Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan 

Copper and Gold Area of Interest

By Michael P. Chornack and Thomas J. Mack

15C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest (AOI) 

in Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007). The AOI is located in Ghazni Province in Muqur, 

Jaghuri, Qarabagh, Ab Band, and Gelan Districts (fig. 15C–1a,b). The AOI is located between the 

Arghandab River on the northwest and the Tarnak River on the southeast. The settlement of Moqur 

(Muqur), on the banks of the Tarnak River, is the closest large settlement and is about 6 km (kilometers)

southeast of the Zarkashan mine subarea. The AOI is mountainous with a prominent northeast–

southwest-trending fault-controlled fabric (Sawyer and Stoeser, 2005). 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

available are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available for the AOI and surrounding areas. Geohydrologic 

inferences are made on the basis of an integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of 

conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

15C.1.1 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is based on data generated for the 

Afghanistan agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005-2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1207

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

a 
1208 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 15C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.

There are two Agromet stations in Ghazni Province for which precipitation and temperature data 

are available for the 2009–2010 agricultural season (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1209

2010). These stations are reported as being in the southeastern agricultural-meteorological region of 

Afghanistan. The closest Agromet station to the AOI is in the town of Moqur (fig. 15C–1a,b) and the 

other station is in Ghazni, about 90 km northeast of the AOI. Precipitation and temperature data for the 

Agromet station in Ghazni are presented in table 15C-1. The total rainfall recorded at the Moqur 

Agromet station for the 2009–2010 agricultural season was 174.5 mm (millimeters). The long-term 

average for this station is 391.6 mm. The Ghazni Agromet station (table 15C-1) recorded 218.3 mm of 

rainfall for the 2009–2010 season and has a long-term average of 308 mm (Ministry of Agriculture, 

Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). The highest monthly precipitation at both stations was for February 

2010—38 mm at Moqur and 60.1 mm at Ghazni. No rainfall was recorded at either station during 

September and October 2009. Precipitation at both stations was less than 0.6 mm during the months of 

April, June, and July 2010. Rainfall was recorded at both stations in the month of August 2010—33 mm 

at Moqur and 22.8 mm at Ghazni. The Agromet station at Ghazni also received 34 mm of precipitation 

in July 2010. According to the Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 

2010), “The Southeast region experienced heavy rainfall during the (2009-2010) rainfall season 

especially during the monsoon season.” 

Snow was recorded at Moqur only 1 day during the 2009-2010 water year, and that was in 

December 2009. The settlement of Moqur is at an elevation of approximately 2,000 m (meters) above

sea level (asl), and much of the AOI is more than 2,500 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a). The Afghanistan 

snow-depth maps for 17 January, 2010, and 30 September, 2010 (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock, 2010), show 2 to 30 cm (centimeters) of snow in the AOI in January 2010 and less than 2 cm 

in September 2010.

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if it had not been modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued 

exploitation such as grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found 

only in a few remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the

degradation and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting 

desertification caused by human activity.

The “Map of potential natural vegetation” in Breckle (2007, fig. 2) shows three vegetation zones 

within the AOI. The vegetation zones are controlled by elevation, climate, and amount of soil 

development. The lower elevations are occupied by Pistacia atlantica woodlands, which give way to 

Amygdalus woodlands at higher elevations. The vegetation type on the upper slopes and ridge tops is 

“thorny cushions, subalpine and alpine semi deserts and meadows” (Breckle, 2007). Much of the upland 

areas above 2,400 m asl is barren outcrop and talus slopes. Irrigated fields, orchards, and pastures are 

present in many of the valleys in the AOI (fig. 15C–2). Much of the native tree cover probably has been 

removed, especially near villages and farming areas.

15C.1.2 Demographics

The population density of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI as mapped by LandScan (Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) is shown in figure 15C–3 with a pixel resolution of about 1 km2

(square kilometer). Several areas in the AOI have a population density greater than 500/km2, particularly 

the valley that forms the Bolo Gold Prospect and Luman Tamaki Gold subareas. Some areas of this 

valley near streams have a population density of about 1,500/km2

. Several pixels in the Zarkashan mine 

subarea have a LandScan estimated population greater than 500/km2; however, most of this subarea has 

a population density of 0 to less than 50/km2. Most of the AOI, outside the subareas and away from 

streams, is very sparsely populated, with densities generally less than 25/km2. The mountainous areas in 

the AOI are uninhabited.
1210 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Table 15C–1. Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term average minimum and maximum precipitation and temperature at the Ghazni 

Agrometeorological (Agromet) station 40 km northwest of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest, Afghanistan. 

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius]

Precipitation Temperature

1 1 Long-term average Long-term average Distance Agromet Elevation 2009–10 from AOI 

station (m) annual Monthly minimum Monthly maximum Minimum and Monthly Maximum and center (km) Annual (mm) (mm) ° ° and month (mm) and month (mm) month (°C) mean ( C) month ( C)

Ghazni 40 3,200 218.3 308 0.2 63.8 –7.2 7.3 23.3

September April January July

1

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1211

Figure 15C–2. Historical streamgage locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in the 

Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.

Moqur, the district center for Muqur District, is located about 6 km southeast of the Zarkashan 

mine subarea in the AOI (fig. 15C–1a,b). Extensive agricultural development is present in Moqur and 
1212 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

adjacent to the Tarnak River. There are many small settlements and farms within the AOI that are 

located at or near perennial water sources. Aerial images observed using Google Earth show that 

villages along the southeast border of the AOI utilize karezes (traditional hand-dug water tunnels) and, 

most likely, shallow dug wells. The valley that roughly parallels the northwest border of the AOI 

contains many settlements (fig. 15C–3) and has considerable irrigated area (fig. 15C–2). According to 

the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Sub-Office Central Region District 

Profiles (Afghanistan Information Management Service, 2002a, 2002b), there are high schools and 

primary schools in this valley. The settlement of Moqur is located on Highway 1 (the Afghanistan Ring 

Road) (fig. 15C–1), which is the primary paved road that connects Kabul with Kandahar. All the other 

roads within the AOI are mapped as “tracks” (Afghanistan Information Management Service, 2004). 

15C.1.3 Topography and Geomorphology

The topography of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is dominated by the northeast-southwest -

trending Tarnak River valley and a similarly trending valley that is roughly parallel to the northwest 

border of the AOI (fig. 15C–1a). A prominent ridge separates the two valleys. The ridge is about 60 km 

long with some peaks that are higher than 3,000 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a). The ridge slopes are 

dissected by ephemeral streams. The longest valleys are linear, trend northeast, and appear to be fault 

controlled (Davis, 2006). There are some linear, northwest-trending valleys that could also be fault 

controlled. 

The geomorphology of the AOI is dominated by structurally controlled fluvial processes and the 

weathering characteristics of the bedrock outcrops. There are large deposits of undifferentiated sands 

and loess and fine sediments along the southeast border of the AOI that extend from the ridge fronts to 

the floor of the Tarnak River valley to the southeast (fig. 15C–4). These deposits are cut by active 

drainage channels. The Rusanah River and an unnamed ephemeral tributary drain the Bolo Gold 

Prospect subarea and the western slopes of the Zarkashan mine subarea (fig. 15C–1b). This drainage has 

produced a very large deposit of sands where it discharges from the mountains. Several karezes have 

been constructed in this alluvial fan. 

The northeast-trending valley that transects the AOI is bordered by limestones and dolostones on 

the southeast and intrusive rocks and lavas on the northwest. Much of the valley is located at the contact 

between these two rock types. The range fronts on the southeast side of the valley in the sedimentary 

rocks are steep. The slope on the northwest side where the intrusive rocks crop out is more weathered 

with some alluvial cover. The maximum width of the valley in the Bolo Gold Prospect subarea is about 

3 km. The width of the valley decreases to the northeast and southwest, but still has areas wide enough 

for farming settlements with irrigated fields (fig. 15C–2).

15C.2 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is in the “Argandab (Arghandab) Hydrogeological Massif situated in 

the south-eastern part of the Helmand-Argandab Uplift and is bounded by the Mukur-Tarnak Rode 

(River) Fault on the south-east and a fault system on the northwest. The massif comprises Proterozoic 

metamorphics, Palaeozoic-Mesozoic sedimentary formations, and intrusive rocks of various ages.” 

The outcrops and near-surface rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and 

hydraulic properties. The generalized geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 15C–4 with the 

underlying topography to allow examination of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figures 15C–5 

a and b show the generalized geohydrology without topography for a clearer depiction of the 

geohydrologic units. Wells present in the map area (discussed in the Groundwater section) are shown in 

figures 15C–5a and b. Generalized geohydrologic groups were created from a country-wide geologic 

coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and rocks into major sediment- or rock-
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1213

type groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic groups in or near the AOI, ranked 

from high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, table 2.3), are “river channel; 

sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments and rocks; loess and fine sediments; limestones and 

dolostones; sedimentary rocks; metamorphic rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 15C–4 and

15C–5a). Doebrich and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian 

and Afghan Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 

1:250,000-scale geologic map that covers this AOI is provided by Sawyer and Stoeser (2005). 

Figure 15C–3. Population density of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
1214 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology in the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest in 

southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1215

a 
1216 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 15C–5. (a ) Generalized geohydrology, mapped faults, well locations, and depth to water, and (b)

geohydrology and height of static water in well casings in community supply wells in the Zarkashan copper and gold

area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1217

The unconsolidated units constitute the alluvial deposits along the southeast border of the AOI 

and in the valley that transects the middle of the AOI (figs. 15C–4 and 15C–5a,b). The consolidated 

rocks include sedimentary rocks; limestones and dolostones; metamorphic rocks; and intrusive rocks and 

lavas. This grouping also reflects the type and amount of porosity in these geohydrologic groups. The 

sedimentary rocks group (detrital sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and conglomerate) and the 

limestones and dolostones group both have interstitial porosity. Both these groups can also have 

secondary fracture porosity, which can be very large in limestone solution cavities (caverns). The 

sedimentary rocks group and the limestones and dolostones group are potential aquifers in the AOI.

These rocks crop out in a northeast-trending linear pattern through the middle of the AOI (fig. 15C–4).

Rocks in the intrusive rocks and lavas group generally have minimal matrix (interstitial) 

porosity. The porosity in this group is a result of secondary fracturing resulting from either cooling or 

tectonic activity. In the absence of fractures, the porosity of intrusive rocks such as granites is low. The 

presence of faults and associated fracture zones can increase the hydraulic conductivity of intrusive 

rocks and lavas. The metamorphic rocks have low matrix porosity but, depending on the degree of 

metamorphism, interstitial voids may still exist in the rock. The movement of fluids through connected 

pore spaces in metamorphic rocks could be preferentially oriented parallel to bedding. The fracture 

porosity in metamorphic rocks can result from compaction foliation and be preferentially oriented along 

bedding. Secondary fracture porosity in metamorphic rocks can also be the result of tectonic activity.

Near faults and associated fracture zones, the porosity could be significant. The intrusive rocks are 

present on the northwest edge of the AOI and there is an isolated outcrop intruded into the limestone in 

the Zarkashan mine subarea (fig. 15C–4). The metamorphic rocks are confined to the western corner of 

the AOI.

Structurally, the AOI is within the Chaman Fault System (Ruleman and others, 2007), 

specifically the Mokur (Moqur) fault splay. The primary sense of displacement on the Chaman Fault 

System is left-lateral strike slip. The Mokur fault shows evidence of Quaternary activity and has 

northeast-trending, continuous, linear fault scarps on piedmont and intra-basin alluvium of the Tarnak 

River valley (fig. 15C–5a). Northwest of the main fault trace, older, discontinuous scarps are present 

along the range front, suggesting southeast-verging thrust-fault activity along this fault system (Ruleman 

and others, 2007). The proximity of the Mokur fault, especially with Quaternary activity, could increase 

the number of tectonically induced fractures in the AOI. 

15C.2.1 Surface Water

A network of major, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan Information 

Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), is shown in 

figure 15C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, generated with a digital elevation 

model (DEM), is shown in figure 15C–2. The Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is between the Tarnak 

and Arghandab Rivers and, although there are no perennial streams in the AOI, there are some large 

ephemeral streams (figs. 15C–1b and 15C–2). Historical streamgage data are available for two 

streamgage stations in the vicinity of the AOI (Williams-Sether, 2008). The streamgage station on the 

Arghandab River at Sang-i-Masha (Afghan identification number 4-1.L00.9A) is about 12 km northwest 

of the northeast corner of the Bolo Gold Prospect subarea (table 15C-2, fig. 15C–2). This station is at an 

elevation of 2,303 m asl, has a drainage area of 2,155 km2

, and has a period of record that extends from 

22 June, 1969, to 30 September, 1980 (Williams-Sether, 2008). The annual mean streamflow for the 

period of record was 8.89 m3

/s (cubic meters per second), with a standard deviation of 3.33 m3/s. The 

annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0041 m3/s/km2 (cubic meters per second per 

square kilometer). The month with the highest annual mean streamflow was April, with 29.3 m3/s, and 

the month with the lowest annual mean streamflow was September, with 3.98 m3/s. The Arghandab 

River above the streamgage station at Sang-i-Masha drains a very mountainous region, with peaks 

higher than 3,500 m asl and a few peaks higher than 4,000 m asl (Bohannon, 2005a,b). Precipitation in 

this area is probably similar to that in other mountainous regions in Afghanistan, with most precipitation 
1218 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

falling as snow during the winter season (Breckle, 2007). The seasonal melting and runoff account for 

the increase in streamflow during the months of March, April, and May (Williams-Sether, 2008).

Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all available historical gages in Afghanistan can be 

accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php.

The station on the Tarnak River near Shahjuy (Afghan identification number 4-1.21R-7A) is 

about 40 km southwest of the district center of Moqur (table 15C-3). This station is at an elevation of 

1,043 m asl, has a drainage area of 8,120 km2, and was in service from 19 February, 1969, to 30 

September, 1980. The annual mean streamflow for the period of record was 1.35 m3

/s, with a standard 

deviation of 0.38 m3/s. The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.0002 m3/s/km2. 

The month with the highest annual mean streamflow during the period of record was March, with 

2.36 m3/s, and the month with the lowest annual mean streamflow was September, with 0.75 m3/s. The 

highest maximum monthly mean streamflow was 5.90 m3/s, in March 1980. The lowest minimum 

monthly mean streamflow was 0.407 m3

/s, in December 1974. The headwaters of the Tarnak River 

consist of a number of small streams that begin as streamflow from the alluvial valley-fill sediments 

north of Moqur. Several small tributary streams join the Tarnak River along its course, and runoff from 

irrigated fields probably contributes some flow as well. Seasonal runoff from the higher elevations in the 

AOI would increase the flow in the Tarnak River, as evidenced by the occurrence of the highest flows in 

March (table 15C–3), and provide recharge to the shallow alluvial aquifer. 

An ephemeral stream with several tributaries flows through the northeast-trending valley that 

transects the AOI (fig. 15C–2). These ephemeral streams probably flow during the spring snow melt.

The amount of vegetation and number of buildings visible in aerial images along these ephemeral 

streams indicate that runoff and recharge events are of sufficient volume and duration to provide 

adequate water resources for irrigation and domestic supply. The presence of incised drainage channels 

on the largest alluvial fans on the southeast side of the AOI are evidence that flow occasionally occurs.

No springs are identified in the AOI by VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995) (fig. 

15C–2), but some springs probably are present in some areas of the AOI, such as downgradient from 

lineaments.

Streamflow statistics were estimated for selected ungaged streams that may be prominent in the 

AOI or subareas to provide some probable estimates of flow for these locations. Streamflow statistics, 

presented in appendix 2, were calculated for points S11, S12, and S13 (figs. 15C–1b and 15C–2) using a

drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and Mack, 2011) based on historical flows at the Syahgel River at 

Syahgel (Afghan identification number 3-5R00-3T). The Syahgel River at Syahgel streamgage station is 

located about 90 km northeast of the center of the AOI and was selected as the most representative 

historical gage, based on drainage-basin size and location, for use with this method at this location. Point 

S11 is on the Rusanah River in the AOI. The other two points are also on ephemeral streams. The 

estimated mean annual streamflow for point S11 (app. 2), with a drainage area of 105 km2

, is about 

0.13 m3

/s. By applying the same method, the estimated mean annual streamflow for points S12 and S13 

is 0.21 and 0.41 m3

/s, respectively. The seasonal timing of maximum and minimum monthly 

streamflows, with high flows in the mid to late spring and low flows in late fall and winter, probably is 

similar to that at the Syahgel River at Syahgel station (app. 2).

15C.2.2 Groundwater

The groundwater resources in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI are not well defined at this 

time. The agricultural development in the stream valleys and on the alluvial fans indicates that the 

shallow groundwater resources are sufficient for irrigation and domestic consumption. Vegetation 

lineaments and some very small farming areas are located in ephemeral stream valleys mapped as 

bedrock outcrops. There is minimal alluvial cover in these areas; therefore, it is likely that the shallow 

alluvial aquifer has some limited storage capacity. Recharge to these areas probably consists of 

infiltration with a minor component of discharge from the bedrock.
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1219

Table 15C–2. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Arghandab River above Sangi-Masha streamgage station. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

Month

Maximum Minimum Mean

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standard Coefficient 

deviation of

3 (m /s) variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

8.92

10.4

10.3

9.54

10.2

20.2

59.4

58.9

10.1

17.0

11.6

7.50

15.1

1980

1980

1980

1980

1980

1973

1980

1976

1980

1976

1976

1976

1980

2.59

3.77

4.25

3.78

3.84

5.54

5.97

2.11

0.775

0.632

1.80

1.15

3.16

1972

1972

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

1971

4.90

6.12

6.10

5.87

6.15

12.0

29.3

15.3

5.57

6.33

4.95

3.98

8.89

1.80

2.19

1.84

1.80

1.89

4.41

15.4

9.30

3.09

5.34

2.99

1.93

3.33

0.37

0.36

0.30

0.31

0.31

0.37

0.53

0.61

0.56

0.84

0.60

0.48

0.37

4.60

5.74

5.72

5.51

5.77

11.2

27.5

14.3

5.23

5.95

4.65

3.73

100

Table 15C–3. Statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Tarnak River near Shahjuy 

streamgage station. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

Month

Maximum Minimum Mean

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standard Coefficient 

deviation of

3 (m /s) variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

1.24

2.20

2.14

2.81

3.61

5.90

3.76

2.69

1.75

3.75

2.60

1.26

1.88

1980

1970

1970

1972

1979

1980

1972

1976

1976

1978

1978

1976

1976

0.500

0.484

0.407

0.413

0.486

1.08

0.883

0.660

0.527

0.522

0.573

0.471

0.676

1974

1974

1974

1974

1974

1969

1978

1978

1975

1971

1972

1977

1974

0.79

1.16

1.36

1.50

1.90

2.36

1.90

1.22

0.82

1.07

1.19

0.75

1.35

0.20

0.42

0.50

0.67

0.94

1.32

0.98

0.67

0.38

0.92

0.73

0.26

0.38

0.25

0.36

0.37

0.44

0.50

0.56

0.52

0.55

0.46

0.86

0.61

0.34

0.28

4.94

7.24

8.48 

9.39

11.9

14.7

11.8

7.58

5.13

6.71

7.45

4.68

100

Thirty-eight shallow community groundwater-supply wells have been installed in the AOI by 

NGOs. Information about these wells can be found in a database maintained by the Danish Committee 

for Aid to Afghan Refugees (DACAAR) (2011). Many additional wells are present in the Moqur area in 

the Tarnak River valley southeast of the AOI (fig. 15C–5a). Well-depth and static-water-level 

information is available for most of the wells in this database. Available well-construction information is 
1220 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

limited; however, most wells are “tube” wells (driven wells with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) casing) or 

dug wells with concrete-ring casing. Wells are generally installed in unconsolidated sediments, 

completed a few meters below the depth at which water was first encountered, and equipped with a hand 

pump. The depth to water in most wells was less than 15 m; the median was 11 m. The wells in the AOI 

are shallow, with a median depth of 15 m. One well is 37 m deep; all others are less than 24 m deep. The 

water level in the deepest (37-m-deep) well also was deep (35 m). Figure 15C–5b shows the height of 

static water in the casings of the water-supply wells (well depth minus static depth to water). The 

median height of static water in well casings in the AOI was 1.5 m. Wells such as these, with little static 

water, were found to be vulnerable to seasonal water-level fluctuations and becoming dry for extended 

periods of time, or even permanently, in areas of the Kabul Basin where groundwater withdrawals are 

increasing (Mack and others, 2010). 

Many of the wells in the AOI are located in the sands, undifferentiated group. The wells that are 

located in areas mapped as bedrock are probably actually in unconsolidated sediments that overlie the 

bedrock, such as where there are concentrations of wells along the streams in areas mapped as bedrock 

outcrops (fig 15C–5a). The typical drilling method used in the area (driven or dug wells) cannot 

penetrate large thicknesses of consolidated rock. The bedrock outcrops in the AOI that have no or very 

thin alluvial cover generally are very sparsely or not inhabited (fig. 15C–3). The alluvial-sediment-filled 

valley in the center of the AOI has an area of about 40 km2

. The depth to water in the community supply 

wells in the valley generally ranges from 5 to less than 15 m (fig. 15C–5a). 

There are no groundwater monitoring wells (GWMs) in the AOI (fig. 15C–5a); however, GWM 

7, monitored by DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees, 2011) for groundwater 

levels and specific conductance, is about 45 km northeast of Moqur in the Tarnak River flood plain in a 

similar geohydrologic setting. Hydrographs of water levels, provided by DACAAR, are shown in 

appendix 3. The hydrographs show the date in week number and year, groundwater specific conductance

in microsiemens per centimeter at 25°C (μS/cm), and depth to water in meters below ground surface 

(bgs). The well is 56 m deep with an average water level of 4.8 m bgs. The water-level hydrograph 

shows distinct peaks that represent annual water-level highs and lows. The highs generally occur during 

the spring and summer, which probably are times of flow and recharge in the ephemeral stream. The 

maximum water level was 3.8 m bgs in June 2006. The water-level lows occur during the winter 

months. The minimum water level was about 6.6 m bgs in December 2007 and January 2009. A general 

water-level decline in the well during the period of record can be seen. This decline could represent the 

effects of groundwater withdrawals or variations in precipitation and (or) potential recharge. The 

average specific conductance is 544 μS/cm. No lithostratigraphic information is reported for this well, 

but the well is located on an alluvial fan approximately 350 m from the center of an ephemeral stream 

channel. The geology of this area (Sawyer and Stoeser, 2005) consists of loess and fine sediments that 

probably are underlain by gravel and sand. Aerial images of this area viewed using Google Earth show a 

number of karezes with irrigation canals located in the ephemeral stream near this well. 

Geophysical surveys (direct-current (DC) resistivity) conducted by German and Afghan teams in 

the early 1960s (Homilius, 1968, 1969) were used to investigate valley-fill deposits in the western side 

of the Zarkashan mine subarea (fig. 15C–1b). DC resistivity lines indicated sediment thicknesses of 

about 30 m at the head of the valley in an area about 1 km wide. Test drilling toward the center of the 

valley on the western side of the Zarkashan mine subarea, where the valley is several kilometers wide, 

indicates sediment thicknesses of 400 m. This valley is small compared to the Bolo Gold Prospect 

subarea valley, and it is likely that sediment thicknesses are more than 400 m in the Bolo subarea. The 

DC resistivity soundings identified areas of coarse-grained, saturated sediments in the Zarkashan mine

subarea. It is possible that similar sediments in the AOI would serve as aquifers with favorable 

transmissivity and storage. 

There are two U.S. government-drilled water-supply wells in the province center of Ghazni, 

about 60 km northeast of the AOI, which were the closest deep wells to the AOI known to this 

investigation. The wells were completed in unconsolidated basin-fill sediments. The wells were at 
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1221

depths of 111 and 124 m bgs with static water levels of about 45.5 m bgs. The static water level in the 

wells is about 45 m above the top of the well screen. The wells are located in the Ghazni River valley, 

where hydrogeologic conditions are similar to those in the Tarnak River valley (Sawyer and Stoeser, 

2005). It is possible that an aquifer with similar characteristics extends to the southwest beneath the 

Tarnak River valley adjacent to the AOI. If so, this aquifer could represent a substantial groundwater 

source that might support additional withdrawals with minimal impact on local water resources. Because 

precipitation rates in the area are low, however, it is likely that deep groundwater is old water that is

recharged very slowly. Wells would need to be sited to avoid interference with existing water-supply 

wells and other natural or manmade water sources, such as springs and karezes. Well drilling and 

hydraulic testing would help to adequately characterize the hydrologic properties of this deep aquifer. 

15C.2.3 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Zarkashan copper and gold AOI (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011) 

were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 15C–6) and Advanced Spaceborne 

Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig. 15C–7a,b). Lineament 

identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for identifying areas in 

carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found (Lattman and 

Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to identify areas of 

high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock (Mabee, 1999; Moore 

and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 15C–6 were delineated visually, whereas those in 

figure 15C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the multispectral 

characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, unpub. data, 2011). 

Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are most productive where boreholes are located in areas of 

highly fractured bedrock. Areas where lineament density is high (figs. 15C–6 and 15C–7a,b) potentially 

are areas where bedrock fractures are more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide 

an indication of areas that warrant further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. 

Lineaments may also indicate areas of preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a 

high density of lineaments may indicate high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including 

those presented in this investigation, need to be corroborated by field investigations and additional data 

to confirm the nature of the lineaments and their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones. 

The northeasterly trend of the lineaments in the AOI (figs. 15C-6 and 15C-7a,b) reflects the 

geologic structure of the AOI (fig. 15C–4), and many lineaments are probably caused by bedding-plane 

weaknesses. Bedrock water wells installed near or in line with such features may have greater yields 

than wells in other areas. Where lineaments intersect, there may be an increased potential for enhanced 

transmissivity. Different lineament densities were found with the different platforms used (figs. 15C–6 

and 15C–7a,b); however, the lineament density in the Luman Tamaki Gold subarea generally was 

greater than that in other areas of the AOI.

15C.3 Summary and Conclusions

The Arghandab River is located just outside the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest 

(AOI) to the northwest, and is the largest perennial stream near the AOI. There are no perennial and few 

ephemeral streams in the AOI. Estimated mean annual streamflow for three points on ephemeral streams 

in the AOI ranged from 0.13 to 0.41 m3

/s (cubic meters per second). The flow in the ephemeral streams 

is probably an important source of recharge to the shallow alluvial aquifers in the stream valleys. As 

with all surface water in Afghanistan, close monitoring of any additional diversion and use would help 

to prevent overuse and degradation of this resource. 
1222 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and 

natural-color Landsat imagery in the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1223

a 
1224 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

b 

Figure 15C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery, and 

(b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the Zarkashan copper

and gold area of interest in southeastern Afghanistan.
Chapter 15C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1225

Although there are few (38) community supply wells installed by nongovernmental 

organizations in the AOI, there are many more in the settlement of Moqur and in the Tarnak River 

valley southeast of the AOI. The wells are located in alluvium and are generally tube or dug wells, less 

than 24 m (meters) deep, with hand pumps that are used to withdraw water for domestic consumption.

The shallow groundwater is probably recharged by seasonal flow in the Tarnak River and in the 

ephemeral streams. The supply wells in the AOI are generally concentrated along ephemeral streams.

The water supply to these wells is also probably recharged by seasonal flow in the streams. The amount 

of water available in these areas depends on the thickness and areal extent of the alluvial deposits. In 

some valleys these sediments may be more than 400 m thick and may represent areas of considerable 

stored groundwater; however, the quality and sustainability of this resource are unknown.

Information about deep (greater than 100 m) groundwater in the AOI is very limited. The two 

deep water-supply wells located in Ghazni, in a setting similar to the Tarnak River valley, indicate that a 

deep alluvial aquifer is present in that area. It is possible that this aquifer may extend to the Tarnak River 

valley and may provide a groundwater resource adjacent to the AOI. Properly constructed wells in the 

deeper alluvial aquifer may have the potential to supply water for mining activities; however, because 

precipitation rates in the area are low, it is likely that deep groundwater is old water that is recharged 

very slowly. Wells would need to be sited to avoid interference with existing water-supply wells and 

other natural or manmade water sources such as springs and karezes. There is probably groundwater in 

the underlying fractured consolidated rocks in the AOI; however, the characteristics of this resource are 

unknown.

Some areas of the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, 

are likely areas for further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water 

resources in the AOI remain to be determined, however. Close monitoring and careful management of 

potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality 

of the existing supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, 

geophysical surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and 

availability of groundwater resources in the AOI.

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