Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida 

Copper and Tin Area of Interest

By Thomas J. Mack and Michael P. Chornack

6C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest 

(AOI) in Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007) (fig. 6C–1a,b). The AOI is located in the 

districts of Ghoryan, Guzara, Adraskan, Anar Dara, and Shindand in Hirat and Farah Provinces in 

western Afghanistan, and is centered about 85 km (kilometers) southwest of the city of Herat (fig. 6C–

1a,b). The Kaftar volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS), Shaida, and Dahana-Misgaran subareas occupy 

2,717 km2 (square kilometers), 334 km2, and 171 km2, respectively, of the 8,619-km2 area of the AOI. 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in some bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations, and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) minerals 

teams conducted field reconnaissance work in the AOI in August 2010; however, these activities and the 

amount of data collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, 

topographic, geologic, surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are 

made on the basis of an integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other 

areas of Afghanistan.

6C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI is based on data generated for the 

Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

USGS assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the end of August 2010, 87 

Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. Additionally, the Agromet

project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) weather stations. The 

Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the Agromet stations over the 

past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and historical data collected at 

weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet project are compiled annually 

by water year (September through August) and are reported in the Afghanistan Agrometeorological 
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 429

Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report are from the agricultural 

season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

a 
430 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 6C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.

The Shindand Agromet station is located at the southeastern border of the AOI in the settlement 

of Shindand (fig. 6C–1a,b). Precipitation at this station during the 2009–2010 water year was 198 mm 
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 431

(millimeters) (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). The maximum monthly rainfall 

of 67 mm occurred in March 2010, whereas no precipitation was recorded at this station in September, 

October, and May through August. The annual long-term average (LTA) precipitation for the Shindand 

Agromet station is 195.5 mm. The monthly LTA precipitation is highest (50.8 mm) in March and lowest 

(0.0 mm) in September, June, July, and August (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 

2010).

The Hirat (Herat) Agromet station (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010) is 

located about 85 km north of the AOI in the city of Herat (fig. 6C–1a,b). Precipitation and temperature 

data for the 2009–2010 water year as well as LTA data are available for this station and are summarized 

in table 6C–1. The total precipitation recorded at the Hirat Agromet station for the 2009–2010 water 

year was 198 mm. Monthly rainfall was highest (92 mm) in February 2010. The next highest monthly 

total was 51.8 mm in March 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). No 

precipitation was recorded during September and October 2009 or June through August 2010. The

annual LTA precipitation for this station is 224.7 mm, with 49.9 mm of precipitation occurring in March 

and 49.6 mm occurring in January. Monthly LTA precipitation at this station was 0.0 mm in September 

and June through August. No snowfall information was reported for the Hirat station. The historical 

average snow-cover map for the month of January depicts no snow cover in the AOI (Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). Both the 17 January, 2010, and the 30 September, 2010, 

Afghanistan snow-depth maps show less than 2 cm (centimeters) of snow cover in the AOI. 

The maximum and minimum average monthly temperature for the Hirat Agromet station for the 

2009–2010 water year was 29.88°C (degrees Celsius) for July 2010 and 8.09°C for December 2009, 

respectively. The exact elevation of the Hirat Agromet station is unknown, but the city of Herat is about 

920 m (meters) above mean sea level (asl). Elevation in the AOI ranges from slightly less than 1,000 m 

to nearly 2,000 m asl. The temperatures recorded at the Hirat Agromet station are probably 

representative of those at the low elevations in the AOI; average temperatures at the high elevations 

probably are lower. 

The vegetation in the AOI is sparse except in some irrigated areas near rivers, such as the 

Adraskan River, in the southeastern part of the AOI (fig. 6C–2) near Adraskan. The Map of Potential 

Natural Vegetation in Breckle (2007) depicts three vegetation zones in the AOI. Elevations greater than 

1,500 m asl are classified as Pistacia atlantica woodlands; elevations from 900 to 1,500 m asl are in the 

Dwarf Amygdalus-semidesert vegetation type. The extreme western edge of the AOI is classified as 

“Other Deserts,” rich in Chenopod. Little or no growing vegetation was present in much of the AOI 

during the field reconnaissance in August 2010, except in some dry streambeds where groundwater may 

be near the land surface (fig. 6C–3).

Table 6C–1.

[Station is 100 km north of the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest, in western Afghanistan. AOI, area of interest; 

km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius]

Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average monthly minimum and maximum 

precipitation and temperature at the Herat Agrometeorological (Agromet) station.

Agromet

station

Distance 

from AOI 

center

(km)

Elevation 

(m)

Precipitation Temperature

2009–10 

annual 

(mm)

Long-term average Long-term average 1

Annual 

(mm)

1

Monthly minimum and 

month (mm)

Monthly 

maximum 

and month 

(mm)

Minimum and 

month (°C)

Monthly 

mean

(°C)

Maximum 

and month 

(°C)

Hirat 100 920 198 224.7 0 multiple months 49.9 March 2 3.1 January 13.8 29.6 July

1

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

2

Long-term average precipitation in September, June, July, and August was 0 mm. 
432 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 6C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 433

Figure 6C–3. Photograph showing vegetation in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest, near the 

Shaida subarea, in western Afghanistan (August 2010). 

6C.1.2 Demographics

There are few settlements in most of the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI, particularly in the 

subareas; an exception is along the Adranskan River in the southeastern part of the AOI (fig. 6C–1a,b). 

Many villages in the AOI consist of tent structures and may be transient. In a photograph taken in the 

Shaida subarea (fig. 6C–4), some of the dwellings in the distant village (upper right corner of the 

photograph) are tent structures. As mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010), the 

AOI is sparsely settled and the population is highly dispersed (fig. 6C–4). The population density in 

most of the AOI is fewer than 50 per km2

 and the subareas, particularly the Kaftar VMS subarea, are the 

least populated. The population density shown in figure 6C–4 has a pixel resolution of about 1 km2 (Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory, 2010). 

The largest settlement in the AOI is Shindand, the district center at the southeast border of the 

AOI. Adraskan, the district center of Adraskan District, is the second largest population center in the 

AOI. Although the population of these settlements is unknown, the population of Herat Province is 

1,676,000, including 1,218,200 in rural areas and 457,800 in urban areas (Islamic Republic of 

Afghanistan, 2010). Herat is the largest population center near the AOI, with a population of slightly 

more than 400,000 (fig. 6C–1a,b). 
434 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 6C–4. Population density of the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest and surrounding areas in 

western Afghanistan.

6C.1.3 Topography and Geomorphology

The Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI is characterized by low, hilly topography, with landsurface elevations generally less than 1,000 m asl in the Kaj Rod River basin (fig. 6C–5). The Kaj Rod 

River is a tributary to the Farah Rod River, whose basin is in the southwest corner of the AOI (fig. 6C–
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 435

2). Northeast of the Kaj Rod River basin, elevations approach 2,000 m asl along ridges in the DahanaMisgaran subarea. The longer ridges and valleys are oriented northeast-southwest (Bohannon, 2005a

and 2005b; Davis, 2006). 

Figure 6C–5. 

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI is in the Lower Helmand and Regestan artesian basins of the Southern 

Afghanistan Artesian Region. The outcrops and near-surface rocks in the AOI can be grouped according 

to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 

6C–6 with the underlying topography to allow examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. 

Figures 6C–7a and b shows the generalized geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of 

the geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown 

in figures 6C–7a and b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic 

coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rocktype groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in the AOI, ranked from 

high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “river-channel 

sediments; sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments and rocks; limestones and dolostones; 

sedimentary rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 6C–6 and 6C–7a). The limestones and 

dolostones, sedimentary rocks, and intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic groups form the topographic 

highs (Bohannon and Lindsay, 2005). These outcrops may be aquifers of limited extent, especially 

where the permeability of these rocks is enhanced by fractures. Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic 

Photograph of the headwaters area of the Kaj Rod drainage system in the Dusar-Shaida copper and 

tin area of interest in western Afghanistan (August 2010). 
436 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to 

generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-scale geologic maps that cover this AOI 

are provided by Bohannon and Lindsay (2005) and Williams (2005). 

6C.2 Geohydrology

The primary water resource of the AOI generally is groundwater in areas where sands and 

gravels and semiconsolidated conglomerates that are more than 100 m thick form aquifers. Such 

aquifers are likely to be present in low-lying areas of the large drainage basins in the AOI; in the smaller 

basins, these aquifers may be limited in extent and thickness. Villagers in the Kaftar VMS subarea who 

were interviewed during the field assessment in August 2010 indicated that saline groundwater was 

present near the land surface. The presence of saline groundwater was also noted in the AGS 

prospecting report (Tarasenko and others, 1972), and saline groundwater is likely to be present in other 

areas of the AOI. Where shallow wells (less than 20 m deep) were installed 5 km north of the AOI, 

about one third of the wells were found to be dry or inoperative (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan 

Refugees (DACAAR), 2011). Lineament analysis appeared to be useful for identifying upland areas 

where limited amounts of groundwater may be stored or transmitted in bedrock aquifers. Particularly in 

topographically high areas of the watersheds, however, bedrock aquifers may have only limited potential 

for use as a water supply for relatively small villages. In general, available groundwater is likely to be 

limited to the large basins. Close management of the use of this resource likely will be needed in order 

to continue to meet existing water needs. 

6C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major streams, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan 

Information Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), 

in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI is shown in figure 6C–2. A network representing likely 

ephemeral streams, generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 6C–2. 

Names of major streams and identification numbers for any streamgages and ungaged streamflow 

estimation sites in the AOI are shown in figure 6C–1b. Surface water in nearly all of the AOI flows 

west. These drainage basins are part of the Farah Rod basin, which is located adjacent to, or south of, the 

Hari Rod drainage basin (figs. 6C–1a,b and 6C–2). The Shaida and Dahana-Misgaran subareas are 

located on a drainage divide; consequently, the northern areas drain northward to the Hari Rod River 

basin. With the exception of the southwestern areas of the AOI, little or no streamflow is likely to be 

available for other than subsistence needs except during the spring months (April and May). Available 

streamflow in the northern areas of the AOI, which are located on a drainage divide, is also likely to be 

extremely limited, and groundwater resources may be equally limited.
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 437

Figure 6C–6. Topography and generalized geohydrology in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest in 

western Afghanistan.
438 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a 
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 439

b 

Figure 6C–7. (a) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b) 

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community-supply wells in the Dusar-Shaida copper and 

tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
440 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

The two rivers in the eastern area of the AOI, the Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan (Afghan 

identification number 7–5.R00–1–A) and the Adraskan River at Adraskan (Afghan identification 

number 7–0.000–7M), are the largest rivers in the AOI (fig. 6C–2). The Rud-i-Gaz River is a tributary to 

the Adraskan River, and both are part of the larger Farah Rod drainage system. The Adraskan and 

Rud-i-Gaz Rivers drain 1,970 and 2,180 km2, respectively; flow southwest; and, as determined from 

historical streamgage data, have historical mean streamflows of 6.5 and 5.5 m3/s (cubic meters per 

second), respectively. The mean annual streamflow per unit area for these stations is 0.003 and 

0.002 m3

/s/km2, respectively. A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the 

Adraskan River at Adraskan streamgage station (Williams-Sether, 2008) is presented in table 6C–2. 

A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan 

streamgage station (Williams-Sether, 2008) is shown in table 6C–3. Statistical summaries of streamflow 

data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at

http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php. 

As a result of its location at a regional topographic divide, the Shaida subarea has essentially no

potential for surface-water flow. The photograph in figure 6C–5 includes the topographic divide, about 6 

to 7 km distant (south) in this view, between the northward-draining drainage system in the foreground 

and the headwaters area of the Kaj Rod drainage system to the south. 

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S19 and S20 (figs. 6C-1b and 6C-2) using a 

drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on historical streamflows at the Adraskan and 

Rud-i-Gaz Rivers streamgage stations (Afghan identification numbers 7–0.000–7M and 7–5.R00–1–A, 

respectively) (Williams-Sether, 2008). These streamgage stations were selected as the most 

representative historical gages, based on drainage-basin size and location in Afghanistan, for use with 

this method at this location. Streamflows were estimated for point S20 (app. 2) at the northwarddraining channel just north of the Shaida subarea. This small, ephemeral drainage (218 km2

 at point S20) 

flows north from the Shaida subarea. The point S20 was selected immediately outside (north of) the 

Shaida subarea to include a larger drainage area than would be possible from within the subarea. With a 

drainage area of 218 km2

, however, the stream has a marginal estimated mean annual flow 

(0.5–0.6 m3/s), and flow estimatesfor S20 should be used with caution. 

The Kaj Rod River, on the western side of the AOI, flows southwest and drains the Dusar Kaftar 

VMS subarea. Streamflows were estimated for point S19 (fig. 6C–2; app. 2), with a drainage area of 

2,900 km2, using a drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011). As determined from historical 

streamgage data for the Adraskan and Rud-i-Gaz Rivers, mean annual streamflows were estimated to be 

about 9.9 and 7.5 m3/s, respectively. The Dahana-Misgaran subarea is at the headwaters of the Kaj Rod 

River (figs. 6C–1b and 6C–2), or at the divide between the Kaj Rod River drainage area in the Farah 

Rod basin and the drainages to the Hari Rud basin (which includes the Herat area). 

VMAP1 data (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995) indicate that several springs are 

present in the AOI (fig. 6C–2); however, it is not known whether these springs are still active. Alkaline 

water has been reported in some wells in the AOI, but there is no indication of alkaline springs (National 

Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995). Evidence of karezes (hand-dug water tunnels) was observed 

during the August 2010 reconnaissance flights near communities in the AOI. Unmapped springs and 

karezes probably are present in the AOI; protection of these features will help ensure that local 

communities can continue to depend on them as water sources. 
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 441

Table 6C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Adraskan River 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]at Adraskan streamgage station.

Maximum Minimum

Standard Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of Streamflow deviation (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) 3 (m /s)

Mean

Percentage Coefficient of of annual variation streamflow

October 1.77 1970 0.149 1964 0.79 0.50 0.64 1.02

November 4.50 1978 0.703 1972 1.69 1.00 0.59 2.19

December 19.3 1969 0.415 1964 2.79 4.62 1.66 3.61

January 10.7 1969 1.02 1971 3.03 2.65 0.87 3.93

February 19.5 1972 1.57 1971 7.66 5.24 0.68 9.93

March 40.8 1972 2.46 1971 17.9 10.4 0.58 23.2

April 57.1 1976 3.85 1963 23.4 17.6 0.75 30.4

May 34.4 1967 2.80 1970 13.4 9.40 0.70 17.4

June 10.9 1976 0.715 1970 3.98 3.00 0.75 5.17

July 3.52 1972 0.306 1970 1.35 0.93 0.69 1.75

August 2.04 1976 0.010 1971 0.58 0.53 0.92 0.75

September 1.37 1976 0.010 1971 0.56 0.42 0.75 0.72

Annual 13.0 1972 1.89 1971 6.53 3.60 0.55 100

Table 6C–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]Rud-i-Gaz River near Adraskan streamgage station.

Maximum Minimum

Month Streamflow Water year of Streamflow Water year of

(m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence 

Mean

Standard Streamflow Coefficient of deviation (m3/s) variation 3 (m /s)Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October 1.10 1977 0.062 1972 0.51 0.33 0.66 0.77

November 2.48 1978 0.209 1971 0.96 0.62 0.65 1.46

December 11.9 1969 0.410 1965 1.74 2.84 1.63 2.65

January 6.68 1969 0.602 1964 2.07 1.51 0.73 3.15

February 8.14 1969 1.04 1971 4.51 2.42 0.54 6.86

March 39.9 1972 1.75 1967 19.3 13.4 0.70 29.3

April 76.7 1976 6.45 1971 24.2 18.7 0.77 36.9

May 25.6 1976 1.29 1971 9.10 8.14 0.89 13.8

June 4.80 1967 0.232 1971 1.78 1.53 0.86 2.70

July 1.93 1976 0.075 1971 0.75 0.58 0.77 1.14

August 1.16 1976 0 1970, 1971 0.39 0.35 0.90 0.59

September 1.05 1976 0 1971 0.40 0.34 0.85 0.61

Annual 13.2 1976 1.05 1971 5.47 3.31 0.61 100
442 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

6C.2.2 Groundwater

Few data are available from which quantify the extent of the groundwater resource in the DusarShaida copper and tin AOI. Groundwater is present in thick, unconsolidated to semi-consolidated 

sediments that include conglomerate sediments and rock, sand, silt, and gravel (figs. 6C–6 and 6C–7).

The water may be near the land surface adjacent to ephemeral streams. In other areas and at higher 

elevations in the AOI, the depth to water may be tens of meters. Information provided by DACAAR 

(Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011) indicates that the depth to water in supply wells 

drilled by NGOs in the AOI is typically less than 15 m. Most wells in the AOI are dug or driven wells 

that are open only to several meters below the water table. Few deep wells (greater than 30 m) are 

known to have been drilled in the AOI and surrounding area. Several 80-m-deep supply wells were 

installed in one area of Shindand (fig. 6C–7a, numbers 160–165). Little information about the wells is 

available, but the static water levels were about 20 m below ground surface and the specific conductance 

of the water was about 70 μS/cm (microsiemens per centimeter at 25°C). 

Three groundwater-monitoring wells (GWMs) are operated by DACAAR within the AOI. 

GWMs 70 and 162 are near the Adraskan River, and GWM 151 is near Shindand (fig. 6C–7). DACAAR 

water-level and specific-conductance hydrographs are provided in appendix 3 (Danish Committee for 

Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011). GWMs 63 and 79 are located just south of the AOI. The hydrograph for 

GWM 70 indicates a declining trend in which water levels have decreased several meters (from about 9 

to 11 m below ground surface) over the past 5 years (2005–10). Specific conductance for GWM 70

appears to have been stable at about 650 μS/cm over the past 4 years (2005–2009). The record for GWM

162 is unclear and therefore was not analyzed. The hydrograph for DACAAR GWM 151 indicates a 

depth to water of about 10 m and an apparent decline in water levels of 1 to 2 m in the past 4 years. The 

specific conductance of the water in this well increased slightly, from 550 to about 600 μS/cm, during 

this period. GWMs 63 and 79, just outside the AOI, show similar trends—that is, water-level declines of 

several meters and increases in specific conductance. The specific conductance of the water in GWMs 

63 and 79 was about 7,000 and more than 2,000 μS/cm, respectively, indicating that the concentration of 

dissolved ions in the groundwater is elevated, which is a concern if the groundwater is used as a source 

of drinking water. 

VMAP1 data (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995) indicate that water wells in most 

areas of the AOI contain potable (fresh) water (fig. 6C–7); however, groundwater is alkaline in western 

areas of the AOI and in areas just south of the AOI. The source of VMAP1 groundwater-quality data is 

unknown, but the data were collected sometime from the 1970s to 1995. 

No flow was observed in any of the stream channels during field reconnaissance of the 

subareas (fig. 6C–1a,b) in August 2010; however, the presence of green vegetation in some streambeds 

(fig. 6C–3) indicates that groundwater may be near the land surface. The basins in the AOI (fig. 6C–6) 

are filled with conglomerates which, when sufficiently thick, may store considerable groundwater 

supplies. Village elders interviewed in the Shaida subarea on 7 August, 2010, indicated that they had 

recently had a well drilled for their village (background in figure 6C–3) and that the water was saline at 

the water table and fresh 30 m beneath the land surface. The AGS prospecting report (Tarasenko and 

others, 1972) also indicated the presence of saline groundwater (Russian text translation provided by 

Alex Chaihorsky, U.S. Task Force for Business and Stability Operations). Yields of wells in coarsegrained lenses of conglomerate rocks and sediments in the basins of the AOI may be high. However, the 

aquifer system probably receives little recharge, even during the winter and spring months, and the 

presence of saline groundwater indicates that close management of withdrawals would be needed in 

order to prevent the creation of adverse conditions. 
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 443

Figure 6C–8. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and natural-color 

Landsat imagery in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
444 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

6C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Dusar-Shaida copper and tin AOI were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery 

(fig. 6C–8) and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite 

imagery (fig. 6C–9a,b). Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance 

tool for identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to 

be found (Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly 

used to identify areas of high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock 

(Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 6C–8 were delineated visually, 

whereas those in figure 6C–9 were delineated on the basis of multispectral characteristics of the land 

surface by using an automated process (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, U.S. Geological 

Survey August 24, 2011, written commun.). Because the bedrock outcrops trend northeast-southwest, 

with basin fill between the ridges, the lineament-density pattern follows a similar trend. Water wells in 

bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of highly fractured 

bedrock. Areas where lineament density is high (figs. 6C–8, 6C-9a, and 6C–9b) potentially are areas 

where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an 

indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. 

Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a 

high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including 

those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and additional data

to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones.

Many of the lineaments shown in figures 6C–8 and 6C–9 were observed during low-altitude field 

reconnaissance flights over the region. These features are important in that they may indicate zones of 

relatively greater well yields and greater storage in the bedrock aquifer that may provide water for 

limited use, such as local drinking water. A lineament observed from the ground during field 

reconnaissance (fig. 6C–10) was identified in ASTER lineament analysis (fig. 6C–9a,b), but its scale 

was too small for the DEM analysis (fig. 6C–8). The predominant fracture pattern in the bedrock 

underlying this lineament strikes north-south, roughly parallel to the lineament, which supports the 

premise that this feature is fracture-controlled. It is possible that this lineament represents a potential 

bedrock fracture zone that may transmit groundwater to the area of the village that can be seen in the 

distance in figure 6C–3.

6C.3 Summary and Conclusions

Little surface water is present in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest (AOI) in 

western Afghanistan, with the exception of the Adraskan River in the eastern area of the AOI. 

Groundwater is present either in limited quantities in shallow alluvial aquifers or in larger quantities in 

deeper alluvial or conglomerate sediments and rock aquifers in the larger basins. Limited seasonal 

recharge to the shallow aquifers probably occurs during winter and spring months, and the capacity of 

the shallow aquifers to supply large quantities of water likely is low. Much of the AOI, particularly the 

northern and western areas, is in headwaters drainage areas. It is likely that withdrawals from deep 

aquifers would be relatively old water with a long residence time and may contain high concentrations 

of dissolved solids. The quality of the water in both shallow and deep aquifers is of concern as a result 

of reports of saline conditions in and just south of the AOI.
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 445

a 
446 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 6C–9. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the 

Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter 

multispectral Landsat imagery in the Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest in western Afghanistan.
Chapter 6C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Dusar-Shaida Copper and Tin Area of Interest 447

Figure 6C–10. Photograph showing a north-south-trending lineament observed from the ground in the 

Dusar-Shaida copper and tin area of interest, Shaida subarea, in western Afghanistan (August 2010). 

Some areas of the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, 

are likely areas for further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water 

resources in the AOI remain to be determined, however. Careful evaluation and management of 

potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality 

of the existing supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, 

geophysical surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and 

availability of groundwater resources in the AOI. 

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