Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold 

Area of Interest

By Michael P. Chornack and Thomas J. Mack

3C.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the geohydrology of the Badakhshan gold area of interest (AOI) in 

northern Afghanistan identified by Peters and others (2007). The AOI is located in Baharak, Fayzabad, 

Ragh, and Shighnan Districts in Badakhshan Province (fig. 3C–1a,b). Fayzabad (Faizabad), the province 

center, is located in the southwestern part of the AOI. The entire AOI is mountainous, with deeply 

incised stream channels. The northwestern edge of the AOI is adjacent to the Amu Darya River (Daryai 

Panj) and the Afghanistan-Tajikistan border. 

Water is needed not only to process mineral resources in Afghanistan, but also to supply existing 

communities and the associated community growth that may accompany a developing mining economy. 

Information on the climate, vegetation, topography, and demographics of the AOI is summarized to 

provide information on the seasonal availability of, and seasonal demands for, water. The geohydrology 

of the AOI is described through the use of maps of streams and irrigated areas, generalized 

geohydrology and topography, and well locations. Where these data are available, the depth to water and 

height of static water in wells are documented. The results of lineament analyses are presented to 

identify areas where the rock may be more fractured than in other areas, which may be an indicator of 

high relative water yield and storage in bedrock aquifers. 

Afghanistan’s recent turbulent history has left many of the traditional archival institutions in 

ruins, and most water-resource and meteorological data-collection activities had stopped by 1980. 

Recently (2011), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), foreign government agencies, and the Afghan 

government have begun water-resource investigations; however, these activities and the amount of data 

collected are limited. This report summarizes the satellite imagery and climatic, topographic, geologic, 

surface-water, and groundwater data available. Geohydrologic inferences are made on the basis of an 

integrated analysis of these data and an understanding of conditions in other areas of Afghanistan. 

3C.2 Climate and Vegetation

Climate information for the Badakhshan gold AOI is based on data generated for the Afghanistan 

agricultural-meteorological (Agromet) project. Agromet was initiated by the U.S. Agency for 

International Development and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2003 to 

establish data-collection stations and develop country-wide agrometeorological services. Scientists with 

the Agromet project are assisting the Afghan Government to collect and analyze agricultural and 

meteorological data as they relate to crop production, irrigation, water supply, energy, and aviation. The 

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assumed responsibility for the operation of the project in 2005; by the 

end of August 2010, 87 Agromet stations were recording precipitation data and other parameters. 

Additionally, the Agromet project receives data from 18 Afghanistan Meteorological Authority (AMA) 

weather stations. The Agromet project has developed a database that includes data collected at the 

Agromet stations over the past 6 years (2005–2011), data collected at the AMA weather stations, and 

historical data collected at weather stations from 1942 to 1993. Data collected as part of the Agromet 

project are compiled annually by water year (September through August) and are reported in the 

Afghanistan Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Seasonal Bulletin) published by the Ministry of 
204 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock. Unless otherwise specified, the Agromet data cited in this report 

are from the agricultural season that extends from 1 September, 2009, to 31 August, 2010. 

a 
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 205

b 

Figure 3C–1. (a) Landsat image showing the location of, and (b) place names, stream names, and streamgage 

station numbers in, the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern Afghanistan.

The climate of the AOI is typical of a continental interior mountainous region. The winters are 

characterized by cold temperatures (less than 0°C (degrees Celsius)) (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, 

and Livestock, 2010) and substantial amounts of precipitation (81–255 mm (millimeters)) (Ministry 
206 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 2). The summers are warm (28–37.5°C) 

(Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 12) and dry (precipitation 24–100 mm) 

(Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010, map 4). Spring is a transition period, with 

increasing temperatures and some rain. The Fayz-Abad Agromet station is located in the district of 

Fayzabad in the Fayz-Abad District subarea near the Kokcha River (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, 

and Livestock, 2010). Precipitation and temperature data for the Fayz-Abad Agromet station are shown 

in table 3C–1. Precipitation recorded at this station for the 2009–2010 water year was 601.2 mm, much 

greater than the long-term average (LTA) of 492.6 mm (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and 

Livestock, 2010). Snow fell at the Fayz-Abad Agromet station on 7 days during the 2009–2010 water 

year—1 in January, 5 in February, and 1 in March. Snow-cover maps are provided by Agromet and the 

USGS Famine Early Warning Systems Network (U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Agency for 

International Development, 2010). Snow accumulation was reported as 46 cm (centimeters) during the 

2009–2010 water year and 21 cm during the 2008–2009 water year. No precipitation was recorded 

during September and October 2009 or July and August 2010. The Afghanistan snow-depth map for 

17 January, 2009, shows 10 to 30 cm of snow cover in the Fayz-Abad District subarea. The same map 

shows that the snow depth ranged from 10 to 100 cm across the AOI and increased to the east, where

elevations are higher. The Afghanistan snow-depth map for 30 September, 2010, shows less than 2 cm 

of snow over the AOI (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). The minimum average 

monthly temperature at the Fayz-Abad Agromet station during the 2009–2010 water year was 1.7°C (in 

February) and the maximum average monthly temperature was 26.1°C (in July) (Ministry of 

Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010). The LTA minimum and maximum average monthly 

temperatures were -0.6°C for January and 26.9°C for July, respectively. 

Table 3C–1. Annual, long-term annual average, and long-term minimum and maximum average monthly 

precipitation and temperature at the Fayz-Abad Agrometeorological (Agromet) station, Afghanistan.

[AOI, area of interest; km, kilometers; m, meters; asl, above mean sea level; mm, millimeters; °C, degrees Celsius]

Precipitation Temperature

1 1 Long-term average Long-term average

Distance from Agromet Elevation Monthly Monthly 2009–10 AOI center Maximum 

station (m asl) Annual minimum maximum Minimum (°C) Monthly annual (mm) (km) (°C) and (mm) (mm) and (mm) and and month mean (°C) month month month

Fayz-Abad 30 1,200 601.2 492.6 1.1 August 99.2 –0.6 11.3 26.9

April January July

1

The “Potential Natural Vegetation” described in Breckle (2007) is the vegetation cover that 

would be present if not modified by human activity. Today, as a result of continued exploitation such as 

grazing, farming, and deforestation, much of the original natural vegetation is found only in a few 

remote areas of Afghanistan. The destruction of the natural vegetation has resulted in the degradation 

and erosion of the soil cover in some areas. Many areas exhibit signs of long-lasting desertification 

caused by human activity. 

Long-term averages are based on data from 1942 to 1993 and 2005 to 2010 as reported in the Afghanistan 

Agrometeorological Seasonal Bulletin (Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock, 2010).

Precipitation, elevation, and soil cover control the types of vegetation in the AOI. The natural 

vegetation in the AOI is of three distinct types. The upper elevations are dominated by alpine vegetation 

and are classified by Breckle (2007) as “thorny cushions, subalpine and alpine deserts and meadows,” 

and the lower slopes are classified as “juniperous-woodlands.” Aerial imagery and irrigation information 

(fig. 3C–2) indicate that some agricultural development is present adjacent to the larger streams in the 

AOI but is limited by the width of the of the valley bottoms and is confined to the terraces along the 

streams. Aerial images of the AOI show that approximately 2 percent of the side channels and lowgradient side slopes are occupied by cultivated fields or pastures.
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 207

3C.3 Demographics

The largest community in Badakhshan is the province center, Faizabad, located in the 

southwestern part of the Badakhshan gold AOI (fig. 3C–1b). Most of the people living in Faizabad are 

merchants or farmers. The city is located along the Kokcha River, a perennial stream that ultimately

discharges into the Amu Darya River. The only roads in the AOI are mapped as “tracks” on the 

Fayzabad and Ragh District maps (Afghanistan Information Management Services, 2004). A few of the 

“tracks” connect the AOI to the Amu Darya River.

Land type within the AOI varies from barren on the upper mountain and ridge tops to cultivated 

fields and small villages in the valleys of the larger perennial and ephemeral streams (figs. 3C–1a and 

3C–2). Small villages and farm areas are located in some upland basins (between the stream bottoms 

and the ridge tops). The size, in both area and population, of the settlements is limited by the amount of 

land suitable for building and by the availability of water. These settlements are located near local water 

sources that can be used for domestic consumption and for irrigation of crops. Some upland areas have 

been developed into summer pastures for livestock grazing. Aerial images of the AOI show that almost 

all areas suitable for settlement and agriculture are populated. The population density of the AOI as 

mapped by LandScan (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010) indicates that the population is more 

dispersed (fig. 3C–3) than is indicated by the Afghanistan Information Management Services (2004). 

Population density in a few cells of figure 3C–3 is 2,500 to 5,000 per km2 (square kilometer); in most 

areas of the AOI, however, it is fewer than 100 people per km2. The 2009–2010 settled population 

statistics for Badakhshan Province indicate 32,800 in urban and 827,500 in rural areas (Afghanistan

Central Statistics Organization, 2010). The population density shown in figure 3C–3 has a pixel 

resolution of about 1 km2

 (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2010). 

3C.4 Topography and Geomorphology

The Badakhshan gold AOI is in the Hindu Kush Mountains. Several mountain peaks in and 

immediately adjacent to the AOI reach elevations in excess of 2,900 m (meters) above sea level (asl) 

(Bohannon, 2005). Farther east (at approximately longitude 70° 45’) are three peaks that range in 

elevation from 3,802 to 4,152 m asl. North of the AOI, the elevation of the peaks is consistently greater 

than 3,500 m. The AOI is cut by deeply incised perennial and ephemeral streams. The major streams 

flow west into the Amu Darya River. The elevation of the Amu Darya River where it is closest to the 

AOI is about 700 m asl. The stream channels form a series of roughly east-west-trending ridges and 

valleys. The major streams in the AOI on average are at or above the 2,000-m contour line, and 

stream-valley bottoms and ridge tops are separated by about 600 m of relief (Bohannon, 2005). 

The geomorphology of the AOI is dominated by glacial and fluvial processes that have been 

enhanced by the ongoing tectonic uplift of the Hindu Kush Mountains, which, at the higher elevations 

and especially on the north-facing slopes, are permanently covered with snow and ice. Although no 

glaciers are currently (2011) located in the AOI, the landforms, including arêtes and cirques, preserve 

alpine glacial processes. The major stream channels are V-shaped and incised. Varying thicknesses of 

alluvial material are present in the stream channels (Bohannon and Stoeser, 2005). The smaller streams 

display dendritic drainage patterns and are identified as bedrock outcrop on the geologic map, indicating 

that little alluvial material is present in the smaller stream valleys (Bohannon, 2005; Davis, 2006).
208 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 3C–2. Historical streamgage station locations, digitally generated drainage network, and irrigated areas in 

the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern Afghanistan.
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 209

Figure 3C–3. Population density of Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern Afghanistan.
210 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

3C.5 Geohydrology

The geohydrology of Afghanistan has been described in general terms by Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977, book 2). As defined in their “Geology and mineral resources of Afghanistan,” the 

Badakhshan gold AOI is in the Central Afghanistan Hydrogeological Folded Region. Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977) describe the geology of this region as “variably metamorphosed Precambrian, 

Paleozoic, and Mesozoic stratified rocks and intrusions of different ages.” The outcrops and near-surface 

rocks in the AOI can be grouped according to their physical and hydraulic properties. The generalized 

geohydrology of the AOI is shown in figure 3C–4 with the underlying topography to allow examination 

of the geohydrology in the context of relief. Figure 3C–5 shows the generalized geohydrology without 

topography for a clearer depiction of the geohydrologic units. Generalized geohydrologic groups were 

created from a country-wide geologic coverage (Doebrich and Wahl, 2006) by combining sediments and 

rocks into major sediment- or rock-type groups of similar hydrologic characteristics. The geohydrologic 

groups in the AOI, ranked from high to low relative hydraulic conductivity (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, 

table 2.3), are “sands, undifferentiated; conglomerate sediments and rocks; limestones and dolostones; 

sedimentary rocks; metamorphic rocks; and intrusive rocks and lavas” (figs. 3C–4 and 3C–5). Doebrich 

and Wahl (2006) used geologic maps at a scale of 1:250,000, modified from Russian and Afghan 

Geological Survey (AGS) mapping, to generate the country-wide geologic coverage. The 1:250,000-

scale geologic map that covers this AOI is provided by Bohannon and Stoeser (2005).

The infiltration and movement of water in the metamorphic and igneous rocks is probably 

controlled by the fractures in those rocks. Many north-south-trending to northeast-southwest-trending, 

and northwest-southeast-trending, faults have been mapped in the AOI (Ruleman and others, 2007). The 

fracture densities and orientations in the metamorphic and igneous rocks are probably influenced by the 

presence and trends of the faults. Where flow paths in fractures intersect the land surface, such as in 

valleys, spring discharge may occur. Abdullah and Chmyriov (1977) state, “The Precambrian aquifer 

system is within the Hendukush Badakhshan, Hari Rod, Upper Helmand and Argandab hydrogeological 

massifs. Water bearing rocks are gneisses, shales, migmatites, and quartzites.” 

A geologic map of the area (Bohannon and Stoeser, 2005) shows alluvium (grouped as sands, 

undifferentiated) in the Kokcha, Darya Ragh, and Darya Sewu River valleys (fig. 3C–4). Deposits of 

alluvium and colluvium are present on the more gently sloping hillsides and in the upland basins 

(figs. 3C–4 and 3C–5). The thickness of these deposits is unknown, but is sufficient to support the 

growth of trees in some areas. Aerial images show no evidence of any karezes (traditional hand-dug 

tunnels for water supply) in the AOI. The absence of karezes could be attributable to the predominance 

of bedrock outcrop with only a thin covering of sediments in the area. 

The bedrock outcrops in the northwest Badakhshan-Ragh District subarea are composed of 

gneiss, granite and granodiorite, conglomerate, and sandstone (3C–5). One prospect site in the Ragh 

District subarea is located in an area of limestone outcrop (Peters and others, 2007). Abdullah and 

Chmyriov (1977) report that the “Water bearing rocks are limestones, dolomites, sandstones, and 

siltstones.” The lateral extent of the limestone in the AOI could be limited by faulting and the intrusion 

of igneous rocks. The extensive conglomerate sediments (semi-consolidated) and rocks present on the 

surface north of this site could be underlain by the limestone aquifer. 

Sandstones and conglomerates in the AOI are potential aquifers of limited area and thickness.

Two outcrops of these rock types in the Ragh District subarea (Bohannon and Stoeser, 2005) have a 

combined area of about 160 km2

. The stream channels that cut through the sandstones and 

conglomerates expose a thickness of at least 250 m of section, so the volume of this unit could be as 

much as 40 km3

. These groups are exposed on fairly flat upland surfaces; therefore, the potential for 

local infiltration and storage of groundwater is good. Sandstone and conglomerate are also present along 

the western border of the AOI. 
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 211

Figure 3C–4. Topography and generalized geohydrology in the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern

Afghanistan.
212 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

Figure 3C–5.

Metamorphic rocks and intrusive rocks and lavas comprise much of the outcrop in the southeast 

Badakhshan-Baharak and the southwest Badakhshan-Fayz Abad District subareas (figs. 3C–4 and 

Generalized geohydrology and mapped faults in the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern 

Afghanistan.
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 213

3C–5). The metamorphic rocks are generally gneiss and the intrusive rocks and lavas are granites, 

granodiorites, and rhyolitic lavas. These rocks are cut by north- to northeast-trending faults (Bohannon 

and Stoeser, 2005; Ruleman and others, 2007). The presence of faults with associated fracture zones can 

enhance the water-transmitting and storage capacity of these rocks. It is possible that zones of secondary 

fracturing have been created by the intrusion of the igneous rocks into the sedimentary and metamorphic 

rocks. The large areal extent of these outcrops and the recharge potential of the winter snowpack 

increase the probability that some groundwater resources are available within this geohydrologic group 

in the AOI. 

A distinct band of north- to northeast-trending sedimentary rocks, as well as limestones and 

dolostones, is present in the center of the AOI (figs. 3C–4 and 3C–5). The approximate mapped area of 

these groups in the AOI is 550 km2. The primary porosity of the limestone and dolostone makes these 

rocks potentially high-yielding aquifers. Both of these geohydrologic groups are cut by north- to 

northeast-trending faults and have been intruded by igneous rocks (Bohannon and Stoeser, 2005). 

Because the faults likely enhance fracturing and cause secondary porosity in these rocks, the total 

porosity of the limestone and dolostone could be very high. The presence of fractures could enhance the 

water-storage capacity of this group as well. Therefore, these rocks could be an important aquifer—one 

that has not been used extensively—in the AOI. 

3C.6 Surface Water

A network of major streams, mostly perennial streams, modified from AIMS (Afghanistan 

Information Management Services, 1997) and VMAP1 (National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 1995), 

in the Badakhshan gold AOI is shown in figure 3C–2. A network representing likely ephemeral streams, 

generated with a digital elevation model (DEM), also is shown in figure 3C–2. Names of major streams 

and identification numbers for any streamgages and ungaged streamflow estimation sites in the AOI are 

shown in figure 3C–1b. The AOI lies within the Amu Darya River Basin (Olson and Williams-Sether, 

2010, fig. 2). The Amu Darya River (also called the Oxus) originates in the Pamir region of Afghanistan 

and forms more than 1,100 km (kilometers) of Afghanistan’s northern border with the countries of 

Tajikistan and Turkmenistan (Uhl and Tahiri, 2003). The flow of the Amu Darya River, one of the major 

sources of water for the Aral Sea, is regulated by international agreements (Favre and Kamal, 2004). 

The Amu Darya River touches the northwestern corner of the AOI (figs. 3C–1a,b). The largest river in 

the AOI, the Kokcha River, is a tributary to the Amu Darya River. This river originates in the 

northeastern part of the Hindu Kush Mountains, is perennial, and has substantial flow from snowmelt 

runoff in the spring months. The Kokcha River enters the AOI at the middle of the southern border and 

exits at the western border. The province center of Faizabad is located on the Kokcha River. The other 

named streams in the AOI are the Daryai Ragh and the Darya Sewu (fig. 3C–1b). There is no indication 

of any dams constructed on the main channel of the Kokcha River or any of the side channels. Historical 

streamflow data are available from three streamgages on the Kokcha River and one of its tributaries—

one in, and two just outside, the AOI (fig. 3C–1b) (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The period of 

record for these stations extends from 22 April, 1969, to 30 September, 1978. The Warduj River at 

Shashpul streamgage station (fig. 3C–1b, Afghan identification number 15–10.R00–1A) in the AOI has 

an elevation of 1,407 m asl. This station has a drainage area of 4,485 km2

 and is located about 40 km 

upstream from Faizabad and about 4 km upstream from the confluence of the Warduj and Kokcha 

Rivers (fig. 3C–2). The mean annual flow for the period of record was 52.5 m3/s (cubic meters per 

second) with a standard deviation of 8.14 m3/s (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean 

streamflow per unit area for this station is 0.012 m3/s/km2. The maximum monthly mean streamflow

was 203 m3

/s (June 1973). The minimum monthly mean streamflow was 11.8 m3/s (February 1972 and 

March 1975). A statistical summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (Olson and 

Williams-Sether, 2010) is presented in table 3C–2. Statistical summaries of streamflow data for all 

available historical gages in Afghanistan can be accessed at http://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/water.php. 
214 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

The Kokcha River near Jurm streamgage (fig. 3C–1b, Afghan identification number 15–0.000–

6M) is just outside the southern border of the AOI. This station has a drainage area of 7,670 km2 (Olson 

and Williams-Sether, 2010) and its elevation is 1,449 m asl. The period of record for this station is 1 

October, 1969, to 30 September, 1978. The mean annual flow for that period was 74.1 m3

/s with a 

standard deviation of 10.9 m3/s (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per 

unit area for this station is 0.0097 m3/s/km2. The maximum monthly mean streamflow was 302 m3/s for 

July 1973 and the minimum monthly mean streamflow was 17.2 m3/s for February 1971. A statistical 

summary of monthly and annual mean streamflows for this station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010) is 

presented in table 3C–3. 

The Warduj River near Baharak streamgage (fig. 3C–1b, Afghan identification number 15–

10.R00–2A) is about 8 km upstream from the Warduj River near Shashpul station and is just outside the 

southern border of the AOI. This station has a drainage area of 3,350 km2 (Olson and Williams-Sether, 

2010) and its elevation is 1,465 m asl. The period of record for this station is 22 April, 1969, to 30 

September, 1978. The mean annual flow for that period was 34.8 m3

/s, with a standard deviation of 4.94 

m3/s (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010). The annual mean streamflow per unit area for this station is 

0.010 m3/s/km2. The maximum monthly mean streamflow was 128 m3/s for July 1978 and the minimum 

monthly mean streamflow was 7.35 m3/s for April 1977. A statistical summary of monthly and annual 

mean streamflows for this station (Olson and Williams-Sether, 2010) is presented in table 3C–4. 

Table 3C–2. Statistical summary 

streamgage station, Afghanistan. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Warduj River at 

15–10.R00–1A Warduj River at Shashpul

Shashpul 

Month

Maximum

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Minimum

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Mean

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standard

deviation

3 (m /s)

Coefficient 

of

variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

45.1

30.5

23.5

23.2

21.0

16.0

29.2

70.6

203

184

126

74.1

66.4

1970

1970

1970

1970

1970

1970

1978

1973

1973

1973

1978

1970

1973

25.8

19.5

16.2

13.5

11.8

11.8

13.8

23.4

84.2

115

77.3

44.3

41.4

1972

1976

1976

1972

1972

1975

1977

1974

1976

1970

1974

1974

1974

31.3

23.5

19.1

15.8

14.6

13.6

20.4

45.2

134

146

105

59.5

52.5

5.82

3.30

2.17

2.91

2.75

1.34

4.99

17.6

39.7

27.9

15.4

11.3

8.14

0.19

0.14

0.11

0.18

0.19

0.10

0.24

0.39

0.30

0.19

0.15

0.19

0.15

4.99

3.74

3.04

2.52

2.33

2.17

3.25

7.21

21.3

23.3

16.7

9.48

100
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 215

Table 3C–3. Statistics of monthly and annual mean streamflows for the Kikcha River at Jurm streamgage station. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

15–0.000–6M Kokcha River near Jurm

Maximum Minimum Mean

Month Streamflo Water year Streamflo Water year Streamflo Standard Coefficient Percentage

w of w of w deviation of of annual

3 (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) occurrence (m3/s) (m /s) variation streamflow

October 54.4 1970 35.3 1975 46.3 6.78 0.15 5.23

Novembe

r 41.4 1974 29.4 1975 34.6 4.10 0.12 3.91

December 32.8 1977 24.0 1975 28.2 3.05 0.11 3.19

January 30.0 1970 19.1 1972 24.2 3.40 0.14 2.73

February 27.9 1974 17.2 1971 22.0 3.56 0.16 2.48

March 23.6 1971 17.9 1978 20.5 1.76 0.09 2.31

April 39.2 1971 18.2 1977 26.6 6.94 0.26 3.01

May 112 1971 38.0 1972 63.3 25.4 0.40 7.15

June 282 1973 107 1976 175 52.5 0.30 19.7

July 302 1973 150 1970 207 53.9 0.26 23.3

August 186 1973 112 1972 151 23.5 0.16 17.0

Septembe

r 112 1970 69.5 1972 88.0 12.5 0.14 9.94

Annual 96.8 1973 58.2 1972 74.1 10.9 0.15 100

Table 3C–4. Statistics of monthly 

station. 3 [m /s, cubic meters per second]

and annual mean streamflows for the Warduj River near Baharak streamgage 

15–10.R00–2A Warduj River near Baharak

Maximum Minimum Mean

Month Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Water year Streamflow of (m3/s) occurrence

Streamflow

(m3/s)

Standard

deviation

3 (m /s)

Coefficient 

of

variation

Percentage

of annual

streamflow

October

November

December

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Annual

25.4

16.1

13.7

12.4

11.4

11.2

12.1

28.5

119

128

113

56.3

43.3

1970

1973

1973

1970

1973

1972

1978

1971

1973

1978

1969

1973

1978

18.8

14.3

11.4

9.86

8.44

7.38

7.35

10.3

43.9

73.3

61.0

36.2

28.4

1973

1977

1977

1977

1971

1971

1977

1977

1976

1972

1974

1972

1972

21.5

15.4

12.8

11.2

10.5

9.55

10.5

19.3

74.8

103

84.6

45.2

34.8

2.19

0.58

0.69

0.98

1.12

1.14

1.57

7.57

26.0

22.1

15.8

7.61

4.94

0.10

0.04

0.05

0.09

0.11

0.12

0.15

0.39

0.35

0.21

0.19

0.17

0.14

5.14

3.67

3.05

2.68

2.51

2.28

2.52

4.62

17.9

24.7

20.2

10.8

100

Streamflows were estimated for ungaged streams in the AOI. Estimates of streamflow statistics

were calculated for points S1, S2, S3, and S4 (fig. 3C–2) using a drainage-area-ratio method (Olson and 

Mack, 2011) based on historical flows at the Warduj River near Baharak (fig. 3C–1b, Afghan 

identification number 15–10.R00–2A). The Warduj River near Baharak streamgage station was selected 
216 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

as the most representative historical gage, based on drainage-basin size and location in Afghanistan, for 

use with this method at this location. The estimated mean annual streamflow for point S1 (app. 2), with 

a drainage area of 508 km2

, based on historical data is about 4.87 m3/s. By applying the same method, 

the estimated mean annual streamflow at points S2, S3, and S4 is 0.85, 5.4, and 10.64 m3/s, respectively. 

The seasonal timing of minimum and maximum monthly streamflow, with high flows in summer and 

low flows in winter and early spring (app. 2), probably is similar to that of the Warduj River near 

Baharak station (fig. 3C–2).

There are two large streams in the Ragh District subarea (fig. 3C–1) in the northwestern section 

of the AOI that may have sustained flow throughout the year, although the flow would vary seasonally. 

Both streams have headwaters in the eastern part of the AOI and drain to the west, ultimately

discharging into the Amu Darya River. There are no streamgages on either of these streams, but 

streamflow estimates were calculated for points S1 and S3 on these tributaries (fig. 3C–2). The two 

streams have roughly parallel main drainage channels, and the southern stream joins the northern stream 

just outside the western border of the AOI. The northern stream has a main channel about 61 km long 

and a tributary channel. The headwaters are in an area where glacial cirques are common at an elevation 

of about 3,500 m asl. Many snow fields are present on the north-facing slope of the arête formed by the 

cirques, but there do not appear to be any permanent snow fields on the south-facing slopes during the 

warmer months of the year. Flow in this stream (S1, fig. 3C–2) probably is high in the late spring and 

early summer. The estimated midsummer flows are the highest monthly flows (app. 2) and may be 

sustained by snowmelt, groundwater discharge at springs, and occasional summer rains throughout this 

time of the year. The estimated flows are lowest in the winter months when the contribution to flow 

from snowmelt is smallest. The tributary stream has an east-west channel about 27 km long and flows

through the middle of the Ragh District subarea. The headwaters are located in deeply incised valleys at 

about 2,800 m asl. The north-facing slopes have some perennial snow cover. The drainage area of this 

stream network is about 550 km2

. There is no indication of any dams constructed on the main channel of 

this stream or any of the side channels.

The southern stream located in the northwestern part of the AOI, the Daryai Ragh (S3, fig. 3C–

2), is about 36 km long with a tributary channel in the center of the Ragh District subarea (S2, fig. 3C–

2). The headwaters of this stream consist of several dendritic streams that branch off from the main 

stream channel. These streams are in upland valleys at about 2,600 m asl. This headwaters area is on the 

eastern edge of the Ragh District subarea. The headwaters area is bordered by north- and south-facing 

slopes. The north-facing slopes appear to have some year-round snow fields. Snowmelt probably 

supplies water to the Daryai Ragh drainage basin throughout the summer and fall. Spring streamflow

and rainfall events also could supply water for sustained flow. The drainage area of this stream network 

is about 660 km2. A major stream on the east side of the AOI, the Darya Sewa, flows through the 

Baharak District subarea (fig. 3C–1a,b, and S4 in fig. 3C–2).

3C.7 Groundwater

No published information on groundwater in the Badakhshan gold AOI was available for this 

study (fig. 3C–5), and the nearest groundwater-monitoring well was about 170 km from the AOI. 

However, inferences can be made regarding the availability of groundwater based on analysis of recent 

precipitation data, historical streamflow records, and the geohydrologic characteristics of the AOI. The 

average precipitation in the AOI is about 490 mm/yr (table 3C–1). Geohydrologic conditions probably 

are similar to those in the nearby Warduj River basin (3,350 km2

). The Warduj River basin is 

unregulated and has about 1.6 percent irrigated area (Olson and Mack, 2011), whereas the AOI has less 

than 1 percent irrigated area (app. 2). The monthly mean flows during the low-flow period of the year, 

December through April, are slightly more than 10 m3/s (table 3C–2). This value is equivalent to a 

monthly mean low flow of about 0.003 m3

/s/km2, indicating that recharge rates may be relatively high. 

Recharge is likely to be greater in this area than in other areas of Afghanistan, particularly areas south of 

Kabul, where streamflow per square kilometer is greater (Mack and others, 2010), and a large 
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 217

component of the streamflow out of the basin during low-flow periods is likely to be groundwater 

discharging from alluvial and bedrock aquifers. Groundwater discharge and, therefore, recharge may be 

considerably different if snowpacks in the region are not similar to those present during the historical 

streamflow-measurement period. Historically, high streamflows occurred during the summer months, 

when water needs for agriculture typically are greatest. Additional streamflow measurement and 

analysis would be needed to assess whether flows during the summer months exceed those needed for 

agriculture and could also support other activities such as mining.

The recharge rates discussed above are generalized and are not specific to any particular area. 

The amount of recharge in a specific area depends on the type of rock exposed at the surface, the 

presence and depth of alluvial cover with associated vegetation, and the gradient of the land surface. 

Steep slopes have a greater potential for producing runoff, whereas gentle slopes enhance the potential 

for spatially distributed infiltration. Where rocks with high matrix permeability are exposed on gentle 

slopes, the potential for infiltration and recharge of groundwater is good.

The mapped alluvial deposits in the AOI are limited to the major stream valleys (figs. 3C–4 and 

3C–5). The area and the thickness of these deposits are constrained by the width, length, and gradient of 

the valley. The presence of farms (fig. 3C–3) with irrigated fields and pastures (fig. 3C–2) in these 

valleys indicates the alluvial deposits are aquifers of at least limited extent. Infiltration of surface water, 

especially during the spring and summer runoff, likely provides sufficient recharge to the aquifer to 

support local water-use needs. No construction information, hydraulic data, or water-chemistry data 

from wells constructed in these deposits are available. Using information from other shallow wells 

located in similar geohydrologic settings in Afghanistan, water levels probably fluctuate seasonally 

along with the flow in the adjacent stream channels (Akbari and others, 2007). Water levels most likely 

are high in the spring and summer in response to the melting of snow and the resulting increase in 

streamflow. As streamflow decreases in the late summer through fall and winter, the water levels in the 

wells probably decline. The extraction of water from the wells also affects the water levels. Because the 

alluvial aquifers in the AOI are limited in area and thickness, they probably will not support a large 

increase in the withdrawal of groundwater above current levels. The gently sloping areas where the 

conglomerate and sandstone crop out have favorable potential for groundwater recharge (figs. 3C–4 and

3C–5). The presence of farming communities with fields and pastures in these areas indicates that some 

groundwater is available for domestic use and irrigation (fig. 3C–2). Some vegetation, including thick 

stands of trees, is growing in the ephemeral stream channels located in these outcrops. The examination 

of aerial images indicates that springs and seeps are present on the side slopes of the ephemeral streams 

in this unit and in some areas are used for irrigation. Wells constructed in the conglomerate and 

sandstone could be a source of groundwater. The thickness and extent of these aquifers would need to be 

mapped to determine the quantity of water that may be available.

Rocks having fracture-dominated permeability, such as granite, granodiorite, and metamorphic 

rocks (figs. 3C–4 and 3C–5), are potential aquifers in the AOI. The three subareas have extensive 

outcrops composed of these rock types. Aerial images show that vegetation appears to be growing along

well-defined lineaments, which would indicate that the vegetation is growing preferentially in fractures,

where water is more readily available. The linear shape of some of the main stream channels indicates 

they are controlled by fracture location and orientation (figs. 3C–4 and 3C–5). The density of ephemeral 

stream channels in these areas provides a mechanism for concentrating runoff and enhancing infiltration 

into fractures. Thin alluvial cover over bedrock outcrops probably drains quickly to the bedrock contact,

where water can infiltrate into fractures.

The production of groundwater from wells completed in fractured-rock aquifers is dependent, in 

part, on the density of fractures (number of fractures per volume of rock), the hydraulic properties of the 

fractures, and the interconnectivity of the fractures. Wells constructed to intersect faults, fault zones, and 

fracture zones in the metamorphic rocks and intrusive rocks and lavas geohydrologic groups most likely 

will have more sustainable production than wells constructed in areas where faults and fractures are not 
218 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

present. Detailed fracture mapping is needed to assess potential water yields and to site new wells in 

locations with greater and more sustainable yields. . 

3C.8 Lineament Analyses

Lineaments are photolinear features that could be the result of underlying zones of high-angle 

bedrock fractures, fracture zones, faults, or bedding-plane weaknesses. Lineament analyses of the 

Badakhshan gold AOI were conducted using DEM and natural-color satellite imagery (fig. 3C–6) and 

Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometry (ASTER) satellite imagery (fig.

3C–7a,b). Lineament identification and analysis have long been used as a reconnaissance tool for

identifying areas in carbonate bedrock environments where groundwater resources are likely to be found 

(Lattman and Parizek, 1964; Siddiqui and Parizek, 1971). Lineament analysis is increasingly used to

identify areas of high relative well yields in other bedrock settings, including crystalline bedrock 

(Mabee, 1999; Moore and others, 2002). The lineaments shown in figure 3C–6 were delineated visually, 

whereas those in figure 3C–7 were delineated using an automated process and on the basis of the 

multispectral characteristics of the land surface (B.E. Hubbard, T.J. Mack, and A.L. Thompson, U.S. 

Geological Survey August 24, 2011, written commun.). Water wells in bedrock aquifers generally are 

most productive where boreholes are located in areas of highly fractured bedrock. Areas where 

lineament density is high (figs. 3C–6 and 3C–7a,b) potentially are areas where bedrock fractures are 

more prevalent than in other areas of the AOI. Lineaments provide an indication of areas that warrant 

further investigation for optimal bedrock water-well placement. Lineaments may also indicate areas of 

preferential flow and storage of groundwater, and areas with a high density of lineaments may indicate 

high secondary porosity. Any lineament analyses, including those presented in this investigation, need to 

be corroborated by field investigations and additional data to confirm the nature of the lineaments and 

their relation to water-filled bedrock fracture zones. 

The lineament analysis of the AOI shows several patterns of prominent lineaments. The DEM 

lineaments identified many features in the Ragh District subarea (fig. 3C–6) and an area of denser 

northeast-southwest-trending lineaments in the center of the AOI. The lineaments in the center of the 

AOI, the northern area of the Fayz-Abad District subarea, coincide with an area of faults mapped by 

Ruleman and others (2007) (fig. 3C–5). The ASTER lineaments also identify these features but with a 

greater density (figs. 3C–7a,b). The northeast-southwest-trending zone of increased lineament density is 

likely an area where the rock is more highly fractured than in other areas of the AOI and may be an area 

of increased bedrock-aquifer yield and storage.

3C.9 Summary and Conclusions

The quantity of water available in the Badakhshan gold area of interest (AOI) is greater than that 

in many other areas of Afghanistan. The Amu Darya River is the largest source of surface water in the 

area and is adjacent to the northwest corner of the AOI. The Amu Darya River forms the border between 

Afghanistan and Tajikistan and its use is regulated by international agreements. The elevation of the 

Amu Darya River is about 700 m asl at the location closest to the AOI. The average elevation of the 

subareas in the AOI is more than 2,500 m asl. Currently, the only roads in the AOI are unimproved dirt 

roads (tracks), and few connect to the Amu Darya River. The two perennial streams in the AOI may 

supply water for additional municipal, or potentially mining-related, activities. The AOI receives more

precipitation, about 490 mm/yr, and likely more recharge, than southern areas of Afghanistan. 

Additionally, the seasonal high streamflows resulting from snowmelt occur during the summer months 

(June, July, and August), and the surface-water resources of this region may exceed those needed to 

supply local agriculture. However, current streamflow data and additional analysis are needed to 

quantify river flows to meet local needs and ensure that precautions are taken to preserve the quantity 

and quality of water resources for local users.
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 219

Figure 3C–6. Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter digital-elevation-model data and naturalcolor Landsat imagery in the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern Afghanistan.
220 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

a
Chapter 3C. Geohydrologic Summary of the Badakhshan Gold Area of Interest 221

b 

Figure 3C–7. (a) Lineaments and lineament density based on 30-meter multispectral Landsat imagery in the 

Badakhshan gold area of interest and (b) lineaments and lineament density based on 15-meter multispectral 

Landsat imagery in the Badakhshan gold area of interest in northern Afghanistan.
222 Summaries of Important Areas for Mineral Investment and Production Opportunities of Nonfuel Minerals in Afghanistan

The characteristics of groundwater resources in the AOI are unknown because well data are 

limited. The existence of settlements in the stream valleys and in some of the upland valleys indicate 

that dug wells likely are present and that groundwater resources in alluvial aquifers likely are sufficient 

to supply local demands for water. Examination of historical streamflows near the AOI indicates that 

seasonal recharge to the shallow alluvial aquifers is probably sufficient to replenish water withdrawals 

for local consumption. However, without information on the thickness of the surficial aquifer, it is 

uncertain whether the alluvial aquifers can supply more water than currently is being used for domestic 

consumption and irrigation. The potential for the availability of additional groundwater resources in 

bedrock aquifers in the AOI is good. The fracture and fault zones and corresponding areas of high 

lineament density in the AOI could provide storage in, and pathways for surface water to infiltrate into,

the bedrock aquifer. The infiltration of water into the matrix of sedimentary rocks can produce spatially 

distributed recharge, especially on low-gradient surfaces. The presence of vegetation, particularly trees, 

in upland areas indicates that seeps and springs are discharging groundwater from upland bedrock areas. 

Additionally, relatively high streamflow during low-flow periods indicates that groundwater storage in 

bedrock may be considerable.

Some areas of the AOI, as indicated by generalized geohydrologic maps and lineament analyses, 

are likely areas for further exploration for groundwater resources. The quality and sustainability of water 

resources in the AOI remain to be determined, however. Careful evaluation and management of 

potential new surface-water or groundwater withdrawals would help to protect the quantity and quality 

of the existing supply for current local water uses. Field investigations including geologic mapping, 

geophysical surveys, and hydraulic well testing are needed to adequately characterize the extent and 

availability of groundwater resources in the AOI.

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