Preventing Deaths and Injuries 

to Fire Fighters during Live-Fire 

Training in Acquired Structures 

Summary 

Fire fighters are subjected 

to many hazards when participating in live-fire training. Training facilities with 

approved burn buildings 

should be used for livefire training whenever 

possible. However, when 

acquired structures are 

used for live-fire training, 

NIOSH strongly recommends that fire departments follow the national consensus guidelines 

in NFPA 1403, standard 

on live-fire training evolutions [NFPA 2002a] to 

reduce the risk of injury 

and death. These guidelines are summarized in 

the recommendations in 

this document. 

Description of 

Exposure 

Live-fire training exercises are a 

crucial element in the structural fire fighting curriculum. Livefire training is often conducted in 

burn buildings designed and approved for such training. Unlike 

burn buildings, acquired structures are obtained from a private 

property owner and are not designed or intended for live-fire 

applications. Several factors associated with live-fire training in 

acquired structures create safety concerns for fire departments: 

insufficient or unstable structural 

components (i.e. floors, railings, 

stairs, chimneys, and ceilings), 

limited access to entry and exit 

paths, hidden combustible materials, debris, and inadequate ventilation [NFPA 2002a]. 

During 1983–2002, 10 fire fighters died as a result of injuries 

while participating in live-fire 

training exercises at acquired 

structures [Fahy 2003]. During 2000–2002, the NIOSH Fire 

Fighter Fatality Investigation and 

Prevention Program investigated 

three incidents involving four fire 

fighters who sustained fatal traumatic injuries while participating in live-fire training in acquired 

structures [NIOSH 2000, 2001, 

2002]. Two of these cases are described below. 

Case Studies 

Case 1 

A volunteer fire fighter (the victim) died and two other fire fighters were injured during a live-fire 

training exercise in a two-story 

duplex. The victim and anothDEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

er fire fighter played the role of trapped fire fighters under a table on the second floor. The victim 

did not have any formal training, and the other fire 

fighter had been with the department for about 1 

year. A burn barrel on the second floor was not producing enough smoke, so the instructor lit a second flare to ignite a foam mattress sleeper sofa next 

to the stairs on the first floor. The fire rapidly progressed up the stairway, trapping the fire fighters on 

the second floor. The trapped fire fighters were recovered from their original position and removed 

from the structure. The victim was unresponsive, 

and advanced life-saving procedures were initiated 

en route to the local hospital where he was pronounced dead. The cause of death was listed as asphyxia due to smoke inhalation [NIOSH 2001]. 

Case 2 

A career lieutenant and a career fire fighter died 

while participating in live-fire training at an acquired 

vacant structure. The fire was built in a closet with 

five wooden pallets and bales of straw as fuel. To produce a larger fire, fire fighters added a twin-sized urethane foam mattress to the fire. The search and rescue team (the two victims) entered the structure 

to “rescue” a mannequin. The fire intensified, and 

smoke filled the burn room and the hallway. The Incident Commander (IC) ordered ventilation so a 

window was broken. Heavy smoke followed by intense flames were emitted. A flashover is believed to 

have occurred seconds after the window was vented. (Flashover is when all surfaces and objects in a 

space have been heated to their ignition temperatures.) The IC and fire fighters on the scene did not 

realize that the victims were in the burn room at the 

time of the flashover. Failing to contact the two victims by radio, the IC sent in the Rapid Intervention 

Team. Approximately 10 minutes after the flashover, 

the IC called for an accountability check on the radio and receiving no response from the victims, he 

sounded the air horns to evacuate the structure. The 

attack crew then found one of the victims lying on 

the floor next to the closet where the fire had been 

ignited. The second victim was found lying next to 

the window of the burn room. The victims were 

both transported by ambulances to a local hospital where they were pronounced dead. The cause of 

death for both was smoke inhalation and thermal injuries [NIOSH 2002]. 

Controls 

Whenever possible, NIOSH recommends that 

training facilities with approved burn buildings be 

used for live-fire training. To minimize risks when 

participating in live-fire training, NIOSH recommends that fire departments comply with NFPA 

1403 [NFPA 2002a], including the following precautions: 

Instructors 

 Ensure that the instructor in charge is aware of 

his or her responsibility for overall coordination of the training and compliance with NFPA 

1403. 

 Ensure that instructors are qualified to provide 

live-fire training. Verify instructor [NFPA 2002b] 

and officer qualifications [NFPA 2003a] through 

national certifying agencies such as the National Professional Qualifications Board, the International Fire Service Accreditation Congress, or 

through a State fire board or commission. 

Site Set Up 

 Ensure that the acquired structure is adequate 

and safe to be used for live-fire training. Use Appendix B of NFPA 1403 as a checklist for preburn planning, building preparation, and preburn/post-burn procedures. 

 Develop, implement, and train fire fighters in 

standard operating procedures (SOPs) for livefire training. 

 Conduct a pre-burn briefing session for all participants, and establish an evacuation plan and 

signal. 

 Ensure that a sufficient water supply is available. 

 Ensure that the fuels used in the live-fire training have known burning characteristics. 

 Inspect the structure for possible environmental 

hazards. 

 Do not use flammable or combustible liquids in 

live-fire training. 
 

 

 

 

 

 Do not set fires for live-fire training in any designated exit paths. 

 Do not allow anyone to play the role of victim 

inside the structure during live-fire training. 

 Establish a method of fire ground communication among the IC and fire fighters. 

 Ensure that proper ventilation is in place before 

the onset of a controlled burn and is coordinated with interior operations. 

 Ensure that backup personnel are standing by 

with equipment, ready to provide assistance or 

rescue. 

 Ensure that all fire fighters participating in livefire training have had minimum basic training. 

 Ensure that each fire fighter is equipped with 

NFPA-compliant full protective clothing, a 

NIOSH approved self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), and a personal alert safety system (PASS). 

 Establish rehabilitation operations at training exercises that pose the risk of fire fighters exceeding a safe level of physical or mental endurance 

[NFPA 2003b]. 

Site Safety 

 Appoint a separate, adequately trained safety officer that has the authority to intervene in any 

aspect of the live-fire training. 

 Ensure that all participants are accounted for 

when entering and exiting the building. 

 Assign only one person as the ignition officer. 

Ensure that he or she is not a fire fighter participating in the training. 

 Ensure that the ignition officer lights only one 

training fire at a time. 

 Ensure that a charged hose line is present while 

igniting the fire. 

 Use a thermal imaging camera during live-fire 

training situations to observe fire fighters and 

monitor heat conditions for safety. 

Training Participants 

 Follow Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) 

established by the department. 

 Use NFPA-compliant full protective clothing, 

an SCBA, and a PASS device, as provided by the 

department. 

 Do not enter a hazardous environment alone. 

Enter only as a team of two or more. 

 Be familiar with the fire department’s evacuation plan and signal. 

States 

 Ensure that acquired structures that will be used 

in live-fire training are inspected to identify and 

eliminate hazards. 

 Develop a procedure to issue permits to use inspected acquired structures for live-fire training. 

 Check NFPA 1403 for voluntary guidelines on 

issuing permits [NFPA 2002a]. 

Acknowledgments 

The principal contributors to this publication were 

Jay Tarley and Carolyn Guglielmo, NIOSH. 

References 

NFPA [2002a]. NFPA 1403, standard on live fire training 

evolutions. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. 

NFPA [2002b]. NFPA 1041, standard for fire service instructor professional qualifications. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. 

NFPA [2003a]. NFPA 1021, standard for fire officer professional qualifications. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. 

NFPA [2003b]. NFPA 1584, recommended practice 

on the rehabilitation of members operating at incident 

scene operations and training exercises. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association. 

NIOSH [2000]. Volunteer assistant chief dies during a 

controlled-burn training evolution—Delaware. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational 
 

 

 

Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 

F2000–27. Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation Report 

F2000–27. [www.cdc.gov/niosh/face200027.html] 

NIOSH [2001]. Volunteer fire fighter dies and two others are injured during live-fire training—NY. Cincinnati, 

OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 

Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and 

Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety 

and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. F2001– 

38. Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation Report F2001–38. 

[www.cdc.gov/niosh/face200138.html] 

NIOSH [2002]. Career lieutenant and fire fighter die in 

flashover during a live-fire training evolution—FL. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease 

Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 

No. F2002–34. Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation Report 

F2002–34. [www.cdc.gov/niosh/face200234.html] 

Fahy R (rfahy@NFPA.org) [2003]. NFPA Live-fire training deaths. Personal communication email message to Jay 

Tarley (jst9@cdc.gov), February 10, 2003. 

For More Information 

The information in this document is based on fatality investigations and expert review. More information 

about the Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program is available at www.cdc.gov/niosh/ 

firehome.html 

To receive more information about occupational safety 

and health topics, contact NIOSH at 

NIOSH 

Publications Dissemination 

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Cincinnati, OH 45226–1998 

Telephone: 1–800–35–NIOSH (1–800–356–4674) 

Fax: 513–533–8573  E-mail: pubstaft@cdc.gov 

or visit the NIOSH Web site at www.cdc.gov/niosh 

For a monthly update on news at NIOSH, subscribe to 

NIOSH eNews by visiting www.cdc.gov/niosh/eNews. 

Preventing Deaths and Injuries to Fire Fighters 

during Live-Fire Training in Acquired Structures 

SAFER • HEALTHIER • PEOPLETM

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DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2005–102 

November 2004 

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health 

4676 Columbia Parkway 

Cincinnati, OH 45226–1998