United States

Department of

Agriculture

0

c&m Forest Service

Southern Forest

Research Note

SO-364

Experiment Station November 1990

Hardwood Reforestation in the South: Landowners Can

Benefit from Conservation Reserve Program Incentives

Harvey E. Kennedy, Jr.

SUMMARY

Hardwood forests are some of the most productive

timber and wildlife habitat sites in the United States.

Because of their tremendous agricultural potential, most

hardwood forests have been cleared, especially in the

lower Mississippi River Valley. Many of these soils are

now classified as highly erodible or subject to periodic

flooding. The Conservation Reserve Program, initiated

in 1985 to return delicate soils to less demanding uses,

includes the option of putting cleared land back into forests. This publication offers landowners guidelines for

planting and direct-seeding procedures that they can

use in hardwood reforestation.

Keywords: Artificial regeneration, direct seeding,

planting wetlands.

FORESTS TO FARMLANDS; FARMLANDS

TO FORESTS

Hardwood forests provide sites for some of the most

productive timber and wildlife habitat in the United

States. Additional benefits are improved water quality

from forests acting as filter zones along streams and restoration of deteriorated sites. Studies have shown that on

good hardwood sites, hardwoods grow as fast as pines

on good pine sites. Such sites may also support two to

five times as many game animals as do upland pine forests. Hard-masted species such as oaks and pecans

provide particularly important resources for wildlife.

Deer, turkey, rabbits, squirrels, migratory ducks, and

wood ducks are taken in great numbers from hardwood

forests each year.

Before the arrival of the first European settlers to the

North American continent, dense hardwood forests and

cypress-tupelo forests covered floodplains of major and

minor stream bottoms, mountainous coves, and the

swamps along coastal areas. More than 100 species

were represented (Freeman and Frome 1968). The tremendous agricultural potential of the areas, especially

those along rivers and streams with their rich soils and

abundant moisture, was realized almost immediately.

The rate of clearing for agriculture was slow at first,

especially along streams, due to frequent flooding and

poor drainage. Gradually, as flooding was brought under

some control and drainage projects were established,

increasingly more hardwood forests were cleared.

By the late 193Os, about one-half of the original forests had been cleared. Clearing continued at a rapid

pace through the late 197Os, especially in the lower Mississippi River Valley. It is now apparent that many areas

that were cleared were better suited as forests than as

agricultural land. Many of these areas are subject to

periodic flooding and can successfully produce an agricultural crop only in relatively dry years (Allen and Kennedy 1989).

Because much of the forest land cleared for agriculture has been determined to be highly erodible, Congress initiated the Conservation Reserve Program

(CRP) as part of the 1985 Food Security Act to provide

greater protection w delicate soils. One solution is to put

cleared land back into forests. Landowners who participate in the CRP agree to take eligible land out of agroSouthern Forest Experiment Station/l-10210 U.S. Postal Services Bldg., 701 Loyola Avenue, New Orleans, La. 70113

Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Serving Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, E. Oklahoma, Tennessee, E. Texas, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands

1
nomic production and put it into one of the reserve programs for a lo-year period. In return, the landowner is

compensated for part of the per acre cost of reforestation and an annual per acre per year fee for the 1 O-year

period.

In another title of the 1985 Food Security Act, “wetlands” also qualify as areas open to participation. With

wetlands having been defined as land subject to periodic

inundation, this has made several million acres in the

southern and southeastern United States available that

are highly suitable for reestablishing hardwood forests.

Local landowners can be directly involved in such a

reforestation project. Several basic decisions will put the

landowner on the route to better conservation practice, a

healthier environment, and a productive timber crop.

PLANNING A REFORESTATION PROJECT

Careful planning is the first and most critical step in a

landowner’s reforestation project. Landowners must

decide on location and preparation needs for the planting or direct-seeding site, tree species, quantity of seedlings or seeds needed to complete the project, and the

mode of planting or seeding. Decisions need to be made

well in advance of the planting or direct-seeding datepreferably up to a year-to insure availability of planting

and seeding stock, labor, and equipment.

Reforestation will probably take place primarily on

lands least suited for agriculture. For detailed information

on where wetlands lie and on which species were present before clearing, landowners can consult local soil

survey maps that can be obtained through the USDA

Soil Conservation Service county office.

Proper tree species selection will greatly affect the

probability of success of the individual project. Selection

must be based on factors such as soil type, frequency

and duration of flooding (table l), flooding depth, sitespecies adaptability, availability of planting stock, and

personal objectives for reforestation. In many planting

projects in the Lower Mississippi Valley, emphasis has

been placed on hard mast-producing species such as

oaks (Quercus spp.) and sweet pecans (Carya illinoensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch), good for timber and wildlife.

Light-seeded species such as sweetgum (Liquidambar

styraciflua L.), sycamore (Hatanus occidentalis L.), and

the ashes (Fmxinus spp.) will probably establish themselves on the site, because their seeds are easily dispersed by wind and water.

The two major reforestation methods are direct-seeding and planting seedlings, both of which can be done by

hand or machine. The largest continuing seeding and

planting program is that of the Louisiana Department of

Wildlife and Fisheries. This group has direct-seeded and

planted over 4,000 acres during a 5year period in old

fields in the Quachita Wildlife Management Area near

Monroe, Louisiana. Direct-seeding is usually less expensive than planting seedlings, but costs depend on factors

such as species, seed price, labor, and availability of

seedlings. Planting seedlings may result in faster establishment of a forest and greater growth rates through the

first several years.

Site preparation may be necessary to create suitable

growing conditions for seeds or planted seedlings and to

facilitate the use of mechanical planters or seeders. If

the area has been in cultivation for a long time, site preparation by disking would break up any plow pan or otherwise compacted soil and aid in weed control during the

growing season following planting. Disking with a heavy

disk at least twice late in the summer prior to planting is

recommended. Disking should be to at least a 6-inch

depth and preferably 8 to 15 inches deep.

If some burning is necessary near the reforested area,

a firelane should be created around the site. This should

be done annually in early fall and in most cases is easily

accomplished by disking.

Table 1 .-Species tolerance in relation to flooding time and duration

Continuous flooding

January-June January-May January-May

Periodic flooding

January-Aprli January-March

Cypress Green ash

Overcup oak Nuttall oak

Water hickory Persimmon

Sweetgum

Water oak

Willow oak

Nuttall oak

Green ash

Sawtooth oak

Sycamore

Cottonwood

Sweet pecan

Nuttall oak

Green ash

Shumard oak

Cherrybark oak

Swamp chestnut oak

Nuttall oak

Green ash

H. E. Kennedy, Jr., is principal silviculturist at the Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Forest

Experiment Station, Stoneville, MS 38776, in cooperation with the Mississippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station and the Southern Hardwood Forest Research Group.

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DIRECT-SEEDING

Oak seeding research was begun at the Stoneville,

Mississippi, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory in the

early 1960’s. Direct-seeding is becoming a widely used

method of reforestation, particularly in the Lower Mississippi River Valley. Since 1981, some 5,000 to 10,000

acres of publicly and privately owned land have been

direct-seeded with acorns.

Many early tests were with Nuttall oak, (Quercus nut-

&//ii Palmer). Slow growth of this species through the

first 5 years may be discouraging because competing

sprouts and seedlings of several tree species outgrow

the oaks. However, 10 to 15 years later, enough oaks

should be in a competitive crown position to assure their

presence in the future sawtimber stands (Johnson and

Krinard 1987). Although Nuttall has been the most popular red oak to direct-seed and has had the highest success rate, at least six other red oak species, four white

oak species, and sweet pecan also have been successfully direct-seeded. Species selection should be based

upon site quality and landowner preference.

Guidelines given for direct-seeding Nuttall will apply to

other hard mast species that can be seeded. Some

lower germination rates can be expected with other oaks

and pecan. Because white oaks are fall germinating species and are hard to store, acorns should be direct-seeded as soon as possible after collection.

Collecting and Storing Seeds

Acorn collecting is probably the biggest job one will

encounter in a direct-seeding program. Collection is normally done in the South between October 1 and January

1. Acorns that have not been collected from under trees

can be eaten by birds and rodents within a few days to a

few weeks after seed fall. The time when acorns drop

varies by species and individuals within a species, so

one needs to keep checking trees to know when seeds

fall.

Early seeding eliminates long-term storage that

requires cold space and monitoring of acorns. Fresh collected acorns, if seeded before cold storage, seem to be

less attractive to rodents. It is theorized that nonstored

acorns, unlike acorns that have been in cold storage, do

not exude odors that attract rodents to the direct-seeded

site.

Many oaks will produce an excellent seed crop only

one or two years out of every five. Thus, for storable red

oak acorns (Bonner 1973), extra collection may be

required during good seed years. Acorn storage may be

expensive, but is more reliable and productive than collecting acorns during poor crop years. It allows for an

annual seeding program, even in years of total acorn

crop failure.

Practical time limits for storing large quantities of red

oak acorns may be less than the 5 years indicated from

research (Bonner 1973). In Louisiana, about 5,300

pounds of Nuttall oak acorns were collected during the

fall-winter of 1984-85. Acorns were stored in a walk-in

cooler at 35 ’ to 40 “F and used during the 1985, 1986,

and 1987 planting seasons (about 30 months of storage). However, without proper storage, acorns can lose

viability after 1 year of storage. In the Louisiana study,

acorns were stored in polyethylene bags with about 20

to 25 pounds of seed per bag. This made handling

easier and kept seeds from heating within the bag (Johnson and Krinard 1987). Bags were placed in cold storage

on shelves to allow for air circulation. If weevils were

present in the acorns, they would emerge, eat through

the bag, and fall to the floor from the wire shelves, keeping damage to the polyethylene bags to a minimum.

Collecting.-As a general rule, acorns of white oak

cannot be stored more than 3 to 4 months because they

normally germinate in the fall. Rink and Williams (1984)

suggest that acorns of Quercus a/h L. be stored in

1.75-mil polyethylene bags instead of the 4-mil bags

suggested for red oak acorns because of lower germination after storage in 4-mil bags. Suspected causes of

lower germination were higher concentrations of ethanol

and COZ.

Labeling.-Labeling bags to show species, collection date, and percent soundness is important during

storage.

Seeding Operations

Water (Q. nigra L.), cherrybark (Q. f&ate var.

pagodifoh Ell.), Shumard (Q. shumardii Buckl.), and

Nuttall oak acorns can be removed from cold storage

and sown even in the summer with good results. Seeds

that germinate in cold storage will produce seedlings

when field-sown even if their radicles are broken off

(Bonner 1982). Acorns of site-suitable species can be

sown in flood areas soon after the water recedes-usually in April, May, or June-and should germinate and

produce healthy seedlings. The least desirable months

for planting in the South and Southeast, however, are

July through October when the soil is normally hot and

dry.

Old fields have been hand- and machine-sown with

and without site preparation, but seeding is easier and

generally better done on intensively prepared sites.

Mechanical seeders cannot operate effectively in areas

following a harvest cut because of too much debris and

too many stumps.

Machines used for seeding are actually modified oneand two-row soybean seeders. Some will drop acorns

automatically; others are ridden by operators who drop

acorns at specified distances. Seeders that drop seeds

automatically should be checked at the end of each row

3
to make sure the hopper does not jam, leaving long distances unseeded. Seeds sown 1 to 6 inches deep will

germinate and produce seedlings. Deeper depths slow

germination and emergence of the young shoot; therefore, about 2 inches is the recommended depth.

Reported direct-seeding rates range from 30 to 40 acres

per day, with a three person crew using machines, to 6 to

8 acres per person with hand seeding. Normal spacings

are rows 10 to 12 feet apart and 3 to 5 feet within rows,

or 1,000 to 1,500 acorns per acre. Research at the

Southern Hardwoods Laboratory has shown a high rate

of success when direct-seeding is done in complete

openings greater than 100 feet on a side. Direct-seeding

in openings less than this size have generally resulted in

failures due to rodent damage (Johnson and Krinard

1987).

Germination as high as 80 percent has been reported

in some research trials (Johnson and Krinard 1987).

However, about 35percent germination seems to be a

fairly reliable planning figure for commercial sowings.

Thus 1,000 to 1,500 acorns per acre should result in 300

to 500 one-year-old trees, which would be a sufficient

number for most objectives.

On the basis of limited data (Johnson and Krinard

1987) it appears that seedlings can be established 1

year after direct-seeding at a lower cost than planting

seedlings. It appears that direct-seeding can be done for

about 60 to 70 percent of the cost of planting seedlings.

However, there are so many influencing factors that reliable cost comparisons would involve a thorough economic analysis.

Some situations may not be conducive to direct-seeding. Direct-seeding failures .may occur under adverse

field environments (such as free water coupled with high

temperatures, a deadly environment for newly germinated acorns), extended periods of drought during growing season, residual chemicals in old fields, animals

(especially raccoons), and defective acorns or improper

storage techniques.

Post Direct-Seeding Operations

I

Most land managers have not attempted to control

weeds around direct-seeded oaks in old fields (Johnson

and Krinard 1987). In some research trials, bushhogging

between rows of seedlings appeared to improve seedling survival and growth. If one is willing to accept a little

lower survival and growth, competition control may not

be necessary in natural stand openings until free-togrow oaks are 15- to 20-feet tall (Johnson 1981). Under

normal conditions, a site with an 80- to go-foot site index

should produce 15- to 20-foot tall trees in 10 to 15 years.

At that time, if necessary, individual oaks can be

released by deadening or by cutting competing trees.

PLANTING SEEDLINGS

Planting tree seedlings is a well-established method of

reforestation. When done correctly, the chances for successful establishment of a forest plantation are very high

(Allen and Kennedy 1989, Kennedy and others 1986,

Kennedy 1984). If the planting is done incorrectly or

carelessly, however, the project could be an expensive

failure. Keys to successful initial establishment of seedlings, in addition to selection of the appropriate species

for the site, are obtaining good quality seedlings, ensuring good preplanting care of seedlings, and using proper

planting procedures.

The primary sources of tree seedlings are State forestry organizations and private nurseries. The seedlings

available from most nurseries will be bare-rooted-separated from the soil they were grown in at the nursery.

Bare-rooted seedlings are less expensive than container-grown seedlings, lighter, easier to transport, and

easier to plant.

In contrast to pine seedlings, which are usually planted

while still quite small, hardwood seedlings should be

good-sized and sturdy. They should have a top length of

at least 18 inches, and the diameter at root-collar should

be at least 3/8 inch. Roots should be well developed and

pruned to a length of about 8 inches to make planting

easier.

Bare-rooted seedlings require careful handling; the

roots are very tender and vulnerable. Seedlings generally come from the nursery wrapped in bundles of 50 to

200. If the seedlings are not to be planted immediately,

they should be stored (still bundled) in a cool, dark

place-ideally in a cold storage unit. A barn, shed, or

dense shade will do for a few days, as long as the roots

are not allowed to freeze or dry out.

Only as many seedlings as can be planted in 1 day

should be taken to the field. They should either be taken

out of the nursery-supplied bundles and planted immediately or be transferred in small groups to a bucket or

planting bag containing moist sphagnum or peat moss.

One should never carry a group of seedlings in the hand

while planting, for their roots will be exposed to the air

and the sun and will dry out very quickly.

The best time to plant bare-rooted seedlings is while

they are dormant and when the soil is moist-generally,

from January through March in the South. Planting can

be done into May if the seedlings are kept in cold storage

until planting.

Spacings of 10 by 10 feet or 12 by 12 feet are recommended for timber production. However, if the goal is to

reforest primarily for wildlife, spacings of 12 by 12, 15 by

15, or even 20 by 20 feet will meet the objectives.

Seedlings can be hand planted using a dibble bar, tile

spade, or sharpshooter shovel. It is important that the
roots be placed in the hole so they can spread out somewhat naturally-they should not be twisted, balled up, or

bent. Moist soil should be packed firmly around the

roots.

Planting a tree by hand is a simple task, but nevertheless is often done incorrectly. If a crew of inexperienced

tree planters is used, it is essential to demonstrate

clearly the proper way to plant. The crew should be

supervised more carefully as the day wears on and they

begin to get careless due to fatigue.

Perhaps the most frequent planting mistake is planting

the seedling either too deep or, more commonly, not

deep enough. Seedlings should be planted with the root

collar just below the soil surface. Making holes too shallow for proper placement of roots causes “J-rooting,”

which can result in malformed root systems. A third mistake is leaving an air pocket around the roots after closing the holes, which may allow the roots to dry out.

One experienced person can plant 600 to 800 seedlings per day if planting conditions are relatively good.

This can vary substantially, however, for a variety of reasons, including degree of site preparation, temperature,

and the size of seedlings being planted.

Machine planting is usually much faster than hand

planting on soils other than heavy clays, when other site

conditions are favorable. An experienced crew of 2 to 3

can plant 4,000 to 10,000 seedlings per day with a planting machine. Often survival will be better than that

achieved by hand planting.

Early Plantation Development

The landowner should closely monitor development of

the new plantation. Any serious problems are likely to

show up in the first couple of years after regeneration.

Outright failures and only partially successful plantations

occur occasionally. They most often result from

extended post-planting dry periods; flooding coupled

with high temperatures, poor planting or seeding practices, residual herbicides, or herbicide drift from nearby

aerial applications; poor quality seed or seedlings; or

animal depredation.

Early weed control (by disking, mowing and/or use of

herbicides) will speed growth of seedlings during the first

few years and perhaps slightly increase survival, but the

benefits may not justify the costs. Bushhogging to cut

weeds and grasses is the only weed control allowed

under CRP, but the landowner cannot be reimbursed for

these costs under CRf? Too much weed control might

actually reduce the short-term value of the site for some

types of wildlife that use the weeds as food or cover.

There is no really cost-effective method to protect

newly established seeds or seedlings from animal predation. Domestic animals, birds, deer, rabbits, squirrels,

raccoons, beavers, nutria, and mice may all destroy

seeds or seedlings. Fencing to control domestic animals

and good site preparation to reduce ground cover can

reduce the number of rodents. The only planting situation in which protection of individual seedlings is justified

is where there is a high population of nutria. In such a

case, chicken-wire predator guards are essential, especially for cypress (Taxodium disfichum (L.) Rich.) plantings. Some loss and damage caused by animals should

be expected and tolerated.

BENEFITS: TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE

Accepted methods for hardwood reforestation by

direct-seeding or planting are available for the landowner. In addition to more wildlife, timber, soil conservation, and better water quality, one can expect numerous

other benefits, such as personal satisfaction and aesthetics, from reforesting part of their land. Some benefits

are economically related-cost sharing on establishment costs and annual rent fees. Other benefits may be

less tangible but nevertheless still important to the individual and to the health of our environment.

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, James A.; Kennedy, Harvey E., Jr. 1989. Bottomland hardwood reforestation in the lower Mississippi

valley. Slidell, LA: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish

and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Research

Center; Stoneville, MS: U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station.

28 p.

Bonner, FT. 1973. Storing red oak acorns. Tree Planters’

Notes. 24(3): 12-l 3.

Bonner, FT. 1982. The effect of damaged radicles of

presprouted red oak acorns on seedling production.

Tree Planters’ Notes. 33(4): 13-l 5.

Freeman, O.L.; Frome, M. 1968. National forests of the

United States. New York: G.P Putnams Sons (eds.)

and Waukesha, WI: Country Beautiful Foundation, Inc.

194 p.

Johnson, R.L. 1981. Oak seeding-it can work. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 5(l): 28-33.

Johnson, R.L.; Krinard, R.M. 1987. Direct seeding of

southern oaks-a progress report. In: Proceedings

15th annual hardwood symposium of the Hardwood

Research Council; 1987 May 1 O-12; Memphis, TN.

Memphis, TN: Hardwood Research Council: 1 O-l 6.

Kennedy, H.E., Jr. 1984. Hardwood growth and foliar

concentrations best in clean cultivation treatments.

Forest Ecology Management. 8: 117-l 26.

5
Kennedy, H.E., Jr.; Schlaegel, B.E.; Krinard, R.M. 1988.

Nutrient distribution and tree development through

age 8 of four oaks planted at five spacings in a minor

stream bottom. In: Proceedings of the 1986 Southern

Forestry Biomass Workshop; 1986 June 16-l 9; Knoxville, TN. Norris, TN: Tennessee Valley Authority:

65-70.

Rink, G.; Williams, RD. 1984. Storage technique affects

white oak acorn viability. Tree Planters’ Notes. 35(l):

3-5.

Persons of any race, color, national origin, sex, age,

religion, or with any handicapping condition are welcome to use and enjoy all facilities, programs, and

services of the USDA. Discrimination in any form is

strictly against agency policy, and should be reported

to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, DC

20250.