Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold 

Area of Interest

Contribution by Stephen G. Peters, Said H. Mirzad, Emily Scott, and Bernard E. Hubbard

Abstract

There are several copper and gold mineral occurrences in the Zarkashan copper and gold area of 

interest (AOI) in Ghazni Province. Two main study areas are the Bolo gold subarea and the Zarkashan 

mine subarea. In addition, the Luman-Tamaki gold subarea contains numerous gold prospects. All 

prospects and the general AOI require detailed mapping and sampling to determine the size and tenor of 

economic resources at today’s gold and copper prices. Sampling by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

and the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations during fiscal year 

2010 have substantiated much of the previous Soviet sampling and mapping results and confirmed the 

presence of copper and gold in concentrations, which indicate that further in-depth evaluation (including 

geophysics and drilling) would be beneficial. Furthermore, hyperspectral and Advanced Spaceborne 

Thermal Emission and Reflection (ASTER) radiometer imagery anomalies, newly generated by the 

USGS, suggest that the distribution of the copper and gold may be extensive and these anomalous zones 

may define a number of medium- to large-size gold- and copper-rich orebodies that crop out at the 

surface.

The importance of free gold, identified in many samples, cannot be overemphasized because of 

widespread distribution of diopside hornfels and (or) skarn in the area and because of the coincidence of 

these rock types with the hyperspectral anomalies. The gold-rich rocks may be distributed over large 

areas that could be bulk mined, and the gold ores would be readily amenable to heap leaching using 

cyanide leach techniques because the bulk of the gold is not refractory. 

The Zarkashan potential copper-gold deposits also would be amenable, during early stages of 

resource development, to simple metallurgical techniques, such as gravity separation, and this would 

result in short lead times and short payback periods for mining of small- to medium-size gold-copper ore 

bodies. Initial mining could develop into larger-scale mining owing to the significant future potential of 

the development of larger orebodies. The area requires additional extensive sampling, compilation, and 

ground and airborne geophysics as well as drilling and trenching to further outline and test its potential 

to develop into multiple areas of porphyry copper, large tonnage open pit mines. 

15A.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes and interprets results for the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest 

(AOI) and subareas that result from joint geologic and compilation activities conducted from 2009 

through 2011 between the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force 

for Business and Stability Operations (TFBSO), and the Afghanistan Geological Survey (AGS). 

Accompanying complementary chapters 15B and 15C address hyperspectral data and geohydrologic 

assessments respectively of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI. Additionally, supporting data for this 

chapter are available from the Afghanistan Geological Survey Data Center in Kabul and include an

inventory of individual datasets compiled for the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI and its subareas; the 

inventory specifies the data that have been compiled.

The Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is located in Ghazni Province in southeastern Afghanistan 

and includes parts of the Ab-Band, Arghandab, Gelan, Glarabaghn, Jaghuri, and Mokur administrative 

districts. The area of the main AOI is 1,692 square kilometers (km2

). The three subareas—Luman-
1114 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Tamaki gold subarea (356 km2), Bolo gold subarea (313 km2), and Zarkashan mine subarea (214 km2)—

are designated as specific prospect areas with a high potential for the presence of commercial 

mineralized rock (fig. 15A–1).

Figure 15A–1. Location of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest (yellow) and the three subareas, 

Luman-Tamaki gold subarea (red), Bolo gold subarea (black), and Zarkashan mine subarea (green).

Mineral deposit types that may be present in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI are large 

porphyry copper-gold, and medium-size copper-(gold) skarn, polymetallic vein, iron skarn, and leadzinc skarn deposits. In addition, placer gold and some tin and tungsten skarn occurrences also are known 

to be present in the area.

Most existing mineral resource information has been gathered from reports written between the 

early 1950s and 1985 by geologists from the former Soviet Union who provided Afghanistan with 

technical assistance. This previous information, combined with a preliminary assessment by the USGS 

in 2007 (Peters and others, 2007), provided much of the factual basis for the technical work during the 

2009 through 2011 scoping mission. The Zarkashan AOI and subareas also were thought to be likely to 

develop near-term mineral production. In addition, some deposits in the AOI are near-surface bodies 

with promising metallurgical and mining characteristics.

15A.2 Previous Work

The Zarkashan mine subarea, also called the Mokur gold district, as well as a number of other 

prospects, have older workings, slag piles, and mill stones that indicate mineral exploitation for copper 

and gold has been taking place in the area for a long time. The gold placer deposits were described by 

Homilius (1968, 1970). Early Soviet geological expeditions reported on the gold and copper 

mineralization in the area (Afghanistan Geological and Mineral Survey, 1967; Khananov and others, 

1967; Douvgal and others, 1971; Kononykhin and others, 1971; Kovalenko and others, 1971, 

Borozenets, 1972). Results of detailed prospecting and sampling and descriptions of many of the 

individual prospects is given by Meshcheryakov and Borozenets (1970), and Kotov and others (1971). 

Furthermore, USGS remote sensing work in the region that covers part of the Zarkashan copper and 

gold AOI was summarized by Sweeney and others (2006; fig. 15A–2), and by Mars and Rowan (2007). 

Compendiums were assembled by Abdullah and others (1977), United Nations Economic and Social 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1115

Commission for Asia and the Pacific (1995), Metal Mining Agency of Japan (1998), Orris and Bliss 

(2002), Doebrich and others (2006), Ludington and others (2007), and Peters and others (2007) 

(fig. 15A–3). 

A scoping mission was undertaken in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI on April 18 and 21, 

2010, by the USGS and the TFBSO. The landing plan called for visits to the Dynamite (Dynamic), 

Zardak, and Zarkashan areas in the main Zarkashan mine subarea and to the Belaw, Bolo, and Utkul 

prospects in the Bolo gold subarea (figs. 15A–1, 15A–2, and 15A–4); all the target areas were visited.

The Zardak and Zarkashan areas proved to be well-mineralized in copper and gold, and subsequent 

analysis of the samples taken confirmed this. The Dynamite area had a different geologic setting than 

the main Zarkashan mine subarea. The Bolo and Utkul gold prospects were sampled by stream-sediment 

samples, but the samples taken were from prospective horizons in the streambed and were not 

representative. In addition to the confirmation of copper and gold at the Zardak and Zarkashan 

prospects, sampling and mapping during the scoping mission indicated that large areas of hornfels and 

contact zones around the main Zarkashan intrusion may contain ore-grade copper and gold, which were 

not sampled or considered by the previous Soviet studies (U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for 

Business and Stability Operations, 2010). 

15A.3 Metallogeny

Porphyry copper and copper-gold deposits are an extremely important source of copper and gold 

worldwide and are located in plutonic rocks in magmatic arcs in North and South America, Europe, 

Asia, the southwestern Pacific Ocean, and several other continents. The Tethyan arcs, stretching from 

the Carpathian Mountains of southern and eastern Europe through East Asia, are the setting for 

numerous important porphyry copper and copper-gold deposits to the west (Sar Chesmeh, Iran), south 

(Reqo Diq, Pakistan), and east (Yulong, Tibet) of Afghanistan (Doebrich and others, 2007). Several 

known copper-bearing occurrences in Afghanistan, including Zarkashan, have measured or indicated

copper and gold resources, including the Gbarghey copper skarn [about 70 kilometers (km) northnortheast of Kandahar], the Kundalan copper and gold deposits (about 125 km northeast of Kandahar),

and the Shaida copper deposit (about 75 km southwest of Herat) (Abdullah and others, 1977). Regional 

metallogenesis for porphyry copper and copper-and-gold deposits was summarized by Doebrich and 

others (2007) who suggested that Triassic, Cretaceous, and Paleocene to Miocene intrusive and volcanic 

rocks represent areas where porphyry copper and copper-and-gold deposits may exist in Tethyan 

magmatic arcs in Afghanistan. A synthesis of geologic, mineral deposit, aerogeophysical, remote 

sensing, and geochemical data for delineated regions permissive for undiscovered porphyry copper 

deposits is presented in Peters and others (2007). Ludington and others (2007) indicated that the 

Kundalan, Makran arc, and Zarkashan regions had the highest potential for undiscovered porphyry 

copper and copper-and-gold deposits. Concealed segments of magmatic arcs in southern Afghanistan, 

delineated by aeromagnetic data, also represent prospective targets for exploration. 

Mineral deposits related to felsic to intermediate porphyritic igneous rocks in Afghanistan 

include porphyry copper and associated deposits, such as polymetallic skarns and veins and gold-bearing 

parts of the same systems. The Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is one of a number of areas in 

Afghanistan that contain mineral occurrences and geologic features that show promise for future 

discovery and exploitation of these types of large deposits. About 200 igneous-related hydrothermal 

mineral deposits and occurrences in Afghanistan contain copper as a major commodity. The majority of 

these are classified as copper skarn (about 50 prospects) and polymetallic vein (about 70 prospects) 

deposits (Abdullah and others, 1977; Orris and Bliss, 2002; Doebrich and others, 2006). These deposit 

types typically are associated with and are present in the same geologic environments as porphyry 

copper and copper-and-gold deposits (Singer and others, 2008; John and others, 2010). Thus, the 

presence of these deposit types in Afghanistan is evidence that the geologic environments are likely to 

be permissive for porphyry copper and porphyry copper-and-gold deposits (Doebrich and others, 2007; 

Ludington and others, 2007). 
1116 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Because igneous rocks typical of geologic provinces that contain porphyry copper deposits are 

common in Afghanistan, Ludington and others (2007) and Peters and others (2007) outlined 12 separate 

magmatic arcs that might contain porphyry copper and porphyry copper-gold and related deposits in the 

country. Many of these are the same zones summarized by Doebrich and others (2007). Because many 

of the known porphyry-like prospects are associated with Cretaceous through Late Tertiary plutonic 

rocks that constitute a number of igneous belts that are part of Tethyan magmatic arcs, many younger, 

igneous-related copper prospects, like Zarkashan, are located in eastern Afghanistan in the Arghandab, 

Band-e Bamyan, Chagai, Farah Rod, Helmand, and Spin Boldak plutonic belts northwest of the Chaman 

fault and south of the Herat fault (Peters and others, 2007). 

15A.4 Geology

The geologic setting and regional ore controls of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI are 

different in the northwestern and southeastern parts (figs. 15A–2 and 15A–3). The northwestern parts of 

the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI that contain the Bolo gold subarea consist of Late Proterozoic 

metamorphic rocks and Lower Paleozoic dolomite, limestone, and shale and Carboniferous to Early 

Permian mafic volcanic rocks, sandstone, shale, and siltstone, all intruded by parts of the Oligocene 

Arghandab Phase I granodioritic batholiths rocks (Kotov and Mecherjakov, 1970; Doebrich and others, 

2006: Peters and others, 2011). The rocks are intruded in the Bolo gold subarea and the Zarkashan mine 

subarea by the Zarkashan suite of intrusive bodies (fig. 15A–4), which are composite Late Cretaceous to 

Paleocene adamellite, diorite, gabbro, and granodioritic stocks and plutons. This suite has a unique 

magnetic expression (fig. 15A–1).

The central and eastern parts of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI comprise a sequence of 

Permian to Triassic calcareous rocks that are overlain unconformably by Cretaceous limestone and 

sandstone. The intrusive rocks are petrologically and metallogenically distinct from granitic rocks of the 

Oligocene Arghandab batholith. The main copper- and gold-mineralized areas in the Zarkashan copper 

and gold AOI are related to the Zarkashan pluton, which is reflected as positive anomalies in the 

aeromagnetics (fig. 15A–1).

15A.5 Known Deposits and Prospects

Two subareas in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI (figs. 15A–1, 15A–2, and 15A–3), the Bolo 

gold and the Zarkashan mine subareas, are considered most favorable by Peters and others (2007). Both 

subareas contain known and partially explored prospects with potentially economically important gold 

contents. Development of small- to medium-sized, high-grade gold deposits typically could be 

accomplished in a far shorter time frame than porphyry copper prospects (table 15A–1). The main 

Zarkashan copper and gold AOI and the Luman-Tamaki gold subarea (fig. 15A–4) also contain gold 

prospects that may have promise for future development, but are not as well documented. 

The Bolo gold subarea lies along the west margin of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI along a 

linear alignment of gold-copper skarn, vein, and unclassified gold occurrences that are associated with 

Cretaceous or Paleogene diorite dikes and small intrusive bodies (figs. 15A–5 and 15A–6a). These gold 

occurrences are hosted in Upper Permian carbonate rocks. The gold-bearing skarn occurrences contain 

mineralized rock with as much as 35 grams per metric ton (g/t) gold (Khananov and others, 1967; 

Meshcheryakov and Borozenets, 1970; Douvgal and others, 1971; table 15A–1). Gold-bearing veins and 

potential gold placer deposits also are present (figs. 15A–6a and b).
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1117

Figure 15A–2. Maps showing the locations of the Bolo gold and the Zarkashan mine subareas. (a) Location of the two subareas (ellipses) showing major 

areas of gold placer potential. (b) Location of the two areas superimposed on the aeromagnetic anomaly map by Sweeney and others (2006). Anomalous 

zones are shown in dark outline. Small annotated dots are individual villages.
1118 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–3. Maps showing location of the region around the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest from Peters and others (2007). (a) Assessment 

map showing areas of potential and main prospects in the Bolo gold subarea. (b) Assessment map showing areas of potential and main prospects in the 

Zarkashan mine subarea.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1119

Figure 15A–4. Three-dimensional view of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest showing hyperspectral 

anomalies surrounding the Zarkashan intrusive (white outline). The blue and purple zones represent alteration 

zones with goethite and jarosite. These alteration zones also are coincident with anomalous gold areas from 

sampling reported in Kotov and Mecherjakov (1967). Additionally, two of these zones were visited and sampled by 

the scoping mission of the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business 

and Stability Operations during 2010, which confirmed the presence of copper and gold in abundance. Six of the 

anomalous areas contain known gold occurrences or deposits (Abdullah and others, 1977).

In the Zarkashan mine subarea, in the eastern part of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI, a 

number of other skarn occurrences form a north-trending, roughly 5–km-wide zone along the west and 

east margins of the Zarkashan Cretaceous to Paleogene pluton (fig. 15A–5). The host country rocks are 

Triassic carbonate rocks and mudstone sequences. A number of mineralized zones are present in and 

around the northeast-elongated granodioritic Zarkashan pluton. The skarns (Dynamite, Guyakhel, 

Khinjaktu, Sufi-Kademi, Zardak, and Zarkashan) are all gold-bearing (table 5A–1). They are part of four 

main target zones in the subarea, the Guyakhel, Kereztu gold, Khinjaktu-Zardak, and ZarkashanDynamite target zones, that have been delineated on the basis of geochemical sampling and recent 

hyperspectral and ASTER mapping of anomalous zones (figs. 15A–6a and b). Several other mineral 

occurrences in the area (Kereztu tin, Maghn, Mirzaka, and Syaghar) are classified as tin skarn (Doebrich 

and others, 2006), and cassiterite is the most abundant ore mineral in those occurrences. Although these 

tin and tungsten prospects potentially have important copper contents (Abdullah and others, 1977; 

Doebrich and others, 2006), they are most likely related to intrusive activity associated with the 

Arghandab Batholith and are not part of the gold-bearing Zarkashan igneous suite (Peters and others, 

2007). 

The Zarkashan copper-gold deposit and peripheral zones, alteration anomalies, and targets 

comprise copper and gold mineralization in skarn and in shattered zones that contain areas with 
1120 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

alteration phases resulting from serpentinization, silicification, and carbonatization. The skarns are 

garnet-vesuvian-diopside and diopside-bearing types. They also contain epidote, phlogopite, and 

wollastonite. The principal ore minerals are bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, native gold, pyrite, and 

sphalerite. These ore minerals are present in massive sulfide pods or are finely and irregularly 

disseminated throughout the country rock. Several auriferous zones were delineated by Soviet studies 

where various orebodies were defined. The gold content in the pods varies from several fractions of a 

gram to 10 g/t gold. The tenor of gold in the Zarkashan mine and at the Zardak gold occurrence was 

confirmed in 2010 by the USGS and the TFBSO (U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business 

and Stability Operations, 2010).

Gold in the skarns of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI is spatially associated with calcite, 

copper sulfide minerals, quartz, and serpentine. The richest chalcopyrite and gold ore is found in 

phlogopite skarn. Mineralization of the high-grade ores is extremely irregular, and therefore these 

orebodies are not persistent along strike and dip. Gold content measured by Soviet studies in the 

high-grade skarn pods varies from "traces" to 245 g/t gold, and that of copper, from 0.01 to 15 weight 

percent (wt. %) copper. Cadmium, lead, molybdenum, and zinc also are present in minor quantities 

(table 15A–1).

Figure 15A–5. Map of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest (outlined in red), which is part of the 

Kundalan Zarkashan porphyry copper-gold permissive tract of Ludington and others (2007). Alkaline Cretaceous to 

Paleogene Zarkashan suite intrusive rocks are shown in pink (map unit KP1gbm of Doebrich and others, 2007). 

Green crosshatch is a tin mineral halo. Blue dashed lines outline the most favorable parts of the permissive tract 

(Peters and others, 2007); the two areas outlined are parts of the Bolo gold subarea in the west and the Zarkashan 

mine subarea in the east.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1121

Table 15A–1

[Gold grades and dimensions in two subareas are also included. Data are from Abdullah and others (1977). Au, gold; Cu, 

copper; g/t, gram per metric ton; m, meter; Zn, zinc] 

Prospects in the Zarkashan cooper and gold area of interest. 

Subarea Prospect Size, surface dimensions (m) Gold grade

(g/t Au) Comments

Bolo gold Belaw 2–25 × 250 0.1–0.8 Skarn, limonite 1 to 4 g/t Au.

Bolo gold Alaghzar 70–100 × 500 0.01–1.6 As much as 35 g/t Au in 

serpentine.

Bolo gold Bala 0.5–12 × 140 0.8–34 Fault zone with limonite.

Bolo gold Anguray 1–10 × 189 0.3–142 Skarn zone with Cu and Zn.

Bolo gold Utkul 0.5 × 300 <11 Fault zone with limonite.

Bolo gold Bashargar 1 × 50–80 2.9–12.3 43 g/t Au in limonite.

Zarkashan mine Khinjaktu 200 1.8 Skarn.

Zarkashan mine Zardak 50–140 long 1.2–19.4 Skarn igneous breccias.

Zarkashan mine Guyakhel 1.5 × 50 × 70 4.4 Skarn.

Zarkashan mine Sufi Kademi Skarn beds with conglomerate 7 Ancient workings.

Zarkashan mine Dynamite 0.6–1.2 4–70 Drill holes, ancient workings.

Zarkashan mine Chah-i Surkh 0.2–2.5 × 100 0.6–3.2 Shattered limonite zone.

15A.6 Economic Geology

The Zarkashan copper and gold AOI contains a number of mineralized zones. The most well 

known and well studied is the Zarkashan mine in the Zarkashan mine subarea, which consists of a 

number of skarn zones along the western and eastern contacts of the Zarkashan pluton (fig. 15A–6a and 

b).

The Zarkashan mine subarea skarn deposits result from a Late Cretaceous to Paleocene 

adamellite, diorite, and granodiorite as well as pluton rocks that have intruded into Upper Jurassic to 

Lower Cretaceous limestone, sandstone, and siltstone (fig. 15A–6a). Mineralized garnet-magnetitevesuvianite-wollastonite-diopside skarn zones contain bornite, chalcopyrite, covellite, native gold, and 

pyrite (Abdullah and others, 1977; Orris and Bliss, 2002). Pyrite-chalcopyrite mineralized rock spatially 

is associated with amphibole, garnet, magnetite-pyroxene-garnet-phlogopite, phlogopite, phlogopitepyroxene, pyroxene, pyroxene-garnet, and pyroxene-magnetite skarns. The largest concentrations of 

sulfide minerals are present in the magnetite-pyroxene-garnet-phlogopite and phlogopite-magnetite 

skarns. In addition to chalcopyrite, magnetite, and pyrite, the skarns also contain molybdenite, 

sphalerite, and tetrahedrite. Bismuth, gold, and silver are typical accessory elements associated with 

skarn (Kotov and others, 1970). 

Samples collected in 2010 by the USGS and the TFBSO were examined by standard 

petrographic methods, followed by a study using the scanning electron microscope (SEM) (figs. 15A–7 

through 15A–12) at the Menlo Park, Calif., USGS facility (Theodore, 2010). The SEM study was 

conducted primarily because of the high content of gold in a number of samples from Zarkashan and 

recognition of free gold in four of the polished thin sections examined (sample nos. ZR10010C, 

ZR10015A, and ZR10015B; table 15A–2).

The skarns contain prograde silicate phases in the garnet-pyroxene skarn. Garnet is mostly 

isotropic grossularite (fig. 15A–7). However, minimal amounts of more 

iron-rich (and anisotropic) varieties are present, mainly as late-stage precursors on the margins of the 

grossularite. A presulfide lining to open cavities that subsequently were filled by chalcopyrite (now 

oxidized) also is present, as are two generations of diopside, early-stage stubby diopside crystals (many 

pre-grossularite) and a late prograde-stage acicular or more fibrous diopside that is later than the stubby 

diopside. Some trace amounts of actinolite also are present. The garnet (grossularite)-pyroxene 

(diopside) skarn usually includes some fairly large clots of 1.5–centimeter (cm)-wide frothy iron oxide 

as a result of weathering (Theodore, 2010). 
1122 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–6. Maps showing mineralized areas and targets around the Zarkashan pluton in the Zarkashan mine subarea of the Zarkashan copper and 

gold area of interest. (a) Portion of geologic map of Zarkashan (adapted from Peters and others, 2011) showing target areas. (b) Topographic map showing 

target areas (in ellipses), hyperspectral anomalies (cross-hatch areas), and bedrock gold anomalous zones (red shade). 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1123

Table 15A–2.

[Analysis performed by the U.S. Geological Survey laboratory in Denver, Colo. Some samples are shown in figure 15A–16. 

Au, gold; ppb, parts per billion] 

Gold concentrations for several grab rock samples taken from the Zarkashan mine subarea in 

2010. 

Lab no. Field no. Sample description Au, in ppb

C–341562 ZR100001 pyrrhotite sericite in hornfels 11,000

C–341563 ZR100002 malachite-stained skarn 9,460

C–341564 ZR100003 slate and malachite and chalcopyrite 1,770

C–341565 ZR100004 malachite-stained skarn and greisen 23,000

C–341566 ZR100005 malachite and skarn/slate 182,000

C–341567 ZR100006 black malachite-stained skarn 18,000

C–341568 ZR100007 pyrite-rich sericite hornfels 6,800

C–341569 ZR100008 sericite-hornfels 6,400

C–341570 ZR100009 pyrite-rich skarn 70,000

C–341571 ZR100010 oxidized ore and pyrite 8,490

C–341572 ZR100011 oxide ore 13,000

C–341573 ZR100012 malachite-stained hornfels 35,000

C–341574 ZR100013 malachite-stained hornfels 88,000

C–341575 ZR100014 fibrous hematite 533

C–341576 ZR100015 hornfels (background) 19,000

C–341577 ZR100016 malachite-stained hornfels 1,290

C–341578 ZR100017 pyrite-rich hornfels/skarn 11,000

C–341579 ZR100018 malachite-stained hornfels 6,240

Diopside- and sparse garnet-bearing marble is flooded by sulfide minerals and micas. Also, 

centimeter-wide clots of fine-grained biotite are dotted throughout by small crystals of clinopyroxene 

(diopside). However, textural relations suggest that the biotite clots are older than crystallization of the 

surrounding phlogopite—the biotite clots also contain no sulfide minerals. The biotite clots probably 

represent a shaly premetamorphism fraction, originally within limestone, which was then converted 

largely to biotite and diopside during contact metamorphism, and subsequently was altered marginally to 

phlogopite during introduction of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. Phlogopite along margins of the biotite 

clots is postbiotite.

Most marble is flooded by green-colored phlogopite and sulfide minerals as well as tetradymite, 

which is widespread, typically in interstices among well-formed blades of phlogopite or on margins of 

either chalcopyrite or pyrrhotite. Sulfide minerals and phlogopite were introduced together (figs. 15A–7 

and 15A–11). 

Massive replacement of marble by pyrrhotite [about 40 volume percent (vol. %)] and phlogopite 

is common, but some pyrrhotite is secondarily altered to bird’s eye texture (fig. 15A–7). Phlogopite is 

altered marginally to chlorite. Relict calcite from the replaced marble is sparse.

High abundances of vesuvianite are present in some skarn. Growth zones of almost isotropic and 

low birefringent vesuvianite indicate a fluctuation of major-element ratios in fluids associated with its 

crystallization just prior to cessation of its growth (fig. 15A–7c). In addition, some open spaces prior to 

introduction of sulfide minerals and gold are partly filled by potassium-feldspar, something common in 

many similar copper-gold skarns in other parts of the world (Theodore, 2010).

15A.7 Characteristics of the Copper and Gold Ores

The bulk of the gold at the surface of the Zarkashan mine subarea is hosted by iron oxide 

minerals resulting from oxidation of chalcopyrite that is present in the cores of some of the iron oxide 

minerals. The bismuth phase that may mantle the gold is later than the gold and probably is 

paragenetically related to the breakdown of chalcopyrite to iron oxide. Tetradymite also is present as an 

open space filling among garnet crystals (figs. 15A–8 through 15A–11). 
1124 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–7. Back-scattered electron micrographs and petrographic microscope images of skarn (adapted from 

Theodore, 2010). (a) Sample ZR10016B marble flooded by phlogopite and minor siderite. Small grains of 

tetradymite are scattered through the polished thin section (not visible in transmitted light) (b) Sample ZR10016C, a 

diopside- and sparse garnet-bearing skarn with sulfide minerals and fine-grained biotite. (c) Sample ZR10016E, a 

massive replacement of marble by pyrrhotite (about 40 volume percent) with chalcopyrite, sparse molybdenite, 

phlogopite, and tetradymite present. (d

Free gold, as well as the bismuth-tellurium mineral tetradymite and additional bismuth-only 

phases (native bismuth or bismite) also are present. Though the overwhelming bismuth phase in the rock 

originally was sulfur-free tetradymite (Bi2Te3), some bismuth-only phases (bismuth being the only metal 

present) also have been found—either native bismuth or bismite, mostly in iron oxide. Bismuth-bearing 

phases and gold rarely are in direct contact. Well crystalline, euhedral gold is partly mantled by native 

bismuth or bismite, and the gold and bismuth phases are included in much more laterally expansive iron 

oxide (fig. 15A–9d).

) Sample ZR10016F, a biotite hornfel locally recrystallized to marble, 

including garnet (gar) between phlogopite and pyrrhotite. cc, chalcocite; cp, chalcopyrite; diop, diopsite; Fe-bear, 

iron-bearing; mm, millimeters; μm, micrometer; phlog, phlogopite; po, pyrrhotite. 

In addition, bismuth (as native bismuth or bismite) is present along the margins of some of the 

iron oxide and mixed chrysocolla-covellite clots. Some fairly well crystalline vesuvianite is concentrated 

preferentially near many of the iron oxide concentrations as well (figs. 15A–9 and 15A–10). 

The gold-to-silver ratio of many gold blebs in figure 15A–10a and b is about 5:2, on the basis of 

energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy peak heights for each of the two elements. Free gold in the sample 

also is present as a number of small blebs in open spaces among diopside crystals. The textural relations 

also suggest chalcopyrite, diopside, gold, the scapolite-group mineral meionite, and sphene may have 

been coexisting stably at one time prior to secondary alteration of much of the chalcopyrite to 

chalcocite. Although not much meionite is present in the rock, where it is present, it is in close textural 

association with unaltered chalcopyrite.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1125

Figure 15A–8. Back-scattered electron micrographs of sample ZR10010C (adapted from Theodore, 2010). (a) 

Chalcopyrite-bearing cogenetic diopside-quartz skarn contains widespread concentrations of the scapolite group 

mineral meionite and a 200-micrometers (μm)-wide irregularly shaped bleb of free gold. (b) A close-up view of the 

central part of the gold bleb (inset in a) shows in remarkable detail this particular bleb. The numbers along the 

bottom are, from left to right, magnification, scale bar in micrometers, kilovolts used, and working distance, in 

millimeters (table 15A–2). Ag, silver; Au, gold; kV, kilovolt; mm, millimeter; μm, micrometer. 
1126 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Shaly limestone is converted to a biotite hornfels, and the limy parts are recrystallized to marble 

prior to circulation of skarn-sulfide mineral related fluids. Most zones contain tetradymite but may also 

include some gold-telluride minerals as late phases along crystal edges between phlogopite and 

pyrrhotite (fig. 15A–12). Additional sulfide minerals include chalcopyrite and extremely sparse 

molybdenite, and 5-micrometer (μm)-size uranium-thorium oxide minerals adjacent to some zircon are 

also present in the polished thin section. 

The relative amount of large gold blebs compared to the amount of sulfide minerals argues 

against the gold being a solid solution in chalcopyrite and then being released as free gold during 

conversion of chalcopyrite to chalcocite (fig. 15A–13). Free gold most likely formed with chalcopyrite 

(Theodore, 2010). Some interstices among diopside crystals are now occupied by chlorite and kaolinite, 

which are produced during the conversion of chalcopyrite to chalcocite (fig. 15A–13). Chalcocite, 

therefore, is most likely genetically associated with chlorite, the iron oxide minerals, and kaolinite. In 

addition, pseudohexagonal twin traces common in chalcocite are readily apparent and grains of sphene 

are present in chalcocite and straddle the gold-chalcocite contact, whereas, sphene and diopside are part 

of the same compatibility elsewhere in the rock (fig. 15A–9a).

Figure 15A–9. Back-scattered electron micrographs of sample ZR10015A, showing free gold in iron oxide 

minerals. The gold-to-silver (Au:Ag) ratios in the blebs of gold in this sample are on the order of approximately 20:1 

to 10:1, based on a small number of determinations. In addition, some iron oxide zones also contain jarosite

(adapted from Theodore, 2010). (a) Free gold is contained in iron oxide minerals (FX) and jarosite. (b) Free gold 

contained within iron oxide minerals. (c) Free gold within iron oxide minerals and zoned former sulfide grain. 

(d) Bismuth phase mantling gold and oxidized chalcopyrite. The numbers along the bottom are, from left to right, 

magnification, scale bar in micrometers, kilovolts used, and working distance, in millimeters (table 15A–2).

Bi, bismuth; kV, kilovolt; mm, millimeter; μm, micrometer. 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1127

Figure 15A–10. Back-scattered electron micrograph of sample ZR10015B, a grossularite-diopside copper 

(chalcopyrite)-gold skarn, along margins an iron oxide and mixed chrysocollA-covellite clot (adapted from Theodore, 

2010). Crystalline vesuvianite also is concentrated adjacent to iron oxide concentrations. The numbers along the 

bottom are, from left to right, magnification, scale bar in micrometers, kilovolts used, and working distance, in 

millimeters (table 15A–2). Bi, bismuth; chrys, chrysacolla; cov, covellite, diop, diopsite; kV, kilovolt; mm, millimeter; 

μm, micrometer; ves, vesuvianite.

15A.8 Zarkashan Mine Subarea

The Zarkashan copper and gold mine deposit and peripheral zones and targets (Dynamite, Chahi-Surkh, and Sufi Kademi prospects) comprise gold and copper mineralization in skarn and shattered 

zones around a small satellite boss west of the main Zarkashan intrusive (fig. 15A–14). In the clastic 

rocks, the Zarkashan target zone is marked by red color anomalies in the mudstone (fig. 15A–15a). The 

skarns are garnet-diopsite-vesuvian and diopside types and also contain epidote, phlogopite, vesuvianite, 

and wollastonite. The principal ore minerals are bornite, chalcocite, chalcopyrite, native gold, pyrite, and 

sphalerite, which are present in massive sulfide pods or are finely and irregularly disseminated 

throughout the country rock (fig. 15A–16). 

Several auriferous zones were delineated by Soviet workers in the Zarkashan mine subarea, and 

this work defined various orebodies that were from 1 to 15 meters (m) wide with strike lengths of 10 to 

600 m. These orebodies are described as lenses that are from 1.5 to 50 m long and 0.5 to 3.8 m thick. 

Gold concentrations in these orebodies vary between several tenths and 10 g/t gold. The zones were 
1128 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

defined by trenching at the surface followed downward by tunneling (fig. 15A–15b) and drilling to a 

depth of 80 m. The category C1 and C2 reserves are 7.7 metric tons (t) of gold (Abdullah and others, 

1977). The tenor of gold and copper in the Zarkashan mine subarea and at Zardak prospect area reported 

by Soviet and Afghan geologists was confirmed in 2010 by the USGS and TFBSO scoping mission 

(table 15A–2; U.S. Department of Defense Task Force for Business and Stability Operations, 2010). 

A number of streams that drain the area have potential for small-sized gold placer deposits 

(figs. 15A–14a,b; Homilius, 1968, 1970). 

The Chah-i-Surkh prospect within the Zarkashan-Dynamite target zone (figs. 15A–6 and 15A–

14) lies along a shattered zone, 0.2 to 2.5 m wide and 100 m long, that is in slightly marmorized 

limestone of Middle Triassic age and mineralized by hematite and limonite, assaying 0.6 to 3.2 g/t gold 

(Meshcheryakov and Borozenets, 1970).

Figure 15A–11. Back-scattered scanning electron micrograph of sample ZR10016A, a marble flooded by sulfide 

minerals (adapted from Theodore, 2010). Calcite is associated with introduction of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, and 

bismuth-tellurium tetradymite. Textural evidence for direct replacement of calcite by gold and tetradymite also is 

present. The numbers along the bottom are, from left to right, magnification, scale bar in micrometers, kilovolts 

used, and working distance, in millimeters (table 15A–2). Ag, silver; Au, gold; Bi, bismuth; kV, kilovolt; mm, 

millimeter; μm, micrometer; Te, tellurium.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1129

Figure 15A–12. Back scattered scanning electron micrographs of sample ZR10015B showing textural relations 

within the Zarkashan ores (adapted from Theodore, 2010). (a) Gold grain at margin between diopside and iron 

oxide matte. (b) Gold grains within chlorite and iron oxides rimmed by apatite, diopsite, and garnet. (c) Gold grain in 

reflected light shown in (a). (d

The Dynamite and Sufi Kademi prospects lie in the northern parts of the Zarkashan mine area 

(fig. 15A–14). At Dynamite, a number of north-south trenches have been excavated across an easttrending ridge (fig. 15A–17a). Ancient workings are located on the lower parts of the western part of the 

ridge (figs. 15A–17b–d). The Dynamite and Sufi Kademi prospects are summarized by Abdullah and 

others (1977) from work by Khananov and others (1967) and Meshcheryakov and Borozenets (1970) as 

described below.

) Crystalline vesuvianite also is concentrated adjacent to iron oxide concentrations 

(from Theodore, 2010). The numbers along the bottom are, from left to right, magnification, scale bar in 

micrometers, kilovolts used, and working distance, in millimeters (table 15A–2). Ag, silver; Au, gold; Cu, copper; 

diop, diopsite; FX, iron oxide minerals; gar, garnet; kV, kilovolt; mm, millimeter; μm, micrometer; Te, tellurium; vos, 

vesuvianite. 

The Dynamite prospect contains zones of shattered ochreous rocks, and a number of 0.6- to 

1.2-m-wide zones are present in marmorized limestone of Middle Triassic age along an easterly tending 

ridge north of the Zarkashan mine subarea (fig. 15A–17a). Samples taken for Soviet studies from the 

walls of ancient openings yielded 4.0 to 70 g/t gold. The iron-stained limestone penetrated by drill holes 

at depths of 40 to 43 m and 70 to 77 m (presumably under the ancient workings) contains gold 

concentrations that are less than 0.3 g/t gold (Khananov and others, 1967; Meshcheryakov and 

Borozenets, 1970).
1130 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–13. Microphotograph in reflected light of sample ZR10016D (adapted from Theodore, 2010), a 

diopside- and sparse garnet-marble skarn flooded by sulfide minerals and micas (not indicated) and magnetite. 

diop, diopside; mag, magnetite; po, pyrrhotite; cp, chalcopyrite (table 15A–2).

Marble and dolomite at the Dynamite prospect are characterized by orange cross-cutting 

structures, sheeted ochre zones, vuggy ochre and brown patches, and ochre- and bleach-stained altered 

marble (figs. 15A–18a–d). Results of grab samples in the trenches from the mineralized zone yielded 

less than several parts per billion (ppb) gold, but some samples were anomalous in arsenic [2,560 to 

4,870 parts per million (ppm)], manganese (893 to 1,680 ppm), and zinc (trace amounts) (Abdullah and 

others 1977). 

Mineralized zones in the Dynamite area are oxidized, contact metamorphosed, and consist of 

collapse breccias that include stylolitic solution surfaces. Rocks are made up mostly of calcite and 

smaller amounts (probably less than 1 vol. %) of 10–μm-wide dolomite crystals (fig. 15A–18). The 

latter are scattered through calcite. Most rocks contain much less than 1 vol. % iron and manganese 

oxide, and sulfide minerals are usually not visible with the standard microscope, although 1-μm-wide 

pyrite grains (probably recrystallized framboids) and 1-μm-wide chalcopyrite grains were detected by 

SEM (Theodore, 2010). The latter are present in small open cavities together with kaolinite. Some rocks 

contain signs of incipient recrystallization of pyroxene, probably diopside. These prospected zones at 

Dynamite may be representative of host rock to mineralized skarn and associated alteration assemblages

at Zarkashan.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1131

Figure 15A–14. Maps showing the geology and mineralized areas around the Zarkashan mine subarea, including the Dynamite prospect and the Sufi 

Kadem gold skarn in the northern parts of the target zone. (a) Geologic map and gold bedrock anomalies from Peters and others (2011). (b) Topographic 

maps showing anomalous zone and potential zones for shallow gold placer deposits.
1132 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–15. Photographs of the Zarkashan mine subarea. (a) View looking west at iron-stained, hornfelsed 

calcareous mudstone intruded by granodiorite dikes. (b) View looking east at trenching and road leading to an 

eastern sampling adit. Photograph by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1133

Figure 15A–16. Photographs of typical mineralized rocks from the Zarkashan mine subarea. (a) Malachitestained hornfelsed mudstone. (b) Sulfide-rich diopside skarn, (c) pyrite-rich, slightly oxidized skarn. (d) Malachite 

stained calcareous mudstone and marble. Rock samples are listed in table 15A–2. Photographs by Stephen G. 

Peters, U.S. Geological Survey.

At the Sufi Kademi gold occurrence, irregular gold mineralization is present along a bed of 

metasomatically altered conglomerate largely made up of limestone pebbles, which is present between 

Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous hornfelsed rocks. The conglomerate assayed from traces to 7 g/t 

gold. Samples collected from the walls of an ancient opening assayed 2.5 to 4 g/t gold (Meshcheryakov 

and Borozenets, 1970).

15A.9 Khinjaktu Target Area

The Khinjaktu target area lies on the eastern side of the Zarkashan pluton in the Zarkashan mine 

subarea (fig. 15A–6) and occupies a north-northwest-striking zone that penetrates into the pluton from 

the south (figs. 15A–19 and 15A–20). A gold anomalous zone is defined by Soviet-era sampling 

(fig. 15A–19). The Khinjaktu prospect contains gold mineralization in skarn at the contact between 

Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous marmorized limestone and Late Cretaceous to Paleocene diorite 

(figs. 15A–20b and 15A–21b). The skarn zone is weathered and is 200 m along strike and rocks from 

the skarn contain concentrations of 1.8 g/t gold and 0.65 to 1.02 wt. % copper (Meshcheryakov and 

Borozenets, 1970). Recent grab sampling in the Khinjaktu prospect area from the granite and the contact 

zone ranged between several to more than 10,000 ppb gold (table 15A–3). 

The Zardak gold prospect lies in the Khinjaktu target area on the eastern side of the Zarkashan 

pluton where mineralization is reported by earlier studies to be confined to a series of faults in Upper 

Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous limestone that contains brecciated limestone zones and scarce 
1134 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

disseminations of chalcopyrite, pyrite, and occasionally gold. The zones, up to 1 m wide and 50 to 

140 m long, and contain 1.2 to 19.4 g/t gold (Meshcheryakov and Borozenets, 1970). Reconnaissance by 

the USGS and the TFBSO in 2010 in the northern parts of the Zardak prospect suggests that most of the 

area is covered by limonite and malachite-stained hornfels (fig. 15A–21a) intruded locally by igneous 

breccia bodies (fig. 15A–19 through 15A–21). Grab samples from the area ranged from 14 to 

188,000 ppb gold (table 15A–3). Bodies of igneous breccia also contain some gold concentrations up to 

27 g/t gold (fig. 15A–22; table 15A–3).

Figure 15A–17. Photographs of the Dynamite prospect area. (a) Areal view looking northeast over the Dynamite 

prospect (outlined with white dashed line). (b) Areal view of the eastern part of the Dynamite prospect and possible 

gold placer drainage to the north. (c) View looking eastwardly in the center of the Dynamite prospect showing ochre 

alteration. (d) View looking northerly in one of many Soviet era trenches. Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, 

U.S. Geological Survey. 

15A.10 Guyakhel Gold Target Area

The Guyakhel gold target area lies within the Zarkashan mine subarea and includes the Guyakhel 

gold prospect (figs. 15A–6 and 15A–23), which is along a contact between Upper Jurassic to Lower 

Cretaceous limestone and Late Cretaceous to Paleocene diorite. The contact includes skarn bodies 1 to 

1.5 m wide and 50 to 70 m long, containing disseminated bornite, chalcopyrite, covellite, magnetite, and 

pyrite. Gold concentrations within the mineralized zones are 4.4 g/t gold (Khananov and others, 1967). 

A number of gold anomalous zones are indicated by pan concentrate(?) sampling in the drainages south 

of the Guyakhel gold prospect in the southern sedimentary rocks (fig. 15A–23). 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1135

Figure 15A–18. Photographs of marble and dolomite from trenches in the Dynamite prospect area. (a) Orange 

cross cutting zone. (b) Sheeting of ochre zones across marble. (c) Vuggy ochre and brown areas in dolomitemarble. (d) Ochre staining and bleaching of altered marble. cm, centimeter. Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, 

U.S. Geological Survey. 

Table 15A–3. Gold concentrations of samples taken at the Zardak-Khinjaktu target area in 2010.

[Latitude and longitude are in decimal degrees. Au, gold; ppb, parts per billion; >, more than]

Sample no. Latitude Longitude Description Prospect Au, in

ppb

ZA100001

ZA100002

ZA100003

ZA100004

ZA100005

ZA100006

ZA100006

ZA105001

ZA105002

ZA105003

ZA105004

ZA105005

32.89676

32.89676

32.89676

32.89676

32.89676

32.89676

32.89780

32.90510

32.90510

32.90510

32.90510

32.90510

67.74141

67.74141

67.74141

67.74141

67.74141

67.74141

67.73945

67.73550

67.73550

67.73550

32.90510

67.73550

malachite stained spotted hornfels

argillically altered diorite breccia

argillically-altered igneous breccia

malachite-stained argillically-altered diorite

marble grey

malachite-stained hornfels

malachite-stained hornfels

limonite-stained marble

limonite-stained marble

limonite-stained marble

limonite-stained diorite

malachite-stained gossan-hornfels

breccia

North Zardak 

North Zardak

North Zardak

North Zardak

North Zardak

North Zardak

North Zardak

Khinjaktu 

Khinjaktu

Khinjaktu

Khinjaktu

Khinjaktu

17,000

14

14

27,000

82

188,000

17,000

1,190

27

17

45

>10,000
1136 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–19. Geologic map and targets of the Zardak-Khinjaktu target area, showing hardrock gold zones sampled during Soviet-era studies

(reproduced in Peters and others, 2011). Areas sampled in 2010 and listed in table 15A–3 are in open black outlined circles. Au, gold.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1137

Figure 15A–20. Photographs of landscape and area around the Zardak-Khinjaktu target area. (a) View looking 

west with hornfels in foreground and Zardak intrusive in jagged outcrops on the skyline. (b) View looking south 

southeast toward Khinjaktu skarn workings (orange outcrops). Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological 

Survey. 
1138 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–21. Photographs of specimens taken from the Zardak-Khinjaktu area in 2010. (a) Sample 

ZAR105005, oxidized, malachite-bearing skarn from the Khinjaktu prospect. (b) Sample ZA 100006, malachitestained hornfelsed mudstone from above the Zardak prospect area. Samples are listed in table 15A–3.

Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey. 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1139

Figure 15A–22. Photograph of igneous breccia float in the old Zardak prospect area. The boulders are isolated 

within the hornfels zone and may constitute a breccia dike or pipe. cm, centimeter. Parts of this breccia contain as 

much as 27,000 g/t gold (table 15A-3). Photograph by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey. 

15A.11 Bolo Gold Subarea

A number of gold prospects are present along a northeast-trending linear zone in the western part 

of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI in the Bolo gold subarea (figs. 15A–4 and 15A–24). 

The Alaghzar gold prospect is present in a fault zone in Upper Permian marble and in Devonian 

quartzitic sandstone and conglomerate that are intruded by Late Cretaceous to Paleocene diorite. At the 

exocontacts of the diorite bosses, the mineralized zones are skarn lenses that are from 0.1 to 11 m thick 

and as much as 100 m long. The 70- to100-m-wide and 500-m-long mineralized zones also contain 

serpentinized and limonitized rocks containing sulfide minerals. The skarns assay from 0.01 to 1.6 g/t 

gold (Douvgal and others, 1971). The serpentized zones contain chalcopyrite and hematite, with 

concentrations of as much as 35 g/t gold and 0.1 to 3.1 wt. % copper. The limonitized limestone assays 

not more than 0.2 g/t gold and is present in patches that enclose streaks of serpentine. The presence of 

chalcopyrite may increase the gold content to 35 g/t gold (Douvgal and others, 1971). 

The Anguray gold prospect (fig. 15A–24) is in a mineralized zone that is along a contact 

between Upper Permian carbonate rocks and Late Cretaceous to Paleocene quartz-diorite. The zone 

consists of garnet skarn and pyroxene and is as much as 1 m thick and several tens of meters long. The 

mineralization consists of scarce disseminations of bornite, chalcopyrite, and covellite. Gold content 

varies from 0.3 to 143 g/t gold. In addition, the rocks carry as much as 0.6 wt. % copper, as much as 

3.7 wt. % lead, and as much as 2.6 wt. % zinc (Khananov and others, 1967). 
1140 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–23. Maps of the Guyakhel target area. (a) Geology from Peters and others (2011), showing bedrock gold anomalous zones (samples and 

grain counts are circles, nc = no count). (b) Topographic map showing gold anomalous zones.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1141

The Bala gold prospect (fig. 15A–24) consists of mineralized rock along a fault zone in upper 

Permian limestone where the rock is intensely brecciated and ochreous. The zone, 0.5 to 12 m wide and 

140 m long, assays between 0.8 and 34 g/t gold (Douvgal and others, 1971). 

The Bashargar occurrence is at the contact between Upper Triassic marmorized carbonate rocks 

and Late Cretaceous to Paleocene diorite stocks. There are four lenses of diopside-vesuvianite skarn 1 m 

in thickness and 50 to 80 m in extension. Gold content is from 2.9 to 12.3 g/t gold. A higher content 

reaching 43 g/t gold has been reported from the limonitized limestone (Khananov and others, 1967). 

The Belaw gold occurrence is confined to a contact between Late Cretaceous to Paleocene 

diorite bodies and Upper Permian marble (fig. 15A–24 through 15A–26). Gold is present in skarn 

(1 m × 10 m in size) and in 2- to 25-m-wide and as much as 250-m-long zones of ochreous and 

serpentinized rocks. Ore minerals are chalcopyrite, native gold, and pyrite. The skarn and serpentinized 

rocks assay from 0.1 to 0.8 g/t gold and 0.1 wt. % copper. The ochreous zones carry from 1 to 4 g/t gold, 

0.3 wt. % copper, and 0.5 wt. % zinc (Douvgal and others, 1971). 

The Utkul gold prospect contains gold mineralization that is localized in a fault zone in Late

Permian marmorized and dolomitized limestone (fig. 15A–24). The zone is 300 m long and 0.5 m wide. 

Gold is associated with sulfide minerals in slightly ochreous rocks forming patches, 1 to 5 m by 5 m in 

size. The highest gold content is 11 g/t Au (Khananov and others, 1967). 

15A.12 Luman-Tamaki Gold Subarea

The Luman-Tamaki gold subarea is located within a northeast-striking tectonic zone containing 

Middle Paleozoic sedimentary rocks encompassing polymetallic vein and copper skarn mineral 

occurrences (fig. 15A–28; Peters and others, 2007). The mineralized tectonic zone lies between the 

Arghandab batholithic rocks to the northwest and other sedimentary rocks to the east. The LumanTamaki gold subarea contains phyllic and argillic altered areas recognized by ASTER (Mars and 

Rowan, 2007), parallels a northeast-striking fault along the southeast margin of the mineralized zone, 

and includes a prospective zone that is approximately 20 to 25 km long and 2 km wide. 

A number of occurrences in this prospective Tamaki-Luman gold subarea are gold-rich, such as 

the Tamaki gold occurrence that is 600 m long and 2 to 15 m wide and contains chalcopyrite and galena 

in irregular siliceous lenses and grades 0.1 to 50.0 g/t gold with traces of lead and zinc (Abdullah and 

others, 1977; Borozenets, 1972). The Luman gold occurrence is as much as 60 m long and 0.5 to 1.5 m 

wide and grades 1.4 g/t gold and 1.0 wt. % copper (Douvgal and others, 1971). In addition, a number of 

unnamed precious- and basemetal-vein and skarn occurrences are present within the Luman-Tamaki 

gold subarea. The main data for the Tamaki-Luman gold subarea are aeromagnetic and geologic maps, 

lithogeochemical data, mineral deposits database, and ASTER imagery (Orris and Bliss, 2002; Doebrich 

and others, 2006; Sweeney and others, 2006; Mars and Rowan, 2007). 

Ludington and others (2007) and Peters and others (2007) noted the information most needed in 

the Luman-Tamaki gold subarea is intermediate-scale (1:100,000 and 1:25,000) geologic mapping, 

geochemical sampling, and detailed examination of known prospects. All these approaches would 

require extensive site visits. The presence of widespread prospects of pluton-related and base- and 

precious-metal occurrences is a positive indicator that commercial mineralized zones may be present. 

The presence of widespread phyllic and argillic alteration in ASTER imagery (fig. 15A–29) is also a 

positive indicator; however, many alteration patterns appear to be related to regional fractures within the 

batholith, and most do not correlate well spatially with distribution of mineral prospects. The 

composition of Arghandab batholithic rocks is not highly favorable; there are many peraluminous rocks 

exposed and a dearth of intermediate and mafic rocks (diorite), both somewhat atypical of porphyrybearing terranes. The Luman-Tamaki gold subarea lies along strike of the Bolo gold subarea and may 

also contain Zarkashan igneous rocks along its linear structures.
1142 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–24. Maps of the Bolo gold subarea showing mineralized areas. (a) Permissive, favorable, and prospective tracts from Peters and others 

(2007) (b) Bedrock anomalies from grain counts from Soviet era studies, reproduced in Peters and others (2011), and potential shallow gold placer targets.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1143

Figure 15A–25. Photographs from the Bolo gold prospect. (a) View to the south showing ochre alteration in limey 

rocks and shallow prospects on hillside. (b) Hornblende “diorite” cobble in Bolo gold streambed. cm, centimeter.

Photograph by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey.
1144 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–26. Photographs from the Utkul gold prospect area in the Bolo gold subarea. (a) Diorite stream boulder. (b) Porphyroblastic contact 

metamorphic rock, stream cobble. (c) Bladed porphyroblastic contact metamorphic rocks, stream float. (d) View to northeast looking at anomalous zones in 

hills composed of Middle Triassic limey rocks. cm, centimeter. Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey. 
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1145

Figure 15A–27. Photographs from the Belaw gold prospect in the Bolo gold subarea. (a) View looking northwest at limonitic and slightly jasperoidal 

outcrop near prospect. (b) View looking southerly at siliceous resistant beds. (c) Hand specimen of Permian(?) conglomerate. (d) Sample BE100003, typical 

of material on crest of ridge near prospect. cm, centimeter. Photographs by Stephen G. Peters, U.S. Geological Survey. 
1146 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–28 Map showing geology and gold-rich mineral occurrences in the Luman-Tamaki gold subarea. The northeast-trending linear valley may 

represent a significant regional-scale fault zone. Geology from Doebrich and others (2006).
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1147

Figure 15A–29. Digital elevation map showing Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection 

radiometer -derived ferric-iron and silicic (quartz) alteration patterns for most of the Zarkashan mine subarea, half of 

the Luman-Tamaki gold subarea, and a small (topmost) part of the Bolo gold subarea validated in the field (circled 

area).

15A.13 Placer Gold Potential

There are three main types of gold placer targets in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI—

shallow, intermediate, and deep. The shallow gold placer targets are those that are less than 3 m deep 

and are in small drainages around known bedrock anomalous zones (fig. 15A–30). The shallow gold

placer targets can be worked by artisans and local labor by hand with minimal equipment. The 

intermediate targets are those that may be greater than 3 m deep and less than 10 m deep and could be 

worked by small mechanized means, either a bulldozer or a back hoe, in combination with the use of a 

sluice box. The deep gold placer targets are those that were identified in the USGS preliminary 

assessment (Peters and others, 2007), may be deeper than 10 m and as much as 30 m deep, and could be 
1148 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

worked by water dredge or other large, capital-intensive excavation methods. These deeper deposits 

would be explored with drilling and could extend into the main valleys to the southeast and east of the 

Zarkashan copper and gold AOI (fig. 15A–30). 

A 3- to 6-km-long Zarkashan gold shallow to intermediate depth placer deposit is known within 

the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI. Evaluations have taken place for gold placer deposits in the 

Zarkashan copper and gold AOI, leading to some resource calculations (Homilius, 1968, 1970). The 

known shallow Zarkashan gold placer deposits are in the northern part of the Zarkashan mine subarea 

and in a 3–km-long and 200–m-wide valley that contains 1.2- to 2.5-m-thick gold-bearing sedimentary 

layers near the bedrock. The overburden is 1.5 to 11 m deep. Resources calculated over the main part of 

the gold placer are 116 kilograms of gold, averaging 1,111 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3) gold. 

The gold-bearing sedimentary pay streak is 104,400 cubic meters (m3) in size with an average 2-m 

thickness (Homilius, 1968, 1970; Meshcheryakov and Borozenets, 1970; Abdullah and others, 1977). 

A permissive tract for deep gold placer deposits was constructed by Peters and others (2007) in 

the 180-km-long valley and stream and fan sediments below the two hard rock favorable areas for 

pluton-related gold adjacent to and within parts of the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI (fig. 10.5A–30) 

in map units Q34ac, Q31oe, and Q3c (Doebrich and others, 2006). In addition, upstream active placer 

areas were also designated as part of the tract.

15A.14 Summary of Hard Rock Potential

The Zarkashan copper and gold AOI has potential for porphyry copper-gold and related and 

associated mineral deposits. Porphyry copper and copper-gold deposits are large, relatively low-grade 

deposits that may also contain significant amounts of molybdenum and gold as byproducts. These 

deposits generally require between hundreds of millions and (or) billions of dollars in capital investment 

in the construction phase and also require a significant power and transportation infrastructure. 

Development from the time of discovery to first production may take up to 10 years or more. The 

porphyry deposits commonly are mined in large open pit mines, but especially rich deposits may also be 

mined by underground methods. Porphyry copper and copper-gold deposits are commonly spatially 

associated with a number of high-grade deposit types, such as skarns and polymetallic veins, that are 

genetically related to a common hydrothermal system. These small but high-grade satellite deposits, 

such as those in the Zarkashan copper and gold AOI, commonly serve as exploration guides to the larger 

deposits, and study of the small deposits may lead to discovery of central porphyry copper systems. A 

summary and references to the appropriate occurrence and grade and tonnage models for all these 

deposit types are given in table 15A–4. 

Table 15A–4. Median tonnage and grade for porphyry copper and copper-gold and associated deposit models.

[Median tonnage and grade data refer to models in Cox and Singer (1986). Ag, silver; Au, gold; Cu, copper; Fe, iron; g/t, 

grams per metric ton; Mo, molybdenum; Mt, million metric tons; nd, no data; Pb, lead; wt. %, weight percent; Zn, zinc]

Model

Median 

tonnage, 

in Mt

Median grade1 References

Porphyry copper 

Porphyry copper-gold 

Porphyry copper-molybdenum 

Porphyry copper, skarn-related 

Cu skarn 

Zn-Pb skarn 

Fe skarn 

Polymetallic veins 

Polymetallic replacement 

220

220

270

80

0.56

1.4

7.2

nd

1.8

0.44 Cu, 0.01 Mo, 1.2 Ag, 0.077 Au

0.44 Cu, 0.002 Mo, 1.4 Ag, 0.4 Au

0.45 Cu, 0.028 Mo, 1.5 Ag, 0.012 Au

0.98 Cu, 1 Ag

1.7 Cu

5.9 Zn, 2.8 Pb, 0.09 Cu, 58 Ag

50 Fe

nd

5.2 Pb, 3.9 Zn, 0.094 Cu, 150 Ag, 0.19 

Au

Cox, 1986c; Singer and others, 2008.

Cox, 1986e; Singer and others, 2008.

Cox, 1986d; Singer and others, 2008.

Cox, 1986d; Singer, 1986.

Cox and Theodore, 1986.

Cox, 1986e; Mosier, 1986.

Cox, 1986a; Mosier and Menzie, 1986.

Cox, 1986b.

Morris, 1986; Mosier and others, 1986a.

1

Median grades are in weight percent for copper, molybdenum, lead, and zinc and in grams per metric ton for gold and silver.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1149

Figure 15A–30. Shaded relief map with assessment tracts permissive for gold placer deposits, from Peters and 

others (2007), showing locations of possible undiscovered deep gold placer deposits within and adjacent to the 

Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest. km, kilometer.
1150 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 15A–31. Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection radiometer image of the central parts 

of the Zarkashan copper and gold area of interest, showing major target areas, bedrock gold anomalous areas and 

potential for areas of shallow gold placer deposits. Green areas are vegetation in wet valleys. Au, gold; Cu, copper; 

km, kilometer. Small circles are village centers.
Chapter 15A. Summary of the Zarkashan Copper and Gold Area of Interest 1151

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