 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cydmaea binotata Lea

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1979

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Only established at a few locations; 

abundance limited and impact trivial.

ARC-PPRI

655, 659, 992, 1000

Republic of South Africa

2006

Ex. Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Numerous sites lost to clearing or fire. 

Though established at half of remaining 

sites, abundance, dispersal and impact 

are unknown.

Land use

ARC-PPRI

658, 659, 992

Agent

Species

Classification

Dicomada rufa Blackburn

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 429

Table

1

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Erytenna consputa Pascoe

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1972

Ex. Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Despite establishing, populations 

from this release performed poorly in 

their new habitat, due to host plant 

incompatibility.

Host plant incompatibility

ARC-PPRI

51, 655, 658, 659, 992, 1000, 1341, 

1343

Republic of South Africa

1975

Ex. Australia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Releases consisted of larger colonies 

(than previous releases) and from inland 

localities in Australia that better matched 

host plant forms and climate in South 

Africa. Now the most widespread and 

abundant of established agents. Though 

it destroys most of the seeds produced 

by Hakea sericea, it does not kill existing 

trees and regenerating seedlings still 

exceed the parent population in existing 

stands in most cases. Limited following 

fires as this agent is slow to colonize 

recovering burned regions. Best in 

combination with measures that kill 

parent plants, such as the pathogens.

Fire

ARC-PPRI

51, 655, 659, 992, 1000, 1001, 1343

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Proteaceae

Hakea sericea; Erytenna consputa (continued)
430 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae

Clematis vitalba; Didymella clematidis (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Ranunculaceae

Clematis vitalba L.

Europe

old man’s beard

Didymella clematidis Woudenberg, 

Spiers & Gruyter

Phoma clematidina (Thüm.) Boerema 

pars

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

This agent was released under 

the belief it was a strain of Phoma 

clematidina (Thüm.) Boerema from 

the USA. However later molecular 

work showed that what were believed 

to be a few different strains of this 

species worldwide are actually 

different species. This strain was 

subsequently described as the 

new species Didymella clematidis

Woudenberg, Spiers & Gruyter.

987, 2036

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

New Zealand

1996

Ex. USA

No

Originally established and dispersed 

well but recent analyses indicate it has 

disappeared. Possibly displaced by less 

virulent or even endophytic strain of 

Phoma clematidina already established 

in New Zealand prior to this release.

Possibly excluded by endophytes

HFRI, MWLR

665, 761, 1057, 1064, 2036

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Monophadnus spinolae (Klug)

(Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1998

Ex. Austria

No

Only a limited number of releases were 

made as mass-rearing proved difficult.

MWLR

665, 761, 1064, 1447
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 431

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Phytomyza vitalbae Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1996

Ex. Germany, Switzerland

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout country. 

While some damaging outbreaks 

have been seen, anecdotal evidence 

suggests overall impact limited by 

parasitism.

Parasitism

Spillover feeding has been documented 

on the native Clematis foetida Raoul and 

C. forsteri J.F. Gmel

MWLR

665, 761, 816, 1057, 1064, 1446, 1447

Ranunculaceae

Clematis vitalba (continued) Rosaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Acaena anserinifolia (J.R. Forst. & G. 

Forst.) Armstr.

New Zealand

piripiri

Ucona acaenae Smith

Antholcus varinervis Spinola pars

(Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Though released into New Zealand 

under the name Antholcus varinervis

Spinola, it was later determined the 

insect did not fit the official description 

of the species of the same name. It 

was subsequently determined to be a 

new species and assigned the name 

Ucona acaenae Smith.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

New Zealand

1936

Ex. Chile

No

Target native to New Zealand.

CI, DSIR

720, 1246, 1695
432 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Rosaceae (continued)

Rosaceae

Rubus alceifolius Poir.

southeastern Asia

giant bramble

Cibdela janthina (Klug)

(Hymenoptera: Argidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

La Réunion

2008

Ex. Indonesia (Sumatra)

Yes

Too early post release

Heavy

Regional

Well established and spreading on the 

western coast, providing good control of 

weed under 1000 m of elevation.

Elevation

1079, 1080

Rosaceae (continued)

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus Link

Rubus penetrans Bailey 

Rubus lucidus Rydberg

eastern USA

prickly Florida blackberry

Chlamisus gibbosa (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1969

Ex. USA (MO)

No

HDOA

401, 612, 1318
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 433

Table

1

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Croesia zimmermani Clarke

Apotoforma sp.

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1964

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Foliar damage can be extensive, 

though insect populations fluctuate. 

In combination with Schreckensteinia 

festaliella, can provide partial control in 

some open areas but impact is less in 

forested regions.

Parasitism

Also attacks the native Rubus 

hawaiensis A. Gray and R. macraei

A. Gray.

HDOA

410, 411, 412, 612, 613, 635, 762, 1212, 

1318, 1457, 2068

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus (continued)

Pennisetia marginata (Harris)

Bembecia marginata (Harris)

(Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. USA (OR)

No

HDOA

409, 612, 635, 1318

Hawaii USA

1966

Ex. USA (OR)

No

HDOA

412, 635, 1318, 1322
434 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Priophorus morio (Lepeletier)

(Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1966

Ex. USA (CA, OR, WA)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Dispersed throughout range of weed 

but population limited by virus probably 

introduced with the insect. Overall 

impact minimal.

Disease

Also found attacking the native Rubus 

hawaiensis A. Gray and R. macraei

A. Gray.

HDOA

412, 1150, 1318, 1322, 1457

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus; Priophorus morio (continued)

Hawaii USA

1968

Ex. USA (CA)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Utilized on different islands than original 

release, though current status largely 

not differentiated in the literature. 

Dispersed throughout range of weed 

but population limited by virus probably 

introduced with the insect. Diseasefree population released on KA initially 

abundant and effective but decreased 

when virus arrived 2 years later. Overall 

impact minimal.

Disease

Also found attacking the native Rubus 

hawaiensis A. Gray and R. macraei

A. Gray.

HDOA

405, 1150, 1318, 1457

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 435

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. California, USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Damage can be extensive, though 

insect populations fluctuate. In 

combination with Croesia zimmermani, 

can provide partial control in some open 

areas but impact is less in forested 

regions.

Also found attacking the native Rubus 

hawaiensis A. Gray and R. macraei

A. Gray.

HDOA

409, 411, 412, 612, 613, 635, 762, 1318, 

1457

Agent

Species

Classification

Schreckensteinia festaliella Hübner

(Lepidoptera: Schreckensteiniidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Rosaceae

Rubus argutus (continued) Rosaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rubus constrictus Lefevre & 

P. J. Mull.

Europe

blackberry, murra

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) 

G. Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Chile

1973

Ex. Germany

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Established and spread rapidly. 

Provides effective control by hastening 

normal defoliation such that stems do 

not lignify properly, facilitating invasion 

by secondary pathogens and frost 

damage. Weed being replaced. Rubus 

constrictus is more susceptible than 

R. ulmifolius.

UACH

84, 1377, 1379
436 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus L. agg.

Group of closely related species 

whose frequent interspecific 

hybridization and high phenotypic 

plasticity make taxonomic 

designations difficult. For convenience 

these are dealt with herein under the 

name Rubus fruticosus aggregate. 

Phragmidium violaceum strains work 

better on some taxa than others.

Asia, Europe

European blackberry, blackberry

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) 

G. Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Rosaceae (continued)

Australia

1991

Ex. France

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Strain F15, introduced legally. Genetic 

evidence suggests genes from F15 were 

incorporated in the rust population in WA 

following these 1991 releases.

VIC State

185, 189, 886, 1261, 1264, 1265

Australia

2004

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

Strain F15. Genetic screening following 

releases in the 2000s indicates alleles 

of strain F15 incorporated into existing 

rust population at four representative 

sites in NSW and VIC. Disease intensity 

varies by Rubus species, location 

and time, rarely exceeding 40% of 

leaves on infected stems. Only under 

ideal conditions (sufficient rainfall 

and humidity and mild maximum 

temperatures) is there significant 

reduction in daughter plant production 

and total biomass.

Climate

CSIRO

185, 558, 647, 648, 1261, 1264, 1265 Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus; Phragmidium violaceum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 437

Table

1

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2004

Ex. France

Yes

Variable

Variable

Eight strains released legally. Genetic 

screening following releases indicates 

alleles of these strains incorporated 

into existing rust population at four 

representative sites in NSW and VIC. 

Disease intensity varies by Rubus

species, location and time, rarely 

exceeding 40% of leaves on infected 

stems. Only under ideal conditions 

(sufficient rainfall and humidity and 

mild maximum temperatures) is there 

significant reduction in daughter plant 

production and total biomass.

Climate

CSIRO

648, 1261, 1264, 1265

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus; Phragmidium violaceum (continued) Rosaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rubus ulmifolius Schott

Europe, northern Africa

zarzamora, blackberry

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) 

G. Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Chile

1973

Ex. Germany

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

No control resulted despite widespread 

establishment. Rubus constrictus is 

more susceptible than R. ulmifolius.

UACH

84, 1377, 1379
438 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Rubiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Rubiaceae

Galium spurium L.

Galium spurium and the closely 

related G. aparine L. are often 

confused in literature and field 

records. It is G. spurium that is more 

abundant and troublesome in arable 

lands on the Canadian prairies. 

Eurasia

false cleavers

Cecidophyes rouhollahi Craemer

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

2003

Ex. France (southern)

No

Biomass and seed production on 

infested plants were reduced by about 

30% in release plots, but mites not 

sufficiently cold hardy to survive over 

winter.

Climate

ARC, USDA-ARS

1183, 1184, 1698, 1707

Salviniaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch.

Salvinia auriculata Aubl.

Brazil

salvinia, water fern, Kariba weed, 

African payal, giant salvinia

Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & 

Sands

Cyrtobagous singularis Hustache 

pars, Cyrtobagous sp.

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

When first collected from salvinia in 

southeastern Brazil it was thought 

to be a biotype of Cyrtobagous 

singularis adapted to Salvinia 

molesta. Detailed comparative studies 

following releases in Australia helped 

researchers determined that it was 

a new, undescribed species, later to 

be named Cyrtobagous salviniae. 

Two ecotypes of this species are 

known: the larger Brazilian ecotype 

was intentionally released in Australia 

and from there to numerous other 

countries, including Florida USA. 

The second, smaller ecotype was 

adventively introduced to Florida.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 439

Table

1

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1980

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Very successful control in coastal and 

elevated sites in tropical, sub-tropical, 

and temperate areas. Effective in multilayered mats of salvinia if integrated 

with other control methods to reduce 

mat thickness. Less effective following 

flooding events which flush the weed 

and insects to sea.

Flooding

CSIRO

574, 575, 938, 939, 1589, 1591, 1626

Botswana

1984

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Reduced salvinia to a marginal 

infestation between 1985-1989. 

Wherever new infestations are found, 

or old areas recolonized, insect 

redistributed and keeps the weed in 

check.

DWAB

113, 578, 627, 938, 1042

Cote d’Ivoire

1998

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

ARC-PPRI

272, 505, 800, 939, 948, 1498

Fiji

1991

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Providing effective control such that 

the weed now only occurs in remnant 

populations.

KRS

938, 944, 1050

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
440 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Ghana

1996

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Caused marked suppression of Salvinia 

molesta within 3 months of release; 

complete control achieved same year.

EPA

21, 272, 449, 450

India

1983

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Successfully controlled the weed in 

Bangalore, Karnataka within 14 months 

following release. Up to 99% infestations 

suppressed in Kerala where majority of 

waterways have since remained free of 

serious accumulations of this weed.

IIHR, KAU

904, 933, 1542

Indonesia

1999

Ex. Brazil via Unknown

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

BIOTROP

948, 1811

Kenya

1990

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Salvinia declined rapidly within 18 

months after introduction. Since then 

it has subsisted only as small, isolated 

or rare patches of weed; no longer 

regarded as a problem.

CSIRO, ACIAR, KARI, IIBC

877, 894, 1494, 1587

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 441

Table

1

Malaysia

1989

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

Controlled the weed at the two release 

sites in 14 months. Redistribution 

required.

MARDI, PLANTI, DOAM

55, 56, 944, 948

Mali

2004

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa via Ghana

No

UGL

21, 272, 1987

Mali

2007

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

UGL

21, 272, 1987

Mauritania

2000

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Within 1 year of second release, weevils 

had established and were recovered up 

to 50 km from the release sites. At most 

sites, the infestation reduced from 100% 

to less than 5%. Within 2 years, salvinia 

no longer considered a problem on the 

lower Senegal River.

ARC-PPRI

272, 505, 506, 1498

Mauritania

2002

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa via Cote d’Ivoire

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released again as tremendous success 

from first release not yet documented. 

Within 1 year, weevils had established 

and were recovered up to 50 km from 

the release sites. At most sites, the 

infestation reduced from 100% to less 

than 5%. Within 2 years, salvinia no 

longer considered a problem on the 

lower Senegal River.

FAO

272, 505, 506, 939, 1498

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
442 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Namibia

1984

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Rapid establishment and successful 

control at release locations on border 

of Namibia and Botswana within one 

to two years. Remains active in the 

eastern Caprivi wetlands; wherever new 

infestations found, insect redistributed 

and keeps weed in check.

DWAN

113, 578, 627, 1042, 1620

Papua New Guinea

1982

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Excellent control achieved within two 

years of release. Remnant populations 

of weevils keep weed in check. 

CSIRO, FAO

948, 1593, 1793, 1794

Philippines

1991

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

MAP

944, 948

Republic of Congo

2000

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Dramatically reduced infestations of 

this species, typically in <2 years. Few 

salvinia plants remained. 

ARC-PPRI, IITA

272, 1177

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 443

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Rapid establishment and successful 

control at various release sites within 

one to two years of release. Insects 

widely redistributed, bringing the weed 

under control throughout South Africa. 

When new infestations are identified 

today, this agent is immediately released 

and brings the infestations under 

control.

ARC-PPRI

272, 297, 992

République Togolaise

2001

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa via Ghana

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

UGL

21, 272, 1987

Senegal

2000

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

No

Establishment failed as the starter 

colony had been released directly 

into the river at a site which was not 

protected and where the infested plants 

could not be confined. Subsequently not 

recovered.

ARC-PPRI

272, 506, 1498

Senegal

2001

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia via 

Republic of South Africa

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Within 1 year of third release, weevils 

had established and were recovered 

up to 50 km from release sites. At most 

sites, infestation reduced from 100% to 

less than 5%. Within 2 years, salvinia no 

longer considered a problem on lower 

Senegal River.

ARC-PPRI

505, 506, 1498

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
444 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Senegal

2002

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Namibia 

via Republic of South Africa via Cote 

d’Ivoire

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Released again as tremendous 

success from second release not yet 

documented. Within 1 year of this 

third release, weevils had established 

and were recovered up to 50 km from 

release sites. At most sites, infestation 

reduced from 100% to less than 5%. 

Within 2 years, salvinia no longer 

considered a problem on lower Senegal 

River.

FAO

272, 505, 506, 939, 1498

Sri Lanka

1986

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Excellent control, usually 12-24 months 

following release.

KU, DASL, CSIRO, ACIAR

948, 1588, 1590

United States of America

2001

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

Insects spread slowly but steadily 

following release. Biomass and surface 

coverage reduced more than 99% at 

release sites in LA and TX. Localized 

extinctions caused by drought conditions 

most limiting factor in LA and TX. 

Additional time needed in CA and AZ 

but impact between substantial and 

complete, though this river system 

requires additional releases annually 

to replenish populations flushed 

downstream due to yearly flooding 

events. A different population (FL 

ecotype) earlier found inadvertently 

present on Salvinia minima and 

subsequently redistributed to S. molesta. 

Accidental FL ecotype subsequently 

found to be more effective than Brazilian 

ecotype during trials; future releases of 

this species recommended to be of FL 

ecotype.

Drought; Flooding

USDA (3,4)

264, 1313, 1512, 1798, 1800, 1801, 

1802, 1804, 1805

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 445

Table

1

Zambia

1990

Ex. Brazil via Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Provides excellent control except where 

nutrient levels are excessively high due 

to sewage effluent. At most locations, 

weed no longer considered a problem.

CSIRO, ACIAR

505, 715, 800, 941, 1587

Zimbabwe

1992

Ex. Brazil via Australia via Botswana

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Observed on Lake Kariba in 1991, but 

a population imported from Botswana 

intentionally introduced to other parts 

of Lake in 1992. Both populations 

subsequently not differentiated in the 

literature. Brought about up to 99% 

control in different river systems within 

2 years. Salvinia molesta no longer 

considered problematic in Zimbabwe.

PPRIZ

262, 418, 578, 800, 938

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyrtobagous singularis Hustache

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Botswana

1971

Ex. Trinidad

No

No insects recovered despite multiple 

releases.

IIBC

101, 103, 312, 313, 528, 1535

Botswana

1976

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though widely distributed, densities 

low and does not provide any control. 

Populations likely limited by preference 

for Salvinia auriculata.

Specificity

ARC-PPRI

103, 528, 948, 1174, 1535, 1619

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
446 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Fiji

1979

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Moderate

None

Initially thought not to have established 

but located in 1991. Not effective.

KRS

944, 1050

Namibia

1972

Ex. Trinidad

No

No insects recovered despite multiple 

releases.

IIBC

101, 113, 528, 948, 1535

Namibia

1976

Ex. Trinidad

No

Though widespread initially, densities 

low likely due to their preference 

for Salvinia auriculata. Since the 

introduction of the more specific 

control agent, Cyrtobagous salviniae, 

their numbers gradually declined until 

they were out-competed and are now 

considered to be extinct in Namibia.

Specificity; Interspecific competition

ARC-PPRI

103, 113, 528, 1535, 1619

Zambia

1971

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established and spread along the 

Zambezi River and into Zimbabwe. 

Although the weed has declined in 

some areas, evidence suggests that 

other factors were responsible and this 

agent has not contributed significantly to 

control.

IIBC

101, 312, 800, 948, 1160, 1174, 1249

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous singularis (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous singularis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 447

Table

1

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Paulinia acuminata (De Geer)

(Orthoptera: Pauliniidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Paulinia acuminata (continued)

Botswana

1971

Ex. Trinidad

No

Salvinia mat on which insects were 

thriving was swept away in floods; 

permanent establishment failed. 

Flooding

IIBC

101, 103, 113, 312, 313, 528, 1535

Botswana

1975

Ex. Trinidad; Ex. Trinidad via Zimbabwe

No

Initially established but later died out.

ARC-PPRI

103, 113, 528

Fiji

1975

Ex. Trinidad via India

Yes

Unknown

None

Impact initially good but has since 

declined to no noticeable effect overall. 

KRS

948, 960, 1050, 1691

India

1974

Ex. Trinidad

No

Believed to establish initially, albeit with 

poor performance. Has since been 

determined to have failed establishment.

IIBC, KAU

101, 114, 315, 904, 1033, 1542

Kenya

1970

Ex. Trinidad

No

Not established following release on 

Lake Naivasha, possibly due to low 

night temperatures.

Climate

IIBC

101, 103, 311, 894, 948

Namibia

1972

Ex. Trinidad

No

101, 113, 528, 1535

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References
448 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Namibia

1975

Ex. Trinidad; Ex. Trinidad via Zimbabwe

No

Initially established but later died out.

113, 528, 1535

Sri Lanka

1973

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

Compromised

Not established following draining of 

release canal.

Land use

DASL

101

Sri Lanka

1978

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

1421

Zambia

1970

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Populations increased on Lake Kariba 

release site initially, coinciding with 

decline in weed population. However, 

evidence suggests other factors could 

be responsible; amount attributable 

to this agent unknown. More recently 

populations typically low, though 

moderate at one site. At all locations, 

damage to weed occurs, however this 

damage does not kill the weed and 

plants keep growing.

IIBC

100, 101, 948, 1160

Zimbabwe

1969

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Paulinia acuminata (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Paulinia acuminata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 449

Table

1

Zimbabwe (continued)

Established during 1969 cage 

testing. Official approval for release 

was subsequently obtained and this 

population was intentionally released in 

1971. Populations increased on Lake 

Kariba release site initially, coinciding 

with decline in weed population. 

However, evidence suggests other 

factors could be responsible; amount 

attributable to this agent unknown. 

More recently populations typically 

low, though moderate at one site. At 

all locations, damage to weed occurs, 

however this damage does not kill the 

weed and plants keep growing.

IIBC

100, 101, 948, 1160, 1249

Zimbabwe

1971

Ex. Uruguay

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

This second release established on 

Lake Kariba but less successful than 

Trinidad population and rarely recovered 

in the field.

IIBC

101, 1249

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Paulinia acuminata (continued)

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Samea multiplicalis (Guenée)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Australia

1981

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established and spread rapidly but has 

not provided control of the weed as the 

plant outgrows leaf damage caused by 

larvae.

CSIRO

574, 575, 938, 939, 1589, 1592

Botswana

1972

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

101, 313, 948

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
450 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Samea multiplicalis (continued)

Fiji

1976

Ex. Trinidad via India

Yes

Unknown

None

Impact initially good but has since 

declined to no noticeable effect overall. 

KRS

938, 960, 1050, 1691

Zambia

1970

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

101, 103, 311, 948, 1249

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Scrophulariaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Scrophulariaceae

Buddleja davidii Franch.

Asia

buddleia

Cleopus japonicus Wingelmüller

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Zealand

2006

Ex. China

Yes

Moderate

Too early post release

Established well at nearly all release 

sites. Though patchily distributed 

throughout both islands, dispersal and 

redistribution continuing and populations 

increasing. Feeding damage has been 

considerable, with complete defoliation 

of some plants within 1 km of release 

sites. Plants can recover from initial 

defoliation but sustained attack can 

decreases plant height by 19% which 

may lead to decreased competition 

with desirable vegetation. Evaluation 

ongoing.

Scion

1064, 1065, 1945

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 451

Table

1

Solanaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Solanaceae

Solanum elaeagnifolium; Frumenta nephelomicta (continued)

Solanaceae

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.

North America, South America

silverleaf nightshade, satansbos

Frumenta nephelomicta Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

1978

Ex. Mexico

No

Small releases of eggs, all failed to 

establish.

Small release size

ARC-PPRI

1344, 1390, 1392, 1394

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Mexico

No

Small releases of eggs, all failed to 

establish.

Small release size

ARC-PPRI

1340, 1344, 1390, 1392, 1394

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Mexico

No

Large release of eggs (50,000) but 

drought conditions prevailed.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

1344, 1390, 1392, 1394

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Frumenta sp. 

Frumenta sp. A 

Frumenta nephelomicta Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Frumenta sp. prob. solanophaga

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. USA (TX)

No

Flower buds inoculated with first instar 

larvae at an experimental field site. 

Initially believed to have established 

but died out by 1993. Parasitism one 

important factor for failure.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

1384, 1390, 1392, 1394
452 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Solanaceae

Solanum elaeagnifolium (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Leptinotarsa defecta (Stål)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1992

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Remains localized and relatively scarce 

at only a few release sites.

ARC-PPRI

831, 1340, 1392, 1393, 1395

Agent

Species

Classification

Leptinotarsa texana Schaeffer

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Republic of South Africa

1992

Ex. USA (TX)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Widespread and abundant. High 

densities disperse en masse, stripping 

leaves, flowers and epidermal tissues, 

leaving only skeletonized stems and 

branches bearing the inedible fruits. 

Even at moderate densities, sustained 

feeding damage by adults and larvae 

severely stunt the vegetative growth and 

fruiting capacity.

PPRI, UCT

831, 992, 1340, 1392, 1393, 1395

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Solanaceae

Solanum elaeagnifolium (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 453

Table

1

Solanaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Solanaceae

Solanum mauritianum Scop.

South America

bugweed, tree tobacco, woolly 

nightshade

Anthonomus santacruzi Hustache

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

2008

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Preliminary results are promising, with 

signs of population persistence and 

increases already apparent at a few 

coastal release sites in KZN.

PPRI, UKZN

992, 1385, 1387, 1389, 1390

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Solanaceae

Solanum mauritianum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Gargaphia decoris Drake

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

New Zealand

2010

Ex. Brazil via Republic of South Africa

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Appears to be struggling to build 

damaging populations on North Island, 

possibly due to predation. Fate of South 

Island releases unknown.

Possibly Predation

MWLR

761, 1064, 1066, 1389, 1391

Republic of South Africa

1999

Ex. Argentina

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
454 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Solanaceae

Solanum mauritianum; Gargaphia decoris (continued)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

High populations can debilitate Solanum 

mauritianum by causing substantial 

defoliation, reduced fruiting and even 

mortality. However, although large 

outbreaks and extensive damage have 

been observed in the field, to date these 

have been erratic and insufficient to 

inflict meaningful damage on the weed 

population. Impacted in some areas by 

predation. Agent populations decrease 

significantly in winter, presumably due to 

a reduction in host plant abundance and 

quality.

Predation

PPRI, UKZN

992, 1389, 1391

Republic of South Africa

2002

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

This second release made in attempt 

to introduce additional genetic material. 

Both populations subsequently not 

differentiated. High populations can 

debilitate Solanum mauritianum by 

causing substantial defoliation, reduced 

fruiting and even mortality. However, 

although large outbreaks and extensive 

damage have been observed in the 

field, to date these have been erratic 

and insufficient to inflict meaningful 

damage on the weed population. 

Impacted in some areas by predation. 

Agent populations decrease significantly 

in winter, presumably due to a reduction 

in host plant abundance and quality.

Predation

PPRI, UKZN

992, 1389, 1391

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Solanaceae

Solanum mauritianum; Gargaphia decoris (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 455

Table

1

Solanaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Solanaceae

Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam.

South America

wild tomato, dense-thorned bitter 

apple, sticky nightshade

Gratiana spadicea (Klug)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1994

Ex. Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

High densities result in almost complete 

defoliation. Although established in a 

number of regions, beetle populations 

appear to persist in relatively low 

numbers, inflicting minimal damage 

to the weed. Low numbers are due 

to parasitism and predation, poor 

climatic matching (moisture stress), 

and phenological asynchrony. Where 

populations are able to build over the 

growing season, this occurs too late 

to influence the weed’s reproductive 

output.

Parasitism; Predation; Climate; 

Agent-host synchronization

ARC-PPRI

210, 803, 982, 983, 1392

Solanaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Solanaceae

Solanum viarum Dunal 

South America

tropical soda apple, sodom apple, 

yu-a, tutia de vibora, joa bravo, joa 

amarelo pequeno

Gratiana boliviana Spaeth

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2003

Ex. Argentina, Paraguay

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Regional

Widespread and abundant in south 

and central FL, absent in northern 

FL. Larval and adult feeding causes 

defoliation and inhibits fruit production. 

In dense infestations up to 90% decline 

in plant density attributed to beetle 

within 3 years and weed is now limited 

on landscape. Confirmed established 

in TX, but has not been revisited since 

2009 so current abundance/impact in TX 

unknown.

Climate

State (3,35)

369, 1230, 1231, 1232, 1410, 1411, 

1581
456 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tamaricaceae Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp. (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.

Spans several species including 

(among other less frequent species) 

Tamarix parviflora DC., Tamarix 

canariensis Willd., Tamarix gallica

L., Tamarix chinensis Lour., Tamarix 

ramosissima Ledeb. and their hybrids. 

T. chinensis, T. ramosissima and their 

hybrids are by far the most common 

species invading the southwestern 

USA.

Eurasia, northern Africa

saltcedar, tamarisk

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Diorhabda carinata (Faldermann)

Diorhabda elongata (Brullé) pars

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Tamarisk leaf beetles were initially 

believed to be multiple species 

or subspecies that were later 

synonymized and differentiated only 

according to ecotype. These have 

recently been reassigned to five 

species, four of which have been 

introduced to the USA for tamarisk 

biological control. The different 

species of tamarisk leaf beetles are 

suited to different habitats/locations 

in the USA. Ecotype distinctions 

are retained here for the ease of 

combining information from different 

references. In 2009, a lawsuit was 

filed against USDA APHIS due to 

the possible negative impacts this 

biocontrol program could have on 

the endangered southwestern willow 

flycatcher by destroying some of the 

adventive tamarisk it utilizes where its 

natural habitat has been encroached. 

Redistributions of the tamarisk leaf 

beetles have been discontinued until 

this is resolved.

1644, 1822
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 457

Table

1

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda carinata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2006

Ex. Uzbekistan

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Karshi ecotype, which typically does not 

require long daylight hours in order to 

avoid premature diapause. Localized 

initially but now rapidly expanding 

in west TX and into OK. Throughout 

its established range, this group of 

biocontrol agents limited by predation.

Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR

89, 390, 461, 462, 465, 1822

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Diorhabda carinulata (Desbrochers)

Diorhabda elongata (Brullé) subsp. 

deserticola Chen, Diorhabda elongata

(Brullé) pars

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Tamarisk leaf beetles were initially 

believed to be multiple species 

or subspecies that were later 

synonymized and differentiated only 

according to ecotype. These have 

recently been reassigned to five 

species, four of which have been 

introduced to the USA for tamarisk 

biological control. The different 

species of tamarisk leaf beetles are 

suited to different habitats/locations 

in the USA. Ecotype distinctions 

are retained here for the ease of 

combining information from different 

references. In 2009, a lawsuit was 

filed against USDA APHIS due to 

the possible negative impacts this 

biocontrol program could have on 

the endangered southwestern willow 

flycatcher by destroying some of the 

adventive tamarisk it utilizes where its 

natural habitat has been encroached. 

Redistributions of the tamarisk leaf 

beetles have been discontinued until 

this is resolved.

1644, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp. (continued)
458 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda carinulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2001

Ex. China (Fukang)

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Regional

Fukang ecotype. Heavy defoliation at 

most release sites, however spread 

from release sites varies by location. 

Very successful throughout NV where 

thousands of ha defoliated by 2006. 

Repeated defoliation led to death of 

70% of plants within 5 years. Also 

highly defoliating regionally in WY and 

CO. Populations limited in OR where 

heavy defoliation only occurs locally. 

Flooding and heavy predation limit 

agent populations. Limited daylight 

hours send most populations of this 

species into early diapause, preventing 

their establishment at sites south of 38th 

parallel.

Daylight; Flooding; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR, CDA

39, 88, 90, 92, 334, 461, 462, 465, 

1094, 1644, 1822

United States of America

2001

Ex. Kazakhstan

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Chilik ecotype. Expanding rapidly from 

release sites. Populations experience 

heavy bird predation, but have still 

increased sufficiently to exert significant 

control of tamarisk, especially along 

Colorado River near Moab where 

extensive defoliation had occurred for at 

least 18 river miles by 2006 and Delta 

where 30 ha had been defoliated by 

2003. Flooding limits agent populations. 

Limited daylight hours send populations 

into early diapause, preventing 

establishment of this species at sites 

south of 38th parallel.

Daylight; Flooding; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR

88, 89, 461, 462, 465, 1644, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda carinulata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 459

Table

1

United States of America

2003

Ex. China (Turpan)

No

Turpan ecotype, which typically does 

not require long daylight hours in order 

to avoid premature diapause. Open field 

release in CO initially believed to have 

poorly established but since known to 

have failed due to flooding at release 

site. Fate of open field release in TX 

unknown, though assumed to have 

failed as well. Throughout its established 

range, this group of biocontrol agents 

limited by predation.

Flooding; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR, CDA

89, 461, 462, 465, 1822

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda carinulata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Diorhabda elongata (Brullé)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Tamarisk leaf beetles were initially 

believed to be multiple species 

or subspecies that were later 

synonymized and differentiated only 

according to ecotype. These have 

recently been reassigned to five 

species, four of which have been 

introduced to the USA for tamarisk 

biological control. The different 

species of tamarisk leaf beetles are 

suited to different habitats/locations 

in the USA. Ecotype distinctions 

are retained here for the ease of 

combining information from different 

references. In 2009, a lawsuit was 

filed against USDA APHIS due to 

the possible negative impacts this 

biocontrol program could have on 

the endangered southwestern willow 

flycatcher by destroying some of the 

adventive tamarisk it utilizes where its 

natural habitat has been encroached. 

Redistributions of the tamarisk leaf 

beetles have been discontinued until 

this is resolved.

1644, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp. (continued)
460 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda elongata (continued)

United States of America

2003

Ex. Greece (Crete)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Crete ecotype, which typically does 

not require long daylight hours in 

order to avoid premature diapause. 

Well established at some sites where 

populations beginning to spread and 

increasing defoliation noticeably. Does 

well on Tamarix parviflora, the dominant 

species in northern and central CA. 

Initially believed to have survived in NM 

but has since died out. Failed or slow 

to increase at other sites. In general, 

establishment has had lower rate of 

success and lower rates of increase 

and dispersal than that of the Fukang/

Chilik ecotypes established in northern 

regions. However, damage still sufficient 

to promise successful biological control. 

Flooding and predation limit population 

growth. 2007 releases occurring along 

the Rio Grande in TX; natural dispersal 

into bordering Mexico is likely.

Flooding; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR

88, 89, 90, 461, 462, 465, 1822

United States of America

2005

Ex. Greece (Mainland)

No

Posidi Beach ecotype, which typically 

does not require long daylight hours 

in order to avoid premature diapause. 

Persisted ~3 years in TX then died out; 

never established in large numbers. 

Failure to survive in NM likely to due 

to site flooding. Though no longer 

established, it is believed Diorhabda 

carinata and D. elongata have 

hybridized in west TX.

Flooding; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR

91, 461, 465, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda elongata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 461

Table

1

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Diorhabda sublineata (Lucas)

Diorhabda elongata (Brullé) pars

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Tamarisk leaf beetles were initially 

believed to be multiple species 

or subspecies that were later 

synonymized and differentiated only 

according to ecotype. These have 

recently been reassigned to five 

species, four of which have been 

introduced to the USA for tamarisk 

biological control. The different 

species of tamarisk leaf beetles are 

suited to different habitats/locations 

in the USA. Ecotype distinctions 

are retained here for the ease of 

combining information from different 

references. In 2009, a lawsuit was 

filed against USDA APHIS due to 

the possible negative impacts this 

biocontrol program could have on 

the endangered southwestern willow 

flycatcher by destroying some of the 

adventive tamarisk it utilizes where its 

natural habitat has been encroached. 

Redistributions of the tamarisk leaf 

beetles have been discontinued until 

this is resolved.

1644, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda sublineata (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2004

Ex. Tunisia

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Tunisian ecotype, which typically does 

not require long daylight hours in order 

to avoid premature diapause. The 

dominant species at the original release 

location was a hybrid between Tamarisk 

canariensis, T. gallica, T. ramosissima or 

T. chinensis, to which the beetles were 

not strongly attracted in outdoor-cage 

tests. Though they fed well in caged 

sleeves, once liberated they immediately 

dispersed in search of a better host, 

thus not establishing. Subsequent 

releases resulted in populations that 

expanded rapidly to extend nearly into 

NM by the end of 2012. Throughout 

its established range, this group of 

biocontrol agents limited by predation.

Specificity; Predation

USDA (7,9), USDA-APHIS-PPQ, State 

(24,40), USDI-BOR

89, 91, 461, 462, 465, 1822
462 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Aceria lantanae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara L. sens. lat.

Lantana camara subsp. aculeata

Moldenke, Lantana camara var. 

aculeata (L.) Moldenke, Lantana 

aculeata L., Lantana camara aculeata

Comprises a complex of horticultural/

weedy hybrids and closely related 

species within the section Camara

Original parent species likely native to 

tropical Americas

lantana, kauboica, tataramoa, bands, 

guphul, nagaairi, phullaki, putus, 

tantbi, vieille fille, chiponiwe (Shona), 

tick berry, bahug-bahug, sapinit, phaka-krong, talamoa, prickly lantana

Aceria lantanae (Cook)

Eriophyes lantanae Cook

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

2012

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Republic of 

South Africa

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

117

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba

Yes

Variable

Variable

Very abundant on certain varieties at 

some sites in KZN, MP and LP; scarce 

or absent on all varieties at other sites. 

On preferred varieties, stunts growth 

and reduces seed production by up to 

90%. Does best in humid, frost-free 

areas. Generally scarce in EC and GP, 

though occasionally abundant until frost.

Specificity; Climate

ARC-PPRI

108, 992, 1294, 1698, 1848, 1849, 1850

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 463

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Aconophora compressa Walker

(Hemiptera: Membracidae)

Australia

1995

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Variable

Widely established on coastal and subcoastal eastern Australia. Populations 

peak in winter and spring, causing 

branch death and reduced flowering and 

seeding. Susceptible to heat waves that 

reduce populations during hot summer 

months. Formal evaluation of overall 

impact lacking. 

Climate

Has been found feeding on several 

introduced species growing adjacent 

to large infestations, including species 

within and outside the Verbenaceae. 

However, populations usually cannot 

be sustained and damage is typically 

negligible. Feeds more regularly on 

Citharexylum spinosum L., causing 

significant leaf-drop and a large 

production of honey-dew, leading to 

problems for residents who possess 

these trees. It has not been released 

in any other country due to its lack of 

specificity.

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429, 1143, 1426

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Aerenicopsis championi Bates

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Australia

1995

Ex. Mexico

No

Establishment failure due to rearing 

difficulties and small release numbers. 

Small release size

QLD State

414, 422, 429

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 612, 1464, 1940, 1951

Hawaii USA

1955

Ex. Mexico

No

After a generation in the field following 

one release, agent never seen again.

HDOA

326, 398, 406, 408, 409, 412, 612, 635, 

762, 1940, 1951
464 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Alagoasa parana Samuelson

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1981

Ex. Brazil

No

Compromised

One QLD population initially established 

but later died out due to fire. Since been 

determined that long, vulnerable larval 

stage, inability to increase populations 

rapidly, and poor suitably for many 

lantana-invaded habitats made this 

species unlikely to succeed. 

Land use; Climate

CSIRO

414, 422, 429, 1994

Australia

1998

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

rearing difficulties and small release 

numbers. 

Small release size

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

Agents were sourced from Australia 

prior to the Australian population dying 

out in the field.

ARC-PPRI

280, 429, 992

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Alagoasa parana (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Apion sp. A 

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 612, 1464, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Apion sp. B 

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

612, 1464, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 465

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Autoplusia illustrata Guenée

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Australia

1976

Ex. Costa Rica

No

QLD State, NSW State

414, 418, 422, 429, 1976

Republic of South Africa

1978

Ex. Colombia via Australia

No

Establishment failure due to small 

number released and the mechanical 

destruction of site within few days of 

release.

Small release size; Other control 

methods

ARC-PPRI

277, 280, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Calycomyza lantanae (Frick)

Phytobia lantanae Frick

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Australia

1974

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout range of 

weed. Populations fluctuate seasonally, 

peaking in summer and autumn 

in warm, moist areas but waning 

over winter and in temperate areas. 

Populations significantly reduced by 

cool sub-tropical winters. Even at high 

densities causes only minor damage.

Climate

CSIRO

314, 414, 418, 422, 429, 1783

Fiji

1996

Ex. Trinidad via Australia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

No major surveys have been conducted.

KRS

418, 429, 431, 1050

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
466 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1982

Ex. Trinidad via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed throughout 

the range of lantana, populations limited 

by parasitism. Not having significant 

impact on the weed. No longer 

differentiated from second release.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 280, 1340, 1849

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

This second release made in order 

to increase genetic diversity. The two 

introductions initially differentiated based 

on location, but as populations spread 

rapidly throughout the country, they 

likely interspersed and are no longer 

differentiated in the literature. Though 

widely distributed throughout the range 

of lantana, populations limited by 

parasitism. Not having significant impact 

on the weed.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 280, 1340, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Charidotis pygmaea Klug

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1994

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to heat 

stress and dry conditions, and not well 

suited to Lantana camara as it was 

collected from L. fucata.

Climate; Specificity

QLD State

414, 418, 425, 429

Fiji

1995

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

KRS

429, 431, 1050

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 467

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Coelocephalapion camarae Kissinger

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Abundance and impact differ by 

elevation and lantana variety. At one 

release site, up to 9% of petioles galled 

by 2009. Populations likely increasing 

on some varieties as releases are 

ongoing. More time needed for overall 

impact and distribution to become 

evident.

Specificity; Possibly Elevation

ARC-PPRI

787, 788, 789, 990, 992, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Cremastobombycia lantanella Busck

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though present on all major islands, of 

only minor importance.

HDOA

326, 612, 635, 762, 1755, 1940
468 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Crocidosema lantana Busck

Epinotia lantana (Busck)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Australia

1914

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established wherever lantana 

occurs, but more common in warmer 

coastal areas. Can be seasonally 

abundant. Does not appear to have 

significant impact on plant; seed 

production remains high. 

Climate

QLD State

414, 422, 429, 753, 1783, 1940, 1989

Federated States of Micronesia

1948

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

In conjunction with Lantanophaga 

pusillidactyla reduces fruit production by 

up to 80%, leading to partial or seasonal 

control.

429, 481, 482, 1548, 1627, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Widespread and important initially; 

more recently contributing to only 

partial control, possibly as a result of 

parasitism. 

Parasitism; Predation

HDOA

413, 431, 612, 635, 762, 1755, 1940, 

2068

Marshall Islands

1948

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 698, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Crocidosema lantana (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 469

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Crocidosema lantana (continued)

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced in 1984, though 

now believed this species already 

present accidentally prior to 1961. Both 

populations not differentiated in the 

literature. Though widely distributed 

throughout South Africa, populations 

typically low, due at least in part to 

parasitism. Contributes to the damage 

of lantana flowers throughout its range, 

although insufficient to reduce the 

plant’s weed status.

ARC-PPRI

62, 65, 66, 429, 635, 992, 1340

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Diastema tigris Guenée

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Australia

1965

Ex. Panama via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure due to rearing 

difficulties and small release numbers. 

Small release size

QLD State

326, 414, 418, 422, 429, 1989

Federated States of Micronesia

1955

Ex. Panama via Hawaii USA

No

UOG

326, 429, 431, 482, 1627, 1940

Fiji

1954

Ex. Panama via Hawaii USA

No

Released in small numbers and did not 

establish.

Small release size

KRS

326, 429, 431, 1375, 1376, 1547, 1548

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
470 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Diastema tigris (continued)

Fiji

1971

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

KRS

937

Ghana

1971

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

IIBC

312, 1618

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Panama

No

HDOA

326, 612, 635, 762, 1023, 1950

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 408, 431, 635, 762

India

1971

Ex. Trinidad

No

CPPTI

114, 1312, 1542, 1548, 1607

Mauritius

1967

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Established near release site, at least 

initially. Not encountered recently.

IIBC

429, 586, 668

St Helena

1971

Ex. Trinidad via India

No

IIBC

312, 429, 1548

Tanzania

1967

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

308, 429, 668, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Diastema tigris (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 471

Table

1

Tanzania

1968

Ex. Trinidad via Uganda

No

Agents sourced from laboratory colonies 

as this species failed to establish in the 

field in Uganda.

IIBC

309, 429, 668, 1940

Uganda

1963

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

667, 668, 1940

Zambia

1970

Ex. Trinidad

No

IIBC

311, 429, 1117

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Diastema tigris (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Ectaga garcia Becker

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Australia

1993

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release numbers, and not well suited to 

Lantana camara as it was collected from 

L. fucata.

Small release size; Specificity

QLD State

414, 415, 418, 429, 430

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Eutreta xanthochaeta Aldrich

Eutreta sparsa Wiedemann pars

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Though described in early literature 

as Eutreta sparsa Wiedemann, it was 

subsequently determined to be a new 

species Eutreta xanthochaeta Aldrich. 

Australia

1914

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

QLD State

414, 714, 1783, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
472 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Eutreta xanthochaeta (continued)

Australia

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release numbers, and possibly not well 

suited to the Lantana camara growing in 

Australia.

Small release size; Specificity

CSIRO

414, 418, 429, 714, 1783

Australia

1977

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release numbers, and possibly not well 

suited to the Lantana camara growing in 

Australia.

Small release size; Specificity

CSIRO

414, 418, 429

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Slight

Localized

Widespread but of only minor 

importance overall; can be somewhat 

damaging in drier parts of the islands, 

but lantana tends to outgrow galls in 

wetter regions.

Climate

HDOA

413, 431, 612, 635, 1755, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release size and incompatibility with 

the varieties on which the insect was 

released.

Specificity; Small release size

ARC-PPRI

280, 992, 1124

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Eutreta xanthochaeta (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 473

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Falconia intermedia (Distant)

(Hemiptera: Miridae)

Australia

2000

Ex. Jamaica via Republic of South Africa

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Established only on the Atherton 

Tableland in north QLD and only on 

specific plant varieties. Causes obvious 

damage locally but overall impact has 

not been quantified. Species does best 

in warm moist locations; unlikely to 

thrive in summer drought regions where 

lantana defoliates seasonally.

Specificity; Climate

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429

Republic of South Africa

1999

Ex. Jamaica

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Initially established at 41% of release 

sites, doing best in moist/warm climates. 

Populations rapidly built up at those 

sites, reduced flowering by ~80%, and 

defoliated some sites completely during 

the first 3 years. At temperate sites, 

impacts were moderate and waned over 

time. Nearly all populations have since 

crashed; this agent is currently only 

found at a few localized locations where 

damage is moderate. The crash was 

attributed in small part to predation and 

in large part to an induction of resistance 

in lantana.

Host plant resistance; Predation

Temporary spillover onto indigenous 

Lippia species has been observed when 

high population densities were reached 

on adjacent lantana.

ARC-PPRI

67, 790, 992, 1849

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Falconia intermedia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hepialus sp.

(Lepidoptera: Hepialidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 612, 1464, 1940
474 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hypena laceratalis Walker

Hypena strigata (Fabricius), Hypena 

jussalis Walker, Hypena strigalis

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Australia

1965

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout range of 

weed. Populations fluctuate seasonally, 

peaking in summer and autumn in 

warm, moist areas but waning over 

winter and in temperate areas. Even 

at high densities causes only minor 

damage. Damage did not increase with 

introduction of African population. 

QLD State

414, 422, 429, 714, 1783, 1940

Federated States of Micronesia

1958

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

None

Overall impact insignificant; populations 

low and likely hindered by parasitism.

Parasitism

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1302, 1627, 1940

Fiji

1960

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Minor damage only; populations low and 

likely hindered by parasitism.

Parasitism

KRS

429, 1547, 1548, 1940

Guam

1967

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

None

Initially thought not to have established 

but recorded in 1988. Overall impact 

insignificant.

GDA, UOG

429, 481, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 475

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1957

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Highly defoliating initially, especially in 

drier regions and during winter months 

where it led to partial control on OA and 

partial to significant control on HA, MA, 

MO and KA. Damage has decreased 

since 1969, possibly from unfavorable 

weather or parasitism.

Parasitism

HDOA

181, 397, 398, 399, 413, 612, 635, 762, 

1023, 1775, 1940

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. Philippines

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Hawaii USA (continued)

This second release no longer 

differentiated from first. Highly 

defoliating initially, especially in drier 

regions and during winter months where 

it led to partial control on OA and partial 

to significant control on HA, MA, MO 

and KA. Damage has decreased since 

1969, possibly from unfavorable weather 

or parasitism.

Parasitism

HDOA

181, 413, 612, 635, 762, 1940

Mauritius

pre 1960

Ex. Unknown

Yes

High

Variable

Introduced intentionally from unknown 

sources, though the species may be 

native to Mauritius. Remains unclear 

if the intentional introduction was due 

to the mistaken belief the introduced 

species was a different organism (similar 

to the situation in South Africa) or if it 

was unknown to already be present 

on Mauritius. Along with Teleonemia 

scrupulosa and Salbia haemorrhoidalis, 

commonly found and causes extensive 

damage to lantana in drier areas and 

periods.

Climate

429, 668, 715, 1677

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)
476 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1961

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Introduced in belief it was Hypena 

jussalis. In 1962 found to be H. strigata

(now referred to as H. laceratalis) which 

is indigenous to South Africa. Introduced 

and native populations subsequently 

not differentiated as native population 

was already widespread. Though now 

widely distributed throughout the range 

of lantana, populations typically low due 

to disease and high rates of parasitism. 

Overall impact minor, even when 

populations build to high levels locally.

Parasitism; Disease

Also attacks native Lippia and Priva spp.

ARC-PPRI

62, 66, 280, 1399

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (Walker)

Platyptilia pusillidactyla Walker

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Federated States of Micronesia

1948

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

In conjunction with Crocidosema lantana

reduces fruit production by up to 80%, 

leading to partial or seasonal control.

429, 481, 482, 1302, 1548, 1627, 1940

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Despite being widespread throughout 

the islands, of only minor importance.

HDOA

413, 431, 612, 635, 1755, 2067

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 477

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Hong Kong

1933

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Intentionally introduced, though 

the agent was already established 

inadvertently prior to 1900. Populations 

subsequently not differentiated. Current 

overall status unknown.

429, 635, 1940

Palau

1960

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via 

Federated States of Micronesia 

(Pohnpei)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Initially thought not to have established, 

but located later in small numbers at one 

site where it causes only minor damage.

429, 481, 482, 1627, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Failure to establish likely due to small 

release number and adverse climatic 

conditions. An adventive population 

already present since at least 1904.

Small release size; Climate

ARC-PPRI

280, 1340

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Leptobyrsa decora Drake

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Australia

1969

Ex. Colombia, Peru

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
478 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Leptobyrsa decora (continued)

Australia (continued)

Established only on the Atherton 

Tableland in north QLD, likely due 

to climatic conditions that constrain 

species to tropics and to open sunny 

areas; does poorly in closed canopy 

or high rainfall. In late summer can 

reach high numbers that cause obvious 

damage locally by reducing number 

of leaves and reproductive output. 

Widespread releases in NSW all failed, 

most likely due to high predation 

combined with long non-reproductive 

period over cooler months.

Climate; Predation

CSIRO, QLD State, NSW State

414, 418, 422, 429, 714, 717, 1783, 

1940

Cook Islands

1972

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia via Fiji

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

DAC

312, 429, 431, 1940

Fiji

1971

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia via 

Hawaii USA

No

IIBC

312, 429, 960, 1940

Fiji

1976

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia

No

KRS

429, 431, 960

Ghana

1971

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia

No

IIBC

312, 1618

Guam

1971

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia via 

Hawaii USA

No

UOG

429, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Leptobyrsa decora (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 479

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1970

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Firmly established on MA and KA but 

abundance variable on HA. Throughout 

range may cause severe defoliation in 

drier areas, but less effective in wetter 

regions; usually ineffective overall. 

Climate

HDOA

181, 326, 402, 413, 431, 612, 762, 1940

Palau

1977

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia via 

Hawaii USA

No

UOG

429, 431, 481, 482, 1627, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1972

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

268, 280, 992

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Leptobyrsa decora (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Tonga

1969

Ex. Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1940

Zambia

1970

Ex. Colombia, Peru via Australia

No

CSIRO

311, 429, 717, 1117, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Leptobyrsa decora (continued)
480 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1 Longitarsus bethae Savini & Escalona

Longitarsus sp.

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Republic of South Africa

2007

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Initially established well at two sites 

in KZN which have since been 

compromised. Establishment recorded 

in MP and KZN (and tenuously in other 

provinces); does best in moderately 

moist soils. Additional time is needed 

before determining overall impact and 

abundance.

Soil

ARC-PPRI

992, 1668, 1670, 1671, 1849

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Neogalea sunia (Guenée)

Catabena esula (Druce), 

Neogalea esula (Druce)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Australia

1957

Ex. USA (CA) via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established and can become 

locally abundant, but generally 

ineffective due to low population levels 

restricted by parasitism. 

Parasitism

QLD State

414, 418, 429, 714, 753, 1783, 1940, 

1989

Federated States of Micronesia

1955

Ex. USA (CA) via Hawaii USA

No

UOG

429, 431, 482, 635, 1627

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 481

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Neogalea sunia (continued)

Hawaii USA

1955

Ex. USA (CA)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Causes widespread defoliation in some 

areas, though damage is seasonal 

and largely occurs in dry areas; insect 

heavily parasitized.

Climate; Parasitism

HDOA

402, 407, 413, 612, 635, 762, 1023, 

1951

Republic of South Africa

1962

Ex. USA (CA) via Hawaii USA via 

Trinidad

No

Laboratory cultures in South Africa (and 

presumably subsequent releases) wiped 

out by disease.

Disease

ARC-PPRI

267, 280, 992, 1399

Republic of South Africa

1968

Ex. USA (CA) via Hawaii USA via 

Australia

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release size.

Small release size

ARC-PPRI

267, 268, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Neogalea sunia (continued)
482 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Octotoma championi Baly

Octotoma sp. probably plicatula

(Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Although it was recorded that 

Octotoma sp. “probably” plicatula

was released on Hawaii, this species 

does not feed upon Lantana camara. 

It is therefore more likely that 

O. championi, which closely 

resembles O. plicatula, was released.

Australia

1975

Ex. Costa Rica

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established only at few locations in 

NSW, QLD, Norfolk Island. Populations 

too low to be effective.

Climate

QLD State, NSW State

414, 418, 422, 429, 1976

Fiji

1976

Ex. Costa Rica via Australia

No

KRS

429, 431, 1050

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Honduras

No

Failure likely due to only 6 individuals 

being released.

Small release size

HDOA

326, 612, 1023, 1381, 1950

Republic of South Africa

1978

Ex. Costa Rica via Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

268, 280, 992

Republic of South Africa

1995

Ex. Costa Rica via Australia

No

Persisted in low numbers for the 

following two seasons, but subsequently 

not recovered.

ARC-PPRI

65, 66

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma championi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 483

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Octotoma gundlachi Suffrain

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Hawaii USA

1953

Ex. Cuba

No

HDOA

761

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Octotoma scabripennis GuérinMéneville

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1966

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Rare in north QLD and south of Sydney; 

common from central QLD south to 

central NSW where present in large 

numbers during favorable seasons, 

frequently alongside Uroplata girardi. 

Together cause severe defoliation 

and reduced flowering in late summer 

and autumn but do not permanently 

suppress the weed. Ineffective on 

Norfolk Island. 

CSIRO, QLD State, NSW State

414, 418, 422, 429, 713, 714, 715, 

1783, 1940

Australia

1974

Ex. El Salvador

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Rare in north QLD and south of Sydney; 

common from central QLD south to 

central NSW where present in large 

numbers during favorable seasons, 

frequently alongside Uroplata girardi. 

Together cause severe defoliation 

and reduced flowering in late summer 

and autumn but do not permanently 

suppress the weed.

CSIRO

414, 418, 422, 429, 715

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
484 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Cook Islands

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via India

No

DAC

429, 431, 1940

Fiji

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

No

IIBC

312, 431, 960, 1940

Fiji

1976

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

No

QLD State

431, 960

Fiji

1993

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

No

KRS

431, 1050, 1868

Ghana

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Established but ineffective probably as a 

result of predation and parasitism.

Predation; Parasitism

IIBC

312, 313, 314, 1618, 1940

Ghana

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Additional introduction in order to bolster 

success. Established and sometimes 

common in one area, but no marked 

control. Populations limited by predation 

and parasitism.

Predation; Parasitism

IIBC

314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 429, 1618, 

1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 485

Table

1

Guam

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

UOG

429, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

635, 1464, 1951

Hawaii USA

1953

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Causes significant defoliation in some 

areas (especially dry regions) but 

populations limited in other areas. 

Defoliation complements effects of other 

biocontrol agents, resulting in partial to 

significant control in both dry and wet 

areas.

Climate

HDOA

399, 409, 410, 411, 413, 612, 635, 762, 

1940, 1949, 1951

Hawaii USA

1974

Ex. El Salvador via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Progeny of this release no longer 

differentiated in literature from 1953 

release. Causes significant defoliation 

in some areas (especially dry regions) 

but populations limited in other areas. 

Defoliation complements effects of other 

biocontrol agents, resulting in partial to 

significant control in both dry and wet 

areas.

Climate

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 762, 1169, 1940

India

1972

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Unknown

None

Established in North India but not 

effective.

FRI

1312, 1542, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
486 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

New Caledonia

1977

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes only minor damage.

RSTO

286, 429, 698

Niue

1994

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

No

SPC

1403, 1868, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Populations vary from rare to abundant. 

Restricted to the warm, moist eastern 

parts of the range of lantana in South 

Africa. Can occasionally completely 

defoliate whole stands. Along with 

Teleonemia scrupulosa and Uroplata 

girardi (which has since been largely 

replaced by Ophiomyia camarae) 

could reduce the rates of growth and 

reproduction of lantana. However attack 

is frequently temporary and plants can 

recover. Consequently, overall impact 

is typically low to moderate. Does not 

appear to prefer certain varieties of 

lantana.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

65, 268, 269, 280, 992, 1849

Solomon Islands

1993

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via Fiji

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

SPC

429, 431, 1868, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Release

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Octotoma scabripennis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 487

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia camarae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Ophiomyia camarae Spencer

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Australia

2007

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

Moderate

Too early post release

Intermixed with material released earlier 

and no longer differentiated. Spreading 

central to northern QLD with releases 

ongoing through 2012. Impact under 

evaluation.

QLD State

414, 418, 428, 1669

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Populations dense at humid, low 

elevation sites while sparse at high 

elevations. Establishment failed at sites 

above 900m which are characterized 

by cold and dry winters that cause leaf 

abscission. High populations decrease 

lantana growth and reproduction by half. 

Parasitoids present, but unclear if these 

significantly impact Ophiomyia camarae

populations. Exhibits lantana varietal 

preferences in the field. This agent is 

believed to outcompete Uroplata girardi

in coastal regions of KZN.

Climate; Specificity; Possibly Parasitism

Recorded utilizing less than 1% of 

native Lippia spp. leaves while the agent 

was at outbreak population density in 

the field; however, this damage could 

have been due to an indigenous insect 

instead.

ARC-PPRI

786, 1669, 1673, 1674, 1849

Uganda

2008

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South 

Africa

No

ARC-PPRI

1669, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
488 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ophiomyia lantanae (Froggatt)

Agromyza lantanae Froggatt

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Australia

1914

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

QLD State

414, 714, 1989

Australia

1917

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established throughout range 

of weed in Australia. Can damage up 

to 85% of seeds, however fruit attack 

frequently does not decrease seed 

viability. Seed dispersal by birds may be 

reduced slightly due to attack

QLD State

180, 414, 422, 429, 714, 753, 1989

Cook Islands

1972

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

DAC

429, 431, 930, 1940

Federated States of Micronesia

1948

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

Well established in Chuuk, but not 

observed in recent years on other 

islands. 

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1308, 1548, 1627, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 489

Table

1

Fiji

1911

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Originally reported lantana difficult to 

find near Suva, but now considered 

unlikely to have been due to this insect. 

Though widespread throughout country, 

fruit attack frequently does not decrease 

seed viability; seed dispersal by birds 

may be reduced slightly due to attack.

DAF

180, 418, 429, 977, 1351, 1373, 1547, 

1548, 1611, 1683, 1685, 1918

French Polynesia

1916

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via New 

Caledonia

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

53, 666, 706, 1236, 1351, 1715

Guam

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Contributes to control, often found 

infesting more than 50% of berries.

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread, fruit attack 

frequently does not decrease seed 

viability; seed dispersal by birds may be 

reduced slightly due to attack.

Parasitism

HDOA

180, 326, 413, 612, 635, 1464, 1918, 

1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
490 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hong Kong

1933

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 635, 1716, 1940

India

1921

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

None

Believed to have been unintentionally 

introduced to India before this deliberate 

release. Both populations subsequently 

not distinguished in the literature. Initially 

believed to have failed establishment 

but located 13 years after release. Now 

widespread throughout country. Attacks 

high percentage of fruits, but ineffective 

as germination is not affected.

DAIN

1312, 1542, 1548, 1607, 1747, 1940

Kenya

1958

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Following release it was found already 

present in Kenya. Intentional and 

unintentional populations subsequently 

not differentiated. Though widespread 

throughout country, impact is minor as 

fruit attack frequently does not kill the 

embryo in the seeds.

429, 667, 668

New Caledonia

1911

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Less important than Teleonemia 

scrupulosa, but contributes to limiting 

spread of the weed.

429, 698, 1464, 1548, 1832, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 491

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1961

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced in 1961. 

Following release it was found that 

a species already present in the 

country had been wrongly identified 

as Ophiomyia rhodesiensis and 

was in fact O. lantanae. Intentional 

and unintentional populations were 

subsequently not differentiated as the 

unintentional population was already 

widespread. Now widely established 

and abundant, despite parasitism. 

Contributes to seed destruction but 

unlikely to impact spread of the weed, 

though additional study is warranted. 

Shows no preference for different 

lantana varieties.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 267, 271, 280, 1399

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Orthezia insignis Browne

(Hemiptera: Ortheziidae)

Though it was used intentionally in 

Hawaii, it is polyphagous and very 

damaging to many plant species 

and should not be considered for 

additional use as a biocontrol agent.

429

Hawaii USA

pre 1902

Ex. Unknown

Yes

High

Slight

Localized

Unrecorded introduction probably 

brought from Sri Lanka to MA by 

ranchmen, then subsequently distributed 

to other islands. Though widely 

distributed, damage is localized and 

insufficient to control weed. 

Feeds on many nontarget plant species.

Private

1312, 1464, 1546, 1940

India

1921

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

None

(continued on nex page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
492 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

India (continued)

First identified in India in 1915, a second 

population intentionally introduced in 

1921. Both populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

At one point agent was targeted for 

eradication once its polyphagous nature 

determined, but efforts failed and agent 

now firmly established in India. Does not 

control weed.

Feeds on several desirable nontarget 

species.

MGI

1034, 1312, 1546

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Parevander xanthomelas (GuérinMéneville)

Evander xanthomelas (GuérinMéneville)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 612, 1464, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Passalora lantanae (Chupp) U. Braun 

& Crous var. lantanae

Mycovellosiella lantanae (Chupp) 

Deighton var. lantanae

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Republic of South Africa

2002

Ex. USA (FL)

No

Isolates C442, C470, C493. Although 

symptoms were observed on lantana 

within the first 3 months of release, did 

not persist possibly because it could not 

bridge the dry winter season.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

470, 472, 992, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 493

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Plagiohammus spinipennis (Thomson)

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Australia

1967

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Initially believed to have established at 

only one NSW site at perpetually low 

levels. Recent surveys failed to detect 

insect. Establishment failure likely due 

to incompatibility of Lantana camara

variety.

Specificity

CSIRO

414, 418, 422, 429, 719

Guam

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii via Australia

No

UOG

429, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Plagiohammus spinipennis (continued)

Hawaii USA

1960

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Damage can be severe in some high 

rainfall areas, leading to partial control; 

ineffective in drier areas.

Parasitism; Climate

HDOA

326, 400, 401, 407, 408, 409, 411, 412, 

413, 612, 762, 1940

Palau

1977

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

UOG

429, 431, 481, 482, 1627

Republic of South Africa

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia

No

Despite multiple releases, persisted only 

at a garden in the PPRI laboratories in 

GP without spreading elsewhere. Has 

since been deemed an unsuccessful 

establishment.

ARC-PPRI

267, 268, 280, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References
494 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Prospodium tuberculatum

(Spegazzini) Arthur

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Australia

2001

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Specific to the common pink flowering 

variety. Though causes chlorosis and 

premature abscission of leaves, does 

not seem to have significant impact on 

lantana. Formal evaluation lacking.

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429, 1817

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Pseudopyrausta santatalis (Barnes & 

McDunnough)

Pseudopyrausta acutangulalis

(Snellen), Blepharomastix 

acutangulalis (Snellen)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Federated States of Micronesia

1955

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

UOG

326, 429, 431, 482, 1627

Fiji

1954

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

KRS

326, 429, 1375, 1376, 1547, 1548

Hawaii USA

1953

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 406, 612, 762, 1940, 1949, 1950

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 495

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Pseudopyrausta santatalis (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. Mexico

No

HDOA

326, 411, 612, 635, 762

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Salbia haemorrhoidalis Guenée

Syngamia haemorrhoidalis (Guenée)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)

Australia

1958

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Well established in warm tropical areas 

causing some damage in conjunction 

with other agents; alone typically exerts 

little control on lantana. Populations 

hindered by parasitism.

Parasitism

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429, 635, 714, 753, 

1783, 1940, 1989

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Federated States of Micronesia

1958

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread and common but impact 

minimal.

UOG

429, 481, 482, 635, 1302, 1627

Fiji

1958

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Well established causing some damage 

in conjunction with other agents; alone 

typically exerts little control. 

KRS

429, 635, 1376, 1547, 1548

Guam

1958

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

No

QLD State

429, 481, 482, 635, 1300, 1317

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
496 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1956

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Caused severe defoliation in some 

areas initially, but effectiveness 

decreased after 1969, possibly due 

to unfavorable weather conditions 

(though not confirmed). Together with 

other agents contributes to partial to 

substantial control in dry regions. 

Climate

HDOA

398, 406, 413, 612, 1023, 1940, 1952

India

1971

Ex. Trinidad

No

CPPTI

1312, 1542, 1548, 1607

Kenya

1958

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

No

Due to rearing difficulties, only four 

individuals were released and failed to 

establish. Limited surveys conducted 

recently failed to find this agent.

Small release size

IIBC

418, 635, 667, 668, 1940

Kenya

1965

Ex. Trinidad via Uganda

No

Initially believed to have established, 

but has since believed to have failed. 

Limited surveys conducted recently 

failed to find this agent.

IIBC

418, 668, 1940

Mauritius

1965

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

High

Variable

Along with Teleonemia scrupulosa and 

Salbia haemorrhoidalis, commonly 

found and causes extensive damage to 

lantana in drier areas and periods.

IIBC

586, 668

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 497

Table

1

Palau

1960

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

No

429, 481, 482, 635, 1627

Republic of South Africa

1962

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed in South 

Africa, populations typically low. Highest 

densities restricted to the moist and 

lower elevation sites in eastern inland 

and coastal regions. This is likely related 

to plant variety, as this species has a 

strong association with certain lantana 

varieties. At high densities and during 

outbreaks, can contribute to the control 

of lantana. In most regions impact 

is minimal. Populations hindered by 

parasitism.

Parasitism; Specificity

Reared from native Lippia species 

at some point, but not in most recent 

surveys.

ARC-PPRI

62, 66, 277, 280, 635, 786, 992, 993, 

1341, 1399, 1849

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. USA (FL), Cuba via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure likely due to very 

small number of individuals released.

Small release size

ARC-PPRI

277, 993, 1341, 1848

Tanzania

1967

Ex. Trinidad via Uganda

No

IIBC

309, 429, 668

Uganda

1964

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Rare

None

Recovered at one site but rare, likely 

due in part to parasitism. Failed at 

second site due to defoliation by 

Teleonemia scrupulosa.

Parasitism; Interspecific competition

IIBC

667, 668

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)
498 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zambia

1970

Ex. Trinidad via India via Pakistan

No

Initially observed breeding in field, 

but has since believed to have failed 

establishment.

IIBC

311, 429, 1117

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Salbia haemorrhoidalis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Septoria sp.

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Hawaii USA

1997

Ex. Ecuador

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Localized

Initially well established at release 

sites where credited with decreasing 

infestations of lantana; subsequently 

not monitored so current abundance 

not known. Though a Septoria sp. was 

recently isolated from lantana at release 

site in KA, not yet been genetically 

analyzed to confirm it was same species 

released.

HDOA

325, 326, 1006, 1823, 1826, 1827

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Strymon bazochii (Godart)

Thecla bazochii (Godart), Thecla 

agra (Hewitson), Strymon bazochii 

gundlachianus (Bates)

(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Australia

1914

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

Establishment failure likely due to the 

small numbers of individuals released.

Small release size

QLD State

414, 418, 714, 1940, 1989

Fiji

1923

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Though initially considered widespread, 

populations later determined limited, 

likely due to egg parasitism. Provided 

only minor damage. Not observed 

during more recent field surveys.

Parasitism

DAF

418, 429, 977, 1373, 1547, 1548, 1683

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 499

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though initially widespread and 

abundant, currently of only minor 

importance; impact limited by 

parasitism. Has since been found on 

other hosts.

Parasitism

Observed feeding on numerous 

nontarget species of economic 

importance so not recommended for 

release in novel locations. 

HDOA

413, 429, 612, 635, 1169, 1464, 1755, 

1940, 2066

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Strymon bazochii (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Teleonemia elata Drake

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Australia

1969

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to the 

small numbers of individuals released.

Small release size

CSIRO, QLD State

414, 418, 429, 714

Cook Islands

1973

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

DAC

429, 431, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1972

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

Establishment failure likely due to small 

release size.

Small release size

ARC-PPRI

267, 268, 280

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
500 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Uganda

1972

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

Agents were sourced from laboratory 

colonies in Australia as this species 

failed to establish in the field in Australia.

IIBC

313, 429

Zambia

1970

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

CSIRO

311, 429, 1117, 1940

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia elata (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Teleonemia harleyi Froeschner

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Australia

1969

Ex. Trinidad

No

Initially believed to have established 

at low levels at only one site. Recent 

surveys failed to detect insect. 

CSIRO

414, 422, 429, 714, 1783

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Teleonemia prolixa (Stål)

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1974

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

low numbers released and plant 

incompatibility.

Small release size; Specificity

CSIRO

414, 418, 429, 717
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 501

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Teleonemia scrupulosa Stål

Teleonemia vanduzeei Drake, 

Teleonemia sp. 

Teleonemia bifasciata Champion, 

Teleonemia lantanae Distant

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Referred to as Teleonemia bifasciata

Champion and Teleonemia lantanae

Distant in some of the original Hawaii 

release records because authors 

erroneously assumed they were 

new species, when in fact they were 

Teleonemia scrupulosa Stål released 

there in 1902.

717

Ascension Island

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia via India via St Helena

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Causing widespread and severe 

damage.

IIBC

429, 431, 582, 584

Australia

1936

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Variable

Variable

Seasonally abundant and causes 

considerable damage to some varieties 

but not others. Effects increased 

following new introductions from 

different sources in 1969. Populations 

often limited by unfavorable climate 

and habitat; dry conditions and summer 

months preferred to moist and/or shady 

infestations. 1937 release on Norfolk 

Island failed but successful in 1948 

and is partially successful in retarding 

growth.

Climate; Habitat; Specificity

CSIRO, QLD State, NSW State

414, 418, 422, 429, 635, 713, 717, 

1783, 1940, 1989

Australia

1969

Ex. Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, Trinidad, 

Venezuela

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact
502 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Seasonally abundant and causes 

considerable damage to some varieties 

but not others. Effects increased 

following new introductions from 

different sources in 1969. Populations 

often limited by unfavorable climate 

and habitat; dry conditions and summer 

months preferred to moist and/or shady 

infestations.

Climate; Habitat; Specificity

CSIRO

414, 418, 422, 429, 713, 714, 717, 1940

Federated States of Micronesia

1948

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Rare on Pohnpei where damage is 

minimal. Abundant on Chuuk where 

damage is heavy. Drier climate of Chuuk 

believed to be more suitable to agent.

Climate

UOG

481, 482, 520, 1302, 1548, 1627

Federated States of Micronesia

1962

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via 

Federated States of Micronesia via 

Palau

No

Failure likely due to inability of agent to 

survive on lantana variety present on 

Yap.

Host plant incompatibility

UOG

481, 482, 1627

Fiji

1928

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Limited

Variable

Caused yellowing, loss of foliage and 

reduced flower production and seed set 

over considerable area near Suva in 

Rewa. Subsequently disappeared from 

some areas where originally showed 

promise. Most effective in cold and dry 

seasons. Populations frequently limited 

by predation, fungal attack, and heavy 

rainfall.

Climate; Disease; Predation

DAF

429, 605, 717, 1373, 1547, 1548, 1681, 

1682, 1683

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 503

Table

1

French Polynesia

pre 1986

Ex. Unknown

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

706, 1350

Ghana

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia via India

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established and very common. Though 

attack rates sometimes reach 50-80% 

of shoots, overall providing little control.

IIBC

312, 313, 429, 1618, 1940

Ghana

1972

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Kenya 

via Uganda; Ex. Trinidad via Uganda 

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next page)

Ghana (continued)

This release subsequently not 

differentiated in literature from release 

made year prior. Established and 

very common. Though attack rates 

sometimes reach 50-80% of shoots, 

overall providing little control.

IIBC

317, 429, 667, 668, 1618

Guam

1969

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via 

Federated States of Micronesia 

(Pohnpei) via Palau via Northern 

Mariana Islands (Saipan)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Contributes to good control, especially 

in open sunny areas during the drier 

months. Population greatly reduced 

during the wet season.

Season

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1300, 1317

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
504 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

Variable

Variable

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by other 

introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

413, 507, 612, 635, 717, 1023, 1457, 

1464, 1755, 1940

Hawaii USA

1952

Ex. Cuba

No

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

and in the belief it was a separate 

species, Teleonemia vanduzeei Drake. 

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

612, 717, 762, 1023, 1169, 1457, 1940, 

1950

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Belize (formerly British Honduras)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

or adaptability to varying climatic zones 

and subsequently not distinguished 

from other Teleonemia scrupulosa

populations released since 1902. 

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by other 

introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 717, 762, 1023, 1169, 

1457, 1940, 1950

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 505

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Brazil

Yes

Variable

Variable

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

or adaptability to varying climatic zones 

and subsequently not distinguished 

from other Teleonemia scrupulosa

populations released since 1902. 

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by other 

introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 717, 762, 1023, 1169, 

1457, 1940, 1950

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Variable

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

or adaptability to varying climatic zones 

and subsequently not distinguished 

from other Teleonemia scrupulosa

populations released since 1902. 

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by other 

introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 717, 762, 1023, 1169, 

1457, 1940, 1950

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
506 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Hawaii USA

1954

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

and in the belief it was a separate 

species, Teleonemia vanduzeei Drake. 

Subsequently not distinguished from 

T. scrupulosa already established. 

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by 

other introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 717, 762, 1023, 1169, 

1457, 1940, 1950

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. USA (FL)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Introduced for possible greater efficacy 

and in the belief it was a separate 

species, Teleonemia vanduzeei Drake. 

Subsequently not distinguished from 

T. scrupulosa already established. 

Causes extensive defoliation during 

summer months and in drier areas. 

Summer defoliation by this insect 

complements winter defoliation by 

other introduced species.

Has been found feeding on a native 

Hawaiian tree, Myoporum sandwicense

A. Gray, though not during more recent 

surveys. Also found attacking an exotic 

Xanthium sp.

HDOA

409, 413, 635, 762, 1169, 1457, 1940, 

1950

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 507

Table

1

Kenya

1953

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Though established at all releases 

sites, causes no more than a temporary 

setback to lantana, and this only during 

the dry periods. Still present during 

recent surveys.

DAK

394, 418, 429, 667, 668

Madagascar

1961

Ex. Unknown via Mauritius

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established on plateau and east coast, 

wherever weed occurs. Damage only 

slight but causes tip dieback and may 

help keep weed in check, especially in 

plateau region.

160, 668, 1846

New Caledonia

1936

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Variable

Variable

In conjunction with Ophiomyia lantanae

limits spread of the weed; however, 

more effective in dry zones than moist 

regions.

CSIRO, QLD State, FCN

429, 623, 698, 1093, 1548

Niue

1994

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

SPC

1403, 1868, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
508 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Northern Mariana Islands

1963

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via 

Federated States of Micronesia 

(Pohnpei)

Yes

High

Variable

Most effective of the lantana insects 

present, leading to severe defoliation 

in some stands, particularly in open 

sunny situations. At some locations, 

plants observed recovering completely 

following extensive defoliation.

HDOA

429, 481, 482, 1317

Palau

1960

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via 

Federated States of Micronesia 

(Pohnpei)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Can cause extensive defoliation to some 

forms of lantana, while not surviving on 

others.

Host plant incompatibility

429, 481, 482, 1627

Papua New Guinea

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Common wherever lantana occurs. 

Severe damage in the dry season with 

complete defoliation, but this damage 

occurs only in ESP and MBP.

PNGDAL

429, 1400, 1427, 1428, 1940, 1982, 

2050

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 509

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1961

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed, abundance 

varies. Populations low during winter, 

but increase rapidly in warmer 

months. Prefers drier areas/seasons. 

Can occasionally lead to complete 

defoliate of whole stands, dieback 

of branches, stunted growth and 

decreased reproduction. Along with 

Octotoma scabripennis and Uroplata 

girardi (which has since been largely 

replaced by Ophiomyia camarae) 

could reduce the rates of growth and 

reproduction of lantana. However attack 

is frequently temporary and plants can 

recover. Consequently, overall impact 

typically only moderate. Shows varietal 

preferences for the color form (pink) not 

the most abundant in South Africa. 

Specificity; Climate

Also attacks the native Lantana rugosa

Thunb. and Lippia spp., especially 

when they are growing close to Lantana 

camara L. sens. lat.

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 267, 269, 277, 280, 786, 992, 

1342, 1399, 1849

Republic of South Africa

1971

Ex. Brazil, Mexico, Paraguay, Trinidad, 

Venezuela via Australia

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed, abundance 

varies. Populations low during winter, 

but increase rapidly in warmer 

months. Prefers drier areas/seasons. 

Can occasionally lead to complete 

defoliate of whole stands, dieback 

of branches, stunted growth and 

decreased reproduction. Along with 

Octotoma scabripennis and Uroplata 

girardi (which has since been largely 

replaced by Ophiomyia camarae) 

could reduce the rates of growth and 

reproduction of lantana. However attack 

is frequently temporary and plants can 

recover. Consequently, overall impact 

typically only moderate. Shows varietal 

preferences for the color form (pink) not 

the most abundant in South Africa. 

Specificity; Climate

Also attacks the native Lantana rugosa

Thunb. and Lippia spp., especially 

when they are growing close to Lantana 

camara L. sens. lat.

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 277, 280, 717, 786, 992, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
510 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Unknown via Mauritius

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed, abundance 

varies. Populations low during winter, 

but increase rapidly in warmer 

months. Prefers drier areas/seasons. 

Can occasionally lead to complete 

defoliate of whole stands, dieback 

of branches, stunted growth and 

decreased reproduction. Along with 

Octotoma scabripennis and Uroplata 

girardi (which has since been largely 

replaced by Ophiomyia camarae) 

could reduce the rates of growth and 

reproduction of lantana. However attack 

is frequently temporary and plants can 

recover. Consequently, overall impact 

typically only moderate. Shows varietal 

preferences for the color form (pink) not 

the most abundant in South Africa. 

Specificity; Climate

Also attacks the native Lantana rugosa

Thunb. and Lippia spp., especially 

when they are growing close to Lantana 

camara L. sens. lat.

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 277, 280, 668, 786, 992, 1849

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. USA (FL, TX)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed, abundance 

varies. Populations low during winter, 

but increase rapidly in warmer 

months. Prefers drier areas/seasons. 

Can occasionally lead to complete 

defoliate of whole stands, dieback 

of branches, stunted growth and 

decreased reproduction. Along with 

Octotoma scabripennis and Uroplata 

girardi (which has since been largely 

replaced by Ophiomyia camarae) 

could reduce the rates of growth and 

reproduction of lantana. However attack 

is frequently temporary and plants can 

recover. Consequently, overall impact 

typically only moderate. Shows varietal 

preferences for the color form (pink) not 

the most abundant in South Africa. 

Specificity; Climate

Also attacks the native Lantana rugosa

Thunb. and Lippia spp., especially 

when they are growing close to Lantana 

camara L. sens. lat.

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 277, 280, 786, 992, 1849

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 511

Table

1

Samoa

1936

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

No

431, 1548, 1940

Samoa

1940

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Redistribution attempts to other districts 

on the main island of Upolu in 1978 

failed. Where established, agent clearly 

affecting growth of lantana.

429, 431, 1548, 1940

Solomon Islands

1993

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Provides excellent control on Russell 

Islands.

SPC

429, 431, 1868, 1940

St Helena

1971

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia via India

Yes

High

Variable

Exerts significant control in drier areas, 

but lantana remains problematic in more 

moist regions of island.

IIBC

312, 429, 582, 1940

Tanzania

1958

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Kenya

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can cause heavy defoliation when 

populations high, though this is typically 

no more than a temporary setback to 

lantana, and usually only during the dry 

periods.

Climate

IIBC

394, 429, 667, 668

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
512 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tonga

1937

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes only minor damage. Numbers 

remain low, possibly due to cultivation.

Land use

429, 962, 1093, 1548, 1940

Uganda

1960

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Kenya

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially believed to have failed so 

second release made subsequently. Has 

since been determined both releases 

were successful, and both are no 

longer differentiated. Can cause heavy 

defoliation when populations high, 

though this is typically no more than 

a temporary setback to lantana, and 

usually only during the dry periods.

Found attacking the cultivated Sesamum 

indicum L. and S. angustifolium (Oliv.) 

Engl. when insect populations high.

IIBC

394, 429, 667, 668, 786

Uganda

1962

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

This release made because was initially 

believed first release failed. Has since 

been determined both releases were 

successful, and both are no longer 

differentiated. Can cause heavy 

defoliation when populations high, 

though this is typically no more than 

a temporary setback to lantana, and 

usually only during the dry periods.

Climate

Found attacking the cultivated Sesamum 

indicum L. and S. angustifolium (Oliv.) 

Engl. when insect populations high.

IIBC

394, 429, 667, 668, 786

Vanuatu

1935

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Well established, but not present on 

all islands. Where present, even high 

populations do not produce adequate 

level of control.

289, 418, 429, 698, 1093, 1548, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 513

Table

1

Zambia

1962

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Kenya 

via Zimbabwe

No

MAZ

668, 1940

Zambia

1969

Ex. Trinidad via Uganda

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely established throughout country. 

Has massive impact on individual plants 

at very localized sites. Population 

densities vary by location and year, 

making overall impact far more limited. 

The cold season and heavy summer 

rains both limit populations.

Climate

IIBC

310, 311, 313, 429, 1117, 1940, 2005

Zimbabwe

1961

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Kenya

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Temporarily established then believed to 

have died out by 1965 without achieving 

control. Recent surveys indicated 

the agent is widespread and causing 

moderate damage.

MAR

418, 668, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
514 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Tmolus echion (L.)

Thecla sp. (echion group), Tmolus sp. 

(echion group), Strymon echion (L.)

(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Fiji

1922

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA

No

DAF

429, 431, 977, 1373, 1547, 1548, 1683, 

1685

Hawaii USA

1902

Ex. Mexico

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Of only minor importance.

Parasitism

Attacks numerous species besides 

Lantana camara agg. L. 

HDOA

413, 612, 635, 1464, 1755, 1940, 2066

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Uroplata fulvopustulata Baly

Uroplata sp. nr bilineata Chapuis

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1976

Ex. Costa Rica

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Regional

Restricted to north QLD. Causing only 

minimal damage.

Climate

QLD State

414, 418, 422, 429, 713, 1783

Fiji

1976

Ex. Costa Rica via Australia

No

QLD State, FCN

429, 431, 1050

Republic of South Africa

1978

Ex. Costa Rica via Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

268, 280, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 515

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Uroplata girardi Pic

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Ascension Island

1973

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via India via St Helena

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Initially limited in distribution, but has 

since expanded and is contributing to 

significant control along with Teleonemia 

scrupulosa and Orthezia insignis.

429, 431, 582, 584

Australia

1966

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Present in large numbers throughout 

lantana range during favorable 

seasons, frequently alongside Octotoma 

scabripennis. Together cause severe 

defoliation and reduced flowering 

in late summer and autumn but do 

not permanently suppress the weed. 

Ineffective on Norfolk Island. 

Documented attacking basil and other 

herbs (Lamiaceae).

CSIRO, QLD State, NSW State

414, 422, 429, 713, 714, 715, 1212, 

1783, 1940

Australia

1974

Ex. Argentina

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Collected from cooler region in an 

attempt to increase the establishment 

and efficacy of the species in the 

southern portions of the weed’s 

invaded range in Australia. No longer 

differentiated from earlier release. 

Present in large numbers throughout 

lantana range during favorable 

seasons, frequently alongside Octotoma 

scabripennis. Together cause severe 

defoliation and reduced flowering in 

late summer and autumn but do not 

permanently suppress the weed.

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
516 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Australia (continued)

Documented attacking basil and other 

herbs (Lamiaceae).

CSIRO

414, 418, 422, 429, 715, 1212, 1783, 

1940

Cook Islands

1969

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Contributing to significant control.

429, 1548, 1940

Cook Islands

1973

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via India

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Contributing to significant control. 

Remains uncertain if this release, the 

original, or both, was responsible for 

establishment.

429, 1940

Federated States of Micronesia

1963

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Among most effective biocontrol agents 

currently established in country. Most 

effective in shady areas with high 

humidity.

Habitat

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1302, 1627, 1940

Fiji

1969

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Variable

Most prominent and effective of control 

agents released against Lantana 

camara to date in Fiji. Heavily damaging 

in shade, causing stunted growth and 

reduced seed production. Less effective 

in sunny conditions.

Habitat

DAF

418, 429, 960, 1050

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 517

Table

1

Ghana

1971

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia; 

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad 

via Uganda

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Caused spectacular damage at release 

sites, but overall providing only limited 

control. Though widely distributed, 

remains of minor importance with less 

than 50% of terminal shoots attacked. 

Generally more common at sites where 

Teleonemia scrupulosa rather scarce.

Interspecific competition

IIBC

308, 312, 314, 315, 316, 318, 429, 957, 

1618, 1940

Guam

1967

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Northern 

Mariana Islands (Saipan)

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Contributes to good control, especially 

in shady areas.

Habitat

IIBC

429, 481, 482, 1300, 1317, 1940

Hawaii USA

1961

Ex. Brazil

Yes

High

Variable

Well adapted to Hawaiian conditions. 

Complements other foliage-feeding 

species. Can cause considerable foliar 

stress on small plants, but overall not 

effective on older plants.

Documented attacking basil and other 

herbs (Lamiaceae).

HDOA

407, 409, 413, 431, 612, 635, 762, 1169, 

1212, 1940

Hawaii USA

1974

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

High

Variable

Well adapted to Hawaiian conditions. 

Complements other foliage-feeding 

species. Can cause considerable foliar 

stress on small plants, but overall not 

effective on older plants.

Documented attacking basil and other 

herbs (Lamiaceae).

HDOA

431, 612, 762, 1169, 1212, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
518 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

India

1972

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Unknown

None

Established in North India but not 

effective.

FRI

1312, 1542, 1940

Mauritius

1967

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread and abundant on 

both the main island and Rodrigues 

Island, damage only minor on both.

IIBC

309, 429, 586, 668, 957

New Caledonia

1977

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causing significant defoliation to pink 

variety, particularly near Nouméa.

RSTO

286, 429, 698

Niue

1993

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Providing partial control. Most effective 

in open areas.

SPC

52, 429, 431, 1868, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 519

Table

1

Northern Mariana Islands

1963

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Contributing to control; most effective in 

shady areas with high humidity.

Habitat

IIBC

429, 481, 482, 1317

Northern Mariana Islands

1989

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Northern 

Mariana Islands (Saipan) via Guam

Yes

Limited

None

Surveys 10 months after release 

revealed although beetle had 

established, population was small and 

ineffective and had spread little from the 

release point.

UOG

481, 482, 1940

Palau

1974

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Federated 

States of Micronesia (Pohnpei)

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Well established throughout country; 

exerting moderate damage on all 

varieties of lantana. Most effective in 

shady areas with high humidity.

Habitat

429, 481, 482, 1243, 1627, 1940

Papua New Guinea

1972

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

High

Slight

Unknown

Though common wherever lantana 

occurs, causes only minor damage.

FRI

429, 1400, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
520 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Philippines

1985

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

IIBC, PCA

291, 429, 1940

Republic of South Africa

1974

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially moderately damaging where 

very abundant in coastal regions of KZN 

but sparse in LP and MP. Populations in 

KZN have since crashed, likely due to 

competition with Ophiomyia camarae; 

now distribution and abundance limited 

throughout South Africa. Exhibited 

strong lantana varietal preferences in 

the field, opposite to the preferences of 

Octotoma scabripennis.

Interspecific competition; Specificity

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 268, 269, 280, 786, 993, 1849

Republic of South Africa

1983

Ex. Argentina via Australia

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Originated from cooler region and 

released in attempt to increase 

establishment and efficacy under inland 

conditions of South Africa. Populations 

established in LP but scarce. Overall 

impact minimal. Exhibited strong lantana 

varietal preferences in the laboratory.

Specificity

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 280, 786, 993

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad 

via Mauritius

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Establishment from this introduction 

unlikely due to small release size 

and release occurring in climatically 

unsuitable area (too dry).

Small release size; Climate

ARC-PPRI

275, 993, 1940

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 521

Table

1

Samoa

1975

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

When occurs in high numbers has 

noticeable effect.

429, 431, 1940

Solomon Islands

1992

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

With Teleonemia scrupulosa provides 

excellent control on Russell Islands, 

especially in shady conditions

SPC

52, 429, 431, 1868, 1940

St Helena

1970

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via India

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initial recoveries made some distance 

from release site, but does not appear to 

have established. Systematic searches 

not made.

IIBC

311, 312, 429, 582, 1940

Tanzania

1967

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad

No

IIBC

308, 429, 667, 957, 1940

Tonga

1969

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Australia; 

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Fiji

Yes

Limited

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
522 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Tonga (continued)

Though established, causes only partial 

or seasonal control. Numbers remain 

low, possibly due to cultivation.

Land use

IIBC

289, 429, 962, 1548, 1940

Trinidad and Tobago

pre 1969

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Released for a few (unspecified) years 

on Trinidad prior to the well documented 

1969 release. Post-release recoveries 

made but heavy larval predation 

by wasps initially mitigated against 

effective establishment. Release sites 

subsequently destroyed; current status 

of this species unknown.

IIBC

288, 310, 429, 1940

Uganda

1966

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad

Yes

Limited

None

Though established, populations remain 

low and has provided no marked control.

IIBC

308, 310, 311, 429, 957

Vanuatu

1983

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established rapidly and initially showed 

obvious damage to lantana. However, 

weed still very problematic so overall 

control now considered minimal.

ARC-PPRI

204, 289, 418, 429, 1940

Zambia

1969

Ex. Brazil via Hawaii USA via Trinidad

No

Numerous releases made as many 

populations failed to survive dry season. 

Despite temporary establishment of 

some populations, overall establishment 

considered failed.

Climate

IIBC

311, 313, 957, 1117

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 523

Table

1

Zambia

2009

Ex. South America via Republic of South 

Africa

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Initial introductions starting in 1969 

failed to establish in dry conditions/sites. 

This second release made in 2009 from 

South African material. South Africa 

agents originated from two different 

sources; unclear which population or 

if a mixture of both was used for this 

release. Agents have thrived under 

rainforest conditions, though too early 

post release to determine overall 

abundance and impact.

ARC-PPRI, CABI-Africa

786, 1849, 2005

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Uroplata girardi (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Uroplata lantanae Buzzi & Winder

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1977

Ex. Brazil

No

Establishment failure likely due to 

small release size, itself due to inability 

to maintain populations on lantana 

varieties naturalized in Australia.

Specificity; Small release size

CSIRO

414, 418, 429, 1783, 1993

Republic of South Africa

1984

Ex. Brazil via Australia

No

ARC-PPRI

280, 992

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
524 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Verbenaceae (continued) Verbenaceae

Lantana montevidensis (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Verbenaceae

Lantana montevidensis (Spreng.) 

Briq.

South America

creeping lantana

Calycomyza lantanae (Frick)

Phytobia lantanae Frick

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

1974

Ex. Trinidad

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Released on Lantana camara agg. but 

established L. montevidensis as well. 

Widely distributed throughout range of 

weed. Populations fluctuate seasonally, 

peaking in summer and autumn in 

warm, moist areas but waning over 

winter and in temperate areas. Even 

at high densities causes only minor 

damage.

Climate

CSIRO

314, 414, 415, 422

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Charidotis pygmaea Klug

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Australia

1994

Ex. Brazil

No

Adults persisted for several months 

following release but failed to lay many 

eggs and disappeared completely within 

24 months. Failure attributed to heat 

stress and dry conditions. 

Climate

QLD State

415, 418, 425, 429

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Ectaga garcia Becker

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Australia

1993

Ex. Brazil

No

QLD State

415, 429, 430

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 525

Table

1

Verbenaceae

Lantana montevidensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hypena laceratalis Walker

Hypena strigata (Fabricius), Hypena 

jussalis Walker, Hypena strigalis

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Australia

1965

Ex. Kenya, Zimbabwe via Hawaii USA

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Released on Lantana camara agg. 

but established on L. montevidensis

as well. Prior to release of this African 

population, the species was found to 

be present in Australia, and assumed to 

be native. Both populations no longer 

differentiated in the literature. Frequently 

found in warm moist areas where plant 

growth is lush but absent from dry 

slopes. Populations fluctuate seasonally, 

peaking in summer and autumn but 

waning over winter. Even at high 

densities causes only minor damage.

Climate

QLD State

414, 415, 422, 429, 714

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Zygophyllaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides L.

tropical and sub-tropical Africa, 

Indo-Australia

false puncturevine, nohu, Jamaican 

feverplant, Jamaican fever vine, 

puncturevine, bur-not

Microlarinus lareynii (Jacquelin 

du Val)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1968

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

No

Initially recovered one year following 

release, but not subsequently.

IIBC

98, 99, 288, 1128

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

No

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established
526 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lareynii (continued)

Hawaii USA (continued)

Initially very damaging on KA and 

OA in conjunction with Microlarinus 

lypriformis (the most important agent), 

but populations disappeared as weed 

populations destroyed by feeding. The 

target weed is considered native to 

Hawaii.

HDOA

405, 408, 409, 410, 635, 762, 1128

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. Italy via USA (AZ)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Reportedly in bad condition by the time 

it reached MA where only gives partial 

control. Populations from other releases 

more effective on other islands. The 

target weed is considered native to 

Hawaii.

Unhealthy release material

HDOA

405, 409, 635, 762, 1128

Hawaii USA

1967

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initial releases very damaging on KA 

and OA in conjunction with Microlarinus 

lypriformis (the most important agent), 

but populations disappeared as weed 

populations destroyed by feeding. This 

1967 reintroduction successful and 

helps keep Tribulus spp. low. The target 

weed is considered native to Hawaii.

HDOA

405, 409, 410, 635, 762, 1128, 1894

Papua New Guinea

1966

Ex. Italy via continental USA via Hawaii 

USA

No

PNGDAL

1128, 2050

Country

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lareynii (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 527

Table

1

Agent

Species

Classification

Microlarinus lypriformis (Wollaston)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides (continued)

Federation of St Kitts and Nevis

1966

Ex. Italy via continental USA via Hawaii 

USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Well established and providing excellent 

control on St Kitts. Initially successful 

control on Nevis, but subsequent 

enlargement of airport destroyed the 

weed and probably also the weevil 

population. Current status of weed and 

weevil unknown on Nevis.

Land use

IIBC

98, 99, 104, 288, 1128

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. Italy via USA (AZ, CA)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Substantial to complete control on KA 

and OA, but only partial control on MA 

and HA. The target weed is considered 

native to Hawaii.

HDOA

44, 405, 409, 410, 411, 635, 762, 1128

Papua New Guinea

1967

Ex. Italy via continental USA via Hawaii 

USA

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Controlling plant at release points and 

spreading.

PNGDAL

155, 1128, 1427, 1428, 2050

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued)
528 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zygophyllaceae (continued) Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris; Microlarinus lareynii (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris L.

Mediterranean, western Asia, Africa

puncturevine, ground bur nut, bull’s 

head, goat head, caltrop

Microlarinus lareynii (Jacquelin 

du Val)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Canada

1986

Ex. Italy via USA (CO)

No

AAFC

101

Hawaii USA

1962

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

No

Initially very damaging on KA and 

OA in conjunction with Microlarinus 

lypriformis (the most important agent), 

but populations disappeared as weed 

populations destroyed by feeding.

HDOA

405, 408, 409, 410, 635, 762, 1128

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. Italy via USA (AZ)

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Reportedly in bad condition by the time 

it reached MA where only gives partial 

control. Populations from other releases 

more effective on other islands.

Unhealthy release material

HDOA

405, 409, 635, 762

Hawaii USA

1967

Ex. Italy via USA (CA)

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initial releases very damaging on KA 

and OA in conjunction with Microlarinus 

lypriformis (the most important agent), 

but populations disappeared as weed 

populations destroyed by feeding. This 

1967 reintroduction successful and 

helps keep Tribulus spp. low.

HDOA

405, 409, 410, 635, 762, 1128, 1894

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 529

Table

1

United States of America

1961

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

In combination with Microlarinus 

lypriformis successfully reduced 

weed cover and seed production up 

to 80% in warmer areas of southwest 

USA, especially CA. Contributed to 

successful control in AL such that 

current establishment there unknown. 

Generally ineffective at higher elevations 

where cold winter temperatures reduce 

weevil populations. Recent redistribution 

within CA successfully established a 

population at one high elevation site, 

indicating establishment possible when 

sites have overwintering shelter and 

limited disturbance. This species much 

more successful at high elevation 

site compared to M. lypriformis, and 

is established in limited amounts in 

WA and OR whereas M. lypriformis is 

not, indicating higher cold tolerance. 

Populations limited by parasites and 

predators at some sites.

Climate; Parasitism; Predation

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued) 

Also attacks the native Kallstroemia 

californica (S. Watson) Vail, K. 

grandiflora Torr. ex A. Gray, and one 

additional native Kallstroemia sp. Adults 

found on numerous exotic species 

(some of economic importance), though 

impact is typically negligible.

USDA (7,12), State (4,5,6,9,13,14,15,21)

39, 45, 332, 334, 335, 862, 1114, 1128, 

1457, 1501, 1578, 1731, 1840, 1894, 

1906

United States of America

1994

Ex. Italy

No

Cold adapted strains from the Abruzzi 

Mountains, Italy, were distributed 

to more northern areas but failed to 

establish in CA.

State (14)

335, 1840, 1906

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris; Microlarinus lareynii (continued)

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris; Microlarinus lareynii (continued)

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References
530 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced

Table

1

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris (continued)

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Microlarinus lypriformis (Wollaston)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Canada

1986

Ex. Italy via USA (CO)

No

AAFC

659

Hawaii USA

1963

Ex. Italy via USA (AZ, CA)

Yes

Variable

Variable

Substantial to complete control on KA 

and OA, but only partial control on MA 

and HA.

HDOA

44, 405, 409, 410, 411, 635, 762, 1128

United States of America

1961

Ex. Italy

Yes

Variable

Variable

In combination with Microlarinus lareynii

successfully reduced weed cover and 

seed production up to 80% in warmer 

areas of southwest USA, especially 

CA. Contributed to successful control 

in AL such that current establishment 

there unknown. Generally ineffective 

at higher elevations where cold 

winter temperatures reduce weevil 

populations. Recent redistribution 

within CA successfully established a 

population at one high elevation site, 

indicating establishment possible when 

sites have overwintering shelter and 

limited disturbance. However, this 

species much less abundant at high 

elevation site compared to M. lareynii, 

and is not established in WA and OR 

whereas M. lareynii is, indicating lower 

cold tolerance. Populations limited by 

parasites and predators at some sites.

Climate; Parasitism; Predation

(continued on next page)

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 1. Exotic Organisms Intentionally Introduced 531

Table

1

United States of America (continued)

Also attacks the native Kallstroemia 

californica (S. Watson) Vail, K. 

grandiflora Torr. ex A. Gray, and one 

additional native Kallstroemia sp. Adults 

found on numerous exotic species 

(some of economic importance), though 

impact is typically negligible.

USDA (7,12), State (4,5,6,9,13,14,15,21)

39, 45, 332, 335, 862, 1128, 1129, 1457, 

1501, 1578, 1731, 1840, 1894, 1906

United States of America

1993

Ex. Italy

No

Cold adapted populations from 

the Abruzzi Mountains, Italy, were 

distributed to more northern areas but 

failed to establish in CA.

State (14)

1840, 1906

Country

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Release

Country

Year

Source

Established

Notes

Research Organization

References

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued)
532 Biological Control of Weeds
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 533

Table

2

TABLE 2. Native ORGANISMS INTENTIONALLY Redistributed

Redistribution Information

Releases in this table are typically redistributions because the agents 

in question already occur naturally within the country of discussion 

and are simply redistributed to select locations within the country. 

These entries are listed alphabetically according to the country of 

redistribution and are accompanied by the year the first field release/

redistribution was made. Some species have been redistributed in the 

same country multiple times. When subsequent redistributions were 

separated by five years or more, or were successfully established 

following the failure of the original redistribution(s), then these 

subsequent redistributions are given their own entries and are listed 

numerically by the redistribution year. 

Current Status

Please note that all information included in this section pertains only 

to the intentionally redistributed populations, and not to naturally 

occurring populations established elsewhere within the country. 

The establishment status of each intentional redistribution is given 

when known. The impact of established agents is then stated using 

eight categories pre-determined for the ease of quick data summary, 

including: None, Slight, Medium, Heavy, Variable, Too early post 

release, Unknown, and Compromised (the latter for sites destroyed 

post release). Because the choices selected for impact are subjective 

estimates by the editors, an additional notes section is provided which 

includes a brief summary of the status for each redistribution system. 

All impact is assumed to occur only on a localized scale following the 

redistribution, unless stated otherwise in the notes. Abbreviations used 

in the notes section to denote sub-regions of a country are provided 

along with their corresponding regions at the front of this catalogue 

immediately following the Table of Contents. If the biocontrol agent 

has been observed in the field attacking plant species other than those 

targeted for control, this information is included. Likewise, factors 

believed to limit the efficacy of any particular release are listed when 

known.
534 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Amaranthaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus retroflexus L.

North America

rough pigweed, redroot

Disonycha glabrata (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

No

Not established

Beetles subjected to predation and 

failed to overwinter.

Predation; Climate

State (27)

81

Amaranthaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus spinosus L.

tropical Americas

spiny amaranth, phak khom nam

Hypolixus truncatulus (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Thailand

pre 1982

Yes

Heavy

Augmentative releases have resulted 

in a country-wide distribution, giving 

satisfactory control and replacing use of 

herbicides.

Also attacks Chromolaena odorata

L., Amaranthus viridis L., and Digera 

arvensis (whose name has since been 

changed to Digera muricata (L.) Mart.).

NBCRC

1326, 1329, 1939
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 535

Table

2

Araceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes L.

tropical Americas, Asia, Malesia, 

Australia (NT)

water lettuce, Nile cabbage, chok, 

jawg

Spodoptera pectinicornis (Hampson)

Namangana pectinicornis (Hampson), 

Epipsammea pectinicornis (Hampson)

Epipsammia pectinicornis, Episammia 

pectinicornis (Hampson)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Thailand

1982

Yes

Heavy

Augmentative releases have resulted in 

widespread distribution, giving excellent 

control and replacing use of herbicides. 

Releases still ongoing.

NBCRC

1326, 1327, 1329, 1347, 1745, 1939

Asteraceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Baccharis halimifolia L.

North America

groundsel bush, sea myrtle, 

consumption-weed

Rhopalomyia californica Felt

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1985

No

Not established

USDA (9), State (22)

136, 533
536 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Baccharis neglecta Britton

Texas USA, Mexico

Roosevelt weed, linear-leaf false 

willow

Rhopalomyia californica Felt

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1985

No

Not established

USDA (9), State (22)

136, 533

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cassinia arcuata R. Br.

Australia

sifton bush

Austrotachardia sp. 

(Hemiptera: Kerridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1985

Yes

Heavy

250 ha of Cassinia arculata were 

killed within 4 years and pastures 

regenerated. Redistribution and control 

success have continued in some 

locations. Current distribution and 

population levels unknown.

Parasitism

NSW State

224, 839, 842
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 537

Table

2

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cassinia spp.

Includes Cassinia laevis R. Br. and 

Cassinia quinquefaria R. Br.

Australia

coughbush

Paratachardina sp. 

(Hemiptera: Kerridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1991

Yes

Heavy

Substantial but unquantified areas of 

Cassinia laevis and C. quinquefaria

have been killed. Redistribution and 

control success have continued in 

some locations. Current distribution and 

population levels unknown.

Parasitism

NSW State

224, 839

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Eurasia

Canada thistle, creeping thistle, 

Californian thistle, field thistle

Corythucha distincta Osborn & Drake

Corythuca disticta Osborn & Drake

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1984

Yes

Heavy

Feeding observed to stunt or kill Cirsium 

arvense shoots when populations high. 

Attack on native Cirsium spp. precludes 

applied utilization of Corythucha 

distincta as biocontrol agent.

Regularly attacks numerous native 

Cirsium spp. Causes lesser damage to 

other exotic thistle species. 

State (13)

74, 709
538 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo

Centaurea repens L., 

Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.

Central Asia

Russian knapweed

792

Aceria acroptiloni Shevchenko & 

Kovalev

Aceria sp. n.

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ukraine

pre 1973

Yes

Heavy

Efficiently suppressed reproduction of 

the weed.

1015, 1021

Uzbekistan

pre 1997

Yes

Heavy

Abundance of the mite in cultivation is 

maintained by preservation on 2 ha plots 

among crops. Successful control of seed 

production observed in different crops.

ZIAS

1017

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Subanguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Brzeski

Paranguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Kirjanova & Ivanova, 

Mesoanguina picridis (Kirjanova) 

Chizhov & Subbotin

(Tylenchida: Anguinidae)

Tajikistan

1962

Yes

Heavy

Incorporation of chopped galls into 

soils in December/January led to up to 

100% infection, including 30% severely 

infected and 20% killed.

895, 1613

Ukraine

pre 1973

Yes

Heavy

Spray application resulted in up to 60% 

infestation and 30% mortality in some 

field trials. Reduced number of plants 

to 27% in others. Efficiently suppressed 

reproduction of the weed.

1015, 1018

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 539

Table

2

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens; Subanguina picridis (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Uzbekistan

pre 1993

Yes

Heavy

Application of a suspension of nematode 

larvae and water in autumn and spring 

proved to be particularly successful 

in perennial grass crops, e.g. alfalfa. 

Mass rearing of nematodes and gall 

collections performed on special plots 

(2 ha) among crops.

ZIAS

1017, 1596

Cactaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

Opuntia cordobensis Spegazzini, 

Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck

Previous literature referred to this 

release as occurring on Opuntia 

cordobensis Spegazzini which has 

since been synonymized with O. 

ficus-indica (L.) Mill. While some 

authors consider O. ficus-indica to 

be a spineless cultivar derived from 

O. megacantha, many other authors 

consider O. megacantha to also be 

a cultivated taxon or a name applied 

to multiple ruderal reversions to 

spininess from the escaped, cultivated 

O. ficus-indica and they treat 

O. megacantha as a later synonym. 

The editors of this catalogue are in 

the latter group.

Mexico

Indian fig, mission prickly pear, 

grootdoringturksvy

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecktendahl

(Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales)

Agent

Species

Classification
540 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Cactaceae (continued) Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Fusarium oxysporum (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1943

Yes

Variable

Fungus first documented on KA and 

later was successful against red-fruited 

variety of Opuntia on NI, OA, MO, and 

MA. Deliberately released on Opuntia

on HA. Largely ineffective on the less 

desirable white form. Field inoculations 

discontinued in 1949 when introduction 

of insect agents began.

BAF

413, 601, 611, 612, 1986

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (Engelm.) Cockerell

southwestern coastal USA including 

Santa Cruz Island and Baja California, 

Mexico

prickly pear, coastal prickly pear

Chelinidea tabulata (Burmeister)

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1945

Yes

None

Initially thought to have not established 

but recovered in 1961 immediately 

prior to second release. Currently has 

very limited distribution and having no 

impact. Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

United States of America

1961

Yes

None

Not differentiated from earlier release. 

Established but with very limited 

distribution and having no impact. Target 

weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 541

Table

2

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea vittiger Uhler

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1945

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

447, 635, 638, 639

United States of America

1961

Yes

None

Establishment tenuous due to 

competition by Dactylopius opuntiae

and predation. Target weed considered 

native.

Interspecific competition; Predation

State (5)

447, 635, 638, 639

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1942

No

Not established

Establishment failed because colonies 

washed into ocean during winter 

following extremely heavy rainfall. Target 

weed considered native.

Flooding

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1940

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

638, 639
542 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia littoralis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Melitara prodenialis Walker

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1945

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

United States of America

1962

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Agent

Species

Classification

Olycella junctolineella (Hulst)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1961

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 543

Table

2

Cactaceae (continued) Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola Philbrick

southwestern coastal USA including 

Santa Cruz Island and Baja California, 

Mexico

prickly pear, chaparral prickly pear

Chelinidea tabulata (Burmeister)

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1945

Yes

None

Initially thought to have not established 

but recovered in 1961 immediately 

prior to second release. Currently has 

very limited distribution and having no 

impact. Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

United States of America

1961

Yes

None

Not differentiated from earlier release. 

Established but with very limited 

distribution and having no impact. 

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelinidea vittiger Uhler

(Hemiptera: Coreidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1945

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

447, 635, 638, 639

United States of America

1961

Yes

None

Establishment tenuous due to 

competition by Dactylopius opuntiae

and predation. Target weed considered 

native.

Interspecific competition; Predation

State (5)

447, 635, 638, 639
544 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Dactylopius confusus (Cockerell)

Dactylopius greenii Cockerell

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1942

No

Not established

Establishment failed because colonies 

washed into ocean during winter 

following extremely heavy rainfall. 

Target weed considered native.

Flooding

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1940

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

638, 639

Agent

Species

Classification

Melitara prodenialis Walker

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1945

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

United States of America

1962

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 545

Table

2

Cactaceae

Opuntia oricola (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Olycella junctolineella (Hulst)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1961

No

Not established

Target weed considered native.

State (5)

635, 638, 639

Convolvulaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br.

Convolvulus sepium L.

North America

hedge bindweed, hedge false 

bindweed

Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor

(Fabricius)

Metriona bicolor (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Canada

1969

Yes

Slight

Confirmed established at original 

1969 release in BC as of 2001; found 

spreading to new hedge bindweed 

patches during 2007-2012 monitoring. 

Considered a pest of morning glory 

and sweet potato in ON so further 

redistribution being reconsidered.

Also feeds on numerous desirable and 

weedy plant species.

AAFC

117, 437, 1173, 1841

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
546 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Convolvulaceae (continued) Convolvulaceae

Calystegia sepium (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Deloyala guttata (Olivier)

Chirida guttata (Olivier)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

117, 1089

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1971

No

Not established

Though common in its original range 

in Canada, transfer to BC failed to 

establish.

UBC

1173

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis L.

Eurasia

field bindweed

Charidotella purpurata (Boheman)

Metriona purpurata (Boheman)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Canada

1979

Yes

Unknown

AAFC

735, 1173, 1185

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 547

Table

2

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis (continued)

Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor

(Fabricius)

Metriona bicolor (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1969

No

Not established

Though common in its original range 

in Canada, transfer to BC failed to 

establish.

Also feeds on numerous desirable and 

weedy plant species.

AAFC

117, 1173

Agent

Species

Classification

Chelymorpha cassidea (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1979

No

Not established

Though common in its original range 

in Canada, transfer to SK failed to 

establish.

AAFC

735, 1173

Convolvulaceae

Convolvulus arvensis (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Deloyala guttata (Olivier)

Chirida guttata (Olivier)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

117, 1089

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1969

No

Not established

Though common in its original range in 

Canada, transfers to AB and BC failed 

to establish.

AAFC

1173
548 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Convolvulaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta campestris Yunck.

Americas

dodder

Alternaria cuscutacidae Rudakov

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Russia

1950s

Yes

Variable

Mass production and inoculation of 

the fungus has resulted in control in 

some crops, but less effective control 

in others.

629, 944, 1015, 1986

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta capulata Engelm.

This species is largely missing from 

the literature and current taxonomic 

databases.

Americas

dodder

Alternaria cuscutacidae Rudakov

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Russia

1950s

Yes

Variable

Mass production and inoculation of 

the fungus has resulted in control in 

some crops, but less effective control 

in others.

629, 944, 1015, 1986

Convolvulaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 549

Table

2

Convolvulaceae (continued) Convolvulaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta europaea L.

Europe

dodder

Melanagromyza cuscutae Héring

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Kazakhstan

pre 1979

Yes

Unknown

Natural populations augmented by 

spring releases of adults emerging from 

plant material kept indoors during winter. 

Overall impact unknown.

629, 1716

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta lehmanniana Bunge

Eurasia

dodder

Melanagromyza cuscutae Héring

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Kazakhstan

pre 1979

Yes

Unknown

Natural populations augmented by 

spring releases of adults emerging from 

plant material kept indoors during winter. 

Overall impact unknown.

629, 1716
550 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Convolvulaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta lupuliformis Krock.

Eurasia

dodder

Melanagromyza cuscutae Héring

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Kazakhstan

pre 1979

Yes

Unknown

Natural populations augmented by 

spring releases of adults emerging from 

plant material kept indoors during winter. 

Overall impact unknown.

629, 1716

Cyperaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cyperaceae

Cyperus esculentus L.

cosmopolitan

yellow nutsedge

Bactra verutana Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1967

Yes

Slight

Although severe insect infestations 

markedly reduced plant growth, majority 

of plants survived to produce numerous 

tubers. Natural populations limited by 

parasitism.

Parasitism

State (9)

595, 972
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 551

Table

2

Cyperaceae (continued) Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L.

cosmopolitan

nut grass, purple nutsedge, vucesa, 

soronakabani, oni ani, pakopako

Antonina australis Froggatt

Chaetococcus australis (Froggatt), 

Kuwanina hilli Laing, Kuwanina 

australis (Green) Brimblecombe

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

597, 779

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Australia

1901

Yes

Slight

May cause severe damage locally under 

dry conditions but overall impact is 

minimal.

597, 779, 902, 1748, 1989

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Bactra venosana (Zeller)

Bactra truculenta Meyrick

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Thailand

pre 1997

Yes

Unknown

Augmentative releases hampered 

by attack of egg parasite, 

Trichogrammatoidea bactrae fumata

Nagaraja.

Parasitism

NBCRC

1329

Agent

Species

Classification

Bactra verutana Zeller

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1972

Yes

Heavy

Augmentative releases in early season 

reduced above-ground growth of 

weed by up to 68% and resulted in 

seed cotton yields similar to those of 

uninfested plots. In their natural cycle, 

these insects do not cause appreciable 

damage to their host plants.

USDA (5)

595
552 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Ebenaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Ebenaceae

Diospyros virginiana L.

North America

persimmon, eastern persimmon

Nalanthamala diospyri (Crand.) 

Schroers & M.J. Wingf.

Acremonium diospyri (Crand.) W. 

Gams, Cephalosporium diospyri

Crandall

(Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1949

Yes

Heavy

Oklahoma State Legislature approved 

spread of this agent for control of 

persimmon in 1965. Very effective 

when cut stumps are inoculated with 

a spore suspension of this pathogen. 

Using this method, only unwanted trees 

are killed. In practical use throughout 

eighties but other forms of control now 

recommended for this weed.

State (2), SRNF

251, 1109, 1786, 1986

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra L.

Mimosa pigra L. var. pigra

tropical Americas

giant sensitive plant, mimosa, giant 

mimosa

Rhytiphora piperitia Hope

Sympheletes humeralis White, 

Platyomopsis humeralis White

(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Identified and pusblished as 

Sympheletes humeralis White 

(whose name was later changed 

to Platyomopsis humeralis White) 

though it had already been described 

under the name Rhytiphora piperitia

Hope.

293

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 553

Table

2

Haloragaceae

Australia

1997

Yes

Variable

Stem girdling reduces growth and 

seed production but does not kill 

mature plants. High populations 

cause conspicuous damage, though 

populations typically fluctuate and 

redistributions often necessary. 

Parasitism limits efficacy.

Also feeds on Acacia spp., Cassia spp., 

the native Peltophorum pterocarpum

(DC.) Backer ex K. Heyne, and 

Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. (an 

exotic species useful in grazing 

systems).

CSIRO, NT

531, 571, 765, 776

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Rhytiphora piperitia (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum L.

Europe, northern Africa, Asia

Eurasian watermilfoil

Euhrychiopsis lecontei (Dietz)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

United States of America

pre 1994

Yes

Variable

Now commercially available as Milfoil 

Solution®, formerly known as The 

Middfoil® process, which entails placing 

egg- and larvae-infested plant material 

into new locations. Releases into 

lakes and ponds often intended to only 

supplement existing populations as this 

species is naturally already widespread 

in North America. Associated with 

weed declines in some lakes in CT, 

MA, MI, MN, NY, OH, VT and WI, but 

not in others. High weevil densities can 

suppress weed populations, however 

most infestations can potentially recover 

when weevils move to shorelines for 

overwintering. Impact could be due to 

combination of this species and Acentria 

ephemerella, as damage caused by the 

two often difficult to differentiate. 

(continued on next page)
554 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum; Euhrychiopsis lecontei (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Fish predation and lack of suitable overwintering habitat likely factors limiting 

weevil populations. Augmentation 

with larvae and/or eggs ineffective 

for increasing adult weevil counts or 

decreasing weed density. Augmentation 

with adults increases weevil 

densities the year following release. 

Establishment in OR suspected but not 

confirmed.

Predation; Habitat

Native host is Myriophyllum sibiricum

Kom. Feeds on other native 

Myriophyllum spp. when densities are 

high, but due to lowered fecundity, 

weevil impact is considered to 

be significantly less on all native 

Myriophyllum spp. than on Eurasian 

watermilfoil.

State (29,30,31,32,33)

198, 334, 335, 356, 357, 358, 359, 923, 

1233, 1653, 1654

Country

Notes (continued)

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Phytobius leucogaster (Marsham)

Litodactylus leucogaster (Marsham)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

No

Not established

Recovered 1.5km away after three 

months but not recovered since 1979.

USDA (3)

194, 923
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 555

Table

2

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Triaenodes tarda Milne

(Trichoptera: Leptoceridae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1980

Yes

Variable

Extremely abundant population virtually 

eliminated weed from one lake in 1979 

where fish apparently not present. 

In other locations impact from larval 

herbivory minimal. Intentional transfer 

of approximately 3,500 larvae to new 

lake unsuccessful, possibly due to cold 

weather and fish predation.

Predation; Climate

Also feeds on native plant species 

but preferred Myriophyllum spp. in 

laboratory tests.

BCME

964, 1573

Malvaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Malvaceae

Abutilon theophrasti Medik.

Asia

velvetleaf

Niesthrea louisianica Sailer

(Heteroptera: Rhopalidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1985

Yes

Variable

At some locations, in combination with 

pathogenic fungi significantly decreased 

seed viability and seedling emergence 

compared to either the insect or fungi 

alone. At other sites where large 

augmentative releases of insects made, 

seed viability significantly reduced in 

area of establishment. As cold weather 

slows insect population growth, 

re-introductions most practical.

Climate

USDA (11)

1027, 1028, 1718
556 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Onagraceae Orobanchaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Onagraceae

Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara

Jussiaea repens L.

Indo-Australia

water primrose

Altica foveicollis (Jacoby)

Altica foeveicollis Jacoby

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Thailand

pre 1989

Yes

Heavy

Augmentative releases resulted in 

seasonal but satisfactory control.

NBCRC

1326, 1328, 1329

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche cernua Loefl. var. cumana

(Wallr.) Beck 

Orobanche cumana Wallr.

In Russia and the Ukraine, the 

literature reports of releases made on 

both Orobanche cernua Loefl. and O. 

cumana Wallr. Orobanche cumana

has since been synonomized with 

O. cernua Loefl. var. cumana (Wallr.) 

Beck. Consequently, releases in both 

Russia and the Ukraine are reported 

for C. cernua Loefl. var. cumana only.

Eurasia

broomrape, sunflower broomrape

2041

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Former Yugoslavia

1960s

Yes

Medium

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Can achieve 

considerable control by destroying up 

to 96% of seeds. Populations limited by 

parasitism and low temperatures.

Parasitism; Climate

PPIB

1085, 1098, 1716
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 557

Table

2

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche cernua; Phytomyza orobanchia (continued)

Romania

1970s

Yes

Medium

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Larvae can 

destroy up to 65% of seeds in some 

years. Mechanical separation of 

larvae from their parasites increased 

effectiveness.

Parasitism

1003

Russia

1960s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Pupae collected 

and stored during winter and released 

before the emergence of new shoots 

in spring. Efforts made to exclude 

parasites. Provides substantial control of 

infestations over a large area.

Parasitism

994, 1015, 1098

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche cernua; Phytomyza orobanchia (continued)

Ukraine

1960s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Destroying up 

to 94% of peduncles, allowing significant 

yield increases for many crop species.

Parasitism

629, 994, 1716

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
558 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Orobanchaceae (continued) Orobanchaceae

Orobanche crenata; Phytomyza orobanchia (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche crenata Forsk.

Eurasia

broomrape, bean broomrape

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Egypt

1999

Yes

Medium

Led to capsule infestation rate of 

70% by Phytomyza compared to 

27% natural infestation rate in fields 

without releases. Larvae consumed all 

seeds within infested capsules. Though 

this led to decreased input into soil 

seed bank, insufficient to control weed 

population completely.

WRCL

24, 754, 1941

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Morocco

1996

Yes

Variable

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Infested stems 

collected and stored during winter and 

released before the emergence of new 

shoots in spring. Can reduce viable 

seed production by 95% which controls 

the weed in low to moderate infested 

fields, but is still sufficient to contribute 

to seed bank (and is thus ineffective) in 

highly infested fields.

UHG

33, 994, 1941
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 559

Table

2

Orobanchaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Orobanchaceae

Orobanche spp.

Eurasia

broomrape

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Turkmenistan

1960s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically 

insufficient to avoid economic damage 

by Orobanche spp.; consequently, 

inundative releases made to temporarily 

increase Phytomyza populations. 

Can achieve considerable control by 

destroying up to 100% of seeds.

994

Orobanchaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Orobanchaceae

Phelipanche aegyptiaca (Pers.) Pomel

Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.

Eurasia

broomrape

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Uzbekistan

1970s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Can achieve 

considerable control by destroying up to 

89% of seeds.

994
560 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Orobanchaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Orobanchaceae

Phelipanche ramosa (L.) Pomel

Orobanche ramosa L.

Eurasia

broomrape, branched broomrape

922, 1463

Phytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Orobanchaceae

Phelipanche ramosa; Phytomyza orobanchia (continued)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Egypt

2001

Yes

Medium

Led to capsule infestation rate of 

61% by Phytomyza compared to 

33% natural infestation rate in fields 

without releases. Larvae consumed all 

seeds within infested capsules. Though 

this led to decreased input into soil 

seed bank, insufficient to control weed 

population completely.

WRCL

24, 754, 1941

Former Yugoslavia

1960s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Can achieve 

considerable control by destroying up 

to 96% of seeds. Populations limited by 

parasitism and low temperatures.

Parasitism; Climate

PPIB

994, 1085, 1716

Romania

1970s

Yes

Slight

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Larvae can 

destroy up to 20% of seeds in some 

years. Mechanical separation of 

larvae from their parasites increased 

effectiveness.

Parasitism

1003

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 561

Table

2

Orobanchaceae

Phelipanche ramosa; Phytomyza orobanchia (continued)

Russia

1960s

Yes

Medium

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Achieving up 

to 80% control, allowing a significant 

increase in crop production. Widely 

applied.

Parasitism

AUPPI

629, 994, 1015, 1098

Ukraine

1950s

Yes

Heavy

Natural populations typically insufficient 

to avoid economic damage by 

Orobanche; consequently, inundative 

releases made to temporarily increase 

Phytomyza populations. Destroying up 

to 94% of peduncles, allowing significant 

yield increases for many crop species.

Parasitism

629, 994, 1716

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Poaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Poaceae

Spartina alterniflora Loisel.

Atlantic and Gulf Coasts of North 

America, Caribbean, South America

spartina, smooth cordgrass

Prokelisia marginata (Van Duzee)

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

United States of America

2000

Yes

Variable

Redistributed from Spartina alterniflora

in CA to WA. Additional populations from 

GA, RI, and VA USA released along with 

the CA population in order to ascertain 

best climatic fit for WA. Following 

release in WA, populations grew 

explosively during first summer and 

caused visible damage to plants by fall, 

including up to 50% reduced biomass 

and up to 90% reduction in seed 

viability. High overwintering mortality 

led to annual reductions of populations 

followed by steady annual increases 

at some populations, but extinctions at 

others. By 2007, aggressive treatment 

program resulted in herbicide application 

at all spartina-infested regions of WA. 

(continued on next page)
562 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

United States of America (continued)

Whether Prokelisia marginata is capable 

of persisting and suppressing sparse 

surviving shoots is unknown. Of the four 

populations experimentally released in 

2004, RI and CA populations appeared 

most effective under WA conditions. 

Other control methods; Climate

State (22,48)

609, 672, 674, 675, 676, 677, 1953

Poaceae

Spartina alterniflora; Prokelisia marginata (continued)

Country

Notes (continued)

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

2003

Yes

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Poaceae

Spartina anglica C. E. Hubb.

Spartina anglica arose in England as 

a result of chromosome doubling by 

Spartina ×townsendii H. & J. Groves, 

the sterile hybrid between the native 

European Spartina maritima (Curtis) 

Fernald and the introduced North 

American Spartina alterniflora Loisel.

England

spartina, English cordgrass

Prokelisia marginata (Van Duzee)

(Hemiptera: Delphacidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Poaceae

Spartina anglica; Prokelisia marginata (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Redistributed from Spartina alterniflora

to S. anglica. Following release, 

populations typically grew explosively 

during their first summer and caused 

visible damage to the plants by fall, 

including up to 50% reduced biomass 

and up to 90% reduction in seed 

viability. High overwintering mortality 

led to annual reductions of populations 

followed by steady annual increases 

at some populations, but extinctions at 

others. By 2007, aggressive treatment 

program resulted in herbicide application 

at all spartina-infested regions of WA. 

Whether Prokelisia marginata is capable 

of persisting and suppressing sparse 

surviving shoots is unknown.

Other control methods; Climate

State (22,48)

672, 677

Country

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 563

Table

2

Polygonaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Polygonaceae

Rumex obtusifolius L.

Eurasia

broadleaf dock

Gastrophysa atrocyanea Motschulsky

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Polygonaceae

Rumex obtusifolius (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

Japan

1976

Yes

Heavy

Quickly established, multiplied and 

spread. Populations of the beetle 

reached satisfactory levels within 

4 years of release.

MAF, PIJ

691, 1250, 1319, 1320

South Korea

2007

Yes

Heavy

Established rapidly in field of release. 

Reduced final fresh weight and flower 

stalk formation by 80%; significantly 

decreased seed production. 

1429, 1430

Ostrinia palustralis memnialis (Walker)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

References

South Korea

2007

Yes

Heavy

Stem and root damage by larvae 

resulted in death of over 98% of stems 

at release location within 30 days of 

release.

1429, 1430
564 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

South America

water hyacinth, waterhyacinth, 

Majavani, keladi bunting, phak top 

chawaa, sawah, ècèng, etjeng padi, 

luc bình, beda bin, ye padauk

Acremonium zonatum (Sawada) W. 

Gams

(Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales)

Pontederiaceae Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Mexico

pre 2006

Yes

Heavy

Strain Mx-WH-26. In combination with 

Cercospora piaropi and Neochetina spp. 

provided excellent control in a reservoir.

IMTA

1163

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Bellura densa (Walker)

Arzama densa Walker

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Yes

Variable

High populations, such as following 

augmentative releases, significantly 

reduced weed cover and biomass in 

some ponds, but had little impact on 

density or cover in others. Natural 

populations greatly hindered by 

parasitism, predation and disease. 

Agent feeds on native and economically 

important species, precluding its use 

elsewhere as biocontrol agent.

Parasitism; Predation; Disease

Feeds on taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) 

Schott), the native Pontederia cordata

L., and other species in the Araceae and 

Pontederiaceae.

USAE, USDA (5), State (23)

241, 242, 304, 701, 1919, 1920
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 565

Table

2

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Cercospora piaropi Tharp

Cercospora rodmanii Conway

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Historically two species of Cercospora

were recognized in discussions 

regarding fungal biological control 

of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) 

Solms: C. piaropi Tharp and C. 

rodmanii Conway. Recent studies 

suggest the pathogens may be the 

same, and C. rodmanii should be 

recognized as a later synonym for the 

currently accepted C. piaropi. Though 

disagreements and difficulties remain 

in this taxonomic group, the editors of 

this catalogue support the idea that 

the Cercospora pathogens utilized 

for biological control of E. crassipes

are the same. Cercospora piaropi

is among the most widespread and 

commonly found pathogens of E. 

crassipes worldwide. Consequently, 

only those countries where this 

species has been utilized/distributed 

intentionally are listed in this 

catalogue.

987, 1284, 1789

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Cercospora piaropi (continued)

Mexico

pre 2006

Yes

Heavy

Strain Mx-WH-15.1. In combination with 

Acremonium zonatum and Neochetina

spp. provided excellent control in a 

reservoir.

IMTA

1163

United States of America

1973

Yes

Variable

Capable of decreasing waterhyacinth 

biomass, and in some instances under 

right conditions has caused substantial 

decline of weed populations. Longterm success of this species with only 

a single application unlikely when 

the host growth is rapid. Combined 

feeding by the Neochetina weevils and 

infection with this fungus has additive 

effects. Patent obtained 1978, EPA 

Experimental Use Permit obtained 1979. 

Successful large-scale aerial application 

of Abbott formulation 1980. Not formally 

registered as a bioherbicide.

State (35)

242, 298, 329, 591, 1789

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
566 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina bruchi Hustache

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Argentina

1974

Yes

Heavy

After six years water surface cover of 

weed reduced from 50% to at most 8%.

USDA (13)

463

Bolivia

pre 1995

Yes

Unknown

Weevils introduced from warmer regions 

(Santa Cruz de la Sierra) where weed 

not problematic, to temperate regions 

(Tarija) where weed is serious problem 

in summer. Impact unknown.

FAO

1044

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina eichhorniae Warner

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Bolivia

pre 1995

Yes

Unknown

Weevils introduced from warmer regions 

(Santa Cruz de la Sierra) where weed 

not problematic, to temperate regions 

(Tarija) where weed is serious problem 

in summer. Impact unknown.

FAO

1044
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 567

Table

2

Rosaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rosa multiflora Thunb.

Asia

multiflora rose

Phyllocoptes fructiphilus Keifer

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

United States of America

post 1968

Yes

Variable

The mite transmits a virus that causes 

rose rosette disease (RRD), though the 

disease is spread by grafting as well. 

Both the mite and disease have spread 

widely on their own and by artificial 

means. The disease takes ~ 2-6 years 

to kill Rosa multiflora. Large infected 

plants can still successfully produce 

seed, perpetuating the weed population. 

Mites can only effectively transmit 

the disease when feeding on rapidly 

growing plants, which only occurs in 

the spring or after abundant rainfall. 

Dispersing mites do not infect many 

plants that are greater than ~100 m from 

heavily infested plants, so geographic 

spread of RRD is relatively slow except 

within densely populated patches. 

(continued at top of next column)

Rosaceae

Rosa multiflora; Phyllocoptes fructiphilus (continued)

Country

Notes (continued)

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America (continued)

Public concern over risk of damage to 

commercial, ornamental, and native 

roses has prevented efforts to further 

distribute the disease or mite, though 

both are continuing to spread on their 

own. 

Plant stage

Also infects native, ornamental, and 

commercial roses.

State (47,44,46,41)

31, 518, 547, 1448, 1698, 1806, 1897, 

1995
568 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed

Table

2

Solanaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Solanaceae

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.

North America, South America

silverleaf nightshade, satansbos

Ditylenchus phyllobius (Thorne)

Nothanguina phyllobia Thorne, 

Orrina phyllobia (Thorne)

(Tylenchida: Anguinidae)

544, 581

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1974

Yes

Heavy

Inoculation led to rapid spread of 

nematodes which resulted in reduced 

plant biomass and density. Nematode 

activity depends on moist conditions. 

This weed species and its agent are 

native to the USA.

Habitat; Land use (moist conditions 

needed)

USDA (6)

544, 1363, 1405, 1577

Verbenaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara L. sens. lat.

Lantana camara subsp. aculeata

Moldenke, Lantana camara var. 

aculeata (L.) Moldenke, Lantana 

aculeata L., Lantana camara aculeata

Comprises a complex of horticultural/

weedy hybrids and closely related 

species within the section Camara.

Original parent species likely native to 

tropical Americas

lantana, kauboica, tataramoa, bands, 

guphul, nagaairi, phullaki, putus, 

tantbi, vieille fille, chiponiwe (Shona), 

tick berry, bahug-bahug, sapinit, phaka-krong, talamoa, prickly lantana

Aceria lantanae (Cook)

Eriophyes lantanae Cook

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 2. Native Organisms Intentionally Redistributed 569

Table

2

United States of America

pre 1976

Yes

Unknown

Intentionally utilized in the 1970s, 

though native to FL so populations 

already widespread in south. Heavy 

infestations observed after an 

exceptionally wet season in 1998, 

resulted in large stands of lantana 

being devoid of mature flowers. Results 

of intentional redistributions in 1970s 

unknown.

FDA

66, 474, 973, 1698

Redistribution

Country

Year

Established

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Aceria lantanae (continued)
570 Biological Control of Weeds
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 571

Table

3

TABLE 3. PREVIOUSLY USED OR POTENTIAL AGENTS FOUND IN EXOTIC RANGES

WHERE THEIR DELIBERATE RELEASE IS NOT RECORDED

Identification/Release Information 

Entries are listed alphabetically according to the country where the 

agent was recorded as established, accompanied by the year the agent 

was first recorded, when known. In some instances, organisms initially 

introduced accidentally or illegally into a country were subsequently 

approved for redistribution within that country by the appropriate 

authorities. In these instances, the first year of intentional redistribution 

is also given. The original source of each species is typically not 

known and is listed as such. However, in some cases, the pathway of 

accidental introduction is known for certain. For these cases, the source 

of the accidental/adventive population is given, preceded by “Ex.” 

When the population did not originate directly from the agent’s native 

range, the countries or regions from where it originated are given, 

preceded by “via”. For example, a species that originated in Argentina 

and was intentionally introduced into India prior to the agent naturally 

crossing the border from India into Nepal would be stated as: Nepal 

Ex. Argentina via India.

Current Status 

Establishment of each species is given when known, but is typically 

“Yes” for all entries on this list. The current abundance and impact of 

established agents are then stated using key choices pre-determined 

for the ease of quick data summary. Agent abundance is represented 

by seven categories: Rare, Limited, Moderate, High, Variable, Too 

early post release, and Unknown. Agent impact is represented by 

eight categories: None, Slight, Medium, Heavy, Variable, Too early 

post release, and Unknown. In order to place the agent impact into 

a geographical context, the scale of impact is also provided. The 

four categories for scale of impact include: Localized, Regional, 

Widespread throughout range, and Unknown. Because the choices 

selected for abundance, impact, and scale of impact are subjective 

estimates by the editors, an additional notes section is provided 

which includes a brief summary of the status for each release system. 

Abbreviations used in the notes section to denote sub-regions of a 

country are provided along with their corresponding regions at the 

front of this catalogue immediately following the Table of Contents. 

If the biocontrol agent has been observed in the field attacking 

plant species other than those targeted for control, this information 

is included. Likewise, factors believed to limit the efficacy of any 

particular release are listed when known.
572 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Anacardiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Anacardiaceae

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

South America

christmas berry, Brazilian pepper tree, 

Brazilian holly, wilelaiki, Florida holly

Megastigmus transvaalensis (Hussey)

(Hymenoptera: Torymidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Hawaii USA

1971

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Overall damage to seeds moderate; 

fluctuates between 10% and 80%, 

depending on time of year.

93, 793, 796, 1617, 1964 

United States of America

1961

Ex. Unknown

Y

pre 2011

Yes

Variable

Variable

Redistributed within FL. Wasp damage 

prevents seed germination. In FL, 

damage to drupes ranges from 22-76%; 

attack varies by season and location. 

Also found attacking the exotic Schinus 

molle L. in CA.

State (3), USDA (4)

372, 374, 702, 1617, 1964 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Anacardiaceae

Schinus terebinthifolius; Megastigmus transvaalensis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 573

Table

3

Apiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Apiaceae

Conium maculatum L.

Eurasia

poison hemlock, hemlock

Agonopterix alstroemeriana (Clerck)

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Zealand

1986

Ex. Unknown

Y

1993

Yes

High

Variable

Redistributed throughout both North 

and South Islands. Feeding on flowers 

reduces seed production. Widespread 

and commonly causing complete 

defoliation in some areas, though impact 

only limited at other sites.

MWLR

720, 761, 818, 1064 

United States of America

1973

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 1984

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Commercially available for purchase 

so redistributions have occurred in 

numerous states in numerous years. 

In Pacific Northwest can reduce 

seed production and cause severe 

defoliation. Changes in stand density 

not documented.

State (4,9,14,15)

107, 229, 332, 334, 896, 1105, 1502, 

1524 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Apiaceae

Conium maculatum; Agonopterix alstroemeriana (continued)
574 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Apocynaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Apocynaceae

Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br.

Madagascar

rubber vine

Maravalia cryptostegiae (Cummins) 

Ono

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Papua New Guinea

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Found infecting ornamental Cryptostegia 

grandiflora growing in Port Moresby.

1403

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Araceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes L.

tropical Americas, Asia, Malesia, 

Australia (NT)

water lettuce, Nile cabbage, chok, 

jawg

Neohydronomus affinis Hustache

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cote d’Ivoire

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Deliberately released in 1998, though 

found to already be present in some 

regions likely as a result of natural 

spread from Ghana. Populations 

subsequently not differentiated. 

Less than two years post release, 

Neohydronomus affinis had controlled 

the weed at the six major infestations 

that were inspected.

IITA

939, 1347 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 575

Table

3

Araceae

Pistia stratiotes; Neohydronomus affinis (continued)

Zambia

1991

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Intentionally released in 1991, at which 

time weevil found to be already present. 

Both populations subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Providing 

excellent control in the region of release.

1314, 1587 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asparagaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asparagaceae

Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce

southern Africa

bridal creeper, smilax

Puccinia myrsiphylli (Thüm.) Wint.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Zealand

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

After accidental introduction, spread 

naturally throughout majority of weed’s 

range. Damage typically severe, causing 

up to 100% premature defoliation.

MWLR

721, 722, 761, 1927 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
576 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Passalora ageratinae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.) R. M. 

King & H. Rob.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., 

Eupatorium glandulosum Michx.

Mexico

crofton weed, Mexican devil weed, 

Maui pamakani, pamakani, banmara

Passalora ageratinae Crous & A.R. 

Wood

Phaeoramularia sp.

Cercospora eupatorii Peck, 

Phaeoramularia eupatorii-odorati

(Yen) Liu & Guo

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

362, 987

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Australia

1954

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country Found

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Australia (continued)

First detected in 1954, though probably 

carried by Procecidochares utilis adult 

flies when they were introduced in 

1952 from Mexico via Hawaii. Likely 

to have spread beyond NSW, though 

no specimens have officially been 

collected. Has led to successful control 

of Ageratina adenophora, which is now 

far less invasive and regarded as only a 

minor weed.

513, 1216, 1223, 1307, 1989 

Hawaii USA

1945

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Undocumented in Hawaii until 1956 on 

MA when Australians traced the origin 

of their fungus as likely arriving via 

Hawaiian collections of Procecidochares 

utilis. Abundance and impact on MA 

unknown.

325, 362, 513, 1307 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 577

Table

3

India

1963

Ex. Unknown via Hawaii USA via 

Australia via New Zealand

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1307

Nepal

1984

Ex. Unknown via Hawaii USA via 

Australia via New Zealand via India

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1307

New Zealand

1958

Ex. Unknown via Hawaii USA via 

Australia

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

(continued at top of next column)

New Zealand (continued) 

Probably carried by Procecidochares 

utilis adult flies when they were 

introduced from Mexico via Hawaii via 

Australia in 1958, though not officially 

recorded as present until 1962. 

Established throughout range of weed. 

No formal impact evaluation occurred 

so unknown if subsequent decrease in 

weed due entirely to impact from fungus 

and fly, or changes in land management. 

DSIR

761, 807, 1307 

People’s Republic of China

1984

Ex. Unknown via Hawaii USA via 

Australia via New Zealand via India via 

Nepal

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Causes reductions in the photosynthetic 

rate, transpiration rate and chlorophyll 

content, thus reducing plant height and 

number of leaves and flowers. However, 

overall impact to weed populations 

unknown.

1307, 2062 

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Passalora ageratinae (continued)

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Passalora ageratinae (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
578 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora (continued)

Asteraceae

Ageratina adenophora; Procecidochares utilis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Procecidochares utilis Stone

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Nepal

1973

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via New Zealand via India

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causes some reduction in vigor, growth, 

and density of the plant; however, heavy 

parasitism has reduced agent efficacy.

763, 965, 1307, 1935 

People’s Republic of China

1984

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via New Zealand via India via Nepal

Y

1985

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Spread naturally via Nepal, but 

subsequently tested for host specificity, 

mass produced, and redistributed 

intentionally. Established readily and 

spread rapidly. Despite infestation rates 

up to 75%, overall impact minimal. 

Populations have since decreased due 

to native parasitoids.

Parasitism

KIEC

763, 920, 1307, 1935, 2062, 2063 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 579

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ageratina riparia (Regel) R. M. King & 

H. Rob.

Eupatorium riparium Regel

Mexico

mistflower, Hamakua pamakani, 

creeping crofton weed

Entyloma ageratinae Barreto & Evans 

Cercosporella ageratina, 

Cercosporella sp.

(Exobasidiomycetes: Entylomatales)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

2010

Ex. Unknown

Y

2011

Yes

High

Variable

Prior to accidental introduction, had 

been candidate for introduction and 

study. Under optimal weather conditions 

conducive for epidemic development 

has been recorded to reduce mistflower 

density to less than 5% of former 

abundance, seeing a return of other 

plant species. Not as effective in 

pastures with high light availability.

Habitat; Climate

CSIRO

413, 1261, 1268, 1623, 1625 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

North America

common ragweed, ragweed, annual 

ragweed

Ophraella communa LeSage

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Japan

1996

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia

which it can completely defoliate. 

Will attack/reproduce on A. trifida

when A. artemisiifolia defoliated, and 

adults will feed slightly on Xanthium 

strumarium for survival in absence 

of preferred Ambrosia spp. Effects of 

complete defoliation to A. artemisiifolia

populations unknown. 

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. but 

will attack/reproduce on the exotic A. 

trifida L. and adults will feed slightly 

on the exotic Xanthium strumarium L. 

Introduced Helianthus spp. attacked 

rarely.

483, 1271, 1938, 2042, 2043 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
580 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Ophraella communa (continued)

People’s Republic of China

2001

Ex. Unknown

Y

2007

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Significantly damages weed throughout 

agent’s range, especially moist/humid 

regions. In combination with Epiblema 

strenuana, control of weed population 

often complete.

Climate

CAAS-BCI

624, 696, 697, 2063, 2064, 2065 

South Korea

2000

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Currently everywhere in Korea; not 

intentionally redistributed as doing very 

well without human intervention.

697, 1316, 1708, 1709, 2043 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ponometia candefacta (Hübner)

Tarachidia candefacta (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Bulgaria

2011

Ex. Canada, USA (CA) via Russia via 

Ukraine

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

AUPPI, AAFC, ZIAS, State (5)

628, 640, 1014, 1015, 1020, 1168, 1568, 

1774 

Romania

2011

Ex. Canada, USA (CA) via Russia via 

Ukraine

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

AUPPI, AAFC, ZIAS, State (5)

628, 640, 1014, 1015, 1020, 1168, 1568, 

1774 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 581

Table

3

Ukraine

1999

Ex. Canada, USA (CA) via Russia

N

Yes

Rare

None

AUPPI, AAFC, ZIAS, State (5)

628, 640, 1014, 1015, 1020, 1168, 1520, 

1568 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Pustula tragopogonis (Pers.) Thines

Albugo tragopogonis (Pers.) Gray

Pustula obtusata (Link) Rost, 

Albugo tragopogi (Pers.) S. F. Gray

(Incertae sedis: Albuginales)

538, 987, 1714, 1792

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Russia

1965

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Early reports described 90% reduction 

in plant weight and 95-100% reduction 

in seed production following field 

applications. More recently damage 

levels of 12% to 17% have been 

reported when used as a bioherbicide.

624, 750, 1017, 1568, 1923 

Asteraceae

Ambrosia artemisiifolia; Ponometia candefacta (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Ambrosia trifida L.

North America

giant ragweed

Ophraella communa LeSage

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Japan

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia but will 

attack/reproduce on A. trifida when A. 

artemisiifolia completely defoliated. 

Adults will feed only slightly on Xanthium 

strumarium for survival in absence of 

preferred Ambrosia spp.

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. but 

will attack/reproduce on the exotic A. 

trifida L. and adults will feed slightly 

on the exotic Xanthium strumarium L. 

Introduced Helianthus spp. attacked 

rarely.

483, 1271, 1938, 2043 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
582 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

South Korea

2000

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Currently everywhere in Korea; not 

intentionally redistributed as doing very 

well without human intervention.

697, 1316, 1708, 1709, 2043 

Asteraceae

Ambrosia trifida; Ophraella communa (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia xanthii Schwein. f.sp. 

ambrosiae-trifidae S.W.T. Batra

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

People’s Republic of China

2002

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Initially only occurred in restricted 

localities. A subsequent outbreak 

caused withering of foliage and 

significant reduction of weed populations 

due to premature death. At high 

concentrations, serious dieback occurs.

624, 1118 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Campuloclinium macrocephalum

(Less.) DC.

South America

pompom weed

Puccinia eupatorii Dietel

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

2006

Ex. Unknown

Y

2008

Yes

High

Too early post release

Under investigation as potential agent 

when discovered already established. 

Has since spread widely. A study 

initiated to measure field impact of the 

rust included deliberate augmentation to 

boost abundance and ensure equitable 

levels of infection at each of the study 

sites. Though now widely dispersed, still 

too early to determine overall impact.

ARC-PPRI

471, 992, 1198, 1200, 2006 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 583

Table

3

Asteraceae

Carduus tenuiflorus Curtis

western Europe, northern Africa

winged thistle, slenderflower thistle

Puccinia carduorum Jacky

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1951

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

This strain specific to Carduus 

tenuiflorus though its overall impact on 

this species unknown.

State (14)

183, 620, 621, 1506, 1943 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea cyanus L.

Eurasia

cornflower, bachelor’s button

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Found infesting Centaurea spp., spread 

naturally to C. cyanus. Attacks more 

than 30% of capitula in WA. Reduced 

seed production at this rate not likely 

to impact overall population as higher 

attack rates by Urophora spp. on more 

preferred Centaurea hosts insufficient to 

reduce stand densities. Impact minimal 

in OR.

State (9,15)

332, 334, 335, 1502, 1509, 1735, 1736 
584 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa Lam.

Eurasia

diffuse knapweed

Puccinia jaceae var. diffusae Savile

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Widespread in BC; dispersed 1400 

km in 7 years. More abundant in moist 

conditions and only virulent on seedlings 

on which it decreases root and leaf 

biomass. 

117, 2051 

United States of America

1996

Ex. Unknown via Canada

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Erratically infects from 1-62% of plants. 

Although most infected plants remain 

vigorous, some plants become severely 

infected and debilitated. Overall impact 

on population minor.

332, 929, 2018 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa; Puccinia jaceae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 585

Table

3

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

Y

post 1979

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Spread naturally from releases made 

in Canada. Officially approved for 

redistribution in the USA in 1989. Well 

established throughout most Centaurea 

diffusa and C. stoebe sens. lat.-infested 

areas of USA, particularly the Northwest. 

More widely distributed than Urophora 

affinis but less abundant. Together they 

contribute to seed reduction of more 

than 50% at some sites. Seed reduction 

may retard rate at which weed spreads, 

but has not appreciably lowered stand 

density because sufficient seeds remain. 

Not considered as important or effective 

as Larinus spp. on this weed, and 

frequently inferior competitor to Larinus

spp. and Metzneria.

Interspecific competition

State (6,7,9,14,15), USDA (10)

39, 332, 335, 929, 1501, 1509, 1512, 

1578, 1635, 1735, 2018 

Asteraceae

Centaurea diffusa (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea L. nothosubsp. 

pratensis (W.D.J. Koch) Čelak.

Centaurea ×moncktonii C. E. Britton, 

Centaurea jacea x nigra

Centaurea pratensis auct. N. Amer.

Meadow knapweed represents an 

array of intermediates derived by 

hybridization and backcrossing 

among the various cytotypes of the 

Centaurea jacea complex.

Europe

meadow knapweed, Protean 

knapweed, Bemis grass

974

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

Y

1983

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

(continued on next page)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
586 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

United States of America (continued)

Spread naturally from releases made 

in Canada. Officially approved for 

redistribution in the USA in 1989. Well 

established at one site in CA where 

impact on seed production only minor 

and less than Larinus spp. Infests 

up to 40% seed heads in OR where 

impact is insignificant. More effective 

and widespread in WA. Differentiation 

between brown and meadow knapweed 

often difficult in WA and other parts of 

Pacific Northwest. Additional attention 

required to confirm identities of past 

reported infestations.

State (9,15)

38, 39, 332, 334, 335, 1502, 1509, 

1578, 2020, 2033 

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea; Urophora quadrifasciata (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea jacea L. subsp. jacea

Centaurea jacea L.

Europe

brown knapweed

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

Y

1983

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Spread naturally from releases made 

in Canada. Officially approved for 

redistribution in the USA in 1989. 

Widespread in OR where larvae feed on 

seeds but do not harm plant. Reduced 

seed production at this rate not likely 

to impact overall population as higher 

attack rates by Urophora spp. on more 

preferred Centaurea hosts insufficient 

to reduce stand densities. Abundance 

limited in WA. Differentiation between 

brown and meadow knapweed often 

difficult in WA and other parts of Pacific 

Northwest. Additional attention required 

to confirm identities of past reported 

infestations.

State (15)

38, 332, 335, 1509, 1736 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 587

Table

3

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis L.

Eurasia, Mediterranean

yellow starthistle

Chaetorellia succinea (Costa)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1991

Ex. Greece

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America (continued)

Unintended introduction via 

contaminated seed heads thought 

to contain Chaetorellia australis. 

Redistributed unknowingly along 

with C. australis. Often considered a 

more voracious seed predator than 

Eustenopus villosus. Larval feeding 

typically destroys up to 80% of seeds 

within attacked seed heads and 

decreases pollinator visitation. 

E. villosus oviposition deters 

C. succinea oviposition. In conjunction 

with E. villosus, can reduce seed 

production by >70% overall. Only at low 

initial plant densities can this impact 

the population growth; at many study 

sites plants compensate for decreased 

seedling density by growing larger and 

producing more seeds. Consumes 

higher proportion of seeds when plants 

uninfected with Puccinia jacea var. 

solstitialis.

Interspecific competition

Found causing minimal damage to 

an uncommon variety of safflower in 

CA. Also attacks the exotic Centaurea 

melitensis L. and C. sulfurea Willd. Not 

approved for redistribution.

USDA (7), State (6,9,14,15)

76, 78, 79, 124, 616, 1369, 1514, 1515, 

1765, 1767 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis; Chaetorellia succinea (continued)
588 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Centaurea solstitialis (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1991

Ex. Russia via Canada

N

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

First identified on other Centaurea spp., 

spread naturally to C. solstitialis. May 

attack C. solstitialis elsewhere in its 

range, but only documented doing so 

in SW Oregon where it infests less than 

1% of plants.

State (15)

332, 334, 335, 335, 1509 

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea spp.

Spans several species including 

Centaurea jacea L. subsp. jacea, 

Centaurea jacea L. subsp. nigra (L.) 

Bonnier & Layens, and Centaurea 

jacea L. nothosubsp. pratensis

(W.D.J. Koch) Čelak.

Eurasia

black knapweed, brown knapweed, 

meadow knapweed

Urophora jaceana L.

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1937

Ex. Unknown

Y

1987

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 589

Table

3

Asteraceae

Centaurea spp.; Urophora jaceana (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Canada (continued)

Adventively established in Maritimes 

on Centaurea jacea and C. jacea

subsp. nigra, most likely from Europe. 

Intentionally redistributed to BC on what 

was believed to be C. jacea subsp. 

jacea but has since been identified as 

C. jacea nothosubsp. pratensis. Initially 

established in BC for one year following 

release but not seen subsequently. In 

NS, 75% seed heads attacked. Similar 

to other Urophora spp., galls stunt plant 

growth and decrease seed production. 

In other knapweed systems in Canada, 

high fly populations led to no apparent 

decline in plant density even though 

flies reduced knapweed seed production 

substantially. Parasitism helps regulate 

populations of this agent.

Parasitism

AAFC

117, 153, 205, 727, 739, 742, 1299, 

1645 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe L. sens. lat.

Centaurea stoebe L. subsp. 

micranthos (Gulger) Hayek, 

Centaurea maculosa Lam.

The two cytotypes of Centaurea 

stoebe L. sens. lat. are recognized 

as different species: C. stoebe L. is 

the appropriate name for the diploid 

form present throughout Europe while 

the appropriate nomenclature for 

the tetraploid form invasive in North 

America remains to be resolved. The 

editors of this catalogue will refer to 

this species as Centaurea stoebe

sens. lat. until the resolution is made.

Eurasia

spotted knapweed

1296

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

Y

post 1979

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
590 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Centaurea stoebe; Urophora quadrifasciata (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Spread naturally from releases made 

in Canada. Officially approved for 

redistribution in the USA in 1989. Well 

established throughout most Centaurea 

diffusa and C. stoebe sens. lat.-infested 

areas of USA, particularly the Northwest. 

More widely distributed than Urophora 

affinis but less abundant. Together they 

contribute to seed reduction of more 

than 50% at some sites. Seed reduction 

may retard rate at which weed spreads, 

but has not appreciably lowered stand 

density because sufficient seeds remain. 

At other sites, direct effect of Urophora

galls on seed production negligible. Not 

considered as important or effective 

as Larinus spp. on this weed, and 

frequently inferior competitor to Larinus

spp. and Metzneria.

Interspecific competition

State (6,7,9,14,15), USDA (7,10,14)

39, 332, 335, 1005, 1501, 1509, 1512, 

1578, 1635, 1728, 1732, 1735, 1736, 

1992, 2001, 2025

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Centaurea virgata Lam. subsp. 

squarrosa (Boiss.) Gugler

Centaurea squarrosa Willd.

Eurasia, Asia Minor

squarrose knapweed

Urophora quadrifasciata (Meigen)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1979

Ex. Russia via Canada

Y

1989

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

Spread naturally from releases made 

in Canada. Officially approved for 

redistribution in the USA in 1989. 

Though widely distributed, populations 

not as high as Urophora affinis. Only 

somewhat effective causing seed 

reductions in CA. Seed reduction may 

retard rate at which weed spreads, 

but has not appreciably lowered stand 

density of other more highly attacked 

knapweed spp. because sufficient seeds 

remain.

State (9,14,15,21), USDA (10)

332, 335, 1509, 1572, 1580, 1736, 

1912, 2016, 2017, 2031, 2033 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 591

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea; Aceria chondrillae (continued)

Asteraceae

Chondrilla juncea L.

There are three forms of this 

weed in Australia: narrow-leaf (A) 

which was initially most common, 

intermediate-leaf (B), broad-leaf (C). 

Seven genotypes of this weed are 

recognized in North America; five in 

the Pacific Northwest and two on the 

East Coast.

Eurasia

skeleton weed, rush skeletonweed

Aceria chondrillae (Canestrini)

Eriophyes chondrillae (Canestrini)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

32, 1698

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Canada

1993

Ex. Italy via USA

Y

1993

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada (continued)

Spread naturally to Canada following 

releases made in USA in 1977 and 

redistributed intentionally within 

BC though it was not a deliberately 

petitioned and introduced agent. Though 

established at multiple locations in 

BC, weed populations are persisting. 

Mite abundance is low and overall 

abundance is limited. 

BCME

117, 437, 735, 1698 

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia chondrillina Bubák & Syd.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Canada

1992

Ex. Italy via USA

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can stunt and reduce density of young 

plants. More effective in high moisture 

areas and in regions where infected 

overwintering rosettes are not killed by 

harsh temperatures. Though widespread 

in BC, weed populations are persisting. 

Climate

117, 437 
592 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King 

& H. Rob.

Eupatorium odoratum (L.)

Two biotypes of Chromolaena 

odorata have been identified. The 

form in southern Africa (SA) differs 

substantially both morphologically and 

in its higher cold tolerance from the 

more widespread invasive form found 

in Asia and West and Central Africa 

(A/WA). While the widespread A/WA 

biotype can be found throughout the 

tropical Americas and the Caribbean, 

recent molecular studies provide 

strong support for a Cuban or 

Jamaican origin for the SA biotype.

Caribbean, tropical and subtropical 

Americas

chromolaena, Siam weed, triffid weed, 

paraffienbos, kirinyu, kumpai jepang, 

rumput gol kar, sam-solokh, sap sua, 

ya-su’a-mop, Akyeampong weed, 

hagonoy, agonoi, huluhagonoi, pokok 

Tjerman, Awolowo weed, cò hoi

Acalitus adoratus Keifer

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Likely accidentally introduced to 

Malaysia along with the intentionally 

released Apion brunneonigrum

from Trinidad, from where it spread 

throughout Southeast Asia and the 

Pacific.

1221

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Bangladesh 

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 2054 

Federated States of Micronesia

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 1306, 1309, 2054 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 593

Table

3

Guam

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1309, 2054 

India

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1309, 2054 

Indonesia

1991

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 2054 

Laos

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 2054 

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
594 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Malaysia

1970s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 2054 

Myanmar

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 2054 

Northern Mariana Islands

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

418, 1213, 1304, 1309, 2054 

Palau

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1304, 1306, 1309, 2054 

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 595

Table

3

Papua New Guinea

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

419, 1213, 1309, 2054 

People’s Republic of China

1991

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 2054 

Philippines

1987

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 2054 

Singapore

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

418, 1213, 2054 

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
596 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Taiwan

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1048, 1213, 2054 

Thailand

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 1221, 1309, 1332, 2054 

Timor Leste

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 2054 

Vietnam

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though rapidly established and 

dispersed throughout Southeast Asia 

and the Pacific, efficacy in reducing 

vigor and growth of the plant limited.

1213, 2054 

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata; Acalitus adoratus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 597

Table

3

Asteraceae

Chromolaena odorata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Rego 

Barros

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Brunei

1985

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

288, 1939, 2054 

Philippines

1985

Ex. Unknown

Y

1995

Yes

Variable

Variable

Spread naturally throughout Philippines 

by 1994 but also redistributed 

intentionally by 1995. Populations 

typically low. Causes massive 

defoliation during outbreaks, however 

outbreaks infrequent and sporadic and 

possibly limited by parasitism. Inflicts 

most damage in conjunction with 

Cecidochares connexa.

Parasitism

1210, 1211, 1216, 1305, 1309, 1819, 

1939, 2054 

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Eurasia

Canada thistle, creeping thistle, 

Californian thistle, field thistle

Aceria anthocoptes (Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

United States of America

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Can cause significant thinning and 

deformation of leaves under laboratory 

conditions, but has not been properly 

evaluated under field conditions where 

observational evidence suggests it has 

minimal impact.

Has been collected from numerous 

Cirsium spp. native to North America.

361, 1372, 1698 
598 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cassida rubiginosa O.F. Müller

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1901

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes local defoliation and, in 

presence of competing vegetation, can 

decrease thistle biomass. High larval 

parasitism. Though can cause stress to 

individual plants, overall impact minimal. 

Predation; Parasitism

Also feeds on the exotic Carduus 

acanthoides L., C. nutans L., and 

Cirsium vulgare L. though overall 

impact minimal.

AAFC

49, 361, 432, 1186, 1467, 1628, 1841, 

1937 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense; Cassida rubiginosa (continued)

United States of America

1900s

Ex. Unknown

Y

1973

Yes

Variable

Variable

In some areas, can significantly reduce 

biomass and survival of Cirsium 

arvense, with effects of feeding stronger 

than those of plant competition. In 

other regions overall impact appears 

minimal, likely hindered by predation 

and parasitism.

Parasitism; Predation

Feeds on a wide array of plant species 

within the Cardueae, many of which 

are native or of economic importance in 

North America. Not approved and not 

recommended for redistribution. Also 

feeds on Carduus acanthoides L., 

C. nutans L., and Cirsium vulgare L. 

though overall impact minimal.

USDA (1), State (1)

38, 49, 334, 361, 473, 1008, 1105, 1182, 

1937, 2002 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 599

Table

3

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense; Cleonis pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Cleonis pigra (Scopoli)

Cleonus piger (Scopoli)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Canada

1933

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Root mining by this insect may kill 

plants, but regeneration typically 

observed. Overall impact limited.

Also attacks other exotic Cirsium, 

Carduus, Cynara, Onopordum, Arctium, 

and Silybum spp.

1138, 1186, 1467, 1628 

United States of America

1919

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

None

Not frequent or destructive enough to 

exert a regulating impact.

Also attacks numerous other species in 

the Cardueae (including globe artichoke 

and Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten.)

34, 361, 1182 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
600 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Larinus carlinae (Olivier)

Larinus planus (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

694

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Unknown

Y

1989

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though an inadvertent introduction, 

spread rapidly and then intentionally 

redistributed to four other Canadian 

provinces. Abundance and survival 

hindered by harsh overwintering 

conditions and parasitism. A second 

population was later intentionally 

introduced. 

Parasitism; Climate

Also attacks native thistle spp.

117, 361, 432, 1138, 1186 

United States of America

1968

Ex. Unknown

Y

1991

Yes

High

Slight

Localized

Redistributed repeatedly though never 

officially approved for redistribution. 

Cirsium arvense thrives even where 

agent is in high density. In some areas, 

native thistles attacked to much greater 

extent than C. arvense.

Attacks numerous native Cirsium spp.; 

not recommended and not approved for 

redistribution.

State (9,15)

332, 334, 361, 473, 1116, 1182, 1502, 

1506, 1960 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense; Larinus carlinae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 601

Table

3

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Puccinia punctiformis (F. Strauss) 

Röhl.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Puccinia punctiformis is present in at 

least three other countries (Australia, 

Canada and the USA) though 

not listed. It has not been utilized 

intentionally for biological control 

in any country, but is a species of 

interest in New Zealand, hence its 

inclusion in this country only.

761

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

New Zealand

1881

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Appears restricted to Cirsium arvensis

on which it stunts growth and 

reproduction. Widely established but 

usually only some plants in a patch 

will be diseased; occasionally more 

widespread outbreaks occur. 

361, 1062, 1064 

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Terellia ruficauda (Fabricius)

Orellia ruficauda (Fabricius)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Canada

1873

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Destroys some seed but less effective 

against weed than other seed feeding 

agents. Populations limited by 

parasitism and disease. Overall impact 

insufficient to control weed.

Parasitism; Disease

Also found attacking exotic Cirsium 

palustre (L.) Scop. though impact 

assumed to be negligible.

117, 361, 580, 1180, 1186, 1628 
602 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Cirsium arvense; Terellia ruficauda (continued)

United States of America

1873

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Usually infrequent. Seed reduction 

not significant and does not impact 

population. 

361, 1075, 1182, 1556 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Elephantopus mollis Kunth

Elephantopus scaber L. 

In the 4th edition of this catalogue, 

Elephantopus scaber L. was listed 

as a synonym for Elephantopus 

mollis Kunth. Though some release 

records indicate releases were made 

on both species in various regions, 

it is unclear if two species were truly 

present, or if both names were used 

for the same species. More recent 

references indicate the species are 

indeed separate and that the weed 

targeted for biological control is E. 

mollis. Consequently, the editors of 

this version of the catalogue refer 

to E. mollis alone, and list E. scaber

as a name that has been incorrectly 

applied to E. mollis. 

Central America, Caribbean

elephant’s foot, tobacco weed, lata 

hina, tobacco weed, tavoko ni veikau

817, 846

Tetraeuaresta obscuriventris (Loew)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Agent

Species

Classification
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 603

Table

3

Asteraceae

Elephantopus mollis; Tetraeuaresta obscuriventris (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

Niue

1985

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Recorded on Niue though there is no 

record of this weed on Niue.

1940

Tonga

1958

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

None

The weed is still abundant and 

widespread, with little biocontrol activity 

observed.

288, 289, 962, 1940 

Vanuatu

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

None

No significant impact on weed 

throughout established islands.

288, 289, 1940 

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Jacobaea vulgaris Gaertn.

Senecio jacobaea L.

Eurasia, northern Africa

ragwort, tansy ragwort

434, 891, 1064, 1450, 1777

Longitarsus flavicornis (Stephens)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Canada

1971

Ex. England

N

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Initially reported as established only on 

Vancouver Island in mixed populations 

with Longitarsus jacobaeae where it 

reportedly had limited impact on the 

weed. Molecular analyses of recently 

collected material revealed only L. 

jacobaeae; L. flavicornis may have died 

out. Additional evaluation needed to 

confirm presence.

Climate

AAFC

432, 434, 437 
604 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Jacobaea vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus ganglbaueri Heikertinger

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Canada

1978

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on native Senecio spp.

AAFC

434, 437, 822, 1088 

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus gracilis Kutschera

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

(continued at top of next column)

Asteraceae

Jacobaea vulgaris; Longitarsus gracilis (continued)

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada (continued)

Identified in NS; most likely inadvertently 

introduced in mixed shipments of 

Longitarsus jacobaeae from Europe. 

What was believed to be a population of 

L. jacobaeae was redistributed from NS 

to BC in 2005. Subsequent monitoring 

of the BC release site yielded only 

L. gracilis. 

AAFC

434, 437 

Agent

Species

Classification

Longitarsus succineus (Foudras)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

Canada

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

AAFC

434, 437, 1088 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 605

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Puccinia abrupta (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus L.

North America, Central America, 

South America

parthenium weed, parthenium, 

congress grass

Puccinia abrupta Dietel & Holw. var. 

partheniicola (H.S. Jacks.) Parmelee

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Ethiopia

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Regional

Occurs commonly in cool and humid 

areas at mid to high altitudes where 

rainfall varies from 400 to 700 mm. 

Significantly reduces plant height, 

number of leaves, number of branches, 

and total biomass. Reduces seed 

production up to 40%.

Climate

499, 1781 

India

1994

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Strain does not appear to be either 

widespread or aggressive.

499, 555, 1032, 1034 

Kenya

1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

Found only at higher elevations in 

Central; abundant in Nairobi. Strain 

does not appear to be aggressive.

Elevation

499, 1431, 1781, 2005, 2008 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
606 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Mauritius

1967

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Strain does not appear to be either 

widespread or aggressive.

499, 1433, 2008 

Nepal

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Observed in limited locations during dry 

summer but disappearing during rainy 

season when population and growth of 

Parthenium hysterophorus is highest. 

Abundance and impact thus limited.

1664, 1667 

People’s Republic of China

2002

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

499

Republic of South Africa

1995

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Possibly present in South Africa for 

many years prior to 1995. Better suited 

to cooler, high altitude areas in South 

Africa than warmer, low altitude areas 

where the weed is more problematic. 

Overall not abundant. Impact not 

measured.

Climate

499, 1738, 1739, 2006, 2006, 2008 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Puccinia abrupta (continued)

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Puccinia abrupta (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 607

Table

3

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Nepal

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Too early post release

Too early post release

Some feeding damage observed from 

east to west along the Terai Plain 

and inner valleys; also found in a few 

valleys in hills such as Kathmandu. 

Recently introduced so still spreading 

and increasing in abundance. Though 

additional time needed before overall 

impact can be assessed, efficacy 

likely to be limited by shorter period of 

defoliating activity of the beetle, prolific 

seed production by parthenium year 

round, and environmental pollution. 

Pollution

Also found feeding on the exotic 

Xanthium strumarium L.

1665, 1666, 1667 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Pakistan

2007

Ex. Mexico via India

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Larval feeding observed to cause 

defoliation, though overall impact to 

weed populations unknown.

499, 903 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Parthenium hysterophorus; Zygogramma bicolorata (continued)
608 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Pilosella officinarum Vaill.

Hieracium pilosella L.

Eurasia

mouse-ear hawkweed

Puccinia hieracii var. piloselloidarum

(Probst) Jørst.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Zealand

1995

Ex. Unknown

Y

1995

Yes

Limited

Variable

Redistributed throughout both North 

and South Islands. Pilosella officinarum

populations vary in their susceptibility 

to the rust; many resistant to this strain. 

Susceptible patches have growth 

suppressed by 10-20%. Two additional 

strains were later deliberately introduced 

from Ireland to aid in control.

Climate

761, 1064, 1270, 1702 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Rhaponticum repens (L.) Hidalgo

Centaurea repens L., 

Acroptilon repens (L.) DC.

Central Asia

Russian knapweed

792

Puccinia acroptili P. Syd. & Syd.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Canada

1970

Ex. Unknown

Y

1985

Yes

High

Variable

At all sites, some plants appear 

resistant with no negative impact while 

others adjacent have heavy infection 

and collapse. In combination with 

Subanguina picridis galls, severely 

stunts plants and can cause death. 

AAFC

117, 1290 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 609

Table

3

Asteraceae (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Asteraceae

Sonchus arvensis L.

Eurasia

perennial sow-thistle

Cystiphora sonchi (Bremi)

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

United States of America

2012

Ex. Austria via Canada

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Galls were found on only a second 

investigated site, and with two plants 

infested.

1196, 1473 

Asteraceae

Tripleurospermum inodorum (L.) Sch. 

Bip.

Tripleurospermum maritimum (L.) 

W. D. J. Koch subsp. inodorum (L.) 

Appleq., Matricaria perforata Mérat

Diploid and tetraploid forms occur in 

both Europe and North America.

Eurasia

scentless chamomile

60, 1195

Omphalapion hookerorum (Kirby)

Apion hookeri Kirby

Omphalapion hookeri (Kirby)

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

1195, 1286, 1934

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1990

Ex. Unknown

Y

1992

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
610 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Canada (continued)

Additional releases of this population 

were intermixed in populations of those 

intentionally introduced from Germany 

and subsequently not distinguished. 

Up to 78% seed heads attacked by 

Omphalapion hookerorum and up to 

32% by Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi. 

Estimated seed production reduced up 

to 19% by combination of both species. 

Up to 17 O. hookerorum adults found 

per seed head (mean 3.9); dispersing 

up to 2.8 km/yr.

ARC, AAFC

117, 432, 1139, 1185, 1188, 1195, 1197, 

1482 

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

Asteraceae; Tripleurospermum inodorum

Omphalapion hookerorum (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Xanthium spinosum L.

South America

Bathurst burr

Colletotrichum orbiculare (Berk.) Arx

Colletotrichum xanthii Halst.

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

1948

Ex. Unknown

Y

1948

Yes

Variable

Variable

Observed killing large numbers of 

seedlings and plants, and greatly 

reducing bur production in northern 

NSW. Favored by wet summer and 

autumn. Dispersal and efficacy hindered 

by hot, dry conditions. Redistributed 

then patented for use and commercial 

partner produced prototype. Commercial 

development ceased due to inconsistent 

results in field. Further investment 

on improved formulation abandoned 

because of potentially high production 

costs and limited market for product.

Climate

NSW State

206, 1262, 1989 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 611

Table

3

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Euaresta bullans (Wiedemann)

Camaromyia bullans (Wiedemann)

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Australia

1928

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Generally ineffective but may destroy 

local weed stands.

1262, 1989 

Republic of South Africa

1971

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Infests up to 20% of burs.

668

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Asteraceae

Xanthium spinosum (continued) Asteraceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium L.

Xanthium pungens Wallroth, Xanthium 

occidentale Bertol., Xanthium italicum

Moretti, Xanthium canadense Mill.

A dozen or more taxa (treated as 

species, subspecies, varieties, 

and/or forms) are often referred 

to as Xanthium strumarium sens. 

lat. in Europe and America and are 

lumped as well by the editors of this 

catalogue/database. Four of these 

species are recognized in Australia 

within the Noogoora burr complex 

(Xanthium occidentale Bertol., X. 

italicum Moretti, X. orientale L., and 

X. cavanillesii Schouw). All Australian 

entries under this complex pertain 

to releases made against what 

Australian biological control workers 

referred to as X. occidentale. The 

Euaresta aequalis Loew entry in 

Fiji pertains to observations on X. 

strumarium L. and X. canadensis

Mill. The Ophraella communa

LeSage entry in Japan pertains to 

observations on X. strumarium L., 

X. canadensis Mill., and X. italicum

Moretti.

North America, South America, 

Central America

noogoora burr, cocklebur
612 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium (continued)

Asteraceae

Xanthium strumarium (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Ophraella communa LeSage

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Japan

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia but will 

attack/reproduce on A. trifida when 

A. artemisiifolia completely defoliated. 

Adults will feed only slightly on Xanthium 

strumarium for survival in absence of 

preferred Ambrosia spp.

Prefers Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. but 

will attack/reproduce on the exotic A. 

trifida L. and adults will feed slightly 

on the exotic Xanthium strumarium L. 

Introduced Helianthus spp. attacked 

rarely.

483, 1271, 1938, 2042, 2043 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia xanthii Schweinitz

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Australia

1974

Ex. Unknown

Y

pre 1986

Yes

High

Variable

Rapidly established throughout range 

of weed in Australia following natural 

spread and intentional redistribution. 

Progressive reduction in seed bank has 

resulted in excellent control in wetter 

areas, so that the weed is no longer a 

problem in most of eastern Australia. 

No control in the drier far north of NT. 

Climate

940, 1263, 1880, 1881 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 613

Table

3

Azollaceae Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides Lam.

North America, Central America, 

South America

Azolla, water fern, red water fern, 

fairy fern

Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhal

Degorsia champenoisi Bedel

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Belgium

1921

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Localized

Highly effective at one pond in West 

Flanders.

48, 391, 1660, 1723, 1867 

England

1921

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 2002

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Because of its long occupancy, it is now 

considered to be ordinarily resident, 

with no licensing restrictions. Weevils 

deliberately mass-produced and 

released throughout country post 2002. 

Has proven very efficient at controlling 

populations of weed in England.

Climate

IIBC

64, 619, 797, 901, 1526, 1647 

France

1901

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

901, 1723 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
614 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Germany

1927

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

391, 1723 

Hungary

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1517, 1723 

Italy

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Less effective in the colder regions of 

Europe than South Africa, where the 

weevil was intentionally and successfully 

used to control Azolla.

391, 1660, 1723 

Mozambique

2003

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South 

Africa

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

The weed no longer poses a threat to 

aquatic ecosystems in southern Africa.

804

Netherlands

1921

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

391, 559, 1723, 1884 

Northern Ireland

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Climate

64, 1647 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Limiting Factors

References

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 615

Table

3

Portugal

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

225

Republic of Ireland

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Populations now widespread throughout 

the country. As Azolla populations 

increase, weevil populations explode 

but subsequently decrease after weed 

population successfully controlled. Weed 

now restricted to remnant populations 

with small weevil populations ever 

present.

Climate

UCD

63, 64, 1647 

Slovakia

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1723

Spain

2002

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Increasing its range on the Iberian 

Peninsula. To date not redistributed 

intentionally for control of water fern 

in Spain, but likely reduces invasive 

potential of this weed throughout Europe.

225, 391, 545, 619 

Ukraine

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1723

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)

Azollaceae

Azolla filiculoides; Stenopelmus rufinasus (continued)
616 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Boraginaceae Boraginaceae

Cynoglossum officinale; Mogulones crucifer (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Cynoglossum officinale L.

Eurasia

houndstongue

Mogulones crucifer (Pallas)

Mogulones cruciger Herbst

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

United States of America

2008

Ex. Hungary, Serbia via Canada

N

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Denied release in USA due to concerns 

of nontarget feeding but intentionally 

released in Canada in 1997. Insects 

have since crossed border naturally. 

Though overall populations still low, very 

high near border and increasing steadily 

south. Where weevil populations high, 

Cynoglossum officinale infestations 

completely destroyed. Spillover attack 

documented on numerous species.

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Found attacking the native Hackelia 

ciliata (Douglas ex Lehm.) I.M. Johnst., 

Lithospermum ruderale Douglas ex 

Lehm., and Amsinckia spp. and the 

exotic Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I. M. 

Johnst., though attack appeared to be 

minor and temporary spillover.

440, 473, 1999, 2000 

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 617

Table

3

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Boraginaceae

Echium candicans L. f.

Macaronesia

pride of Madeira

Dialectica scalariella (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Zealand

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Mines disfigure attacked plants, though 

overall impact to weed populations 

unknown.

The mines disfigure attacked plants 

including several native species. Also 

feeds on other introduced Boraginaceae 

in New Zealand, including Echium 

pininana Webb & Berthel. and E. 

vulgare L., Anchusa spp., Borago spp., 

Myosotis spp. and Symphytum spp.

761, 818, 1062 

Boraginaceae (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Cactaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cactoideae spp.

Includes several species in the 

Cactoideae such as Pilosocereus 

royenii (L.) Byles & G. D. Rowley, 

Leptocereus quadricostatus (Bello) 

Britton & Rose, Melocactus intortus

(Mill.) Urb., Cereus hexagonus (L.) 

Mill., and Stenocereus fimbriatus

(Lam.) Lourteig.

Caribbean

columnar cacti

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

(continued on next page)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification
618 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Cactaceae

Cactoideae spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Notes

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Cactaceae

Cactoideae spp.; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Puerto Rico

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Causing extensive damage to numerous 

columnar cacti species throughout 

the country, including severe attack 

to Pilosocereus royenii, Leptocereus 

quadricostatus, Melocactus intortus, and 

Cereus hexagonus and minor damage 

to Stenocereus fimbriatus.

Found severely attacking the native 

Pilosocereus royenii (L.) Byles & G. D. 

Rowley, Leptocereus quadricostatus

(Bello) Britton & Rose, Melocactus 

intortus (Mill.) Urb., and Cereus 

hexagonus (L.) Mill. and causing minor 

damage on Stenocereus fimbriatus

(Lam.) Lourteig.

1113, 1637, 2078 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 619

Table

3

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cereus spp.

South America

columnar cacti

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles)

Hypogeococcus pungens Granara de 

Willink

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The cactus mealybug first utilized 

for biological control of weedy 

cacti species was collected from 

cacti in Argentina and identified as 

Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y 

Trelles). A later review redescribed 

this species as Hypogeococcus 

pungens Granara de Willink, though 

the type specimen was collected 

from Alternanthera pungens Kunth 

(Amaranthaceae) and the host 

range was described to also include 

species in the Portulacaceae. Recent 

taxonomic work has clarified that 

the species attacking cacti is H. 

festerianus, while H. pungens is a 

distinct species attacking plants in 

the Amaranthaceae, Portulacaceae, 

and additional species, but not the 

Cactaceae. Hypogeococcus pungens

has not been intentionally utilized 

anywhere in the world as a biological 

control agent. It is mentioned in 

this catalogue only as an incorrect 

synonym for H. festerianus, the true 

cactus mealybug biological control 

agent.

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

Cactaceae

Cereus spp.; Hypogeococcus festerianus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Italy

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Infesting Cereus spp. (largely 

intentionally cultivated) though scale 

populations had decreased by 2009 

surveys.

819, 1176 
620 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. fulgida

Cylindropuntia rosea (DC.) Backeb.

In South Africa, Cylindropuntia fulgida

(Engelm.) F.M. Knuth var. fulgida was 

known for many years incorrectly 

as C. rosea (DC.) Backeb., which is 

similar and closely related.

Mexico, southern USA

chain-fruit cholla

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Zimbabwe

2009

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 2009

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Localized

Cholla biotype. Likely spread from 

South Africa where it was intentionally 

released. Actively redistributed 

throughout Zimbabwe post 2009 on 

Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida. 

Extremely effective in killing infested 

plants. All cactus plants infested in 

southernmost regions of Zimbabwe. 

Because formal evaluation lacking, 

unknown if insect has spread to all 

weed populations in country.

418, 993 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae (continued) Cactaceae; Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida

Dactylopius tomentosus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 621

Table

3

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F.M. 

Knuth var. mamillata (A. Schott ex 

Engelm.) Backeb.

Mexico, southern USA

boxing glove cactus (applied only 

to the crested morphotype, forma 

monstrosa), coral cactus

Dactylopius tomentosus (Lamark)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

tomentosus have been identified 

based on the source species from 

which they were collected.

1167

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Zimbabwe

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Unknown

Cholla biotype. Likely spread from South 

Africa were it was intentionally released. 

Actively redistributed throughout 

Zimbabwe post 2009 on Cylindropuntia 

fulgida var. fulgida; spread naturally 

to Cyl. fulgida var. mamillata by 2011. 

Extremely effective in killing infested 

plants. All cactus plants infested in 

southernmost regions of Zimbabwe. 

Because formal evaluation lacking, 

unknown if insect has spread to all 

weed populations in country.

418, 993 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae; Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata

Dactylopius tomentosus (continued)
622 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.

Opuntia cordobensis Spegazzini, 

Opuntia megacantha Salm-Dyck

Previous literature referred to this 

release as occurring on Opuntia 

cordobensis Spegazzini which has 

since been synonymized with O. 

ficus-indica (L.) Mill. While some 

authors consider O. ficus-indica to 

be a spineless cultivar derived from 

O. megacantha, many other authors 

consider O. megacantha to also be 

a cultivated taxon or a name applied 

to multiple ruderal reversions to 

spininess from the escaped, cultivated 

O. ficus-indica and they treat O. 

megacantha as a later synonym. The 

editors of this catalogue are in the 

latter group.

Mexico

Indian fig, mission prickly pear, 

grootdoringturksvy

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cuba

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also found attacking the native 

Consolea moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, O. 

auberi Pfeiffer, O. dejecta Salm-Dyck, 

and O. cubensis Britton & Rose and 

the cultivated and naturalized Nopalea 

cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck.

2079

Puerto Rico

1966

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, the 

young growth of Consolea rubescens

(Salm-Dyck ex. A.P. DC.) and C. 

moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, all native to 

the Caribbean, as well as the cultivated 

and naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera

(L.) Salm-Dyck.

610, 2079 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 623

Table

3

U.S. Virgin Islands

1963

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, 

Consolea rubescens (Salm-Dyck ex. 

A.P. DC.) and C. moniliformis (L.) A. 

Berger, all native to the Caribbean.

610, 2079 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia ficus-indica; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued) Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.

Opuntia vulgaris Mill., 

Opuntia monocantha (Willd.) Haw.

Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay

prickly pear, drooping prickly pear, 

smooth tree pear, suurturksvy

35, 845, 1091, 1930

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cuba

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causing significant but unquantified 

damage to this species.

Also found attacking the native 

Consolea moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, O. 

auberi Pfeiffer, O. dejecta Salm-Dyck, 

and O. cubensis Britton & Rose and 

the cultivated and naturalized Nopalea 

cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck.

2079

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
624 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Cactaceae (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.

A few releases now attributed to this 

group were listed under Opuntia 

vulgaris in previous versions of this 

catalogue (a species now referred to 

as Opuntia monacantha). However, all 

references cited then and now do not 

differentiate which Opuntia species 

it was that received this release. 

Consequently, the entries have been 

changed to Opuntia spp.

North and South America adjacent to 

Caribbean Islands, Caribbean Islands

prickly pear, raketa, Malagasy cactus

446, 668

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Dominican Republic

post 1963

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Small cactus species heavily attacked 

and under threat of endangerment while 

old growth on larger cacti less suitable 

and frequently escapes attack.

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Dominican Republic (continued)

Found commonly attacking the native 

Opuntia taylori Britton & Rose, O. 

antillana Britton & Rose, O. stricta

(Haw.) Haw., Cylindropuntia caribaea

(Britton & Rose) F.M. Knuth, the 

exotic O. ficus-indica (L.) Mill., and the 

cultivated and naturalized Nopalea 

cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck. Attack to 

the exotic but cultivated Opuntia pilifera

F. A. C. Weber and Opuntia leucotricha

DC. is extensive. 

1455, 2079 

Haiti

post 1963

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though moth is widespread, surveys not 

recently conducted in Haiti so impact 

unknown. Impact most likely similar to 

the adjacent Dominican Republic where 

small cactus species heavily attacked 

and under threat of endangerment while 

old growth on larger cacti less suitable 

and frequently escapes attack.

1455, 2071, 2079 

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 625

Table

3

Mexico

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

No

Intercepted from a USA flight originating 

in Cancún pre-1992, indicating the 

agent could have been established 

somewhere in Mexico by then, 

though this was not confirmed during 

subsequent surveys. Confirmed 

established on Isla Mujeres in 2006 

and Isla Contoy in 2007. Confirmed 

populations eradicated following 

intensive monitoring, trapping and 

eradication programs. Monitoring 

programs ongoing.

793, 1333, 1334, 1455, 1594, 2077 

United States of America

1989

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Damage to attacked plants extensive, 

with many frequently disappearing 

completely shortly after attack. 

Numerous concerns of spread to 

southwestern USA and neighboring 

Mexico where multiple Opuntia

species endemic and/or of commercial 

importance. Surveillance and 

eradication programs terminated in 

2011. 

Attacks all six of the native Opuntia spp. 

in Florida

FDA, State (3)

106, 503, 703, 793, 795, 1455, 1594, 

2077 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
626 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell)

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

Different biotypes of Dactylopius 

opuntiae exist which are suited to 

certain Opuntia species and not to 

others.

833

Kenya

1958

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Ficus biotype. Abundant and effective; 

near one community in Rift Valley has 

largely wiped out most plants. [Reported 

in previous edition of this catalogue 

as an accidental introduction probably 

from the USA via South Africa via 

Tanzania in 1958 when Dactylopius 

ceylonicus was intentionally introduced. 

References cited at the time do not 

confirm the introduction, so the source 

of this information remains unknown. 

An alternative reference (Goeden 

1978) indicates the species was 

introduced intentionally. Because current 

researchers are unsure of the avenue 

of introduction, it is possible the species 

was introduced via both channels. 

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Kenya (continued)

Consequently two entries are given for 

this species, and the editors of this new 

version of the catalogue assume the 

different source populations (if more 

than one) have since intermixed and are 

no longer differentiated.]

446, 635, 944, 970, 2005 

Zambia

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Localized

Ficus biotype. Only moderately 

abundant at observed site where 

environment is too wet to be optimal.

Climate

2005

Country Found

Notes (continued)

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp.; Dactylopius opuntiae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 627

Table

3

Agent

Species

Classification

Dactylopius sp.

(Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)

La Réunion

early 1900s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Successfully controlled Opuntia spp.

668

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia spp. (continued) Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.

Opuntia dillenii (Ker Gawler) Haw., 

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. var. 

dillenii (Ker Gawl.) L. D. Benson, 

Opuntia inermis DC., Opuntia stricta

(Haw.) Haw. var. stricta

This species is sometimes split in 

various ways by different taxonomists 

and is currently under debate. The 

editors of this version of the catalogue 

currently support the idea it is all one 

highly variable Opuntia stricta (Haw.) 

Haw.

North and South America adjacent to 

Caribbean Islands, Caribbean Islands

spiny pest pear, common prickly 

pear, prickly pear, sweet prickly pear, 

Australian pest pear, prickly pear

135, 845, 846, 1459

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bahamas

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

503, 1455, 1720, 2071 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
628 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Cuba

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Dramatically reduced vast infestations of 

this species; also found on many other 

cactus species.

Also found attacking the native 

Consolea moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, O. 

auberi Pfeiffer, O. dejecta Salm-Dyck, 

and O. cubensis Britton & Rose and 

the cultivated and naturalized Nopalea 

cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck.

2077, 2079 

Guadeloupe

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Found attacking 100% of plants and 

70% of cladodes during 2005 survey. 

Target plant considered native to 

Guadeloupe.

Also found attacking the native O. tuna

(L.) Mill.

2079

Jamaica

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Found attacking Opuntia stricta (native) 

in 2005 survey, along with attack to 

numerous other native/endemic species.

Also found attacking the endemic 

Opuntia jamaicensis Britton & Harris, 

the native O. tuna (L.) Mill., possibly the 

endemic O. sanguinea Proctor, heavily 

attacking the young growth of the native 

Consolea spinosissima (Mill.) Lem., as 

well as the cultivated and naturalized 

Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck.

35, 2079 

Puerto Rico

1966

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Target weed considered native.

(continued on next page)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 629

Table

3

Puerto Rico (continued)

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, the 

young growth of Consolea rubescens

(Salm-Dyck ex. A.P. DC.) and C. 

moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, all native to 

the Caribbean, as well as the cultivated 

and naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera

(L.) Salm-Dyck.

35, 610, 2079 

U.S. Virgin Islands

1963

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Target considered native.

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, 

Consolea rubescens (Salm-Dyck ex. 

A.P. DC.) and C. moniliformis (L.) A. 

Berger, all native to the Caribbean.

35, 610, 2079 

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia stricta; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued) Cactaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha (Willd.) Sweet

Puerto Rico, Lesser Antilles

suckers

Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg)

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cuba

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causing significant but unquantified 

damage to this species.

Also found attacking the native 

Consolea moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, O. 

auberi Pfeiffer, O. dejecta Salm-Dyck, 

and O. cubensis Britton & Rose and 

the cultivated and naturalized Nopalea 

cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck.

2077, 2079 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
630 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Guadeloupe

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Found attacking 100% of plants and 

40% of cladodes during 2005 survey. 

Target plant considered native to 

Guadeloupe.

Also found attacking the native O. tuna

(L.) Mill.

35, 2079 

Puerto Rico

1966

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Target weed considered native.

(continued at top of next column)

Puerto Rico (continued)

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, the 

young growth of Consolea rubescens

(Salm-Dyck ex. A.P. DC.) and C. 

moniliformis (L.) A. Berger, all native to 

the Caribbean, as well as the cultivated 

and naturalized Nopalea cochenillifera

(L.) Salm-Dyck.

35, 610, 2079 

U.S. Virgin Islands

1963

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Target considered native.

Also recorded on Opuntia antillana

Britton & Rose, O. repens Bello, 

Consolea rubescens (Salm-Dyck ex. 

A.P. DC.) and C. moniliformis (L.) A. 

Berger, all native to the Caribbean.

35, 99, 610, 2079 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)

Cactaceae

Opuntia triacantha; Cactoblastis cactorum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 631

Table

3

Cyperaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Cyperaceae

Cyperus rotundus L.

cosmopolitan

nut grass, purple nutsedge, vucesa, 

soronakabani, oni ani, pakopako

Bactra venosana (Zeller)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

New Caledonia

1987

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

No record of introduction and current 

status unknown.

1940

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Euphorbiaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula L.

A controversial and morphologically 

variable species considered to 

represent a complex of forms, species 

and hybrids.

Eurasia

leafy spurge

149, 622

Spurgia capitigena (Bremi)

Bayeria capitigena Bremi

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Previously included with Spurgia 

esulae Gagné under Bayeria 

capitigena Bremi. The agent was 

transferred to Spurgia and separated 

into two distinct species in 1990 

by the entomologist R.J. Gagné. 

More recent studies with these 

species revealed no evidence for 

two fly species, or two fly species 

separated by host plant. However, a 

revision of this group has not been 

published, so the two names created 

by Gagné remained valid at the time 

of publication of this version of the 

catalogue.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes
632 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

United States of America

1986

Ex. Italy

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Believed to have been a contaminant 

of one population of Spurgia esulae

collected in Italy and released in ND 

in 1986. Intentionally released in ND 

beginning in 2001. Believed to have 

proliferated following release, though 

current abundance and impact not 

formally evaluated. Impact most likely 

slight to none, similar to Spurgia spp. 

on Euphorbia spp. elsewhere in North 

America.

USDA (7,10,12,14), State 

(7,11,13,15,28), USDA-APHIS

1106, 1338, 1456, 1706

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Euphorbiaceae

Euphorbia esula; Spurgia capitigena (continued) Fabaceae

Fabaceae

Acacia mearnsii De Wild.

Australia

black wattle

Dasineura rubiformis Kolesik

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

New Zealand

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

761, 1067 

Republic of South Africa

2001

Ex. Australia

Y

2010

Yes

Moderate

Heavy

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 633

Table

3

Fabaceae

Acacia mearnsii; Dasineura rubiformis (continued)

Republic of South Africa (continued)

Established during 2001 field hostspecificity testing, though not identified 

as such until 2006. Official approval for 

release subsequently obtained in 2010 

with a proviso there is consultation 

and agreement with representatives of 

the wattle industry when releases are 

proposed in the vicinity of the important 

wattle growing areas of KZN and in MP. 

Unlike Dasineura dielsi, dispersal of D. 

rubiformis has only been gradual, prior 

to redistributions. Though still limited in 

distribution, impact is extensive locally, 

where pod production at original site of 

establishment has virtually ceased.

ARC-PPRI

869, 870, 871, 992 

Country Found

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link subsp. 

scoparius, Sarothamnus scoparius

(L.) Wimm. ex W. D. J. Koch

Europe

Scotch broom, broom

Aceria genistae (Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Research indicates Aceria genistae

includes a number of distinct strains, 

each of which is specific to one 

species of plant. 

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Canada

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Identified recently in coastal 

communities where impact is minor 

thus far.

38, 282, 1698 
634 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

United States of America

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Abundant in WA where impact medium 

as reduces flowering and plant 

biomass, although this has not been 

officially quantified. Widespread in 

OR but of localized abundance with 

slight impact. Very limited in CA where 

impact negligible. Predatory mites found 

associated with galls, though impact 

of these predators unknown. Currently 

undergoing host specificity testing in 

WA with the intent of future intentional 

redistribution if approved.

Possibly Predation

Also attacks ornamental varieties of 

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link and hybrids 

derived from C. scoparius.

38, 334, 335, 1698 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Aceria genistae (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Agonopterix nervosa (Haworth)

Depressaria nervosa Haw., 

Depressaria costosa Haw.

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1920s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in OR and WA, attacking 

up to 40% of new terminal shoots and 

potentially reducing seed production, 

though is heavily parasitized. Present 

in CA and NV but uncommon. Most 

effective in sunny locations below 800m. 

Not as effective on this species as on 

Ulex europaeus.

Parasitism

Also attacks the exotic Cytisus striatus

(Hill) Rothm.

USDA (7), State (9,15)

42, 332, 333, 334, 535, 820 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 635

Table

3

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Arytainilla spartiophila (Förster)

Arytaina spartiophila (Förster)

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1935

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Regional

Most common and abundant of Cytisus 

scoparius agents. In OR, high densities 

observed may weaken plants under 

stress from competition and make them 

vulnerable to opportunistic pathogens. 

Impact elsewhere unknown.

State (14,15)

332, 334, 340, 1462, 1842, 1928 

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Bruchidius villosus (Fabricius)

Bruchidius ater Marsh.

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Canada

2001

Ex. Unknown via USA (WA) via USA 

(NC)

Y

2006

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

More active and common than another 

adventive beetle, Exapion fuscirostre.

BCME

117, 337, 339, 437 

United States of America

1918

Ex. Unknown

Y

1998

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued on next page)
636 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Bruchidius villosus (continued)

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Abundant in NC where seed reduction 

measured at more than 80% at two 

sites. Intentionally redistributed to 

Pacific Northwest. Widespread in OR 

and WA where abundance is increasing 

but variable; 10-90% pods attacked 

and 20-80% seeds destroyed within 

attacked pods. More study needed, but 

suspected that densities and attack 

rates not yet high enough to decrease 

plant populations. Parasitism typically 

low but may limit populations in some 

regions.

Parasitism

State (9,15)

39, 141, 141, 339, 340, 1555, 1752 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Exapion fuscirostre (Fabricius)

Apion fuscirostre Fabricius

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

2007

Ex. Italy via USA (WA)

Y

2007

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Less active and common than another 

adventive beetle, Bruchidius villosus.

BCME

117, 340, 437 

Agent

Species

Classification

Leucoptera spartifoliella (Hübner)

(Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

New Zealand

1950

Ex. Unknown

Y

1987

Yes

High

Variable

Large outbreaks in recent years cause 

significant damage by reducing new 

growth, killing branches and sometimes 

complete plants at some sites. Damage 

only slight in other areas.

DSIR/MWLR

720, 761, 1064, 1616, 1772 

United States of America

1960

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 637

Table

3

United States of America (continued)

Intentionally introduced in 1960 but 

found to have already been present. 

Both populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

Widespread in CA and OR but present 

at limited sites in WA. High population 

numbers can deform plants and cause 

stem dieback but plant density not 

affected and overall impact is negligible. 

Heavily parasitized and does not do well 

in hot, dry sites.

Parasitism; Habitat

USDA (7), State (9,15)

39, 42, 332, 335, 339, 340, 593, 1928 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Cytisus scoparius; Leucoptera spartifoliella (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Galega officinalis L.

western Asia, southern Europe

goat’s rue

Uromyces galegae (Opiz) Sacc.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Argentina

1982

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Hyperparasite observed in rust pustules 

may impair efficacy.

Parasitism

84, 979, 1356 

Fabaceae (continued)
638 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Genista monspessulana (L.) L. A. S. 

Johnson

northern Africa, Mediterranean

French broom, cape broom

Arytinnis hakani (Loginova)

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Australia

2004

Ex. Unknown

Y

2009

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Found established after being tested in 

quarantine (after the only shipment of 

this insect ever made from France to 

Australia). Subsequently redistributed 

intentionally. Abundance and impact 

increasing with redistribution efforts. 

Effective and kills stands of the weed 

wherever released. No other control 

efforts required. Young plants still 

recruiting from seed bank. Needs proper 

evaluation, damage levels visually 

high. Populations can crash during hot 

summers.

Climate

CSIRO, SA State

782, 883, 1656, 1657, 1795 

Fabaceae

Genista monspessulana (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Bruchidius villosus (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

United States of America

2001

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Unintentionally introduced populations 

(pre 1918) found on Cytisus scoparius in 

NC were tested for specificity following 

USDA-APHIS TAG protocols and then 

deliberately transferred from NC to OR, 

WA and ID in the Pacific Northwest onto 

C. scoparius in 1998. Subsequently 

found attacking Genista monspessulana

in low numbers in OR by 2001. Impact 

on G. monspessulana not yet evaluated.

334, 339, 340 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 639

Table

3

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

Mexico, Central America

leucaena, lead tree

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus

(Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

Australia

1996

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

95% or more of seed may be infested 

but impacts patchy and seasonal. 

Unlikely to have negative influence on 

leucaena demography.

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1545, 1833, 1931 

India

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833

Japan

2000

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833

Fabaceae; Leucaena leucocephala 

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References
640 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

People’s Republic of China

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833

Republic of Cyprus

2008

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Recent surveys indicate the distribution 

of this agent in the Republic of Cyprus 

has not increased since its initial 

discovery. Abundance and impact 

remain unknown.

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833, 1886, 1887 

République Togolaise

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

532, 1646 

Senegal

1996

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Seed attack rates up to 67%. 

Populations limited by parasitism.

Parasitism

468, 1388, 1833 

Taiwan

1995

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

(continued on next page)

Fabaceae; Leucaena leucocephala 

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (continued)

Fabaceae; Leucaena leucocephala 

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 641

Table

3

Taiwan (continued)

Also feeds on the exotic Falcataria 

moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J. W. 

Grimes and other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833

Thailand

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

1833

Vietnam

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on other members of the 

Mimoseae tribe.

976, 1833 

Fabaceae; Leucaena leucocephala 

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (continued)

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra L.

Mimosa pigra L. var. pigra

tropical Americas

giant sensitive plant, mimosa, giant 

mimosa

Acanthoscelides puniceus Johnson

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Indonesia

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC

774, 1328, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References
642 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Laos

1991

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand, where it 

was intentionally introduced, across the 

Mekong River to Laos. Overall status 

unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1328, 1329 

Malaysia

1989

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Increasingly spreading from release 

sites and Thailand border where 

separate group has crossed naturally. 

Populations no longer differentiated. 

Overall attack rates minimal (less than 

12% damage to pods) and have limited 

impact on weed population.

NBCRC

765, 774, 1326, 1327, 1329 

Myanmar

1987

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand 

where it was intentionally introduced. 

Also intentionally introduced with 

both populations subsequently not 

differentiated. Overall status unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1327, 1329 

Singapore

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Detected outside Changhi Airport.

NBCRC

774, 1328, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides puniceus (continued)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides puniceus (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 643

Table

3

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Acanthoscelides quadridentatus

(Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides quadridentatus (continued)

Indonesia

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

NBCRC

774, 1328, 1329 

Laos

1991

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand, where it 

was intentionally introduced, across the 

Mekong River to Laos. Overall status 

unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1328, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Malaysia

1989

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Increasingly spreading from release 

sites and Thailand border where it 

crossed naturally; however attack rates 

minimal (less than 12% damage to 

pods) and have limited impact on weed 

population.

NBCRC

765, 774, 1326, 1327, 1329 

Myanmar

1987

Ex. Mexico via Australia via Thailand

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Spread naturally from Thailand 

where it was intentionally introduced. 

Also intentionally introduced with 

both populations subsequently not 

differentiated. Overall status unknown.

NBCRC

774, 1326, 1327, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
644 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae

Mimosa pigra; Acanthoscelides quadridentatus (continued)

Singapore

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Detected outside Changhi Airport.

NBCRC

774, 1328, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, 

Venezuela

Mexican thorn

Heteropsylla reducta Caldwell & 

Martorell

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Ascension Island

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Along with Rhinocloa sp., contributing 

to large scale stunting and moderate 

dieback of attacked trees.

97, 582, 584 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 645

Table

3

Fabaceae

Prosopis juliflora (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Rhinocloa sp. 

(Hemiptera: Miridae)

Ascension Island

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Along with (but more effective than) 

Heteropsylla reducta, contributing to 

large scale stunting, reduction of seed 

production, and moderate dieback of 

attacked trees.

97, 582, 584, 585 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.

Comprises a complex of taxa 

occurring in mixed stands and often 

hybridizing freely. In Australia, these 

include Prosopis glandulosa Torrey 

(including both varieties, glandulosa

and torreyana), Prosopis pallida

(Humboldt & Bonpland ex Willd.) 

Kunth, and Prosopis velutina Wooton. 

A fourth species, Prosopis juliflora

(Sw.) DC., has been documented 

at a few sites in Australia but may 

no longer be present there. Species 

invasive in South Africa are Prosopis 

velutina Wooton, Prosopis glandulosa

Torrey (including both varieties, 

glandulosa and torreyana), Prosopis 

juliflora (Sw.) DC., and Prosopis

hybrids. Egypt species include 

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. and 

Prosopis glandulosa Torr. Species in 

Namibia include Prosopis chilensis

(Molina) Stuntz, Prosopis glandulosa

Torr. var. torreyana (L. D. Benson) 

M. C. Johnst., and Prosopis velutina

Wooton. In Yemen, the nonnative 

species include Prosopis chilensis

(Molina) Stuntz, Prosopis glandulosa

Torrey var. glandulosa, and Prosopis 

juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Americas

mesquite, prosopis, algaroba
646 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Algarobius prosopis (Le Conte)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Botswana

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though common and abundant 

throughout range of Prosopis in 

southern parts of country, impact 

unknown.

823

Egypt

2001

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

The sample size and scope of a survey 

were too small and limited to determine 

overall abundance and impact.

467, 1879 

Namibia

1988

Ex. USA (AZ) via Republic of South 

Africa

Y

1988

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Pods with Algarobius prosopis were 

left in bags at strategic points in South 

Africa for farmers to take to their farms 

1988-1989. Some Namibian farmers 

collected bags for their properties, 

though this was done unofficially. 

Livestock and game ingest most seeds 

soon after pods fall to the ground and 

before larvae are able to fully colonize 

pods. When plants are fenced from 

grazing animals, larvae can attack over 

90% of seed pods. Even at high attack 

rates, sufficient seeds escape herbivory 

to maintain weed populations.

ARC-PPRI

113, 445, 2070, 2072 

Oman

1985

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

54, 1879 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.; Algarobius prosopis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 647

Table

3

Saudi Arabia

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

54, 1879 

United Arab Emirates

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Widely distributed and abundant, 

though impact on Prosopis populations 

unknown.

54, 466, 1869, 1879 

Yemen

1987

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Widely distributed and abundant. 

Inflicting extensive damage to exotic 

mesquite, but has not been recorded on 

its native congener, Prosopis cinerea, 

growing in close proximity. Overall 

impact to exotic Prosopis populations 

unknown.

26, 54, 1869, 1879 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.; Algarobius prosopis (continued)

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp.; Algarobius prosopis (continued)
648 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae

Prosopis spp. (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Botswana

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though common and abundant 

throughout range of Prosopis in southern 

parts of country, impact unknown.

823

Namibia

2002

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, far less 

common than Algarobius prosopis. Inferior 

competitor to A. prosopis. Seed damage 

by Neltumius arizonensis alone and in 

combination with A. prosopis insufficient to 

control mesquite populations.

Interspecific competition

ARC-PPRI

113, 445, 2070 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Senna surattensis (Burm. f.) H. S. 

Irwin & Barneby

Cassia surattensis Burm. f.

tropical Asia, tropical Australia

kolomona

Acremonium sp. 

Cephalosporium sp.

(Sordariomycetes: Hypocreales)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hawaii USA

1967

Ex. Unknown

Y

1968

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Initially widespread throughout KA and 

killed target weeds within one year of 

original purposeful inoculation. Host 

dieback led to decreased availability of 

pathogen. 

1826, 1829 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 649

Table

3

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Sesbania punicea (Cav.) Benth.

South America

red sesbania

Trichapion lativentre (BéguinBillecocq)

(Coleoptera: Brentidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Republic of South Africa

1980

Ex. Unknown

Y

1985

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Had been brought into quarantine 

and was undergoing host testing 

when already established populations 

discovered. Quarantine insectary 

colony destroyed and field populations 

subsequently redistributed. Can reduce 

seed set by >98%, markedly reducing 

Sesbania punicea immature density 

throughout South Africa. Unsuccessful 

control agent when used alone, but 

in combination with Rhyssomatus 

marginatus and Neodiplogrammus 

quadrivittatus, successfully controls 

Sesbania punicea throughout South 

Africa.

ARC-PPRI

824, 826, 827, 829, 830, 992, 1257 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus L.

western Europe

gorse, furze

Aceria genistae (Nalepa)

(Acari: Eriophyidae)

Research indicates Aceria genistae

includes a number of distinct strains, 

each of which is specific to one 

species of plant. 

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

New Zealand

1985

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Although widespread, growth 

deformities it causes have little overall 

impact. A different strain of this species 

was intentionally released in 2007 but is 

specific to Cytisus scoparius.

720, 1064, 1144, 1698 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
650 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Agonopterix nervosa (Haworth)

Depressaria nervosa Haw., 

Depressaria costosa Haw.

(Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae)

Canada

1915-1920

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Also feeds on the exotic Cytisus 

scoparius (L.) Link

42, 437, 820, 1634 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

United States of America

1920s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Widespread in OR and WA, attacking 

up to 40% of new terminal shoots and 

potentially reducing seed production, 

though is heavily parasitized. Present 

in CA and NV but uncommon. Most 

effective in sunny locations below 800m. 

More effective on this species than on 

Cytisus scoparius.

Parasitism

Also attacks the exotic Cytisus striatus

(Hill) Rothm.

USDA (7)

42, 332, 333, 334, 535, 820 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Fabaceae

Ulex europaeus; Agonopterix nervosa (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 651

Table

3

Haloragaceae Haloragaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc.

South America

parrot’s feather

Lysathia sp. 

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Zimbabwe

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Localized

Found suppressing the weed at two 

lakes in Mashonaland West.

276, 297, 418 

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum L.

Europe, northern Africa, Asia

Eurasian watermilfoil

Acentria ephemerella (Denis & 

Schiffermüller)

Acentria nivea (Olivier)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Canada

1927

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed in 

northeastern North America, abundance 

varies. High populations successfully 

control weed in some lakes by 

preventing formation of weed canopy 

growth. Effects on native macrophyte 

communities unknown. 

923, 1412 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References
652 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Haloragaceae

Myriophyllum spicatum; Acentria ephemerella (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1949

Ex. Unknown

Y

1999

Yes

Variable

Variable

Though widely distributed in 

northeastern North America, abundance 

varies. High populations successfully 

control the weed in some lakes 

by preventing formation of weed 

canopy growth. Impact could be due 

to combination of this species and 

Euhrychiopsis lecontei, as damage 

caused by the two often difficult to 

differentiate. Augmentative releases in 

NY did not increase total moth numbers 

nor cause a pond-wide decline in the 

weed during the year of release. Fish 

predation may hinder augmentation 

efforts.

Predation

Feeds on other aquatic species, 

including many native, but prefers 

Myriophyllum spicatum.

USDA (3), State (29,30)

198, 201, 359, 923, 1233, 1412 

Hydrocharitaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle

Two biotypes (dioecious and 

monoecious) are present in the 

continental USA.

Africa, Asia, Australia, portions of 

Europe

hydrilla, Florida elodea

Cricotopus lebetis Sublette

(Diptera: Chironomidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

United States of America

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Rare

Medium

Localized

Damages the plant’s apical meristems, 

which causes stunting and prevents 

hydrilla from growing to the surface.

Climate

State (3,35)

367, 368, 370, 371, 543 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 653

Table

3

Hydrocharitaceae

Hydrilla verticillata (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Parapoynx diminutalis Snellen

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1975

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Studied as potential biocontrol agent 

before its broad host range precluded 

its release. Subsequently arrived in USA 

accidentally. Larval feeding on leaves 

and stems can heavily damage hydrilla 

populations locally. However, this agent 

only occurs sporadically so overall 

impact typically low. Populations limited 

by cold weather.

Climate

Feeds on numerous nontarget species.

USDA (3), USDA (4)

77, 194, 459, 590, 1292 

Hypericaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Hypericaceae

Hypericum androsaemum L.

Asia Minor, Europe, northern Africa

tutsan

Melampsora hypericorum (DC.) 

J. Schröt.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Australia

1991

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 1991

Yes

Variable

Variable

Infection occurs readily on some weed 

populations but not others, likely due to 

genetic variation in rust and weed.

Specificity

228

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
654 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Hypericaceae

Hypericum androsaemum; Melampsora hypericorum (continued)

New Zealand

1952

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Variable

Infection discolors and may defoliate 

plants. Though common and widespread 

throughout New Zealand, more effective 

on South Island than on North Island 

where infection rarely severe enough to 

have significant impact.

75, 761, 1054, 1058 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

Hypericaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum L.

Asia, Europe, northern Africa

St John’s wort, St Johnswort, klamath 

weed, goatweed, San Juan herb

Chrysolina hyperici (Forster)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Hawaii USA

1965

Ex. England via Australia via USA (CA)

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Introduced accidentally with Chrysolina 

quadrigemina. Damage only minor.

Also found feeding (though minor) on 

the introduced Hypericum degeneri

Fosberg, which has since been 

synonymized with H. parvulum Greene

HDOA

402, 404, 612, 635, 1149, 1579 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 655

Table

3

Hypericaceae

Hypericum perforatum (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Chrysolina quadrigemina (Suffrian)

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Argentina

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Only present at few infestations and in 

low numbers, though populations likely 

increasing.

1356, 1834 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Myrtaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Myrtaceae

Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) 

F. Muell.

Australia

Australian myrtle

Dasineura strobila Dorchin

(Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Republic of South Africa

1980s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced and 

redistributed, though was then found to 

be already established. Both populations 

subsequently not differentiated in 

the literature. Initially developed very 

dense populations until it acquired 

several species of local predatory mites 

and parasitic wasps that caused a 

marked decline in population levels. In 

combination with Aristaea thalassias, 

at some sites may contribute to a 

reduction in the growth and stature of 

Leptospermum laevigatum seedlings, 

but overall suppression of the weed is 

negligible.

Predation

517, 654, 657, 992 
656 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Myrtaceae (continued) Myrtaceae

Leptospermum scoparium (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Myrtaceae

Leptospermum scoparium J. R. Forst. 

& G. Forst.

Australasia

manuka

Eriococcus leptospermi (Maskell)

(Hemiptera: Eriococcidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

New Zealand

1948

Ex. Australia

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

More prevalent but less damaging than 

Eriococcus orariensis. Associated with 

sooty mold fungus (Capnodium walteri

Sacc.) that does not kill the weed. Target 

plant native to New Zealand.

1866, 1947 

Agent

Species

Classification

Eriococcus orariensis Hoy

(Hemiptera: Eriococcidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

New Zealand

1937

Ex. Australia

Y

1946

Yes

Limited

Variable

Redistributed throughout both North 

and South Islands. Initially widespread 

and caused severe damage but then 

declined likely due to infection by a 

fungus Myriangium thwaitesii. Now far 

less prevalent but still more damaging 

to Leptospermum scoparium than 

the related Eriococcus leptospermi. 

Associated with sooty mold fungus 

(Capnodium walteri Sacc.) that does not 

kill L. scoparium. Target plant native to 

New Zealand.

Disease

761, 1866, 1947 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 657

Table

3

Myrtaceae (continued) Myrtaceae

Melaleuca quinquenervia (continued)

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) 

S. T. Blake

Australia, New Caledonia, New 

Guinea

melaleuca, broad-leaved paperbark

Boreioglycaspis melaleucae Moore

(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Puerto Rico

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Medium

Regional

Populations widely distributed 

throughout main island. Causes greatest 

damage nearest San Juan Airport and 

Rio Piedros, decreasing outwards.

1529, 1532 

Agent

Species

Classification

Oxyops vitiosa Pascoe

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Bahamas

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

60% of trees experienced 25-50% 

damage at one site, but damage less 

than 10% in trees attacked at 5 other 

sites.

1529, 1533 
658 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca quinquenervia (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Puccinia psidii G. Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

United States of America

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

In combination with Boreioglycaspis 

melaleucae and Oxyops vitiosa, causes 

severe damage to mature melaleuca 

trees through reduced plant height, 

branching and biomass of surviving 

coppices as well as increased seedling 

mortality.

Survives on numerous other native and 

exotic host species.

245, 1549, 1550, 1551 

Plantaginaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

(L.) Mill.

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill. subsp. 

dalmatica (L.) Maire & Petitm., Linaria 

dalmatica (L.) Mill.

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill.

Dalmatian and yellow toadflax can 

both be highly variable in North 

America, which is compounded 

by their ability to hybridize. The 

taxonomic status of this group of 

species and their hybrids remains 

uncertain. The editors of the current 

catalogue follow the interpretation that 

Linaria genistifolia (L.) Mill. is distinct 

from L. dalmatica (L.) Mill. and that L. 

dalmatica consists of two subspecies, 

of which only one (L. dalmatica subsp. 

dalmatica) is invasive and weedy in 

North America.

Eurasia

Dalmatian toadflax, broad-leaved 

toadflax

1534, 1687, 1820
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 659

Table

3

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Brachypterolus pulicarius (L.)

(Coleoptera: Kateridae)

It was initially believed different 

biotypes of Brachypterolus pulicarius

had evolved sufficiently to be suited 

differently to Linaria vulgaris and L. 

dalmatica. Studies have since found 

no evidence to suggest that genetic 

variability between the host races has 

advanced to the point of speciation. 

B. pulicarius prefers and performs 

better on L. vulgaris; the use of 

L. dalmatica is incidental.

861

Plantaginaceae; Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1953

Ex. Unknown

Y

1989

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Redistributed within BC on both Linaria 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris prior to 

determining it was already widespread 

in the province. Though widespread in 

Canada, prefers Linaria vulgaris. Found 

sporadically on L. dalmatica but appears 

to be too rare to have major impact on 

seed production. Competition between 

Rhinusa antirrhini and Brachypterolus 

pulicarius prevents additive impact in 

many locations.

Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 438, 441, 724, 731, 737, 1137, 

1689, 1697, 1922 

United States of America

1919

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact
660 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

United States of America (continued)

Initially found as an unintentional 

introduction on Linaria vulgaris in 

NY in 1919, from where it spread 

throughout the USA where it has been 

reported on both L. vulgaris and L. 

dalmatica. A population found feeding 

exclusively on L. dalmatica in Canada 

was subsequently redistributed to L. 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in the USA. 

The two populations are not genetically 

different and are likely moving between 

the two Linaria species on their own so 

are indistinguishable for establishment, 

abundance and efficacy. Though 

widespread in USA, prefers Linaria 

vulgaris. Even beetles collected from 

L. dalmatica preferred L. vulgaris in 

trials. Found in only limited amounts on 

L. dalmatica throughout USA, except 

portions of ID OR WA where much 

more abundant. At high densities, stunts 

height and causes increased branching. 

Overall impact to flowering and seed 

production minimal at most sites.

39, 332, 335, 861, 1105, 1127, 1364, 

1365, 1689, 1697, 1991 

Plantaginaceae; Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)

Country Found

Notes

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinusa antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnetron antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnaetron antirrhini (Paykull)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

It is believed two “strains” of this 

species exist in Canada, with the 

intentionally introduced population 

preferring Linaria dalmatica over 

L. vulgaris, attacking even the 

broad-leaved form of L. dalmatica. 

Conversely, the adventive population 

prefers L. vulgaris over L. dalmatica. 

One may in fact be an unnamed 

sibling species. 

213, 214, 1689

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1917

Ex. Unknown

Y

1957

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 661

Table

3

Canada (continued)

Though widespread in Canada, this 

strain prefers Linaria vulgaris. Found 

sporadically on narrow-leaved form of 

L. dalmatica, which is least common 

of the two forms, but appears to be 

too rare to have a major impact on 

seed production. Competition between 

Rhinusa antirrhini and Brachypterolus 

pulicarius prevents additive impact in 

many locations. Parasitism may also 

limit impact. Additional strain introduced 

intentionally on L. dalmatica in 1993.

Specificity; Parasitism; Interspecific 

competition

AAFC

432, 438, 737, 784, 1689, 1697 

United States of America

1957

Ex. Unknown

Y

1986

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America 

This unintentional introduction referred 

to as the vulgaris biotype was found 

on Linaria vulgaris in 1909 and L. 

dalmatica (narrow-leaved form) by 

1957. Intentionally redistributed from 

L. vulgaris to L. dalmatica at some 

locations. Only recorded accepting 

narrow-leaved form of L. dalmatica. 

Though attack rates on this form can be 

high locally, it is the least common and 

problematic form of L. dalmatica. Overall 

impact minimal. An additional strain 

(dalmatica biotype) was intentionally 

released against L. dalmatica in 1996.

Specificity

State (13)

332, 335, 1105, 1364, 1689, 1697, 1991 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Rhinusa antirrhini (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Rhinusa antirrhini (continued)
662 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Rhinusa neta (Germar)

Gymnetron netum (Germar)

Gymnaetron netum (Germar)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

213, 214, 441

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Canada

1957

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Though widespread in western 

Canada on Linaria vulgaris, found only 

sporadically on L. dalmatica. Appears 

to be too rare to have major impact on 

seed production.

AAFC

432, 438, 441, 1689, 1697 

United States of America

1937

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Larval feeding destroys high proportion 

of seeds in attacked capsules. Occurs 

only in scattered populations in 

northeastern and northwestern USA, 

and prefers Linaria vulgaris over 

L. dalmatica. Only recorded accepting 

narrow-leaved form of L. dalmatica. 

Specificity

1364, 1697, 1991 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica; Rhinusa neta (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 663

Table

3

Plantaginaceae (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris Mill.

Yellow and Dalmatian toadflax can 

both be highly variable in North 

America, which is compounded 

by their ability to hybridize. The 

taxonomic status of this group of 

species and their hybrids remains 

uncertain.

Eurasia

yellow toadflax, common toadflax, 

butter-and-eggs

Brachypterolus pulicarius (L.)

(Coleoptera: Kateridae)

It was initially believed different 

biotypes of Brachypterolus pulicarius

had evolved sufficiently to be suited 

differently to Linaria vulgaris and L. 

dalmatica. Studies have since found 

no evidence to suggest that genetic 

variability between the host races has 

advanced to the point of speciation. 

B. pulicarius prefers and performs 

better on L. vulgaris; the use of 

L. dalmatica is incidental.

861

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Canada

1953

Ex. Unknown

Y

1989

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Redistributed within BC on both 

Linaria dalmatica and L. vulgaris

prior to determining it was already 

widespread in the province. Delays 

flowering and seed production but has 

not truly changed scope or prevalence 

of problems associated with Linaria 

vulgaris. Competition between Rhinusa 

antirrhini and Brachypterolus pulicarius

prevents additive impact in many 

locations.

Interspecific competition

AAFC

117, 439, 724, 731, 737, 1137, 1181, 

1190, 1689 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)
664 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

United States of America

1919

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Initially found as an unintentional 

introduction on Linaria vulgaris in 

NY in 1919, from where it spread 

throughout the USA where it has been 

reported on both L. vulgaris and L. 

dalmatica. A population found feeding 

exclusively on L. dalmatica in Canada 

was subsequently redistributed to L. 

dalmatica and L. vulgaris in the USA. 

The two populations are not genetically 

different and are likely moving between 

the two Linaria species on their own so 

are indistinguishable for establishmnet, 

abundance and efficacy. Widespread 

and abundant, preferring Linaria 

vulgaris over L. dalmatica. Can delay 

flowering and reduce seed production 

of L. vulgaris by 80% to 90% at some 

locations. However, overall impact 

minimal.

39, 332, 861, 1105, 1127, 1364, 1365, 

1689, 1697, 1991 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Brachypterolus pulicarius (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Rhinusa antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnetron antirrhini (Paykull)

Gymnaetron antirrhini (Paykull)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

It is believed two “strains” of this 

species exist in Canada, with the 

intentionally introduced population 

preferring Linaria dalmatica over 

L. vulgaris, attacking even the 

broad-leaved form of L. dalmatica. 

Conversely, the adventive population 

prefers L. vulgaris over L. dalmatica. 

One may in fact be an unnamed 

sibling species. 

213, 214, 1689

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Canada

1917

Ex. Unknown

Y

1957

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

(continued on next page)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 665

Table

3

Canada (continued)

This accidental strain spread naturally 

and artificially to all provinces but AB, 

MB, SK. Decreases seed production. 

Though widespread on Linaria vulgaris, 

satisfactory control has yet to be 

achieved. Competition between Rhinusa 

antirrhini and Brachypterolus pulicarius

prevents additive impact in many 

locations. Parasitism may also limit 

impact. 

Interspecific competition; Parasitism

AAFC

117, 432, 439, 724, 735, 1138, 1181, 

1190, 1689, 1697 

United States of America

1909

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Larval feeding destroys some seeds 

in attacked capsules. Seed reduction 

between 85% and 90% reported in WA, 

though typically much lower in other 

areas. Attack rates from 30% to 40% in 

OR had minimal impact on plant density. 

Overall impact limited.

Interspecific competition; Parasitism

State (7,9,13,15)

192, 332, 334, 335, 1364, 1365, 1512, 

1689, 1697, 1991 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Rhinusa antirrhini (continued)

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

Rhinusa neta (Germar)

Gymnetron netum (Germar)

Gymnaetron netum (Germar)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

213, 214, 441

Canada

1957

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread in western Canada 

on Linaria vulgaris, satisfactory control 

has yet to be achieved.

AAFC

117, 432, 437, 439, 1689, 1697, 1922 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
666 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Plantaginaceae

Linaria vulgaris; Rhinusa neta (continued)

United States of America

1937

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Larval feeding destroys high proportion 

of seeds in attacked capsules. Occurs 

only in scattered populations in 

northeastern and northwestern USA, 

and prefers Linaria vulgaris over 

L. dalmatica.

1697, 1991 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Poaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Poaceae

Arundo donax L.

Mediterranean Europe, Asia

giant reed, carrizo cane

Tetramesa romana Walker

(Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

United States of America

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Regional

Restricted to southern CA and 

southwestern TX. Populations slowly 

dispersing from two likely accidental 

release locations in TX. Attack rates 

in CA often high though variables 

measured indicate impact not 

substantial. Additional studies required.

525, 651, 653, 1543 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 667

Table

3

Pontederiaceae Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Alternaria eichhorniae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms

South America

water hyacinth, waterhyacinth, 

Majavani, keladi bunting, phak top 

chawaa, sawah, ècèng, etjeng padi, 

luc bình, beda bin, ye padauk

Alternaria eichhorniae Nag Raj & 

Ponnappa

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Egypt

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Localized

(continued at top of next column)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Egypt (continued)

Extensive research in glasshouse 

and controlled field settings indicate 

the pathogen can be highly virulent to 

attacked leaves, providing up to 100% of 

control. It is a poor disperser on its own 

and requires an extended dew period 

in the field, which limits its efficacy. 

However applications of the pathogen 

in oil emulsions overcame the dew 

requirements and were highly effective. 

Additional host specificity testing 

indicated the possibility of nontarget 

attack to numerous species. This 

pathogen has not been successfully 

developed into a commercial 

bioherbicide.

Climate

MUE

389, 937, 1044, 1642, 1643 

Republic of South Africa

1985

Ex. Unknown

Y

1989

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Localized

Though may be widespread in an area 

and may cause the death of entire 

leaves, appears to affect mainly older 

leaves with little effect on the size and 

density of the plants.

ARC-PPRI

273, 278, 1284 

Country Found

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References
668 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Cercospora piaropi Tharp

Cercospora rodmanii Conway

(Dothideomycetes: Capnodiales)

Historically two species of Cercospora

were recognized in discussions 

regarding fungal biological control 

of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) 

Solms: C. piaropi Tharp and C. 

rodmanii Conway. Recent studies 

suggest the pathogens may be the 

same, and C. rodmanii should be 

recognized as a later synonym for the 

currently accepted C. piaropi. Though 

disagreements and difficulties remain 

in this taxonomic group, the editors of 

this catalogue support the idea that 

the Cercospora pathogens utilized 

for biological of E. crassipes are the 

same. Cercospora piaropi is among 

the most widespread and commonly 

found pathogens of E. crassipes

worldwide. Consequently, only those 

countries where this species has been 

utilized/distributed intentionally are 

listed in this catalogue.

987, 1284, 1789

Republic of South Africa

1986

Ex. Unknown

Y

1989

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Found to be present in 1986, though 

not introduced intentionally. A second 

population was intentionally introduced 

(under the name Cercospora rodmanii

Conway) in 1987. Both populations can 

no longer be differentiated in South 

Africa and have been redistributed. 

Severe infections can lead to death 

of attacked leaves. Although it occurs 

extensively, there has been no 

significant decline in weed populations.

ARC-PPRI

273, 278, 1280, 1284, 1789, 2006 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Cercospora piaropi (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 669

Table

3

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina bruchi (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina bruchi Hustache

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Cote d’Ivoire

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Spread to the Cote d’Ivoire side of 

shared lagoon system by 1997 following 

release on the Ghana side in 1994. 

Introduced intentionally from Benin in 

1998. Weevils have had visible impact 

on water hyacinth populations.

21, 448, 450, 939, 946, 2060 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Nigeria

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

This population found in southern 

Nigeria in 1994 from populations 

naturally spreading from Benin. 

Status unknown. Different population 

intentionally released in northwestern 

Nigeria beginning in 1995.

12, 388, 946 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
670 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neochetina eichhorniae Warner

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Cote d’Ivoire

1997

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin via Ghana

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Localized

Spread to the Cote d’Ivoire side of 

shared lagoon system by 1997 following 

release on the Ghana side in 1994. 

Introduced intentionally from Benin in 

1998. Weevils have had visible impact 

on water hyacinth populations.

21, 448, 450, 939, 946, 2060 

Cuba

1976

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Though present in nearly all reservoirs 

throughout the country, overall impact 

unknown.

576, 670, 1044 

Malaysia

early 1980s

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Thailand

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Individuals of this unintentional 

population migrating from Thailand 

subsequently established in same 

regions as intentionally introduced 

group and populations are no longer 

differentiated. Though widespread 

throughout range, established only 

in low numbers; insufficient to control 

weed.

MARDI, PLANTI, DOAM

55, 56, 57, 71, 1326, 1327, 2040 

Mexico

1967

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Variable

(continued on next page)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 671

Table

3

Mexico (continued)

Approved and intentionally released, 

though was already present 

inadvertently since 1967. Intentional and 

inadvertent populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

Neochetina spp. in combination provide 

excellent control in some water bodies, 

but have limited impact in others unless 

additional agents/control methods 

utilized.

699, 1161, 1163, 1164, 1368 

Mozambique

post 1985

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Spread from South Africa following 

releases along Crocodile River in 1985. 

A different population intentionally 

introduced into the Cahora Bassa in 

1972 from unknown origins. Overall 

status of either population unknown.

798, 1494 

Niger Republic

post 1993

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia

N

Yes

Unknown

Heavy

Regional

Spread from releases on Niger River 

in Nigeria in 1993 700 km upstream to 

capital Niamey where the weevils have 

had visual impact on water hyacinth. 

Also intentionally introduced in 2011 

from Benin though status of that 

population unknown.

17, 279, 946 

Nigeria

1994

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via Australia 

via Benin

N

Yes

High

Variable

(continued on next page)

Country Found

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)
672 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Nigeria (continued)

This population found in southern 

Nigeria in 1994 from populations 

naturally spreading from Benin. Different 

population intentionally released 

in northwestern Nigeria beginning 

in 1993 and southwestern Nigeria 

in 1996. Intentional and naturally 

spread populations subsequently not 

differentiated in the literature. Dispersed 

and established rapidly; within 2 years, 

recovered from sites as far as 200 

km from closest release point along 

River Niger. By 2001, water hyacinth 

infestations visibly reduced compared 

to 1995 observations. In southwestern 

states, Neochetina eichhorniae

widespread but not effectively controlling 

the weed. Formal evaluation lacking 

throughout Nigeria.

21, 946, 1499, 1510 

Republic of South Africa

1996

Ex. Argentina via USA (FL) via 

Zimbabwe

N

Yes

High

Variable

The first introductions had low 

establishment and efficacy. The 

second intentional introduction and 

this accidental third introduction 

increased success, though were no 

longer differentiated in the literature. 

Neochetina eichhorniae is now the most 

widespread and abundant of Eichhornia 

crassipes agents in South Africa. Control 

success variable by site; very successful 

in some areas while ineffective in others. 

Flooding, low winter temperatures, and 

high water nutrient levels limit weevil 

populations.

Flooding; Habitat; Climate

ARC-PPRI

208, 297, 801, 946, 1340 

Country Found

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Neochetina eichhorniae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 673

Table

3

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Niphograpta albiguttalis (Warren)

Sameodes albiguttalis (Warren)

(Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Cuba

1995

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

242, 1044 

Mexico

1993

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

236, 242, 1162 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Nigeria

2008

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Likely a natural spread from neighboring 

Benin where this agent was intentionally 

released but believed to have failed 

establishment (additional monitoring in 

Benin thus warranted). To date, Nigeria 

populations low but spreading.

1383

Puerto Rico

1995

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

242

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Niphograpta albiguttalis (continued)
674 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Orthogalumna terebrantis Wallwork

(Acari: Galumnidae)

Cuba

1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

Abundant and causes bronzing of 

hyacinth in water bodies near Havana, 

though overall impact unknown.

102, 576, 670 

Jamaica

1969

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

102

Malawi

1991

Ex. South America via USA (FL) via 

Zambia

Y

1996

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Accompanied weed from Zambezi 

River where it was released in Zambia 

in 1970s. Occurs extensively and 

redistributed regularly. Has significant 

impact on water hyacinth throughout 

Shire, along with Neochetina spp., 

though the weed remains a problem.

MFD

103, 242, 882, 1496, 1788 

Mozambique

post 1971

Ex. South America via USA (FL) via 

Zambia

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Accompanied weed from Zambezi River 

where it was released in Zambia in 

1970s.

1494

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Orthogalumna terebrantis (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 675

Table

3

Republic of South Africa

1989

Ex. Unknown

Y

1990

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

Imported into quarantine where died 

out under insectary conditions and 

nothing released. Adventive population 

discovered from unknown sources 

and redistributed thereafter. Patchy 

distribution, though abundant where 

present. Damage can be high locally at 

some sites, but overall appears not very 

damaging. Population spread appears 

limited by cold winter temperatures.

Climate

ARC-PPRI

273, 275, 297, 801, 992 

United States of America

1968

Ex. South America

N

Yes

Variable

Medium

Localized

Widespread and sporadic but provides 

no substantial control. In combination 

with the fungus Acremonium zonatum

can have locally severe but temporary 

impact. In combination with Neochetina 

eichhorniae can significantly reduce size 

and density of waterhyacinth in natural 

situations locally.

USDA (4)

242, 345, 452 

Zimbabwe

1996

Ex. South America via USA (FL) via 

Zambia

Y

2012

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Spread naturally from Zambia, recently 

redistributed. Though well established in 

some locations, overall impact minimal.

103, 259, 345, 418, 1159 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Orthogalumna terebrantis (continued)

Pontederiaceae

Eichhornia crassipes; Orthogalumna terebrantis (continued)
676 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Rosaceae Rosaceae

Rosa multiflora; Rose Rosette Disease (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rosa multiflora Thunb.

Asia

multiflora rose

Rose Rosette Disease 

Virus

The etiology of this disease has not 

been determined. Due to conflicting 

reports on whether it is native to 

the USA or not, the editors of this 

catalogue are erring on the side of 

caution and supporting the idea the 

disease is not native.

Agent

Name

Classification

Notes

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

United States of America

1941

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 1968

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

United States of America (continued)

Transmitted by Phyllocoptes fructiphilus

and by grafting/mechanical movement. 

Both the mite and disease have spread 

widely on their own and by artificial 

means. Mites can only effectively 

transmit the disease when feeding 

on rapidly growing plants, which only 

occurs in the spring or after abundant 

rainfall. Dispersing mites do not infect 

many plants that are greater than 

~100 m from heavily infested plants, 

so geographic spread of the disease 

is relatively slow except within densely 

populated patches. The disease takes 

~ 2-6 years to kill Rosa multiflora. Large 

infected plants can still successfully 

produce seed that can remain viable 

for 40+ years. Even if new plants 

become infected with the disease, they 

will reseed before they can be killed. 

Therefore the disease is not an effective 

biocontrol agent for this weed problem. 

Public concern over risk of damage 

to commercial, ornamental and native 

roses has prevented efforts to further 

distribute the disease or mite, though 

both are continuing to spread on their 

own.

Also infects native, ornamental and 

commercial roses.

State (47,44,46,41)

31, 518, 546, 547, 1448, 1806, 1897, 

1995 

Country Found

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 677

Table

3

Rosaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rubus armeniacus Focke

Rubus armeniacus is part of the 

Rubus fruticosus aggregate. 

Though the most common form in 

North America presently keys to R. 

armeniacus, there is evidence that 

several species in the R. fruticosus

agg. are present in North America; 

these are currently being defined and 

clarified.

Armenia

Himalaya blackberry, Armenian 

blackberry

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) G. 

Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Rosaceae

Rubus armeniacus; Phragmidium violaceum (continued)

Canada

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Damage to date consists of small 

patches with foliar infections along 

with even smaller patches of winter 

defoliation. Does not yet extend through 

entire distribution of its host in Canada.

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Climate

Also infects the invasive Rubus 

laciniatus Willd.

217, 1133, 1407 

United States of America

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Heavy

Localized

Causes partial to complete defoliation 

and reduces tip rooting, thus decreasing 

canopy cover and giving competing 

vegetation increased opportunity 

for establishment. Disease severity 

greatest in coastal areas were extended 

periods of fog common. High humidity 

and moderate temperatures required 

for optimal spread and to prevent 

entering early dormancy. Efficacy may 

be impaired by parasitic fungus. This 

information combined with climate 

data indicate severe blackberry rust 

epidemics will be sporadic and of minor 

importance in most years.

Climate; Parasitism

Also infects the invasive Rubus 

laciniatus Willd. as well as one cultivated 

variety of the same species. Genotypes 

and crosses of R. insularis F. Aresch. 

were also highly susceptible.

334, 1133, 1266, 1407, 1488 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Country Found

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References
678 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Rosaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus L. agg.

Group of closely related species 

whose frequent interspecific 

hybridization and high phenotypic 

plasticity make taxonomic 

designations difficult. For convenience 

these are dealt with herein under the 

name Rubus fruticosus aggregate.

Asia, Europe

European blackberry, blackberry

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) G. 

Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

Australia

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Illegal or accidental introduction; spread 

naturally throughout southern Australia. 

Attacks all species of European 

blackberry in VIC except some Rubus 

ulmifolius hybrids, R. erythrops (=R. 

rosaceus) or R. cissburiensis. Disease 

intensity varies by Rubus species, 

location and time, rarely exceeding 

40% of leaves on infected stems. 

(continued at top of next column)

Australia (continued)

Only under ideal conditions (sufficient 

rainfall and humidity and mild maximum 

temperatures) is there significant 

reduction in daughter plant production 

and total biomass. 

Climate

VIC State

188, 189, 558, 648, 886, 1158, 1261, 

1264 

New Zealand

1990

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

Impact patchy because various species 

under aggregate name Rubus fruticosus

range from highly susceptible to 

resistant to this strain. Does not do well 

in areas with low rainfall (< 750 mm 

per year), in shade, or on plants under 

stress from other factors (e.g. high or 

low temperatures).

Climate; Habitat

Minor spillover damage only observed 

once on the native Rubus cissoides A. 

Cunn.

1064, 1069, 1264, 1888, 1926 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Country Found

Notes (continued)

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus; Phragmidium violaceum (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 679

Table

3

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Priophorus morio (Lepeletier)

(Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)

Australia

1959

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Attacks numerous species of Rubus

(including raspberry, blackberry, 

youngberry, loganberry) as well 

as Sorbus spp. Consequently the 

deliberate use of this species as a 

biological control agent should be done 

with caution.

218, 1336 

New Zealand

1936

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Attacks numerous species of Rubus

(including raspberry, blackberry, 

youngberry, loganberry) as well as 

Sorbus spp. Consequently its deliberate 

use as a biological control agent should 

be done with caution.

218, 1336 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Other Species Attacked

References

Rosaceae

Rubus fruticosus; Priophorus morio (continued)
680 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Rosaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Rosaceae

Rubus ulmifolius Schott

Europe, northern Africa

zarzamora, blackberry

Phragmidium violaceum (Schultz) G. 

Winter

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Agent

Species

Classification

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Argentina

2008

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

212, 548, 1356 

Salviniaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Salviniaceae

Salvinia minima Baker

Salvinia rotundifolia Willd.

Mexico, Central America, South 

America

common salvinia, water fern, salvinia

Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & 

Sands

Cyrtobagous singularis Hustache pars

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

When first collected from salvinia in 

southeastern Brazil it was thought 

to be a biotype of Cyrtobagous 

singularis adapted to Salvinia 

molesta. Detailed comparative studies 

following releases in Australia helped 

researchers determined that it was 

a new, undescribed species, later to 

be named Cyrtobagous salviniae. 

Two ecotypes of this species are 

known: the larger Brazilian ecotype 

was intentionally released in Australia 

and from there to numerous other 

countries, including Florida USA. 

The second, smaller ecotype was 

adventively introduced to Florida.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 681

Table

3

Salviniaceae

Salvinia minima; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued) Salviniaceae (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

1960

Ex. Unknown

Y

2005

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Intentionally redistributed on Salvinia 

minima as well as S. molesta. In stable 

S. minima populations, populations can 

grow sufficiently large to suppress plant 

growth. This can improve water quality 

and increase nutrient cycling in invaded 

drainages. Smaller FL ecotype more 

effective than Brazilian ecotype during 

trials. Predation by red imported fire ants 

may decrease weevil populations below 

threshold needed to provide control.

Predation

USDA (3)

216, 899, 989, 1436, 1790, 1798, 1800, 

1803, 1804 

Weed

Family

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch.

Salvinia auriculata Aubl.

Brazil

salvinia, water fern, Kariba weed, 

African payal, giant salvinia

Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & 

Sands

Cyrtobagous singularis Hustache 

pars, Cyrtobagous sp.

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

When first collected from salvinia in 

southeastern Brazil it was thought 

to be a biotype of Cyrtobagous 

singularis adapted to Salvinia 

molesta. Detailed comparative studies 

following releases in Australia helped 

researchers determined that it was 

a new, undescribed species, later to 

be named Cyrtobagous salviniae. 

Two ecotypes of this species are 

known: the larger Brazilian ecotype 

was intentionally released in Australia 

and from there to numerous other 

countries, including Florida USA. 

The second, smaller ecotype was 

adventively introduced to Florida.

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes
682 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta; Cyrtobagous salviniae (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Notes

Limiting Factors

Research Organization

References

United States of America

Ex. Unknown

Y

1999

No

This FL ecotype inadvertently introduced 

onto Salvinia minima by 1960 and 

redistributed to S. molesta. Initial 

redistributions failed due to low agent 

fitness following shipment and to 

destruction of release sites. A second 

population from Brazil intentionally 

introduced onto S. molesta in 2001. 

Accidental FL ecotype subsequently 

found to be more effective than Brazilian 

ecotype during trials; future releases of 

this species recommended to be of FL 

ecotype.

Land use

USDA (3,4)

1800, 1801, 1802, 1804 

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder & 

Sands

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Two ecotypes of this species are 

known: the larger Brazilian ecotype 

was intentionally released in Australia 

and from there to numerous other 

countries, including Florida USA. 

The second, smaller ecotype was 

adventively introduced to Florida.

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Zimbabwe

1991

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Observed on Lake Kariba in 1991, but 

a population imported from Botswana 

intentionally introduced to other parts 

of Lake in 1992. Both populations 

subsequently not differentiated in the 

literature. Brought about up to 99% 

control in different river systems within 

2 years. Salvinia molesta no longer 

considered problematic in Zimbabwe.

255, 258, 262, 418, 800 
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 683

Table

3

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Salviniaceae

Salvinia molesta (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cyrtobagous singularis Hustache

(Coleoptera: Erirhinidae)

Zimbabwe

1984

Ex. Trinidad via Zambia

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Spread naturally from releases made 

on the Zambian side of Lake Kariba. 

Although the weed has declined in some 

areas, evidence suggests other factors 

were responsible and this agent has not 

contributed significantly to control.

101, 312, 948, 1160, 1174 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Paulinia acuminata (De Geer)

(Orthoptera: Pauliniidae)

Mozambique

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Carried down Zambezi River from 

Lake Kariba on border of Zambia 

and Zimbabwe where this agent was 

intentionally released. Populations 

possibly contain progeny of Uruguay 

introduction, though most likely they 

arose from Trinidad population. 

Considered ineffective in Mozambique.

103, 938 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
684 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Scrophulariaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Scrophulariaceae

Verbascum thapsus L.

Eurasia

common mullein

Rhinusa tetra (Fabricius)

Gymnetron tetrum (Fabricius)

Gymnaetron teter (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

213, 214

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

References

United States of America

1919

Ex. Unknown

Y

1995

Yes

Variable

Variable

Well established in WA where it causes 

extensive seed destruction. Also 

widespread in OR but impact unknown. 

Present in CA but having negligible 

impact. Populations limited in MT.

Also attacks the exotic Verbascum 

blattaria L.

State (9,13,14,15)

192, 332, 333, 334, 473, 1105, 1497, 

1502, 1636 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

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Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

Tamaricaceae

Weed

Family

Species

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.

Spans several species including 

(among other less frequent species) 

Tamarix parviflora DC., Tamarix 

canariensis Willd., Tamarix gallica

L., Tamarix chinensis Lour., Tamarix 

ramosissima Ledeb., and their 

hybrids. T. chinensis, T. ramosissima, 

and their hybrids are by far the 

most common species invading the 

southwestern USA.

Eurasia, northern Africa

saltcedar, tamarisk

Diorhabda sublineata (Lucas)

Diorhabda elongata (Brullé) pars

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

(continued on next page)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 685

Table

3

Diorhabda sublineata (Lucas)

Tamarisk leaf beetles were initially 

believed to be multiple species 

or subspecies that were later 

synonymized and differentiated only 

according to ecotype. These have 

recently been reassigned to five 

species, four of which have been 

introduced to the USA for tamarisk 

biological control. The different 

species of tamarisk leaf beetles are 

suited to different habitats/locations 

in the USA. Ecotype distinctions 

are retained here for the ease of 

combining information from different 

references. In 2009, a lawsuit was 

filed against USDA APHIS due to 

the possible negative impacts this 

biocontrol program could have on 

the endangered southwestern willow 

flycatcher by destroying some of the 

adventive tamarisk it utilizes where its 

natural habitat has been encroached. 

Redistributions of the tamarisk leaf 

beetles have been discontinued until 

this is resolved.

1644, 1822

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp. (continued)

Species

Notes

References

Mexico

2009

Ex. Tunisia via USA (TX)

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Regional

Tunisian ecotype. Not intentionally 

released in Mexico, but spread naturally 

to Mexican side of Rio Grande after USA 

released insects on USA side. Releases 

occurred only following meetings 

where Mexican scientists and officials 

agreed not to oppose releases in west 

Texas. After crossing Rio Grande, have 

established strongly deep into Mexico. 

Predation

89, 90, 461, 465 

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix spp.; Diorhabda sublineata (continued)

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References
686 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Verbenaceae Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara L. sens. lat.

Lantana camara subsp. aculeata

Moldenke, Lantana camara var. 

aculeata (L.) Moldenke, Lantana 

aculeata L., Lantana camara aculeata

Comprises a complex of horticultural/

weedy hybrids and closely related 

species within the section Camara

Original parent species likely native to 

tropical Americas

lantana, kauboica, tataramoa, bands, 

guphul, nagaairi, phullaki, putus, 

tantbi, vieille fille, chiponiwe (Shona), 

tick berry, bahug-bahug, sapinit, phaka-krong, talamoa, prickly lantana

Calycomyza lantanae (Frick)

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Agent

Species

Classification

Cambodia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

431, 1641 

Ethiopia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1198

Federated States of Micronesia

1995

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

431, 451, 1302, 1308 

Guam

1992

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1302, 1308 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 687

Table

3

Indonesia

post 1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1397 

Kenya

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Observed around Nairobi but likely more 

widespread than that.

418, 418 

Madagascar

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Symptoms recognized on lantana plants 

by 2009, though the agent was only 

confirmed established in 2010. Current 

overall status unknown.

1738, 1846 

Malaysia

post 1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Causes severe defoliation, leading to 

partial control.

429, 431, 1397 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)
688 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Palau

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

451, 1302 

Papua New Guinea

post 1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Unknown

Causes only minor damage.

418, 418, 429, 431, 1397 

Philippines

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

Though moderately common, effect on 

lantana populations unknown.

291, 429, 515 

Singapore

post 1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 1397 

Solomon Islands

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes only minor damage.

418, 429 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 689

Table

3

Swaziland

1998

Ex. Trinidad via Australia via Republic 

of South Africa; Ex. USA (FL, TX) via 

Republic of South Africa

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Unknown

Two populations were released from 

different sources into South Africa 

and subsequently not differentiated in 

the literature or the field. The species 

subsequently spread naturally to 

neighboring Swaziland where low 

numbers observed, causing only minor 

damage.

280, 418, 429, 1340 

Taiwan

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Numbers are limited and causes only 

minor damage.

418, 431 

Tanzania

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 2074 

Thailand

mid 1980s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread, impact has only 

been minor.

NBCRC

418, 426, 429, 1327, 1329 

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)
690 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Timor Leste

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Only causes minor damage.

418, 431 

Uganda

1997

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 2074 

Vanuatu

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes only minor damage.

204, 418 

Vietnam

2002

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Numbers are limited and causes only 

minor damage.

418, 429, 431 

Zimbabwe

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, numbers low 

and damage appears minor.

418

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Calycomyza lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 691

Table

3

Agent

Species

Classification

Cremastobombycia lantanella Busck

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Republic of South Africa

N

The widespread, indigenous, African 

Aristaea onychota (Meyrick) has been 

incorrectly referred to as the exotic 

Cremastobombycia lantanella Busck 

numerous times in the biocontrol 

literature. Because it has not been 

redistributed intentionally throughout the 

Republic of South Africa, A. onychota

does not warrant mention in this 

catalogue under the current ruling for 

including native organisms. However, 

this entry is intentionally included herein 

to help clarify the taxonomic confusion 

of C. lantanella in Africa.

1848

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Deliberately Redistributed

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Crocidosema lantana Busck

Epinotia lantana (Busck)

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

Guam

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

With Lantanophaga pusillidactyla

causes 70-80% decline in fruit 

production.

429, 481, 482 

India

1986

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

None

Attacks high percentage of fruits, but 

ineffective.

1034, 1312, 1542 

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References
692 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Northern Mariana Islands

post 1949

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Contributing to control and in 

conjunction with Lantanophaga 

pusillidactyla is the most effective agent 

in the region.

429, 481, 482 

Palau

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

In conjunction with Lantanophaga 

pusillidactyla is the most effective 

lantana agent in region.

429, 481, 482 

Republic of South Africa

1961

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced in 1984, though 

now believed this species already 

present accidentally prior to 1961. Both 

populations not differentiated in the 

literature. Though widely distributed 

throughout South Africa, populations 

typically low, due at least in part to 

parasitism. Contributes to the damage 

of lantana flowers throughout its range, 

although insufficient to reduce the 

plant’s weed status.

62, 65, 66, 429, 992 

Vanuatu

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Unknown

Only observed in low numbers; unlikely 

to be very damaging. Additional surveys 

warranted.

204, 418 

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Crocidosema lantana (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Crocidosema lantana (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 693

Table

3

Zimbabwe

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, numbers low 

and damage appears minor.

418

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Crocidosema lantana (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Hypena laceratalis Walker

Hypena strigata (Fabricius), Hypena 

jussalis Walker, Hypena strigalis

(Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Cape Verde Islands

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1869, 1940 

New Caledonia

1979

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread, causes only minor 

damage.

418, 429, 698, 1940 

INTRODUCTION

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Established

Abundance

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References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
694 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Northern Mariana Islands

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

None

Overall impact insignificant.

429, 481, 482, 1940 

Papua New Guinea

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Unknown

Causes only minor damage.

418, 429, 431, 1940 

Philippines

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Causes only minor damage.

418, 429, 1940 

Taiwan

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Suspected present, but not formally 

confirmed.

418

Vanuatu

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Populations limited and localized, 

causing minimal damage.

418

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Hypena laceratalis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 695

Table

3

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (Walker)

Platyptilia pusillidactyla Walker

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Australia

1936

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed throughout range of 

weed. Populations fluctuate seasonally, 

peaking in summer and autumn in 

warm, moist areas but waning over 

winter and in temperate areas. Causes 

only minor damage.

414, 422, 429 

Guam

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

With Crocidosema lantana causes 

70-80% decline in fruit production.

UOG

429, 481, 482, 1300, 1317 

Hong Kong

1900

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Intentionally introduced, though 

the agent was already established 

inadvertently. Populations subsequently 

not differentiated. Current overall status 

unknown.

429, 635, 1940 

India

1919

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Densities too low to provide any 

significant control, likely a result of 

natural enemies.

Parasitism; Predation

Also breeds in the native Lantana indica

Roxb. and the exotic Lippia geminata

H. B. & K.

1034, 1312, 1542, 1546 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)
696 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Israel

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96

Italy

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96

Morocco

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96

Myanmar

1920

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though populations widespread 

when first documented in Myanmar, 

abundance and impact already greatly 

hindered by parasitoids and predators.

Parasitism; Predation

Also breeds in the native Lantana indica

Roxb. and the exotic Lippia geminata H. 

B. & K.

418, 429, 431, 1546 

New Zealand

1982

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

While both adults and larvae feed on 

flowers, thought to have limited impact 

in New Zealand.

526, 761, 1055, 1072 

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

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Abundance

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References

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 697

Table

3

Northern Mariana Islands

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Contributes to partial or seasonal 

control.

429, 481, 482, 1302, 1940 

Papua New Guinea

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Unknown

Causes only minor damage.

429

People’s Republic of China

2011

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Having only minor impact.

418, 1221 

Portugal

2004

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96

Republic of South Africa

1904

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Present adventively since at least 

1904. Abundance varies from rare to 

frequent, but is typically low throughout 

South Africa. Damage restricted to 

only a section of entire flower head, 

allowing undamaged flowers on the 

infested cluster to mature and set fruit. 

Consequently impact is negligible. 

Populations limited by parasitism in 

some places. A different population 

was intentionally introduced in 1984 but 

failed to establish. 

Parasitism

Also attacks native Lippia spp.

62, 66, 429, 992, 1340 

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

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Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

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Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)
698 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Spain

2000

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96, 985 

Sri Lanka

1920

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Unknown

Unknown

418, 1546, 2044 

Taiwan

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Having only minor impact.

418, 431 

Thailand

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Having only minor impact.

418

Timor Leste

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Only causes minor damage.

418, 431 

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 699

Table

3

Zambia

1982

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Impact typically negligible.

1117

Zimbabwe

2012

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, numbers low 

and damage appears minor.

418

INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Neogalea sunia (Guenée)

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

New Caledonia

1977

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Rare

Slight

Localized

Single specimen collected. Causes only 

minor damage.

429, 698 

INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)
700 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Octotoma scabripennis GuérinMéneville

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Swaziland

2005

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Australia 

via Republic of South Africa

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Plant damage rare to occasional; 

establishment and abundance limited.

280, 1132 

INTRODUCTION

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Agent

Species

Classification

Ophiomyia camarae Spencer

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Argentina

1976

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1865

Ethiopia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Unknown

Unknown

Impact has not been formally evaluated 

but is likely minimal due to the sparse 

abundance observed and to its recent 

introduction.

1847, 1849 

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INTRODUCTION

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References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 701

Table

3

Kenya

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

2005

Madagascar

2009

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1846, 1849 

Mozambique

2009

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South 

Africa

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Has flourished in the hot and humid, low 

altitude, coastal regions.

1669, 1846, 1848, 1849 

Swaziland

2005

Ex. USA (FL) via Republic of South Africa

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Established widely throughout range 

though abundance and damage typically 

just moderate.

1132, 1669, 1846 

Tanzania

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1849

Zimbabwe

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widely distributed, damage 

appears minor.

418, 1738, 1846 

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Notes

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INTRODUCTION

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References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia camarae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia camarae (continued)
702 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Ophiomyia lantanae (Froggatt)

Agromyza lantanae Froggatt

Ophiomyia rhodesiensis

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Argentina

1976

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1865

Ghana

1970

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Minor damage only.

312, 429, 1618 

India

1921

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

None

Deliberately released in 1921 

without knowledge the agent was 

already established following this 

(likely) unintentional introduction. 

Both populations subsequently not 

distinguished in the literature. Attacks 

high percentage of fruits, but ineffective 

as germination is not affected.

1542, 1548, 1747 

Indonesia

1955

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Established but causes only minor 

damage.

418, 429, 939, 1715 

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INTRODUCTION

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Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

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Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

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Source

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Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 703

Table

3

Kenya

1958

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Following intentional release in 1958, 

it was found already present in Kenya. 

Intentional and unintentional populations 

were subsequently not differentiated. 

Though widespread throughout country, 

impact is minor as fruit attack frequently 

does not kill the embryo in the seeds. 

Still present during recent surveys.

418, 429, 667, 668 

Madagascar

1968

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

668, 1846 

Malaysia

1973

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widespread but not providing effective 

control.

429, 431, 1397, 1717 

Myanmar

1934

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Unknown

Causes only minor damage.

429, 1717, 1747 

Northern Mariana Islands

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Frequently infests over 50% of pods, 

contributing to partial or seasonal control.

481, 482 

INTRODUCTION

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

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Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
704 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Palau

1988

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Medium

Regional

Abundant on Anagaur where it provides 

partial or seasonal control.

429, 481, 482 

Papua New Guinea

1973

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 671 

Philippines

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Relatively little effect upon seed viability.

291, 429 

Republic of South Africa

1961

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Intentionally introduced in 1961. 

Following release it was found that 

a species already present in the 

country had been wrongly identified 

as Ophiomyia rhodesiensis and 

was in fact O. lantanae. Intentional 

and unintentional populations were 

subsequently not differentiated as the 

unintentional population was already 

widespread. Now widely established 

and abundant, despite parasitism. 

Contributes to seed destruction but 

unlikely to impact spread of the weed, 

though additional study is warranted. 

Shows no preference for different 

lantana varieties.

Parasitism

ARC-PPRI

65, 66, 267, 271, 280, 1399 

Samoa

1940

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1611

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INTRODUCTION

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Notes

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Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

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Source

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 705

Table

3

Singapore

1973

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 1397, 1717 

Sri Lanka

1933

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1312, 1717, 1747

Swaziland

1998

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Medium

Widespread throughout range

(continued at top of next column)

Swaziland (continued)

Though this species was intentionally 

introduced into South Africa in 1961, 

following release it was found that a 

species already present had been 

wrongly identified as Ophiomyia 

rhodesiensis and was in fact O. 

lantanae. Because the unintentional 

population was already widespread in 

the 1960s, it is likely this population in 

Swaziland was already inadvertently 

present as well and was not a result 

of natural spread from the 1961 

intentional introduction into South Africa. 

In Swaziland, it is established widely 

throughout the range of the weed, 

though abundance and damage typically 

are limited to moderate.

280, 418, 429, 1132 

Taiwan

1958

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1610

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Country Found

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
706 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Tanzania

1960

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Impact only minor; no evidence of 

checking lantana spread.

429, 1676 

Thailand

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Unknown

Damage only minor.

418

Timor Leste

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Only causes minor damage.

418, 431 

Tonga

1956

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1611

Uganda

1960

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Localized

Impact only minor; no evidence of 

checking lantana spread.

429, 1716 

Vanuatu

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

289, 418, 429 

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INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 707

Table

3

Vietnam

1960

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Unknown

Causes only minor damage.

418, 429, 431, 1610 

Zambia

1982

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Impact typically negligible.

1117

Zimbabwe

1971

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though widespread, of little importance 

in Zimbabwe as only a small proportion 

of berries on any one plant are ever 

attacked, and fruit is set very freely.

418, 429, 668 

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INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Ophiomyia lantanae (continued)
708 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Orthezia insignis Browne

(Hemiptera: Ortheziidae)

Though it was used intentionally in 

Hawaii, it is polyphagous and very 

damaging to many plant species 

and should not be considered for 

additional use as a biocontrol agent.

429

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)

Ascension Island

1980s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Heavy

Widespread throughout range

Causes widespread and severe 

damage; probably adding to control by 

Teleonemia scrupulosa. This agent has 

a wide host range, but has thus far not 

been found damaging native species on 

Ascension. It is polyphagous and very 

damaging to many plant species and 

should not be considered for additional 

use as a biocontrol agent.

429, 431, 582, 584 

Cape Verde Islands

2003

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

429, 431, 1869 

Ethiopia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1198

India

1915

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

None

(continued on next page)

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Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 709

Table

3

India (continued)

First identified in India in 1915, a second 

population intentionally introduced in 

1921. Both populations subsequently 

not differentiated in the literature. 

At one point agent was targeted for 

eradication once its polyphagous nature 

determined, but efforts failed and agent 

now firmly established in India. Does not 

control weed.

Feeds on several desirable nontarget 

species.

1034, 1312, 1546 

Kenya

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1302

Mauritius

1899

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Variable

(continued at top of next column)

Mauritius (continued)

Polyphagous pest whose populations 

vary depending on species and location. 

Causes considerable lasting damage to 

lantana, especially in drier regions.

Polyphagous scale insect in Mauritius 

found on some crops such as Solanum 

melongena L. There are no records of 

Orthezia insignis damaging native plant 

species in Mauritius, but it would not be 

surprising if this occurred occasionally.

469, 586, 1677 

Republic of South Africa

1898

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Medium

Widespread throughout range

Moderately abundant in South Africa. 

Sucks sap from stems of various plant 

species, with a preference for lantana 

and even certain lantana varieties. 

Its polyphagous nature precludes 

intentional use.

Specificity

A known polyphagous species, often 

considered a pest. Found on the native 

Priva meyeri Jaub. & Spach and native 

Lippia spp. growing near Lantana 

camara L. sens. lat.

159, 429, 786, 1244, 1849 

Country Found

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

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References

INTRODUCTION

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Country Found

Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

INTRODUCTION

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Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)
710 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Sri Lanka

1893

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Heavy

Localized

Affected shoots turn black and die 

back, however the variable distribution 

of the insect in patches not considered 

effective overall.

429, 431, 1034, 1312, 1546 

St Helena

1980s

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Causing widespread damage to 

the weed but also to endemic 

Commidendrum robustum. The 

coccinelid Hyperaspis pantherina was 

released by IIBC in an attempt to save 

the native tree species. Orthezia insignis

has been under successful biological 

control since 1993/94 and is unlikely to 

have any impact on L. camara in the 

future.

429, 582, 583 

Swaziland

2005

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Medium

Localized

Establishment limited, but damage 

moderate where agents occur.

1132

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INTRODUCTION

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Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Orthezia insignis (continued)
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 711

Table

3

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Phenacoccus parvus (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Phenacoccus parvus Morrison

(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Recorded from the Caribbean, Central 

America, and South America on many 

hosts. It has been recorded recently 

from Africa, throughout the South 

Pacific, Australia, and southern Asia. 

Due to the widespread distribution 

of this species, only the country 

where it has been utilized/distributed 

intentionally (Australia) is listed in this 

catalogue.

1970

Australia

1988

Ex. Unknown

Y

post 1988

Yes

Variable

Variable

Deliberately redistributed by graziers. 

During dry years populations increase 

and cause significant dieback of lantana 

plants. Populations remain low and 

found only in isolated areas during 

normal rainfall patterns. 

Climate

(continued at top of next column)

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Limiting Factors

Australia (continued)

At high population levels in Australia 

has been reported attacking several 

economically important plants such as 

tomato and aubergine and is therefore 

not recommended for re-distribution 

or release in other countries. Where 

it occurs, it is particularly common on 

Solanaceae and on Lantana camara L. 

sens. lat.

Private

414, 418, 422, 429, 1753, 1970 

Country Found

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References
712 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Teleonemia scrupulosa Stål

(Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

India

1941

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia

Y

1972

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Recommendation made not to release 

this insect but it escaped from the 

laboratory and established. Spread was 

assisted between 1972 and 1976 and 

is now widespread in all parts of the 

country. Can lead to defoliation but is of 

limited control value. Populations limited 

by egg parasitoid.

Parasitism

Fed upon teak in laboratory, but not 

observed on this plant in the field.

FRI

615, 1034, 1312, 1542, 1548, 1940 

Indonesia

1940

Ex. Mexico via Hawaii USA via Fiji via 

Australia

Y

1954

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Recommendation made not to release 

this insect, but escaped from laboratory 

and established well in 10 years. Spread 

artificially assisted in 1954; now well 

established but of limited control value. 

Fed upon teak in laboratory, but has not 

significantly damaged this plant in the 

field.

DAI

429, 1548, 1940 

Malaysia

1971

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

291, 429, 431, 1548 

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Notes

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Year Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Other Species Attacked

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 713

Table

3

Mauritius

1952

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Variable

Caused extensive damage and 

prevented spread of the weed until 

1964. Biocontrol program expanded 

when weed began to spread. Now, 

along with Hypena laceratalis and Salbia 

haemorrhoidalis, is commonly found and 

causes extensive damage to lantana in 

drier areas and periods.

MAM

586, 668, 856, 1677 

Namibia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1672

Philippines

1983

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Variable

Unknown

Unknown

Abundance varies by region. Overall 

impact unknown.

291, 429 

Swaziland

1998

Ex. Unknown via Republic of South 

Africa

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Localized

Spread naturally from South Africa 

where numerous populations 

deliberately introduced from variety of 

sources. Unclear which population (or 

mixture of all) spread to Swaziland. 

Establishment very limited with minimal 

damage attributed to this insect.

280, 418, 429, 1132 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

Research Organization

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)
714 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Thailand

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Limited

Slight

Unknown

Impact only minor in the few regions 

surveyed.

288, 418 

Timor Leste

2006

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Variable

Damage is seasonal.

418, 431 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Notes

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara; Teleonemia scrupulosa (continued)

Verbenaceae

Lantana camara (continued)

Agent

Species

Classification

Uroplata girardi Pic

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Ethiopia

2010

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1198

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 715

Table

3

Verbenaceae (continued)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Verbenaceae

Lantana montevidensis (Spreng.) 

Briq.

South America

creeping lantana

Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (Walker)

Platyptilia pusillidactyla Walker

(Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)

Agent

Species

Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Australia

1936

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Widely distributed on both weedy 

and horticultural forms of Lantana 

montevidensis throughout Australia. 

Causes only minor damage.

414, 415, 422, 429 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References

Italy

2007

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

96

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Verbenaceae

Lantana montevidensis; Lantanophaga pusillidactyla (continued)
716 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides (continued) Zygophyllaceae

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides L.

tropical and sub-tropical Africa, IndoAustralia

false puncturevine, nohu, Jamaican 

feverplant, Jamaican fever vine, 

puncturevine, bur-not

Microlarinus lareynii (Jacquelin du 

Val)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

Mexico

1976

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

45

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Agent

Species

Classification

Microlarinus lypriformis (Wollaston)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Bahamas

1980

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

104, 105, 288 

Colombia

1973

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

1128

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded 717

Table

3

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued)

Curaçao

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

104

Jamaica

1979

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

102, 104, 288 

Mexico

1973

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

45, 102, 104, 288, 1128 

Puerto Rico

1987

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

High

Unknown

Unknown

104

United States of America

1971

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Moderate

Slight

Widespread throughout range

Though introduced intentionally against 

Tribulus terrestris in other states in 

1961, this population on T. cistoides

adventive of unknown origin. Causing 

some damage but suffers attack from 

native parasites.

Parasitism

288, 1722 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued)
718 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 3. Agents Found in Exotic Ranges where Deliberate Release not Recorded

Table

3

Venezuela

1984

Ex. Unknown

N

Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

104

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

References

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus cistoides; Microlarinus lypriformis (continued) Zygophyllaceae (continued)

Zygophyllaceae

Tribulus terrestris L.

Mediterranean, western Asia, Africa

puncturevine, ground bur nut, bull’s 

head, goat head, caltrop

Microlarinus lareynii (Jacquelin du 

Val)

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Weed

Family

Species

Origin

Common Name

Agent

Species

Classification

La Réunion

2001

Ex. Unknown

N

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Represented by a single specimen 

collected in 2001, but establishment 

has not been confirmed; may just be a 

short-lived introduction.

1465, 1631 

INTRODUCTION

Country Found

Year First Recorded

Source

Deliberately Redistributed

Established

Abundance

General Impact

Geographical Scale of Impact

Notes

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 719

Table

4

TABLE 4. BIOHERBICIDES

*Please note that although some references indicate Mycoleptodiscus 

terrestris (Gerd.) Ostaz. was registered as Aqua Fyte for the control 

of Myriophyllum spicatum L. in the USA, official registration has 

not occured. Consequently this pathogen/weed system has been 

intentionally removed from this table.

Registration Information

As stated in the introduction, Table 4 entries are first listed 

alphabetically according to the name of the biological control 

agent and secondarily by target weed name. Entries are then listed 

alphabetically according to the country in which a bioherbicide has 

been registered and are accompanied by the first year of registration 

with the appropriate authority. Also included are the name of the 

registered product(s), the research organization(s) involved, and 

registration notes, where applicable. The location and host source of 

isolated material is included for each entry.

Impact Information

Bioherbicide impact is represented by six categories: None, Slight, 

Medium, Heavy, Variable, and Unknown. All impact is assumed to 

occur only on a localized scale following the application. Because the 

choices selected for impact are subjective estimates by the editors, an 

additional notes section is provided which includes a brief summary of 

each bioherbicide system.

Commercialization and Current Status

The commercial status of the organism is given, along with the name 

of the commercialized product, the company or institution responsible 

and notes, if applicable. If the biocontrol agent has been observed in 

the field attacking plant species other than those targeted for control, 

this information is included. Likewise, factors believed to limit the 

efficacy of any particular release are listed when known.
720 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Alternaria destruens

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Alternaria destruens E.G. Simmons

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

Cuscuta spp.

Convolvulaceae

North America

dodder

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Limiting Factors

References

United States of America

2005

Smolder G, Smolder WP

Registered as bioherbicide formulations 

Smolder G and Smolder WP.

Cuscuta gronovii Willd., USA (WI)

State (50,3,51)

Variable

Initial trials indicated soil applied 

granular product suppresses dodder 

at early stages of growth while spray 

formulation suppresses dodder vines 

that have reached top of cash crop 

canopy. To function effectively, requires 

moist environment and adequate 

temperature during infection period. 

Subsequent field trials unsuccessful.

No

United Agri-Products

Despite being registered, trials with 

Smolder were unsuccessful in both MA 

and WI. No longer registered.

Climate

252, 330, 1484, 1603, 1856, 1859

Chondrostereum purpureum

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Chondrostereum purpureum (Pers.) 

Pouzar

(Agaricomycetes: Agaricales)

Acer spp., Alnus spp., Betula spp., 

Populus spp., Prunus spp.

Multiple Families

North America

birch, pin-cherry, poplar/aspen, red 

maple, sugar maple, speckled alder

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Other Species Attacked

References

Canada

2002

Myco-TechTM Paste, Chondrostereum 

purpureum (HQ1)

The technical active ingredient 

Chondrostereum purpureum (HQ1) and 

the end-use product Myco-TechTM Paste 

were granted full registration against 

weedy deciduous brush species in 

rights-of-way.

Strain HQ1, Betula papyrifera Marshall, 

Canada (QC)

PFC

Heavy

Highly virulent on freshly cut stumps, 

significantly reducing re-sprouting.

Yes

Myco-Forestis Corporation

Pathogen of various deciduous trees 

including species of Acer, Aesculus, 

Alnus, Betula, Crataegus, Fagus, Larix, 

Malus, Ostrya, Picea, Populus, Prunus, 

Salix, and Sorbus.

156, 1064, 1484
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 721

Table

4

United States of America

2005

Myco-TechTM Paste, HQ1 Concentrate

Registered as two bioherbicide 

formulations under the names HQ1 

Concentrate and Myco-TechTM Paste for 

hardwood species growing in rights-ofway, wood lots and conifer plantations.

Strain HQ1, Betula papyrifera Marshall, 

Canada (QC)

PFC

Heavy

Highly virulent on freshly cut stumps, 

significantly reducing re-sprouting.

Yes

Myco-Forestis Corporation

Pathogen of various deciduous trees 

including species of Acer, Aesculus, 

Alnus, Betula, Crataegus, Fagus, Larix, 

Malus, Ostrya, Picea, Populus, Prunus, 

Salix, and Sorbus.

156, 1064, 1484, 1855

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Other Species Attacked

References

Chondrostereum purpureum (continued) Chondrostereum purpureum (continued)

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

Alnus rubra Bong., Alnus viridis

(Chaix) DC. subsp. sinuata (Regel) Á. 

Löve & D. Löve

Betulaceae

North America

red alder, Sitka alder

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

References

Canada

2004

Chontrol Paste, CP-PFC2139

Registered as bioherbicide formulations 

CP-PFC2139 and Chontrol Paste, 

temporarily in 2004 and fully in 2007.

Isolate PFC2139, Alnus rubra Bong., 

Canada (BC)

PFC

Heavy

Highly virulent on freshly cut stumps, 

inhibiting stump resprouting and typically 

leading to death within two years.

Yes

MycoLogic Inc.

94, 156, 157, 1064, 1485, 1486
722 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Chondrostereum purpureum (continued)

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

Alnus spp., Populus spp.

Multiple Families

North America

alder, aspen and other hardwood 

trees and shrubs

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

References

United States of America

2004

Chontrol Paste, CP-PFC2139

Registered as bioherbicide formulations 

CP-PFC 2139 and Chontrol Paste for 

hardwood trees and shrubs growing in 

rights-of-way and forests.

Isolate PFC2139, Alnus rubra Bong., 

Canada (BC)

PFC

Heavy

Highly virulent on freshly cut stumps, 

inhibiting stump resprouting and typically 

leading to death within two years.

Yes

MycoLogic Inc.

94, 156, 157, 1064, 1485, 1854

Chondrostereum purpureum (continued)

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

Prunus serotina Ehrh.

Rosaceae

North America

black cherry, American bird cherry

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Netherlands

1997 Market Date

BioChon

Produced and sold in The Netherlands 

as BioChon from 1997-2000, but 

was not formally registered. When 

registration according to the directive 

91/414 EEC was demanded, the 

company, Koppert B.V., withdrew the 

product from the market because costs 

related with the production of safety 

data required for registration would have 

outranged the possible commercial 

turnover by far.

Unknown species, Netherlands

WUR

Heavy

Generally resulted in death rate of 95% 

in inoculated plants two years after 

treatment.

No

Koppert B.V.

Product withdrawn from market in 

2000 due to low sales and regulatory 

concerns.

Also effective against Populus spp.

444, 534, 1064
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 723

Table

4

Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Notes

References

Colletotrichum acutatum J.H. 

Simmonds f. sp. hakeae Lubbe, 

Denman, P. F. Cannon, J. Z. 

Groenew., Lampr. & Crous

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Sacc., Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & 

Sacc. f. sp. aeschynomene

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Listed under Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. 

& Sacc. f. sp. aeschynomene in 

previous versions of the catalogue, 

though this appears incorrect as 

f. sp. aeschynomene has been 

isolated from an unrelated plant, 

Aeschynomene virginica (L.) B.S.P. 

in the USA. All early South African 

references refer to this pathogen 

simply as C. gloeosporioides (Penz.) 

Sacc. The pathogen has since been 

assigned to Colletotrichum acutatum

J.H. Simmonds f. sp. hakeae

Lubbe, Denman, P. F. Cannon, J. Z. 

Groenew., Lampr. & Crous.

659, 944, 987, 1120

Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C. Wendl.

Proteaceae

Australia

silky hakea, needlebush

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae (continued)

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Republic of South Africa

1990

Hakatak®

Provisionally registered as Hakatak® in 

1990.

Hakea sericea Schrad. & J.C. Wendl., 

Republic of South Africa

ARC-PPRI

Variable

Causes branch cankers accompanied 

by gum exudates from infected areas. 

Cankers gradually girdle the trunk and 

stems and kill the host plant. Highly 

effective in some areas, especially 

under moist and cloudy conditions. 

Interferes with larval development of 

Carposina autologa.

No

National Chemical Products, a division 

of Sentrachem

Registration allowed to lapse in 1991 

due to limited market interest. Now 

produced on request free of charge by 

ARC-PPRI.

Climate

655, 659, 1281, 1284
724 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. f. sp. aeschynomene (continued)

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f. sp. 

aeschynomene J.T. Daniel, G.E. 

Templeton, R.J. Sm. & W.T. Fox

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Colletotrichum aeschynomenes

B. Weir & P.R. Johnst. has been 

proposed as the new name for 

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f. sp. 

aeschynomene J.T. Daniel, G.E. 

Tempelton, R.J. Sm. & W.T. Fox. 

The editors of this catalogue have 

retained the original name pending 

further confirmation of the change’s 

acceptance and because it was 

the original name utilized in the 

registration of the bioherbicide. 

1967

Aeschynomene virginica (L.) B.S.P.

Fabaceae

Aeschynomene indica L.

The taxonomic history of 

Aeschynomene virginica (L.) BSP 

is under debate. According to one 

report, there is a single weedy 

Aeschynomene species (A. indica L.) 

found along the eastern seaboard in 

North America, while other reports 

suggest the occurrence of two weedy 

species (A. virginica and A. indica) 

in the Mississippi River Delta region 

of the US. The bioherbicide listed 

in this entry is highly virulent on A. 

virginica, but less so on A. indica. The 

name A. virginica applies to a species 

considered threatened or endangered 

along the eastern seaboard of the US 

where it is native, while populations 

of the same species are considered 

weedy and noxious when growing 

out of their native range in rice fields 

in Arkansas and surrounding states. 

The registration of the bioherbicide 

listed in this entry applies only to 

weedy populations of A. virginica

growing within rice and soybean fields 

in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, 

Texas and Missouri.

North America

northern jointvetch

252, 1466, 1703, 1785, 1843, 1860

Weed

Species

Family

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 725

Table

4

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. f. sp. aeschynomene (continued)

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

References

United States of America

1982

CollegoTM, LockDownTM

Registered in 1982 and 1992 as 

CollegoTM, and again in 2006 as 

LockDownTM. All registrations were 

completed with the same exact strain/

isolate used in 1982 formulations. 

Formulations may differ across time.

Aeschynomene virginica (L.) B.S.P., 

USA (AR)

State (2)

Heavy

Causes formation of many lesions all 

over Aeschynomene virginica plants, 

effectively girdling stems and branches. 

Typically leads to complete control (90% 

to 100% mortality) of the weed within 

4 to 5 weeks in the field to which the 

product is properly applied. Active over a 

wide range of environmental conditions. 

Applications required annually because 

the fungus does not survive well in soil 

and or refuse despite being seedborne.

Yes

Encore Technologies, Inc., Agricultural 

Research Initiatives, Inc.

CollegoTM not produced or distributed 

since 2003. LockDownTM currently 

available.

227, 251, 392, 592, 1064, 1703, 1785, 

1787, 1852, 1858

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. cuscutae

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f. sp. cuscutae

T.Y. Zhang

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Cuscuta australis R. Br.

Convolvulaceae

Asia, Europe, Australia

dodder

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

References

People’s Republic of China

1966

Lubao No. 1, Lubao No. 1 S22®

Registered as a bioherbicide under 

the name Lubao No. 1 in 1966. New 

strain created in 1987 under the name 

Lubao No. 1 S22®. Utilized against both 

Cuscuta australis and C. chinensis.

Glycine max (L.) Merr., People’s 

Republic of China (Shandong)

CAAS-ISF

Heavy

Used to control weed in soybean fields. 

Control >85% in all treated fields, 

reducing yield loss 30-50%.

Yes

Institute of Soil and Fertilizers, Chinese 

Academy of Agricultural Sciences

Degradation of Lubao No. 1 strain 

occurred in 1970s followed by decrease 

in use. New formulation, Lubao No. 1 

S22®, developed with higher virulence 

and in use since 1987.

251, 349, 1064, 1935
726 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. cuscutae (continued)

Weed

Species

Family

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

Cuscuta chinensis Lam.

Convolvulaceae

Numerous herbarium collections from 

Asia labeled “Cuscuta chinensis” 

are in fact C. campestris—a North 

American species that has become 

almost cosmopolitan.

northern Africa, Asia, Australia

dodder

348

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

References

People’s Republic of China

1966

Lubao No. 1, Lubao No. 1 S22®

Registered as a bioherbicide under 

the name Lubao No. 1 in 1966. New 

strain created in 1987 under the name 

Lubao No. 1 S22®. Utilized against both 

Cuscuta australis and C. chinensis.

Glycine max (L.) Merr., People’s 

Republic of China (Shandong)

CAAS-ISF

Heavy

Used to control weed in soybean fields. 

Control >85% in all treated fields, 

reducing yield loss 30-50%.

Yes

Institute of Soil and Fertilizers, Chinese 

Academy of Agricultural Sciences

Degradation of Lubao No. 1 strain 

occurred in 1970s followed by decrease 

in use. New formulation, Lubao No. 1 

S22®, developed with higher virulence 

and in use since 1987.

251, 349, 1064, 1935

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. f. sp. malvae

(Sordariomycetes: Incertae sedis)

Malva pusilla Sm.

Malvaceae

Malva rotundifolia L.

Eurasia

round-leaved mallow

Weed

Species

Family

Past Names/Synonyms

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

References

Canada

1992

BioMal®

Registered as bioherbicide in field crops.

Malva pusilla Sm., Canada (SK)

AAFC

Heavy

Inoculations effectively control Malva 

pusilla and increase crop yield.

No

Philom Bios

Commercial production halted in 1994 

because changes in the marketplace 

over the 10 year development period 

resulted in the market potential 

being too small to justify further 

commercialization costs and 

production expenses.

157, 1064, 1287, 1288, 1289
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 727

Table

4

Cylindrobasidium laeve Cylindrobasidium laeve (continued)

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Cylindrobasidium laeve (Pers.) 

Chamuris

(Agaricomycetes: Agaricales)

Acacia mearnsii De Wild.

Fabaceae

Australia

black wattle

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Republic of South Africa

1997

Stumpout®

Registered for use against Acacia 

mearnsii and A. pycnantha.

Acacia mearnsii De Wild., Republic of 

South Africa

ARC-PPRI

Variable

When applied to cut stumps, the fungus 

colonizes the wood and kills the stump, 

preventing regrowth.

Yes

ARC-PPRI-Stellenbosch

Limited market for the product has 

dissuaded large business interest; 

however there is regular demand 

from conservation organizations and 

landowners so the product is produced by 

PPRI Weed Pathology Unit on request.

Used against Acacia mearnsii De Wild. 

and A. pycnantha Benth.; recently found 

effective against A. decurrens (Wendl.) 

Willd. as well.

871, 992, 1086, 1284, 2006

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

Acacia pycnantha Benth.

Fabaceae

Australia

golden wattle

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

Republic of South Africa

1997

Stumpout®

Registered for use against Acacia 

mearnsii and A. pycnantha.

Acacia mearnsii De Wild., Republic of 

South Africa

ARC-PPRI

Heavy

When applied to cut stumps, the fungus 

colonizes the wood and kills the stump, 

preventing regrowth.

Yes

ARC-PPRI-Stellenbosch

Limited market for the product has 

dissuaded large business interest; 

however there is regular demand 

from conservation organizations and 

landowners so the product is produced 

by PPRI Weed Pathology Unit on 

request.

Used against Acacia mearnsii De Wild. 

and A. pycnantha Benth.; recently found 

effective against A. decurrens (Wendl.) 

Willd. as well.

871, 992, 1086, 1284, 2006
728 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Phoma macrostoma Phoma macrostoma (continued)

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Phoma macrostoma Mont.

(Dothideomycetes: Pleosporales)

Numerous broadleaved species, 

including Taraxacum officinale F. H. 

Wigg., Tripleurospermum inodorum

(L.) Sch. Bip., Bellis perennis L., 

Trifolium repens L., Medicago lupulina

L., Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., 

Stellaria media (L.) Vill., Plantago 

major L., Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.

Multiple Families

cosmopolitan

broadleaved weeds

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Canada

2011

N/A

Conditionally registered for domestic 

and commercial use on turfgrass for 

control and/or suppression of numerous 

broadleaved weeds. The registered 

commercial name had not been 

released by the publication date of 

this revision.

Isolate 94-44B, Cirsium arvense (L.) 

Scop., Canada (SK)

AAFC

Heavy

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Plants growing from infected soil turn 

white, have inhibited root growth and 

often die. Simultaneous application 

of commercial granular fertilizers may 

result in 10-15% enhancement in weed 

control. Extreme moisture events around 

application will reduce level of weed 

control attained, especially on sandy 

soils.

No

The Scotts Company

Still undergoing testing prior to 

commercialization and launching of the 

product.

Climate; Land use

68, 69, 156, 1516, 1942

United States of America

2012

N/A

Conditionally registered for domestic 

and commercial use on turfgrass for 

control and/or suppression of numerous 

broadleaved weeds. The registered 

commercial name had not been 

released by the publication date of this 

revision.

Isolate 94-44B, Cirsium arvense (L.) 

Scop., Canada (SK)

AAFC

Heavy

(continued on next page)

Country of Registration

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Limiting Factors

References

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 729

Table

4

Phoma macrostoma (continued)

United States of America (continued)

Plants growing from infected soil turn 

white, have inhibited root growth and 

often die. Simultaneous application 

of commercial granular fertilizers may 

result in 10-15% enhancement in weed 

control. Extreme moisture events around 

application will reduce level of weed 

control attained, especially on sandy 

soils.

No

The Scotts Company

Still undergoing testing prior to 

commercialization and launching of the 

product.

Climate; Land use

68, 69, 156, 1516, 1942

Country of Registration

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Limiting Factors

References

Phytophthora palmivora

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Incorrect Past Names/Synonyms

Classification

Phytophthora palmivora (E.J. Butler) 

E.J. Butler

Phytophthora citrophthora (R.E. & 

E.H. Smith) Leonian

(Incertae sedis: Peronosporales)

Morrenia odorata (Hook. & Arn.) Lindl.

Apocynaceae

South America

milkweed vine, stranglervine

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

References

United States of America

1981

DeVine®

A liquid concentrate formula was 

registered and marketed as DeVine® to 

control the weed in citrus groves. 

Morrenia odorata (Hook. & Arn.) Lindl., 

USA (FL)

FDA

Heavy

Typically excellent control (90%) of 

seedlings and large vines through 

effects of disease on roots, lasting for 

two years.

Yes

Valent BioSciences Corporation

Available sporadically.

123, 251, 1571, 1857
730 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Puccinia canaliculata

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Puccinia canaliculata (Schwein.) 

Legerh.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

Cyperus esculentus L.

Cyperaceae

cosmopolitan

yellow nutsedge

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Commercialization Notes

Other Species Attacked

References

United States of America

1987

Dr. BioSedge®

Cyperus esculentus L., USA

State (49)

Heavy

Suppresses flower and tuber formation 

and can kill plants outright.

No

Tifton Innovation Corporation

Product failed due to uneconomic 

production system and resistance in 

some weed biotypes.

Natural populations of this fungus 

found infecting commercial Helianthus 

annuus L.

182, 695, 1064, 1492, 1502, 1851

Puccinia thlaspeos

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Notes

References

Puccinia thlaspeos Ficinus & C. 

Schub.

(Pucciniomycetes: Pucciniales)

This rust is closely related to a group 

of rusts native to the western USA. 

Experiments suggest a small change 

in genetic makeup may have resulted 

in this rust’s ability to infect dyer’s 

woad, and its inability to infect other 

plants.

1853

Isatis tinctoria L.

Brassicaceae

Mediterranean, Eurasia

dyer’s woad

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Notes

References

United States of America

2002

Woad Warrior

Woad strain, Isatis tinctoria L., USA (UT)

State (21)

Variable

Severe infection significantly reduces 

seed production. Infection maintained 

naturally in stands, but natural dispersal 

low and percent infection decreases 

over time. Repeat inoculations required 

to maintain high infection rate such that 

impacts to the weed are significant.

No

Never commercially available due 

to lack of commercial backer. Once 

registered, the fungus was spread by 

researchers.

1029, 1064, 1853
Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides 731

Table

4

Sclerotinia minor

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Sclerotinia minor Jagger

(Leotiomycetes: Helotiales)

Taraxacum officinale F. H. Wigg. agg.

Asteraceae

Comprises the whole of T. sect. 

Taraxacum (formerly Ruderalia) which 

consists of agamospermous and 

sexual common dandelions.

Eurasia

dandelion, common dandelion

988

Weed

Species

Family

Notes

Origin

Common Name

References

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Registration Notes

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Canada

2007

Sarritor®

Granted conditional registration in 

2007 and full registration in 2010 for 

the sale and use of Sarritor® Technical 

Herbicide, Sarritor® Granular Biological 

Herbicide (Commercial) and Sarritor®

Selective Biological Lawn Weed Killer 

(previously referred to as Sarritor®

Domestic Granular Biological Herbicide), 

containing Sclerotinia minor strain IMI 

344141, to suppress top growth of 

dandelion, white clover and broadleaf 

plantain in turf.

Strain IMI 344141, Lactuca sativa L., 

Canada (QC)

MU

Heavy

(continued at top of next column)

Canada (continued)

Reduces dandelion post-emergent 

density up to 97%, and above- and 

below-ground biomass by 94% and 

96%, respectively.

Yes

Sarritor Inc.

Climate

Infects other broadleaved species on 

direct contact. 

3, 157, 1487, 1541, 1942

Sclerotinia minor (continued)

Country of Registration

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

Limiting Factors

Other Species Attacked

References
732 Biological Control of Weeds: Table 4. Bioherbicides

Table

4

Xanthomonas campestris pv. poae

BIOHERBICIDE

Species

Classification

Xanthomonas campestris pv. poae

(Gammaproteobacteria: 

Xanthomonadales)

Poa annua L.

Poaceae

cosmopolitan

annual bluegrass

Weed

Species

Family

Origin

Common Name

REGISTRATION/USE

Country of Registration

Year of Registration

Registered Name

Isolation Source

Research Organization

General Impact

Impact Notes

Commercially Available

Commercialization Company

 or Institution

References

Japan

1997

Camperico

Strain JT-P482, Poa annua L., Japan

JTI

Heavy

Successfully controls Poa annua in turf 

grass settings.

Yes

Japan Tobacco Inc.

600, 866, 1352
Biological Control of Weeds:Research Organization Abbreviations 733

Research

Org.

Abbreviations

Research Organization Abbreviations

Abbreviation Research Organization

AAFC Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

AC Agriculture Corporation, Myanmar

ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

ARC Alberta Research Council, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada now 

Alberta Innovates - Technology Futures as of 2010

ARCE Agricultural Research Center, Department of Biological Control, 

Giza, Egypt

ARC-PPRI Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research 

Institute, Republic of South Africa

ARNZ AgResearch, New Zealand

AUPPI All Union Plant Protection Institute, St Petersburg, Russia now 

All-Russia Institute of Plant Protection

BAF Board of Agriculture and Forestry, Hawaii, United States of 

America

BCME British Colombia Ministry of Environment, Victoria, Canada

BDF Benin Department of Fisheries

BIOTROP SEAMEO Regional Centre for Tropical Biology, Indonesia

BMA Ministry of Agriculture, Breeding & Fishery, Cotonou, Benin

BPI Bureau of Plant Industry, Philippines

CAAS-BCI Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Biological Control 

Institute, Beijing, People’s Republic of China

CAAS-ISF Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Soil and 

Fertilizers, People’s Republic of China

CABI Switzerland Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International, Delémont, 

Switzerland

CABI Africa Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International, Nairobi, Kenya

CABI 

United Kingdom

Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International, Egham, United 

Kingdom

CDA Colorado Department of Agriculture, Lakewood, CO

CI Cawthron Institute, New Zealand

CIRAD-IRHO International Center for Agricultural Research for Development, 

Oil Crops Department

(continued)

Abbreviation Research Organization

CNR Centro Nacional de Referencia en Roedores Aves y Malezas, 

Mexico

COM College of Micronesia, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia

CPPB* Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board, Australia

CPPTI Central Plant Protection Training Institute, Hyderabad, India 

now National Plant Protection Training Institute NPPTI

CRCWMS Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems, 

Canberra, Australia

CRIG Crops Research Institute, Ghana

CSC Commonwealth Scientific Council, United Kingdom

CSIR* Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Australia 

(subsequently CSIRO)

CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, 

Australia

DAA Department of Agriculture, Antigua

DAC Department of Agriculture, Cook Islands

DAF Department of Agriculture, Fiji

DAI Department of Agriculture, Indonesia

DAIN Department of Agriculture, Mysore, India

DAK Department of Agriculture, Kenya

DAM Department of Agriculture, Montserrat

DAMA Department of Agriculture, Malaysia

DASL Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka

DAT Department of Agriculture, Tanzania

DDR Southern Province Department of Rural Development, 

Nouvelle-Calédonie

DLQS Department of Livestock and Quarantine Services, Vanuatu now 

Vanuatu Biosecurity

DOAM Department of Agriculture, Malaysia

DOCNZ Department of Conservation, New Zealand

DPV Plant Protection Directorate, Dakar, Senegal

DRFP Délégation à la Recherche French Polynesia, Papeete, Tahiti

(continued)

* Organization no longer exists
734 Biological Control of Weeds: Research Organization Abbreviations

Research

Org.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation Research Organization

DSIR* Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand; 

used for releases prior to July 1992 (subsequently MWLR)

DWAB Department of Water Affairs, Botswana

DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Republic of South 

Africa (responsibilities divided in 2009 into the Department 

of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the Department of 

Water and Environmental Affairs)

DWAN Department of Water Affairs, Windhoek, Namibia/South West 

Africa

EAP Escuela Agricola Panamericana, Honduras

ECZ Environmental Council of Zambia

EPA Environment Protection Agency, Ghana

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization, United Nations

FDA Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Service, 

Florida, United States of America

FRI Forest Research Institute, India

GAF Guangdong Academy of Forestry, People’s Republic of China

GDA Guam Department of Agriculture

GEI Guangdong Entomological Institute, People’s Republic of China

GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, Germany

HBFTF Hubei Five-Three Farm, People’s Republic of China

HDOA Hawaiian Department of Agriculture, United States of America

HFRI Horticulture and Food Research Institute, New Zealand

IC Imperial College, University of Wales, Cardiff, United Kingdom

ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research

IDEFOR Institut des Forêts, Cote d’Ivoire

IIBC International Institute of Biological Control, United Kingdom

IIHR Indian Institute of Horticultural Research

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

IMTA Mexican Institute of Water Technology

INIA Estacion Experimental Carillanca, Temuco, Chile

INTA Department of Plant Pathology, INTA, Castelar, Argentina

IOPRI Indonesian Oil Palm Research Institute, North Sumatra, 

Indonesia

ISAR Institut des Sciences Agronomique du Rwanda

JTI Japan Tobacco Inc., Plant Protection Research Laboratory, 

Kanagawa, Japan

(continued)

Abbreviation Research Organization

KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

KAU Kerala Agricultural University, India

KENGEN Kenya Electricity Generating Company, Nairobi, Kenya

KFRI Kerala Forest Research Institute, India

KIEC Kunming Institute of Ecology, People’s Republic of China

KRS Koronivia Research Station, Ministry of Agriculture and 

Fisheries, Fiji Islands

KU Kelaniya University, Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

MAC Ministry of Agriculture, Chile

MAF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, United Kingdom

MAL Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Solomon Islands

MAM Ministry of Agriculture, Mauritius

MAMA Ministry of Agriculture, Madagascar

MAP Minstry of Agriculture, Philippines

MAR Ministry of Agriculture, Zimbabwe

MARDI Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute, 

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

MAT Ministry of Agriculture, Tanzania

MAZ Ministry of Agriculture, Zambia

MFD Malawian Fisheries Department

MFE Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Brazzaville, Republic of 

Congo

MGI Mysore Government, India

MU McGill University, Quebec, Canada

MUE Mansoura University, El-Mansoura, Egypt

MWLR Manaaki Whenua - Landcare Research, New Zealand; used for 

releases after July 1992 (previosly DSIR)

NARI National Agricultural Research Institute, Kerevat, East New 

Britain, Papua New Guinea

NARO National Agriculture Research Organization, Uganda

NASENI National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure, 

Nigeria

NBCRC National Biological Control Research Centre, Kasetsart 

University, Bangkok, Thailand

NCC Noumea Chamber of Commerce, Noumea, New Caledonia

NIHORT Nigerian Institute for Horticulture

(continued)
Biological Control of Weeds:Research Organization Abbreviations 735

Research

Org.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation Research Organization

NMC Northern Marianas College, Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands

NSW State State Institutions of New South Wales, Australia

NT Institutions of Northern Territory, Australia

PCA Philippine Coconut Authority, Davao Research Center, Davao, 

Philippines

PCC Panama Canal Commission (Formerly Panama Canal 

Company)

PFC Canadian Forest Service, Pacific Forestry Centre

PIJ Prefecture Ishikawa, Japan

PLANTI ASEAN Plant Quarantine Centre and Training Institute, 

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

PLC Palau Community College, Koror, Palau

PNGDAL Department of Agriculture and Livestock, Papua New Guinea

PPD Plant Protection Department, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

PPIB Plant Protection Institute, Belgrade, Yugoslavia now Institute for 

Plant Protection and Environment

PPRIZ Plant Protection Research Institute, Zimbabwe

PPS Plant Protection Service, Department of Agriculture, 

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

PPTC* Prickly Pear Travelling Commission, Australia

Private Private Group

QLD State State Institutions of Queensland, Australia

RSL Ramu Sugar Ltd, Department of Agriculture and Livestock, 

Papua New Guinea

RSTO De La Recherche Scientifique Et Technique Outre Mer, New 

Caledonia

SA State State Institutions of South Australia, Australia

SASRI South African Sugarcane Research Institute, Mount 

Edgecombe, Republic of South Africa

Scion Scion, New Zealand

SPC South Pacific Commission (now Secretariat of the Pacific 

Community as of 1998)

SRNF Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, Oklahoma, United States of 

America

State (1) Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

State (2) University of Arkansas, Fayetteville

State (3) University of Florida, Gainesville

State (4) University of California, Berkeley

(continued)

Abbreviation Research Organization

State (5) University of California, Riverside

State (6) University of Idaho

State (7) Montana State University

State (8) Oregon State University

State (9) Washington State University

State (10) Kansas State University, Manhattan

State (11) University of North Dakota, Fargo

State (12) University of South Dakota, Brookings

State (13) University of Wyoming, Laramie

State (14) California Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento

State (15) Oregon State Department of Agriculture, Salem

State (18) Florida Department of Natural Resources, Tallahassee

State (19) South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach

State (20) Maryland Department of Agriculture, Annapolis

State (21) Utah State University, Logan

State (22) University of California, Davis

State (23) Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge

State (24) Texas A & M University, College Station

State (25) University of Missouri, Columbia

State (26) Oklahoma State University, Stillwater

State (27) North Dakota State University, Grand Forks

State (28) Auburn University, Alabama

State (29) Middlebury College, University of Minnesota, Vermont

State (30) Vermont Department of Environment and Conservation

State (31) Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison

State (32) Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, St Paul

State (33) University of Minnesota, St Paul

State (35) University of Florida

State (36) Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission

State (37) Illinois Nature Preserve Commission

State (38) Indiana Department of Natural Resources

State (39) Michigan Department of Natural Resources

State (40) New Mexico State University

State (41) Iowa State University

State (42) Ohio Department of Natural Resources

(continued)
736 Biological Control of Weeds: Research Organization Abbreviations

Research

Org.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation Research Organization

State (43) Vermont Department of Environment and Conservation

State (44) West Virginia University

State (45) University of Delaware

State (46) University of Maryland

State (47) University of Tennessee

State (48) University of Washington

State (49) University of Georgia, Tifton

State (50) University of Wisconsin, Madison

State (51) University of Massachusetts, Amherst Cranberry Research 

Station

State (52) University of Hawaii

TAS State State Institutions of Tasmania, Australia

TFB Taiwan Forest Bureau, Taipei City, Taiwan

TVA Tennessee Valley Authority, United States of America

UACH Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile

UAMX Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana Xochimilco, Mexico

UASA University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

UBC University of British Columbia, Canada

UCD University College Dublin, Ireland

UCT University of Cape Town, Republic of South Africa

UG University of Guelph, Canada

UGL University of Ghana, Legon Boundary, Accra, Ghana

UHG University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

UKS University of Khartoum, Sudan

UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal, Republic of South Africa

UNTL National University of Timor Lorosae, Dili, Timor Leste

UOG University of Guam, Mangilao, Guam

UPR University of Puerto Rico

USAE United State Army Corps of Engineers

USDA United States Department of Agriculture, United States of 

America

USDA (1) Beltsville, Maryland

USDA (2) Frederick, Maryland

USDA (3) Gainesville, Florida

USDA (4) Fort Lauderdale, Florida

(continued)

Abbreviation Research Organization

USDA (5) Stoneville, Mississippi

USDA (6) Lubbock, Texas

USDA (7) Albany, California

USDA (9) Temple, Texas

USDA (10) Bozeman, Montana

USDA (11) Columbia, Missouri

USDA (12) Rome, Italy

USDA (13) Hurlingham, Argentina

USDA (14) Davis, California

USDA (15) Townsville, Australia

USDA (16) Sidney, Montana

USDA (17) Mission, Texas

USDA (18) Weslaco, Texas

USDA (19) Ft Collins, Colorado

USDA-APHIS United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service

USDA-APHISPPQUnited States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant 

Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine

USDA-ARS United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research 

Station

USDA-FS United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service

USDI-BOR United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation

USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service

UZ University of Zagreb, Croatia

VIC State State Institutions of Victoria, Australia

VNBCRC Vietnam Biological Control Research Centre

WA State State Institutions of Western Australia, Australia

WFW Working for Water, Republic of South Africa

WRCL Weed Research Central Laboratory, Egypt

WUR Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, 

The Netherlands

WUSA Wits University, Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa

ZIAS Zoological Institute and Academy of Science, St Petersburg, 

U.S.S.R.
Biological Control of Weeds: References 737

R

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e

r

e

n

c

e

s

References

Code Reference

1 Ablin, M.P. 1993. Insecticide exclusion with Carbofuran demonstrates 

the effectiveness of Heteropsylla spinulosa as a biological control agent 

for Mimosa invisa in Northern Queensland. Abstract. In J.T. Swarbrick, 

Ed. Proceedings of the 10th Australian and 14th Asian-Pacific weed 

conference. 6-10 September 1993, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; 

Queensland Weed Society. pp. 128.

2 Abreu, E., N. Semidey, and L. Bernier. 1998. Introduction and release of 

the alligatorweed flea beetle, Agasicles hygrophila in Puerto Rico. Reunión 

Cientifica Anual SOPCA. 1 pp.

3 Abu-Dieyeh, M.H. 2006. Population dynamics of dandelion (Taraxacum 

officinale) in turfgrass as influenced by a biological control agent, 

Sclerotinia minor. Thesis, Doctor of Philosophy. McGill University, Montreal, 

Quebec, Canada. 324 pp.

4 Adair, R.J. 2005. The biology of Dasineura dielsi Rübsaamen (Diptera: 

Cecidomyiidae) in relation to the biological control of Acacia cyclops

(Mimosaceae) in South Africa. Australian Journal of Entomology 44(4): 

446-456.

5 Adair, R.J. 2013. (personal communication) Australis Biological, 

PO Box 151, Bittern 2918 Australia.

6 Adair, R.J. and P.B. Edwards. 1996. An attack strategy against 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera, a weed of native vegetation in Australia. In

V.C. Moran and J.H. Hoffmann, Eds. Proceedings of the IX International 

Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. 19-26 January 1996, 

Stellenbosch, South Africa; Cape Town Press. pp. 429-434.

7 Adair, R.J., T. Morley, and L. Morin. 2012. Chrysanthemoides monilifera

(L.) T. Norl. - bitou bush and boneseed. In M. Julien, R. McFadyen, and J. 

Cullen, Eds. Biological Control of Weeds in Australia. CSIRO Publishing, 

Melbourne. pp. 170-183.

8 Adair, R.J. and J.K. Scott. 1997. Distribution, life history and host specificity 

of Chrysolina picturata and Chrysolina sp. B (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), 

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Control of Weeds. 22-27 April 2007, La Grande Motte, France; CAB 

International. pp. 699-703.

2063 Zhou, Z.S. 2012. (personal communication) Chinese Academy of 

Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Plant Protection, Biological Invasion 

Department, Beijing, China.

2064 Zhou, Z.-S., J.-Y. Guo, H.-S. Chen, and F.-H. Wan. 2010. Effect of humidity 

on the development and fecundity of Ophraella communa (Coleoptera: 

Chrysomelidae). Biocontrol 55: 313-319.

2065 Zhou, Z.-S., J.-Y. Guo, and F.-H. Wan. 2009. Case Study 1: Biological 

control of Ambrosia artemisiifolia with Epiblema strenuana and Ophraella 

communa. In F.H. Wan, J.Y. Guo, and F. Zhang, Eds. Research on 

Biological Invasions in China. Science Press, Beijing. pp. 253-258.

2066 Zimmerman, E.C. 1958. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 7. University of Hawaii 

Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. 549 pp.
824 Biological Control of Weeds: References

R

e

f

e

r

e

n

c

e

s

Code Reference

2067 Zimmerman, E.C. 1958. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 8. University of Hawaii 

Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. 458 pp.

2068 Zimmerman, E.C. 1978. Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 9. University of Hawaii 

Press, Honolulu, Hawaii. 1903 pp.

2069 Zimmerman, E.C. 1994. Australian Weevils. Vol. 2. CSIRO Publications, 

Melbourne. 755 pp.

2070 Zimmermann, H. 2013. (personal communication) Helmuth Zimmermann & 

Associates, P.O. Box 974, Faerie Glen 0043, South Africa.

2071 Zimmermann, H., S. Bloem, and H. Klein. 2004. Biology, History, Threat, 

Surveillance and Control of the Cactus Moth, Cactoblastis cactorum. IAEA, 

Vienna. 47 pp.

2072 Zimmermann, H.G. 1991. Biological control of mesquite, Prosopis spp. 

(Fabaceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 37: 

175-186.

2073 Zimmermann, H.G. 1991. Biological control of spear thistle, Cirsium vulgare

(Asteraceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 37: 

199-205.

2074 Zimmermann, H.G. 1997. (personal communication) Plant Protection 

Research Institute, Private Bag X134, Pretoria 0001, Republic of South 

Africa.

2075 Zimmermann, H.G. and V.C. Moran. 1991. Biological control of prickly pear, 

Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae), in South Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems 

& Environment 37: 29-35.

Code Reference

2076 Zimmermann, H.G., V.C. Moran, and J.H. Hoffmann. 2000. The renowned 

cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum: its natural history and threat to native 

Opuntia floras in Mexico and the United States of America. Diversity and 

Distribution 6: 259-269.

2077 Zimmermann, H.G., V.C. Moran, and J.H. Hoffmann. 2009. Invasive cactus 

species (Cactaceae). In R. Muniappan, G.V.P. Reddy, and A. Raman, 

Eds. Biological Control of Tropical Weeds using Arthropods. Cambridge 

University Press, Cambridge, U.K. pp. 108-129.

2078 Zimmermann, H.G., M. Pérez, S. Cuen, M.C. Mandujano, and J. Golubov. 

2010. The South American mealybug that threatens North American cacti. 

Cactus and Succulent Journal 82(3): 105-107.

2079 Zimmermann, H.G., M.P. Sandi y Cuen, and A.B. Rivera. 2005. The status 

of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in the Caribbean and the 

likelihood of its spread to Mexico. Report to the International Atomic Energy 

Agency (IAEA), Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food 

and AGriculture and the Plant Health General Directorate, Mexico (DGSVB/

SAGARPA) as part of the TC Project MEX/5/029. 63 pp.

2080 Zwölfer, H. and P. Harris. 1984. Biology and host specificity of Rhinocyllus 

conicus (Froel.) (Col., Curculionidae), a successful agent for biocontrol of 

the thistle Carduus nutans L. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 97: 

36-62.
Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Weeds Index 825

Indexes

Scientific Names of Weeds

A

Abutilon theophrasti 555

Acacia baileyana 280

Acacia cyclops 280-281

Acacia dealbata 282

Acacia decurrens 282

Acacia longifolia 283-284

Acacia mearnsii 284, 632-633, 727

Acacia melanoxylon 285

Acacia nilotica - see Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica

Acacia nilotica subsp. indica

- see Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica

Acacia podalyriifolia 285

Acacia pycnantha 286, 727

Acacia saligna 287

Acaena anserinifolia 431

Acanthocereus pentagonus

- see Acanthocereus tetragonus

Acanthocereus tetragonus 188-189

Acer spp. 720-721

Acroptilon repens - see Rhaponticum repens

Aeschynomene indica - see Aeschynomene virginica

Aeschynomene virginica 724-725

Ageratina adenophora 30-32, 576-578

Ageratina riparia 33-35, 579

Alnus rubra 721

Alnus spp. 720-722

Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata 721

Alternanthera philoxeroides 16-20

Amaranthus retroflexus 534

Amaranthus spinosus 534

Ambrosia artemisiifolia 36-40, 579-581, 728-729

Ambrosia psilostachya 41

Ambrosia trifida 581-582

Anredera cordifolia 176

Arundo donax 387, 666

Asparagus asparagoides 28, 575

Azolla filiculoides 175, 613-615

B

Baccharis halimifolia 42-47, 535

Baccharis neglecta 536

Bellis perennis 728-729

Betula spp. 720-721

Buddleja davidii 450

C

Cactoideae spp. 617-618

Caesalpinia decapetala 288

Calluna vulgaris 260

Calystegia sepium 248, 545-546

Campuloclinium macrocephalum 582

Carduus acanthoides 48-51

Carduus nutans 52-56

Carduus nutans subsp. nutans 57-61

Carduus pycnocephalus 62-64

Carduus tenuiflorus 65-67, 583

Carduus thoermeri - see Carduus nutans

Cassia surattensis - see Senna surattensis

Cassinia arcuata 536

Cassinia laevis - see Cassinia spp.

Cassinia quinquefaria - see Cassinia spp.

Cassinia spp. 537

Centaurea ×moncktonii 

- see Centaurea jacea nothosubsp. pratensis

Centaurea calcitrapa 68

Centaurea cyanus 69, 583

Centaurea diffusa 69-76, 584-585

Centaurea iberica 76

Centaurea jacea - see Centaurea jacea subsp. jacea

Centaurea jacea nothosubsp. pratensis 77-79, 

585-589, 588-589

Centaurea jacea nothosubsp. pratensis

- see also Centaurea spp.

Centaurea jacea subsp. jacea 50, 586, 588

Centaurea jacea subsp. jacea

- see also Centaurea spp.

Centaurea jacea subsp. nigra 80, 588-589

Centaurea jacea subsp. nigra

- see also Centaurea spp.

Centaurea jacea x nigra

- see Centaurea jacea nothosubsp. pratensis

Centaurea maculosa - see Centaurea stoebe

Centaurea nigra - see Centaurea jacea subsp. nigra

Centaurea repens - see Rhaponticum repens

Centaurea solstitialis 81-84, 587-588

Centaurea spp. 588-589

Centaurea squarrosa 

- see Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa

Centaurea stoebe 84-92, 589-590

Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos

- see Centaurea stoebe

Centaurea virgata subsp. squarrosa 93-95, 590

Cereus hexagonus - see Cactoideae spp.

Cereus jamacaru

- see Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru

Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru 190-191

Cereus peruvianus

- see Cereus jamacaru subsp. jamacaru

Cereus spp. 619

Chondrilla juncea 96-100, 591

Chromolaena odorata 101-114, 592-597

Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera 

114-117

Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata 

117-119

Cirsium arvense 120-127, 537, 597-602, 728-729

Cirsium palustre 128-129

Cirsium vulgare 130-135

Clematis vitalba 430-431

Clerodendrum chinense 346

Clerodendrum fragans - see Clerodendrum chinense

Clerodendrum philippinum

- see Clerodendrum chinense

Clidemia hirta 360-363

Coccinia grandis 253-255

Conium maculatum 573

Convolvulus arvensis 249-250, 546-547

Convolvulus sepium - see Calystegia sepium
826 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Weeds Index

Indexes

Cordia curassavica 179-181

Cordia cylindrostachya - see Cordia curassavica

Cordia macrostachya - see Cordia curassavica

Cryptostegia grandiflora 21-22, 574

Cuscuta americana 250-251

Cuscuta australis 725

Cuscuta campestris 548

Cuscuta capulata 548

Cuscuta chinensis 726

Cuscuta europaea 549

Cuscuta indecora 252-253

Cuscuta lehmanniana 549

Cuscuta lupuliformis 550

Cuscuta reflexa 253

Cuscuta spp. 720

Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida 192, 620

Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata 193, 621

Cylindropuntia imbricata 194-195

Cylindropuntia leptocaulis 195

Cylindropuntia rosea

- see Cylindropuntia fulgida var. fulgida

Cynoglossum officinale 182, 616

Cyperus esculentus 550, 730

Cyperus rotundus 256-259, 551, 631

Cytisus scoparius 288-292, 633-637

Cytisus scoparius subsp. scoparius

- see Cytisus scoparius

D

Dioscorea bulbifera 259

Diospyros virginiana 552

Dolichandra unguis-cati 176-178

E

Echium candicans 617

Echium plantagineum 183-186

Eichhornia crassipes 395-425, 564-566, 667-675

Elephantopus mollis 136, 602-603

Elephantopus scaber - see Elephantopus mollis

Emex australis 389-391

Emex spinosa 391-393

Eriocereus ?bonplandii - see Harrisia regelii

Eriocereus martinii - see Harrisia martinii 

Eriocereus regelii - see Harrisia regelii 

Eriocereus tortuosus - see Harrisia tortuosa

Eupatorium adenophorum - see Ageratina adenophora

Eupatorium glandulosum - see Ageratina adenophora

Eupatorium odoratum - see Chromolaena odorata

Eupatorium riparium - see Ageratina riparia

Euphorbia cyparissias 260-266

Euphorbia esula 267-278, 631-632

Euphorbia oblongata 279

F

Fallopia japonica var. japonica 393

G

Galega officinalis 293, 637

Galium spurium 438

Genista monspessulana 638

Gutierrezia microcephala - see Gutierrezia spp.

Gutierrezia sarothrae - see Gutierrezia spp.

Gutierrezia spp. 137

H

Hakea gibbosa 426

Hakea sericea 427-429, 723

Halogeton glomeratus 244

Harrisia balansae 196

Harrisia bonplandii 

- see Harrisia balansae and Harrisia regelii

Harrisia martinii 197-199

Harrisia pomanensis - see Harrisia regelii

Harrisia regelii 200-201

Harrisia tortuosa 201-203

Harrisia tortuosus - see Harrisia tortuosa

Heliotropium amplexicaule 186

Heliotropium europaeum 187

Hieracium aurantiacum - see Pilosella aurantiaca

Hieracium flagellare - see Pilosella flagellaris

Hieracium pilosella - see Pilosella officinarum

Hydrilla verticillata 329-331, 652-653

Hypericum androsaemum 331, 653-654

Hypericum perforatum 332-346, 654-655

I

Isatis tinctoria 730

J

Jacobaea vulgaris 137-146, 603-604

Jatropha gossypiifolia 279

Jussiaea repens - see Ludwigia adscendens

L

Lantana aculeata - see Lantana camara

Lantana camara 462-523, 568-569, 686-714

Lantana camara aculeata - see Lantana camara

Lantana camara subsp. aculeata - see Lantana camara

Lantana camara var. aculeata - see Lantana camara

Lantana montevidensis 524-525, 715

Leptocereus quadricostatus - see Cactoideae spp.

Leptospermum laevigatum 367-368, 655

Leptospermum scoparium 656

Leucaena leucocephala 293-294, 639-641

Linaria dalmatica

- see Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica 374-381, 658-662

Linaria genistifolia

- see Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

Linaria genistifolia subsp. dalmatica 

- see Linaria dalmatica subsp. dalmatica

Linaria vulgaris 382-387, 663-666

Ludwigia adscendens 556

Lygodium microphyllum 349-350

Lythrum salicaria 351-355

M

Macfadyena unguis-cati - see Dolichandra unguis-cati

Malva pusilla 726

Malva rotundifolia - see Malva pusilla

Marrubium vulgare 347-348

Matricaria perforata - see Tripleurospermum inodorum

Medicago lupulina 728-729

Melaleuca quinquenervia 368-370, 657-658

Melastoma candidum - see Melastoma septemnervium

Melastoma malabathricum

- see Melastoma septemnervium

Melastoma septemnervium 364-365
Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Weeds Index 827

Indexes

Melocactus intortus - see Cactoideae spp.

Miconia calvescens 365-366

Mikania micrantha 147-150

Mimosa diplotricha 294-299

Mimosa invisa - see Mimosa diplotricha

Mimosa pigra 299-307, 552-553, 641-644

Mimosa pigra var. pigra - see Mimosa pigra

Morella faya 366-367

Morrenia odorata 729

Myrica faya - see Morella faya

Myriophyllum aquaticum 328, 651

Myriophyllum spicatum 553-555, 651-652, 719

O

Onopordum acanthium 150-152

Onopordum acanthium - see also Onopordum spp.

Onopordum acaulon 153

Onopordum illyricum - see Onopordum spp.

Onopordum spp. 154-156

Opuntia aff. lindheimeri - see Opuntia engelmannii

Opuntia aurantiaca 203-206

Opuntia cordobensis - see Opuntia ficus-indica

Opuntia dillenii - see Opuntia stricta

Opuntia elatior 206-207

Opuntia engelmannii 207-209

Opuntia ficus-indica 210-214, 539-540, 622-623

Opuntia humifusa 214

Opuntia imbricata - see Cylindropuntia imbricata

Opuntia inermis - see Opuntia stricta

Opuntia lindheimeri - see Opuntia engelmannii

Opuntia littoralis 215, 540-542

Opuntia megacantha - see Opuntia ficus-indica

Opuntia monacantha 215-219, 623

Opuntia monacantha - see also Opuntia spp.

Opuntia monocantha - see Opuntia monacantha

Opuntia oricola 219, 543-545

Opuntia spp. 220-224, 624-627

Opuntia streptacantha 225-227

Opuntia stricta 228-236, 627-629

Opuntia stricta var. dillenii - see Opuntia stricta

Opuntia stricta var. stricta - see Opuntia stricta

Opuntia tardospina - see Opuntia engelmannii

Opuntia tomentosa 236-239

Opuntia triacantha 239-241, 629-630

Opuntia tuna 241-242

Opuntia vulgaris - see Opuntia monacantha

Orobanche aegyptiaca - see Phelipanche aegyptiaca

Orobanche cernua var. cumana 556-557

Orobanche crenata 558

Orobanche cumana

- see Orobanche cernua var. cumana

Orobanche minor 371

Orobanche ramosa - see Phelipanche ramosa

Orobanche spp. 559

P

Paraserianthes lophantha 308

Parkinsonia aculeata 308-309

Parthenium hysterophorus 157-162, 605-607

Passiflora mollissima - see Passiflora tarminiana

Passiflora tarminiana 373-374

Passiflora tripartita - see Passiflora tarminiana 

Passiflora tripartita var. mollissima

- see Passiflora tarminiana

Pereskia aculeata 243

Persicaria perfoliata 394

Phelipanche aegyptiaca 559

Phelipanche ramosa 371, 560-561

Phthirusa adunca - see Phthirusa stelis

Phthirusa spp. - see Phthirusa stelis

Phthirusa stelis 349

Pilosella aurantiaca 162

Pilosella flagellaris 163

Pilosella officinarum 163-165, 608

Pilosocereus royenii - see Cactoideae spp.

Pistia stratiotes 23-28, 535, 574-575

Plantago major 728-729

Pluchea carolinensis 165-166

Pluchea odorata - see Pluchea carolinensis

Pluchea symphytifolia - see Pluchea carolinensis

Poa annua 732

Polygonum perfoliatum - see Persicaria perfoliata

Populus spp. 720-722

Prosopis chilensis - see Prosopis spp.

Prosopis glandulosa - see Prosopis spp.

Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa

- see Prosopis spp.

Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana - see Prosopis spp.

Prosopis juliflora 310, 311, 644-648

Prosopis juliflora - see also Prosopis spp.

Prosopis pallida - see Prosopis spp.

Prosopis spp. 311-313, 645-648

Prosopis velutina - see Prosopis spp.

Prunus serotina 722

Prunus spp. 720

R

Rhaponticum repens 166-168, 538-539, 608

Rosa multiflora 567, 676

Rubus alceifolius 432

Rubus argutus 432-435

Rubus armeniacus 677

Rubus constrictus 435

Rubus fruticosus 436-437, 677, 678-679

Rubus lucidus - see Rubus argutus

Rubus penetrans - see Rubus argutus

Rubus ulmifolius 437, 680

Rumex conglomeratus - see Rumex spp.

Rumex crispus - see Rumex spp.

Rumex obtusifolius 394, 563

Rumex obtusifolius - see also Rumex spp.

Rumex pulcher - see Rumex spp.

Rumex spp. 394

S

Salsola australis - see Salsola tragus

Salsola iberica - see Salsola tragus

Salsola kali subsp. ruthenica - see Salsola tragus

Salsola kali var. tenuifolia - see Salsola tragus

Salsola pestifer - see Salsola tragus

Salsola ruthenica - see Salsola tragus

Salsola tragus 244-246

Salvia aethiopis 348

Salvinia auriculata - see Salvinia molesta

Salvinia minima 680-681

Salvinia molesta 438-450, 681-683

Salvinia rotundifolia - see Salvinia minima

Sarothamnus scoparius - see Cytisus scoparius

Schinus terebinthifolius 20-21, 572

Senecio jacobaea - see Jacobaea vulgaris

Senna surattensis 648
828 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Weeds Index

Indexes

Sesbania punicea 314-315, 649

Sida acuta 356-357

Sida rhombifolia 358-359

Silene vulgaris 243

Silybum marianum 168-169

Solanum elaeagnifolium 451-452, 568

Solanum mauritianum 453-454

Solanum sisymbriifolium 455

Solanum viarum 455

Sonchus arvensis 170, 609

Spartina alterniflora 561-562

Spartina anglica 562

Stellaria media 728-729

Stenocereus fimbriatus - see Cactoideae spp.

Striga hermonthica 372

T

Tamarix canariensis - see Tamarix spp.

Tamarix chinensis - see Tamarix spp.

Tamarix gallica - see Tamarix spp.

Tamarix parviflora - see Tamarix spp.

Tamarix ramosissima - see Tamarix spp.

Tamarix spp. 456-461, 684-685

Taraxacum officinale 728-729, 731

Tecoma stans var. stans 179

Tradescantia fluminensis 247

Tribulus cistoides 525-527, 716-718

Tribulus terrestris 528-531, 718

Trifolium repens 728-729

Tripleurospermum inodorum 171-172, 609-610, 

728-729

Tripleurospermum maritimum subsp. inodorum

- see Tripleurospermum inodorum

U

Ulex europaeus 315-325, 649-650

V

Vachellia nilotica subsp. indica 326-328

Verbascum thapsus 684

X

Xanthium canadense - see Xanthium strumarium

Xanthium italicum - see Xanthium strumarium

Xanthium occidentale - see Xanthium strumarium

Xanthium pungens - see Xanthium strumarium

Xanthium spinosum 610-611

Xanthium strumarium 172-174, 611-612
Biological Control of Weeds: Families of Weeds Index 829

Indexes

Families of Weeds 

A

Amaranthaceae 16-20, 534

Anacardiaceae 20-21, 572

Apiaceae 573

Apocynaceae 21-22, 574, 729

Araceae 23-28, 535, 574-575

Asparagaceae 28, 575

Asteraceae 30-174, 535-539, 578-612, 728, 731

Azollaceae 175, 613-615

B

Basellaceae 176

Betulaceae 720, 721, 722

Bignoniaceae 176-179

Boraginaceae 179-187, 616-617

Brassicaceae 730

C

Cactaceae 188-243, 539-545, 617-630

Caryophyllaceae 243, 728

Chenopodiaceae 244-246

Commelinaceae 247

Convolvulaceae 248-253, 545-550, 720, 725, 726

Cucurbitaceae 253-255

Cyperaceae 256-259, 550-551, 631, 730

D

Dioscoreaceae 259

E

Ebenaceae 552

Ericaceae 260

Euphorbiaceae 260-279, 631-632

F

Fabaceae 280-328, 522-523, 632-650, 724, 727, 728

H

Haloragaceae 328, 553-555, 651-652

Hydrocharitaceae 329-331, 652-653

Hypericaceae 331-346, 653-655

L

Lamiaceae 346-348

Loranthaceae 349

Lygodiaceae 349-350

Lythraceae 351-355

M

Malvaceae 356-359, 555, 726

Melastomataceae 360-366

Myricaceae 366-367

Myrtaceae 367-370, 655-658

O

Onagraceae 556

Orobanchaceae 371-372, 556-561

P

Passifloraceae 373-374

Plantaginaceae 374-387, 658-666, 728

Poaceae 387-388, 561-562, 666, 732

Polygonaceae 389-394, 563

Pontederiaceae 395-425, 564-566, 667-675

Proteaceae 426-429, 723

R

Ranunculaceae 430-431

Rosaceae 431-437, 567, 676-680, 720, 722

Rubiaceae 438

S

Salicaceae 720, 722

Salviniaceae 438-450, 680-683

Sapindaceae 720

Scrophulariaceae 450, 684

Solanaceae 451-455, 568

T

Tamaricaceae 456-461, 684-685

V

Verbenaceae 462-525, 568-569, 686-715

Z

Zygophyllaceae 525-531, 716-718
830 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index

Indexes

A

Acalitus adoratus 592-596

Acanthoscelides atronotatus - see Lithraeus atronotatus

Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus 293-294, 639-641

Acanthoscelides puniceus 299-300, 641-642

Acanthoscelides quadridentatus 301, 643-644

Acentria ephemerella 651-652

Acentria nivea - see Acentria ephemerella

Aceria acroptiloni 538

Aceria anthocoptes 597

Aceria chondrillae 96-97, 591

Aceria convolvuli - see Aceria malherbae

Aceria genistae 288-289, 633-634, 649

Aceria lantanae 462, 568-569

Aceria malherbae 248, 249-250

Aceria malherbe - see Aceria malherbae

Aceria neseri - see Aceria sp. 

Aceria sp. 114

Aceria sp. n. - see Aceria acroptiloni

Acigona infusella - see Xubida infusella

Acinia fucata - see Acinia picturata

Acinia picturata 165

Aconophora compressa 463

Acremonium diospyri - see Nalanthamala diospyri

Acremonium sp. 648

Acremonium zonatum 564

Actinote anteas 101, 147

Actinote anteas - see Actinote thalia thalia

Actinote thalia pyrrha 102, 147

Actinote thalia thalia 102

Actinotia hyperici 332

Aculus hyperici 332

Acythopeus burkhartorum 253-254

Acythopeus cocciniae 254

Aerenicopsis championi 463

Agapeta zoegana 69-70, 84-85, 93

Agasicles hygrophila 16-18

Agonopterix alstroemeriana 573

Agonopterix assimilella 289

Agonopterix nervosa 634, 650

Agonopterix ulicetella - see Agonopterix umbellana

Agonopterix umbellana 315-317

Agonosoma trilineatum 279

Agrilus hyperici 333-334

Agromyza lantanae - see Ophiomyia lantanae

Alagoasa parana 464

Albugo tragopogi - see Pustula tragopogonis

Albugo tragopogonis - see Pustula tragopogonis

Alcidion cereicola - see Nealcidion cereicola

Algarobius bottimeri 311

Algarobius prosopis 310, 312, 646-647

Alternaria cuscutacidae 548

Alternaria destruens 720

Alternaria eichhorniae 667

Altica carduorum 120-121

Altica foeveicollis - see Altica foveicollis

Altica foveicollis 556

Ammalo arravaca

- see Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Table 1

Ammalo insulata 

- see Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata Table 1

Amynothrips andersoni 18

Anacassis fuscata 42

Anacassis phaeopoda 42

Anaitis efformata - see Aplocera efformata

Anaitis plagiata - see Aplocera plagiata

Antholcus varinervis - see Ucona acaenae

Anthonomus santacruzi 453

Antiblemma acclinalis 360

Antonina australis 551

Aphalara itadori 393

Aphanasium australe 426, 427

Aphis chloris 335

Aphthona abdominalis 267

Aphthona cyparissiae 260-261, 267-268

Aphthona czwalinae - see Aphthona czwalinai

Aphthona czwalinai 261, 268-269

Aphthona flava 262, 270

Aphthona lacertosa 262, 270-271

Aphthona nigriscutis 263, 271-272

Apion aculeatum - see Coelocephalapion aculeatum

Apion antiquum - see Perapion antiquum

Apion brunneonigrum 102-103

Apion frumentarium 389, 391

Apion fuscirostre - see Exapion fuscirostre

Apion hookeri - see Omphalapion hookerorum

Apion miniatum - see Apion frumentarium

Apion neofallax - see Perapion neofallax

Apion onopordi - see Ceratapion onopordi

Apion scutellare see Stenopterapion scutellare

Apion sp. 317

Apion sp. A 464

Apion sp. B 464

Apion ulicis - see Exapion ulicis

Apion violaceum - see Perapion violaceum

Apion violaceum var. harcyniae

- see Perapion violaceum

Aplocera efformata 336

Aplocera plagiata 336-337

Apotoforma sp. - see Croesia zimmermani

Archlagocheirus funestus - see Lagocheirus funestus

Arcola malloi 19-20

Aristaea thalassias 367

Aristotelia ivae 42

Aristotelia sp. - see Aristotelia ivae

Arytaina spartiophila

- see Arytainilla spartiophila Table 3

Arytainilla spartiophila 289, 635

Arytinnis hakani 638

Arzama densa - see Bellura densa

Ategumia adipalis 364

Ategumia ebulealis - see Ategumia matutinalis

Ategumia fatualis 364

Scientific Names of Agents 
Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index 831

Indexes

Ategumia matutinalis 360-361

Athesapeuta cyperi 256-257

Aulacidea acroptilonica 166

Aulacidea subterminalis 162, 163

Austromusotima camptozonale 349

Austrotachardia sp. 536

Autoplusia illustrata 465

B

Bactra minima 257-258

Bactra truculenta - see Bactra venosana Table 1

Bactra venosana 258-259, 551, 631

Bactra verutana 550, 551

Bagous affinis 329

Bagous hydrillae 329

Bagous n. sp. Z - see Bagous hydrillae

Bangasternus fausti 68, 70, 77, 85, 93

Bangasternus orientalis 76, 81

Bayeria capitigena

- see Spurgia capitigena and Spurgia esulae

Bellura densa 564

Bembecia marginata - see Pennisetia marginata

Blepharomastix acutangulalis

- see Pseudopyrausta santatalis

Blepharomastix ebulealis - see Ategumia matutinalis

Bocchoris adipalis - see Ategumia adipalis

Bocchoris fatualis - see Ategumia fatualis

Boreioglycaspis melaleucae 368-369, 657

Botanophila jacobaeae 137-138

Botanophila seneciella 138

Botanophila spinosa 154

Brachypterolus pulicarius 375, 382, 659-660, 663-664

Brachytarsus tomentosus

- see Trigonorhinus tomentosus

Bradyrrhoa gilveolella 97-98

Bruchidius ater - see Bruchidius villosus

Bruchidius sahlbergi 326

Bruchidius villosus 290, 635-636, 638

Bruchus atronotatus - see Lithraeus atronotatus

Bruchus ocularis - see Sulcobruchus subsuturalis

Bruchus subsuturalis - see Sulcobruchus subsuturalis

Bucculatrix ivella 42-43

Bucculatrix parthenica 157

Bucculatrix sp. D - see Bucculatrix parthenica

C

Cactoblastis cactorum 203-204, 207-208, 210-211, 

215, 220-222, 225, 228-230, 236, 239-240, 241, 

622-625 627-630

Cactoblastis doddi 237

Cactoblastis sp. - see Cactoblastis sp. nr doddi

Cactoblastis sp. nr doddi 197, 201

Cactophagous spinolae - see Metamasius spinolae

Calligrapha pantherina 356-359

Callimorpha jacobaeae - see Tyria jacobaeae

Calophasia lunula 376-377, 383

Caloptilia coruscans 366

Caloptilia nr schinella - see Caloptilia coruscans

Caloptilia schinella - see Caloptilia coruscans

Calycomyza eupatorivora 104

Calycomyza flavinotum - see Calycomyza eupatorivora

Calycomyza lantanae 465-466, 524, 686-690

Camaromyia bullans - see Euaresta bullans

Carmenta mimosa 302-303

Carmenta sp. nr ithacae 157

Carposina autologa 427

Carposina bullata 361

Carvalhotingis hollandi 176

Carvalhotingis visenda 177

Cassida azurea 243

Cassida hemisphaerica - see Cassida azurea

Cassida rubiginosa 121, 598

Cassida sp. - see Cassida sp. 3 

Cassida sp. 3 117

Catabena esula - see Neogalea sunia Table 1

Cataclysta camptozonale

- see Austromusotima camptozonale

Cecidochares connexa 104-107

Cecidophyes rouhollahi 438

Celerio euphorbiae - see Hyles euphorbiae

Cephalosporium diospyri - see Nalanthamala diospyri

Cephalosporium sp. - see Acremonium sp. 

Ceratapion onopordi 122

Ceratitella asiatica - see Ceratitella tomentosa

Ceratitella tomentosa 349

Cercospora eupatorii - see Passalora ageratinae

Cercospora piaropi 395, 565, 668

Cercospora rodmanii - see Cercospora piaropi

Cercosporella ageratina - see Entyloma ageratinae

Cercosporella sp. - see Entyloma ageratinae

Ceuthorhynchidius horridus

- see Trichosirocalus horridus Table 1 

 and Trichosirocalus mortadelo

Ceutorhynchus cruciger

- see Mogulones crucifer Table 1

Ceutorhynchus edentulus - see Microplontus edentulus

Ceutorhynchus geographicus

- see Mogulones geographicus

Ceutorhynchus larvatus - see Mogulones larvatus

Ceutorhynchus litura - see Hadroplontus litura

Chaetococcus australis - see Antonina australis

Chaetorellia acrolophi 86

Chaetorellia australis 69, 81

Chaetorellia succinea 587

Chalcodermus serripes 303

Chamaesphecia astatiformis 272

Chamaesphecia crassicornis 272-273

Chamaesphecia doryliformis 

- see Pyropteron doryliformis

Chamaesphecia empiformis 263-264

Chamaesphecia hungarica 273

Chamaesphecia mysiniformis 347

Chamaesphecia tenthrediniformis 273

Charidotella purpurata 546

Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor 545, 547

Charidotis auroguttata 177

Charidotis pygmaea 466, 524

Cheilosia corydon - see Cheilosia grossa

Cheilosia grossa 52, 62, 65, 130

Cheilosia psilophthalma 164

Cheilosia urbana 164

Chelinidea tabulata 225, 230-231, 237, 540, 543

Chelinidea vittiger 226, 231, 541, 543

Chelymorpha cassidea 547

Chiasmia assimilis 326-327

Chiasmia inconspicua 327

Chirida guttata - see Deloyala guttata

Chlamisus gibbosa 432

Chlamisus mimosae 303-304

Chlamisus sp. nr. Sidae - see Chlamisus mimosae

Chondrostereum purpureum 720-722

Chrysolina brunsvicensis 338

Chrysolina fasciata 115

Chrysolina gemellata 

- see Chrysolina quadrigemina Table 1
832 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index

Indexes

Chrysolina hyperici 331, 338-340, 654

Chrysolina picturata - see Chrysolina fasciata

Chrysolina quadrigemina 341-343, 655

Chrysolina scotti 115, 118

Chrysolina sp. - see Chrysolina scotti

Chrysolina sp. 1 - see Chrysolina scotti

Chrysolina sp. 2 - see Chrysolina sp. B 

Chrysolina sp. A - see Chrysolina scotti

Chrysolina sp. B 115, 118

Chrysolina varians 344

Chrysomela brunsvicensis 

- see Chrysolina brunsvicensis

Chrysomela gemellata 

- see Chrysolina quadrigemina Table 1

Chrysomela hyperici - see Chrysolina hyperici Table 1

Chrysomela quadrigemina

- see Chrysolina quadrigemina Table 1

Chrysomela varians - see Chrysolina varians

Cibdela janthina 432

Cleonis pigra 599

Cleonus piger - see Cleonis pigra

Cleopus japonicus 450

Cochylis atricapitana 139

Coelocephalapion aculeatum 304

Coelocephalapion camarae 467

Coelocephalapion pigrae 304

Coleophora klimeschiella 244-245

Coleophora parthenica 244-246

Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae 723

Colletotrichum clidemiae 361

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

- see Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f .sp. miconiae 

365-366

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

 f. sp. aeschynomene 724-725

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene 

- see also Colletotrichum acutatum f. sp. hakeae

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. clidemiae

- see Colletotrichum clidemiae

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. cuscutae 

725-726

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae 726

Colletotrichum orbiculare 610

Colletotrichum xanthii - see Colletotrichum orbiculare

Cometaster pyrula 327

Comostolopsis germana 115, 118

Conotrachelus albocinereus 158

Conotrachelus sp. - see Conotrachelus albocinereus

Cornops aquaticum 395

Corythuca disticta - see Corythucha distincta

Corythucha distincta 537

Crasimorpha infuscata 20

Cremastobombycia lantanella 467, 691

Cricotopus lebetis 652

Crioceris sp. undescribed 28

Crocidosema lantana 468-469, 691-693

Croesia zimmermani 433

Cuphodes profluens 328

Cyanotricha necyria - see Scea necyria

Cydia succedana 317

Cydmaea binotata 428

Cylindrobasidium laeve 727

Cyphocleonus achates 70-71, 77, 86-87, 94

Cyrtobagous salviniae 438-445, 680-682

Cyrtobagous singularis 445-446, 683

Cyrtobagous singularis

- see also Cyrtobagous salviniae

Cyrtobagous sp. - see Cyrtobagous salviniae Table 1

Cystiphora schmidti 98

Cystiphora sonchi 170, 609

D

Dactylopius austrinus 204, 209, 231, 241

Dactylopius ceylonicus 205, 206, 216-217, 222, 231, 

242

Dactylopius coccus 237

Dactylopius confusus 217-218, 232, 541, 544

Dactylopius confusus

- see also Dactylopius opuntiae Table 1

Dactylopius greenii - see Dactylopius confusus Table 1

Dactylopius indicus - see Dactylopius ceylonicus

Dactylopius newsteadi

- see Dactylopius tomentosus Table 1

Dactylopius opuntiae 207, 209, 211-212, 214, 215, 

219, 223, 224, 226, 232-234, 238, 241, 242, 626

Dactylopius opuntiae - see also Dactylopius sp. Table 1

Dactylopius sp. 224, 627

Dactylopius sp. - see also Dactylopius opuntiae Table 1

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus 224

Dactylopius sp. nr confusus

- see also Dactylopius austrinus

Dactylopius tomentosus 192, 193, 194, 195, 541, 544, 

620, 621

Dactylopius tomentosus

- see also Dactylopius opuntiae Table 1

Dasineura dielsi 280-281

Dasineura rubiformis 632-633

Dasineura strobila 368, 655

Degorsia champenoisi 

- see Stenopelmus rufinasus Table 3

Deloyala guttata 546, 547

Depressaria costosa - see Agonopterix nervosa

Depressaria nervosa - see Agonopterix nervosa

Deuterocampta quadrijuga 186

Diabole cubensis 305

Dialectica scalariella 183, 617

Diastema tigris 469-471

Dichomeris aenigmatica 166

Dicomada rufa 428

Didymella clematidis 430

Diorhabda carinata 456-457

Diorhabda carinulata 457-459

Diorhabda elongata 459-460

Diorhabda elongata

- see also Diorhabda carinata, 

 Diorhabda carinulata, and Diorhabda sublineata

Diorhabda elongata subsp. deserticola

- see Diorhabda carinulata

Diorhabda sublineata 461, 684

Disonycha argentinensis 20

Disonycha glabrata 534

Ditylenchus phyllobius 568

E

Eccritotarsus catarinensis 396-397

Ectaga garcia 471, 524

Entyloma ageratinae 33, 579

Entyloma compositarum

- see Entyloma ageratinae Table 1

Entyloma compositarum f. sp. ageratinae

- see Entyloma ageratinae Table 1

Epiblema strenuana 36, 158, 173

Epinotia lantana - see Crocidosema lantana

Epipagis albiguttalis

- see Niphograpta albiguttalis Table 1
Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index 833

Indexes

Epipsammea pectinicornis

- see Spodoptera pectinicornis

Epipsammia pectinicornis

- see Spodoptera pectinicornis

Episammia pectinicornis - see Spodoptera pectinicornis

Episimus sp. - see Episimus unguiculus

Episimus unguiculus 20-21

Episimus utilis - see Episimus unguiculus

Eriocereophaga humeridens 197

Eriococcus leptospermi 656

Eriococcus orariensis 656

Eriophyes chondrillae - see Aceria chondrillae

Eriophyes convolvuli - see Aceria malherbae

Eriophyes lantanae - see Aceria lantanae

Erytenna consputa 426, 429

Eteobalea intermediella 377, 384

Eteobalea serratella 378, 384

Euaresta aequalis 173

Euaresta bella 36-37

Euaresta bullans 611

Eublemma amoena 153, 154

Euclasta gigantalis - see Euclasta whalleyi

Euclasta whalleyi 21

Eucosma smithiana - see Strepsicrates smithiana

Euhrychiopsis lecontei 553-554

Eulocastra argentisparsa 372

Eurytoma attiva 179-180

Eurytoma sp. nr howardii - see Eurytoma attiva

Eustenopus hirtus - see Eustenopus villosus

Eustenopus hirtus cf. abbreviatus

- see Eustenopus villosus

Eustenopus villosus 82

Eutinobothrus pilosellus 357, 359

Eutinobothrus sp. 357, 359

Eutreta sparsa - see Eutreta xanthochaeta

Eutreta xanthochaeta 471-472

Evander xanthomelas - see Parevander xanthomelas

Evippe sp. #1 312

Exapion fuscirostre 291, 636

Exapion ulicis 318-320

F

Falconia intermedia 473

Fergusobia quinquenerviae 369

Fergusonina turneri 369

Floracarus perrepae 350

Frumenta nephelomicta 451

Frumenta nephelomicta - see Frumenta sp. 

Frumenta sp. 451

Frumenta sp. A - see Frumenta sp. 

Fusarium oxysporum 539-540

G

Galerucella calmariensis 351-352

Galerucella pusilla 352-353

Gargaphia decoris 453-454

Gastrophysa atrocyanea 563

Gonioctena olivacea 291

Gratiana boliviana 455

Gratiana spadicea 455

Gymnaetron antirrhini- see Rhinusa antirrhini

Gymnaetron netum - see Rhinusa neta

Gymnaetron teter - see Rhinusa tetra

Gymnetron antirrhini - see Rhinusa antirrhini

Gymnetron linariae - see Rhinusa linariae

Gymnetron netum - see Rhinusa neta

Gymnetron tetrum - see Rhinusa tetra

H

Hadroplontus litura 122-123

Haltica carduorum - see Altica carduorum

Heilipodus intricatus 43

Heilipodus ventralis 137

Helipodus intricatus - see Heilipodus intricatus

Hellensia balanotes - see Hellinsia balanotes

Hellinsia balanotes 43-44

Hepialus sp. 473

Heteropsylla reducta 644

Heteropsylla spinulosa 294-298

Homichloda barkeri 328

Homicloda barkeri - see Homichloda barkeri

Hydrellia balciunasi 329

Hydrellia pakistanae 330-331

Hylaeogena jureceki 177-178

Hylemya seneciella - see Botanophila seneciella

Hylemyia jacobaeae - see Botanophila jacobaeae

Hylemyia seneciella - see Botanophila seneciella

Hyles euphorbiae 264, 274, 279

Hylobius transversovittatus 354

Hypena jussalis - see Hypena laceratalis

Hypena laceratalis 474-476, 525, 693-694

Hypena strigalis - see Hypena laceratalis

Hypena strigata - see Hypena laceratalis

Hypocosmia pyrochroma Jones 178

Hypogeococcus festerianus 188-191, 190, 196, 198, 

200, 202, 617-619

Hypogeococcus pungens

- see Hypogeococcus festerianus

Hypolixus truncatulus 534

J

Jaapiella ivannikovi 167

K

Kuwanina australis - see Antonina australis

Kuwanina hilli - see Antonina australis

L

Lagocheirus funestus 213, 227, 238

Lantanophaga pusillidactyla 476-477, 695-699, 715

Larinus carlinae 123, 600

Larinus curtus 82

Larinus latus 153, 154

Larinus minutus 68, 71, 77-78, 87-88, 94

Larinus obtusus 71-72, 78, 80, 88

Larinus planus - see Larinus carlinae

Lema basicostata 247

Lema cyanella 123-124

Lema obscura - see Neolema ogloblini

Leptinotarsa defecta 452

Leptinotarsa texana 452

Leptobyrsa decora 477-479

Leuciris fimbriaria 305

Leucoptera spartifoliella 292, 636-637

Lilioceris cheni 259

Lioplacis elliptica 44

Liothrips mikaniae 148

Liothrips urichi 362-363

Liriomyza sonchi 170

Listronotus setosipennis 158-159

Lithraeus atronotatus 21

Litodactylus leucogaster - see Phytobius leucogaster

Lius poseidon 363
834 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index

Indexes

Lixus aemulus 107

Lixus cardui 155

Lixus cribricollis - see Lixus linearis

Lixus linearis 389

Lobesia euphorbiana 264, 275

Lochmaea suturalis 260

Longitarsus aeneus 184

Longitarsus albineus 187

Longitarsus bethae 480

Longitarsus echii 184

Longitarsus flavicornis 139-140, 603

Longitarsus ganglbaueri 604

Longitarsus gracilis 604

Longitarsus jacobaeae 140-142

Longitarsus jacobaeae

- see also Longitarsus flavicornis Table 1

Longitarsus quadriguttatus 182

Longitarsus sp. - see Longitarsus bethae

Longitarsus succineus 604

Lophodiplosis trifida 370

Lorita baccharivora 44

Loxomorpha flavidissimalis 234

Lysathia sp. 328, 651

M

Macaria pallidata 305

Macrolabis pilosellae 164

Malacorhinus irregularis 306

Maravalia cryptostegiae 22, 574

Mecas cana subsp. saturnina 174

Mecas saturnina - see Mecas cana subsp. saturnina

Mecinus janthiniformis 378-379, 384-385

Mecinus janthinus 379-380, 385-386

Mecinus janthinus - see also Mecinus janthiniformis

Megacyllene mellyi 45

Megamelus scutellaris 397

Megastigmus transvaalensis 572

Melampsora hypericorum 653-654

Melanagromyza cuscutae 250-251, 252, 549, 550

Melanterius acaciae 285

Melanterius compactus 287

Melanterius maculatus 280, 282, 284, 285, 286

Melanterius servulus 281, 308

Melanterius servulus (type A) 

- see Melanterius servulus

Melanterius servulus (type B) 

- see Melanterius servulus

Melanterius sp. nr maculatus 

- see Melanterius maculatus

Melanterius ventralis 283

Meligethes planiusculus 184

Melitara bollii - see Melitara prodenialis and Melitara sp.

Melitara dentata 213, 234

Melitara doddalis - see Melitara dentata

Melitara prodenialis 205, 213, 235, 542, 544

Melitara sp. 235

Melittia oedipus 255

Mescinia nr parvula - see Phestinia costella

Mesoanguina picridis - see Subanguina picridis

Mesoclanis magnipalpis 116, 119

Mesoclanis polana 116, 119

Metallactus nigrofasciatus 45

Metallactus patagonicus 45

Metamasius spinolae 195, 214

Metriona bicolor - see Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor

Metriona purpurata - see Charidotella purpurata

Metrogaleruca obscura 180-181

Metzneria paucipunctella 72, 78, 89

Microlarinus lareynii 525-526, 528-529, 716, 718

Microlarinus lypriformis 527, 530-531, 716-718

Microplontus edentulus 171

Mimorista flavidissimalis

- see Loxomorpha flavidissimalis

Mimorista pulchellalis 205

Mimosestes ulkei 308

Minoa murinata 275

Mogulones crucifer 182, 616

Mogulones cruciger - see Mogulones crucifer

Mogulones geographicus 185

Mogulones larvatus 185-186

Mompha trithalama 363

Moneilema armatum 214

Moneilema blapsides subsp. ulkei 227, 235, 239

Moneilema crassum - see Moneilema armatum

Moneilema ulkei 

- see Moneilema blapsides subsp. ulkei

Moneilema variolare 236

Monilema crassum - see Moneilema armatum

Monophadnus spinolae 430

Mycovellosiella lantanae var. lantanae 

- see Passalora lantanae var. lantanae

N

Nalanthamala diospyri 552

Namangana pectinicornis 

- see Spodoptera pectinicornis

Nanaia sp. 205

Nanophyes marmoratus 355

Nealcidion cereicola 189, 191, 199, 201-203

Neltumius arizonensis 310, 313, 648

Neochetina bruchi 398-408, 566, 669

Neochetina eichhorniae 409-420, 566, 670-672

Neodiplogrammus quadrivittatus 314

Neogalea esula see Neogalea sunia Table 1

Neogalea sunia 480-481, 699

Neohydronomus affinis 23-27, 574-575

Neohydronomus pulchellus 

- see Neohydronomus affinis Table 1

Neolema ogloblini 247

Neomusotima conspurcatalis 350

Nesaecrepida infuscata 306

Neurostrota gunniella 306

Niesthrea louisianica 555

Niphograpta albiguttalis 421-424, 673

Nothanguina phyllobia - see Ditylenchus phyllobius

Nupserha antennata - see Nupserha vexator

Nupserha vexator 174

O

Oberea erythrocephala 265, 275-276

Octotoma championi 482

Octotoma gundlachi 483

Octotoma scabripennis 483-486, 700

Octotoma sp. probably plicatula (Fabricius)

Oidaematophorus balanotes - see Hellinsia balanotes

Oidaematophorus beneficus 30, 34

Olyca junctolineella- see Olycella junctolineella Table 1

Olycella junctolineella 236, 542, 545

Omphalapion hookeri - see Omphalapion hookerorum

Omphalapion hookerorum 171, 609-610

Ophiomyia camarae 487, 700-701

Ophiomyia lantanae 488-491, 702-707

Ophiomyia rhodesiensis

- see Ophiomyia lantanae Table 1

Ophraella communa 579-582, 612
Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index 835

Indexes

Opsilia coerulescens 186

Orellia ruficauda - see Terellia ruficauda

Orrina phyllobia - see Ditylenchus phyllobius

Orthezia insignis 491-492, 708-710

Orthogalumna terebrantis 424-425, 674-675

Ostrinia palustralis memnialis 563

Oxyops vitiosa 370, 657

Oxyptilus pilosellae 164-165

P

Paranguina picridis - see Subanguina picridis

Parapoynx diminutalis 653

Paratachardina sp. 537

Parectopa thalassias - see Aristaea thalassias

Pareuchaetes aurata - see Pareuchaetes aurata aurata

Pareuchaetes aurata aurata 107

Pareuchaetes insulata 108

Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata 109-113, 597

Parevander xanthomelas 492

Passalora ageratinae 30, 576-577

Passalora lantanae var. lantanae 492

Paulinia acuminata 447-449, 683

Pegohylemyia jacobaeae - see Botanophila jacobaeae

Pegohylemyia seneciella - see Botanophila seneciella

Pegomya argyrocephala

- see Pegomya curticornis

 and Pegomya euphorbiae

Pegomya curticornis 276

Pegomya euphorbiae 265, 277

Pelochrista medullana 72-73, 89-90

Pempelia genistella 320

Pennisetia marginata 433

Penthobruchus germaini 309

Perapion antiquum 389-390, 392

Perapion neofallax 391, 392

Perapion violaceum 391, 393

Phaeoramularia eupatorii-odorati 

- see Passalora ageratinae

Phaeoramularia sp. - see Passalora ageratinae

Phalonia sp. - see Lorita baccharivora

Phenacoccus parvus 711

Phenrica guerini 243

Phestinia costella 114

Phloeospora mimosae-pigrae 307

Phoma clematidina - see Didymella clematidis

Phoma macrostoma 728-729

Phragmidium violaceum 435-437, 677, 678, 680

Phrydiuchus spilmani 348

Phrydiuchus tau 348

Phyllocharis undulata 346

Phyllocoptes fructiphilus 567

Phyllonorycter myricae - see Caloptilia coruscans

Physonota alutacea 181

Phytobia lantanae - see Calycomyza lantanae Table 1

Phytobius leucogaster 554

Phytoecia coerulescens - see Opsilia coerulescens

Phytomyza orobanchia 371, 556-561

Phytomyza vitalbae 431

Phytophthora citrophthora

- see Phytophthora palmivora

Phytophthora palmivora 729

Plagiohammus spinipennis 493

Platphalonidia mystica 159

Platyomopsis humeralis - see Rhytiphora piperitia

Platyptilia isodactyla 143

Platyptilia pusillidactyla

- see Lantanophaga pusillidactyla

Plectonycha correntina 176

Ponometia candefacta 37, 41, 580

Priophorus morio 434, 679

Procecidochares alani 34-35

Procecidochares connexa - see Cecidochares connexa

Procecidochares utilis 31-32, 578

Prokelisia marginata 561-562

Prosopidopsylla flava 313

Prospodium transformans 179

Prospodium tuberculatum 494-495

Pseudopyrausta acutangulalis

- see Pseudopyrausta santatalis

Pseudopyrausta santatalis 494

Psigida walkeri 299

Psylliodes chalcomera 52

Pterolonche inspersa 73, 90, 94

Pterophorus spilodactylus - see Wheeleria spilodactylus

Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola 159, 605-606

Puccinia acroptili 608

Puccinia canaliculata 730

Puccinia cardui-pycnocephali 62, 65

Puccinia carduorum 53, 583

Puccinia chondrillina 99-100, 591

Puccinia eupatorii 582

Puccinia evadens 46

Puccinia hieracii var. piloselloidarum 165, 608

Puccinia jacea var. solstitialis 83

Puccinia jaceae var. diffusae 584

Puccinia melampodii

- see Puccinia xanthii var. parthenii-hysterophorae

Puccinia myrsiphylli 29, 575

Puccinia psidii 658

Puccinia punctiformis 601

Puccinia spegazzinii 148-150

Puccinia thlaspeos 730

Puccinia xanthii 160, 582, 612

Puccinia xanthii f. sp. ambrosiae-trifidae 582

Puccinia xanthii var. parthenii-hysterophorae 160

Pustula obtusata - see Pustula tragopogonis

Pustula tragopogonis 581

Pyrausta perelegans 373

Pyropteron doryliformis 394

R

Rhinacloa callicrates 309

Rhinocloa sp. 645

Rhinocyllus conicus 48-49, 53-54, 57-58, 63, 66, 

124-125, 128, 130-132, 150-152, 168-169

Rhinoncomimus latipes 394

Rhinusa antirrhini 380-381, 660-661, 664-665

Rhinusa linariae 381, 386-387

Rhinusa neta 662, 665-666

Rhinusa tetra 684

Rhizaspidiotus donacis 387-388

Rhopalomyia californica 46-47, 535, 536

Rhopalomyia n. sp. - see Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi

Rhopalomyia tripleurospermi 172

Rhynchopalpus brunellus 365

Rhyssomatus marginatus 315

Rhytiphora piperitia 552-553

Rose Rosette Disease 676
836 Biological Control of Weeds: Scientific Names of Agents Index

Indexes

S

Salbia haemorrhoidalis 495-498

Samea multiplicalis 449-450

Sameodes albiguttalis - see Niphograpta albiguttalis

Scamurius sp. 299, 307

Scea necyria 373

Schematiza cordiae - see Metrogaleruca obscura

Schreckensteinia festaliella 435

Sclerotinia minor 731

Scythris grandipennis 321

Selca brunella - see Rhynchopalpus brunellus

Septoria hodgesii 367

Septoria passiflorae 374

Septoria sp. 498

Sericothrips staphylinus 321-322

Sibinia fastigiata 307

Smicronyx albovariegatus 372

Smicronyx cuscutae - see Smicronyx roridus

Smicronyx lutulentus 160

Smicronyx roridus 251, 252, 253

Smicronyx rufovittatus 251, 253

Sphenoptera jugoslavica 73-74, 79, 90-91, 95

Spodoptera pectinicornis 28, 535

Spurgia capitigena 265, 277-278, 631-632

Spurgia esulae 266, 278

Stenopelmus rufinasus 175, 613-616

Stenopterapion scutellare 322-323

Stobaera concinna 37, 161

Stolas fuscata - see Anacassis fuscata

Strepsicrates smithiana 367

Strymon bazochii 498-499

Strymon bazochii gundlachianus

- see Strymon bazochii

Strymon echion - see Tmolus echion

Subanguina picridis 74, 167-168, 538-539

Sulcobruchus bakeri - see Sulcobruchus subsuturalis

Sulcobruchus subsuturalis 288

Sympheletes humeralis - see Rhytiphora piperitia

Synansphecia doryliformis - see Pyropteron doryliformis

Syngamia haemorrhoidalis - see Salbia haemorrhoidalis

Syphrea bibiana - see Nesaecrepida infuscata

T

Tarachidia candefacta - see Ponometia candefacta

Teleonemia bifasciata

- see Teleonemia scrupulosa Table 1

Teleonemia elata 499-500

Teleonemia harleyi 500

Teleonemia lantanae 

- see Teleonemia scrupulosa Table 1

Teleonemia prolixa 500

Teleonemia scrupulosa 501-513, 712-714

Teleonemia sp. - see Teleonemia scrupulosa Table 1

Teleonemia vanduzeei 

- see Teleonemia scrupulosa Table 1

Tephritis dilacerata 170

Tephritis postica 155

Terellia ruficauda 601-602

Terellia virens 68, 91, 95

Tetraeuaresta obscuriventris 136, 602-603

Tetramesa romana 388, 666

Tetranychus lintearius 323-325

Thecla agra - see Strymon bazochii

Thecla bazochii - see Strymon bazochii

Thecla sp. (echion group) - see Tmolus echion

Tmolus echion 514

Tmolus sp. (echion group) - see Tmolus echion

Tortrix s.l. subsp. chrysanthemoides 116-117

Tortrix sp. 117, 119

Triaenodes tarda 555

Tribe Erythroneurini undescribed 29

Trichapion lativentre 649

Trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae 283-284

Trichilogaster signiventris 286

Trichilogaster sp. - see Trichilogaster signiventris

Trichilogaster sp. B - see Trichilogaster signiventris

Trichosirocalus briesei 155-156

Trichosirocalus horridus 50-51, 55-56, 58, 64, 66, 129, 

132, 151-152

Trichosirocalus horridus

- see also Trichosirocalus mortadelo

Trichosirocalus mortadelo 60

Trichotaphe aenigmatica - see Dichomeris aenigmatica

Trigonorhinus tomentosus 37-38

Trirhabda bacharidis 47

Tucumania tapiacola 206

Tyria jacobaeae 143-146

Tyta luctuosa 248, 250

U

Ucona acaenae 431

Uromyces galegae 293, 637

Uromyces heliotropii 187

Uromyces pisi f.sp. europaei 325

Uromycladium tepperianum 287

Urophora affinis 74-75, 91-92, 95

Urophora cardui 125-127

Urophora jaceana 588-589

Urophora jaculata 83

Urophora quadrifasciata 76, 79, 92, 583, 585, 586, 

588, 589, 590

Urophora sirunaseva 83-84

Urophora solstitialis 51, 56, 60-61

Urophora stylata 134-135

Urophora terebrans 156

Uroplata fulvopustulata 514

Uroplata girardi 515-523, 714

Uroplata lantanae 523

Uroplata sp. nr bilineata - see Uroplata fulvopustulata

V

Vogtia malloi - see Arcola malloi

W

Weiseana barkeri - see Homichloda barkeri

Wheeleria spilodactylus 347-348

X

Xanthaciura connexionis 32, 35

Xanthomonas campestris pv. poae 732

Xubida infusella 425

Xubida infusellus - see Xubida infusella

Z

Zeuxidiplosis giardi 344-346

Zophodia prodenialis

- see Melitara prodenialis and Melitara sp.

Zophodia tapiacola - see Tucumania tapiacola

Zygina sp. - see Tribe Erythroneurini undescribed

Zygogramma bicolorata 38, 161-162, 607

Zygogramma disrupta 38

Zygogramma suturalis 38-41

Zygospila suturalis - see Zygogramma suturalis
Biological Control of Weeds: Agent Families or Orders Index 837

Indexes

A

Acrididae 395

Agaricales 720, 727

Agromyzidae 104, 170, 250, 252, 371, 431, 465, 487, 

488, 524, 549, 550, 556, 558, 559, 560, 686, 700, 

702

Albuginales 581

Anguinidae 74, 167, 538, 568

Anthomyiidae 137, 138, 154, 265, 276, 277

Anthribidae 37

Aphididae 335

Argidae 432

B

Brentidae 102, 122, 171, 291, 304, 317, 318, 322, 

389, 391, 392, 393, 464, 467, 609, 636, 649

Bucculatricidae 42, 157

Buprestidae 73, 79, 90, 95, 177, 333, 363

C

Capnodiales 30, 307, 367, 374, 395, 492, 498, 565, 

576, 668

Carposinidae 361, 427

Cecidomyiidae 46, 98, 164, 167, 170, 172, 265, 266, 

277, 278, 280, 344, 368, 370, 535, 536, 609, 631, 

632, 655

Cerambycidae 45, 174, 186, 189, 191, 199, 201, 202, 

213, 214, 227, 235, 236, 238, 239, 265, 275, 426, 

427, 463, 492, 493, 552

Chironomidae 652

Chrysomelidae 16, 20, 21, 28, 38, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47, 

52, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 139, 140, 161, 

176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 186, 187, 243, 247, 

259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 267, 268, 270, 271, 288, 

290, 291, 293, 299, 301, 303, 306, 308, 309, 310, 

311, 312, 313, 326, 328, 331, 338, 341, 344, 346, 

351, 352, 356, 358, 432, 452, 455, 456, 457, 459, 

461, 464, 466, 480, 482, 483, 514, 515, 523, 524, 

534, 545, 546, 547, 556, 563, 579, 581, 598, 603, 

604, 607, 612, 635, 638, 639, 641, 643, 646, 648, 

651, 654, 655, 684, 700, 714, 

Cicadellidae 29

Coleophoridae 244, 245

Coreidae 225, 226, 230, 231, 237, 299, 307, 540, 541, 

543, 

Cosmopterigidae 377, 378, 384

Crambidae 21, 205, 234, 349, 350, 360, 364, 373, 

421, 425, 449, 494, 495, 563, 651, 653, 673

Curculionidae 23, 43, 48, 50, 53, 55, 57, 58, 60, 63, 

64, 66, 68, 70, 71, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 

87, 88, 93, 94, 107, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130, 

132, 137, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 160, 168, 

171, 182, 185, 197, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 280, 

281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 303, 307, 308, 

314, 315, 329, 348, 354, 357, 359, 370, 372, 378, 

379, 380, 381, 384, 385, 386, 389, 394, 426, 428, 

429, 450, 453, 525, 527, 528, 530, 534, 553, 554, 

574, 599, 600, 616, 657, 660, 662, 664, 665, 684, 

716, 718

Cynipidae 162, 163, 166

D

Dactylopiidae 192, 193, 194, 195, 204, 205, 206, 207, 

209, 211, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 222, 223, 224, 

226, 231, 232, 237, 238, 241, 242, 541, 544, 620, 

621, 626, 627

Delphacidae 37, 161, 397, 561, 562

Diaspididae 387

Dryophthoridae 195, 214

E

Entylomatales 33, 579

Ephydridae 329, 330

Erebidae 107, 108, 109, 143, 153, 154, 327, 360, 474, 

525, 597, 693

Eriococcidae 656

Eriophyidae 96, 114, 248, 249, 288, 332, 350, 438, 

462, 538, 567, 568, 591, 592, 597, 633, 649

Erirhinidae 175, 398, 409, 438, 445, 566, 613, 669, 

670, 680, 681, 682, 683

Eurytomidae 179, 388, 666

F

Fergusoninidae 369

G

Galumnidae 424, 674

Gelechiidae 20, 42, 72, 78, 89, 166, 312, 451

Geometridae 115, 118, 275, 305, 326, 327, 336

Gracillariidae 183, 306, 328, 366, 367, 467, 617, 691

H

Helotiales 731

Hepialidae 473

Hypocreales 539, 552, 564, 648

K

Kateridae 375, 382, 659, 663

Kerridae 536, 537

L

Leptoceridae 555

Lycaenidae 498, 514

Lyonetiidae 292, 636

M

Membracidae 463

Miridae 309, 396, 473, 645

Momphidae 363

N

Nanophyidae 355

Neotylenchidae 369

Nitidulidae 184

Noctuidae 28, 37, 41, 248, 250, 332, 372, 376, 383, 

465, 469, 480, 535, 564, 580, 699

Nolidae 365

Notodontidae 373

Nymphalidae 101, 102, 147

Agent Families (Insects and Mites) and Orders (Fungi)
838 Biological Control of Weeds: Agent Families or Orders Index

Indexes

O

Oecophoridae 289, 315, 471, 524, 573, 634, 650

Ortheziidae 491, 708

P

Pauliniidae 447, 683

Peronosporales 729

Phlaeothripidae 18, 148, 362

Pleosporales 430, 548, 667, 720, 728

Pseudococcidae 188, 190, 196, 198, 200, 202, 551, 

617, 619, 711

Psyllidae 289, 294, 313, 368, 393, 635, 638, 644, 657

Pterolonchidae 73, 90, 94

Pteromalidae 283, 286

Pterophoridae 30, 34, 43, 143, 164, 347, 476, 695, 

715

Pucciniales 22, 29, 46, 53, 62, 65, 83, 99, 148, 159, 

160, 165, 179, 187, 287, 293, 305, 325, 435, 436, 

437, 494, 574, 575, 582, 583, 584, 591, 601, 605, 

608, 612, 637, 653, 658, 677, 678, 680, 730

Pyralidae 19, 97, 114, 178, 197, 201, 203, 205, 206, 

207, 210, 213, 215, 220, 225, 228, 234, 235, 236, 

237, 239, 241, 320, 542, 544, 545, 622, 623, 624, 

627, 629

R

Rhopalidae 555

S

Saturniidae 299

Schreckensteiniidae 435

Scutelleridae 279

Scythrididae 321

Sesiidae 157, 255, 263, 272, 273, 302, 347, 394, 433

Sphingidae 264, 274, 279

Syrphidae 52, 62, 65, 130, 164

T

Tenthredinidae 430, 431, 434, 679

Tephritidae 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 51, 56, 60, 68, 69, 74, 

76, 79, 81, 83, 86, 91, 92, 95, 104, 116, 119, 125, 

134, 136, 155, 156, 165, 170, 173, 349, 471, 578, 

583, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 601, 602, 611

Tetranychidae 323

Thripidae 18, 148, 321, 362

Tingidae 176, 177, 453, 477, 499, 500, 501, 537, 712

Tortricidae 20, 36, 44, 69, 72, 84, 89, 93, 116, 117, 

119, 139, 158, 159, 173, 257, 258, 264, 275, 317, 

367, 433, 468, 550, 551, 631, 691

Torymidae 572

X

Xanthomonadales 732