2011 U.S. Commercial

Space Transportation

Developments and Concepts:

Vehicles, Technologies,

and Spaceports

January 2011

HQ-111355.INDD
Cover art courtesy Phil Smith.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space

Transportation (FAA/AST) licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space launch 

and reentry activity, as well as the operation of non-federal launch and reentry 

sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States Code, 

Subtitle IX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act).

FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public health and safety and the safety of

property while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of the 

United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, 

FAA/AST is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space 

launches and reentries. Additional information concerning commercial space 

transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/.

NOTICE

Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not

constitute an official endorsement of such products or manufacturers, either 

expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Contents

• ii •
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS in 2010 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CURRENT EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Atlas V – Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services/

United Launch Alliance ........................................... 12

Delta II – Boeing Launch Services/United Launch Alliance................ 13

Delta IV – Boeing Launch Services/United Launch Alliance............... 13

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation................. 14

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation................. 15

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Zenit 3SL – Sea Launch AG........................................ 18

EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS............... 19

Athena 1c & Athena 2c – Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services . . . 19

Multipurpose Nanomissile System – Dynetics/U.S.Army................. 20

NEPTUNE – Interorbital Systems................................... 20

Taurus II – Orbital Sciences Corporation ............................ 21

SOUNDING ROCKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace, Ltd. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Improved Orion & Terrier-Improved Orion – NASA Sounding 

Rockets Program Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Shadow I and II – Lunar Rocket and Rover Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

ELV DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS NOT DETAILED IN THIS REPORT........... 25

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES..........................27

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

SpaceShipTwo/WhiteKnightTwo – Scaled Composites,

Virgin Galactic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Lynx – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

New Shepard – Blue Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Super-MOD, Tube, SOST – Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems.................................... 33

RLVS NOT DETAILED IN THIS REPORT................................. 34

REUSABLE SOUNDING ROCKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

REENTRY VEHICLES AND IN-SPACE

TECHNOLOGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

COMMERCIAL REENTRY VEHICLES AND IN-SPACE

TRANSPORTATION CURRENTLY IN DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

CST-100 – Boeing and Bigelow Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Contents

Cygnus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Dragon – SpaceX ............................................... 41

Dream Chaser – Sierra Nevada Corporation ......................... 44

SPACEPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

FAA-LICENSED COMMERCIAL SPACEPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

California Spaceport, California..................................... 48

Cape Canaveral Spaceport, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Cecil Field Spaceport, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Kodiak Launch Complex, Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Mojave Air and Space Port, California................................ 53

Oklahoma Spaceport, Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Spaceport America, New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, Kwajalein Atoll . . . . . . . . . . 57

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

PROPOSED AND INACTIVE U.S. SPACEPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES.............................61

GUIDANCE, NAVIGATION, AND CONTROL............................ 61

Atlas V/Delta IV Emergency Detection System – United Launch Alliance, 

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, National AeroSpace Training and Research 

Center, and Special Aerospace Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Autonomous Flight Safety System – NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 

NASA Wallops Flight Facility, United States Air Force, and Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency......................................... 62

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Ultra High Frequency 

Communication Unit – Space Exploration Technologies Corportation . . . . . . 62

LIFE SUPPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Environmental Control and Life Support System – Bigelow and

 ORBITEC’s Human Support Systems and Instrumentation Division . . . . . . . 63

Commercial Crew Transport-Air Revitalization System – Paragon Space 

Development Corporation........................................ 64

PROPULSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Propulsion – Engines and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Bi-propellant, Mono-propellant, and Solid Rockets – Aerojet . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

High Performance Cryogenic Piston Pumps – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . 66

Liquid/Solid Hybrid Rocket Motor – Sierra Nevada Corporation . . . . . . . . . . 66

Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen Cryogenic Engines – Pratt & Whitney 

Rocketdyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Vertical Take-off and Landing Engine Restarts – Masten Space Systems 

and Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

X-51A WaveRider – Air Force Research Laboratory, Defense Advanced 

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Research Projects Agency, NASA, Boeing Phantom Works, and 

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne....................................... 67

AerGenTM Solid Ramjet Fuel – Aerojet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Lynx Aerodynamic Validation – XCOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

SPACE SUITS....................................................... 69

Contingency Hypobaric Astronaut Protective Suit – David Clark 

Company, Inc.................................................... 69

I-C2 Commercial Launch Suit – ILC Dover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Industrial Suborbital Spacesuit (IS3) – Orbital Outfitters................. 70

PRIZES AND COMPETITIONS............................71

NASA Centennial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Google Lunar X Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT TRAINING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Aurora Aerospace............................................... 74

Barrios Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Executive Aerospace Physiology Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

National Aerospace Training and Research............................ 77

Orbital Commerce Project........................................ 79

Space Adventures................................................ 79

Space Medicine Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

SpaceTEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Starfighters Aerospace............................................ 81

United Space Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Wyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

REGULATORY AND LEGISLATIVE DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . 83

ENDNOTES............................................87

LIST OF TABLES........................................97

PHOTO CREDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

LIST OF ACRONYMS...................................101

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Contents

• vi •
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Introduction

• 1 •

INTRODUCTION

On June 28, 2010, the United States released a new National Space Policy 

that commits the United States to a robust and competitive industrial 

base. The policy states that “the U.S. Government will use commercial 

space products and services in fulfilling government needs... [and will] 

seek partnerships with the private sector to enable commercial spaceflight 

capabilities for the transportation of crew and cargo to and from the 

International Space Station (ISS).” With the impetus of the new policy, 

2010 was an exceptional year for U.S. commercial space transportation 

development.

Established providers of commercial launch services continued to deliver 

satellites to orbit, while entrepreneurial ventures made significant strides 

in developing new expendable and reusable launch vehicles. This year also 

saw new developments in commercial space transportation technologies, 

including advancements in rocket propulsion, emergency detection for crew 

transportation, and life support systems. In 2010, spaceports across the U.S. 

continued infrastructure improvements, such as the new runway for Virgin 

Galactic’s suborbital flights at New Mexico’s Spaceport America.

Firms based around personal spaceflight came closer to meeting their goal of 

beginning operations in 2011. Scaled Composites successfully performed 

captive carry and glide flights of SpaceShipTwo. Companies, such as Paragon 

Space Development Corporation, Aerojet, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, 

and Sierra Nevada Corporation, made significant strides in innovative 

technologies to support new vehicles. Also related to personal space flight, in 

October, the President signed into law the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) Authorization Act for fiscal year 2011 through 2013. 

This act called for NASA to foster development of commercial crew and 

cargo for low Earth orbit.

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation (FAA/AST) took a number of historical actions in 2010. It 

established the Air Transportation Center of Excellence for Commercial 

Space Transportation to encourage a partnership among academia, industry, 

and government to address challenges for commercial space transportation. 

In April, the Pennsylvania-based National AeroSpace Training and Research 

(NASTAR) Center received the first FAA/AST safety approval for a 

commercial Spaceflight Training System. In October, FAA/AST issued 

$500,000 in grants to four spaceports, under its new Space Transportation 

Infrastructure Matching Grant Program. FAA/AST also issued its first 

reentry license to Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) for its Dragon 

spacecraft in November.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 2 •

This report reviews the developments and concepts that defined U.S. 

commercial space transportation in 2010. It showcases current and planned 

U.S. commercial space activities and highlights developments in 2010. It 

also examines expendable launch vehicles, reusable launch vehicles, reentry 

vehicles and in-space technologies, enabling technologies for propulsion and 

other vehicle components, the evolving array of U.S. spaceports, current 

space prizes and competitions, and new developments in commercial human 

spaceflight training. The U.S. commercial space transportation industry has a 

$208 billion impact on the U.S. economy1 and supports over a million jobs. 

The commercial space industry remains dynamic.

This report relies both on public sources addressing development and concept 

activities within the last year and also on direct contacts with the companies 

profiled in this study. FAA is grateful for the support and cooperation of the 

companies who contributed to this report. Their support allowed for a more 

comprehensive and accurate view of advancements in the U.S. commercial 

space transportation industry.

The 2010 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and 

Concepts report is a companion document for FAA/AST’s other publications, 

including The Economic Impact of Commercial Space Transportation on the U.S. 

Economy in 2009, the 2010 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Year in 

Review, and the forthcoming annual launch forecast to be published in May 

2011.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2010 Events

• 3 •

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN 2010

2010 was an eventful year for U.S. commercial space transportation. 

FAA/AST issued its first safety approval for a commercial Spaceflight 

Training System to NASTAR and a spaceport license for Florida’s Cecil 

Field Spaceport. AST announced its Commercial Space Transportation 

Infrastructure Matching Grant Program and established the first FAA Air 

Transportation Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation. 

Also during the year, NASA selected the first round of winners for the 

Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) initiative, Scaled Composites 

started test flights of its SpaceShipTwo suborbital crewed vehicle, and 

SpaceX’s inaugural Falcon 9 launch was a success.

Significant events in U.S. commercial space transportation for 2010 

are grouped by the chapters of this report. Only events related to U.S. 

commercial launch contracts, U.S. commercially available space vehicles, 

and FAA/AST-licensed spaceports are included. Significant events related to 

national space policy that impact U.S. commercial space transportation and 

significant FAA/AST activities are also highlighted.

Expendable Launch Vehicles

SpaceX and Spacecom Sign Agreement for Falcon 9 Mission

On January 7, SpaceX and Space Communication Ltd. (Spacecom) signed 

an agreement to launch a communication satellite aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 

rocket. The Falcon 9 will place the satellite AMOS-6 into geosynchronous 

Earth orbit by December 2012.2

SpaceX and SS/L Sign Agreement

On March 15, SpaceX and Space Systems/Loral (SS/L) signed an 

agreement to launch an SS/L-manufactured satellite aboard a Falcon 9 to 

geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) by 2012.3

SpaceX’s Inaugural Launch of Falcon 9 Reaches Earth Orbit

On June 4, SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket reached Earth orbit on its first launch 

attempt from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS). The vehicle, 

which carried a Dragon mockup, entered a circular orbit around Earth at an 

altitude of 249 kilometers (155 miles).4

SpaceX and Taiwan’s NSPO Sign Contract

On June 14, SpaceX and the National Space Organization (NSPO), the 

civilian space agency of the Republic of China (Taiwan), announced a 

contract to launch the Earth observation satellite Formosat-5 on a Falcon 1 

launch vehicle.5
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 4 •

SpaceX and Iridium Sign Contract

On June 16, SpaceX and Iridium Communications Inc. signed a contract to 

launch Iridium’s NEXT satellite constellation on SpaceX’s Falcon 9 vehicles. 

The Iridium launches are set to launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base 

between 2015 and 2017. The contract is valued at $492 million.6

Sea Launch Signs Launch Agreement with AsiaSat

On July 12, Sea Launch signed a contract with Asia Satellite 

Telecommunications Company Limited (AsiaSat) to provide launch services 

for a payload going to GTO. Sea Launch’s Zenit-3SL will launch the payload 

from Sea Launch’s equatorial launch site in the Pacific Ocean, between 2012 

and 2014.7

Sea Launch Signs Launch Agreement with EchoStar

On July 22, Sea Launch Company signed an agreement with EchoStar 

Satellite Services LLC to provide EchoStar with up to three satellite launches 

on Zenit 3SL vehicles. The launches will take place at Sea Launch’s equatorial 

launch site in the Pacific Ocean. No timeframe has been announced for the 

launches.8

GeoEye Selects LMCLS to Launch GeoEye-2

On September 7, GeoEye Inc. signed a contract with Lockheed Martin 

Commercial Launch Services (LMCLS) to launch the GeoEye-2 Earthimaging satellite aboard an Atlas V vehicle in 2012.9

Sea Launch Emerges from Bankruptcy

On October 27, Sea Launch announced it has successfully completed its 

Chapter 11 reorganization process. Energia Overseas Limited acquired a 

majority ownership of the reorganized company, now named Sea Launch AG.10

SpaceX Successfully Launches Falcon 9 Under COTS

On December 8, SpaceX conducted a successful launch of Falcon 9, the first 

test under a Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Space Act 

Agreement with NASA. The vehicle carried a fully functional Dragon cargo 

spacecraft, which was tested on orbit for about five hours before it returned 

successfully later that day as scheduled. 

Reusable Launch Vehicles

VSS Enterprise Completes First Captive Carry Flight

On March 3, Virgin Galactic’s VSS Enterprise conducted its first captive 
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2010 Events

• 5 •

carry flight attached to the WhiteKnightTwo aircraft from Mojave Air and 

Space Port. Virgin Galactic had to demonstrate the captive carry capability 

before it could begin flight-testing for its suborbital tourism program.11

Space Adventures and Armadillo Announce Partnership

On April 29, Space Adventures Ltd. and Armadillo Aerospace announced 

a formal partnership, in which Space Adventures will market flights on 

Armadillo’s flight systems.12

Masten Demonstrates In-Air Re-Lighting of Engine

On May 26, Masten Space Systems used its vertical take-off, vertical landing 

vehicle Xombie to demonstrate the capability to re-light the rocket engine 

in midair. This was the first successful demonstration of this capability in 

history. The flight took place at the Mojave Air and Space Port.13

VSS Enterprise Makes First Crewed Flight

On July 15, Virgin Galactic’s VSS Enterprise made its first crewed flight, 

using the captive carry configuration with the WhiteKnightTwo. The crew 

evaluated the Enterprise’s systems from end to end and accomplished all 

objectives for the flight.14

FAA Establishes Air Transportation Center of Excellence for 

Commercial Space Transportation

On August 18, U.S. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood announced FAA 

selected New Mexico State University to lead a new Air Transportation 

Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation. The FAA center 

is a partnership of academia, industry, and government addressing current 

and future challenges for commercial space transportation.15 Other involved 

universities are the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Florida 

Institute of Technology, Florida Center for Advanced Aero-Propulsion, 

Stanford University, University of Colorado at Boulder, and the University of 

Texas Medical Branch.16

NASA Selects Two Firms for Commercial Experimental Space 

Vehicle Test Flights

On August 30, NASA’s Commercial Reusable Suborbital Research Program 

announced that it awarded two contracts worth approximately $475,000 to 

Armadillo and Masten for experimental space vehicle test flights. Under the 

terms of the contract, Masten will conduct four flights of test payloads to 

altitudes of up to 29 kilometers (18 miles) with the Xaero vehicle. Armadillo 

will conduct two flights of its Super-Mod vehicle to altitudes of up to 40 

kilometers (25 miles).17
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 6 •

XCOR Completes Wind Tunnel Tests on Lynx

On September 20, XCOR Aerospace Inc. announced the completion of wind 

tunnel tests at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center. The tests validated 

the aerodynamic shape of the spacecraft and assured the craft’s ability to 

withstand the unique flight conditions it will encounter.18

SXC Signs Agreement with XCOR

On October 4, Space Experience Curaçao (SXC) signed a memorandum 

of understanding with XCOR for the lease of XCOR’s Lynx spacecraft to 

SXC. Under the agreement, SXC will market Lynx flights from the Curaçao 

spaceport in the Netherlands Antilles. XCOR will own and operate the 

vehicle.19

VSS Enterprise Completes First Crewed Glide Flight

On October 10, Virgin Galactic’s VSS Enterprise completed its first free glide 

flight from over 13,106 meters (43,000 feet). Two pilots crewed the craft and 

landed it safely at the Mojave Air and Space Port.20

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies

NASA Selects Five Companies to Receive Funding for CCDev 

On February 1, NASA awarded Sierra Nevada Corporation, Boeing, United 

Launch Alliance, Blue Origin, and Paragon Space Development Corp. seed 

funding totaling $50 million to aid in developing each company’s respective 

commercial crew transportation systems. These awards were made under 

NASA’s CCDev program, with funding distributed in accordance with Space 

Act Agreements.21

SpaceX Activates Communication System Aboard ISS

On March 29, SpaceX successfully activated its Dragon communication 

hardware aboard the ISS. The hardware will allow ISS crewmembers to 

monitor and control SpaceX’s Dragon spacecraft during cargo delivery. The 

Dragon was one of two systems contracted to demonstrate delivery of cargo 

to the ISS under NASA’s COTS contract.22

SpaceX Dragon Spacecraft Completes High Altitude Drop Test

On August 20, SpaceX’s Dragon capsule successfully passed a high altitude 

drop test to validate the capsule’s parachute deployment systems.23

Boeing and Space Adventures Announce Partnership

On September 15, Boeing and Space Adventures announced a memorandum 
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2010 Events

• 7 •

of agreement to partner on marketing Boeing’s commercial crew vehicles to 

low Earth orbit (LEO). Space Adventures will exclusively market Boeing’s 

CST-100 vehicle, which Boeing expects will begin flying by 2015.24

NASA Seeks Proposals for CCDev Round Two

On October 15, NASA announced that it was seeking proposals from 

the U.S. commercial space industry to further develop commercial crew 

systems. NASA is considering approximately $200 million for the Space 

Act Agreement solicitation, but funding depends upon 2011 fiscal year 

appropriations from Congress. NASA expects to announce multiple awards 

through March 2011.25

Bigelow Receives Expressions of Interest from Six Countries

On October 22, Bigelow Aerospace signed agreements with national space 

agencies, companies, and governmental entities in the Netherlands, Sweden, 

Singapore, Japan, the United Kingdom, and New South Wales, Australia. 

These agreements are formal expressions of support to lease Bigelow modules 

once in orbit; however, these agreements did not involve financial terms.26

Bigelow Conducts Life Support Systems Testing

On October 22, Bigelow Aerospace announced that it has begun testing 

environmental control and life support systems with volunteer crews. The 

company is testing systems that will be used on its inflatable in-space habitat 

Sundancer.27

NASA Releases Commercial Crew Certification Requirements 

December 9, 2010, NASA released its Commercial Crew Transportation 

System Certification Requirements for NASA Low Earth Orbit Missions. This 

document defines the requirements, standards, and certification package that 

will be used to certify a commercial crew transport system to carry NASA 

crewmembers on LEO missions, in particular the ISS. This certification only 

applies to NASA missions.28

Spaceports

Space Florida Breaks Ground on Exploration Park 

On June 25, Space Florida broke ground on Exploration Park, which will 

feature eight buildings totaling 315,000 square feet, just outside NASA’s 

Kennedy Space Center (KSC) security gates. The park will house a multitude 

of entities that seek to use KSC, including commercial users.29
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 8 •

Orbital Adds Infrastructure for Taurus II Launches to MARS

On July 7, Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) announced that 

Orbital would add a new 80,000-gallon liquid oxygen tank at its Taurus II 

launch site. In June, Orbital erected a 91-meter (300-foot) water tower for 

its acoustic suppression system.30

Space Florida Receives FAA License for LC-46

On July 9, the FAA issued Space Florida a license to conduct commercial 

space launches at Launch Complex-46 (LC-46) on the property of CCAFS.31

Spaceport America Dedicates Runway

On October 22, Spaceport America in Upham, New Mexico, completed and 

dedicated its nearly three-kilometer (two-mile) runway that will be used for 

horizontal take off and landing by commercial space entities.32

The Spaceship Company Breaks Ground on Hangar

On November 9, the company founded by Virgin Galactic and Scaled 

Composites broke ground at Spaceport America in New Mexico for its 

6,317 square meter (68,000 square foot) hangar. The hangar will house the 

company’s final assembly, integration, and testing of its vehicles.33

Enabling Technologies

Orbital and Aerojet Complete Main Engine Lifetime Testing for 

Taurus II

On March 15, Orbital Sciences Corporation (Orbital), Aerojet, and their 

Russian partner, United Engine Corporation/SNTK, announced the 

completion of a series of NK-33 engine tests in Samara, Russia. The NK-33 

is the engine for the first stage of Orbital’s Taurus II launch vehicle, which is 

currently in development.34

XCOR and Masten Announce Partnership for Lander 

Development

On May 25, XCOR and Masten announced their intention to partner on the 

anticipated NASA unmanned lander projects.35

XCOR and ULA Announce Successful Piston Pump Tests

On June 8, United Launch Alliance (ULA) and XCOR announced the 

first successful demonstration of the jointly developed, long-life, high-
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Significant 2010 Events

• 9 •

performance piston pump with liquid hydrogen. XCOR first developed the 

pump to use liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen. ULA intends to test the 

technology for a range of applications, including pump-fed liquid hydrogen 

rocket engines for upper-stages of launch vehicles.36

Prizes and Competitions

Six Google Lunar X PRIZE Competitors Awarded NASA 

Contracts

In October, NASA awarded contracts to six Google Lunar X PRIZE teams as 

part of the Innovative Lunar Demonstrations Data program. The teams will 

provide NASA with data on technical component demonstrations for lunar 

missions. Each contract is a firm-fixed price, indefinite-delivery/indefinitequantity contract, and the total value of all awarded contracts is up to $30.1 

million, over a period of up to five years. On December 20, NASA issued 

delivery orders, each worth $500,000, to three of these teams.37

Human Spaceflight Training

New Mexico Passes Commercial Space Flight Informed Consent 

Law

On March 1, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson signed the Space Flight 

Informed Consent Act. This act requires commercial spaceflight companies 

to fully inform their passengers of the risks of space travel. All passengers 

flying from New Mexico must sign a waiver acknowledging that they 

understand and accept the inherent risks of spaceflight activities.38

NASTAR Receives First FAA Safety Approval for Training

On April 22, the NASTAR Center, a subsidiary of Environmental Tectonics 

Corporation, received the first FAA/AST safety approval for a commercial 

Spaceflight Training System, the company’s STS-400 simulator. NASTAR 

will use the simulator to train prospective space launch operators. Their 

training will satisfy the crew qualification and training requirements outlined 

in the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR Section 460.5).39

Regulatory and Legislative Developments

Administration Proposes NASA Budget for FY 2011 

On February 1, the Administration announced its fiscal year 2011 proposed 

budget for NASA. The budget proposal increased the agency’s budget by $6 

billion over the next five years. The proposal also featured dramatic shifts 
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 10 •

in the human spaceflight program, including cancelling the Constellation 

Program. The budget proposal used the savings from the cancellation to fund 

a new technology research program and a commercial space transportation 

program to ferry astronauts to and from the ISS.40

FAA Announces Commercial Space Transportation 

Infrastructure Matching Grant Program

On May 4, FAA/AST published a notice in the Federal Register announcing 

the inauguration of the $500,000 Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grant Program.41

Administration Releases National Space Policy

On June 28, the President announced the National Space Policy of the 

United States. The policy emphasizes the need to facilitate and grow the 

U.S. commercial space sector to support U.S. needs and compete globally. It 

provides a definition of commercial space.42

FAA Awards First Commercial Space Transportation 

Infrastructure Matching Grant

On October 2, FAA/AST announced awardees for the Commercial Space 

Transportation Infrastructure Matching Grant Program. The New Mexico 

Spaceport Authority received $43,000 to provide an automated weather 

observing system. The East Kern Airport District in Mojave, California 

received $125,000 for an emergency response vehicle. The Jacksonville 

Airport Authority in Florida received $104,805 to develop a Spaceport 

Master Plan for Cecil Field Spaceport. The Alaska Aerospace Corporation 

received $227,195 for a rocket motor storage facility.43

President Signs NASA Authorization Act

On October 11, the President signed the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 

into law. The act authorizes $19 billion for NASA in fiscal year 2011. The 

law allocates funding for an additional shuttle flight, accelerates NASA’s 

development of a heavy-lift vehicle, and funds development of commercial 

spaceflight systems to ferry U.S. astronauts to LEO.44
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 11 •

EXPENDABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) are single-use rockets designed to 

traverse the atmosphere on trajectories that transport a payload. The payload 

may be transported on a ballistic trajectory (suborbital) or may be placed into 

orbit around the planet (orbital). ELVs, which share a development history 

with missile technology, have been in use since the 1950s. 

The following survey of U.S. ELVs licensed by the FAA is in three sections. 

The first section reviews ELVs currently available to serve a wide range of 

commercial and government payloads. The second reviews a number of 

proposed commercial ELVs under study or development. The third reviews 

commercially available suborbital sounding rockets.

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems

Table 1 lists the ELV systems currently licensed by the FAA. This list does 

not include the following government-only orbital vehicle systems, which 

do not require an FAA license: the Space Transportation System (or Space 

Shuttle), the Ares system currently in development, and Orbital Sciences 

Corporation’s (Orbital) Minotaurs I, IV, and V.

Table 1: Commercially available ELVs in the United States (vehicle images not to scale).

Vehicle Atlas V Delta II Delta IV Delta IVH Falcon 1 Falcon 9 Pegasus XL Taurus Zenit 3SL

Company LMCLS/ULA BLS/ULA BLS/ULA BLS/ULA SpaceX SpaceX Orbital Orbital Sea Launch

First Launch 2002 1990 2002 2004 2006 2010 1990 1994 1999

Stages 2 3 2 2 2 2 3-4 3 2

Capacity 

to LEO kg(lb)

12,500

(27,558) to

20,520

(45,238)

6,097

(13,443)

9,390

(20,702) to

13,360

(29,440)

22,977

(50,646)

420

(924) 10,450 

(23,050)

440

(970)

1,458

(3,214) N/A

Capacity 

to SSO

kg(lb)

7,095

(15,642) to

14,096

(31,076)

3,123

(6,886)

7,510

(16,550) to

11,300

(24,920)

22,560

(49,740)

420

(924) 8,560 

(18,870)

190

(420)

1054

(2,324) N/A

Capacity 

to GTO

kg(lb)

4,750

(10,450) to

8,900

(19,580)

900 (1,980)

to 2,171

(4,787)

4,541

(10,012) to

7,020

(15,470)

13,399

(29,540) N/A 4,540 

(10,000) N/A

430

(950)

6,180

(13,624)

Launch Sites CCAFS VAFB CCAFS VAFB CCAFS VAFB CCAFS VAFB Kwajalein 

CCAFS

CCAFS 

Kwajalein

Various (airlaunched) VAFB Pacific Ocean
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 12 •

Atlas V – Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services/United 

Launch Alliance 

The Atlas V launch vehicle is an intermediate- to heavy-lift vehicle, 

depending on configuration, and is manufactured by United 

Launch Alliance (ULA), a joint venture between Lockheed Martin 

and Boeing. ULA also markets the Atlas V to U.S. Government 

customers. Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services 

(LMCLS) brokers commercial Atlas V launches. Originally, 

Lockheed Martin developed the Atlas V for the Evolved Expendable 

Launch Vehicle Program (EELV), which also facilitated the 

development of Boeing’s Delta IV vehicle system. Variants of the 

Atlas V have successfully launched 23 missions to orbit: 15 U.S. 

government missions and eight commercial missions.

The Atlas V has two active vehicle variants: the 400 and 500 series. 

Both series use a Common Core Booster (CCB) first stage and an 

upper-stage Centaur vehicle. The RD-180 engine, a product of RD 

AMROSS, powers the CCB. The upper-stage Centaur uses the RL10 engine 

from Pratt and Whitney Rocketdyne. Up to five solid rocket boosters can be 

added to the 400 and 500 series configurations. A proposed heavy variant of 

the Atlas V could feature a flight configuration of three CCBs. The Atlas V 

is capable of launching out of Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) in 

Florida and Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) in California.1

The 400 series features a payload fairing diameter of 4.2 meters (13.1 feet) 

and can launch up to 15,130 kilograms (33,650 pounds) to low Earth orbit 

(LEO) and up to 7,700 kilograms (16,970 pounds) to geosynchronous 

transfer orbit (GTO). The 500 series features a payload fairing diameter 

of 5.4 meters (17.6 feet) and can launch up to 18,510 kilograms (40,800 

pounds) to LEO and 8,900 kilograms (19,260 pounds) to GTO.2 Sierra 

Nevada Corporation’s Dream Chaser, profiled later in this report, is a crewed 

space plane designed to launch aboard an Atlas V. 

In 2010, the Atlas V had four successful launches with all four missions 

reaching their prescribed orbit, including NASA’s Solar Observatory mission 

and the maiden flight of the U.S. Air Force’s X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle built 

by Boeing. Seven Atlas V flights are expected in 2011.

Atlas V
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 13 •

Delta II

Delta II – Boeing Launch Services/United Launch Alliance

ULA designed, built, and operates the Delta II launch vehicle, an 

intermediate-class vehicle. There are many variants of the Delta II, 

depending on booster, stage, and fairing configuration. Along with 

the Delta IV and Atlas V, ULA brokers Delta II launch services to 

the U.S. Government. Boeing Launch Services (BLS) markets the 

Delta II to commercial clients. 

The Delta II is a three-stage, liquid-fueled vehicle. A single RS-27 

engine fed with liquid oxygen (LOX) and rocket grade kerosene 

powers the first stage, which can be supplemented by up to nine 

solid rocket boosters. A hypergolic (combustion occurs when the 

oxidizer and fuel mix, without the aid of a heat source) Aerojet 

AJ10-118K engine powers the second stage, which also houses the 

avionics. Finally, the vehicle can use an optional solid motor kick 

stage, by Alliant Techsystems (ATK) Thiokol, for missions to points beyond 

LEO. Three different payload fairings are available depending on payload 

dimensions.

The Delta II vehicle can directly trace its lineage to the Air Force’s Thor 

missile of the 1960s. It was originally developed by McDonnell Douglas, and 

later Boeing acquired it. The vehicle has been a workhorse for government 

and commercial clients since 1989, having successfully launched 143 

missions since 1989. ULA is no longer producing the Delta II; however, 

a total of eight Delta II vehicles remain. Three of these are under contract 

with NASA and have assigned payloads. Payloads for the other five are being 

negotiated.3

 The Delta II performed one flight in 2010, an FAA-licensed 

mission from VAFB carrying the final Cosmo-Skymed remote sensing 

satellite for Italy. Three Delta II flights are expected in 2011.

Delta IV – Boeing Launch Services/United Launch Alliance

The Delta IV is an intermediate- to heavy-lift vehicle, depending 

on the configuration, and was originally developed for the EELV 

Program. Along with the Delta II and Atlas V, ULA brokers Delta 

IV launch services to the U.S. Government, while BLS markets the 

vehicle to commercial clients. Since 2006, ULA has constructed the 

Delta IV. It has successfully launched 14 missions to orbit: 13 U.S. 

government missions and one commercial mission.

The Delta IV is available in four variants: the Delta IV Medium, 

two versions of the Delta IV Medium-Plus, and the Delta IV Heavy 

(pictured). All three variants use a Common Booster Core (CBC) 

first stage and an upper-stage vehicle. The RS-68 engine, a product 

of Pratt and Whitney Rocketdyne, powers the CBC. The upper 

Delta IV
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 14 •

stage uses the RL10B-2, also a product of Pratt and Whitney Rocketdyne. 

Up to four solid rocket booster motors can be added to the Medium-Plus 

variant. The Delta IV Heavy features three CBCs flown together in tandem. 

The Delta IV is capable of launching out of CCAFS and VAFB.4 Table 2 

provides capacity information for the five variants of the Delta IV.

In November 2010, Lockheed Martin began negotiations with ULA to 

purchase a Delta IV Heavy vehicle to launch a test version of Lockheed 

Martin’s Orion capsule in 2013. This mission will not launch with a crew. 

For the Delta IV Heavy to carry people for NASA, the vehicle must be 

human-rated, a process that requires between four to seven years of work and 

a one-time cost of $500 million. Each human-rated Delta IV Heavy would 

cost an estimated $300 million per launch.5

The Delta IV successfully launched three times in 2010. A Delta IV Medium 

Plus (4,2) placed GOES-15 into geosynchronous Earth orbit in March, and 

a Delta IV Medium launched in May to place a Global Positioning System 

(GPS) satellite into medium Earth orbit. In November, a Delta IV Heavy 

launched a classified payload for the National Reconnaissance Office. Four 

Delta IV flights are expected in 2011.

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

The two-stage Falcon 1 is a small-class vehicle capable of sending 

1,010-kilogram (2,227-pound) payloads into LEO. California-based 

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) designed, 

built, and operates the vehicle, which has been enhanced since its 

introduction in 2006. Enhancements include an extended first-stage 

tank to support propellant consumption needs of a single upgraded 

Merlin engine (Merlin 1C), additional structural support, and a larger, 

lighter 1.7-meter (5.6-foot) payload fairing.6

The 24.7-meter (81-foot) Falcon 1 uses LOX and rocket grade 

kerosene for the oxidizer and fuel. Helium tanks provide propellant 

pressurization. Arde Corporation built these helium tanks, which are 

the same units Boeing uses for its Delta II vehicle. SpaceX designed 

the reusable aluminum first stage to retain structural strength without 

Falcon I pressurization, reducing ground handling difficulties and facilitating 

Delta IV Medium Delta IV Medium-Plus (4,2) Delta IV Medium-Plus (5,2) Delta IV Medium-Plus (5,4) Delta IV Heavy

LEO kg (lb) 9,150 kilograms 

(20,170 pounds)

12,240 kilograms

(29,980 pounds)

10,640 kilograms

(23,457 pounds)

13,360 kilograms

(29,440 pounds)

22,560 kilograms 

(49,740 pounds)

GTO kg (lb) 4,300 kilograms 

(9,480 pounds)

6,030 kilograms

(13,290 pounds)

4,640 kilograms

(10,230 pounds)

7,020 kilograms

(15,470 pounds)

12,980 kilograms 

(28,620 pounds)

Table 2: Capacities for Delta IV variants.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 15 •

reusability. Once its mission is complete, the first stage returns to Earth with 

the assistance of a parachute, provided by Airborne Systems Corporation. 

The second stage is made of an aluminum-lithium alloy, similar to the one on 

the Space Shuttle External Tank. A pneumatic release and separation system 

facilitates staging. Unlike a system using explosive separators, this approach 

allows for acceptance testing of flight hardware.

An onboard flight computer and a GPS-supported inertial measurement 

unit provide the guidance, navigation, and control (GNC) of the 

Falcon 1. The flight computer enables communication between the payload 

and the first-stage engine computer while the vehicle is on the ground via an 

Ethernet. GNC also includes S-band telemetry tracking and downlink, a 

C-band transponder, tank pressure regulation circuitry, batteries, and power 

distribution.

SpaceX scheduled nine Falcon 1 launches through 2014, including a test 

launch. Six flights are for ORBCOMM, an Orbital LEO communication 

satellite constellation, and two are for clients in Asia and Europe. The 

Falcon 1 test flight will evaluate the vehicle’s recent upgrades and will take 

place in 2011 from Omelek Island (part of Kwajalein Atoll) in the Pacific 

Ocean. 

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

The two-stage Falcon 9 entered service in 2010. SpaceX designed Falcon 9 

to carry astronauts, as well as satellites, into space. As a result, the vehicle 

system incorporates a higher factor of safety than if it were designed to carry 

only uncrewed payloads.

In 2006, NASA selected both SpaceX and Rocketplane-Kistler 

for the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) 

program to demonstrate the vehicles, systems, and operations 

needed to support the International Space Station (ISS). SpaceX 

proposed a system using the Falcon 9 topped with the SpaceXbuilt Dragon pressurized capsule; Rocketplane-Kistler proposed 

its K-1 reusable vehicle. However, Rocketplane-Kistler failed to 

gain additional financing as required by the agreement and was 

subsequently released from COTS, releasing over $170 million in 

funding. SpaceX continued work on its Falcon 9 Dragon system. 

A second round competition for the $170 million followed, with 

Boeing and Orbital competing for part of the funding. In 2008, 

Orbital won the competition with its Taurus II proposal. 

In December 2008, NASA awarded a $1.6 billion Commercial 

Resupply Services (CRS) contract to SpaceX for 12 uncrewed Falcon 9
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 16 •

cargo resupply flights to ISS and a $1.9 billion CRS to Orbital for eight 

flights to ISS, all of which will be licensed by FAA/AST. Under the 

agreement, SpaceX must launch the Falcon 9 with a test cargo capsule similar 

in design to an actual cargo vessel (Dragon) that can be used to resupply the 

ISS. SpaceX successfully launched a Falcon 9 with a Dragon mockup on 

June 4, 2010, from CCAFS, Florida, and the first test launch with an actual 

Dragon capsule on December 8, 2010. Two additional Dragon COTS 

demonstration flights are scheduled for the first half of 2011; ISS resupply 

flights begin later that year under CRS. SpaceX is contracted with NASA to 

provide resupply flights to ISS through the end of 2016.7

The Falcon 9 is capable of sending 10,450 kilograms (23,050 pounds) to 

LEO and 4,540 kilograms (10,000 pounds) to GTO from CCAFS. It will 

perform polar launches from Kwajalein Atoll, lofting payloads of up to 8,560 

kilograms (18,870 pounds). 

The Falcon 9 consists of two stages. Nine Merlin 1C engines (the same 

engine used by the Falcon 1) power the first stage and consume LOX and 

rocket grade kerosene. Routing kerosene fuel, under pressure through the 

engine’s turbopump, enables Thrust Vectoring Control and eliminates the 

need for a separate hydraulic system. This approach reduces the number of 

subsystems and thereby reduces the number of failure modes.8

The second stage uses only one Merlin C1 engine. By employing ten Merlin 

C1 engines per mission, SpaceX develops significant engine reliability data. 

Like the Falcon 1, a pneumatic release and separation system aids stage 

separation.

Falcon 9’s GNC system takes advantage of legacy systems used on the 

Falcon 1, but it has been modified as a single fault-tolerant architecture to 

assure a higher safety factor for human spaceflight.9

The vehicle’s potentially reusable first stage was not recovered, because the 

stage had impacted the water with significant force and suffered major 

damage. An attempt to recover the first stage after splashdown failed. The 

vehicle carried a fully functional Dragon spacecraft, which returned, as 

planned, about four hours after on-orbit testing.

SpaceX has a backlog of 33 Falcon 9 launches. Twelve of these are ISS 

resupply flights, and at least 10 flights are planned to send up the Iridium 

NEXT second generation constellation. The remaining flights are for 

commercial clients. SpaceX also plans a heavy version of the Falcon 9, 

capable of sending 32,000 kilograms (70,548 pounds) to LEO or 19,500 

kilograms (42,990 pounds) to GTO. This vehicle will use a single 

Falcon 9 as the core (both first and second stages), with two Falcon 9 first 

stages as strap-on boosters. Four Falcon 9 flights are projected in 2011.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 17 •

Pegasus XL – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Orbital’s three-stage Pegasus XL is a small-class vehicle 

launched by an L-1011 aircraft from an altitude of 11,900 

meters (39,000 feet). Pegasus XL is capable of lifting 

payloads up to 440 kilograms (970 pounds) to LEO from 

CCAFS, VAFB, Wallops Flight Facility (WFF), Kwajalein 

Atoll, and the Canary Islands. Introduced in the summer 

of 1989, the Pegasus system represents the first successful 

privately developed launch vehicle in the world; that is, 

the government did not directly fund development of the 

vehicle.10

The vehicle’s first stage consists of an Orion 50S XL solid rocket motor 

and fixed-wing assembly. The second stage is an Orion 50 XL motor, and 

the third stage is an Orion 38 motor. A Hydrazine Auxiliary Propulsion 

System fourth stage is available, which improves orbital insertion accuracy. 

An adapter attaches the payload to the third or fourth stage, and a two-part 

payload fairing made of composite material encloses the payload.

The vehicle uses a 32-bit computer at the core of its avionics system. The 

computer interfaces with an inertial measurement unit, vehicle subsystems, 

and the carrier aircraft, using digital serial data links. This enables rapid 

integration, testing, and processing of the vehicle, facilitated by commercially 

available ground support equipment and off-the-shelf hardware.

Beginning in 1990, Pegasus XL has launched successfully 27 times, with 

a total of 63 payloads successfully placed into orbit. The FAA licensed 16 

of the flights, all of which were successful. No Pegasus XL launches were 

conducted in 2010, but a Pegasus XL is scheduled for launch in 2011 from 

the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site carrying NASA’s 

Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array satellite.

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Orbital also provides the Taurus XL launch vehicle. The three- to four-stage 

vehicle is capable of sending 1,590-kilogram (3,500-pound) payloads to 

LEO. 

Four variants of the Taurus are available to customers. Two variants of the 

Standard Taurus (2110 or 2210) can place between 1,047 kilograms (2,308 

pounds) and 1,259 kilograms (2,775 pounds) to LEO or between 695 

kilograms (1,532 pounds) and 889 kilograms (1,960 pounds) to a polar orbit. 

The Taurus XL offers two variants (3110 and 3210), which can place between 

1,276 kilograms (2,813 pounds) and 1,458 kilograms (3,214 pounds) to 

LEO or between 882 kilograms (1,944 pounds) and 1,054 kilograms (2,324 

Pegasus XL
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 18 •

pounds) to a polar orbit. The vehicle does not fly GTO missions. All 

variants of the Taurus are three-stage vehicles, using combinations of 

the TU-903 or Castor 120 for the first stage, Orion 50ST or Orion 

50SXLT for the second stage, and an Orion 50T or Orion 50XLT 

for the third stage. The optional fourth stage uses the Orion 38 or 

Star 37 motor. Two payload fairing sizes are available for the Taurus 

vehicle, depending on payload requirements.11

Since its debut in 1994, the Taurus has launched from VAFB eight 

times and once from WFF, with six successful flights placing nine 

satellites into LEO. One flight is scheduled in 2011 from VAFB 

carrying NASA’s Glory spacecraft and several cubesats. The vehicle 

is also approved for launch from CCAFS, though no future flights of 

Taurus from this site are currently planned.

Zenit 3SL – Sea Launch AG

Sea Launch AG provides the Zenit 3SL. The heavy-lift launch vehicle serves 

the heavy-lift segment of the commercial GTO launch market. The launch 

platform’s home port is in Long Beach, California.

Ukrainian-based SDO Yuzhnoye and PO Yuzhmash provide the first two 

stages, the same as for the Zenit 2 launch vehicle. Russia-based RSC Energia 

provides the third stage, a Block DM-SL upper stage. Boeing provides the 

payload fairing and interfaces, as well as flight design. The vehicle provides 

a payload capacity of up to 6,160 kilograms (13,581 pounds) to GTO. The 

Zenit 3SL launches from the Odyssey Launch Platform, directly from the 

Equator at 1540

 West longitude in the Pacific Ocean. 

A single RD-171 engine powers the first stage. (The RD-171 is a variant of 

the RD-170 that powers the Energia strap-on boosters and is the 

most powerful liquid-fueled engine currently available.) The engine 

burns a mix of LOX and rocket grade kerosene. A single RD-120 

engine powers the second stage and is also fed with LOX and rocket 

grade kerosene. A Block DM-SL third stage is also powered by an 

engine using LOX and rocket grade kerosene. 

The FAA licensed all 30 Zenit 3SL launches. Sea Launch expects to 

perform two commercial missions during 2011 using the Zenit 3SL. 

Sea Launch AG is a Swiss-based multinational organization. In 

October 2010, Sea Launch completed a 16-month-long Chapter 

11 restructuring effort. Energia Overseas Limited, an affiliate 

organization of RSC Energia of Moscow, Russian Federation, 

acquired a majority ownership stake of the reorganized Sea Launch 

entity. In 2011, Sea Launch AG will resume launch operations Zenit 3SL

Taurus
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 19 •

and begin to expand the range of services offered to customers, including 

additional lift performance of the Zenit 3SL vehicle beginning in 2013.

Expendable Launch Vehicle Development Efforts

Established corporations and startup companies are currently pursuing several 

ELV development programs. As in previous years, a major driver for new 

ELV development is an increasing demand for low-cost launches of small

satellites. These include Interorbital System’s NEPTUNE 35 and

NEPTUNE 45 vehicles, a commercial version of the U.S. Army’s

Multipurpose Nanomissile System (MNMS), and Lockheed Martin’s

resurrected Athena series of vehicles. Meanwhile, Orbital continues steady 

work on its Taurus II vehicle under NASA’s COTS program. ELVs under 

development share the common goal of reducing launch costs to support and 

further develop the demonstrated market potential.

Athena 1c and Athena 2c – Lockheed Martin Commercial 

Launch Services

In March 2010, the Lockheed Martin and ATK team announced its 

intention to reintroduce the Athena series of launch vehicles beginning in 

2012 to address a U.S. Government demand for small, quick-turnaround 

launches. These vehicles are being modernized from the original variants to 

improve performance. 

The Athena Ic and Athena IIc are upgraded versions of the Athena 

I and Athena II, used during the 1990s. The two-stage Athena 

Ic will be capable of launching 740-kilogram payloads to LEO. 

The three-stage Athena IIc rockets will be capable of lifting 1,712 

kilograms to LEO. The target orbit is about 185 kilometers at an 

inclination of 28.5 degrees. Each vehicle will use ATK’s Castor 

120 solid-rocket motors as a first stage, with the Athena IIc using 

the same motor for the second stage. A newly developed Castor 

30 motor will serve as the upper stage for both vehicles. The 

Castor 30 was originally developed for Orbital’s Taurus II vehicle. 

Lockheed Martin will manage overall operations and Athena launch 

campaigns, while ATK will be responsible for the motors, payload 

integration, and structures. The vehicles may launch from CCAFS, 

VAFB, Kodiak Launch Complex in Alaska, and possibly WFF.12

Vehicle Athena Ic/IIc

Developer Lockheed Martin

First Launch 2012

Number of 

Stages

Athena Ic: 2

Athena IIc: 3

Payload 

Performance 

kg (lb)

Athena Ic:

LEO: 740 (1,631) 

Athena IIc:

LEO: 1,712 (3,774) 

Launch Site 

CCAFS

Kodiak Launch Complex

VAFB

WFF
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 20 •

Multipurpose Nanomissile System – Dynetics/U.S. Army

For the first time since Wernher von Braun’s Army-funded 

rocket research was transferred to NASA in 1958, the Army 

has reentered the launch industry. The U.S. Army Space 

and Missile Defense Command (USASMDC), Army Forces 

Strategic Command is working with contractors COLSA 

Corporation and Dynetics, Inc. to develop a small-class launch 

vehicle that can send payloads of up to 10 kilograms (22 

pounds) to LEO from anywhere in the world. The vehicle is 

called the MNMS. MNMS is part of the SMDC’s Nanosatellite Technology 

Program, whose other objective is to produce battlefield-relevant satellites at a 

cost between $300,000 to $1 million per unit.13

The Army is pursuing this concept because of the growing need for spacebased services by in-theater commanders. With the flexibility inherent in 

a low-cost, small, mobile system, the Army hopes to provide on-demand 

launch at potentially high numbers of flights.

At 3.6 meters (12 feet), MNMS will be easily transportable with a small 

launch infrastructure footprint. The system is for suborbital and orbital 

missions and will be available commercially after successful development. 

The Army has spent approximately $7 million on the system and is requesting 

$17 million more to finish the program. Dynetics developed 

the main engine, which completed successful testing in July 

2010. The engine produces about 3,000 pounds of thrust and 

is fed a nitrous oxide-ethane blend, a mix that produces less 

harmful rocket exhaust than solid propellant.14

The Army intends to make the MNMS available for 

commercial use, with an estimated per launch cost of about 

$1 million, plus payload integration and range costs for a 

10-kilogram (22-pound) payload. A suborbital test launch is 

planned for 2011, followed by an orbital test in 2012.15

NEPTUNE – Interorbital Systems

Interorbital Systems (IOS), headquartered at the Mojave Air and Space Port, 

California, is developing four modular launch vehicle concepts collectively 

called NEPTUNE. All the variants consist of Common Propulsion Modules 

(CPMs). A single CPM includes a rocket engine and propellants (white 

fuming nitric acid, or WFNA, and Hydrocarbon-X, or HX). The CPMs are 

arranged in clusters that are described, depending on the type of variant, as 

stages. Launches will be conducted from the Kingdom of Tonga. 

The three-stage, small-class NEPTUNE 30 (N30) will carry 30-kilogram 

Vehicle Multipurpose Nanomissile 

System (MNMS)

Developer U.S. Army

First Launch 2013

Number of 

Stages 3

Payload 

Performance 

kg (lb)

LEO: 10 (22)

Launch Site TBD

MNMS
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 21 •

(66-pound) payloads to polar orbit and will use five CPMs. The 

NEPTUNE 45 (N45), also a three-stage, small-class vehicle, will loft 

45-kilogram (99-pound) payloads to polar orbit using a seven-CPM 

configuration. The N45 will launch payloads that use either a solid 

spin-stabilized or a liquid-guided satellite kick motor to be inserted 

into orbit. 

IOS expects the NEPTUNE 1000 (N1000), also a small-class vehicle 

but using 33 CPMs, to handle 1,000-kilogram (2,205-pound) 

payloads to LEO. The N1000 is also IOS’ entrant in the Google 

Lunar X PRIZE. Finally, the NEPTUNE 4000 (N4000), composed 

of 84 CPMs, will carry 4,000 kilograms (8,818 pounds) to LEO, 

making it a medium-class launch vehicle. The N4000 will also be 

able to carry a crew module, which IOS is developing for tourism. 

The company also plans to use the N4000 for lunar sample return 

missions.

Funding for launch vehicle development is coming from the sales of IOS’s 

TubeSat Personal Satellite Kit, which allows clients to purchase all the 

necessary elements to build a 250-gram satellite for $8,000. Just over 30 

TubeSat kits have sold or been reserved.

IOS completed lifting tests of its mobile launch unit in December 2010. 

Rocket engine hot firings and up to four suborbital test flights 

of the CPM Test Vehicle are scheduled for early 2011. The first 

orbital launch is scheduled for the beginning of the third quarter 

of 2011. The planned manifest for the 2011 inaugural launch of 

the N45 includes 10 Cubesats and 30 Tubesats.16

Twenty additional committed payloads are in various phases of 

funding. Academic, artistic, private sector, and corporate groups 

from Peru, Austria, Mexico, Germany, Vietnam, Pakistan, and the 

Dominican Republic are currently arranging to fly with IOS on 

the N45’s inaugural flight. A number of private companies and 

several U.S. military entities are also arranging their own dedicated 

launches for orbits that they cannot easily reach as secondary 

payloads.17

Taurus II – Orbital Sciences Corporation 

Orbital is currently developing the Taurus II, an intermediate-class, two-stage 

orbital launch vehicle. The vehicle will be capable of placing payloads with 

masses up to 6,500 kilograms to LEO, and it will be launched from Virginia’s 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS), though additional launch sites 

are planned depending on customer needs. The Taurus II is a completely 

different vehicle from the Taurus described in an earlier section. 

NEPTUNE CPM

Vehicle NEPTUNE

Developer Interorbital Systems

First Launch 2011

Number of 

Stages

N30: 3

N45: 3

N1000: 3

N4000: 3

Payload 

Performance 

kg (lb)

N30: LEO 30 (66)

N45: LEO 45 (99)

N1000: 

LEO 1000 (2,205)

N4000: 

LEO 4,000 (8,818) 

Launch Site Kingdom of Tonga
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Orbital began developing the Taurus II to address the medium- to 

intermediate-class payload markets. In addition, the company 

submitted its vehicle concept for NASA’s COTS demonstration 

contract, winning a $170 million contract in 2008. In December of 

that year, Orbital won a CRS contract to deliver cargo in pressurized 

modules to the ISS. Orbital is required under contract to provide 

eight flights to ISS through 2016.18 Only one test flight is planned 

for Taurus II under COTS.

Two Aerojet AJ26-62 engines burning liquid oxygen and rocket 

grade kerosene will power the first stage. The AJ26-62 engine is 

based on the NK-33, designed in the 1960s to power the first stage 

of the Soviet Union’s N-1 vehicle, but upgraded using Aerojet 

components and electronics. After cancelling human missions to 

the Moon, the Soviet Union stockpiled about 150 NK-33 engines; Aerojet 

purchased 37 of them in the 1990s. The two engines, thrust vectoring 

components, thrust frame, and associated plumbing are collectively called the 

Main Engine System.

The second stage is a Castor 30A solid motor with thrust vectoring. Orbital 

will offer a Star 38 third stage depending on mission requirements. Topping 

off the vehicle is a 3.9-meter-diameter composite payload 

fairing. The second stage is also home to the avionics module, 

or avionics “ring.” The avionics module contains the Modular 

Avionics Control Hardware that provides power distribution; 

Ethernet-based communications with vehicle subsystems, 

launch equipment, and payload; acquisition and telemetry 

data; vehicle stage interfaces; and range ordnance control.19

Orbital has a backlog of eight Taurus II launches through 

2016, with flights beginning in 2011, which are all under the 

NASA CRS contract.

Sounding Rockets

Sounding rockets typically employ solid propellants, making them ideal 

for storage. They differ from amateur or hobbyist rockets in that they 

climb to higher altitudes, but do not enter a sustainable orbit, and they 

carry out missions on behalf of commercial, government, or non-profit 

clients. Sounding rockets are used for atmospheric research, astronomical 

observations, and microgravity experiments that do not require human 

tending.

Vehicle Taurus II

Developer Orbital Sciences 

Corporation

First Launch 2011

Number of 

Stages 2

Payload 

Performance 

kg (lb)

LEO: 6,500 (14,330)

Launch Site MARS

Taurus II
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 23 •

Three ELV sounding rocket systems are currently available to U.S. customers, 

with two that have a long history of providing highly reliable services. 

Canada-based Bristol Aerospace has provided sounding rockets that have 

been used in the U.S. for decades. They are available to the U.S. scientific 

community through the NASA Sounding Rockets Operations Contract 

(NSROC) managed by the NASA Sounding Rockets Program Office 

(SRPO), located at WFF in Virginia.

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace, Ltd.

The Black Brant sounding rocket system is a flexible, multi-configuration 

family of upper- and exo-atmospheric launch vehicles. Over 1,000 Black 

Brant rockets have launched since production began in 1962. The Black 

Brant rocket motor, the related Nihka rocket motor, and supporting hardware 

are all manufactured in Canada by Bristol Aerospace, a subsidiary of 

Magellan Aerospace Limited. U.S.-manufactured Terrier, Talos, and Taurus 

motors are on several Black Brant configurations. In the United States, the 

NASA Sounding Rocket Program has made extensive use of the Black Brant 

vehicles. 

The Black Brant family of vehicles can launch a 113-kilogram (250-pound) 

payload to an altitude of at least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), a 

454-kilogram (1,000-pound) payload to an altitude of at least 400 kilometers 

(250 miles), or a 680-kilogram (1,500- pound) payload to an altitude of 

at least 260 kilometers (160 miles). These vehicles can provide up to 20 

minutes of microgravity time during a flight. Payloads with diameters of up 

to 56 centimeters (22 inches) have flown successfully.

The smallest version of the Black Brant family is the Black Brant V, 

which is 533 centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters 

(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces an average thrust of 

75,731 newtons (17,025 pounds-force). The Black Brant V motor 

can be used on its own, as a single-stage vehicle, or used as the second 

or third stage in larger, multi-stage versions of the Black Brant. The 

most powerful configuration of the family, the Black Brant XII, is a 

four-stage vehicle that uses the Black Brant V motor as its third stage 

and Bristol Aerospace’s Nihka motor as its fourth stage.

The Black Brant remains in active use today, after nearly 50 years of 

reliable service. The Black Brant sounding rocket system continues to 

be the workhorse of the NASA Sounding Rocket Program.

Black Brant
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Improved Orion and Terrier-Improved Orion – NASA Sounding 

Rockets Program Office

NASA’s Sounding Rockets Program Office (SRPO), located at WFF in 

Virginia, conducts sounding rocket launches for NASA, universities, and 

other customers. Supplied vehicles include Bristol Aerospace’s Black Brant 

series in several vehicle configurations, from a single-stage vehicle to a fourstage vehicle stack (described in a previous section); the Improved Orion; and 

the Terrier-Improved Orion.20

WFF provides both engineering and mission operations support 

to the commercial launch industry. Through NASA Space 

Act Agreements, WFF engineering personnel and laboratories 

frequently support commercial space technology development and 

testing. WFF also provides launch range services to the commercial 

launch industry, either directly or through partnership with the 

FAA-licensed MARS. However, NASA cannot offer commercial 

flights aboard government-owned suborbital vehicles; the agency 

can support only preparation and mission operations needs for 

commercial users.

NASA’s SRPO integrates the subassemblies, which, with the 

exception of Black Brant, consist of military surplus Orion and 

Terrier motors. Payloads are typically limited to science and 

hardware testing. SRPO conducts about 15-20 sounding rocket 

launches per year from WFF, Poker Flat Research Range in Alaska, White 

Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, and Andoya Rocket Range in Norway. 

The Terrier-Improved Orion consists of a 46-centimeter (18-inch) diameter 

Terrier first stage and a 36-centimeter (14-inch) diameter Improved Orion 

second stage. This vehicle, which has a diameter of 14 inches, can carry a 

payload of up to 363 kilograms (800 pounds) to an altitude of 75 kilometers 

(47 miles) or 100 kilograms (220 pounds) to an altitude of 225 kilometers 

(140 miles). The Terrier-Orion is launched from WFF. 

SRPO launched three Terrier-Orion vehicles in 2010, with the first launched 

from Poker Flat Research Range on February 2, 2010. Two others were 

launched from WFF, on June 24, 2010, and September 21, 2010. A TerrierImproved Malemute launched on March 27, 2010, to test the Malemute 

upper stage and carry two student cubesats. The Malemute is a surplus 

missile motor, and it is rarely used by SRPO.

Shadow I and II – Lunar Rocket and Rover Company

With development on the orbital Shadow III ongoing, Lunar Rocket and 

Rover Company continues to provide sounding rocket services to customers. 

In 2010, the company successfully launched a new version of the Shadow I, 

Terrier-Malemute
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Expendable Launch Vehicles

• 25 •

called the Shadow IE. The vehicle successfully reached an altitude 

of 115 kilometers (71.5 miles) and successfully deployed a test 

balloon, which was tracked by the French Radar Ship Monge. The 

payload successfully transmitted telemetry from launch to apogee, 

considered a significant milestone for the company since previous 

linkages failed at around 15,545 meters (51,000 feet). The 2010 

launch aimed to test a new payload ejection system, a new rocket 

balloon instrument (Robin) sphere inflation system, wind data 

capture, and an ascent tracking system.21

In addition, the Lunar Rocket and Rover Company has three 

school-built payloads awaiting launch on a Shadow I, and the 

company is exploring financing options. All three payloads were 

built as a cooperative effort between middle school and university 

students.

ELV Development Efforts Not Detailed in this Report

During the past decade and a half, several companies have been established 

to develop new orbital ELVs and RLVs. Earlier editions of this report 

profiled many of these. Inevitably, some of these companies will change their 

business plans or will encounter financial or technical difficulties. Table 3 on 

the following page identifies five orbital vehicle systems developed through 

private funding that were profiled in earlier reports, but not in this edition. 

AirLaunch LLC, based in Kirkland, Washington, had been developing the 

QuickReachTM vehicle, a small, low-cost, air-launched rocket for defense and 

other applications, with assistance from the DARPA/Air Force FALCON 

SLV program. However, with the conclusion of the FALCON program 

on November 3, 2008, AirLaunch LLC was put into hiatus. While the 

company structure still exists, no operations or development activities are 

being conducted. Shadow III, under development by Lunar Rocket and 

Rover Company, is not being pursued at this time due to funding shortfalls; 

however, the company currently provides sounding rocket services. In 

the other three cases, FAA/AST could not verify the status of vehicle 

developments.

Shadow I
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Vehicle Vehicle Type Company Description Remarks

Athena III Orbital PlanetSpace Three-stage solid propellant 

system designed to address 

CRS. Team included Lockheed 

Martin, Boeing, and ATK.

NASA did not select the PlanetSpace 

team, though the company 

announced it would pursue Athena 

III, nevertheless. No updates on the 

Athena III have been posted since 

2008.

Eagle S Orbital PlanetSpace Seven variants based on 

the LGM-118A Peacekeeper 

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

(MX).

No updates on the Eagle S series of 

vehicles have been posted for 2010. 

Nanosat Launch 

Vehicle

Orbital Garvey Spacecraft 

Corporation

Two-stage, liquid propellant 

vehicle capable of sending 10 

kilograms to SSO.

In October 2010, Garvey Spacecraft 

Corp. delivered two rockets 

to Orbital Technologies Corp. 

(ORBITECH) for engine integration 

and testing. Launches of these 

vehicles are expected in 2011.20

QuickReach Orbital AirLaunch, LLC Air-launched, two-stage ELV 

capable of sending 450 

kilograms (1,000 pounds) 

to LEO. 

AirLaunch LLC suspended operation 

and development activities in 2008.

Shadow III Orbital Lunar Rocket 

and Rover 

Company

Three-stage, solid propellant 

orbital launch vehicle capable 

of sending payloads of 32 

kilograms (71 pounds) to LEO. 

Funding options to complete 

development are currently being 

explored.

Table 3: ELV development efforts not detailed in the report.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

• 27 •

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLES

Vehicles that access outer space, operate within that environment, and 

returning safely so they can be used again are called reusable launch vehicles 

(RLVs). Some RLVs are designed for suborbital trajectories; that is, they 

do not attain enough velocity to enter into a sustainable orbit around the 

Earth. RLVs that enter orbit are launched aboard expendable launch vehicles 

(ELVs) or launched from airplanes. The launch industry is also exploring 

single stage to orbit (SSTO) vehicles, which are capable of operating from the 

ground, in the air, and in space as a single unit. SSTO remains a significant 

engineering challenge despite being investigated as a space access option for 

many decades. 

There are no crewed RLVs currently in operation in the United States. 

However, several companies have completed significant milestones in crewed 

RLV development, with one (Scaled Composites) already conducting flight 

tests. The first part of this section describes proposed commercial suborbital 

and orbital RLVs in development or under study. The second part describes 

reusable sounding rockets, which at this time only includes UP Aerospace’s 

commercially available reusable sounding rocket.

The third chapter of this report discusses reusable cargo and passenger 

capsules, which are transport vessels available for commercial use launched 

atop an ELV or RLV. The Eependable Launch Vehicles chapter discusses the 

proposed reusable first stage of the Falcon 9.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Development Efforts

SpaceShipTwo/WhiteKnightTwo – Scaled Composites,

Virgin Galactic

In April 2003, California-based Scaled Composites announced that it was 

developing a vehicle capable of winning the Ansari X PRIZE. This prize 

would award $10 million for the first, privately financed, piloted vehicle 

demonstrating two successful suborbital space flights (100 kilometers, or 62 

miles) within two weeks. Scaled Composites described this effort as a Tier 

One development program for a future vehicle. The vehicle system employed 

a conventional jet airplane, called the White Knight, that carried the rocketpowered spacecraft SpaceShipOne (SS1) to an altitude of 14 kilometers (8.7 

miles) before releasing. All flights flew out of Mojave Airport. Paul Allen, 

co-founder of Microsoft, provided substantial financial backing through a 

joint venture called Mojave Aerospace Ventures. 

On April 1, 2004, FAA/AST issued a commercial launch license to Scaled 

Composites authorizing the company to operate a rocket-powered vehicle 

designed for use in space. On June 21, 2004, with astronaut pilot Mike 
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 28 •

Melvill at the controls, SS1 successfully completed a test 

flight into space, achieving an altitude of 100 kilometers 

(62 miles). On September 29, 2004, SS1, again piloted 

by Melvill, achieved an altitude of 103 kilometers. On 

October 4, 2004, pilot Brian Binnie captured the Ansari 

X PRIZE for Mojave Aerospace Ventures by achieving an 

altitude of 112 kilometers (70 miles) within the required 

two-week timeframe. After this last and 14th flight of SS1, 

Scaled Composites had enough test flight data to begin 

work on a new vehicle system. 

In 2005, Scaled Composites and Virgin Group formed a partnership 

called The Spaceship Company, which licensed the SS1-related technology 

developed by Mojave Aerospace Ventures. This partnership enabled financing 

for the design, construction, and delivery of a fleet of SpaceShipTwo (SS2) 

vehicles, based on SS1, and their carrier aircraft, called WhiteKnightTwo. 

Under this arrangement, Scaled Composites continues to manufacture the 

vehicles. Scaled Composites defines the SS2 effort as Tier 1b, another step on 

the way to orbit (Tier Two).1

SS2 is a spacecraft physically similar to SS1 except in size. It uses the 

same feathered reentry system employed by SS1, often described as a 

shuttlecock. This system allows for slow reentry velocities, which reduces 

the heat build-up of reentry. SS2 is designed to carry six passengers and 

two crewmembers. It will be powered by a single hybrid solid rocket engine 

called RocketMotorTwo, developed by Scaled Composites and Sierra Nevada 

Corporation. SS2 is designed to reach an altitude of 110 kilometers (68 

miles). Five SS2 vehicles are planned for Virgin.2

The seven-phase SS2 test flight program began in October 2009 with ground 

tests and culminated in suborbital launch tests, all taking place at Mojave 

Air and Space Port, now an FAA/AST-licensed commercial spaceport. Phase 

one of the test program involved taxiing and ground operations. The second 

phase of the program, captive carry flights of the uncrewed SS2 (named VSS

Enterprise) and WhiteKnightTwo (named VMS Eve), commenced on March 

22, 2010.3

 A second flight followed on May 16. Both tests were completed 

successfully. Phase three of the test program, captive carry with a pilot at the 

controls of VSS Enterprise, began on July 15 and was repeated on September 

30. Successful completion of both tests meant the system was ready for 

Phase four of the program, piloted glide flights of VSS Enterprise. The first 

of these flights took place on October 10, lasted 13 minutes, and concluded 

successfully.4

 Phase four testing concludes with glides featuring short bursts 

from the vehicle’s rocket engine.5

SpaceShipTwo
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

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Test flights that do not use a rocket require an FAA experimental 

airworthiness license, which Scaled Composites secured in 2008 for both 

WhiteKnightTwo and SS2.6 Once a rocket engine is integrated with SS2, the 

vehicle will require an FAA/AST license before operating. As of December 

2010, this license was still pending.7

Many more test flights await VSS Enterprise before commercial operations. 

These necessary test flights consist of rocket-powered, supersonic, highaltitude flight (Phase Five), suborbital flights (Phase Six), and safety-of-flight 

demonstrations to earn FAA/AST approval for commercial operations (Phase 

Seven).8 The commercial flights will take place from New Mexico’s Spaceport 

America, currently slated for completion in 2011.9

Commercial flights of VSS Enterprise and its companion vehicles are 

expected to begin in the latter half of 2011. All of these flights, brokered by 

Virgin Galactic, a subsidiary of Virgin Group, will launch from Spaceport 

America, which became an FAA-licensed spaceport in December 2008. By 

November 2010, Virgin Galactic obtained deposits from 380 individuals for 

a total of $50 million. The objective is to secure deposits from 500 people 

before commercial operations begin.10

Lynx – XCOR Aerospace

Founded in 1999, XCOR Aerospace was established by engineers that 

worked on Roton, a unique vertical take-off and landing RLV testbed that 

combined a rocket and a helicopter. XCOR’s main objectives are to produce 

rocket engines for the RLV market and develop an RLV. XCOR is modifying 

a piston-based pumping system that can handle cryogenic liquids for rocket 

engines as an alternative to traditional turbopumps. 

Beyond its growing experience with rocket engine technology, XCOR 

developed two test vehicles, EZ-Rocket and X-Racer. XCOR used the 

EZ-Rocket, a kit plane designed by Burt Rutan, modified by XCOR with 

an engine conversion, new tanks, and some new instrumentation, as a 

technology demonstrator. The vehicle retired in 2005 

after it helped XCOR test a reusable rocket engine as 

part of an integrated flight system and establish lowcost operational procedures to enable rapid turn-around 

between flights. XCOR also developed X-Racer for the 

Rocket Racing League. The X-Racer allowed XCOR to 

pursue improvements that were impractical to retrofit on 

EZ-Rocket.11

Experiences gleaned from the EZ-Rocket and X-Racer 

inform development of the Lynx Mark I, a prototype Lynx
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vehicle designed to conduct test flights to an altitude of about 61 kilometers 

(38 miles). The Lynx Mark I takes off and lands like an airplane. The vehicle 

employs four XR-5K18 rocket engines developed by XCOR and powered by 

liquid oxygen (LOX) and rocket grade kerosene. Pennsylvania-based Airgas, 

Inc. will provide LOX, helium, and nitrogen for XCOR through 2025, 

through a contract signed in March 2010.12 Successful hot fire testing of the 

XR-5K18 engine was completed in 2008, and full testing continues. 

In September 2010, XCOR successfully tested a Lynx scale model in a wind 

tunnel at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center, as part of a Cooperative 

Research and Development Agreement between the company, NASA, and 

the Air Force Research Laboratory’s (AFRL) Air Vehicles Directorate. XCOR 

expects test flights of the Lynx Mark I to begin in 2011 from Mojave Air and 

Space Port. After successful testing, the Lynx Mark I will be available to carry 

small payloads of 120 kilograms (265 pounds) internally.

The two-seat Lynx Mark II is XCOR’s operational version of the Lynx 

suborbital RLV program. This vehicle will send a pilot, spaceflight 

participant, and small payload (120 kilograms, or 265 pounds) to an altitude 

of 100 kilometers (62 miles). The spaceflight participant, who might also be 

paid to tend a payload, sits just behind and to the pilot’s right. Occupants 

will be required to wear pressure suits at all times. The Lynx Mark II is 

expected to fly in late 2012 or early 2013.

XCOR continues to work with the U.S. Department of State on a wet 

lease deal with South Korea-based Yecheon Astro Space Center. This center 

selected XCOR in December 2009, as its preferred supplier of suborbital 

space launch services. A wet lease means the center does not purchase the 

vehicle; rather, it purchases the right to lease the vehicle and pays XCOR to 

operate it. XCOR will provide services to the center using the Lynx Mark II 

as part of the deal.13

XCOR and Space Experience Curaçao (SXC) of Netherlands Antilles also 

signed a wet lease partnership agreement in October 2010. In this deal, 

SXC markets space tourism flights aboard the Lynx, beginning January 

2014. Discussions between the U.S. Government, XCOR, Curaçao 

Airport Holding, and other parties are underway to allow use of the Lynx at 

Curaçao.14

XCOR and Masten Space Systems also signed an agreement in 2010 to work 

jointly on lander projects, combining XCOR’s experience with engines and 

Masten’s success with vertical take-off and landing vehicles. Details about 

these landers can be found in the section on Masten.15
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

• 31 •

New Shepard – Blue Origin

Blue Origin is pursuing the challenge of designing reusable 

vertical take-off, vertical landing (VTVL) space launch vehicles 

for human spaceflight. VTVL vehicles take off vertically like 

a conventional rocket, but then perform a powered vertical 

landing for recovery and reuse. Vehicle manufacturing is done 

at Blue Origin’s headquarters near Seattle. Blue Origin conducts 

flight testing at its launch site in West Texas near the town of 

Van Horn. Blue Origin is the only space launch company in 

the United States, and possibly the world, operating its own 

dedicated launch site.16

In November 2006, the company successfully tested its Goddard 

low-altitude VTVL vehicle at the West Texas Launch Site. 

Goddard represents a first step in Blue Origin’s overall New Shepard program. 

Blue Origin is developing other suborbital vehicles to carry three or more 

astronauts to altitudes above 325,000 feet (above 100 kilometers). The 

company will later pursue orbital launches. 

In 2010, Blue Origin continued working with various colleges and 

universities, as part of its pathfinder program to enhance services offered to 

those seeking suborbital science research and education missions.17

Also in 2010, NASA signed a Space Act Agreement with Blue Origin for $3.7 

million as part of the agency’s Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) 

program. Under the agreement, Blue Origin continued development of 

two subsystems for its orbital Space Vehicle. The first is a “pusher” crew 

escape system. In the past, crew escape systems have been of the “tractor” 

variety, in which a launch escape tower pulls a capsule away from the launch 

vehicle. This introduces a flight safety event when there is no emergency, as 

the tractor must be jettisoned. Blue Origin is developing a “pusher” system 

mounted at the rear of the capsule. This allows the escape system to remain 

with the vehicle when there is no emergency, avoiding the flight-safety risk of 

the jettison event. Under CCDev, Blue Origin also continued development 

of a subscale composite pressure vessel, which is lighter and provides more 

redundant safety protection for astronauts during flight. Blue Origin was the 

first of NASA’s CCDev partners to successfully complete all milestones cofunded by NASA under the program. Testing these technologies will inform 

development of Blue Origin’s orbital Space Vehicle, which the company plans 

to launch aboard an Atlas V and eventually on Blue Origin’s own reusable 

booster system.18

Goddard
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Super-MOD, Tube, SOST – Armadillo Aerospace

Armadillo Aerospace continues its extensive flight-testing program 

for suborbital science and space tourism vehicles. Early successes 

with the Super-MOD lander vehicle led to a launch services contract 

with NASA under the Commercial Reusable Suborbital Research 

(CRuSR) program. Armadillo reportedly received $225,000 of 

the total $475,000 contract, with Masten receiving the remaining 

$250,000.19 NASA contracted with Armadillo for three launches 

of the company’s Super-MOD vehicle, subject to FAA launch 

license approval.20 These are pathfinder projects to help NASA gain 

experience with payload integration and launch operations under 

the CRuSR program, before its official start in 2011. None of the 

launches by Armadillo or Masten will be designed to reach beyond 

an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles). 

Also in 2010, Armadillo introduced the reusable, 38-centimeter 

(15-inch) diameter Tube vehicle, capable of reaching beyond 100 kilometers 

(62 miles) depending on payload mass. Tube can be flown to these altitudes 

under an amateur classification or waiver, depending on location. The vehicle 

uses a LOX-alcohol engine developed by Armadillo and is designed to be a 

low-cost, reusable option to the Super-MOD and its derivatives. Tube, which 

will be tested in January 2011, will be flown out of Spaceport America.

Armadillo also made progress on its reusable Suborbital Space Transport 

(SOST) vehicle, a four-tank configured system capable of carrying a 

capsule for crewed or uncrewed missions. SOST test flights are scheduled 

for 2011, with operations beginning in late 2012 to early 2013. By early 

2011, following engineering evaluations of all its vehicles, Armadillo will 

make a decision about the optimal configuration for SOST. In April 2010, 

Armadillo signed an agreement with Space Adventures to market Armadillo’s 

suborbital services using SOST. 

The company expects a busy schedule in 2011, with test launches conducted 

at Caddo Mills Airport in Texas, Spaceport Oklahoma, and Spaceport 

America.

SOST
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

• 33 •

XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems

Mojave-based Masten develops and markets igniters and engines. It 

also provides aerospace consulting services and develops experimental 

launch vehicles. Masten is pursuing a reusable, vertical takeoff, vertical landing suborbital vehicle system. Masten’s Extreme 

Altitude-1.0, or XA-1.0, is an uncrewed vehicle designed to lift 

100-kilogram (220-pound) payloads to an altitude of 100 kilometers 

(62 miles) or more. The date of the first launch of the XA-1.0 has 

not yet been released. Masten is developing several prototypes to test 

various approaches and systems in preparation for XA-1.0.

In December 2007, Masten flight-tested its first prototype vehicle, 

called the XA-0.1A. The flight ended when the engines shut down 

due to a faulty computer command, and the vehicle crashed to the 

ground. The next prototype XA-0.1B (Xombie) was used for low-altitude, 

low-speed testing and became Masten’s entry to the NASA-funded Northrop 

Grumman Lunar Lander X PRIZE Challenge in 2009. The Masten team 

won the Level One second prize in the competition. The vehicle also 

successfully demonstrated the first in-air engine re-light for a vertical takeoff, vertical landing vehicle. Later, Masten’s XA-0.1E (Xoie) won the Level 

Two first prize of the competition. Xoie has undergone refitting during 2010 

to enable carrying a 10-kilogram (22-pound) payload to an altitude of 30 

kilometers (19 miles). 

Masten plans two major upgrades of the Xoie vehicle. The first upgrade, 

called Foxie, is designed to lift 10 kilograms (22 pounds) above the 

30-kilometer (19-mile) mark. Following successful testing of the Foxie 

version, Masten will outfit the vehicle with bigger tanks, increasing its 

capacity to send 47 kilograms (104 pounds) to a 100-kilometer (62-mile) 

altitude, with flights beginning in 2011. This version of the vehicle is 

nicknamed Xogdor and will form the basis of the commercially available 

suborbital XA-1.0 vehicle.

In 2010, NASA awarded Masten $250,000 as part of a CRuSR contract. In 

this contract, Masten provides four flights of a reconfigured Xoie vehicle, 

called Xaero, for launching test payloads from the Mojave Air and Space Port 

and Cape Canaveral Spaceport’s LC-36.21 The first two flights, planned for 

January 2011, will reach an altitude of approximately five kilometers (three 

miles). The other two flights will reach about 29 kilometers (18 miles) and 

include an in-flight engine shutdown.22

Xoie
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 34 •

RLVs not detailed in this report

During the past decade and a half, several companies have been established to 

develop suborbital RLVs. Many of these have been profiled in earlier editions 

of this report. Inevitably, some of these companies will change their business 

plans or will encounter financial or technical difficulties. Table 4 identifies 

three suborbital RLVs developed through private funding that were profiled 

in earlier reports but not in this edition. In June 2010, Rocketplane XP filed 

for bankruptcy. In the other two cases, not enough activity occurred in 2010 

to warrant a detailed profile. 

Reusable Sounding Rockets

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace, Inc.

UP Aerospace designed, developed, and launches the SpaceLoft 

XL reusable sounding rocket. UP Aerospace, Incorporated 

is headquartered in Farmington, Connecticut, with business 

and engineering offices in Highlands Ranch, Colorado. The 

rocket, six meters (20 feet) tall and 25 centimeters (10 inches) in 

diameter, can carry up to 50 kilograms (110 pounds) of payload 

to a maximum altitude of 225 kilometers (140 miles). UP 

Aerospace markets the SpaceLoft XL vehicle to serve educational 

and research markets, such as microgravity and atmospheric 

sciences experiments, as well as commercial applications, 

including product marketing and novelty promotion. UP 

Aerospace also provides research and development, testing, and 

range services for commercial aerospace companies at Spaceport 

America, New Mexico. Spaceport America is the primary launch 

site for UP Aerospace and its SpaceLoft XL vehicle.

Vehicle Vehicle Type Company Description Remarks

MICHELLE-B Suborbital TGV Rockets Vertical take-off /vertical landing 

vehicle features reusable rocket 

boosters topped with a capsule 

rounded with viewing ports. Vehicle 

returns with aid of deployable air 

brakes. 

While work on engine 

development (TGV-RT30) and 

aerospace consulting continues, 

development of MICHELLE-B is 

delayed due to lack of funding.

RocketPlane XP Suborbital Rocketplane Vehicle plan is similar to a modified 

business jet, equipped with two jet 

engines and a rocket engine.

Rocketplane declared bankruptcy 

in June 2010.23

Silver Dart Orbital PlanetSpace Vehicle plan is based on the FDL-7 

designed by the U.S. Air Force Flight 

Dynamics Laboratory and NASA’s 

X-24B test aircraft. Designed to be 

launched atop an ELV.

No updates on the Silver Dart 

have been posted for 2010.

Table 4: RLV development efforts not detailed in the report.

SpaceLoft XL
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reusable Launch Vehicles

• 35 •

The first successful SpaceLoft XL launch was on April 28, 2007, at Spaceport 

America in New Mexico. The most recent launch was on May 4, 2010, 

when a SpaceLoft XL (SL-4 mission) successfully launched several payloads, 

including some for the Air Force Research Laboratory’s Operationally 

Responsive Space Office. The rocket reached an apogee of 113.8 kilometers 

(70.7 miles), with all payloads returned to customers in less than four hours 

from launch. 

There were no launches in 2008, but three in 2009. The first, the SpaceLoft 

XL SL-3 mission on May 2, 2009, carried student research experiments. The 

second launch occurred on August 4, 2009, and lofted a ground-launched 

UAV prototype for the aerospace company Moog-FTS with a turnaround 

of six weeks from planning start to launch. The third flight, on October 

10, 2009, was a successful launch of an experimental test flight vehicle for 

Lockheed Martin.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 36 •
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reentry and In-Space Technologies

• 37 •

REENTRY VEHICLES AND IN-SPACE

TECHNOLOGIES

Expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) and reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) 

send payloads into space, and most payloads, such as satellites, enter orbit. 

Some payloads are suborbital, including science instruments launched 

aboard sounding rockets. In some cases, however, a payload is a method of 

transporting cargo or people. This system of in-space transportation completes 

a transportation circuit between the location in orbit where the launch vehicle 

deposits the payload and a specific destination in space, like a space station 

or celestial body. Either an onboard crewmember or a remote operator 

can control in-space transportation vehicles. Some in-space transportation 

vehicles, particularly those carrying people, are designed to return safely to 

Earth intact. Therefore, reentry vehicles require adequate protection from 

atmospheric friction during reentry. Other in-space transportation vehicles, 

like the uncrewed Russian Progress spacecraft, burn up in the atmosphere after 

offloading cargo to the International Space Station (ISS). 

Early examples of reentry and in-space transportation vehicles have been 

government-operated, including one-person vehicles like the United States 

Mercury (1959-1963) and Soviet Vostok (1960-1963). Later versions 

include multi-crew vehicles like the United States Space Shuttle (1981-

2011), Russian Soyuz (1966-present), and Chinese Shenzhou (1999-present). 

Beginning in 2011, commercial systems will transport people and goods for 

the first time in history. U.S. companies build and operate all of the planned 

vehicles. The U.S. Government is the primary customer in all cases, but the 

space industry hopes that with experience, and as the in-space transportation 

market matures, economies of scale will develop and new customers will 

emerge. Currently, the ISS is a driver for commercial in-space transportation. 

The possibility that U.S.-based Bigelow Aerospace will develop a commercial 

space station is another driver. With the possibility of U.S. Government and 

allied missions to near Earth asteroids and the Moon within the next few 

decades, demand for commercial in-space transportation may increase.

Government-funded vehicles, like the Space Shuttle, the European 

Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), the Russian Progress, and the Japanese 

H-IIA Transfer Vehicle (HTV), currently provide cargo services to ISS. The 

Space Shuttle and Russian Soyuz systems currently provide crew delivery 

and return. Anticipating the retirement of the Space Shuttle Program, 

NASA decided several years ago to investigate commercial options for ISS 

support. The agency has since become the chief enabler of both commercial 

cargo and commercial crew transportation in the U.S. NASA hopes that 

monies competitively allocated to industry for either purpose will evolve 

into sustainable in-space transportation. NASA has currently contracted 

with Lockheed Martin to build the Orion spacecraft to carry humans to ISS 
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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starting 2016, and eventually the moon and Mars. Orion is a government 

led development effort and therefore not included in this report.

In 2006, NASA announced the $500 million Commercial Orbital 

Transportation Services (COTS) program. COTS focuses exclusively on 

designing and developing commercial cargo services to the ISS. In late 2006, 

NASA entered into two Space Act Agreements under COTS with SpaceX 

($278 million) and Kistler Aerospace ($207 million). However, due to 

financial and technical difficulties within Kistler, NASA decided to terminate 

the agreement with the company (which spent $32 million by that time) and 

open the remaining $175 million for new proposals. After a new round of 

competition, Orbital Sciences Corporation (Orbital) won, and NASA entered 

into a Space Act Agreement with that company in 2007. Under COTS, 

SpaceX develops the Falcon 9 vehicle and the Dragon cargo capsule, and 

Orbital develops the Taurus II vehicle and Cygnus capsule for cargo delivery 

to the ISS. 

In 2008, NASA awarded two Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contracts 

to SpaceX and Orbital. SpaceX won a contract valued at $1.6 billion for 

12 flights through 2015, and Orbital won a $1.9 billion contract for eight 

flights during the same period.1 Operational flights under these contracts 

are expected to begin in 2011. Table 5 lists all in-orbit vehicles currently in 

development.

Vehicle Company Type Planned 

First Flight

Description

CST-100 Boeing Crewed 2015 Reusable pressurized crew-carrying capsule with propulsion 

module aft of capsule. Designed to access ISS and planned 

Bigelow Aerospace commercial space station. Launched by 

either Atlas V or Delta IV.

Cygnus Orbital Uncrewed 2011 Reusable pressurized cargo-carrying vehicle launched by 

Taurus II from Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport in Virginia. 

Designed to access ISS.

Dragon SpaceX Crewed and 

Uncrewed

2011 Reusable pressurized Spacecraft capsule for crews or cargo, 

with unpressurized Trunk aft of capsule featuring equipment 

bay, solar arrays, and, if required, DragonLab. The Spacecraft 

is capped with a removable Nosecone-protecting docking 

collar. Designed to access ISS. Launched by

Falcon 9 from CCAFS.

Dream 

Chaser

Sierra 

Nevada 

Corp.

Crewed 2014 Reusable space plane concept based on the HL-20 designed 

to access ISS. Expected to be launched aboard an Atlas V.

Table 5: Commercial reentry and in-space vehicles currently in development.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reentry and In-Space Technologies

• 39 •

In terms of crew delivery and return to the ISS, NASA initiated the $50 

million Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program in 2010, funded 

through the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.2 Like COTS, 

CCDev focuses exclusively on developing systems to send people to ISS. The 

CCDev program does not include actual crew transportation services. In 

2010, NASA awarded CCDev contracts to Sierra Nevada Corporation ($20 

million, for the Dream Chaser vehicle proposal), Boeing ($18 million, for the 

CST-100 vehicle proposal), United Launch Alliance ($6.7 million, for human 

rating the Atlas V and Delta IV), Blue Origin ($3.7 million, for a launch 

abort system and other components), and Paragon Space Development 

Corporation ($1.4 million, for a modular life-support system). Shortly 

after the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 was signed into law on October 

11, 2010, the agency announced it is seeking proposals for a second round 

of CCDev awards totaling $200 million,3

 contingent on Congressional 

appropriations.4 Awards will be announced in March 2011. 

ISS will be busy next year, as commercial access begins to ramp up. In 2011, 

there are plans for visits to the ISS by one (and possibly two) Space Shuttle 

flights, five Russian Progress spacecraft, one European ATV, one Japanese 

HTV, three SpaceX Dragons, and one Orbital Cygnus.5

Table 6 on the following page is a summary of COTS, CRS, and CCDev 

Space Act Agreements and a projection of COTS and CCDev funding, based 

on the NASA Authorization Act of 2010.

Commercial Reentry Vehicles and In-Space

Transportation Currently in Development

CST-100 – Boeing and Bigelow Aerospace 

In September 2009, Boeing submitted a proposal for NASA’s CCDev 

program, in partnership with Bigelow Aerospace. NASA awarded $18 

million to the team in February 2010, under a Space Act Agreement for 

the Crew Space Transportation (CST)-100 program. Boeing’s business 

plan depends on government funding to support capability development. 

The business case is built on transportation to the ISS, with NASA as a 

foundational customer, and services to other low Earth orbit (LEO) 

destinations as a significant potential upside. Boeing continues 

working with Bigelow Aerospace, supporting their Orbiting Space 

Complexes as an expansion of the market. According to Boeing, 

transportation to Bigelow’s commercial space station is expected to 

become operational in 2015, the year CST-100 becomes available.6

CST-100 is designed for missions to LEO only. The vehicle will 

be capable of carrying either cargo or up to seven people to a LEO CST-100
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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* In 2007, NASA terminated the Space Act Agreement with Kistler, due to the company’s technical and financial shortfalls. 

By that time, Kistler already spent about $32 million. The agency reopened bidding later that year for the remaining 

$175 million, which Orbital won.

** From H.R. 5781, the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, signed into law October 11, 2010. The authorization covers 

FY 2011-FY 2013.7

destination, such as the ISS or Bigelow’s planned space station. Boeing also 

has a memorandum of agreement with Space Adventures to fly commercial 

passengers in unused seats to LEO destinations. The vehicle will consist of a 

conical forward section, similar to an Apollo Command Module but larger, 

with an aft equipment housing that will be discarded shortly before reentry, 

exposing the vehicle’s heat shield. CST-100 is designed to be reused up to ten 

times and to be compatible with a variety of expendable launch vehicles, such 

as the Atlas V, Delta IV or Falcon 9. It will also include a launch escape system. 

Cygnus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Following NASA’s $175 million COTS award to Orbital, the company began 

developing the Cygnus pressurized cargo transfer vehicle. Orbital’s new Taurus 

II vehicle will lift the Cygnus into space, launching from the Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport in Virginia. The first test flights are expected in the first 

half of 2011, with operational flights expected later that year or in 2012.

Program Year of Space 

Act Agreement

Value of Space 

Act Agreement Companies Vehicles and 

Technologies

COTS 2006 $278 million SpaceX Dragon

COTS 2006 $207 million Kistler* K-1

COTS 2007 $175 million Orbital Cygnus

CRS 2008 $1.5 billion SpaceX Dragon (12 flights)

CRS 2008 $1.9 billion Orbital Cygnus (8 flights)

CCDev 2010 $20 million Sierra Nevada Corp. Dream Chaser

CCDev 2010 $18 million Boeing CST-100

CCDev 2010 $6.7 million United Launch Alliance Atlas/Delta human rating

CCDev 2010 $3.7 million Blue Origin Launch abort systems

CCDev 2010 $1.4 million Paragon Space Life support

FY 2011 NASA Authorization**

Commercial Cargo FY 2011 $300 million TBD TBD

CCDev FY 2011 $312 million TBD in March 2011 TBD

CCDev FY 2012 $500 million TBD TBD

CCDev FY 2013 $500 million TBD TBD

Table 6. Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), Commercial Resupply Services (CRS), and Commercial 

Crew Development (CCDev) contract awards.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reentry and In-Space Technologies

• 41 •

The 1,800-kilogram (3,968-pound) Cygnus will comprise a pressurized cargo 

module and a service module. The service module is based 

on Orbital’s proven STAR satellite bus, used successfully 

for 31 satellites since 1997. The Pressurized Cargo Module 

(PCM), developed by Thales Alenia Space and based on the 

Multi-Purpose Logistics Module used for ISS resupply, will 

be capable of handling between 2,000 kilograms (4,409 

pounds) and 2,700 kilograms (5,952 pounds) depending 

on mission requirements.8 Orbital announced that the 

first three production versions of Cygnus are undergoing 

pressure tests at Thales’ Italy location and that PCM1 

will be delivered to Orbital in July 2011 for launch in the spring of 2012.9

 

Netherlands-based Dutch Space will build the two solar arrays that will 

provide 3.5 kW of power to Cygnus.10 A pressurized passenger version of 

Cygnus has not been publicly discussed.

A typical Cygnus mission will last about six weeks, with two weeks spent 

traveling to ISS. After docking at Node 2 of the station, the vehicle will 

remain berthed for about a month to allow cargo transfers.11

A CRS Space Act Agreement signed between NASA and Orbital obligates the 

company to provide eight Cygnus resupply flights to ISS through 2015.12

Dragon – SpaceX 

SpaceX started Dragon with internal funding in 2005 and has used NASA’s 

2006 COTS award of $278 million to develop its Falcon 9 and Dragon 

vehicles. Dragon is a pressurized, reusable system designed to carry either 

cargo or people. It contains a reusable cargo segment called the spacecraft, 

a nosecone designed to protect the spacecraft’s forward docking hatch and 

collar, and an aft unrecoverable section called the trunk. The spacecraft 

features a phenolic impregnated carbon ablative shield capable of withstanding 

reentry temperatures characteristic of missions returning from the Moon or 

Mars.13 Two solar arrays are affixed to the trunk, where the life-support system 

and other components are located. SpaceX also markets the DragonLabTM, an 

unpressurized experiment rack that can be affixed to the trunk. 

Dragon Cargo Version

Under COTS, SpaceX is only required to develop a cargo version of Dragon. 

This version will be capable of carrying 6,000 kilograms (13,228 pounds) of 

payload to ISS or any point in LEO and transporting up to 3,000 kilograms 

(6,614 pounds) of material back down to Earth. The Dragon spacecraft will 

have an available pressurized payload volume of ten cubic meters (245 cubic 

feet). Dragon will use a reaction control system of 18 Draco thrusters, used 

for both attitude control and orbital maneuvering. These thrusters tap 1,290 

Cygnus
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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kilograms (2,844 pounds) of propellant, located in a ring of tanks within the 

aft section of the reusable spacecraft. The spacecraft will also 

provide a small volume for unpressurized experiments.

The trunk will house two solar arrays providing an average of 

1,500 watts of power. The standard trunk will have 14 cubic 

meters (490 cubic feet) of available unpressurized volume, 

but an optional extension will increase available unpressurized 

volume to 34 cubic meters. Unrecoverable DragonLabTM 

experiments will be hosted in the trunk section.14

Before berthing with ISS, the nosecone section opens to reveal a 

Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) that allows Dragon to connect with the 

U.S. Harmony module. However, the CBM does not enable docking with any 

of the four Russian modules, where Soyuz, Progress, and ATV dock. Docking 

with Russian components requires using an Androgynous Peripheral Attach 

System (APAS) that allows docking at multiple locations on ISS but adds mass. 

Nevertheless, the Dragon can be configured with APAS or a Low Impact Docking 

System, if required. In October 2010, the ISS Multilateral Coordination Board 

agreed to install standard docking ports throughout the station.15

Only the Dragon spacecraft section is reusable. Upon completing a mission, 

the spacecraft section will disconnect with the unrecoverable trunk section 

to prepare for reentry. After separation, the Dragon spacecraft reenters the 

atmosphere, with the assistance of an ablative heat shield. The vehicle is 

covered with sidewall thermal protection. The cargo version of Dragon will 

make a parachute-assisted water landing.

SpaceX successfully launched its first Falcon 9 vehicle on June 4, 2010. 

Although a mock-up of a Dragon vehicle was aboard, that flight was not 

funded under COTS. Three COTS test flights of Falcon 9 and Dragon are 

planned for 2011, followed by two ISS resupply flights later that year. 

According to its November 2010 filing with the Securities and Exchange 

Commission, SpaceX raised an additional $50.2 million in new equity 

financing from 16 investors to help the company continue its work on 

Dragon.16 Also in November, FAA/AST issued a commercial reentry license 

to SpaceX, clearing the way for the company to launch its first test flight in 

December 2010.17 This is the first time such a license has been provided. An 

FAA/AST reentry license is valid for one year from the date of issue.18

SpaceX successfully launched a fully functional Dragon cargo vehicle on 

December 8, 2010, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS). This 

was the first test flight under the COTS Space Act Agreement. The vehicle 

Dragon (Cargo)
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reentry and In-Space Technologies

• 43 •

was tested on orbit, including orbital maneuvering, and reentered successfully 

3.5 hours after launch, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.

Dragon Passenger Version

SpaceX did not propose under the initial CCDev competition for crew 

development of Dragon; however, Paragon did and was awarded $1.4 million 

to develop an air revitalization system for Dragon and other similar vehicles. 

SpaceX projects that an investment of $800 million to $1 billion over three 

years will be required to upgrade Dragon for passenger use. SpaceX hopes to 

win a contract through NASA’s CCDev second round in March 2011, so this 

funding can be used to upgrade Dragon to carry people.19

Externally, the passenger version of Dragon appears similar to the cargo 

version; both the cargo and passenger versions have windows. The difference 

lies in the spacecraft section, which will have seats for seven occupants and 

house the life-support system. The trunk will still be available 

for unpressurized cargo and experiments.

The reentry profile for the passenger version of Dragon is the 

same as for the cargo version. While the first several missions of 

the crewed Dragon will end with water landings, SpaceX wants 

to develop retractable landing pads for this version of Dragon. 

Both landing types, however, will use a parachute to slow the 

rate of descent.

Dream Chaser – Sierra Nevada Corporation 

In 2010, NASA signed a Space Act Agreement with Sierra Nevada worth $20 

million as part of CCDev. Sierra Nevada’s subsidiary, SpaceDev, has been 

developing the vehicle called Dream Chaser, which has a complex heritage.

SpaceDev announced its plan to develop Dream Chaser in 2004, using the 

HL-20 Personnel Launch System as a basis for design. The HL-20 was a 

1988 NASA concept that involved a small, crewed space plane launched 

aboard an ELV. Following the loss of Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, 

NASA pursued plans for a Crew Emergency Return Vehicle (CERV) to 

support Space Station Freedom. In 1993, Freedom was redesigned and 

eventually renamed the ISS. The Russian Soyuz became the station’s lifeboat 

as part of an international agreement, effectively ending CERV.20 In 1989, 

NASA began to study the HL-20 design as a low-cost alternative to the Space 

Shuttle for ISS crew transport. The vehicle was designed for launch on an 

ELV, such as the Titan III. NASA built a mockup in 1991 but chose not to 

pursue the system. SpaceDev used the abandoned HL-20 plans as a starting 

point for its Dream Chaser concept. (Dream Chaser will be able to send 

Dragon (Passenger)
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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seven people into LEO. It will be powered by two hybrid 

engines burning solid-state synthetic rubber and liquid nitrous 

oxide.)

SpaceDev submitted its Dream Chaser proposal to NASA for 

the agency’s COTS program. Though announced as a finalist 

in 2006, the company ultimately failed to win a contract. 

SpaceDev signed a memorandum of understanding in 2007 

with United Launch Alliance (ULA) to explore launching 

Dream Chaser aboard Atlas V vehicles, a concept that remains 

integral to SpaceDev’s plans. Sierra Nevada bought SpaceDev in 2008. 

Sierra Nevada gathered a team to develop various components of Dream 

Chaser. Team members include Adam Works, Aerojet, Boeing Phantom 

Works, Draper Laboratory, the University of Colorado, and MacDonald 

Dettwiler Associates (MDA). By February 2010, Sierra Nevada estimated 

that it spent $10 million of its own money on Dream Chaser and met at least 

four COTS milestones.21

In 2010, NASA signed the $20 million CCDev Space Act Agreement with 

Sierra Nevada for continuing development of Dream Chaser. Sierra Nevada 

has used part of this funding to test the company’s hybrid liquid-solid engine 

to power Dream Chaser. The engine passed a milestone three-ignition hot 

fire test in September 2010, an event certified by NASA. In October 2010, 

NASA reviewed Sierra Nevada’s tooling process used to fabricate aeroshell 

structures. The agency also certified the tooling in 2010, clearing the way for 

Sierra Nevada to begin fabricating the Dream Chaser aeroshell in time for 

testing in December, which was successfully completed.22

Also in 2010, Sierra Nevada started exploring Orbital’s X-34 RLV 

demonstrators as testbeds for Dream Chaser. Shortly after the program was 

cancelled in 2001, two X-34 vehicles were put in storage at Edwards Air 

Force Base in California. Sierra Nevada is exploring launch options for the 

demonstrators, including the possibility of deploying from Scaled Composites’ 

WhiteKnightTwo or Orbital’s L-1011 used to launch Pegasus XL.23

Sundancer, BA-330, and Space Station Alpha – Bigelow 

Aerospace

Nevada-based Bigelow Aerospace is developing next-generation expandable 

space habitats and related technology. The purpose is to construct and 

deploy a private sector space station with the aim of reducing the cost of 

space operations. Bigelow Aerospace has launched two prototype spacecraft, 

Genesis I and Genesis II, on a Russian Dnepr rocket from the Yasny Space 

and Missile Complex in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Yasny Space and 

Dream Chaser
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Reentry and In-Space Technologies

• 45 •

Missile Complex is located in southern Russia. Bigelow Aerospace used 

these missions to validate their spacecraft designs, specifically the idea of 

expandable space habitats. Bigelow Aerospace is now in the process of 

developing full-scale spacecraft that will support a human presence on orbit.

The first of these modules currently in development is the Sundancer, an 

expandable habitat to sustain a crew of three. The habitat has a usable 

volume of 180 cubic meters (6,200 cubic feet). Terrestrial and on-orbit 

testing has demonstrated that the multi-layer nature of the inflatable hull 

more effectively protects against radiation and orbital debris than the type 

of metal design employed by ISS modules. A combination of solar arrays 

and batteries provides electrical power for the Sundancer. The module will 

also have an independent avionics system to support navigation and orbital 

maneuvering. The Sundancer will be outfitted with an Environmental 

Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) that will include a lavatory and 

miscellaneous hygiene facilities. Finally, the Sundancer will feature large 

windows with ultraviolet screening.24

The company is also developing the BA-330 that will offer 

nearly twice the usable volume of the Sundancer. The BA-330 

will be capable of sustaining a crew of six for long-duration 

missions. The first Bigelow Aerospace Orbital Space Complex 

(Space Station Alpha) will comprise two Sundancer habitats, 

a node-bus combination, and a BA-330 module. This station 

will be able to support a crew of twelve. The Bigelow station 

will support a broad variety of scientific and commercial 

activities, with a potential focus on microgravity research and 

development.25

To transport crew to the station, Bigelow Aerospace became a member of 

the Boeing CCDev team. Bigelow is actively supporting Boeing’s efforts to 

develop the CST-100 reusable in-space crew transport, profiled earlier in this 

report.26

Moreover, Bigelow Aerospace has begun preliminary international outreach 

efforts. The company has already signed agreements with national space 

agencies, companies, and governmental entities in the Netherlands, Sweden, 

Singapore, Japan, the United Kingdom, and New South Wales, Australia.27

Bigelow Aerospace has initiated a substantial expansion to its North Las 

Vegas manufacturing plant, adding 17,187 square meters (185,000 square 

feet). Also in 2010, Bigelow Aerospace and partner Orbital Technologies 

Corporation began testing an ECLSS using human participants (profiled in 

the next section); earlier tests were simulated.28

Sundancer
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 46 •
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 47 •

SPACEPORTS

Spaceports are sites dedicated to launching orbital or suborbital vehicles 

into space. These sites often also provide the capability to integrate launch 

vehicle components, to integrate vehicles with payloads, to fuel and maintain 

vehicles, and to launch vehicles. From the spaceport, an orbital launch 

vehicle travels over an area called the launch range, which typically includes 

tracking and telemetry assets. These range assets monitor the vehicle’s 

performance until it safely delivers a payload into orbit or returns to Earth. 

Tracking and telemetry assets may also facilitate recovery of reusable stages.

The FAA licenses the operation of commercial spaceports in the United 

States, and by 2010 the FAA issued eight licenses (Table 7). These licenses 

may be renewed every five years. NASA’s Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and 

the Air Force’s Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) are examples of 

launch facilities that do not require an FAA license, because they are operated 

by the federal government. 

Some federal launch facilities, including CCAFS, are available to commercial 

launch providers using FAA-licensed vehicles. Zero Gravity Corporation 

has used KSC’s Space Shuttle Landing Facility for commercial microgravity 

flights, and KSC may be used for commercial reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) 

in the future.1
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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In most cases, spaceports facilitate vertical launches, which means that 

vehicles lift off from pads, rather than from runways. These vehicles may 

be expendable or reusable. They may be integrated vertically (stages stacked 

on top of one another with a payload added on top) or horizontally (stages 

and payload stacked using rolling cradles, then erected once integration is 

complete). Typical features of a launch pad include a reinforced concrete 

pad, blast deflectors, servicing towers or gantries, and lightning rods. A water 

tower may also be nearby, supporting fire or sound suppression. 

Four FAA-licensed spaceports, Cecil Field Spaceport, Mojave Air and Space 

Port, Oklahoma Spaceport, and Spaceport America, also feature runways for 

launch vehicles that take off or land horizontally, similar to airplanes. 

FAA-Licensed Commercial Spaceports

California Spaceport, California

Spaceport Systems International (SSI), established in 1993, operates 

California Spaceport. In 1996, the FAA issued the first Commercial Space 

Launch Site Operator’s License to this spaceport. SSI received this license 

one year after signing a 25-year lease with the Air Force to provide 

commercial launch services from a 100-acre plot located on 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB). The lease also included a 

payload processing facility.

California Spaceport is home to the Commercial Launch Facility 

(CLF). The CLF is located at Space Launch Complex-8

(SLC-8), which was completed in 1999. The CLF consists of a 

Spaceport Operator State License First Issued Expires

California Spaceport Spaceport Systems International California 1996 September 18, 2011

Cape Canaveral 

Spaceport Space Florida Florida 1999* June 30, 2015

Cecil Field Spaceport Jacksonville Aviation Authority Florida 2010 January 10, 2015

Kodiak Launch 

Complex

Alaska Aerospace Development 

Corporation Alaska 1998 September 24, 2013

Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport

Virgnia Commercial Space Flight 

Authority Virginia 1997 December 18, 2012

Mojave Air and 

Space Port East Kern Airport District California 2004 June 16, 2014

Oklahoma Spaceport Oklahoma Space Industry 

Development Authority Oklahoma 2006 June 11, 2011

Spaceport America New Mexico Spaceport Authority New Mexico 2008 December 15, 2013

Table 7: FAA-licensed spaceports.

* Issued to predecessor organization, Spaceport Florida Authority.

California Spaceport
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

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pad and support facilities. The launch control center and 

administrative areas are located nearby at SLC-6. SLC-8 is 

configured for launch vehicles using solid propellants only, 

such as the Minotaur IV and vehicles using the Castor 120 

motors. The spaceport is available for payloads destined 

for low Earth orbit (LEO), specifically polar orbits.2

Since January 2000, SLC-8 has had seven orbital launches, 

all successful. The first launch of Orbital Science 

Corporation’s (Orbital) Minotaur IV from SLC-8 was on 

April 22, 2010, carrying Hypersonic Test Vehicle-2A for the 

Department of Defense (DoD). On September 25, 2010, 

another Minotaur IV successfully launched the Space-Based Surveillance System 

from SLC-8.3

Cape Canaveral Spaceport, Florida

Space Florida was established in 2006 as Florida’s aerospace development 

organization and to coordinate space activities 

within the state. Space Florida is responsible for 

the Cape Canaveral Spaceport, co-located with 

CCAFS and KSC. 

Cape Canaveral Spaceport consists of two 

orbital launch complexes (LC-36 and LC-46) 

and a Space Life Sciences Laboratory. It also 

supports activity at SLC-40, which SpaceX uses 

for its Falcon 9 launches. Finally, Space Florida owns and manages an RLV 

hangar located at the Space Shuttle Landing Facility. The RLV hangar and 

runway is available for limited commercial use, such as 

the suborbital flight training conducted by Starfighter 

Aerospace.

In July 2010, the FAA approved a Commercial Space 

Launch Site Operator’s License for LC-46, allowing 

Space Florida to explore commercial use of the complex.4

 

This event followed DoD’s approval of an Explosive Site 

Plan for the complex in May 2010 and an award of a 

Real Property License from the Air Force in February 

2010. Space Florida, using a $500,000 grant from the 

State of Florida, is refurbishing LC-46, which has not 

been used for launches since 1999.5

 The site will support 

launches of Lockheed Martin/ATK’s new Athena Ic and 

IIc and Orbital’s Minotaur and Taurus.6

Space Florida is also overseeing the reconfiguration of 

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

(LC-36)

California Spaceport

Location Vandenberg AFB, California

Owner/ Operator Spaceport Systems International (SSI)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Operating through a 25-year lease since 1995, 

California Spaceport offers commercial launch 

and payload processing, and supports a variety 

of mission profiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations.

Infrastructure Launch pads, runways, payload processing 

facilities, telemetry, and tracking equipment.

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Location Cape Canaveral, Florida

Owner/ Operator Space Florida

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Launch sites for vertical take-off commercial 

launch vehicles. Space Florida received $4 million 

in direct state appropriations to support its 

operations for fiscal year 2009.

Infrastructure

Three commercial orbital launch complexes with 

a remote control center, one suborbital launch 

complex with two pads and a blockhouse, an 

off-site solid rocket motor storage facility that 

includes heavy rail access, a 27-m (90-ft) high 

bay with overhead cranes, a 5,200-squaremeter (50,000-square-foot) RLV support 

hangar adjacent to the KSC Shuttle Landing 

Facility runway, and a 9,290-square-meter 

(100,000-square-foot) Space Life Sciences Lab 

at KSC.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 50 •

LC-36, which has not been used since 2005, to handle a variety of small- to 

medium-class vehicles, including the Falcon 1 and Taurus II. The FAA has 

not yet approved a license for LC-36, but the Real Property License from 

the Air Force covers LC-36. Space Florida is also configuring LC-36 as a 

technology demonstration site for cryogenic testing and rocket engine static 

tests and as a launch site for suborbital vehicles, such as those planned by 

Masten Space Systems.

Space Florida also operates LC-47, a small site used to launch sounding 

rockets. The pad was built in 1984 to support NASA-managed weather 

research and Air Force upper-altitude winds measurement.

Space Florida is currently evaluating and analyzing the possibility of 

commercial space transportation providers using future vacated facilities from 

the Delta II and Space Shuttle Programs.7

Cecil Field Spaceport, Florida

The FAA issued Jacksonville Aviation Authority (JAA) a 

Space Launch Site Operator’s License in January 2010.8 

The license authorizes use of Cecil Field Spaceport for 

horizontal take off and landings of suborbital launch 

vehicles. The U.S. Navy once operated Cecil Field as 

an airfield, which was closed in 1993 and transferred to 

the City of Jacksonville in 1999.9

The spaceport is located about 24 kilometers (15 miles) from Jacksonville and 

features a 3,810-meter (12,500-foot) runway and three shorter runways. The 

spaceport shares assets with Cecil Field Airport, which services military and 

civil aircraft and general aviation customers. Boeing and Northrop Grumman 

operate several maintenance and overhaul facilities at Cecil Field for the DoD.

During 2009, Cecil Field received several visits 

from Virgin CEO Sir Richard Branson of 

Virgin Group. His visits included discussions 

with spaceport managers about the possibility 

of supporting Virgin Galactic flights. Virgin 

Galactic is already an anchor tenant at Spaceport 

America in New Mexico.10

The FAA awarded $105,000 to JAA, as part of 

the FAA’s Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grants program in 2010. JAA will use 

the money to develop a Spaceport Master Plan 

for Cecil Field.11

Cecil Field Spaceport

Cecil Field Spaceport

Location Jacksonville, Florida

Owner/ Operator Jacksonville Aviation Authority (JAA)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Commercial spaceport supporting horizontal 

launch for commercial, government, and nonprofit users. Cecil Field is a retired Naval Air 

Station.

Infrastructure

Four runways, 175 buildings, 8 aircraft 

hangars, an active air traffic control tower, 

warehouse, industrial, office, general use, and 

support facilities.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 51 •

Kodiak Launch Complex, Alaska

The FAA licensed the Kodiak Launch 

Complex on Kodiak Island, Alaska in 1998. 

This is the first FAA-licensed spaceport that 

is not co-located on a federally controlled 

launch site. Kodiak has one launch pad 

(LP-1) that can launch intermediate-class 

payloads to LEO or a highly elliptical 

polar orbit. The complex also has a 

suborbital launch pad (LP-2) used for 

missile testing. LP-1 features a flame trench rated for up to 500 metric tons 

of thrust. The complex features a launch control and management center, a 

payload processing facility, an integration and processing facility, a spacecraft 

assemblies transfer facility, and a service structure at the launch pad. All 

facilities at Kodiak allow for enclosed processing of medium- to small-class 

launch vehicles. 

Fifteen launches have been conducted at Kodiak since it 

opened in 1991.12 Only two have been orbital: Kodiak 

Star was a joint mission conducted by NASA and 

the DoD and was successfully launched in 2001. In 

November 2010, the spaceport conducted its second 

orbital launch, when a Minotaur IV carried seven payloads 

for NASA and the Air Force’s Space Test Program. 

In 2010, Lockheed Martin announced the revival of the 

Athena launch vehicle family and highlighted Kodiak 

Launch Complex as a possible launch site for the 

vehicles.10 In October 2010, the FAA awarded $227,195 

to the Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation, as 

part of the Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching 

Grant Program. The corporation will use the money to 

build a rocket motor storage facility.13

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, Virginia

The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS) has two FAA-licensed launch 

pads. The spaceport also features rail launchers for sounding rockets, vehicle 

and payload storage, processing facilities, a horizontal vehicle assembly 

facility, a hypergolic fueling facility, and a large capacity liquid fueling facility 

for expendable launch vehicles (ELVs). In addition, landing and payload 

recovery capabilities and a co-located airport support RLVs. Flexible mission 

support allows MARS to accommodate scheduling for commercial, scientific, 

and government customers.14

Kodiak Launch Complex

Kodiak Launch Complex

Location Kodiak Island, Alaska

Owner/ Operator Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Kodiak Launch Complex was the first commercial 

launch site located outside of a federal facility. 

Launch site for military, government, and 

commercial telecommunications, remote sensing, 

and space science payloads.

Infrastructure

Launch Control Center with integral Launch 

Operations Control Center, Weather Forecast 

Office, and Tech Control Center; Maintenance and 

Support Facility; Instrumentation Field, Payload 

Processing Facility; Integration Processing (rocket 

assembly) Facility; mobile Spacecraft Assemblies 

Transfer Facility; two launch pads with two more 

in design; and a Rocket Motor Storage Facility.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 52 •

In December 1997, the FAA issued the Virginia Commercial Space Flight 

Authority a Space Launch Site Operator’s License for operating a commercial 

spaceport co-located at the NASA Wallops Flight Facility (WFF). On the midAtlantic coast, MARS offers optimal orbital inclinations between 38 degrees and 

60 degrees. Other inclinations, including sun-synchronous orbit, can be accessed 

on a case-by-case basis. MARS operates two launch pads (0-A and 0-B).

Since 2007, the State of Virginia has passed 

two bills to boost the presence of commercial 

space transportation in the state. The first, the 

Virginia Space Liability and Immunity Act in 

2007, became effective July 1997. The law 

seeks to lower human spaceflight insurance 

liability costs for commercial firms launching 

from MARS. Effective July 1, 2008, the 

Zero G Zero Tax Act of 2008 will exempt 

business earnings related to human spaceflight 

training or launches from MARS from state 

income taxes.15 MARS also offers customers 

both enterprise and foreign trade zone tax 

incentives.

Using a Minotaur I vehicle, MARS launched TacSat-2 in December 2006, 

the spaceport’s first orbital launch. NFIRE was launched in April 2007 and 

TacSat-3 in May 2009, both on Minotaur I vehicles. Currently, MARS has 

11 launches on its manifest through 2015, including its first robotic Moon 

mission for NASA. No launches from MARS occurred in 2010.

In preparation for launches of the larger Minotaur IV and Minotaur V 

vehicles, MARS completed extensive upgrades to Pad 0-B in 2010. These 

upgrades are designed to facilitate vehicle break-over (a process that erects 

a launch vehicle from a horizontal to vertical position) and stacking. The 

upgrades also include expanding and enhancing the gantry for improved 

thermal and environmental protection, larger work areas around the vehicle 

and payload, and operable roof doors to expedite stage-stacking operations. 

The Air Force will launch the ORS-1 mission using a Minotaur I from 

Pad 0-B in early 2011. NASA will launch the Lunar Atmosphere Dust 

Environment Explorer mission aboard the first Minotaur V from Pad 0-B in 

early 2013.

Pad 0-A will be used for Orbital’s Taurus II launch vehicle and other midclass launch vehicles. Upgrading this pad, which will cost an estimated 

$100 million, is planned for completion during the first quarter of 2011. 

Virginia provided $26 million in bond financing for Pad 0-A expansion. 

This expansion includes a large capacity liquid fueling storage and transfer 

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

Location Wallops Island, Virginia

Owner/ Operator Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

Commercial spaceport co-located with NASA’s 

Wallops Flight Facility that supports vertical 

and horizontal space launch for commercial, 

government, and non-profit users.

Infrastructure

Two orbital launch pads, multiple suborbital 

launching rails, payload processing and 

integration facilities, vehicle storage and 

assembly buildings, class-100,000 clean room, 

mobile liquid fueling capability, on-site and 

down range telemetry and tracking, and payload 

recovery capability.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 53 •

MARS (Pad 0-A)

facility, a dual-bay horizontal integration facility, a payload and 

cargo processing facility, transportation infrastructure upgrades, 

and construction of a larger launch pad. In mid-2011, Orbital’s 

first International Space Station (ISS)-bound transportation 

demonstration flight will launch from this pad on the Taurus II.

In 2008, Orbital signed a $1.9 billion Commercial Resupply 

Service (CRS) contract with NASA. This contract obligates 

Orbital to provide eight ISS cargo resupply flights between 2011 

and 2015. These flights are planned for launch from MARS Pad 0-A and are 

included in the fifteen in the MARS manifest.

Mojave Air and Space Port, California

Mojave Air and Space Port is home to Masten, 

which designs, builds, and launches suborbital 

reusable vertical take-off and landing vehicles. The 

company builds its vehicles in a 557 square-meter 

(6,000 square-foot) production facility and conducts 

launches from an 18,581 square-meter (200,000 

square-foot) site located at the spaceport. The site is 

currently used for vehicle testing. The FAA has not 

yet issued a license for commercial vertical launches. 

In August 2010, Masten announced a contract award by NASA in support of 

the agency’s Commercial Reusable Suborbital Research (CRuSR) program. 

The initial contract calls for four flights of test payloads on the company’s 

Xaero vehicle, beginning in 2011.16

On June 17, 2004, the FAA granted East Kern Airport District a Space 

Launch Site Operator’s License for horizontal take off at Mojave Air and 

Space Port. The spaceport has become a site for small companies designing, 

building, and testing small RLVs, including Scaled Composites, XCOR 

Aerospace, Masten, and Interorbital Systems.

The spaceport operates three runways, and the longest is 

3,810 meters (12,500 feet).

In October 2010, the FAA awarded the East Kern 

Airport District $125,000, as part of the Space 

Transportation Infrastructure Matching Grants program. 

The East Kern Airport District will use the money to 

purchase an emergency response vehicle.17

In November 2010, The Spaceship Company broke 

ground on a new 6,317-square-meter (68,000-squareMojave Air and Space Port

Location Mojave, California

Owner/ Operator East Kern Airport District (EKAD)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

An airport used for flight testing, space industry 

development, and aircraft heavy maintenance and 

storage.

Infrastructure

Air traffic control tower, three runways, rotor 

test stand, engineering facilities, and high bay 

building. Easy access to restricted airspace. Space 

zoned specifically for rocket motor development 

and testing.

Mojave Air and Space Port
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 54 •

foot) manufacturing facility at the spaceport. The clear-span hanger will 

feature offices, manufacturing, and test facilities. The hangar is large enough 

to allow production of two WhiteKnightTwo aircraft and at least two 

SpaceShipTwo vehicles at one time.18

Oklahoma Spaceport, Oklahoma

The FAA issued a Space Launch Site Operator’s 

License to the Oklahoma Space Industry 

Development Authority (OSIDA) in June 2009 

for operation of Oklahoma Spaceport. The 

spaceport is licensed as a horizontal take-off and 

landing site for RLVs, with a flight corridor for 

space operations within the national airspace 

system. Air traffic is also authorized to use Oklahoma Spaceport.

Oklahoma Spaceport features a 4,116-meter (13,503-foot) runway with 

304-meter (1,000-foot) overruns, one of the longest runways in North 

America. A large parking apron, four large hangars, and a 4,645-squaremeter (50,000-square-foot) manufacturing facility are available. A medical 

facility and crash unit are also on site. 

In February 2010, the Oklahoma Legislature narrowly passed a bill to 

continue funding OSIDA with an FY 2010 

budget of $424,289. (The Oklahoma fiscal 

year begins on July 1.) The legislature reduced 

OSIDA staff from five to three. 

By March 2010, using $380,000 in FAA 

grants, OSIDA installed Precision Approach 

Path Indicator systems for the spaceport’s two 

runways and replaced the old rotating airport 

beacon. The FAA tested flight approaches for 

both runways and authorized the spaceport to 

issue terminal weather forecasts. In addition, 

the perimeter fence was upgraded.19

In July 2010, Rocketplane, which was based at 

Oklahoma Spaceport, filed for bankruptcy, a 

potential setback for OSIDA.20

Spaceport America, New Mexico

Spaceport America is the world’s first purpose-built commercial spaceport. 

It is currently under construction and will be managed by the New 

Mexico Spaceport Authority (NMSA). Spaceport America is located in 

Oklahoma Spaceport

Oklahoma Spaceport

Location Washita County, Oklahoma

Owner/ Operator Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority 

(OSIDA)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description Provides launch and support services for 

horizontally launched suborbital RLVs.

Infrastructure

A 4,100-meter (13,500-foot) runway; 

5,200-square meter (50,000-square-foot) 

manufacturing facility; 2,800-square-meter 

(30,000-square-foot) maintenance and painting 

hangar; 6 commercial aircraft hangars, including 

a 2,800-square-meter (30,000-square-foot) 

maintenance and paint facility; 39 hectare (96 

acre) of concrete ramp, control tower, crash 

and rescue facility; and 435 square kilometers 

(168 square miles) of land available for further 

construction.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 55 •

Sierra County, near the city of Truth or 

Consequences, New Mexico. The spaceport 

received its Space Launch Site Operator’s 

License for vertical launch operations from 

the FAA in 2008.21

UP Aerospace is the only provider of 

commercial, vertically launched suborbital 

missions at Spaceport America. The 

company operates a single pad that features a rail system for vehicle 

transportation and vertical launch tower. These are supported by a payload 

processing facility, a launch control center, and a vehicle assembly building. 

The complex can handle vehicles with a mass of 1,134 kilograms (2,500 

pounds) or less. A typical suborbital launch will end with a parachuteassisted landing and recovery at White Sands Missile Range to the east. UP 

Aerospace has conducted four suborbital launches from the site since 2006. 

The spaceport has also hosted three suborbital vehicle tests by Lockheed 

Martin and one by Moog-FTS.

In September 2010, Armadillo Aerospace announced its plan to conduct 

test operations at Spaceport America to support two NASA-funded CRuSR 

vehicles.22 Both flights will be conducted with an FAA Amateur Rocket Class 

III waiver, since the flights will only reach an altitude of about 15 kilometers 

(nine miles). An additional flight is planned for an altitude of 40 kilometers 

(25 miles), which will require an FAA license or permit.23

The FAA granted NMSA a Space Launch Site Operator’s License on December 

18, 2008, for operation of Spaceport America. Virgin Galactic, the anchor 

tenant, signed a 20-year lease agreement immediately after issuance of the 

license.24 Construction of the spaceport’s main terminal building, training 

facility, and mission control center has progressed steadily since 2009, with 

completion expected in 2011. The 3,000-meter (10,000-foot) runway was 

dedicated on October 22, 2010, and renamed the Governor Bill Richardson 

Spaceway in honor of the New Mexico governor.25

The main terminal hangar will able to house two Virgin 

Galactic WhiteKnightTwo aircraft and five SpaceShipTwo 

spacecraft. Test flights of these vehicles began in March 

2010 and launched from Mojave Air and Space Port. 

Commercial flights will launch from Spaceport America 

after successful completion of flight tests and licensing of 

the space launch system by the FAA. 

In September 2010, the FAA awarded the NMSA 

$43,000 to provide an Automated Weather Observing 

Spaceport America

Location Upham, New Mexico

Owner/ Operator New Mexico Spaceport Authority (NMSA)

License Status Active FAA Launch Site Operator License

Description

A commercial spaceport in development that 

will support vertical and horizontal space 

launch.

Infrastructure

Current infrastructure includes a runaway, 

vertical launch pad, weather station, rocket 

motor storage facilities, and trailers. Planned 

infrastructure includes a central control facility, 

maintenance and integration facility, launch and 

recovery complex, and a cryogenic plant.

Spaceport America
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 56 •

System (AWOS), as part of the FAA’s Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grant Program.26 AWOS is a modular sensor suite that will 

capture real-time weather data to support airport and spaceport operations.

Federal Spaceports Providing Commercial Access

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) is located east 

of Florida’s Merritt Island. It is operated by the Air Force 

Space Command’s 45th Space Wing, which is headquartered 

at Patrick Air Force Base and commanded by the 14th Air 

Force. The 45th Space Wing is also responsible for managing 

the Eastern Range. The Eastern Range supports all orbital 

and suborbital launches from the eastern coast of the United 

States. Launch operations are conducted by a team of 

contractors and military personnel, but the range is entirely 

controlled by the Air Force.27

CCAFS is home to 34 launch complexes, though only six remain operational 

and available for commercial use. LC-36, LC-46, LC-40, and LC-47 were 

described earlier in this section for Cape Canaveral Spaceport. United 

Launch Alliance (ULA) and Boeing Launch Services (BLS) use LC-17, which 

consists of two pads, for the Delta II vehicle. LC-17 has been used since 

1957. LC-17A was shut down in 2009, and LC-17B will likely become 

Spaceport Operator State Available to FAA-Licensed Launch Vehicles

Cape Canaveral Air 

Force Station USAF Florida

SLC-41 (Atlas V)

SLC-37B (Delta IV)

SLC-40 (Falcon 9)

Edwards Air Force Base USAF California No

Kennedy Space Center NASA Florida No*

Poker Flat Research 

Range

University of Alaska 

Fairbanks Geophysical 

Institute

Alaska Five pads available for suborbital launches

Vandenberg Air Force 

Base USAF California

SLC-3E (Atlas V)

SLC-2 (Delta II)

SLC-6 (Delta IV)

SLC-4E (Falcon 1)

LC-576E (Taurus)

Wallops Flight Facility NASA Virginia Six pads available for suborbital launches

White Sands Missile 

Range USA New Mexico No

Table 8: Federal spaceports.

* May be used in the future for commercial RLV flights.

CCAFS (LC-41)
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 57 •

inactive after a planned final Delta II flight in 2011. 

ULA and BLS use LC-37 to launch Delta IV vehicles. 

This complex has two pads, and one has never been used. 

NASA built this complex in 1964 to support its Saturn 

I and Saturn IB vehicles. The complex was deactivated 

by the Air Force in 1972, but was later refurbished by 

Boeing to support Delta IV vehicles. The first launch of a 

Delta IV from LC-37 was in 2002. 

ULA and Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services 

use LC-41 to launch the Atlas V. This complex features 

one pad, which was originally built in 1965 to support Titan III and Titan IV 

launch campaigns. The Atlas V has been launched from LC-41 since 2002.

SpaceX uses LC-40 to launch its new Falcon 9 vehicle. This complex was 

used by the Air Force until 2005 for Titan III and Titan IV vehicles. The 

June 4, 2010, inaugural launch of Falcon 9 took place from this complex. 

Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test 

Site, Kwajalein Atoll

Kwajalein Atoll consists of just under 100 islands, and the 

largest is Kwajalein. The Army operates several missile 

launch sites throughout the atoll. Most test launches 

support ballistic missile defense programs. The site is 

attractive not only for its isolation, but also because of its 

equatorial location, ideal for launches to geosynchronous 

Earth orbit.

SpaceX selected Omelek, an island north of Kwajalein, 

for equatorial launches of its Falcon 1 vehicle. The 

island was used by the U.S. military for many years to 

conduct small rocket launches, until operations shifted 

to other islands in the atoll in 1996. The FAA required 

SpaceX to complete an Environmental Impact Study 

(EIS) before refurbishing Omelek facilities to accept 

Falcon 1 vehicles. The EIS was completed in 2004, and no major issues were 

raised,28 so SpaceX proceeded with five launches of Falcon 1 between 2006 

and 2009. SpaceX expects to continue launching Falcon 1 from Omelek 

Island. SpaceX also plans to launch the larger Falcon 9 from this site.29

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) is located on the California coast in Santa 

Barbara County. The 30th Space Wing, a unit commanded by the 14th Air 

Cape Canaveral AFS

Location Cape Canaveral, Florida

Owner/ Operator United States Air Force

License Status N/A

Description

CCAFS conducts launch operations and provides 

range support for military, civil, and commercial 

launches. Home of the 45th Space Wing, which 

oversees the Eastern Range.

Infrastructure

Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet- and 

Shuttle-capable runways, reentry corridors, 

operations control center, movable hangar, fuel 

tanks, water towers, and launch pads.

Reagan Test Site

Location Kwajalein Atoll, Pacific Ocean

Owner/ Operator United States Army Space and Missile Defense 

Command

License Status N/A

Description

The Reagan Test Site (RTS) conducts 24/7 

space control operations to provide space 

situational awareness and protect key space 

assets supporting U.S. Central Command, U.S. 

Pacific Command, and U.S. Northern Command. 

Launch facilities support space launch as well as 

scientific, tactical, and strategic missile launches.

Infrastructure

Telemetry, radars, and optical tracking systems, 

ship-based telemetry/safety system, mission 

control facility, wideband connectivity with 

the continental U.S., multiple safety systems 

and launch facilities, runway, warehouse and 

industrial use space, user and engineering office 

space.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 58 •

Force, manages launches from VAFB. The 

wing is also responsible for the Western Range, 

which monitors all orbital and suborbital flights 

from the western coast of the United States. 

Launches from VAFB are generally destined for 

polar orbits and typically launch remote sensing 

payloads for the National Reconnaissance 

Office, NASA, and commercial customers. 

There are six active space launch complexes at 

VAFB: SLC-2, SLC-3, SLC-4, SLC-6,

SLC-8, and LC-576E. SLC-8 has already been 

described in this section under California 

Spaceport. SLC-2, operational since 1966, consists of two pads (SLC2E, decommissioned in 1972, and SLC-2W) and is currently used to 

support Delta II launch campaigns. SLC-3 also consists of two pads, 

but SLC-3E was used for the discontinued Atlas IIAS vehicle and 

has not been used since 2003. SpaceX used SLC-3W for its Falcon 1 

vehicle, but the company has decided to shift Falcon 1 operations to 

SLC-4 beginning in 2012. 

The Air Force built SLC-6 in the early 1960s to support the Manned 

Orbiting Laboratory program, which was cancelled in 1969. The Air 

Force, together with NASA, refurbished this complex in the 1970s in 

anticipation of the Space Shuttle program, but, due to cost overruns 

and other considerations, the Shuttle never flew from VAFB. SLC-6 

remained inactive until the late 1990s, when refurbishment to support Delta 

IV launch vehicles began. Beginning in 2006, the Air Force has successfully 

launched two Delta IV vehicles from SLC-6. 

LC-576 is a launch complex consisting of 11 individual pads, only one of 

which is active; LC-576E. LC-576E is used for Taurus launches. The next 

Taurus launch will carry NASA’s Glory spacecraft, an Earth Sciences mission, 

in early 2011. Eight Taurus launches have launched from the pad since 1994.

Wallops Flight Facility, Virginia

NASA’s WFF is the primary provider of NASA’s science suborbital 

and small orbital flight programs. Annually, WFF conducts 

approximately thirty sounding rocket missions from this and other 

sites worldwide. It also conducts about twenty balloon missions 

per year and several hundred hours of piloted and unpiloted 

aircraft missions. 

In addition to supporting these programs, WFF manages the Wallops 

VAFB (SLC-2)

Vandenberg AFB

Location Vandenberg AFB, California

Owner/ Operator United States Air Force

License Status N/A

Description

Headquarters of the 30th Space Wing and 

the Air Force Space Command organizations 

responsible for all DoD space and ballistic 

activities for the West Coast.

Infrastructure

Launch pads, vehicle assembly, and processing 

buildings, payload processing facilities, 

telemetry and tracking facilities, control center, 

engineering, user office space, and Shuttlecapable runways.

Wallops Flight Facility
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Spaceports

• 59 •

Research Range, consisting of the launch range, mobile 

range, and research airport. These facilities support 

research and development as well as operational mission 

capabilities. Range services typically include integration 

and test facilities, tracking and data services, range safety, 

engineering support, launchers, and logistical services.

WFF’s Research Range has conducted more than 16,000 

launches over its 65-year history and annually conducts 

several hundred missions, including approximately 20 

rocket launches. The WFF launch range includes five 

general launch areas comprising multiple suborbital rocket pads, several 

special purpose launch pads, and two launch areas provided via a Space Act 

Agreement to the Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority (VCSFA) 

containing ELV complexes. Through NASA’s relationship with VCSFA, the 

two organizations partner to provide an integrated launch service for larger 

range missions to both government and commercial customers.30

Proposed and Inactive U.S. Spaceports

Several state governments and local communities have proposed establishing 

commercial spaceports. In the cases listed in Table 8, little to no evidence of 

recent progress on the spaceports was identified. 

Wallops Flight Facility

Location Wallops Island, Virginia

Owner/ Operator National Aeronautics and Space Administration

License Status N/A

Description

A federally funded research, development, and 

testing facility supporting vertical launch and 

aircraft based launch.

Infrastructure

Runway, telemetry and tracking facilities,

integration & testing facilities, Class-100,000 

clean room for spacecraft. Co-located with MidAtlantic Regional Spaceport (MARS).

Spaceport Operator State Status

Chugwater 

Spaceport Frontier Astronautics Wyoming Inactive – No further action on this spaceport proposal since 

2007. 

South Texas 

Spaceport

Willacy County Development Corporation for 

Spaceport Facilities Texas

Inactive – The 13-county South Texas Spaceport Consortium, which 

was established to pursue spaceport funding, disbanded in 2006. 

No further development since then.

Spaceport 

Alabama

Spaceport Alabama Program Office at 

Jacksonville State University Alabama

Inactive – No legislative activity has taken place, and the Alabama 

Commission on Aerospace, which pursued the proposal, appears 

inactive.

Spaceport Hawaii Hawaiian Office of Aerospace Development Hawaii

Proposed – Legislature passed funding bill to support an 

application to the FAA for a spaceport license. It became law 

without the governor’s signature on July 16, 2009. No further 

developments. 31

Spaceport Indiana Space Port Indiana, Inc. Indiana Proposed – During 2010, activity at Spaceport Indiana was limited to 

education and hobby rocketry. 

Spaceport 

Sheboygan City of Sheboygan Wisconsin

Proposed – Wisconsin Aerospace Authority was established in 

2006 in part to pursue a suborbital launch site. WAA has not yet 

applied for an FAA license. 32

Spaceport 

Washington Port of Moses Lake Washington Inactive – No further action on this spaceport proposal since 

2007. 

West Texas 

Spaceport

Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport 

Development Corporation Texas

Inactive – Spaceport would build upon test site infrastructure 

established for NASA/USAF rocket testing and by Blue Origin. A 

Pecos County West Texas Spaceport Development Corporation seat 

remains active on the County Board.

Table 9: Proposed and inactive U.S. commercial spaceports.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

• 61 •

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

This chapter discusses new technologies that directly enable launch vehicles. 

Industry participants develop new technologies to solve system challenges, 

support government projects, and provide a competitive edge. Successful 

new technologies for the commercial space industry are often designed for a 

specific system, but they can expand in use for a range of future systems. 

This chapter identifies technologies in development that will significantly 

improve the performance of commercially available expendable launch 

vehicles (ELVs), reusable launch vehicles (RLVs), and in-space transportation 

vehicles. These technologies are grouped into five primary functional 

areas: guidance, navigation, and control (GNC); life support; propulsion; 

structures; and space suits. The highlighted technologies are in development 

and have achieved a milestone in 2010, indicating increased technology 

maturity. Other technology areas such as ground segment, power, and 

thermal control are not profiled in this report, because no enabling 

technologies were identified that achieved a milestone this year. 

The following technologies are not an exhaustive list and are solely based on 

open-source research, primarily press releases. The FAA does not promote 

individual companies or technologies with this list, but provides examples of 

ongoing developments that support the commercial space industry. 

Guidance, Navigation, and Control

Spacecraft, both RLV and ELV, require avionics and hardware for GNC. 

Primary vehicle developers and second-tier contractors are developing new 

systems to support GNC of future commercial spacecraft.

Atlas V/Delta IV Emergency Detection System – United Launch 

Alliance, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, National AeroSpace 

Training and Research Center, and Special Aerospace Services

The Emergency Detection System (EDS) supports converting the Atlas V and 

Delta IV launch vehicles into crew transportation systems.1

 This system is a 

sensor and software package designed to detect launch vehicle failures, alert 

the crew, initiate aborts, and trigger the Launch Abort System. The EDS is 

designed as a bolt-on kit to modify Atlas V and Delta IV families of vehicles 

with minimal impact to performance. Once developed, the EDS will help 

the Atlas V and Delta IV launch vehicles achieve key safety requirements for 

human rating the vehicles, including dual fault tolerance to loss of mission. 
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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United Launch Alliance (ULA) and its partners are developing the EDS 

as part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program. In 

spring 2010, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne received a contract to support 

ULA in designing and developing the EDS.2 Special Aerospace Services 

and the National AeroSpace Training and Research (NASTAR) Center also 

support ULA by providing testing services, including crew response testing 

to improve crew interaction with the EDS system. Initial testing at the 

NASTAR Center was completed in August 2010.3

Autonomous Flight Safety System – NASA Goddard Space 

Flight Center, NASA Wallops Flight Facility, United States Air 

Force, and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

The Autonomous Flight Safety System (AFSS), managed 

from Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in Virginia, is designed to 

reduce costs associated with range safety by incorporating flight 

termination decisions within the vehicle’s onboard processors. 

The system augments or replaces functions of traditional range 

safety systems. It expands the range safety envelope, because it is 

not limited by local radio frequency interference. In addition, 

because the onboard AFSS is integrated with the vehicle’s 

systems, it can cut down the time necessary for emergency flight 

termination. If successful, AFSS could be used by commercial 

launch vehicles. 

On September 21, 2010, WFF successfully launched a TerrierOrion sounding rocket to test AFSS technologies. AFSS software 

was tested during the flight, using a signal to simulate destruction 

of the vehicle based on deviations from a programmed flight 

path. However, no actual destruct ordinance was flown. This was the third 

AFSS test flight, and more are planned before the system can become flight 

certified.4

 The second was DemoFlight 2, launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 

1 from Kwajalein Atoll in 2007. Despite a second stage launch failure at 

289 kilometers (180 miles) altitude, valuable AFSS data was gathered during 

flight.5

 The first test flight of an AFSS payload was at White Sands Missile 

Range in April 2006.6

Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Ultra High 

Frequency Communication Unit – Space Exploration 

Technologies Corportation

The Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) Ultra High 

Frequency Communication Unit (CUCU) provides a data link between the 

International Space Station (ISS), SpaceX’s Dragon capsule, and ground 

control. This system also enables astronauts on the ISS to monitor and 

control Dragon during uncrewed cargo missions.

AFSS
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Developed by SpaceX under a NASA Space Act Agreement, 

the CUCU enables the ISS crew to send commands to and 

receive acknowledgments from the Dragon. The CUCU 

further exchanges navigation and status data between the 

Dragon and the ISS. It also provides a communications 

path between SpaceX Mission Control and the Dragon and 

can support audio for possible crewed Dragon missions. 

Weighing approximately 29 kilograms (64 pounds), a CUCU 

was launched aboard STS-129 in November 2009 and stowed 

in the ISS ExPRESS 7 rack.7

 The CUCU hardware successfully completed 

on-orbit checkout in March 2010.8

Life Support

Crew capsules and in-space habitats currently in development require new 

life-support systems. Several companies are developing environmental 

controls and life support systems (ECLSS) or air revitalization systems for use 

in commercial space systems. Air revitalization system technologies support 

short-duration crew accommodations, like orbital transport vehicles. In

contrast, ECLSS is designed to support space stations and other longduration habitats. Some companies are developing customized life-support 

systems or are modifying previously developed systems for specific future 

vehicles and habitats. Other approaches include generalized, modular lifesupport systems that are applicable to a number of crew capsules. In 2010, 

two life-support technologies for commercial human spaceflight reached new 

milestones, described below. 

Environmental Control and Life Support System – Bigelow and 

ORBITEC’s Human Support Systems and Instrumentation

Division

Bigelow Aerospace is developing an ECLSS for its next-generation expandable 

space habitats. The first system will support the needs of Bigelow Aerospace’s 

Sundancer module, which provides roughly 180 cubic meters (6,200 cubic 

feet) of usable volume and can sustain a crew of three.9

 Specifically, in 2010, 

Bigelow Aerospace hired Orbital Technologies Corporation (ORBITEC) 

to begin ground tests of its ECLSS with human volunteers. Eight-hourlong tests were conducted at ORBITEC’s facilities in Madison, Wisconsin. 

Bigelow engineers served as volunteers for the demonstration. Future tests 

will last longer and include additional personnel.10 

Specific systems integrated for these initial tests included thermal and 

humidity control, ventilation, carbon dioxide removal, trace contaminant 

removal, atmospheric monitoring, and vehicle thermal control. Additional 

systems will be included as they become available.

CUCU
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The testing was conducted to validate the systems before their integration 

into larger, full-scale mock-ups of the Sundancer at Bigelow Aerospace’s 

North Las Vegas facility. 

Commercial Crew Transport-Air Revitalization System – 

Paragon Space Development Corporation

Paragon Space Development Corporation is developing 

a modular air revitalization system for commercial crew 

transport vehicles.11 The air revitalization system provides 

atmospheric control during relatively short flights to low Earth 

orbit. It is designed as a drop-in system for any commercial 

crew vehicle and to meet or exceed NASA’s human flight safety 

standards. Paragon’s system is self-contained, removes trace 

contaminants, scrubs carbon dioxide, cools the air and provides 

humidity control, and filters particulates. The air revitalization 

system design was developed with input from commercial crew 

vehicle developers. It has a footprint of 152x36x39 centimeters 

(60x14x12 inches).12

This project completed preliminary design review in 2010 and 

receives funding in part through NASA’s CCDev program. 

Paragon has manufactured an engineering development unit, 

and ground tests were completed in the fall of 2010.13

Propulsion

Propulsion systems for commercial spacecraft include liquid rocket engines, 

solid rocket motors, propellant for these systems, and associated subsystems. 

This section divides propulsion systems into engines and propellants. 

Propulsion – Engines and Components

Rocket and spacecraft developers invest in new engines to support suborbital 

and orbital space flight. Currently, cryogenic liquid engines, hydrocarbon 

liquid engines, solid rocket motors, and non-toxic liquid/solid hybrids are 

in development. Contractors and systems developers are maturing engine 

technologies for commercial spaceflight vehicles and government rockets.

Bi-propellant, Mono-propellant, and Solid Rockets – Aerojet 

Aerojet contracts with the Department of Defense on rocket development 

and is also providing multiple engines to Lockheed Martin for NASA’s Orion 

Crew Capsule. In 2010, Aerojet met milestones on these contracts and has 

delivered, tested, or begun development on several new and modified engines. 

Paragon’s air revitalization system
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

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On July 15, Aerojet delivered an AJ26 oxygen kerosene engine 

to NASA’s Stennis Space Center for testing.14 Orbital Sciences 

Corporation will use this engine for the Taurus II launch vehicle. 

The AJ26 engine is a commercial derivative of the Russian NK33 engine designed and built in the late 1960s. The AJ26 is the 

world’s first oxidizer-rich, staged-combustion, kerosene engine.

In spring of 2010, Aerojet completed testing 

of a liquid-oxygen, liquid-methane technology 

demonstration rocket. Aerojet developed the engine to test 

new technologies under the NASA Propulsion and Cryogenics 

Advanced Development Project. The engine provides 22,241 

newtons (5,500 pounds) of thrust at about 350 seconds of 

specific impulse. Aerojet completed sea-level test firings 

in the summer of 2009 and conducted altitude testing at 

NASA’s White Sands Test Facility in 2010. This engine may 

lead to systems that enable long-duration, in-space cryogenic 

propellant storage or propellant harvesting on Mars.15

Aerojet, with support from Florida Turbine Technologies, provided 

the Air Force Research Laboratory with a liquid-hydrogen 

turbopump technology demonstrator. The pump rotates at 90,000 

revolutions per minute and is outfitted with sensors to monitor 

performance. Aerojet announced the development in 2010, and 

testing will continue into FY 2011.16

Draco – SpaceX 

Draco, a SpaceX designed and developed thruster, is used for orbital 

maneuvering and attitude control of the Dragon spacecraft. The Draco 

thrusters can generate up to 400 newtons (90 pounds) of force, and they can 

fire in bursts as short as a few milliseconds for precision maneuvering, or up 

to several minutes for orbital maneuvering. Depending on the mission, each 

Dragon spacecraft will use as many as 18 Draco thrusters that 

receive propellants from eight spherical titanium propellant 

tanks. Four tanks carry monomethyl hydrazine fuel, and four 

tanks carry nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer. These propellants have 

long on-orbit lifetimes, permitting future Dragon flights to 

remain in space for a year or more. A system of valves provides 

redundant cross-connection between the propellant tanks for 

maximum reliability. The Draco thrusters will be used by the 

Dragon spacecraft for orbital insertion, docking maneuvers, 

and deorbiting.17

AJ26

LOX/Liquid Methane 

Engine

Liquid Hydrogen Turbopump

Demonstrator

Draco Thrusters
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In December 2010, SpaceX successfully tested on-orbit maneuvering of a 

Dragon vehicle during the first test flight under NASA’s COTS Space Act 

Agreement. 

High Performance Cryogenic Piston Pumps – XCOR Aerospace

In June 2010, XCOR and ULA announced the first successful 

demonstration of XCOR’s cryogenic piston pump. The 

pneumatically powered test device is designed to pump liquid 

hydrogen. Unlike traditional turbopumps, which rely on 

rotating machinery, XCOR’s rocket engine pumps use one 

or more pistons to accelerate propellant into the combustion 

chamber. XCOR’s piston pumps have demonstrated longer 

life and lower costs than turbo machinery and have been 

validated with liquid oxygen and nitrogen. In addition, 

catastrophic failure of a piston pump is far less destructive to 

adjacent hardware than failure of a turbopump.18

Under a fixed-price contract with ULA, XCOR developed a technology 

demonstrator, based on previous designs, to extend cryogenic pump 

applications to liquid hydrogen. Through a rapid development and test 

phase, XCOR demonstrated liquid-hydrogen pump technology and will 

continue to mature the technology with ULA. In addition to nine different 

rocket engines in its product line, XCOR’s cryogenic pump technology may 

enable in-space propellant transfer and other cryogenic fluid management 

applications.19

Liquid/Solid Hybrid Rocket Motor – Sierra Nevada Corporation

On September 21, 2010, Sierra Nevada Corporation conducted three 

test firings of its liquid/solid hybrid rocket motor design, completing two 

development milestones for NASA’s CCDev prgram. The rocket provides the 

simplicity of a solid motor with restart and throttle ability. The hybrid rocket 

technology uses nitrous oxide as an oxidizer and synthetic rubber (hydroxylterminated polybutadiene) as a solid fuel. Both materials are non-toxic.20

Sierra is developing liquid/solid hybrid motors for its Dream Chaser space 

plane. Sierra has partnered with Scaled Composites to develop a similar 

hybrid motor for SpaceShipTwo, specifically RocketMotorTwo. Sierra and 

Scaled have conducted five hot-fire tests of RocketMotorTwo, most recently 

in August 2010. In addition, Sierra has developed several liquid/solid hybrid 

motors for the Air Force.21

Cryogenic Piston Turbopump
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

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Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen Cryogenic Engines – Pratt & 

Whitney Rocketdyne

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne develops and manufactures cryogenic 

engines that can support commercial space flight. In 2010, three 

liquid-oxygen, liquid-hydrogen engines reached development 

milestones. However, this report profiles only the RS-68, because it is 

used on a commercially available vehicle, the Delta IV.

In February 2010, Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne completed the first 

hot-fire test of the new RS-68A engine. This engine is an upgrade 

of the RS-68 engine. RS-68A will provide almost 178 kilonewtons 

(40,000 pounds) of thrust more than its predecessor and will increase 

fuel efficiency for the Delta IV. Additional hot-fire tests are planned, 

followed by design certification and flight readiness testing.22

Vertical Take-off and Landing Engine Restarts – Masten Space 

Systems and Armadillo Aerospace

Using different techniques, Masten Space Systems and Armadillo 

Aerospace have demonstrated in-air re-light capabilities. In late May 

2010, Masten’s Xombie was the first vertical take-off and landing 

vehicle to demonstrate in-flight re-light capability. Masten’s approach 

involved boosting to a sufficient altitude, cutting the main engine and 

coasting for about two seconds, then re-lighting the engine during free 

fall. About ten days later, Armadillo aerospace demonstrated a different 

technique for in-flight restarts. Armadillo boosted its MOD (shorthand 

for “modular”) vehicle to 2,000 feet, cut the engine and deployed a 

parachute, then restarted the engine and cut the parachute before landing. 

In both test flights, the vehicles quickly reestablished controlled flight and 

stabilized for safe landings. In-flight engine restart is a key capability for 

vertical take-off and landing reusable vehicles with powered descents, and 

these test flights can enable more challenging flight tests in the future.23

X-51A WaveRider – Air Force Research Laboratory, Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency, NASA, Boeing Phantom 

Works, and Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne

On May 26, 2010, the X-51A WaveRider scramjet successfully 

completed its first flight, setting a supersonic combustion ramjet 

(scramjet) record for longest powered flight. An Air Force 

bomber carried the WaveRider to a cruising altitude and released 

it. A solid rocket motor accelerated the WaveRider until it 

reached about Mach 4.5, when the solid rocket motor separated 

from the scramjet. Then the supersonic combustion engine 

accelerated WaveRider to Mach 5 and an altitude of 70,000 feet. 

RS-68A

Xombie

X-51A
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Telemetry from the X-51A flight will help refine future flights; technology 

developed under the X-51 program could support first-stage scramjets or 

suborbital vehicles for commercial spaceflight. 

Boeing Phantom Works is responsible for the overall design, assembly, and 

testing of the WaveRider. Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne developed the fuelcooled scramjet engine, which heats JP-7 jet fuel for increased combustion 

efficiency, while protecting the engine from high operating temperatures.24

Propulsion – Propellants 

In addition to engine development, research continues in the development 

and testing of new propellants. Focus areas for propellant development 

include non-toxic storable propellants, improved solid rocket propellant, 

high-energy additives, new fuels for atmospheric breathing engines like 

ramjets, and liquid oxygen methane propellant. In 2010, there was one 

significant advancement in propellant technology. 

AerGenTM Solid Ramjet Fuel – Aerojet

In 2010, Aerojet announced successful ground tests of an advanced solid 

ramjet fuel. The fuel is from a family of fuels collectively called AerGenTM. 

Solid ramjet fuel provides an alternative to traditional liquid ramjet fuels 

for tactical missiles and other applications that require storable fuel. The 

fuel was tested in a full-scale engine within a simulated high-altitude and 

high-speed environment. AerGenTM is designed for throttleable ramjets and 

burns efficiently, increasing energy and reducing smoke. AerGenTM may be 

applicable to other solid fuel applications, including solid rocket motors, 

hybrid motors, and commercial ramjets.25

Structures

Structures, materials, and vehicle designs can enable new capabilities for 

commercial space flight. Small changes, like new aluminum alloys for 

propellant tanks, can provide incremental improvements in overall vehicle 

performance. In 2010, spacecraft developers refined vehicle bodies, 

improving stability, safety, and performance.

Lynx Aerodynamic Validation – XCOR 

Lynx will use a lightweight but strong all-composite airframe. A thermal 

protection system will cover the nose cap and leading edges of the wings to 

protect these vulnerable areas from the heat of reentry.

On September 20, 2010, XCOR announced the successful completion 

of supersonic wind tunnel testing of a precision-scale model of the Lynx 
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Enabling Technologies

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suborbital spacecraft. Tests at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center 

confirmed that the Lynx can maintain stable flight throughout the 

projected flight profile. These tests also provided data to refine 

the design. Previous sub-sonic tests highlighted design flaws that 

required minor changes to spacecraft body for stability. These 

changes were evaluated in Marshall’s wind tunnel, and the results 

indicate the stability issues were corrected. XCOR plans a final set of 

wind tunnel tests before vehicle assembly.26

Space Suits

A space suit is a full-pressure protective garment with an integrated 

environmental support system designed for extravehicular activity. It may 

also be worn as a safety measure against loss of cabin integrity. A typical 

space suit will include a hard shell or multi-layered fabric body garment, 

which may be divided into two pieces to accommodate the upper and lower 

portions of the body. The suit will also feature boots, gloves, and a helmet, 

each enabling a pressure-sealed interface. Finally, the suit will depend on 

a life support system, usually stored in a backpack, and a communications 

system. The life support system will provide pure oxygen for breathing, a 

system for scrubbing carbon dioxide waste gas, and a system for controlling 

humidity. The suit may also be designed with fittings for external life support 

and communications systems, configured to accept inputs from a portable 

unit or the spacecraft itself.

For purposes of this report, only space suits available for commercial use in 

the United States are described. 

Contingency Hypobaric Astronaut Protective Suit – David Clark 

Company, Inc.

The Contingency Hypobaric Astronaut Protective Suit (CHAPS) 

is designed for intravehicular activity (IVA) only. The suit, which 

weighs less than nine kilograms (20 pounds) and fits in a volume 

of about 0.2 cubic meters (one cubic foot), protects the wearer 

from loss of cabin pressure and hypothermia, should an emergency 

splashdown occur. Use of the CHAPS will be intuitive and produce 

minimal interface with the vehicle.27

CHAPS consists of a two-ply coverall, helmet, and gloves. The 

coverall will accept a variety of gloves and helmets, providing flexibility 

of mission requirements and other considerations. The coverall also 

features a pressure-sealing rear entry and soft, flexible joints.

Lynx Wind Tunnel Test

CHAPS
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In 2010, David Clark continued research and development work on CHAPS, 

though at a low level. Most of the work has focused on identifying and 

adapting suit interfaces to whatever vehicle system it is expected to serve.

I-C2 Commercial Launch Suit – ILC Dover

Delaware-based ILC Dover has been in the business of developing 

helmets and pressure suits since the 1950s. In 1965, ILC Dover was 

selected as prime contractor for the Apollo space suits, and in 1977 it was 

awarded a contract to develop the space suits used for the Space Shuttle 

program. The company also produces protective suits for those working 

with hazardous materials.28

ILC Dover has been developing the I-C2 Commercial Launch Suit 

for potential commercial use, leveraging work from its I-Suit program, 

started in 1997 under a NASA contract. The I-Suit program determined 

the state-of-the-art in space suits and pursue improvements based on 

experiences gleaned from decades of experience.

The I-C2 suit consists of a pressure garment with waist entry and a 

moisture vapor permeable bladder. A liquid cooling garment is worn under 

the suit for temperature control. The pressure garment’s outer cotton layer 

is fire resistant, and it features safety reflectors and hand holds for emergency 

rescue. The joints facilitate maximum flexibility. The gloves are attached 

using a typical ring connector around the wrist. The boots are standard issue 

military-style jump boots, similar to those worn by astronauts during the 

ascent and descent phases of Space Shuttle flights.29

A soft helmet is permanently attached to the pressure garment via a soft 

pressure-sealing closure, and it contains impact-protected communications 

equipment. 

Industrial Suborbital Spacesuit (IS3

) – Orbital Outfitters

Orbital Outfitters, with offices in Washington, DC, and North 

Hollywood, California, was established to provide space suits for the 

emerging suborbital tourism market. The company has designed its first 

suit, called the full pressure Industrial Suborbital Spacesuit (IS3). The 

primary purpose of IS3 is to protect the wearer from loss of vehicle cabin 

pressure. Operational testing of the suit began in 2007.

The company has since done significant work in developing IVA suits 

for orbital and suborbital vehicles and has done component-level suit 

development work for NASA.30

ILC Dover Suit

IS3
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PRIZES AND COMPETITIONS

Prizes and competitions have been used in the aerospace industry since the 

beginning of powered flight and have played an essential role in innovation 

and public outreach. These prizes, once focused exclusively on airships and 

aviation, such as the famous Orteig Prize won by Charles Lindbergh, now 

include competitions related to spaceflight. 

Inspired by the Orteig Prize’s influence on aviation, the X PRIZE Foundation 

was established in 1995 to design and manage high technology competitions, 

including in the field of aerospace. The first was the Ansari X PRIZE. It was 

announced in 1996 as the X PRIZE and renamed in 2004 when Anousheh and 

Amir Ansari contributed several million dollars to the purse. Mojave Aerospace 

Ventures won the prize with its SpaceShipOne vehicle on October 4, 2004. In 

the six years since, other prizes related to commercial space transportation have 

been established, including NASA’s Centennial Challenges.1

NASA Centennial Challenges

Established in 2005, the NASA Centennial Challenges program aims to 

enable aerospace technology development in the private sector that the 

agency can capitalize on for future missions. NASA has conducted 20 

Centennial Challenges and awarded a total of $4.5 million to 13 teams. 

The advantage of such an approach is that it promotes competition and 

cooperation on technically complex challenges. The Challenges program and 

prizes encourage independent teams to race to achieve bold goals in science, 

technology, engineering, and mathematics education without any upfront 

government funding. It fosters relationships between schools, laboratories, 

industry, and individual inventors. NASA provides the prize purses, but 

corporate sponsors are needed to fund the competitions themselves. Nonprofit organizations manage the competitions.

In 2010, NASA announced a new space transportation-related challenge 

called the Nano-Satellite Launch Challenge, with a total purse of $2 million. 

The objective is to place a small satellite into orbit, twice in one week.2

 

NASA continues to seek sponsors for the event.

Google Lunar X Prize

X PRIZE Foundation Chairman and CEO Peter Diamandis approached 

Google about sponsoring a new competition focused on a Moon-related 

objective. Google agreed to sponsor, and a purse was established at $30 

million. Teams from around the world that are 90-percent privately financed 

may compete. Twenty teams are now registered.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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The objective of the competition includes the successful launch of a rover 

to the Moon. After landing, the rover must traverse the lunar surface for 

a distance of at least 500 meters (1,640 feet) and transmit high-definition 

images and video to a receiver on Earth. Google Lunar X PRIZE Summits 

are held each year, sponsored by the X PRIZE Foundation, to determine how 

the teams are progressing. The fourth annual summit was in October 2010.

The $20 million Grand Prize will be awarded to the first team that 

successfully meets the prize conditions by December 31, 2012. After that 

date, the value will drop to $15 million. The second team to successfully 

complete the requirements of the prize will win $5 million. Another $5 

million will be awarded in bonus prizes, allocated for key technological 

developments and advancements in education. If no one wins the prize by 

December 31, 2014, it will expire.

Space Florida, a Google Lunar X PRIZE Preferred Spaceport Partner, will 

award $5 million independently of the Google Lunar X PRIZE to the 

winning team that uses its spaceport for the mission. SpaceX, which offers 

the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 orbital launch vehicles and is the prize’s Preferred 

Launch Provider Partner, will offer a ten-percent discount to any team 

using their products. Other preferred partners include the SETI Institute 

and Universal Space Network for communications services and Analytical 

Graphics, Inc. for software services. 

As part of its Innovative Lunar Demonstrations Data program, NASA 

awarded contracts to six of the Google Lunar X Prize teams. Under the 

contracts, which have a total value of up to $30.1 million over five years, the 

teams will provide NASA with data on technical component demonstrations 

for lunar missions.3
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

• 73 •

HUMAN SPACEFLIGHT TRAINING

The Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004 established 

the regulatory framework for commercial human space flight. The law 

established an “informed consent” protocol for carrying spaceflight passengers 

and created a new experimental launch permit for test and development of 

reusable suborbital launch vehicles. The Informed Consent rules became 

effective in February 2007 and the experimental permit rules became effective 

in April 2007.

The rules require launch vehicle operators to provide safety-related 

information to passengers and to identify what rules an operator must 

follow to conduct a licensed launch with human passengers. All spaceflight 

passengers must be fully advised, in writing, of the risks associated with 

human spaceflight, and they must agree to accept those risks. The protocols 

also include training and general security requirements for spaceflight 

participants.1

As part of the measures, launch providers must also establish requirements for 

crew notification, medical qualifications, and training, as well as requirements 

governing environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS). An 

operator must also verify the integrated performance of a vehicle’s hardware 

and any software in an operational flight environment before carrying a 

spaceflight passenger.2

As private industry comes closer to testing vehicles that will be capable of 

taking tourists on suborbital flights, 13 organizations have begun to provide 

human spaceflight training. 

Astronauts for Hire

Florida-based Astronauts for Hire (A4H), founded in April 

2010, is a non-profit organization that provides experienced 

personnel who can tend to microgravity experiments launched 

aboard commercial suborbital vehicles. Corporate sponsors and 

private donations provide the funding to operate the organization. 

A4H enables interested candidates to apply as commercial flight 

researchers through an online registration process. A4H matches 

candidates with customers seeking flight researchers with specific 

capabilities and experience. 

Flight researchers provide a necessary service when an experiment’s 

principle investigator (PI) is not medically qualified for space 

flight. The PI might be required to remain on the ground to 

monitor telemetry from the payload, or the PI might not be 

willing to take the risk of a space flight. In addition, the PI’s employer might 

Location Holiday, Florida

Company 

Description

Provides training for 

suborbital researchers 

and payload monitoring 

personnel.

Overview of 

Services

Provides a non-profit 

“match-making” service 

linking suborbital principle 

investigators with trained 

flight researchers. Flight 

researchers can tend to 

payloads, monitor payloads, 

or be available as subjects 

in aerospace medical 

research.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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prefer to contract professional flight services.3

Applicants typically have several hours of microgravity experience attained 

aboard parabolic training aircraft, like Zero Gravity Corporation’s (ZERO-G)

specially modified Boeing 727-200. Other forms of experience include 

pilot certifications, neutral buoyancy extravehicular activity (EVA) training, 

and graduate degrees in sciences and engineering. A4H hopes to become a 

primary resource for prospective research groups searching for qualified flight 

researchers for suborbital human-tended payloads. A4H flight researchers 

will also be available for aerospace medical research. By the end of 2010, 17 

commercial flight researchers were available through A4H. 

All A4H flight researchers undergo a comprehensive training program, which 

includes a series of formal courses, learning assessments, and skills training 

provided by various agencies. Required training programs for A4H members 

include the National AeroSpace Training Research (NASTAR) Center’s 

Suborbital Scientist Training Program (profiled later in this section), ZEROG’s parabolic flight training program, scuba diving certification, emergency 

egress training, and academic learning modules. Advanced training activities 

will include survival training, accelerated free fall, high-gravity flight, and 

private pilot license. A4H flight researchers gain microgravity experience 

on atmospheric parabolic flights as the organization builds its network of 

customers.

Aurora Aerospace

Aurora Aerospace, based in Tampa, Florida, provides a two-day training 

program featuring a combination of L-39 Albatross jet flights, microgravity 

flights, high-altitude training, simulator training, physiologic training, and 

medical certification. Students applying to the program also receive medical 

screening and certification by a board-certified physician. Classroom study 

includes an overview of the space environment and the physics of a suborbital 

flight. Successful completion of the program earns the student Aurora 

Aerospace’s suborbital pre-qualifying certificate; however, this is not an FAA 

certification.

Aurora provides four training packages. Only the 

first package results in a suborbital pre-qualification 

certificate upon successful completion. The second 

package includes two flights, one on an L-39 Albatross 

jet and another in a Rockwell 700. The L-39 is used 

for high-gravity maneuvers, and the Rockwell 700 is 

used for simulating microgravity. The third package is 

a variety of experiences, including single flights on the 

L-39 jet or the Rockwell 700 or a single training session 

Location Tampa Bay, Florida

Company 

Description

Aurora Aerospace is an organization 

based at the St. PetersburgClearwater Airport offering 

commercial spaceflight training and 

medical screening for spaceflight.

Overview of 

Services

High Performance Jet, Zero-g 

(gravity) Flights, High Altitude/

Hypoxia Training, Spatial 

Disorientation Training, Simulator 

Training, Unusual Attitude Training, 

High-g (gravity), and High 

Performance Glider Training.
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in the altitude chamber. The first three packages include movies of the flight 

experiences, but the fourth option does not. The fourth package is provided 

through Aurora Aerospace’s association with the non-profit organization 

Americans in Orbit – 50 Years.

Aurora conducted several microgravity flights in 2010. One flight carried the 

youngest person to experience microgravity. Another flight accommodated a 

French news crew looking for an inexpensive parabolic flight.4

Barrios Technology

Barrios Technology is a small business 

headquartered in Houston, Texas. Barrios has 

over 30 years of experience providing aerospace 

engineering, operations, and related technology 

services, including crew and flight controller 

training. The company’s engineering and 

operations services support research, development, testing, and evaluation of 

a variety of space vehicle systems, including guidance, navigation and control; 

avionics; communications; space vehicle electrical systems; and ECLSS.5

Barrios leverages its knowledge of space systems, operations, and human 

factors to provide comprehensive training plans and services. These include 

needs analysis, curriculum development, and delivery of 

courses in a classroom setting or through distance learning 

technologies. Barrios instructors develop simulations and 

training scripts that model onboard systems and provide 

instruction for crew and flight controllers. Barrios instructors 

use simulator facilities located at NASA’s Johnson Space Flight 

Center in Texas.

During 2010, Barrios started working with SpaceX and Orbital 

Sciences Corporation (Orbital) to establish cargo integration 

protocols for the International Space Station (ISS). This 

ongoing effort aims to assist in smooth delivery of supplies and equipment to 

the ISS. 

Executive Aerospace Physiology Training

The Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine (IEEM) is located at 

the Presbyterian Hospital in Dallas, Texas. Its primary focus is researching 

“oxygen cascade,” that is, how atmospheric oxygen is processed through 

the body’s pulmonary, cardiovascular, and muscle systems to support 

physical activity. As an extension of this research, IEEM offers highaltitude, physiologic-based training for qualified applicants via the Executive 

Aerospace Physiology Training (EAPT) program.

Location Houston, Texas

Company 

Description

Barrios Technology is an aerospace 

engineering and technology services 

firm.

Overview of 

Services

Provides space vehicle curriculum 

development, course scripting, and 

lecturing services in classroom or 

via distance learning technologies. 

Currently developing ISS cargo 

integration protocols for SpaceX and 

Orbital.

Barrios TITAN console
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EAPT provides a half-day course on potential 

medical problems related to high-altitude 

flight. Topics include atmospheric physics, 

hypoxia, hyperventilation, the effects of 

pressure change, self-imposed stress, visual 

illusions, and aircraft pressurization. In 

addition to coursework, one hour is spent 

training in an altitude chamber. Students are 

required to pass a medical examination before 

entering the course, and pilots are required to 

be current on their FAA physical.

EAPT also provides a four-day course for 

advanced high-altitude training, generally 

intended for flight crews. Topics include 

high-altitude weather and aerodynamics, line-oriented flight training (a type 

of simulator training involving crews, rather than a single pilot), aircraft 

systems, and time in an altitude chamber. 

The IEEM’s current director is a cardiologist and an expert in space medicine. 

He also serves as team leader for the Cardiovascular Alterations Team of 

the National Space Biomedical Research Institute. A number of IEEM 

investigators have active experiments being performed on the ISS.6

FAA Civil Aerospace Medical Institute

The FAA’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI), based in Oklahoma 

City, Oklahoma, is the medical certification, research, education, and 

occupational health wing of the FAA’s Office 

of Aerospace Medicine. CAMI traces its 

heritage back to 1946, when it was established 

by the Civil Aeronautics Administration. 

Since its inception, CAMI’s focus has been 

on the human element in aviation. Recently 

CAMI was called upon to contribute its 

expertise to the emerging field of commercial 

human space flight. 

In 2003, the institute was integral to 

developing medical screening guidelines for 

commercial human space flight. Subsequently, 

these were adopted in the FAA’s 2005 Draft 

Guidelines for Commercial Suborbital Reusable 

Launch Vehicle Operations with Space Flight 

Participants.

7

Location Dallas, Texas

Company 

Description

The Institute for Exercise and Environmental 

Medicine (IEEM) consists of six physicians and 

eight technical support staff. Physicians of 

the IEEM, in cooperation with Johnson Space 

Center, are actively involved with studying the 

cardiological effects of spaceflight on NASA 

astronauts. As an integral part of the IEEM, 

Executive Aerospace Physiology offers services 

that include high altitude aerospace physiology, 

high altitude human research, as well as 

high altitude equipment research and testing. 

Executive Aerospace’s multiplace chambers are 

certified for both hypobaric and hyperbaric 

operations.

Overview of 

Services

Aerospace physiology, hyperbaric oxygenation, 

flight physicals, decompression sickness, medical 

evaluation flights, and aerospace medical 

consultations.

Location Oklahoma City, Oklahoma

Company 

Description

The mission of the Federal Aviation 

Administration’s Civil Aerospace Medical Institute 

(CAMI) is to create, apply, manage, and transfer 

aerospace medicine and human factors knowledge. 

CAMI’s vision is to advance flight safety through 

world leadership in aerospace medicine. CAMI is 

part of the the Office of Aerospace Medicine and 

is located at the Mike Monroney Aeronautical 

Center in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Overview of 

Services

CAMI provides services in aerospace medical/

safety/human factors education, medical 

certification, human factors research, medical 

research, and occupational health. These aerospace 

services are provided by a workforce including 

biologists, computer specialists, engineers, nurses, 

physicians, physiologists, psychologists, and 

other professional and technical personnel. 

Also provided guidelines for commercial human 

spaceflight for FAA/AST.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

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CAMI’s expertise in training pilots and crew is leveraged to inform training 

for space vehicle crews. For example, CAMI provides training on aviation 

physiology, with a curriculum that focuses on high-altitude physiology, 

respiration and circulation, hypoxia and hyperventilation, decompression 

sickness, trapped gasses, and spatial disorientation. These are all relevant to 

human space flight. The institute’s aviation survival training includes water 

survival, cold weather survival, desert survival, familiarization and use of 

survival kits, field first aid, and signaling.8 This training could assist surviving 

crew and passengers after a faulty landing or a crash on land or at sea. 

Individuals also have the opportunity to register for CAMI training courses. 

National Aerospace Training and Research

The NASTAR Center, a subsidiary of Environmental Tectonics Corporation, 

is based in Southampton, Pennsylvania and began operations in 2007. The 

center provides a variety of aerospace training, research, education, and 

flight simulation experiences for commercial customers. On April 7, 2010, 

the FAA issued its first Spaceflight Training System safety approval to the 

NASTAR Center.9

 This certification states that the NASTAR Center is able 

to meet the FAA crew qualification and training requirements of 14 CFR 

Section 460.5. The approval process involved a thorough review of the 

design and operation of the company’s Space Training Simulator-400 (STS400) and an on-site evaluation by FAA officials.10 STS-400 can replicate 

a variety of crewed suborbital and orbital flight profiles, and it serves as an 

integral component of spaceflight training for launch providers, vehicle 

operators, and other clients.

The NASTAR Center provides training, research, and education services 

for the aerospace community. The center’s space training programs provide 

medical screening and spaceflight qualification for flight crew and spaceflight 

participants. The center provides four core training programs:

•	 Suborbital and orbital training for vehicle operators, crew, and passengers,

•	 Payload specialist training for space researchers and students,

•	 Tactical and aeromedical training for military pilots, and

•	 Upset recovery, spatial disorientation, and altitude training for general 

aviation pilots.

The suborbital and orbital training programs include curriculum in space 

physics, motion physiology, and aerospace medicine. They also provide 

comprehensive instruction on counter measure techniques to mitigate 

effects during spaceflight and simulated space flights on the STS-400 

simulator. The payload specialist, or “Suborbital Scientist,” training 

program is designed around the needs of researchers interested in suborbital 

space science applications and suborbital payloads they can personally 
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escort in space or that are launched using crewed vehicles. The program 

includes altitude physiology training, space vehicle design and experiment 

considerations, distraction management exercises, and spaceflight training 

featuring simulated flight exposure in the STS-400. The NASTAR Center 

also provides an Ultimate Training and Weightless Program that features the 

same training described earlier, but also includes parabolic flights simulating 

microgravity. These flights are provided through Space Adventures’ ZERO-G 

program. 

The center also provides research and development testing including:

•	 Flight profile modeling and simulation, 

•	 Nominal and off-nominal flight scenarios,

•	 Cockpit ergonomics and seat design,

•	 Emergency Detection System (EDS),

•	 ECLSS testing, 

•	 Launch abort system testing,

•	 Human factors performance and feedback, and 

•	 Payload and component testing. 

NASTAR introduced the 2010 Suborbital Scientist Class during the 

year. The class is composed of over 35 researchers educated on suborbital 

experiment design. Each student received altitude physiology instruction, 

spaceflight training, and distraction factor management. The center also 

participated in a research project with Drexel University’s Human Cognition 

Enhancement Program to model 

and counter the negative effects of 

motion on the vestibular system 

in an effort to understand space 

sickness.

Also in 2010, NASTAR 

conducted research on the Atlas V 

EDS, under contract for Special 

Aerospace Solutions, to test crew 

response and EDS by modeling an 

Atlas V profile using the center’s 

STS-400 Simulator. 

Orbital Commerce Project

Orbital Commerce Project, 

Inc. (OCP) is based in Florida 

STS-400

Location Southampton, Pennsylvania

Company 

Description

Provides three spaceflight training packages for prospective 

passengers and crew, including a two-day training program, a 

suborbital scientists training program, and a training package that 

includes microgravity simulation flights.

Overview of 

Services

1. Flight Training: Rapid & Sustained Gravity Acceleration (Multiaxis), Medical Screening, Sub-Orbital Space Flight Training, 

Spatial Disorientation Training, Aircraft Upset Recovery (Loss 

of Control) Training, Tactical Flight Simulation & Training, 

Motion Desensitization, High Altitude Exposure and Rapid 

Decompression Training, Ejection Seat / Emergency Egress 

Training, Night Vision and Night Vision Goggle Training, Land/

Water Survival Training, and the Space Training System Model 

400 (STS-400).

2. Human Factors & Component Research: Research can be 

supported on all equipment including Medical Monitoring, 

Flight Profile Development & Test, Combined Environments 

Testing (Sustained G with Vibration) for HF and Component, 

and Hyperbaric Research Lab.

3. Educational and Entertainment programs are available for all 

ages.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Training

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and was founded in 2004. OCP provides emerging space transportation 

companies with support services, including training, ground 

support, and advertising support. OCP established a division 

called Black Sky Training to support companies providing 

suborbital transportation services. This division focuses on 

a two-part program that consists of introductory training 

followed by vehicular training.

OCP works with XCOR, Masten, and others to develop 

appropriate training tools. In 2010, OCP began to develop 

training that will use a modified Velocity Aircraft airframe. 

It is a transitional course for pilots going from traditional 

propulsion systems to rocket power. Pilots would then move into a RLV 

that can reach altitudes of 30,480 meters (100,000 feet) for final training. 

In addition, OCP develops curriculum in 

partnership with the Florida Institute of 

Technology (FIT). Anyone wishing to 

undergo OCP’s training will likely be required 

to enroll with FIT; this decision is pending. 

The length of training will depend on the 

curriculum designed by OCP and FIT.11

Space Adventures

Space Adventures, based in Vienna, Virginia, and founded in 1998, arranges 

space flights and related services for private citizens. As of 

2010, Space Adventures is the only company to arrange 

space flights for self-funded individuals. With seven 

customers, the company has a cumulative total of three 

months in space and 36 million miles traveled.12

In 2008, Space Adventures announced the opportunity for a 

private Soyuz mission. This private spaceflight opportunity 

will be a fully dedicated mission of the Soyuz-TMA spacecraft. Two seats 

will be available for private space explorers, and the flight will include a 

comprehensive package of mission services, including science, education, 

and media program options. The first private mission to the ISS is offered 

not only to individual explorers but also to businesses, organizations, and 

institutions. Space Adventures’ orbital spaceflight clients also have the 

availability to train, be certified, and conduct an EVA during their mission at 

the ISS. The 90-minute EVA would extend the client’s stay at the station for 

approximately five days.13

OCP Cockpit Simulator

Location Oviedo, Florida

Company 

Description

Currently develops a curriculum 

that includes suborbital 

spaceflight ground schooling, 

simulator training, and highperformance aircraft training.

Overview of 

Services

Physiological Training, Altitude 

Chamber (hypobaric), Unusual, 

Attitude Training, High-g (gravity), 

High Altitude Flight, Pressure, Suit 

Training, High Performance Glider, 

and High Performance Jet.

Location Vienna Virginia

Company 

Description

Provides training services as part of 

suborbital or orbital flights or independently 

for those not planning actual space flights. 

Overview of 

Services

The company offers cosmonaut overview 

training, Soyuz simulator training, centrifuge 

training, microgravity training, and EVA 

training.
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Space Adventures also provides microgravity flights to the public through its 

subsidiary, ZERO-G, which operates a modified Boeing 727 for this purpose. 

ZERO-G was purchased by Space Adventures on January 1, 2008. Over 

6,000 individuals have flown, including several hundred teachers, through 

Northrop Grumman Foundation’s Weightless Flights of Discovery program. 

In April 2010, Space Adventures announced a partnership with Armadillo 

Aerospace. This partnership plans to provide suborbital space flights 

with a ticket price of $102,000.14 Space Adventures already has over 200 

reservations for this flight profile. Space Adventures will also broker $200 

million circumlunar flights, using a Soyuz spacecraft supplemented with a 

separately launched propulsion module. Space Adventures has also begun 

offering reservations aboard Boeing’s CST-100 spacecraft, with flights 

scheduled for 2015.15

Space Adventures offers human spaceflight training services, either as part of 

the ticket price for flights aboard Soyuz or Armadillo’s suborbital vehicle or as 

separate experiences. The company provides five training packages, including 

cosmonaut overview training, Soyuz simulator training, centrifuge training, 

neutral buoyancy EVA training, and EVA training. Space Adventures also 

offers a tour package to Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, the launching 

location for Soyuz flights.

Space Medicine Associates

Space Medicine Associates (SMA) was formed in 2007 as a space medicine 

consultancy for space transportation providers and other clients. SMA 

has ready access to twelve member physicians and pharmacologists with 

aerospace medical and bioastronautics 

expertise, experience with operations 

training and support, risk management and 

mitigation techniques, and medical project 

management.16

The types of work that benefit from SMA 

participation include human factors 

evaluations, development of medical screening 

surveys, in-flight health monitoring, radiation 

monitoring, and other space medicine issues. 

Location Belcamp, Maryland

Company 

Description

An organization of medical professionals offering 

space medicine and bioastronautics consultation, 

training and oversight services.

Overview of 

Services

Comprehensive medical and bioastronautics 

expertise, operations training and support, 

risk management and mitigation techniques, 

medical project management, and assistance for 

all aspects of commercial and industrial space 

activities, from space tourism to space-based solar 

power. Space Medicine Associates plans to use 

client-based facilities. In 2009, Space Medicine 

Associates worked to establish relationships with 

organizations within the commercial human 

spaceflight industry.
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SpaceTEC

Florida-based SpaceTEC® , under an agreement with the National 

Science Foundation as a National Resource Center for Aerospace, 

provides aerospace technical education and training through 11 

partner colleges. SpaceTEC® offers certifications in four areas: 

The Certified Aerospace Technician Core, Vehicle Processing, 

Aerospace Manufacturing, and Composites.

The Certified Aerospace Technician Core is recommended by the 

American Council on Education for 24 college credits toward 

a technical degree. This certification covers general knowledge 

in introductory aerospace, applied mechanics, basic electricity, tests and 

measurements, materials and processes, and aerospace safety.17

Starfighters Aerospace

NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, Florida is the 

operational home to nine Lockheed F-104 

Starfighters, the largest private fleet of supersonic 

aircraft in the world. Starfighters Aerospace is 

the only commercial flight services corporation 

permitted to operate from the Space Shuttle 

Landing Facility under a cooperative Space Act 

Agreement with NASA.18

Starfighters Aerospace goal is to provide clients with high-performance 

flight test and support services, using the company’s considerable tactical 

aircraft operations expertise. All nine aircraft 

are certified flight test platforms with the NASA 

Airborne Science Program Directorate located at 

the Wallops Flight Research Facility in Virginia.

The company provides the high-performance 

aircraft flight training for potential crews of 

RLVs, and suborbital participant flight training 

is for prospective passengers of suborbital flight. 

In February 2010, Starfighters conducted the 

first space training flights for civilian clients, 

providing two Florida residents a sense of what 

suborbital passengers experience, including highgravitational forces and microgravity.19

Location Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida

Company 

Description

Provides aerospace 

technical education and 

certifications.

Overview of 

Services

Provides certifications 

in Certified Aerospace 

Technician Core, Vehicle 

Processing, Aerospace 

Manufacturing, and 

Composites.

Starfighters F-104

Location Kennedy Space Center, Florida

Company 

Description

Provides suborbital training services using CF-104D aircraft, 

brokered through Incredible Adventures, a firm offering a 

variety of unique vacation experiences.

Overview of 

Services

Commercial services: High Performance Jet (Supersonic 

Flight), High Altitude Flight, High-G Flight (Gravity), Unusual 

Attitude / Upset Recovery Training, Micro-Satellite Air Launch, 

Aerospace Medical Evaluation, Flight Physiology Training, 

Altitude Chamber (Hypobaric), Aircrew Life Support & Egress/

Ejection Systems Training, Parachute Training, Pressure Suit 

Training.

Department of Defense services: Offensive & Defensive 

Counter Air, Advanced Electronic Jamming, WIC Support, 

NSAWC / Top Gun / SFTI, Large Force Exercise Participation 

(Flags), High Altitude Interception, Carrier Battle Group Threat 

Simulation / Ship Self Defense Targeting.
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United Space Alliance

United Space Alliance (USA) is a joint venture between Boeing and Lockheed 

Martin that was established in 1995 to provide streamlined day-to-day 

management of the Space Shuttle fleet. USA is also responsible for handling 

ISS operations, training, and planning. Using significant heritage experience 

that stretches well before the company’s founding, USA has developed a 

comprehensive training capability to inform training available to commercial and 

international customers. For example, USA currently offers 837 certification 

courses focused on Space Shuttle systems, skills, safety, and quality control to its 

employees and contractors.20

In 2007, USA established Space Flight 

Operations, LLC (SFO). The types of 

training and guidance that SFO will 

offer include space systems ground 

operations and processing, spaceflight 

mission operations, space systems flight 

software development, space systems 

integrated logistics, and space systems 

integration and program management.21

Wyle

California-based Wyle was founded in 1949 and provides aerospace and 

defense services to government and commercial clients worldwide. Wyle’s 

Systems and Crew Training group focuses specifically on healthcare training 

for crews serving aboard the Space Shuttle and ISS, as well as flight surgeons 

and biomedical engineers. Training typically includes general hardware familiarization and maintenance of in-space health monitoring and medical equipment. The company also provides in-space emergency medical training and 

aerospace medical training to medical students and residents. Wyle’s largest 

customers are the Department of Defense and NASA.

In August 2010, Wyle was selected as part of a Stanford University-led team 

to support the FAA’s new Center of Excellence for 

Commercial Space Transportation. Wyle has supported more than two-thirds of people who have 

traveled into space since the 1960s. To support 

the Center of Excellence, Wyle will provide its expertise in space medicine and human spaceflight 

training for a variety of research projects.22 The 

objective of the center is to help inform the FAA 

on matters that contribute to its role in regulating 

the commercial space transportation industry.

Location San Antonio, Texas

Company 

Description

Provides space medicine and on-orbit medical 

training for Space Shuttle and ISS crews. Wyle 

is part of a team that supports the FAA’s 

Center of Excellence for Commercial Space 

Transportation on matters related to human 

spaceflight training and operations.

Overview of 

Services

Human Centrifuge Training and Medical 

Screening, Altitude Chamber Training and 

Medical Screening, Oxygen Systems Safety 

Services, and Decompression Sickness 

Assessments.

Location Houston, Texas

Company 

Description

Trains commercial and international customers in the 

following areas that support human spaceflight operations: 

space systems ground operations and processing, 

spaceflight mission operations, space systems flight 

software development, space systems integrated logistics, 

and space systems integration and program management.

Overview 

of Services

Generic Skills/Proficiency, Documentation (Mission Rules, 

etc.), Simulator Operations (Task and Vehicle), Ground 

Operations, Mission Operations, Microgravity/EVA, Pressure 

Suit, Land and Water Survival, Parachute Training, and 

Flight Crew Equipment Training.
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REGULATORY AND LEGISLATIVE 

DEVELOPMENTS

As the year 2010 began, two new programs in the FAA Office of Commercial 

Space Transportation (FAA/AST) were in their infancy: 

•	 Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation

•	 Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching Grant 

Program

These programs have now grown to allow new paths to encourage and 

facilitate the commercial space transportation industry. 

This chapter describes where the programs are now.

Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation

The FAA’s Air Transportation Centers of Excellence Program, which has a 

long and successful record, soared to new heights with the establishment 

of the Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation (COE 

CST) in August 2010. On August 18, U.S. Department of Transportation 

Secretary Ray LaHood announced the new Center of Excellence and the 

outstanding university team selected by FAA Administrator, Randy Babbitt.

Led by the New Mexico State University in Las Cruces, the COE CST 

team includes Stanford University in California, the University of Colorado 

at Boulder, the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, the New 

Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro, the Florida Institute 

of Technology in Melbourne, and the Florida Center for Advanced AeroPropulsion in Tallahassee, a research consortium consisting of the University 

of Florida in Gainesville, Florida State University in Tallahassee, and the 

University of Central Florida in Orlando.

The COE CST is a partnership of academia, industry, and government, 

developed for the purpose of creating a world-class consortium that will 

address current and future challenges for commercial space transportation. 

The new Center will focus on strategic research, education, and training 

to support commercial space initiatives over the next decade. The research 

and development efforts for the new Center will include four major subject 

areas: Space Launch Operations and Traffic Management; Launch Vehicle 

Systems, Payloads, Technologies, and Operations; Commercial Human Space 

Flight; and Space Commerce (including space law, space insurance, space 

policy, and space regulation). The FAA will enter into 50-50 cost-sharing 

cooperative agreements to establish the COE partnerships, with plans to 
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 84 •

invest $2,000,000 in the first two years and a minimum of $1,000,000 per 

year thereafter for the initial five years of COE operations.

Origins of the COE CST

The FAA has long and successful partnerships with the nation’s academic 

research community, working with U.S. colleges and universities to foster 

research by both faculty and students. This research has contributed 

significantly to the advancement of aviation science and technology and has 

provided the agency and the aviation industry a high return on its investment 

over the past decade.

To enhance its research efforts, FAA proposed establishing a Center of 

Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation to advance aerospace 

technology to meet the current and future needs of the U.S. commercial 

space transportation industry. On August 18, 2009, FAA Administrator 

Randy Babbitt signed a memorandum calling for establishing the new 

Center. From March 16 through May 4, 2010, the FAA solicited proposals 

from accredited institutions throughout the nation. AST received proposals 

from eight academic teams consisting of 37 universities and two research 

organizations. Each team’s proposal was evaluated by a panel of subject 

matter experts (the technical evaluation) and reviewed by management 

and budget officials (the management/fiscal review). On August 18, FAA 

Administrator Babbitt selected the COE CST team.

Research from the COE CST will support the mission of FAA/AST to ensure 

protection of the public, property, and the national security and foreign 

policy interests of the United States during commercial launch or reentry 

activities, and to encourage, facilitate, and promote U.S. commercial space 

transportation. 

The FAA Air Transportation Centers of Excellence Program

Under Public Law 101-508 (49 USC Section 44513) Section 9209 Aviation 

Research and Centers of Excellence, the FAA Administrator may “make 

grants to one or more colleges or universities to establish and operate 

several regional centers of air transportation excellence....” Since 1990, 

this enabling legislation has allowed the FAA to enhance internal research 

efforts by accessing the various talents of nationally recognized university 

scholars and industry research scientists. By establishing major research 

centers throughout the country, FAA proactively creates a pool of technical 

professionals in the areas of aviation science and technology and, since August 

2010, commercial space transportation.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Regulatory and Legislative Developments

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The FAA COEs are required by Congress to match grant funds. This 

requirement helps to solidify significant partnerships between the COE 

members and the FAA. Through this partnership, the government, 

academic institutions, and industry leverage research resources and maximize 

technological competence. The FAA also may award contracts to successful 

applicants in a COE competition. This authority gives the COE the latitude 

to take basic research successes and continue to develop multiple forms of 

analysis, applications, and prototyping activities, thus providing products for 

the benefit of the agency as needed. 

When an academic team is selected to be a COE, each university that makes 

up the team enters into a long-term cooperative agreement to conduct 

critical research in specific areas of interest to the FAA’s mission and longterm vision. COE institutions are also required to conduct annual research 

reviews, actively participate in Joint COE Conferences, and host seminars 

and reviews to disseminate research results.

Under P.L. 101-508, institutions being considered for selection as a COE 

must demonstrate their ability to meet the following criteria:

•	 The extent to which the needs of the State in which the applicant is 

located are representative of the needs of the region for improved air 

transportation services and facilities.

•	 The demonstrated research and extension resources available to the 

applicant to carry out this section.

•	 The ability of the applicant to provide leadership in making national and 

regional contributions to the solution of both long-range and immediate 

air transportation problems.

•	 The extent to which the applicant has an established air transportation 

program.

•	 The demonstrated ability of the applicant to disseminate results of air 

transportation research and educational programs through a statewide or 

region-wide continuing education program.

•	 The projects the applicant proposes to carry out under the grant. 

Since 1990, more than eight COEs have been formed with more than 

60 university partners and over 200 industry and government affiliates 

participating in research projects. To learn more about the FAA Air 

Transportation Centers of Excellence Program, go to 

http://www.faa.gov/go/coe.
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• 86 •

Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching 

Grant Program

On December 31, 2009, Congress passed appropriations legislation (P.L. 

111-117) that launched the Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grant Program with $500,000 appropriated for the first year. 

Previous authorizing legislation permits the grant program to expand up to 

$10 million, provided funds are made available.

In Fiscal Year 2010, FAA/AST made its first awards of discretionary matching 

grants to four separate licensed launch sites, located in Alaska, California, 

Florida, and New Mexico.

According to FAA Administrator Randy Babbitt, “The Obama administration 

is committed to making sure the United States remains the world leader in 

space development and exploration. This new grant program underscores 

that commitment and will help ensure that the commercial space industry 

can meet our current and future space transportation needs.”

The grants include $43,000 for the New Mexico Spaceport Authority to 

provide an Automated Weather Observing System; $227,195 to the Alaska 

Aerospace Corporation for a Rocket Motor Storage Facility; $125,000 to the 

East Kern Airport District in Mojave, California, for an emergency response 

vehicle; and, $104,805 to the Jacksonville Airport Authority in Florida 

to develop a Spaceport Master Plan for Cecil Field. Under the program’s 

authorizing legislation, the FAA can provide matching funds (up to 50%) for 

specific projects carried out by public entities involved in commercial space 

activities.

Dr. George Nield, the Associate Administrator for Commercial Space 

Transportation, said of the grants, “2010 marks the first year AST has had 

funds appropriated for this worthwhile program. We congratulate the grant 

recipients, and look forward both to working with them, and to continuing 

the program as long as funds continue to be available for it.”

The Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure Matching Grants 

are analogous to grants made by the federal government for airport 

improvements under the FAA’s Airport Improvement Program (AIP). The 

purpose is similar: to expand and improve the infrastructure supporting an 

important transportation segment. However, AIP projects are funded by the 

airport trust fund, while the Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grants are dependent on Congressional appropriations.

For the latest news about Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure 

Matching Grant Program, see AST’s website at http://www.faa.gov/about/

office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/grants_program/.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

• 87 •

ENDNOTES

Introduction and Significant Events

1. See The Economic Impact of Commercial Space Transportation on the U.S. Economy in 

2009, published in September 2010 by FAA AST. You can download the report here: 

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/Economic%20Impact%20Study%20September%202010_20101026_PS.pdf.

2. “SpaceX and Spacecom Sign Contract for Falcon 9 Geosynchronous Transfer Mission,” 

SpaceX press release, http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100127 (accessed

October 21, 2010).

3. “SpaceX and Space Systems/Loral Sign Contract for Falcon 9 Geosynchronous Transfer,” SpaceX press release, http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100315 (accessed 

October 21, 2010).

4. “SpaceX Achieves Orbital Bullseye with Inaugural Flight of Falcon 9 Rocket,” SpaceX 

press release, http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100607 (accessed October 21, 

2010).

5. “SpaceX and the National Space Organization (NSPO) Sign Contract to Launch 

Earth Observation Satellite,” SpaceX press release, http://www.spacex.com/press.

php?page=20100614 (accessed October 21, 2010).

6. “Iridium and SpaceX Sign Major Commercial Launch Contract,” SpaceX press release, 

http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100616 (accessed October 21, 2010).

7. “Sea Launch Signs Launch Agreement with AsiaSat,” Sea Launch press release, http://

www.sea-launch.com/news_releases/2010/nr_100712.html (accessed November 11, 

2010).

8. “Sea Launch Signs Agreement with EchoStar,” Sea Launch press release,

http://www.sea-launch.com/news_releases/2010/nr_100722.html (accessed November 

11, 2010).

9. “Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services Selected to Launch Geoeye-2 EarthImaging Satellite on Atlas V Rocket,” ULA press release,http://www.lockheedmartin.

com/news/press_releases/2010/0907_ss_geoeye-launch.html (accessed November 16, 

2010).

10. “Sea Launch Company Emerges from Chapter 11,” Sea Launch press release, http://

www.sea-launch.com/news_releases/2010/nr_101027.html (accessed November 11, 

2010).

11. “VSS Enterprise’s First ‘Captive Carry’ Flight,” Virgin Galactic press release, http://www.

virgingalactic.com/news/item/vss-enterprises-first-flight (accessed November 11, 2010).

12. “Space Adventures Announces Exclusive Marketing Agreement with Armadillo

Aerospace,” Armadillo Aerospace press release, http://www.armadilloaerospace.com/n.x/

Armadillo/Home/News?news_id=370 (accessed November 12, 2010).

13. PR Newswire. “Masten Space Re-Lights Rocket Engine in Flight.”

http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/masten-space-re-lights-rocket-engine-inflight-94964904.html (accessed 11 November 2010).

14. “VSS Enterprise Makes First Crewed Flight,” Virgin Galactic Press Release, http://www.

virgingalactic.com/news/item/vss-enterprise-makes-its-first-crewed-flight/ (accessed 

November 12, 2010).

15. “FAA Creates Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation,” FAA press 

release, http://www.faa.gov/news/press_releases/news_story.cfm?newsId=11737 (accessed 

November 16, 2010).

16. “NMSU, NM Space Grant Consortium Selected by FAA,” Mesilla Valley Economic 

Development Alliance (MVEDA) press release, August 25, 2010.

17. “Masten Space Systems Wins NASA Suborbital Contract,” Masten press release, http://

masten-space.com/blog/?p=549 (accessed November 11, 2010).
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 88 •

18. “XCOR Completes Lynx Supersonic Wind Tunnel Tests at NASA Marshall Space Flight 

Center,” Spaceref.com, September 20, 2010.

19. “Space Experience Curacao Announces Intent to Wet Lease XCOR’s Lynx Suborbital 

Spacecraft,” Space Experience Curacao press release, http://spaceexperiencecuracao.com/

files/2010/10/XCOR_MOU_US.pdf (accessed November 12, 2010).

20. “VSS Enterprise Completes First Manned Glide Flight,” Virgin Galactic press release, 

http://www.virgingalactic.com/news/item/vss-enterprise-completes-first-manned-glideflight/ (accessed November 11, 2010).

21. “Commercial Crew and Cargo,” NASA press release, http://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/

partners/ccdev_info.html (accessed November 11, 2010).

22. “SpaceX Activates New Communication System Aboard International Space Station 

for Control of Upcoming Dragon Spacecraft Visits,” SpaceX press release, http://www.

spacex.com/press.php?page=20100329 (accessed October 21, 2010).

23. “SpaceX’s Dragon Spacecraft Successfully Completes High Altitude Drop Test,” SpaceX 

press release, http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100820 (accessed October 21, 

2010).

24. “Boeing and Space Adventures to offer Commercial Spaceflight Opportunities,” Space 

Adventures press release, http://www.spaceadventures.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.

viewnews&newsid=809 (accessed November 12, 2010).

25. “NASA Seeks More Proposals on Commercial Crew Development,” Spaceref.com,

October 25, 2010.

26. Klamper, Amy. “Bigelow Modules Draw Interest from Six Governments,” Space News, 

October 22, 2010. 

27. Morring, Frank. “Volunteers Test Bigelow Life-Support Gear,” Aviation Week, October 

22, 2010.

28. See Commercial Crew Transportation System Certification Requirements for NASA Low 

Earth Orbit Missions, ESMD-CCTSCR-12.10, December 9, 2010.

29. “Space Florida and NASA Break Ground on Exploration Park,” Space Florida press 

release, http://spaceflorida.gov/index.php/en/archived-news/239-space-florida-and-nasabreak-ground-on-exploration-park (accessed November 12, 2010).

30. “Rocket Tank Makes its Way to Wallops – July 7, 2010,” Mid-Atlantic Regional

Spaceport press release, http://www.marsspaceport.com/mid-atlantic-spaceport-news 

(accessed November 12, 2010).

31. “Space Florida Receives FAA License for SLC-46,” Space Florida press release, http://

www.spaceflorida.gov/index.php/en/news/37-news/242-space-florida-receives-faalicense-for-slc-46 (accessed November 12, 2010).

32. “Spaceport America Runway Dedication,” Virgin Galactic press release, http://www.

virgingalactic.com/news/item/spaceport-america-runway-dedication/ (accessed

November 10, 2010).

33. “TSC Hangar Groundbreaking,” Virgin Galactic press release, http://www.virgingalactic.

com/news/item/tsc-hangar-groundbreaking/ (accessed November 12, 2010).

34. “Orbital and Aerojet Complete Main Engine Lifetime Testing for Taurus II Space 

Launch Vehicle,” Orbital press release, http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/release.

asp?prid=724 (accessed November 9, 2010).

35. Masten Space Systems. “XCOR and Masten Announce Strategic Relationship for NASA 

Landers Business,” http://masten-space.com/blog/?p=529 (accessed 11 November 2010).

36. “Successful Hydrogen Piston Pump Tests,” ULA press release, http://www.ulalaunch.

com/site/pages/News.shtml#/51 (accessed October 21, 2010).

37. “NASA Selects Companies for Further Lunar Demonstrations Data,” Nasa Lunar

Science Institute, December 21, 2010, http://lunarscience.arc.nasa.gov/articles/nasaselects-companies-for-further-lunar-demonstrations-data (accessed January 5, 2011).

38. “New Mexico Adopts Informed Consent Law,” Spaceport America press release, http://
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

• 89 •

www.spaceportamerica.com/news/press-releases/297-new-mexico-adopts-space-flightinformed-consent-act.html (accessed November 12, 2010).

39. “Environmental Tectonics Corporation’s NASTAR Center Awarded First FAA Safety 

Approval from Office of Commercial Space Transportation,” ETC press release, http://

www.etcusa.com/corp/pressreleases/NR041210.html (accessed November 12, 2010).

40. “Statement by Charlie Bolden,” NASA press release, http://www.nasa.gov/

pdf/420994main_2011_Budget_Administrator_Remarks.pdf (accessed November 12, 

2010).

41. Messier, Doug. “FAA to Award Commercial Space Transportation Matching Grants,” 

ParabolicArc.com, May 5, 2010.

42. “National Space Policy of the United States of America,” White House press release, 

http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/national_space_policy_6-28-10.pdf

(accessed November 12, 2010).

43. “Commercial Spaceflight Federation Congratulates Winners of First-Ever Spaceport 

Infrastructure Grants Awarded by FAA,” Commercial Space Federation press release, 

http://www.commercialspaceflight.org/?p=1354 (accessed November 12, 2010). Also 

Geuvarra, Daniel. “FAA Issues Spaceport Grants To Strengthen Commercial Space,” 

AvStop.com, October 2, 2010.

44. Harwood, William. “President Obama Signs Space Program Agenda into Law,”

Spaceflightnow.com, October 11, 2010.

Expendable Launch Vehicles

1. United Launch Alliance. “Atlas Launch System Mission Planner’s Guide.” http://www.

ulalaunch.com/site/docs/product_cards/guides/AtlasVUsersGuide2010.pdf (accessed 

October 14, 2010).

2. United Launch Alliance. “Atlas Product Card.” http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/docs/

product_cards/AV_product_card.pdf (accessed October 14, 2010).

3. Communication with ULA contact, September 2010.

4. United Launch Alliance. “Delta IV Payload Planner’s Guide.” http://www.ulalaunch.

com/site/docs/product_cards/guides/DeltaIVPayloadPlannersGuide2007.pdf (accessed 

October 15, 2010).

5. Svitak, Amy. “Lockheed Reserves Delta 4 Heavy Launch for 2013 Orion Test,” Space 

News, November 29, 2010.

6. SpaceX, Falcon 1 Users Guide, Revision 7, May 2008. Pages 9-11. 

7. SpaceX press release, “NASA Selects SpaceX’s Falcon 9 Booster and Dragon Spacecraft 

for Cargo Resupply Services to the International Space Station,” December 23, 2008. 

There are three COTS demo flights and a total of 12 CRS flights.

8. Ibid, Page 7.

9. Ibid.

10. Communication with Orbital Sciences Corporation, December 22, 2010.

11. Taurus Fact Sheet, Orbital Sciences Corporation website (http://www.orbital.com/

SpaceLaunch/Taurus/), accessed October 20, 2010.

12. Communication with Lockheed Martin, December 7, 2010.

13. Brinton, Turner. “Army Wants Nanomissile to Launch Small Satellites,” Fox News, 

August 10, 2010.

14. “Dynetics Completes Test On Multipurpose NanoMissile System Rocket Engine,” Space 

Daily, July 27, 2010.

15. Communication with SMDC Nanosat Technology Program Manager, October 21, 

2010.

16. Communication with Interorbital Systems, January 4, 2011.

17. Communication with Interorbital Systems, October 21, 2010.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 90 •

18. “Orbital Selected by NASA For $1.9 Billion Space Station Cargo Delivery Contract,” 

Orbital press release, December 23, 2008.

19. Taurus II Users Guide, http://www.orbital.com/NewsInfo/Publications/Taurus_II_

Guide.pdf (accessed January 10, 2011).

20. Communication with SRPO Projects Manager, October 20 and November 19, 2010.

21. ROBIN is an acronym for “rocket-balloon-instrument,” typically used for upper winds 

measurement. An inflatable sphere released at apogee from a sounding rocket. The 

sphere is inflated by evaporation of a contained liquid on release. A tethered reflector is 

ejected as the sphere inflates, permitting radar tracking during descent.

22. Newman, Judy. “Rockets land at Orbitec for engine design,” Wisconsin State Journal, 

October 13, 2010.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

1. Dornheim, Michael. “Flying In Space For Low Cost,” Aviation Week, April 20, 2003.

2. Dignan, Larry. “Virgin Galactic unveils SpaceShipTwo; Plans open architecture spaceship,” ZDNet, January 23, 2008.

3. “Maiden flight for Branson’s SpaceShipTwo,” AFP, March 23, 2010.

4. Norris, Guy. “SS2 Test Moves Virgin Closer to Goal,” Aviation Week, October 21, 2010.

5. Norris, Guy. “Flying Enterprise: First glide test for SpaceShipTwo begins buildup to 

powered, suborbital evaluation,” Aviation Week, October 18, 2010.

6. FAA Registry, http://registry.faa.gov/aircraftinquiry/NNum_Results.

aspx?NNumbertxt=348MS. WhiteKnightTwo (N348MS) is operated under an

Experimental Research and Development/Exhibition License for fixed-wing, multiengine aircraft and SpaceShipTwo (N339SS) is operated under an Experimental Research and Development airworthiness license for glider aircraft. 

7. “Virgin Territory,” Space News interview with George Whitesides, November 15, 2010.

8. “Flying Enterprise: First glide test for SpaceShipTwo begins buildup to powered,

suborbital evaluation,” Aviation Week.

9. “Virgin Galactic’s VSS Enterprise completes first manned release flight,” Arabian

Aerospace, October 11, 2010.

10. “Virgin Territory,” Space News.

11. Communication with XCOR, October 28, 2010.

12. Massee, Mike. “Airgas and XCOR Aerospace Announce Supply and Sponsorship

Agreements,” XCOR press release, March 16, 2010.

13. Massee, Mike. “South Korean Space Center Selects XCOR’s Lynx for Suborbital

Operations,” XCOR press release, December 17, 2009.

14. Massee, Mike. “Space Experience Curaçao Announces Wet Lease of XCOR’s Lynx

Suborbital Spacecraft,” XCOR press release, October 5, 2010.

15. Massee, Mike. “XCOR and Masten Announce Strategic Relationship for NASA Landers 

Business,” XCOR press release, May 25, 2010.

16. Doughton, Sandi. “Amazon CEO gives us peek into space plans,” The Seattle Times, 

January 14, 2005. 

17. “A conversation with Amazon CEO Jeff Bezos,” Charlie Rose interview, November 19, 

2007. (http://www.charlierose.com/view/interview/8784).

18. “Blue Origin proposes orbital vehicle,” Newspacejournal.com, February 18, 2010.

19. Steitz, David. “NASA Selects Two Firms for Experimental Space Vehicle Test Flights,” 

NASA press release, August 30, 2010. See also NewSpace Journal entry for August 31, 

2010, http://www.newspacejournal.com/2010/08/31/crusr-makes-its-first-awards/

(accessed October 26, 2010).

20. “New Regulations Govern Experimental Permits for Reusable Suborbital Rockets,” FAA/

AST press release, April 6, 2007.
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

• 91 •

21. “Masten Eyeing Canaveral For Suborbital Launches,” Space News, November 29, 2010.

22. “NASA Selects Two Firms for Experimental Space Vehicle Test Flights,” NASA press 

release. Also Atkinson, Nancy. “NASA Funds Experimental ‘Near Space’ Vehicles,”

UniverseToday.com, August 30, 2010.

23. Foust, Jeff. “The gap in NewSpace business plans,” The Space Review, July 12, 2010.

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies

1. Yembrick, John. “NASA Awards Space Station Commercial Resupply Services

Contracts,” NASA press release C08-069, December 23, 2008.

2. http://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/home/Commercial_Crew_Init.html (accessed

November 1, 2010).

3. Harwood, William. “President Obama signs space program agenda into law,”

SpaceflightNow.com, October 11, 2010.

4. Clark, Stephen. “NASA launches next round of commercial crew program,”

SpaceflightNow.com, October 25, 2010.

5. “ISS Prepares for Busy Upcoming Year of Logistics Operations,” NASASpaceflight.com, 

October 20, 2010.

6. Communication with Boeing, November 22, 2010.

7. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_public_

laws&docid=f:publ267.111 (accessed November 24, 2010).

8. Cygnus Fact Sheet, Orbital Sciences Corporation.

9. “Orbital Announces Third Quarter 2010 Financial Results,” Market Watch, October 21, 

2010.

10. de Selding, Peter. “Dutch Space To Build Solar Arrays for Cygnus,” Space News,

November 12, 2009. Taverna, Michael. “No Slip For This Ship,” Aviation Week,

November 29, 2010.

11. “No Slip For This Ship,” Aviation Week.

12. Bergin, Chris. “SpaceX and Orbital win huge CRS contract from NASA,”

NASASpaceflight.com, December 23, 2008.

13. “SpaceX COTS Flight 1 Press Kit,” December 8, 2010.

14. DragonLabTM Fact Sheet, SpaceX.

15. Rhain, Jason. “Standard ISS Docking Port Approved,” Examiner.com, October 22, 2010.

16. Klamper, Amy. “SpaceX Raises Another $50 Million to Build Private Spacecraft,” Space.

com, November 11, 2010.

17. Svitak, Amy. “FAA Clears SpaceX Dragon Demo,” Space News, November 22, 2010.

18. “FAA Clears SpaceX Dragon Demonstration,” Space News, November 29, 2010.

19. Clark, Stephen. “NASA expects a gap in commercial crew funding,” SpaceflightNow.com, 

October 11, 2010.

20. “Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research,”

Government Accounting Office, Report to the Ranking Minority Member,

Subcommittee on Oversight of Government Management, Committee on

Governmental Affairs, U.S. Senate (June 1994). 

21. Morring, Frank. “Sierra Nevada Building On NASA Design,” Aviation Week, February 

19, 2010.

22. Morring, Frank. “Marking Milestones: Dream Chaser clears tooling, hot-fire hurdles, 

Aviation Week, October 18, 2010.

23. “X-34 Testbed Plan,” Aviation Week, November 29, 2010.

24. http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/sundancer.php (accessed December 1, 2010). See also 

Chang, Kenneth. “In New Space Race, Enter the Entrepreneurs,” The New York Times, 

June 7, 2010.

25. http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/ba330.php (accessed December 1, 2010).
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 92 •

26. Messier, Doug. “Boeing Working With Bigelow on Crew Capsule,” ParabolicArc.com, 

February 2, 2010.

27. Klamper, Amy. “Bigelow Modules Draw Interest from Six Governments,” Space News, 

October 22, 2010.

28. Mohney, Doug. “Bigelow Aerospace, ORBITECH Testing Commercial Space Station 

Life-Support Gear,” TMCNet, November 5, 2010.

Spaceports

1. Lange, Tina. “Space Florida Completes Upgrades to RLV Hangar,” Space Florida press 

release, January 3, 2009.

2. Spaceport Systems International. “Facilities Overview.” http://www.calspace.com/SSI/

Facilities_Overview.html (accessed November 4, 2010).

3. Communication with SSI, December 8, 2010.

4. “Space Florida Receives FAA License for Space Launch Complex 46,” Space Florida 

press release, July 9, 2010.

5. “FL. Governor Crist Awards $500k Defense Infrastructure Grant for SLC-46,”

Spaceflightnews.net, October 4, 2010.

6. Ferster, Warren. “Lockheed Martin, ATK Bringing Back Athena Rocket Line,” Space 

News, March 25, 2010.

7. Communication with Space Florida Spaceport, November 4, 2010.

8. “FAA Grants Cecil Field Spaceport License,” News4Jax.com, January 13, 2010.

9. “Jacksonville’s Cecil Field Becomes Nation’s 8th Commercial Spaceport,” Aero-TV.com, 

February 1, 2010.

10. King, Leo. “Jacksonville’s spaceport is getting closer,” Examiner.com, November 12, 

2009.

11. Griffith, Tiffany. “Federal Dollars Fueling Cecil Field Space Port Plans,” WOKV.com, 

October 4, 2010.

12. “Kodiak Readies for Quick Launch,” Aviation Week, http://video.aviationweek.com/

linking/index.jsp?skin=oneclip&ehv=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/video/&fr_stor

y=79de6a57e6c5f464b63870eed8c6162caeeac501&rf=ev&hl=true (accessed November 

4, 2010).

13. “Lockheed Martin and ATK Announce 2nd Generation Athena Launch Vehicles,” Alaska 

Aerospace Corporation press release, March 25, 2010.

14. Communication with MARS, November 8, 2010.

15. Virginia House Bill No. 3184, Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute, Article 24. 

http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?071+ful+HB3184H2 (accessed November 

23, 2010).

16. Steitz, David. “NASA Selects Two Firms for Experimental Space Vehicle Test Flights,” 

NASA press release 10-203, August 30, 2010.

17. Guevarra, Daniel. “FAA Issues Spaceport Grants To Strengthen Commercial Space,” 

AvStop.com, October 2, 2010.

18. McGlaun, Shane. “The Space Ship Factory Breaks Ground at Mojave Air & Space Port,” 

DailyTech.com, November 10, 2010.

19. OSIDA press release, March 11, 2010.

20. “Rocketplane in Bankruptcy,” Tampa Bay Bankruptcy Blog, October 27, 2010.

21. “Spaceport receives launch license,” Las Cruces Sun-News, December 16, 2008. 

22. “Armadillo Aerospace Plans NASA-Funded Launches from Spaceport America,” New 

Mexico Spaceport Authority press release, September 2, 2010.

23. Code of Federal Regulations Title 14: Aeronautics and Space; Part 101 – Moored Balloons, Kites, Unmanned Rockets and Unmanned Free Balloons; Subpart C – 

Unmanned Rockets (effective date: February 2, 2009).
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

• 93 •

24. Messier, Doug. “Virgin Galactic Signs 20-Year Lease Agreement with Spaceport

America,” ParabolicArc.com, December 31, 2008.

25. “Spaceport America Runway Named After N.M. Governor,” Space News, November 1, 

2010.

26. Messier, Doug. “FAA Awards Space Transport Grants for Spaceport America, Mojave, 

Cecil Field and Alaska,” ParabolicArc.com, September 30, 2010.

27. 45th Space Wing Fact Sheets, http://www.patrick.af.mil/library/factsheets/index.asp

(accessed November 9, 2010).

28. Proof-of-Principle Space Launches from Omelek Island, Environmental Assessment, 

December 13, 2004.

29. Communication with SpaceX, November 10, 2010.

30. Communication with NASA/WFF, December 2, 2010.

31. www.capitol.hawaii.gov/session2009/lists/measure_indv.

aspx?billtype=HB&billnumber=994 (accessed November 11, 2010).

32. Testwuide, James. Statement to House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, 

Subcommittee on Aviation, Hearing on Commercial Space Transportation, December 2, 

2009.

Enabling Technologies

1. Patton, Jeff, A. “Atlas Emergency Detection System (EDS).” American Institute of 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Publication, https://ulalaunch.com/site/docs/publications/

AtlasEmergencyDetectionSystem.pdf (accessed November 2, 2010).

2. “Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne to Help United Launch Alliance Design and Develop 

Emergency Detection System for Human Spaceflight Missions,” Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne press release, May 9, 2010, http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.

html?pid=30775 (accessed November 2, 2010).

3. “NASTAR Center and Special Aerospace Services Commence Research Study on 

Emergency Detection and Human Response of Atlas V Profile,” NASTAR Center press 

release, August 28, 2010, http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=31508

(accessed November 2, 2010).

4. “NASA Sounding Rocket Launched New Technologies,” Wallops Flight Facility press 

release, September 21, 2010.

5. “Wallops Has a Role in SpaceX Falcon1 Launch,” Wallops Flight Facility press release, 

April 9, 2007.

6. Simpson, James; B. Bull; and R. Zoerner; “Autonomous Flight Safety System (AFSS) 

Abstract,” November 29, 2010.

7. STS-129 MISSION SUMMARY, November 2009. See also Bergin, Chris. “STS-129 

ready to support Dragon communication demo with ISS,” NASASpaceflight.com, November 10, 2009.

8. Communication with SpaceX, November 9, 2010.

9. “ORBITEC to Provide Life Support Systems for Bigelow’s Space Station.” ORBITEC 

press release, January 28, 2010, http://www.parabolicarc.com/2010/01/28/orbitecprovide-life-support-systems-bigelows-space-station/ (accessed November 2, 2010).

10. “Bigelow Aerospace Begins Testing Life Support Systems with Crew,” ORBITEC press 

release, October 19, 2010, http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=31881

(accessed November 2, 2010).

11. “Paragon Projects: CCT-AVS.” Paragon Space Development Corporation press release, 

http://www.paragonsdc.com/paragon_projects_09.php (accessed November 2, 2010).

12. Communication with Paragon, December 7, 2010.

13. Morring, Frank, Jr., “Commercial Crew Life-Support Unit Passes,” Aviation Week,

August 26, 2010.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 94 •

14. “Aerojet AJ26 Rocket Engine Arrives at Stennis,” NASA press release, July 15, 2010, 

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1716.html (accessed November 2, 2010). See also “Orbital and Aerojet Set to Begin AJ26 Rocket Engine Testing 

at Stennis Space Center,” Aerojet press release, February 24, 2010. 

15. “NASA Completes Altitude Testing of Aerojet Advanced Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Methane Rocket Engine,” Aerojet press release, May 4, 2010.

16. Aerojet. (2010, September 28). “Aerojet Delivers Upper Stage Engine Technology 

(USET) Liquid Hydrogen Turbopump to AFRL,” Aerojet press release, September 28, 

2010.

17. Communication with SpaceX, November 9, 2010.

18. Communication with XCOR, December 1, 2010.

19. “XCOR Aerospace and United Launch Alliance Announce Successful Hydrogen Piston 

Pump Tests,” XCOR press release, June 8, 2010. See also “XCOR Rocket Propellant 

Piston Pumps,” XCOR website, http://www.xcor.com/products/pumps (accessed November 3, 2010).

20. “Vehicle Propulsion,” SpaceDev Hybrid Propulsion website, http://www.spacedev.com/

hybrid_detail.php?id=9 (accessed November 3, 2010).

21. Klamper, Amy. “Sierra Nevada Passes Third CCDev Milestone with Firings of Engine 

for Dream Chaser,” Space News, October 11, 2010. See also “RocketMotorTwo Hot-Fire 

Test Summaries,” Scaled Composites press release, August 11, 2010.

22. “Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Begins Certification Testing of the RS-68A Rocket Engine,” Pratt & Whitney press release, February 10, 2010.

23. “Masten Space Re-Lights Rocket Engine in Flight.” Masten Space Systems Blog, May 

26, 2010, http://masten-space.com/blog/?p=532 (accessed November 3, 2010). See also 

“Armadillo Aerospace Boosts to 2000 Feet, Performs Engine Relight,” The Launch Pad, 

June 7, 2010.

24. “Boeing X-51A WaveRider Breaks Record in 1st Flight,” Boeing press release, May 26, 

2010. See also “Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne Scramjet Powers Historic First Flight of 

X-51A WaveRider,” Pratt & Whitney press release, May 26, 2010.

25. “Aerojet Successfully Demonstrates Next Generation Solid Ramjet Fuel,” Aerojet press 

release, August 10, 2010.

26. Norris, Guy. (2010, September 21). “Wind Tunnel Tests Clear Lynx Stability Mods.” 

Aviation Week, September 21, 2010.

27. Communication with Daniel Clark, November 23, 2010.

28. Graziosi, David and R. Lee. I-Suit Advanced Spacesuit Design Improvements and Performance Testing, 2003 SAE International Conference.

29. Communication with ILC Dover, December 9, 2010.

30. Communication with Orbital Outfitters, December 2, 2010.

Prizes and Competitions

1. Davidian, Ken. “Prize Competitions and NASA’s Centennial Challenges Program,” 

International Lunar Conference, 2005.

2. Steitz, David. “NASA Announces Three New Centennial Challenges,” NASA press 

release 10-162, July 13, 2010.

3. “Google Sponsors Lunar X PRIZE to Create a Space Race for a New Generation,” 

Google press release, September 13, 2007. 

Training

1. “House Approves H.R. 3752, The Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Endnotes

• 95 •

2004,” House Science and Technology Committee Press Release, March 4, 2004.

2. Public Law 108–492, Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004, December 

23, 2004. See also FAA Commercial Space Transportation Fact Sheet, http://www.faa.

gov/news/fact_sheets/news_story.cfm?newsId=11559 (accessed November 22, 2010).

3. Communication with Astronauts for Hire, November 22, 2010.

4. Communication with Aurora Aerospace, November 3, 2010.

5. Communication with Barrios, November 2, 2010.

6. Communication with IEEM, November 23, 2010.

7. Draft Guidelines for Commercial Suborbital Reusable Launch Vehicle Operations with 

Space Flight Participants, FAA Publication, February 11, 2005.

8. Johnson, Robert. “Concurrent Session IV Overview of the Human Spaceflight Training 

Market,” presentation at 2010 FAA AST Annual Conference, February 11, 2010.

9. NASTAR meets the FAA’s commercial human spaceflight training requirements as 

defined under 14 CFR Part 460.5, “Crew qualifications and training.”

10. “Environmental Tectonics Corporation’s NASTAR® Center Awarded First FAA Safety 

Approval from Office of Commercial Space Transportation,” ETC press release, April 

12, 2010.

11. Communication with OCP, November 3, 2010.

12. “Space Tourism Prices Plummet, But Still Astronomical,” Talk Media News, October 15, 

2010.

13. Communication with Space Adventures, November 5, 2010.

14. “Space Adventures Announces Exclusive Marketing Agreement with Armadillo Aerospace,” Space Adventures press release, April 29, 2010.

15. “NM spaceport sets stage for commercial space race,” AP, November 2, 2010.

16. Communication with SMA, November 3, 2010.

17. Communication with SpaceTEC®, December 6, 2010.

18. Communication with Starfighters Aerospace, December 3, 2010.

19. Messier, Doug. “Florida Residents Complete Starfighters Civilian Space Flight Training,” 

ParabolicArc.com, February 25, 2010.

20. “Training and Certifications are Key to Flight Safety,” USA website, http://www.unitedspacealliance.com/news/newsletters/issue059/articles/trainingandcertificationsarekeytoflightsafety.asp (accessed November 3, 2010).

21. “United Space Alliance Establishes Space Flight Operations, LLC,” USA press release, 

September 24, 2007.

22. “Wyle Part of Academic-Industry Team to Support FAA’s Commercial Space Transportation Center,” Wyle press release, August 30, 2010.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • List of Tables

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Commercially available ELVs in the United States, page 11.

Table 2: Capacities for Delta IV variants, page 14.

Table 3: ELV development efforts not detailed in the report, page 26.

Table 4: RLV development effortsd not detailed in the report, page 34.

Table 5: Commercial reentry and in-space vehicles currently in development, page 38.

Table 6: Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS), Commercial Resupply 

Services (CRS), and Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) contract awards, 

page 40.

Table 7: FAA-licensed spaceports, page 48.

Table 8: Federal spaceports, page 56.

Table 9: Proposed and inactive U.S. commercial spaceports, page 59.
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Photo Credits

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PHOTO CREDITS

Page 12 Atlas V, courtesy United Launch Alliance (October 25, 2010).

Page 13 Delta II, courtesy United Launch Alliance (October 25, 2010).

Page 13 Delta IV, courtesy United Launch Alliance (October 25, 2010).

Page 14 Falcon 1, courtesy SpaceX (January 10, 2011).

Page 15 Falcon 9, courtesy SpaceX (October 20, 2010).

Page 17 Pegasus XL, courtesy Orbital Sciences Corporation (October 26, 2010).

Page 18 Taurus, courtesy Orbital Sciences Corporation (October 26, 2010).

Page 18 Zenit 3SL, courtesy Sea Launch AG (October 21, 2010).

Page 20 MNMS, courtesy U.S. Army.

Page 21 NEPTUNE CPM, courtesy Interorbital Systems (November 30, 2010).

Page 22 Taurus II, courtesy Orbital Sciences Corporation (October 26, 2010).

Page 23 Black Brant, courtesy Bristol Aerospace (October 18, 2010).

Page 24 Terrier-Malemute, courtesy NASA (November 19, 2010).

Page 25 Shadow I, courtesy Lunar Rover & Rocket Company (November 8, 2010).

Page 28 SpaceShipTwo, courtesy Virgin Galactic (December 9, 2010).

Page 29 Lynx, courtesy XCOR (October 28, 2010).

Page 31 Goddard, courtesy Blue Origin (December 8, 2010).

Page 32 SOST, courtesy Armadillo Aerospace (January 6, 2011).

Page 33 Xoie, courtesy Masten Space Systems.

Page 34 SpaceLoft XL, courtesy UP Aerospace (November 22, 2010).

Page 39 CST-100, courtesy Boeing (November 19, 2010).

Page 41 Cygnus, courtesy Orbital Sciences Corportation (November 22, 2010).

Page 42 Dragon (cargo), courtesy SpaceX (December 9, 2010).

Page 43 Dragon (passenger), courtesy SpaceX (January 10, 2011).

Page 44 Dream Chaser, courtesy Sierra Nevada Corporation (December 8, 2010).

Page 45 Sundancer, courtesy Bigelow Aerospace (December 10, 2010).

Page 48 Launch from California Spaceport, courtesy SSI (December 8, 2010).

Page 49 Cape Canaveral Spaceport, courtesy Space Florida (November 15, 2010).

Page 50 Cecil Field Spaceport, courtesy Jacksonville Aviation Authority.

Page 51 Kodiak Launch Complex, courtesy Alaska Aerospace Development

 Corporation (November 16, 2010).

Page 53 Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, courtesy MARS (November 8, 2010).

Page 53 Mojave Air and Space Port, courtesy Mojave Air and Space Port.

Page 54 Oklahoma Spaceport, courtesy OSIDA.

Page 55 Spaceport America, courtesy Virgin Galactic (December 9, 2010).

Page 56 CCAFS, courtesy U.S. Air Force.

Page 58 VAFB, courtesy U.S. Air Force.

Page 59 WFF, courtesy NASA (November 9, 2010).

Page 62 AFSS, courtesy NASA/WFF (December 2, 2010).

Page 63 CUCU, courtesy SpaceX (January 10, 2011).

Page 64 CCTARS, courtesy Paragon (December 7, 2010).

Page 65 AJ26, courtesy Aerojet (November 11, 2010).

Page 65 LOX/Liquid Methane Engine, courtesy Aerojet (November 11, 2010).
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

• 100 •

Page 65 Liquid Hydrogen Turbopump, courtesy Aeroject (November 11, 2010).

Page 65 Draco thrusters, courtesy SpaceX (November 8, 2010).

Page 66 Cryogenic Piston Pump, courtesy XCOR (January 6, 2011).

Page 67 RS-68A, courtesy Pratt & Whitney (November 8, 2010).

Page 67 Xombie flight test, courtesy Armadillo Aerospace (November 23, 2010).

Page 68 X-51A, courtesy X (December 7, 2010).

Page 69 Lynx Wind Tunnel Test, courtesy XCOR (January 6, 2011).

Page 70 CHAPS, courtesy David Clark Company (November 23, 2010).

Page 70 ILC Dover Suit, courtesy ILC Dover (November 17, 2010).

Page 71 IS3 Suit, courtesy Orbital Outfitters (November 17, 2010).

Page 77 Barrios employee at TITAN console, courtesy Barrios (November 2, 2010).

Page 80 STS-400, courtesy NASTAR (January 6, 2011).

Page 81 OCP Simulator, courtesy Orbital Commerce Project (November 3, 2010).

Page 83 F-104, courtesy Starfighters Aerospace (December 13, 2010).
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Acronyms

• 101 •

LIST OF ACRONYMS

A4H – Astronauts for Hire

AFB – Air Force Base

AFRL – Air Force Research Laboratory

AFSS – Autonomous Flight Safety System

AIP – Airport Improvement Program

APAS – Androgynous Peripheral Attach System

AsiaSat – Asia Satellite Telecommunications Company Limited

AST – Office of Commercial Space Transportation (within FAA)

ATK – Alliant Techsystems

ATV – Automated Transfer Vehicle

AWOS – Automated Weather Observing System

BLS – Boeing Launch Services

CAMI – Civil Aerospace Medical Institute (within FAA)

CBC – Common Booster Core

CBM – Common Berthing Mechanism

CCAFS – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CCB – Common Core Booster

CCDev – Commercial Crew Development

CERV – Crew Emergency Return Vehicle

CHAPS – Contingency Hypobaric Astronaut Protective Suit

CLV – Commercial Launch Facility

COE CST – Center of Excellence for Commercial Space Transportation

COTS – Commercial Orbital Transportation Services

CPM – Common Propulsion Module

CRS – Commercial Resupply Services

CRuSR – Commercial Reusable Suborbital Research Program

CST-100 - Crew Space Transportation-100

CUCU – COTS Ultra High Frequency Communication Unit

CST -100 - Crew Space Transportation-100

DoD – U.S. Department of Defense

EAPT – Executive Aerospace Physiology Training

ECLSS – Environmental Control and Life Support System

EDS – Emergency Detection System

EELV – Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

EIS – Environmental Impact Study

ELV – expendable launch vehicle

FAA – Federal Aviation Administration

FIT – Florida Institute of Technology

GNC – guidance, navigation, and control
Federal Aviation Administration / Commercial Space Transportation

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GPS – Global Positioning System

GTO – geosynchronous transfer orbit

HX – hydrocarbon-X

IEEM – Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine

IOS – Interorbital Systems

IS – Industrial Suborbital Space Suit

ISS – International Space Station

IVA – Intravehicular Activity

JAA – Jacksonville Aviation Authority

KSC – Kennedy Space Center

LC – Launch Complex

LEO – low Earth orbit

LMCLS – Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services

LOX – liquid oxygen

MARS – Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

MDA – MacDonald Dettwiler Associates

MNMS – Multipurpose Nanomissile System

MOD – modular

NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASTAR – National AeroSpace Training and Research

NMSA – New Mexico Spaceport Authority

NSPO – National Space Organization

NSROC – NASA Sounding Rockets Operations Contract

OCP – Orbital Commerce Project

Orbital – Orbital Sciences Corporation

ORBITEC - Orbital Technologies Corporation

OSIDA – Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

PCM – Pressurized Cargo Module

PI - principle investigator

RLV – reusable launch vehicle

SETI – Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

SFO – Space Flight Operations, LLC.

SLC – Space Launch Complex

SMA – Space Medicine Associates

SMDC – Space Missile and Defense Command

SRPO – Sounding Rockets Program Office

SS1 – SpaceShipOne

SS2 – SpaceShipTwo

SSI – Spaceport Systems International

SS/L – Space Systems/Loral

SOST – Suborbital Space Transport
2011 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments & Concepts • Acronyms

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SpaceCom – Space Communications Limited

SpaceX – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

SSTO – single stage to orbit

SXC – Space Experience Curacao

ULA – United Launch Alliance

USA – United Space Alliance

USAF – United States Air Force

USASMDC - U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command

VAFB – Vandenberg Air Force Base

VCSFA – Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority

VTVL – Vertical Takeoff, Vertical Landing

WFF – Wallops Flight Facility

WFNA – white fuming nitric acid

XA – extreme altitude

ZERO-G – Zero Gravity Corporation