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What Is NIGMS?

The National Institute of General Medical Sciences

(NIGMS) supports basic biomedical research on

genes, proteins, and cells. It also funds studies on

fundamental processes such as how cells communicate, how our bodies use energy, and how we

respond to medicines. The results of this research

increase our understanding of life and lay the

foundation for advances in the diagnosis, treatment,

and prevention of disease. The Institute’s research

training programs produce the next generation of

biomedical scientists, and NIGMS has programs

to encourage minorities underrepresented in 

biomedical science to pursue research careers.

NIGMS supported the research of most of the 

scientists mentioned in this booklet.

Disclaimer

Trade names have been used throughout this

booklet to illustrate concepts about medicines 

that are familiar to readers. The mention of

specific products is not an endorsement of their

use or effectiveness.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF 

HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

NIH Publication No. 03-474

Revised June 2003

http://www.nigms.nih.gov 

Medicines By Design
Written by Alison Davis, Ph.D., under contracts 263-MD-205019 

and 263-MD-212730.

Produced by the Office of Communications and Public Liaison

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

National Institutes of Health

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Contents

FOREWORD: A VISIT TO THE DOCTOR 2

CHAPTER 1: ABCS OF PHARMACOLOGY 4

A Drug’s Life 5

Perfect Timing 9

Fitting In 10

Bench to Bedside: Clinical Pharmacology 13

Pump It Up 14

CHAPTER 2 : BODY, HEAL THYSELF 16

The Body Machine 16

River of Life 18

No Pain, Your Gain 20

Our Immune Army 23

A Closer Look 26

CHAPTER 3: DRUGS FROM NATURE, THEN AND NOW 28

Nature’s Medicine Cabinet 28

Ocean Medicines 30

Tweaking Nature 33

Is It Chemistry or Genetics? 34

Testing...I, II, III 36

CHAPTER 4: MOLECULES TO MEDICINES 38

Medicine Hunting 38

21st-Century Science 40

Rush Delivery 41

Transportation Dilemmas 43

Act Like a Membrane 44

The G Switch 46

MEDICINES FOR THE FUTURE 48

GLOSSARY 50
May 17, 2050—You wake up feeling terrible,

and you know it’s time to see a doctor.

In the office, the physician looks you over,

listens to your symptoms, and prescribes

a drug. But first, the doctor takes a look

at your DNA.

That’s right, your DNA. Researchers predict that

the medicines of the future may not only look and

work differently than those you take today, but

tomorrow’s medicines will be tailored to your

genes. In 10 to 20 years, many scientists expect 

that genetics—the study of how genes influence

actions, appearance, and health—will pervade

medical treatment. Today, doctors usually give you

an “average” dose of a medicine based on your

body size and age. In contrast, future medicines

may match the chemical needs of your body, as

influenced by your genes. Knowing your unique

genetic make-up could help your doctor prescribe

the right medicine in the right amount, to boost its

effectiveness and minimize possible side effects.

Along with these so-called pharmacogenetic

approaches, many other research directions will

help guide the prescribing of medicines. The

science of pharmacology—understanding the

basics of how our bodies react to medicines and

how medicines affect our bodies—is already a 

vital part of 21st-century research. Chapter 1,

“ABCs of Pharmacology,” tracks a medicine’s

journey through the body and describes different

avenues of pharmacology research today.

Foreword: A Visit to the Doctor
delivery, discussed in Chapter 4, “Molecules to

Medicines,” is advancing progress by helping get

drugs to diseased sites and away from healthy cells.

Medicines By Design aims to explain how

scientists unravel the many different ways medicines

work in the body and how this information guides

the hunt for drugs of the future. Pharmacology 

is a broad discipline encompassing every aspect 

of the study of drugs, including their discovery 

and development and the testing of their action 

in the body. Much of the most promising

pharmacological research going on at universities

across the country is sponsored by the National

Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS),

a component of the National Institutes of Health

(NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services. Working at the crossroads of chemistry,

genetics, cell biology, physiology, and engineering,

pharmacologists are fighting disease in the laboratory

and at the bedside.

Stay tuned for changes in the way you take

medicines and in how medicines are discovered

and produced. In Chapter 2, “Body, Heal Thyself,”

learn how new knowledge about the body’s own

molecular machinery is pointing to new drugs. As

scientists understand precisely how cells interact in

the body, they can tailor medicines to patch gaps

in cell communication pathways or halt signaling

circuits that are stuck “on,” as in cancer.

Scientists are developing methods to have

animals and plants manufacture custom-made

medicines and vaccines. Experimental chickens 

are laying medicine-containing eggs. Researchers

are engineering tobacco plants to produce new

cancer treatments. Topics in Chapter 3, “Drugs

From Nature, Then and Now,” will bring you up

to speed on how scientists are looking to nature

for a treasure trove of information and resources

to manufacture drugs.

Advances in understanding the roots of disease

are leading to new ways to package tomorrow’s

medicines. Along with biology and chemistry, the

engineering and computer sciences are leading us

to novel ways of getting drugs where they need

to go in the body. Cutting-edge research in drug

Medicines By Design I Foreword 3
ABCs of Pharmacology

CHAPTER 1

Did you know that, in some people, a single glass 

of grapefruit juice can alter levels of drugs used 

to treat allergies, heart disease, and infections?

Fifteen years ago, pharmacologists discovered 

this “grapefruit juice effect” by luck, after giving 

volunteers grapefruit juice to mask the taste of a

medicine. Nearly a decade later, researchers figured out that grapefruit juice affects

medicines by lowering levels of a

drug-metabolizing enzyme, called

CYP3A4, in the intestines.

Just recently, Paul B. Watkins of the

University of North Carolina at Chapel

Hill discovered that other juices like Seville (sour)

orange juice—but not regular orange juice—have

the same effect on the body’s handling of medicines. Each of 10 people who volunteered for

Watkins’ juice-medicine study took a standard dose

of Plendil® (a drug used to treat high blood pressure)

diluted in grapefruit juice, sour orange juice, or

plain orange juice. The researchers measured

blood levels of Plendil at various times afterward.

The team observed that both grapefruit juice and

sour orange juice increased blood levels of Plendil,

as if the people had received a higher dose.

Regular orange juice had no effect. Watkins and

his coworkers suspect that a chemical common to

grapefruit and sour oranges, dihydroxybergamottin,

may be the molecular culprit, although further lab

tests are needed to confirm this suspicion.

now why some people’s stomachs burn after

they swallow an aspirin tablet? Or why a

swig of grapefruit juice with breakfast can raise

blood levels of some medicines in certain people?

Understanding some of the basics of the science

of pharmacology will help answer these questions,

and many more, about your body and the medicines

you take.

So, then, what’s pharmacology?

Despite the field’s long, rich history and importance to human health, few people know much

about this biomedical science. One pharmacologist

joked that when she was asked what she did for a

living, her reply prompted an unexpected question:

“Isn’t ‘farm ecology’ the study of how livestock

impact the environment?”

Of course, this booklet isn’t about livestock or

agriculture. Rather, it’s about pharmacology—the

study of how the body reacts to medicines and how

medicines affect the body. Pharmacology is often

confused with pharmacy, a separate discipline in

the health sciences that deals with preparing and

dispensing medicines.

For thousands of years, people have looked in

nature to find chemicals to treat their symptoms.

Ancient healers had little understanding of how

various elixirs worked their magic, but we know

much more today. Some pharmacologists study

how our bodies work, while others study the

chemical properties of medicines. Others investigate the physical and behavioral effects medicines

have on the body. Pharmacology researchers study

drugs used to treat diseases, as well as drugs of

abuse. Since medicines work in so many different

ways in so many different organs of the body,

pharmacology research touches just about every

area of biomedicine.

Many scientists are drawn to pharmacology

because of its direct application to the practice of

medicine. Pharmacologists study the actions of

K

A Juicy Story
A Drug’s Life

How does aspirin zap a headache? What happens

after you rub some cortisone cream on a patch of

poison ivy-induced rash on your arm? How do

decongestant medicines such as Sudafed® dry up

your nasal passages when you have a cold? As

medicines find their way to their “job sites” in the

body, hundreds of things happen along the way.

One action triggers another, and medicines work

to either mask a symptom, like a stuffy nose, or 

fix a problem, like a bacterial infection.

Medicines By Design I ABCs of Pharmacology 5

Turning a molecule into a good medicine is neither

easy nor cheap. The Center for the Study of Drug

Development at Tufts University in Boston estimates

that it takes $802 million and a dozen years to sift a

few promising drugs from about 5,000 failures. Of

this small handful of candidate drugs, only one will

survive the rigors of clinical testing and end up on

pharmacy shelves.

That’s a huge investment for what may seem 

a very small gain and, in part, it explains the high

cost of many prescription drugs. Sometimes, problems do not show up until after a drug reaches

the market and many people begin taking the drug

routinely. These problems range from irritating side

effects, such as a dry mouth or drowsiness, to lifethreatening problems like serious bleeding or blood

clots. The outlook might be brighter if pharmaceutical

scientists could do a better job of predicting how

potential drugs will act in the body (a science called

pharmacodynamics), as well as what side effects the

drugs might cause. 

One approach that can help is computer modeling of a drug’s pharmacodynamic properties.

Ken Korzekwa and his coworkers at ArQule

in Woburn, Massachusetts, are using software 

to see—ahead of time—how a drug will be

metabolized in the body. Computer modeling

can help scientists at pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies filter out, and abandon early

on, any candidate drugs that are likely to behave

badly in the body. This can save significant

amounts of time and money.

Computer software can examine the atom-byatom structure of a molecule and determine

how durable the chemical is likely to be inside

a body’s various chemical neighborhoods. Will

the molecule break down easily? How well will

the small intestines take it in? Does it dissolve

easily in the watery environment of the fluids

that course through the human body? Will the

drug be able to penetrate the blood-brain barrier?

Computer tools like the ones ArQule uses can

not only drive up the success rate for finding

candidate drugs, they can also lead to the

development of better medicines with fewer

safety concerns.

 Drugs (stick-like molecule 

in figure) interact with body

molecules. Computer programs can help predict the

amount of space a drug will

occupy and how it will interact with other molecules.

ARQULE

drugs in the intestinal tract, the brain, the muscles,

and the liver—just a few of the most common

areas where drugs travel during their stay in the

body. Of course, all of our organs are constructed

from cells, and inside all of our cells are genes.

Many pharmacologists study how medicines 

interact with cell parts and genes, which in turn

influences how cells behave. Because pharmacology

touches on such diverse areas, pharmacologists

must be broadly trained in biology, chemistry, and

more applied areas of medicine, such as anatomy

and physiology.

A Model for Success
6 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 A drug’s life in the body.

Medicines taken by mouth

(oral) pass through the liver

before they are absorbed

into the bloodstream. Other

forms of drug administration

bypass the liver, entering the

blood directly.

Inhaled

Oral

Intravenous

Kidney

Stomach

Intestines

Heart

Lung

Liver
Medicines By Design I ABCs of Pharmacology 7

Scientists have names for the four basic stages

in a medicine’s life in the body: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. The entire

process is sometimes abbreviated ADME. The first

stage is absorption. Medicines can enter the body

in many different ways, and they are absorbed

when they travel from the site of administration

into the body’s circulation. A few of the most

common ways to administer drugs are oral (swallowing an aspirin tablet), intramuscular (getting a

flu shot in an arm muscle), subcutaneous (injecting

insulin just under the skin), intravenous (receiving

chemotherapy through a vein), or transdermal

(wearing a skin patch). A drug faces its biggest

hurdles during absorption. Medicines taken 

by mouth are shuttled via a special blood vessel

leading from the digestive tract to the liver, where

a large amount may be destroyed by metabolic

enzymes in the so-called first pass effect. Other

routes of drug administration bypass the liver,

entering the bloodstream directly or via the skin

or lungs.

Once a drug gets absorbed, the next stage is

distribution. Most often, the bloodstream carries

medicines throughout the body. During this step,

side effects can occur when a drug has an effect in

an organ other than the target organ. For a pain

reliever, the target organ might be a sore muscle

in the leg; irritation of the stomach could be a

side effect. Many factors influence distribution,

such as the presence of protein and fat molecules

in the blood that can put drug molecules out of

commission by grabbing onto them.

Transdermal

Skin

Intramuscular

Subcutaneous

Drugs enter different layers

of skin via intramuscular,

subcutaneous, or transdermal

delivery methods.
How you respond to a drug may be quite different

from how your neighbor does. Why is that? Despite

the fact that you might be about the same age and

size, you probably eat different foods, get different

amounts of exercise, and have different medical

histories. But your genes, which are different from

those of anyone else in the world, are really what

make you unique. In part, your genes give you

many obvious things, such as your looks, your

mannerisms, and other characteristics that make

you who you are. Your genes can also affect how

you respond to the medicines you take. Your

genetic code instructs your body how to make

hundreds of thousands of different molecules

called proteins. Some proteins determine hair

color, and some of them are enzymes that process,

or metabolize, food or medicines. Slightly different,

but normal, variations in the human genetic code

can yield proteins that work better or worse when

they are metabolizing many different types of

drugs and other substances. Scientists use the

term pharmacogenetics to describe research on

the link between genes and drug response.

One important group of proteins whose genetic

code varies widely among people are “sulfation”

enzymes, which perform chemical reactions in

your body to make molecules more water-soluble,

so they can be quickly excreted in the urine.

Sulfation enzymes metabolize many drugs, but

they also work on natural body molecules, such 

as estrogen. Differences in the genetic code for

sulfation enzymes can significantly alter blood 

levels of the many different kinds of substances

metabolized by these enzymes. The same genetic

differences may also put some people at risk

for developing certain types of cancers whose

growth is fueled by hormones like estrogen.

Pharmacogeneticist Rebecca Blanchard of Fox

Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia has discovered

that people of different ethnic backgrounds have

slightly different “spellings” of the genes that make

sulfation enzymes. Lab tests revealed that sulfation

enzymes manufactured from genes with different

spellings metabolize drugs and estrogens at different rates. Blanchard and her coworkers are planning

to work with scientists developing new drugs to

include pharmacogenetic testing in the early phases

of screening new medicines.

Drugs destined for the central nervous system

(the brain and spinal cord) face an enormous

hurdle: a nearly impenetrable barricade called 

the blood-brain barrier. This blockade is built

from a tightly woven mesh of capillaries cemented

together to protect the brain from potentially

dangerous substances such as poisons or viruses.

Yet pharmacologists have devised various ways 

to sneak some drugs past this barrier.

After a medicine has been distributed throughout the body and has done its job, the drug is

broken down, or metabolized. The breaking down

of a drug molecule usually involves two steps that

take place mostly in the body’s chemical processing plant, the liver. The liver is a site of continuous

and frenzied, yet carefully controlled, activity.

Everything that enters the bloodstream—whether

swallowed, injected, inhaled, absorbed through the

skin, or produced by the body itself—is carried to

this largest internal organ. There, substances are

chemically pummeled, twisted, cut apart, stuck

together, and transformed.

8 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Medicines and Your Genes
The biotransformations that take place in the

liver are performed by the body’s busiest proteins,

its enzymes. Every one of your cells has a variety

of enzymes, drawn from a repertoire of hundreds

of thousands. Each enzyme specializes in a particular job. Some break molecules apart, while others

link small molecules into long chains. With drugs,

the first step is usually to make the substance

easier to get rid of in urine.

Many of the products of enzymatic breakdown, which are called metabolites, are less

chemically active than the original molecule.

For this reason, scientists refer to the liver as a

“detoxifying” organ. Occasionally, however, drug

metabolites can have chemical activities of their

own—sometimes as powerful as those of the

original drug. When prescribing certain drugs,

doctors must take into account these added effects.

Once liver enzymes are finished working on a

medicine, the now-inactive drug undergoes the

final stage of its time in the body, excretion, as 

it exits via the urine or feces.

Perfect Timing

Pharmacokinetics is an aspect of pharmacology

that deals with the absorption, distribution, and

excretion of drugs. Because they are following drug

actions in the body, researchers who specialize in

pharmacokinetics must also pay attention to an

additional dimension: time.

Pharmacokinetics research uses the tools of

mathematics. Although sophisticated imaging

Medicines By Design I ABCs of Pharmacology 9

methods can help track

medicines as they travel

through the body,

scientists usually cannot

actually see where a drug

is going. To compensate,

they often use mathematical models and

precise measures of

body fluids, such as

blood and urine, to 

determine where a drug

goes and how much 

of the drug or a breakdown product remains

after the body processes it. Other sentinels, such

as blood levels of liver enzymes, can help predict

how much of a drug is going to be absorbed.

Studying pharmacokinetics also uses chemistry, since the interactions between drug and

body molecules are really just a series of chemical

reactions. Understanding the chemical encounters

between drugs and biological environments, such

as the bloodstream and the oily surfaces of cells,

is necessary to predict how much of a drug will

be taken in by the body. This concept, broadly

termed bioavailability, is a critical feature that

chemists and pharmaceutical scientists keep in

mind when designing and packaging medicines.

No matter how well a drug works in a laboratory

simulation, the drug is not useful if it can’t make

it to its site of action.
Nerve cells use a chemical

messenger called acetylcholine (balls) to tell muscle

cells to contract. Curare (half

circles) paralyzes muscles 

by blocking acetylcholine

from attaching to its muscle

cell receptors.

Nerve Cell Receptor Muscle Cell

Acetylcholine

Curare

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

of arrows. Bernard discovered that curare causes

paralysis by blocking chemical signals between

nerve and muscle cells. His findings demonstrated

that chemicals can carry messages between nerve

cells and other types of cells.

Since Bernard’s experiments with curare,

researchers have discovered many nervous system

messengers, now called neurotransmitters. These

chemical messengers are called agonists, a generic

term pharmacologists use to indicate that a molecule

triggers some sort of response when encountering a

cell (such as muscle contraction or hormone release).

Fitting In

While it may seem obvious now, scientists did not

always know that drugs have specific molecular

targets in the body. In the mid-1880s, the French

physiologist Claude Bernard made a crucial

discovery that steered researchers toward understanding this principle. By figuring out how a

chemical called curare works, Bernard pointed

to the nervous system as a new focus for pharmacology. Curare—a plant extract that paralyzes

muscles—had been used for centuries by Native

Americans in South America to poison the tips

10
means there is no effect. Scientists most often 

plot data from dose-response experiments on a

graph. A typical “dose-response curve” demonstrates the effects of what happens (the vertical

Y-axis) when more and more drug is added to 

the experiment (the horizontal X-axis).

One of the first neurotransmitters identified

was acetylcholine, which causes muscle contraction. Curare works by tricking a cell into thinking

it is acetylcholine. By fitting—not quite as well,

but nevertheless fitting—into receiving molecules

called receptors on a muscle cell, curare prevents

acetylcholine from attaching and delivering its

message. No acetylcholine means no contraction,

and muscles become paralyzed.

Most medicines exert their effects by making

physical contact with receptors on the surface of

a cell. Think of an agonist-receptor interaction 

like a key fitting into a lock. Inserting a key into 

a door lock permits the doorknob to be turned

and allows the door to be opened. Agonists open

cellular locks (receptors), and this is the first step

Medicines By Design I ABCs of Pharmacology 11

1 10 100

Desired 

Effect

Side

Effect

Amount of Drug

X-axis

Effect on Body

Y-axis

Dose

Response

Dose-response curves

determine how much of

a drug (X-axis) causes

a particular effect, or a

side effect, in the body

(Y-axis).

in a communication between the outside of the

cell and the inside, which contains all the minimachines that make the cell run. Scientists have

identified thousands of receptors. Because receptors

have a critical role in controlling the activity of cells,

they are common targets for researchers designing

new medicines.

Curare is one example of a molecule called

an antagonist. Drugs that that act as antagonists

compete with natural agonists for receptors but 

act only as decoys, freezing up the receptor and

preventing agonists’ use of it. Researchers often

want to block cell responses, such as a rise in 

blood pressure or an increase in heart rate. For

that reason, many drugs are antagonists, designed

to blunt overactive cellular responses.

One of the most important principles of pharmacology, and of much of research in general, is a

concept called “dose-response.” Just as the term

implies, this notion refers to the relationship

between some effect—let’s say, lowering of 

blood pressure—and the amount of a drug.

Scientists care a lot about dose-response data

because these mathematical relationships signify

that a medicine is working according to a specific

interaction between different molecules in the body.

Sometimes, it takes years to figure out exactly

which molecules are working together, but when

testing a potential medicine, researchers must 

first show that three things are true in an experiment. First, if the drug isn’t there, you don’t get 

any effect. In our example, that means no change

in blood pressure. Second, adding more of the

drug (up to a certain point) causes an incremental

change in effect (lower blood pressure with more

drug). Third, taking the drug away (or masking 

its action with a molecule that blocks the drug)

The Right Dose
The key to agonists fitting snugly into their

receptors is shape. Researchers who study how

drugs and other chemicals exert their effects in

particular organs—the heart, the lungs, the

kidneys, and so on—are very interested in the

shapes of molecules. Some drugs have very broad

effects because they fit into receptors on many

different kinds of cells. Some side effects, such as

dry mouth or a drop in blood pressure, can result

from a drug encountering receptors in places other

than the target site. One of a pharmacologist’s

12 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

of steroids include vitamin D, cholesterol, estrogen,

and cortisone—molecules that are critical for

keeping the body running smoothly. Various

steroids have important roles in the body’s reproductive system and the structure and function of

membranes. Researchers have also discovered 

that steroids can be active in the brain, where they

affect the nervous system. Some steroids may

thus find use as anesthetics, medicines that sedate

people before surgery by temporarily slowing

down brain function.

Douglas Covey of Washington University in 

St. Louis, Missouri, has uncovered new roles 

for several of these neurosteroids, which alter

electrical activity in the brain. Covey’s research

shows that neurosteroids can either activate 

or tone down receptors that communicate the

message of a neurotransmitter called gammaaminobutyrate, or GABA. The main job of this

neurotransmitter is to dampen electrical activity

throughout the brain. Covey and other scientists

have found that steroids that activate the receptors

for GABA decrease brain activity even more,

making these steroids good candidates for anesthetic medicines. Covey is also investigating 

the potential of neuroprotective steroids in 

fending off the nerve-wasting effects of certain

neurodegenerative disorders.

OH

CH3

CH3

R

 A steroid is a molecule

with a particular chemical

structure consisting of

multiple “rings” (hexagons

and pentagon, below).

In today’s culture, the word “steroid” conjures up

notions of drugs taken by athletes to boost strength

and physical performance. But steroid is actually

just a chemical name for any substance that has 

a characteristic chemical structure consisting of

multiple rings of connected atoms. Some examples

Steroids for Surgery

major goals is to reduce these side effects by

developing drugs that attach only to receptors 

on the target cells.

That is much easier said than done. While

agonists may fit nearly perfectly into a receptor’s

shape, other molecules may also brush up to

receptors and sometimes set them off. These

types of unintended, nonspecific interactions 

can cause side effects. They can also affect how

much drug is available in the body.
Medicines By Design I ABCs of Pharmacology 13

Feverfew for migraines, garlic for heart disease, 

St. John’s wort for depression. These are just a 

few of the many “natural” substances ingested by

millions of Americans to treat a variety of health

conditions. The use of so-called alternative medicines is widespread, but you may be surprised to

learn that researchers do not know in most cases

how herbs work—or if they work at all—inside 

the human body.

Herbs are not regulated by the Food and Drug

Administration, and scientists have not performed

careful studies to evaluate their safety and effectiveness. Unlike many prescription (or even 

over-the-counter) medicines, herbs contain many—

sometimes thousands—of ingredients. While some

small studies have

confirmed the usefulness of certain herbs,

like feverfew, other

herbal products have

proved ineffective or

harmful. For example,

recent studies suggest

that St. John’s wort is of no benefit in treating

major depression. What’s more, because herbs are

complicated concoctions containing many active

components, they can interfere with the body’s

metabolism of other drugs, such as certain HIV

treatments and birth control pills.

how a person is processing a drug. Usually, this

important analysis involves mathematical equations, which take into account many different 

variables. Some of the variables include the physical and chemical properties of the drug, the total

amount of blood in a person’s body, the individual’s age and body mass, the health of the person’s

liver and kidneys, and what other medicines the

person is taking. Clinical pharmacologists also

measure drug metabolites to gauge how much

drug is in a person’s body. Sometimes, doctors

give patients a “loading dose” (a large amount)

first, followed by smaller doses at later times. This

approach works by getting enough drug into the

body before it is metabolized (broken down) into

inactive parts, giving the drug the best chance to

do its job.

Bench to Bedside: 

Clinical Pharmacology

Prescribing drugs is a tricky science, requiring

physicians to carefully consider many factors.

Your doctor can measure or otherwise determine

many of these factors, such as weight and diet.

But another key factor is drug interactions. You

already know that every time you go to the doctor,

he or she will ask whether you are taking any other

drugs and whether you have any drug allergies or

unusual reactions to any medicines.

Interactions between different drugs in the

body, and between drugs and foods or dietary

supplements, can have a significant influence,

sometimes “fooling” your body into thinking 

you have taken more or less of a drug than you

actually have taken.

By measuring the amounts of a drug in blood

or urine, clinical pharmacologists can calculate

Nature’s Drugs
Bacteria have an uncanny ability to defend

themselves against antibiotics. In trying to

figure out why this is so, scientists have noted

that antibiotic medicines that kill bacteria in 

a variety of different ways can be thwarted 

by the bacteria they are designed to destroy.

One reason, says Kim Lewis of Northeastern

University in Boston, Massachusetts, may be

the bacteria themselves. Microorganisms have

ejection systems called multidrug-resistance

(MDR) pumps—large proteins that weave

through cell-surface membranes. Researchers

believe that microbes have MDR pumps

mainly for self-defense. The pumps are used 

to monitor incoming chemicals and to spit out

the ones that might endanger the bacteria.

Pump It Up 

© LINDA S. NYE

14 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
example, are often “kicked out” of cancer cells

by MDR pumps residing in the cells’ membranes. MDR pumps in membranes all over

the body—in the brain, digestive tract, liver,

and kidneys—perform important jobs in

moving natural body molecules like hormones

into and out of cells.

Pharmacologist Mary Vore of the

University of Kentucky in Lexington has

discovered that certain types of MDR pumps

do not work properly during pregnancy,

and she suspects that estrogen and other

pregnancy hormones may be partially responsible. Vore has recently focused efforts on

determining if the MDR pump is malformed

in pregnant women who have intrahepatic

cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP). A relatively

rare condition, ICP often strikes during the

third trimester and can cause significant

discomfort such as severe itching and nausea,

while also endangering the growing fetus.

Vore’s research on MDR pump function may

also lead to improvements in drug therapy

for pregnant women.

Lewis suggests that plants, which produce

many natural bacteria-killing molecules, have

gotten “smart” over time, developing ways to

outwit bacteria. He suspects that evolution has

driven plants to produce natural chemicals that

block bacterial MDR pumps, bypassing this

bacterial protection system. Lewis tested his idea

by first genetically knocking out the gene for

the MDR pump from the common bacterium

Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). He and his

coworkers then exposed the altered bacteria to 

a very weak antibiotic called berberine that had

been chemically extracted from barberry plants.

Berberine is usually woefully ineffective against 

S. aureus, but it proved lethal for bacteria missing

the MDR pump. What’s more, Lewis found 

that berberine also killed unaltered bacteria

given another barberry chemical that inhibited

the MDR pumps. Lewis suggests that by

co-administering inhibitors of MDR pumps 

along with antibiotics, physicians may be able 

to outsmart disease-causing microorganisms.

MDR pumps aren’t just for microbes.

Virtually all living things have MDR pumps,

including people. In the human body, MDR

pumps serve all sorts of purposes, and they can

sometimes frustrate efforts to get drugs where

they need to go. Chemotherapy medicines, for

Many body molecules and drugs (yellow balls)

encounter multidrug-resistance pumps (blue)

after passing through a cell membrane.

Explain the difference

between an agonist and

an antagonist.

How does grapefruit juice

affect blood levels of

certain medicines?

What does a pharmacologist plot on the vertical

and horizontal axes of a

dose-response curve?

Name one of the potential

risks associated with

taking herbal products.

What are the four

stages of a drug’s life

in the body?

Got It?
The work of a scientist is often likened to locking

together the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Slowly and

methodically, one by one, the pieces fit together to

make a pretty picture. Research is a puzzle, but the

jigsaw analogy is flawed. The truth is, scientists

don’t have a puzzle box to know what the finished

picture is supposed to look like. If you know the

result of an experiment ahead of time, it’s not really

an experiment.

Being a scientist is hard work, but most researchers

love the freedom to explore their curiosities. They test

ideas methodically, finding answers to new problems,

and every day brings a new challenge. But researchers

must keep their eyes and ears open for surprises. On

occasion, luck wins out and breakthroughs happen

“by accident.” The discovery of vaccines, X rays, and

penicillin each came about when a scientist was willing

to say, “Hmmm, I wonder why...“ and followed up on

an unexpected finding.

cientists became interested in the workings

of the human body during the “scientific

revolution” of the 15th and 16th centuries. These

early studies led to descriptions of the circulatory,

digestive, respiratory, nervous, and excretory 

systems. In time, scientists came to think of the

body as a kind of machine that uses a series of

chemical reactions to convert food into energy.

The Body Machine

Scientists still think about the body as a well-oiled

machine, or set of machines, powered by a control

system called metabolism. The conversion of food

into energy integrates chemical reactions taking

place simultaneously throughout the body to

assure that each organ has enough nutrients and 

is performing its job properly. An important principle central to metabolism is that the body’s basic

unit is the cell. Like a miniature body, each cell is

surrounded by a skin, called a membrane. In turn,

each cell contains tiny organs, called organelles,

that perform specific metabolic tasks.

Body, Heal Thyself

CHAPTER 2

S

Discovery By Accident
One important type of metabolism that occurs

constantly in our bodies is the reading and interpreting of genes to make proteins. These proteins

underlie the millions of chemical reactions that

run our bodies. Proteins perform structural roles,

keeping cells shaped properly. Proteins also work 

as enzymes that speed along chemical reactions—

without an enzyme’s assistance, many reactions

would take years to happen.

The cell is directed by a “command center,” the

nucleus, where the genes you inherited from your

parents reside. Your genes—your body’s own

personalized instruction manual—are kept safe 

in packages called chromosomes. Each of your

cells has an identical set of 46 chromosomes,

23 inherited from your mother and 23 from 

your father.

Medicines By Design I Body, Heal Thyself 17

Your body is a model of economy. Metabolism—

your body’s way of making energy and body

parts from food and water—takes place in every

cell in every organ. Complex, interlocking pathways of cellular signals make up metabolism,

linking together all the systems that make

your body run. For this reason, researchers

have a tough time understanding the

process, because they are often faced

with studying parts one by one or a

few at a time. Nevertheless, scientists

have learned a lot by focusing on

individual metabolic pathways, 

such as the one that manufactures

important regulatory molecules 

called 

prostaglandins 

(see page 21).

Important enzymes called cytochrome 

P450s (CYP, pronounced “sip,” 450s) process

essential molecules such as some hormones

and vitamins. The CYP 450 enzymes are

a major focus for 

pharmacologists because they

metabolize—either break down or

activate—hundreds of prescribed

medicines and natural substances.

Scientists who specialize in pharmacogenetics (see

page 8) have discovered that the human genetic

code contains many different spellings for CYP 450

genes, resulting in CYP 450 proteins with widely

variable levels of activity. Some CYP 450 enzymes

also metabolize carcinogens, making these chemicals “active” and more prone to causing cancer.

Toxicologist Linda Quattrochi of the University 

of Colorado Health Sciences Center in Denver 

is studying the roles played by certain CYP 450

enzymes in the metabolism of carcinogens. Her

research has revealed that natural components 

of certain foods, including

horseradish, oranges,

mustard, and green

tea, appear to protect the body by

blocking CYP 

450 enzymatic

activation of

carcinogens.

Want a CYP?
18 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

More than simply a protective covering, skin is a

highly dynamic network of cells, nerves, and blood

vessels. Skin plays an important role in preserving

fluid balance and in regulating body temperature

and sensation. Immune cells in skin help the body

prevent and fight disease. When you get burned, all

of these protections are in jeopardy. Burn-induced

skin loss can give bacteria and other microorganisms easy access to the nutrient-rich fluids that

course through the body, while at the same time

allowing these fluids to leak out rapidly. Enough

fluid loss can thrust a burn or trauma patient into

shock, so doctors must replenish skin lost to severe

burns as quickly as possible.

In the case of burns covering a significant 

portion of the body, surgeons must do two things

fast: strip off the burned skin, then cover the

unprotected underlying tissue. These important

steps in the immediate care of a burn patient 

took scientists decades to figure out, as they

performed carefully conducted experiments on

how the body responds to burn injury. In the early

1980s, researchers doing this work developed 

the first version of an artificial skin covering called

Integra® Dermal Regeneration TemplateTM, which

doctors use to drape over the area where the

burned skin has been removed. Today, Integra

Dermal Regeneration Template is used to treat 

1 of every 10 severely burned patients in the

United States and is the top-selling skin substitute

in the world.

magical molecules that can make a clot form

within minutes after your tumble. Blood is a rich

concoction containing oxygen-carrying red blood

cells and infection-fighting white blood cells.

Blood cells are suspended in a watery liquid 

called plasma that contains clotting proteins,

electrolytes, and many other important molecules.

Burns: More Than Skin Deep

River of Life

Since blood is the body’s primary internal transportation system, most drugs travel via this route.

Medicines can find their way to the bloodstream

in several ways, including the rich supply of blood

vessels in the skin. You may remember, as a young

child, the horror of seeing blood escaping your

body through a skinned knee. You now know that

the simplistic notion of skin literally “holding

everything inside” isn’t quite right. You survived

the scrape just fine because blood contains

Red blood cells carry oxygen

throughout the body.
Blood also ferries proteins and hormones such as

insulin and estrogen, nutrient molecules of various kinds, and carbon dioxide and other waste

products destined to exit the body.

While the bloodstream would seem like a

quick way to get a needed medicine to a diseased

organ, one of the biggest problems is getting the

medicine to the correct organ. In many cases,

drugs end up where they are not needed and cause

side effects, as we’ve already noted. What’s more,

drugs may encounter many different obstacles

while journeying through the bloodstream. Some

medicines get “lost” when they stick tightly to 

certain proteins in the blood, effectively putting

the drugs out of business.

Medicines By Design I Body, Heal Thyself 19

Scientists called physiologists originally came

up with the idea that all internal processes work

together to keep the body in a balanced state. The

bloodstream links all our organs together, enabling

them to work in a coordinated way. Two organ 

systems are particularly interesting to pharmacologists: the nervous system (which transmits

electrical signals over wide distances) and the

endocrine system (which communicates messages

via traveling hormones). These two systems are 

key targets for medicines.

Blood Vessel

Sweat Gland

Fat

Hair Follicle

Nerve

Skin consists of three layers, making up 

a dynamic network of cells, nerves, and

blood vessels.
No Pain, Your Gain

Like curare’s effects on acetylcholine, the interactions between another drug—aspirin—and

metabolism shed light on how the body works.

This little white pill has been one of the most

widely used drugs in history, and many say that

it launched the entire pharmaceutical industry.

As a prescribed drug, aspirin is 100 years old.

However, in its most primitive form, aspirin is

much older. The bark of the willow tree contains

a substance called salicin, a known antidote to

headache and fever since the time of the Greek

physician Hippocrates, around 400 B.C. The body

converts salicin to an acidic substance called salicylate.

Despite its usefulness dating back to ancient times,

early records indicate that salicylate wreaked havoc

on the stomachs of people who ingested this 

natural chemical. In the late 1800s, a scientific

20 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 Acetylsalicylate is the aspirin 

of today. Adding a chemical tag

called an acetyl group (shaded

yellow box, right) to a molecule

derived from willow bark (salicylate, above) makes the molecule

less acidic (and easier on the 

lining of the digestive tract), but

still effective at relieving pain.

Salicylate

Acetylsalicylate

(Aspirin)
breakthrough turned willow-derived salicylate 

into a medicine friendlier to the body. Bayer®

scientist Felix Hoffman discovered that adding 

a chemical tag called an acetyl group (see figure,

page 20) to salicylate made the molecule less acidic 

and a little gentler on the stomach, but the chemical

change did not seem to lessen the drug’s ability to

relieve his father’s rheumatism. This molecule,

acetylsalicylate, is the aspirin of today.

Aspirin works by blocking the production 

of messenger molecules called prostaglandins.

Because of the many important roles they play 

in metabolism, prostaglandins are important

targets for drugs and are very interesting to pharmacologists. Prostaglandins can help muscles relax and

open up blood vessels, they give you a fever when

you’re infected with bacteria, and they also marshal

the immune system by stimulating the process called

inflammation. Sunburn, bee stings, tendinitis,

and arthritis are just a few examples of painful

inflammation caused by the body’s release of certain

types of prostaglandins in response to an injury.

Medicines By Design I Body, Heal Thyself 21

 Inflammation leads to pain in arthritis.
To understand how enzymes like COX work,

some pharmacologists use special biophysical

techniques and X rays to determine the threedimensional shapes of the enzymes. These kinds

of experiments teach scientists about molecular

function by providing clear pictures of how all the

folds and bends of an enzyme—usually a protein

or group of interacting proteins—help it do its

job. In drug development, one successful approach

has been to use this information to design decoys

to jam up the working parts of enzymes like COX.

Structural studies unveiling the shapes of COX

enzymes led to a new class of blockbuster drugs

used to treat arthritis. Researchers designed these

drugs, two of which include Celebrex® and Vioxx®,

to selectively home in on one particular type of

COX enzyme called COX-2.

By designing drugs that target only one form 

of an enzyme like COX, pharmacologists may be

able to create medicines that are great at stopping

inflammation but have fewer side effects. For

example, stomach upset is a common side effect

caused by NSAIDs that block COX enzymes. This

side effect results from the fact that NSAIDs bind

to different types of COX enzymes—each of

which has a slightly different shape. One of these

enzymes is called COX-1. While both COX-1 and

COX-2 enzymes make prostaglandins, COX-2

22 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Aspirin belongs to a diverse group of

medicines called NSAIDs, a nickname for 

the tongue-twisting title nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Other drugs that belong 

to this large class of medicines include Advil®,

Aleve®, and many other popular pain relievers

available without a doctor’s prescription. All these

drugs share aspirin’s ability to knock back the 

production of prostaglandins by blocking an

enzyme called cyclooxygenase. Known as COX,

this enzyme is a critical driver of the body’s

metabolism and immune function.

COX makes prostaglandins and other similar

molecules collectively known as eicosanoids from

a molecule called arachidonic acid. Named for 

the Greek word eikos, meaning “twenty,” each

eicosanoid contains 20 atoms of carbon.

You’ve also heard of the popular pain reliever

acetaminophen (Tylenol®), which is famous for

reducing fever and relieving headaches. However,

scientists do not consider Tylenol an NSAID,

because it does little to halt inflammation

(remember that part of NSAID stands for

“anti-inflammatory”). If your joints are aching

from a long hike you weren’t exactly in shape

for, aspirin or Aleve may be better than Tylenol

because inflammation is the thing making your

joints hurt.
Our Immune Army

Scientists know a lot about the body’s organ

systems, but much more remains to be discovered.

To design “smart” drugs that will seek out

diseased cells and not healthy ones, researchers

need to understand the body inside and out.

One system in particular still puzzles scientists:

the immune system.

Even though researchers have accumulated 

vast amounts of knowledge about how our bodies

fight disease using white blood cells and thousands 

of natural chemical weapons, a basic dilemma 

persists—how does the body know what to fight?

The immune system constantly watches for foreign

beefs up the production of prostaglandins in sore,

inflamed tissue, such as arthritic joints. In contrast, COX-1 makes prostaglandins that protect

the digestive tract, and blocking the production 

of these protective prostaglandins can lead to

stomach upset, and even bleeding and ulcers.

Very recently, scientists have added a new

chapter to the COX story by identifying COX-3,

which may be Tylenol’s long-sought molecular

target. Further research will help pharmacologists

understand more precisely how Tylenol and

NSAIDs act in the body.

Medicines By Design I Body, Heal Thyself 23

Common over-the-counter medicines used to treat

pain, fever, and inflammation have many uses.

Here are some of the terms used to describe the

particular effects of these drugs:

ANTI-PYRETIC—this term means fever-reducing; 

it comes from the Greek word pyresis, which

means fire.

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY—this word describes a

drug’s ability to reduce inflammation, which can

cause soreness and swelling; it comes from the

Latin word flamma, which means flame.

ANALGESIC—this description refers to a medicine’s

ability to treat pain; it comes from the Greek word

algos, which means pain.

The “Anti” Establishment
invaders and is exquisitely 

sensitive to any intrusion perceived

as “non-self,” like a

transplanted organ from

another person. This protection, however, can run afoul if the body

slips up and views its own tissue as foreign.

Autoimmune disease, in which the immune system

mistakenly attacks and destroys body tissue that it

believes to be foreign, can be the terrible consequence.

The powerful immune army presents significant roadblocks for pharmacologists trying to

create new drugs. But some scientists have looked

at the immune system through a different lens.

Why not teach the body to launch an attack 

on its own diseased cells? Many researchers are

pursuing immunotherapy as a way to treat a 

wide range of health problems, especially cancer.

With advances in biotechnology, researchers are

now able to tailor-produce in the lab modified

forms of antibodies—our immune system’s 

front-line agents.

Antibodies are spectacularly specific proteins that seek out and mark for destruction

anything they do not recognize as

belonging to the body. Scientists have

learned how to join antibody-making 

cells with cells that grow and divide continuously.

This strategy creates cellular “factories” that work

around the clock to produce large quantities 

of specialized molecules, called monoclonal antibodies, that attach to and destroy single kinds 

of targets.

Doctors are already using therapeutic monoclonal antibodies to attack tumors. A drug called

Rituxan® was the first therapeutic antibody

approved by the Food and Drug Administration

to treat cancer. This monoclonal antibody targets

a unique tumor “fingerprint” on the surface of

immune cells, called B cells, in a blood cancer

called non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Another therapeutic antibody for cancer, Herceptin®, latches

onto breast cancer cell receptors that signal growth

to either mask the receptors from view or lure

immune cells to kill the cancer cells. Herceptin’s

actions prevent breast cancer from spreading to

other organs.

Researchers are also investigating a new kind of

“vaccine” as therapy for diseases such as cancer.

The vaccines are not designed to prevent cancer,

24 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 Antibodies are Y-shaped

molecules of the immune

system.
research will point the way toward getting a 

sick body to heal itself, it is likely that there

will always be a need for medicines to speed

recovery from the many illnesses that 

plague humankind.

but rather to treat the disease when it has already

taken hold in the body. Unlike the targeted-attack

approach of antibody therapy, vaccines aim to

recruit the entire immune system to fight off a

tumor. Scientists are already conducting clinical

trials of vaccines against cancer to evaluate the

effectiveness of this treatment approach.

The body machine has a tremendously complex collection of chemical signals that are relayed

back and forth through the blood and into and

out of cells. While scientists are hopeful that future

Medicines By Design I Body, Heal Thyself 25

A body-wide syndrome caused by an infection

called sepsis is a leading cause of death in hospital

intensive care units, striking 750,000 people every

year and killing more than 210,000. Sepsis is a

serious public health problem, causing more deaths

annually than heart disease. The most severe form

of sepsis occurs when bacteria leak into the bloodstream, spilling their poisons and leading to a

dangerous condition called septic shock. Blood

pressure plunges dangerously low, the heart has

difficulty pumping enough blood, and body temperature climbs or falls rapidly. In many cases, multiple

organs fail and the patient dies.

Despite the obvious public health importance of

finding effective ways to treat sepsis, researchers

have been frustratingly unsuccessful. Kevin Tracey

of the North Shore-Long Island Jewish Research

Institute in Manhasset, New York, has identified an

unusual suspect in the deadly crime of sepsis: the

nervous system. Tracey and his coworkers have

discovered an unexpected link between cytokines,

the chemical weapons released by the immune

system during sepsis, and a major nerve that controls critical body functions such as heart rate and

digestion. In animal studies, Tracey found that

electrically stimulating this nerve, called the vagus

nerve, significantly lowered blood levels of TNF, a

cytokine that is produced when the body senses

the presence of bacteria in the blood. Further

research has led Tracey to conclude that production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine underlies

the inflammation-blocking response. Tracey is

investigating whether stimulating the vagus nerve

can be used as a component of therapy for sepsis

and as a treatment for other immune disorders.

A Shock to the System
A Closer Look

26 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Seeing is believing. The cliché could not 

be more apt for biologists trying to

understand how a complicated

enzyme works. For decades,

researchers have isolated and

purified individual enzymes

from cells, performing experiments with these proteins to 

find out how they do their job 

of speeding up chemical reactions. But to thoroughly understand a

molecule’s function, scientists have to take a

very, very close look at how all the atoms fit

together and enable the molecular “machine”

to work properly.

Researchers called structural biologists are

fanatical about such detail, because it can

deliver valuable information for designing

drugs—even for proteins that scientists have

One protruding end (green) of the MAO B enzyme

anchors the protein inside the cell. Body molecules or drugs first come into contact with MAO B

(in the hatched blue region) and are worked on

within the enzyme’s “active site,” a cavity nestled

inside the protein (in the hatched red region). To

get its job done, MAO B uses a helper molecule

(yellow), which fits right next to the active site

where the reaction takes place.

REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM J. BIOL. CHEM. (2002) 277:23973-6.

HTTP://WWW.JBC.ORG
studied in the lab for a long time. For example,

biologists have known for 40 years that an

enzyme called monoamine oxidase B (MAO B)

works in the brain to help recycle communication molecules called neurotransmitters. MAO

B and its cousin MAO A work by removing

molecular pieces from neurotransmitters, part

of the process of inactivating them. Scientists

have developed drugs to block the actions 

of MAO enzymes, and by doing so, help 

preserve the levels of neurotransmitters in

people with such disorders as Parkinson’s 

disease and depression.

However, MAO inhibitors have many

undesirable side effects. Tremors, increased

heart rate, and problems with sexual function

are some of the mild side effects of MAO

inhibitors, but more serious problems include

seizures, large dips in blood pressure, and

difficulty breathing. People taking MAO

inhibitors cannot eat foods containing the

substance tyramine, which is found in wine,

cheese, dried fruits, and many other foods.

Most of the side effects occur because drugs

that attach to MAO enzymes do not have a

perfect fit for either MAO A or MAO B.

Define metabolism.

How does aspirin work?

Name three functions

of blood.

Give two examples of

immunotherapy.

What is a technique

scientists use to study

a protein’s threedimensional structure?

Got It?

Dale Edmondson of Emory University in

Atlanta, Georgia, has recently uncovered new

knowledge that may help researchers design

better, more specific drugs to interfere with

these critical brain enzymes. Edmonson and

his coworkers Andrea Mattevi and Claudia

Binda of the University of Pavia in Italy got a

crystal-clear glimpse of MAO B by determining its three-dimensional structure. The

researchers also saw how one MAO inhibitor,

Eldepryl®, attaches to the MAO B enzyme,

and the scientists predict that their results

will help in the design of more specific drugs

with fewer side effects.
Natural Cholesterol-Buster

ong before the first towns were built, before

written language was invented, and even

before plants were cultivated for food, the basic

human desires to relieve pain and prolong life

fueled the search for medicines. No one knows

for sure what the earliest humans did to treat 

their ailments, but they probably sought cures in

the plants, animals, and minerals around them.

Nature’s Medicine Cabinet

Times have changed, but approximately 60 percent

of the world’s population still relies entirely on

plants for medicines, and plants supply the active

ingredients of most traditional medical products.

Plants have also served as the starting point for

countless drugs on the market today. Researchers

generally agree that natural products from plants

and other organisms have been the most consistently successful source for ideas for new drugs,

since nature is a master chemist. Drug discovery

scientists often refer to these ideas as “leads,” and

chemicals that have desirable properties in lab

tests are called lead compounds.

Drugs From Nature, Then and Now

CHAPTER 3

L

Having high cholesterol is a significant risk factor

for heart disease, a leading cause of death in the

industrialized world. Pharmacology research has

made major strides in helping people deal with 

this problem. Scientists Michael Brown and

Joseph Goldstein, both of The University of Texas

Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, won the

1985 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine for

their fundamental work determining how the

body metabolizes cholesterol. This research, part

of which first identified cholesterol receptors, led to

the development of the popular cholesterol-lowering

“statin” drugs such as Mevacor® and Lipitor®.

New research from pharmacologist David

Mangelsdorf, also at The University of Texas

Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, is pointing

to another potential treatment for high cholesterol.

The “new” substance has the tongue-twisting

name guggulsterone, and it isn’t really new at all.

Guggulsterone comes from the sap of the guggul

tree, a species native to India, and has been used

in India’s Ayurvedic medicine since at least 600

B.C. to treat a wide variety of ailments, including

obesity and cholesterol disorders. Mangelsdorf

and his coworker David Moore of Baylor College

of Medicine in Houston, Texas, found that guggulsterone blocks a protein called the FXR receptor

that plays a role in cholesterol metabolism,

converting cholesterol in the blood to bile acids.

According to Mangelsdorf, since elevated levels of

bile acids can actually boost cholesterol, blocking

FXR helps to bring cholesterol counts down.

 Sap from the guggul tree, a species native

to India, contains a substance that may help

fight heart disease.
only a few of these organisms to see whether they

harbor some sort of medically useful substance.

Pharmaceutical chemists seek ideas for new

drugs not only in plants, but in any part of nature

where they may find valuable clues. This includes

searching for organisms from what has been called

the last unexplored frontier: the seawater that

blankets nearly three-quarters of Earth.

Relatively speaking, very few species of living

things on Earth have actually been seen and

named by scientists. Many of these unidentified

organisms aren’t necessarily lurking in uninhabited places. Just recently, for instance, scientists

identified a brand-new species of millipede in a

rotting leaf pile in New York City’s Central Park,

an area visited by thousands of people every day.

Scientists estimate that Earth is home to at least

250,000 different species of plants and that up to

30 million species of insects crawl or fly somewhere around the globe. Equal numbers of species

of fungi, algae, and bacteria probably also exist.

Despite these vast numbers, chemists have tested

Medicines By Design I Drugs From Nature, Then and Now 29

Some forms of cancer 

can be treated with

photodynamic therapy, 

in which a cancer-killing

molecule is activated 

by certain wavelengths 

of light.

A novel drug delivery system called photodynamic

therapy combines an ancient plant remedy, 

modern blood transfusion techniques, and light.

Photodynamic therapy has been approved by the

Food and Drug Administration to treat several 

cancers and certain types of age-related macular

degeneration, a devastating eye disease that is the

leading cause of blindness in North America and

Europe. Photodynamic therapy is also being tested

as a treatment for some skin and immune disorders.

The key ingredient in this therapy is psoralen, 

a plant-derived chemical that has a peculiar property: It is inactive until exposed to light. Psoralen 

is the active ingredient in a Nile-dwelling weed

called ammi. This remedy was used by ancient

Egyptians, who noticed that people became 

prone to sunburn after eating the weed. Modern

researchers explained this phenomenon by discovering that psoralen, after being digested, goes 

to the skin’s surface, where it is activated by the

JOSEPH FRIEDBERG

sun’s ultraviolet rays. Activated psoralen attaches

tenaciously to the DNA of rapidly dividing cancer

cells and kills them. Photopheresis, a method 

that exposes a psoralen-like drug to certain wavelengths of light, is approved for the treatment 

of some forms of lymphoma, a cancer of white

blood cells.

Cancer Therapy Sees the Light
 A penicillin-secreting Penicillium

mold colony inhibits the growth 

of bacteria (zig-zag smear growing

on culture dish).

Ocean Medicines

Marine animals fight daily for both food and 

survival, and this underwater warfare is waged 

with chemicals. As with plants, researchers have

recognized the potential use of this chemical

weaponry to kill bacteria or raging cancer cells.

Scientists isolated the first marine-derived cancer

drug, now known as Cytosar-U®, decades ago.

They found this chemical, a staple for treating

leukemia and lymphoma, in a Caribbean sea

sponge. In recent years, scientists have discovered

dozens of similar ocean-derived chemicals

that appear to be powerful cancer cell killers.

Researchers are testing these natural products 

for their therapeutic properties.

For example, scientists have unearthed several

promising drugs from sea creatures called tunicates.

More commonly known as sea squirts, tunicates

are a group of marine organisms that spend most

of their lives attached to docks, rocks, or the

undersides of boats. To an untrained eye they look

like nothing more than small, colorful blobs, but

tunicates are evolutionarily more closely related 

to vertebrates like ourselves than to most other

invertebrate animals.

One tunicate living in the crystal waters of

West Indies coral reefs and mangrove swamps

turned out to be the source of an experimental

cancer drug called ecteinascidin. Ken Rinehart, a

chemist who was then at the University of Illinois,

Urbana-Champaign, discovered this natural

substance. PharmaMar, a pharmaceutical company

based in Spain, now holds the licenses for

ecteinascidin, which it calls YondelisTM, and is

30 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

The approach worked: Ehrlich’s greatest triumph

was his discovery of salvarsan, the first effective

treatment for the sexually transmitted disease

syphilis. Ehrlich discovered salvarsan after screening

605 different arsenic-containing compounds. Later,

researchers around the world had great success in

developing new drugs by following Ehrlich’s methods. For example, testing of sulfur-containing dyes

led to the 20th century’s first “miracle drugs”—the

sulfa drugs, used to treat bacterial infections. During

the 1940s, sulfa drugs were rapidly replaced by a

new, more powerful, and safer antibacterial drug,

penicillin—originally extracted from the soil-dwelling

fungus Penicillium.

Led by the German scientist Paul

Ehrlich, a new era in pharmacology

began in the late 19th century.

Although Ehrlich’s original idea

seems perfectly obvious now, 

it was considered very strange 

at the time. He proposed that 

every disease should be treated

with a chemical specific for that

disease, and that the pharmacologist’s task was to find these

treatments by systematically 

testing potential drugs.

CHRISTINE L. CASE

Miracle Cures
conducting clinical trials on this drug. Lab tests

indicate that Yondelis can kill cancer cells, and 

the first set of clinical studies has shown that the

drug is safe for use in humans. The second phase

of clinical testing—to evaluate whether Yondelis

effectively treats soft-tissue sarcomas (tumors of

the muscles, tendons, and supportive tissues)—

is under way.

Animals that live in coral reefs almost always

rely on chemistry to ward off hungry predators.

Because getting away quickly isn’t an option in

this environment, lethal chemical brews are the

weaponry of choice for these slow-moving or

even sedentary animals. A powerful potion comes

from one of these animals, a stunningly gorgeous

Medicines By Design I Drugs From Nature, Then and Now 31

Yondelis is an experimental

cancer drug isolated from 

the marine organism

Ecteinascidia turbinata.

PHARMAMAR

species of snail found in the reefs surrounding

Australia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. The

animals, called cone snails, have a unique venom

containing dozens of nerve toxins. Some of these

venoms instantly shock prey, like the sting of an

electric eel or the poisons of scorpions and sea

anemones. Others cause paralysis, like the venoms

of cobras and puffer fish.

Pharmacologist Baldomero Olivera of the

University of Utah in Salt Lake City, a native of

the Philippines whose boyhood fascination with

cone snails matured into a career studying them,

has discovered one cone snail poison that is well 

on its way to becoming a potent new pain medicine. Olivera’s experiments have shown that the
32 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 A poison produced by the cone snail C. geographus

is well on its way to becoming a powerful new

pain medicine.

K.S. MATZ

snail toxin is 1,000 times more powerful than

morphine in treating certain kinds of chronic

pain. The snail-derived substance, named PrialtTM

by the company (Elan Corporation, plc in Dublin,

Ireland) that is conducting clinical trials of it,

jams up nerve transmission in the spinal cord 

and blocks certain pain signals from reaching

the brain. Scientists predict that many more cone

snail toxins will be drug leads, since 500 different

species of this animal populate Earth.

Are researchers taking advantage of nature

when it comes to hunting for new medicines?

Public concern has been raised about 

scientists scouring the world’s tropical rainforests and coral reefs to look for potential

natural chemicals that may end up being

useful drugs. While it is true that rainforests

in particular are home to an extraordinarily

rich array of species of animals and plants,

many life-saving medicines derived from

natural products have been discovered in temperate climates not much different from our kitchens

and backyards.

Many wonder drugs have arisen from nonendangered species, such as the bark of the willow

tree, which was the original source of aspirin.

 The cancer drug Taxol

originally came from 

the bark and needles 

of yew trees.

The antibiotic penicillin, from an ordinary mold, is

another example. Although scientists first found

the chemical that became the widely prescribed

cancer drug Taxol® in the bark of an endangered

species of tree called the Pacific yew, researchers

have since found a way to manufacture Taxol in

the lab, starting with an extract from pine needles

of the much more abundant European yew. In

many cases, chemists have also figured out ways

to make large quantities of rainforest- and reefderived chemicals in the lab (see main text).

Prospecting Biology?
Medicines By Design I Drugs From Nature, Then and Now 33

into contact with some types of poisons. Lau and

her coworkers study the effects of a substance

called hydroquinone (HQ), an industrial pollutant

and a contaminant in cigarette smoke and diesel

engine exhaust. Lau is searching for genes that

play a role in triggering cancer in response to 

HQ exposure. Her research and the work of other

so-called toxicogeneticists should help scientists

find genetic “signatures” that can predict risk of

developing cancer in people exposed to harmful

carcinogens.

Just as your genes help determine how you respond

to certain medicines, your genetic code can also

affect your susceptibility to illness. Why is it that

two people with a similar lifestyle and a nearly

identical environment can have such different

propensities to getting sick? Lots of factors contribute, including diet, but scientists believe that 

an important component of disease risk is the

genetic variability of people’s reactions to chemicals

in the environment.

On hearing the word “chemical,” many people

think of smokestacks and pollution. Indeed, our

world is littered with toxic chemicals, some natural

and some synthetic. For example, nearly all of us

would succumb quickly to the poisonous bite of a

cobra, but it is harder to predict which of us will

develop cancer from exposure to carcinogens like

cigarette smoke.

Toxicologists are researchers who study 

the effects of poisonous substances on living

organisms. One toxicologist, Serrine Lau of The

University of Texas at Austin, is trying to unravel

the genetic mystery of why people are more or 

less susceptible to kidney damage after coming

Tweaking Nature

Searching nature’s treasure trove for potential

medicines is often only the first step. Having tapped

natural resources to hunt for new medicines, pharmaceutical scientists then work to figure out ways to

cultivate natural products or to make them from

scratch in the lab. Chemists play an essential role 

in turning marine and other natural products,

which are often found in minute quantities, into

useful medicines.

In the case of Yondelis, chemist Elias J. Corey of

Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts,

deciphered nature’s instructions on how to make

this powerful medicinal molecule. That’s important, because researchers must harvest more than a

ton of Caribbean sea squirts to produce just 1 gram

of the drug. By synthesizing drugs in a lab, scientists can produce thousands more units of a drug,

plenty to use in patients if it proves effective

against disease.

Scientists are also beginning to use a relatively

new procedure called combinatorial genetics 

to custom-make products that don’t even exist 

in nature. Researchers have discovered ways to

Toxicogenetics: Poisons and Your Genes
effects at lower doses. The researchers found, to

their great surprise, that cyclosporine and FK506

were chemically very different. To try to explain

this puzzling result, Harvard University organic

chemist Stuart Schreiber (then at Yale University

in New Haven, Connecticut) decided to take 

on the challenge of figuring out how to make

FK506 in his lab, beginning with simple chemical

building blocks.

Schreiber succeeded, and he and scientists 

at Merck & Co., Inc. (Whitehouse Station, New

Jersey) used the synthetic FK506 as a tool to

unravel the molecular structure of the receptor 

for FK506 found on immune cells. According 

to Schreiber, information about the receptor’s

structure from these experiments opened his 

eyes to consider an entirely new line of research.

Schreiber reasoned that by custom-making

small molecules in the lab, scientists could probe

the function of the FK506 receptor to systematically study how the immune system works. Since

then, he and his group have continued to use 

synthetic small molecules to explore biology.

Although Schreiber’s strategy is not truly genetics,

he calls the approach chemical genetics, because

the method resembles the way researchers go

about their studies to understand the functions 

of genes.

remove the genetic instructions for entire metabolic

pathways from certain microorganisms, alter the

instructions, and then put them back. This method

can generate new and different “natural” products.

Is It Chemistry or Genetics?

Regardless of the way researchers find new

medicines, drug discovery often takes many unexpected twists and turns. Scientists must train their

eyes to look for new opportunities lurking in the

outcomes of their experiments. Sometimes, side

trips in the lab can open up entirely new avenues

of discovery.

Take the case of cyclosporine, a drug

discovered three decades ago that suppresses the

immune system and thereby prevents the body from

rejecting transplanted organs. Still a best-selling

medicine, cyclosporine was a research breakthrough.

The drug made it possible for surgeons to save the

lives of many critically ill patients by transplanting

organs. But it’s not hard to imagine that the very

properties that make cyclosporine so powerful in

putting a lid on the immune system can cause 

serious side effects, by damping immune function

too much.

Years after the discovery of cyclosporine,

researchers looking for less toxic versions of this

drug found a natural molecule called FK506 that

seemed to produce the same immune-suppressing

34 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Medicines By Design I Drugs From Nature, Then and Now 35

In one traditional genetic approach, scientists

alter the “spelling” (nucleotide components) of

a gene and put the altered gene into a model

organism—for example, a mouse, a plant, or 

a yeast cell—to see what effect the gene change

has on the biology of that organism. Chemical

genetics harnesses the power of chemistry to

custom-produce any molecule and introduce it

into cells, then look for biological changes that

result. Starting with chemicals instead of genes

gives drug development a step up. If the substance

being tested produces a desired effect, such as

stalling the growth of cancer cells, then the molecule

can be chemically manipulated in short order since

the chemist already knows how to make it.

These days, it’s hard for scientists to know what 

to call themselves. As research worlds collide in

wondrous and productive ways, the lines get blurry

when it comes to describing your expertise. Craig

Crews of Yale University, for example, mixes a combination of molecular pharmacology, chemistry, and

genetics. In fact, because of his multiple scientific

curiosities, Crews is a faculty member in three

different Yale departments: molecular, cellular, and

developmental biology; chemistry; and pharmacology. You might wonder how he has time to get

anything done.

He’s getting plenty done—Crews is among a

new breed of researchers delving into a growing

scientific area called chemical genetics (see main

text). Taking this approach, scientists use chemistry 

to attack biological problems that traditionally have

been solved through genetic experiments such 

as the genetic engineering of bacteria, yeast, 

and mice. Crews’ goal is to explore how natural

products work in living systems and to identify 

new targets for designing drugs. He has recently

Blending Science

 The herb feverfew (bachelor’s button) contains 

a substance called parthenolide that appears to

block inflammation.

discovered how an inflammation-fighting ingredient in

the medicinal herb feverfew may work inside cells. He

found that the ingredient, called parthenolide, appears

to disable a key process that gets inflammation

going. In the case of feverfew, a handful of controlled

scientific studies in people have hinted that the

herb, also known by its plant name “bachelor’s button,”

is effective in combating migraine headaches, but

further studies are needed to confirm these 

preliminary findings.
To translate pharmacology research into

patient care, potential drugs ultimately have

to be tested in people. This multistage process

is known as clinical trials, and it has led

researchers to validate life-saving treatments

for many diseases, such as childhood leukemia

and Hodgkin’s disease. Clinical trials, though

costly and very time-consuming, are the only

way researchers can know for sure whether

experimental treatments work in humans.

Scientists conduct clinical trials in three

phases (I, II, and III), each providing the

answer to a different fundamental question

about a potential new drug: Is it safe? Does it

work? Is it better than the standard treatment?

Typically, researchers do years of basic work in

the lab and in animal models before they can

even consider testing an experimental treatment in people. Importantly, scientists who

wish to test drugs in people must follow strict

Testing...I, II, III 

36 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
rules that are designed to protect those who

volunteer to participate in clinical trials.

Special groups called Institutional Review

Boards, or IRBs, evaluate all proposed research

involving humans to determine the potential

risks and anticipated benefits. The goal of an

IRB is to make sure that the risks are minimized and that they are reasonable compared

to the knowledge expected to be gained by

performing the study. Clinical studies cannot

go forward without IRB approval. In addition,

people in clinical studies must agree to the

terms of a trial by participating in a process

called informed consent and signing a form,

required by law, that says they understand the

risks and benefits involved in the study.

Phase I studies test a drug’s safety in a few

dozen to a hundred people and are designed 

to figure out what happens to a drug in the

body—how it is absorbed, metabolized, and

excreted. Phase I studies usually take several

months. Phase II trials test whether or not a

drug produces a desired effect. These studies

take longer—from several months to a few

years—and can involve up to several hundred

patients. A phase III study further examines

Scientists are currently

testing cone snail toxins

for the treatment of which

health problem?

How are people protected

when they volunteer to participate in a clinical trial?

Why do plants and marine

organisms have chemicals

that could be used as

medicines?

What is a drug “lead?”

Name the first marinederived cancer medicine.

Got It?

the effectiveness of a drug as well as whether

the drug is better than current treatments.

Phase III studies involve hundreds to thousands of patients, and these advanced trials

typically last several years. Many phase II 

and phase III studies are randomized,

meaning that one group of patients gets 

the experimental drug being tested while a

second, control group gets either a standard

treatment or placebo (that is, no treatment,

often masked as a “dummy” pill or injection).

Also, usually phase II and phase III studies are

“blinded”—the patients and the researchers

do not know who is getting the experimental

drug. Finally, once a new drug has completed

phase III testing, a pharmaceutical company

can request approval from the Food and Drug

Administration to market the drug.
s you’ve read so far, the most important

goals of modern pharmacology are also

the most obvious. Pharmacologists want to design,

and be able to produce in sufficient quantity,

drugs that will act in a specific way without too

many side effects. They also want to deliver the

correct amount of a drug to the proper place in

the body. But turning molecules into medicines 

is more easily said than done. Scientists struggle 

to fulfill the twin challenges of drug design and

drug delivery.

Medicine Hunting

While sometimes the discovery of potential medicines falls to researchers’ good luck, most often

pharmacologists, chemists, and other scientists

looking for new drugs plod along methodically

for years, taking suggestions from nature or clues

from knowledge about how the body works.

Finding chemicals’ cellular targets can educate

scientists about how drugs work. Aspirin’s molecular

target, the enzyme cyclooxygenase, or COX

(see page 22), was discovered this way in the early

1970s in Nobel Prize-winning work by pharmacologist John Vane, then at the Royal College of

Surgeons in London, England. Another example is

colchicine, a relatively old drug that is still widely

used to treat gout, an excruciatingly painful type

of arthritis in which needle-like crystals of uric

acid clog joints, leading to swelling, heat, pain, and

Molecules to Medicines 

CHAPTER 4

A

As pet owners know, you can teach some 

old dogs new tricks. In a similar vein, scientists 

have in some cases found new uses for “old” 

drugs. Remarkably, the potential new uses often

have little in common with a drug’s product label

(its “old” use). For example, chemist Eric Oldfield 

of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

discovered that one class of drugs called bisphosphonates, which are currently approved to treat

osteoporosis and other bone disorders, may also 

be useful for treating malaria, Chagas’ disease,

leishmaniasis, and AIDS-related infections like 

toxoplasmosis.

Previous research by Oldfield and his coworkers

had hinted that the active ingredient in the

bisphosphonate medicines Fosamax®, Actonel®,

and Aredia® blocks a critical step in the metabolism of parasites, the microorganisms that cause

these diseases. To test whether this was true,

Oldfield gave the medicines to five different types

of parasites, each grown along with human cells 

in a plastic lab dish. The scientists found that small

amounts of the osteoporosis drugs killed the parasites while sparing human cells. The researchers

are now testing the drugs in animal models of the

parasitic diseases and so far have obtained cures—

in mice—of certain types of leishmaniasis. If these

studies prove that bisphosphonate drugs work in

larger animal models, the next step will be to find

out if the medicines can thwart these parasitic 

diseases in humans.

 Drugs used to treat bone

ailments may be useful

for treating infectious 

diseases like malaria.

WHO/TDR/STAMMERS

A Drug By Another Name
make blood clot and molecular signals that

instruct blood vessels to relax. What the scientists

did not know was how their candidate drug

would fare in clinical trials.

Sildenafil (Viagra’s chemical name) did not

work very well as a heart medicine, but many 

men who participated in the clinical testing phase

of the drug noted one side effect in particular:

erections. Viagra works by boosting levels of a 

natural molecule called cyclic GMP that plays a

key role in cell signaling in many body tissues.

This molecule does a good job of opening blood

vessels in the penis, leading to an erection.

stiffness. Lab experiments with colchicine led

scientists to this drug’s molecular target, a cellscaffolding protein called tubulin. Colchicine

works by attaching itself to tubulin, causing

certain parts of a cell’s architecture to crumble,

and this action can interfere with a cell’s ability

to move around. Researchers suspect that in 

the case of gout, colchicine works by halting 

the migration of immune cells called granulocytes that are responsible for the inflammation

characteristic of gout.

Current estimates indicate that scientists 

have identified roughly 500 to 600 molecular

targets where medicines may have effects in 

the body. Medicine hunters can strategically

“discover” drugs by designing molecules to “hit”

these targets. That has already happened in some

cases. Researchers knew just what they were

looking for when they designed the successful

AIDS drugs called HIV protease inhibitors.

Previous knowledge of the three-dimensional

structure of certain HIV proteins (the target)

guided researchers to develop drugs shaped to

block their action. Protease inhibitors have

extended the lives of many people with AIDS.

However, sometimes even the most targeted

approaches can end up in big surprises. The New

York City pharmaceutical firm Pfizer had a blood

pressure-lowering drug in mind, when instead its

scientists discovered Viagra®, a best-selling drug

approved to treat erectile dysfunction. Initially,

researchers had planned to create a heart drug,

using knowledge they had about molecules that

Medicines By Design I Molecules to Medicines 39

 Colchicine, a treatment for gout, was originally

derived from the stem and seeds of the meadow

saffron (autumn crocus).

NATIONAL AGRICULTURE LIBRARY, ARS, USDA
biomedicine stems from biology’s gradual transition from a gathering, descriptive enterprise to a

science that will someday be able to model and

predict biology. If you think 30,000 genes is a lot

(this is one estimate of the number of genes in the

human genome), realize that each gene can give

rise to different variations of the same protein,

each with a different molecular job. Scientists 

estimate that humans have hundreds of thousands

of protein variants. Clearly, there’s lots of work to

be done, which will undoubtedly keep researchers

busy for years to come.

Recently, researchers made an exciting step forward

in the treatment of cancer. Years of basic research

investigating circuits of cellular communication led

scientists to tailor-make a new kind of cancer medicine.

In May 2001, the drug GleevecTM was approved to treat

a rare cancer of the blood called chronic myelogenous

leukemia (CML). The Food and Drug Administration

described Gleevec’s approval as “...a testament to 

the groundbreaking scientific research taking place 

in labs throughout America.”

Researchers designed this drug to halt a cellcommunication pathway that is always “on” in CML.

Their success was founded on years of experiments

in the basic biology of how cancer cells grow. The

discovery of Gleevec is an example of the success

of so-called molecular targeting: understanding how

diseases arise at the level of cells, then figuring out

ways to treat them. Scores of drugs, some to treat

cancer but also many other health conditions, are

in the research pipeline as a result of scientists’

eavesdropping on how cells communicate.

21st-Century Science

While strategies such as chemical genetics 

can quicken the pace of drug discovery, other

approaches may help expand the number of

molecular targets from several hundred to several

thousand. Many of these new avenues of research

hinge on biology.

Relatively new brands of research that are

stepping onto center stage in 21st-century science

include genomics (the study of all of an organism’s

genetic material), proteomics (the study of all 

of an organism’s proteins), and bioinformatics

(using computers to sift through large amounts 

of biological data). The “omics” revolution in 

40 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 Doctors use the drug

Gleevec to treat a form

of leukemia, a disease in

which abnormally high

numbers of immune cells

(larger, purple circles in

photo) populate the blood.

A Chink in Cancer’s Armor
skin, nose, and lungs. Each of these methods

bypasses the intestinal tract and can increase the

amount of drug getting to the desired site of

action in the body. Slow, steady drug delivery

directly to the bloodstream—without stopping 

at the liver first—is the primary benefit of skin

patches, which makes this form of drug delivery

particularly useful when a chemical must be

administered over a long period.

Hormones such as testosterone, progesterone,

and estrogen are available as skin patches. These

forms of medicines enter the blood via a meshwork of small arteries, veins, and capillaries in the

skin. Researchers also have developed skin patches

for a wide variety of other drugs. Some of these

include Duragesic® (a prescription-only pain

medicine), Transderm Scop® (a motion-sickness

drug), and Transderm Nitro® (a blood vesselwidening drug used to treat chest pain associated

with heart disease). Despite their advantages,

however, skin patches have a significant drawback.

Only very small drug molecules can get into the

body through the skin.

Inhaling drugs through the nose or mouth is

another way to rapidly deliver drugs and bypass

the liver. Inhalers have been a mainstay of asthma

therapy for years, and doctors prescribe nasal

steroid drugs for allergy and sinus problems.

Rush Delivery

Finding new medicines and cost-effective ways to

manufacture them is only half the battle. An enormous challenge for pharmacologists is figuring out

how to get drugs to the right place, a task known

as drug delivery.

Ideally, a drug should enter the body, go

directly to the diseased site while bypassing

healthy tissue, do its job, and then disappear.

Unfortunately, this rarely happens with the typical

methods of delivering drugs: swallowing and

injection. When swallowed, many medicines made

of protein are never absorbed into the bloodstream because they are quickly chewed up by

enzymes as they pass through the digestive system.

If the drug does get to the blood from the intestines, it falls prey to liver enzymes. For doctors

prescribing such drugs, this “first-pass effect” (see

page 7) means that several doses of an oral drug

are needed before enough makes it to the blood.

Drug injections also cause problems, because they

are expensive, difficult for patients to self-administer,

and are unwieldy if the drug must be taken daily.

Both methods of administration also result in

fluctuating levels of the drug in the blood, which 

is inefficient and can be dangerous.

What to do? Pharmacologists can work around

the first-pass effect by delivering medicines via the

Medicines By Design I Molecules to Medicines 41
too small, and the particles will be exhaled. If

clinical trials with inhaled insulin prove that it is

safe and effective, then this therapy could make 

life much easier for people with diabetes.

Researchers are investigating insulin powders that

can be inhaled by people with diabetes who rely 

on insulin to control their blood sugar daily. This

still-experimental technology stems from novel

uses of chemistry and engineering to manufacture

insulin particles of just the right size. Too large,

and the insulin particles could lodge in the lungs;

Scientists try hard to listen to the noisy, garbled

“discussions” that take place inside and between

cells. Less than a decade ago, scientists identified

one very important cellular communication stream

called MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase 

signaling. Today, molecular pharmacologists such

as Melanie H. Cobb of The University of Texas

Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas are studying

how MAP kinase signaling pathways malfunction 

in unhealthy cells.

Some of the interactions between proteins in

these pathways involve adding and taking away

tiny molecular labels called phosphate groups.

Kinases are the enzymes that add phosphate

groups to proteins, and this process is called phosphorylation. Marking proteins in this way assigns

the proteins a code, instructing the cell to do something, such as divide or grow. The body employs

many, many signaling pathways involving hundreds

of different kinase enzymes. Some of the important

functions performed by MAP kinase pathways

include instructing immature cells how to “grow

up” to be specialized cell types like muscle cells,

helping cells in the pancreas respond to the hormone insulin, and even telling cells how to die.

Since MAP kinase pathways are key to so many

important cell processes, researchers consider

them good targets for drugs. Clinical trials are

under way to test various molecules that, in animal

studies, can effectively lock up MAP kinase signaling when it’s not wanted, for example, in cancer

and in diseases involving an overactive immune

system, such as arthritis. Researchers predict 

that if drugs to block MAP kinase signaling prove

effective in people, they will likely be used in combination with other medicines that treat a variety 

of health conditions, since many diseases are

probably caused by simultaneous errors in multiple

signaling pathways.

Protein Phosphorylated Protein

Protein Kinase

ATP ADP

 Kinases are enzymes that

add phosphate groups

(red-yellow structures) to

proteins (green), assigning

the proteins a code. In this

reaction, an intermediate

molecule called ATP

(adenosine triphosphate)

donates a phosphate group

from itself, becoming ADP

(adenosine diphosphate).

42 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Reading a Cell MAP
by learning how to hijack molecular transporters

to shuttle drugs into cells. Gordon Amidon,

a pharmaceutical chemist at the University of

Michigan in Ann Arbor, has been studying one

particular transporter in mucosal membranes

lining the digestive tract. The transporter, called

hPEPT1, normally serves the body by ferrying

small, electrically charged particles and small

protein pieces called peptides into and out of

the intestines.

Amidon and other researchers discovered that

certain medicines, such as the antibiotic penicillin

and certain types of drugs used to treat high blood

pressure and heart failure, also travel into the

intestines via hPEPT1. Recent experiments

revealed that the herpes drug Valtrex® and the

AIDS drug Retrovir® also hitch a ride into intestinal cells using the hPEPT1 transporter. Amidon

wants to extend this list by synthesizing hundreds

of different molecules and testing them for their

ability to use hPEPT1 and other, similar transporters. Recent advances in molecular biology,

genomics, and bioinformatics have sped the search

for molecules that Amidon and other researchers

can test.

Medicines By Design I Molecules to Medicines 43

 Proteins that snake through membranes help

transport molecules into cells.

HTTP://WWW.PHARMACOLOGY.UCLA.EDU

Transportation Dilemmas

Scientists are solving the dilemma of drug delivery

with a variety of other clever techniques. Many 

of the techniques are geared toward sneaking

through the cellular gate-keeping systems,

membranes. The challenge is a chemistry

problem—most drugs are water-soluble, but

membranes are oily. Water and oil don’t mix, and

thus many drugs can’t enter the cell. To make 

matters worse, size matters too. Membranes are

usually constructed to permit the entry of only

small nutrients and hormones, often through 

private cellular alleyways called transporters.

Many pharmacologists are working hard to

devise ways to work not against, but with nature,
Scientists are also trying to slip molecules

through membranes by cloaking them in disguise.

Steven Regen of Lehigh University in Bethlehem,

Pennsylvania, has manufactured miniature 

chemical umbrellas that close around and shield 

a molecule when it encounters a fatty membrane

and then spread open in the watery environment

inside a cell. So far, Regen has only used test molecules, not actual drugs, but he has succeeded in

getting molecules that resemble small segments 

of DNA across membranes. The ability to do this

in humans could be a crucial step in successfully

delivering therapeutic molecules to cells via

gene therapy.

Act Like a Membrane

Researchers know that high concentrations of

chemotherapy drugs will kill every single cancer

cell growing in a lab dish, but getting enough of

these powerful drugs to a tumor in the body without killing too many healthy cells along the way

has been exceedingly difficult. These powerful

drugs can do more harm than good by severely

sickening a patient during treatment.

Some researchers are using membrane-like

particles called liposomes to package and deliver

drugs to tumors. Liposomes are oily, microscopic

capsules that can be filled with biological cargo,

such as a drug. They are very, very small—only

Scientists who study anesthetic medicines

have a daunting task—for the most part,

they are “shooting in the dark” when

it comes to identifying the molecular 

targets of these drugs. Researchers do

know that anesthetics share one common

ingredient: Nearly all of them somehow

target membranes, the oily wrappings 

surrounding cells. However, despite the

fact that anesthesia is a routine part of

surgery, exactly how anesthetic medicines

work in the body has remained a mystery for more

than 150 years. It’s an important problem, since

anesthetics have multiple effects on key body functions, including critical processes such as breathing.

Scientists define anesthesia as a state in which

no movement occurs in response to what should

be painful. The problem is, even though a patient

loses a pain response, the anesthesiologist can’t

tell what is happening inside the person’s organs

and cells. Further complicating the issue, scientists

know that many different types of drugs—with 

little physical resemblance to each other—can all

produce anesthesia. This makes it difficult to track

down causes and effects.

Recently, anesthesiologist Robert Veselis of 

the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer

Research in New York City clarified how certain

types of these mysterious medicines work. Veselis

and his coworkers measured electrical activity 

in the brains of healthy volunteers receiving anesthetics while they listened to different sounds.

To determine how sedated the people were, the

researchers measured reaction time to the sounds

the people heard. To measure memory effects,

they quizzed the volunteers at the end of the study

about word lists they had heard before and during

anesthesia. Veselis’ experiments show that the

anesthetics they studied affect separate brain areas

to produce the two different effects of sedation

and memory loss. The findings may help doctors

give anesthetic medicines more effectively and

safely and prevent reactions with other drugs a

patient may be taking.

44 National Institute of General Medical Sciences

Anesthesia Dissected
dogs revealed that, when heated, the drug-laden

capsules flooded tumors with a chemotherapy

drug and killed the cancer cells inside. Researchers

hope to soon begin the first stage of human studies

testing the heat-triggered liposome treatment in

patients with prostate and breast cancer. The results

of these and later clinical trials will determine

whether liposome therapy can be a useful weapon

for treating breast and prostate cancer and other

hard-to-treat solid tumors.

one one-thousandth the width of a single human

hair. Researchers have known about liposomes 

for many years, but getting them to the right place

in the body hasn’t been easy. Once in the bloodstream, these foreign particles are immediately

shipped to the liver and spleen, where they 

are destroyed.

Materials engineer David Needham of Duke

University in Durham, North Carolina, is investigating the physics and chemistry of liposomes to

better understand how the liposomes and their

cancer-fighting cargo can travel through the body.

Needham worked for 10 years to create a special

kind of liposome that melts at just a few degrees

above body temperature. The end result is a tiny

molecular “soccer ball” made from two different

oils that wrap around a drug. At room temperature, the liposomes are solid and they stay solid at

body temperature, so they can be injected into the

bloodstream. The liposomes are designed to spill

their drug cargo into a tumor when heat is applied

to the cancerous tissue. Heat is known to perturb

tumors, making the blood vessels surrounding

cancer cells extra-leaky. As the liposomes approach

the warmed tumor tissue, the “stitches” of the

miniature soccer balls begin to dissolve, rapidly

leaking the liposome’s contents.

Needham and Duke oncologist Mark Dewhirst

teamed up to do animal studies with the heatactivated liposomes. Experiments in mice and

Medicines By Design I Molecules to Medicines 45

 David Needham designed liposomes resembling tiny molecular “soccer

balls” made from two different oils that wrap around a drug.

LAWRENCE MAYER, LUDGER ICKENSTEIN, KATRINA EDWARDS
Imagine yourself sitting on a cell, looking

outward to the bloodstream rushing by.

Suddenly, a huge glob of something hurls

toward you, slowing down just as it settles 

into a perfect dock on the surface of your 

cell perch. You don’t realize it, but your own

body sent this substance—a hormone called

epinephrine—to protect you, telling you to 

get out of the way of a car that just about sideswiped yours while drifting out of its lane.

Your body reacts, whipping up the familiar,

spine-tingling, “fight-or-flight” response that

gears you to respond quickly to potentially

threatening situations such as this one.

How does it all happen so fast? 

Getting into a cell is a challenge, a strictly

guarded process kept in control by a protective

gate called the plasma membrane. Figuring

out how molecular triggers like epinephrine

communicate important messages to the 

inner parts of cells earned two scientists the

Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in

1994. Getting a cellular message across the

The G Switch

National Institute of General Medical Sciences

 G proteins act like relay batons to pass

messages from circulating hormones 

into cells.

(a) A hormone (red) encounters a receptor

(blue) in the membrane of a cell. 

(b) A G protein (green) becomes activated

and makes contact with the receptor 

to which the hormone is attached. 

(c) The G protein passes the hormone’s

message to the cell by switching on 

a cell enzyme (purple) that triggers 

a response.

Receptor

(a) (b) (c)

Cell Response

Hormone

Plasma Membrane

Inactive G Protein Active G Protein

Inactive Cell Enzyme Active Cell Enzyme

46
the world have focused on these signaling

molecules. Research on G proteins and on all

aspects of cell signaling has prospered, and as

a result scientists now have an avalanche of

data. In the fall of 2000, Gilman embarked on

a groundbreaking effort to begin to untangle

and reconstruct some of this information to

guide the way toward creating a “virtual cell.”

Gilman leads the Alliance for Cellular

Signaling, a large, interactive research network.

The group has a big dream: to understand

everything there is to know about signaling

inside cells. According to Gilman, Alliance

researchers focus lots of attention on G 

proteins and also on other signaling systems

in selected cell types. Ultimately, the scientists

hope to test drugs and learn about disease

through computer modeling experiments

with the virtual cell system.

membrane is called signal transduction, and it

occurs in three steps. First, a message (such as

epinephrine) encounters the outside of a cell

and makes contact with a molecule on the

surface called a receptor. Next, a connecting

transducer, or switch molecule, passes the

message inward, sort of like a relay baton.

Finally, in the third step, the signal gets amplified, prompting the cell to do something:

move, produce new proteins, even send out

more signals.

One of the Nobel Prize winners, pharmacologist Alfred G. Gilman of The University of

Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas,

uncovered the identity of the switch molecule,

called a G protein. Gilman named the switch,

which is actually a huge family of switch molecules, not after himself but after the type of

cellular fuel it uses: an energy currency called

GTP. As with any switch, G proteins must be

turned on only when needed, then shut off.

Some illnesses, including fatal diseases like

cholera, occur when a G protein is errantly 

left on. In the case of cholera, the poisonous

weaponry of the cholera bacterium “freezes”

in place one particular type of G protein that

controls water balance. The effect is constant

fluid leakage, causing life-threatening diarrhea.

In the few decades since Gilman and the

other Nobel Prize winner, the late National

Institutes of Health scientist Martin Rodbell,

made their fundamental discovery about 

G protein switches, pharmacologists all over

What is a liposome?

Name three drug

delivery methods.

Describe how 

G proteins work.

What do kinases do?

Discuss the “omics”

revolution in biomedical

research.

Got It?
he advances in drug development and

delivery described in this booklet reflect

scientists’ growing knowledge about human 

biology. This knowledge has allowed them to

develop medicines targeted to specific molecules

or cells. In the future, doctors may be able to treat

or prevent diseases with drugs that actually repair

cells or protect them from attack. No one knows

which of the techniques now being developed will

yield valuable future medicines, but it is clear that

thanks to pharmacology research, tomorrow’s

doctors will have an unprecedented array of

weapons to fight disease.

Medicines for the Future

T

48 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Medicines By Design I Medicines for the Future 49

Wanna be a pharmacologist? If you choose pharmacology as a career, here are some of the places you

might find yourself working:

College or university. Most basic biomedical

research across the country is done by scientists 

at colleges and universities. Academic pharmacologists perform research to determine how

medicines interact with living systems. They also

teach pharmacology to graduate, medical, pharmacy,

veterinary, dental, or undergraduate students.

Pharmaceutical company. Pharmacologists 

who work in industry participate in drug development as part of a team of scientists. A key aspect

of pharmaceutical industry research is making 

sure new medicines are effective and safe for use

in people.

Hospital or medical center. Most clinical pharmacologists are physicians who have specialized

training in the use of drugs and combinations of

drugs to treat various health conditions. These

scientists often work with patients and spend a 

lot of time trying to understand issues relating 

to drug dosage, including side effects and 

drug interactions.

Government agency. Pharmacologists and

toxicologists play key roles in formulating drug

laws and chemical regulations. Federal agencies

such as the National Institutes of Health and the

Food and Drug Administration hire many pharmacologists for their expertise in how drugs work.

These scientists help develop policies about the

safe use of medicines.

You can learn more about careers in pharmacology

by contacting professional organizations such 

as the American Society for Pharmacology and

Experimental Therapeutics (http://www.aspet.org/)

or the American Society for Clinical Pharmacology 

and Therapeutics (http://www.ascpt.org/).

Careers in Pharmacology
ADME | Abbreviation for the four steps in a

medicine’s journey through the body: absorption,

distribution, metabolism, and excretion.

Agonist | A molecule that triggers a cellular

response by interacting with a receptor.

Analgesic | A medicine’s ability to relieve pain,

or a drug that alleviates pain; the term comes from

the Greek word algos, which means pain.

Antagonist | A molecule that prevents the

action of other molecules, often by competing 

for a cellular receptor; opposite of agonist.

Antibiotic | A substance that can kill or inhibit

the growth of certain microorganisms.

Antibody | A protein of the immune system,

produced in response to an antigen (a foreign,

often disease-causing, substance).

Anti-inflammatory | A drug’s ability to 

reduce inflammation, which can cause soreness

and swelling.

Antipyretic | Fever-reducing; the term comes

from the Greek word pyresis, which means fire.

Arachidonic acid | A molecule that synthesizes

regulatory molecules such as prostaglandins; it is

found in fatty animal tissue and foods such as egg

yolk and liver.

Bacterium | One-celled organism without 

a nucleus that reproduces by cell division; can

infect humans, plants, or animals.

Bioavailability | The ability of a drug or other

chemical to be taken up by the body and made

available in the tissue where it is needed.

Bioinformatics | A field of research that relies

on computers to store and analyze large amounts

of biological data.

Biotechnology | The industrial use of living

organisms or biological methods derived through

basic research.

Biotransformation | The conversion of a 

substance from one form to another by the

actions of organisms or enzymes.

Blood-brain barrier | A blockade consisting 

of cells and small blood vessels that limits the

movement of substances from the bloodstream

into the brain.

Carcinogen | Any substance that, when exposed

to living tissue, may cause cancer.

Cell | The basic subunit of any living organism;

the simplest unit that can exist as an independent

living system.

Central nervous system | The brain and

spinal cord.

Chemical bond | Physical force holding atoms

together to form a molecule.

Chemical genetics | A research approach

resembling genetics in which scientists customproduce synthetic, protein-binding small

molecules to explore biology.

Glossary

50 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Dose-response curve | A graph drawn to

show the relationship between the dose of a drug

or other chemical and the effect it produces.

Enzyme | A molecule (usually a protein) that

speeds up, or catalyzes, a chemical reaction without being permanently altered or consumed.

Essential fatty acid | A long, fat-containing

molecule involved in human body processes that 

is synthesized by plants but not by the human

body and is therefore a dietary requirement.

First-pass effect | The breakdown of orally

administered drugs in the liver and intestines.

G protein | One of a group of switch proteins

involved in a signaling system that passes incoming

messages across cell membranes and within cells.

Gene | A unit of heredity; a segment of a DNA

molecule containing the code for making a protein

or, sometimes, an RNA molecule.

Genetics | The scientific study of genes and

heredity, of how particular qualities or traits are

transmitted from parents to offspring.

Genomics | The study of all of an organism’s

genetic material.

Hormone | A messenger molecule that helps

coordinate the actions of various tissues; made 

in one part of the body and transported, via the

bloodstream, to tissues and organs elsewhere in

the body.

Cholesterol | A lipid unique to animal cells that

is used in the construction of cell membranes and

as a building block for some hormones.

Chromosome | A structure in the cell nucleus

that contains hereditary material (genes); humans

have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each body cell,

one of each pair from the mother and the other

from the father.

Clinical trial | A scientific study to determine

the effects of potential medicines in people;

usually conducted in three phases (I, II, III), to

determine whether the drug is safe, effective,

and better than current therapies, respectively.

Combinatorial genetics | A research process

in which scientists remove the genetic instructions

for entire metabolic pathways from certain

microorganisms, alter the instructions, and 

then put them back.

Cyclooxygenase | An enzyme, also known as

COX, that makes prostaglandins from a molecule

called arachidonic acid; the molecular target of

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

Cytochrome P450 | A family of enzymes 

found in animals, plants, and bacteria that have 

an important role in drug metabolism.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | A doublestranded, helical molecule that encodes genetic

information.

Dose | The amount of medicine to be taken 

at one time.

Medicines By Design I Glossary 51
Immunotherapy | A medical treatment to 

stimulate a patient’s immune system to attack 

and destroy disease-causing cells.

Inflammation | The body’s characteristic 

reaction to infection or injury, resulting in 

redness, swelling, heat, and pain.

Informed consent | The agreement of a person

(or his or her legally authorized representative) to

serve as a research subject, with full knowledge of

all anticipated risks and benefits of the experiment.

Kinase | An enzyme that adds phosphate groups

to proteins.

Lipid | A fatty, waxy, or oily molecule that 

will not dissolve in water; it contains hydrogen,

carbon, and oxygen.

Liposome | Oily, microscopic capsules designed

to package and deliver biological cargo, such as

drugs, to cells in the body.

Membrane | A thin covering surrounding a cell

and separating it from the environment; consists

of a double layer of molecules called phospholipids

and has proteins embedded in it.

Metabolism | All enzyme-catalyzed reactions 

in a living organism that builds and breaks down

organic molecules, producing or consuming

energy in the process.

Metabolite | A chemical intermediate in

metabolic reactions; a product of metabolism.

Model organism | A bacterium, animal, or

plant used by scientists to study basic research

questions; common model organisms include

yeast, flies, worms, frogs, and fish.

Monoclonal antibody | An antibody that recognizes only one type of antigen; sometimes used

as immunotherapy to treat diseases such as cancer.

NSAID (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory

drug) | Any of a class of drugs that reduces pain,

fever, or inflammation by interfering with the

synthesis of prostaglandins.

Neurotransmitter | A chemical messenger that

allows neurons (nerve cells) to communicate with

each other and with other cells.

Nucleus | The membrane-bound structure

within a cell that contains most of the cell’s

genetic material.

Organelle | A specialized, membrane-bound

structure that has a defined cellular function;

for example, the nucleus.

Peptide | A small protein fragment.

Pharmacodynamics | The study of how drugs

act at target sites of action in the body.

Pharmacogenetics | The study of how people’s

genes affect their response to medicines.

Pharmacokinetics | The study of how the

body absorbs, distributes, breaks down, and

eliminates drugs.

52 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
Recombinant DNA technology | Modern

techniques in molecular biology to manipulate an

organism’s genes by introducing, eliminating, or

changing genes.

RNA (ribonucleic acid) | A molecule that

serves as an intermediate step in the synthesis of

proteins from instructions coded in DNA; some

RNA molecules also perform regulatory functions

in cells and viruses.

Sepsis | A clinical condition in which infectious

agents (bacteria, fungi) or products of infection

(bacterial toxins) enter the blood and profoundly

affect body systems.

Side effect | The effect of a drug, other than 

the desired effect, sometimes in an organ other

than the target organ.

Signal transduction | The process by which 

a hormone or growth factor outside the cell 

transmits a message into the cell.

Site of action | The place in the body where a

drug exerts its effects.

Steroid | A type of molecule that has a multiple

ring structure, with the rings sharing molecules 

of carbon.

Structural biology | A field of study dedicated

to determining the three-dimensional structures

of biological molecules to better understand the

function of these molecules.

Pharmacologist | A scientist focusing 

on pharmacology.

Pharmacology | The study of how drugs 

interact with living systems.

Pharmacy | An area in the health sciences 

that deals with the preparation, dispensing,

and appropriate use of medicines.

Physiology | The study of how living 

organisms function.

Prostaglandins | Any of a class of hormonelike, fat-soluble, regulatory molecules made from

fatty acids such as arachidonic acid; prostaglandins

participate in diverse body functions, and their

production is blocked by NSAIDs.

Protein | A large molecule composed of one or

more chains of amino acids (the building blocks

of proteins) in a specific order and a folded 

shape determined by the sequence of nucleotides

in the gene encoding the protein; essential for all

life processes.

Proteomics | The systematic, large-scale study

of all proteins in an organism.

Receptor | A specialized molecule that receives

information from the environment and conveys 

it to other parts of the cell; the information is

transmitted by a specific chemical that must fit 

the receptor, like a key in a lock.

Medicines By Design I Glossary 53
Therapeutic drug | A drug used to treat a

disease or condition; contrast with drug of abuse.

Toxicology | The study of how poisonous

substances interact with living organisms.

Virus | An infectious agent composed of a

protein coat around a DNA or RNA core; to

reproduce, viruses depend on living cells.

X-ray crystallography | A technique used 

to determine the detailed, three-dimensional

structure of molecules based on the scattering 

of X-rays through a crystal of the molecule.

54 National Institute of General Medical Sciences
What Is NIGMS?

The National Institute of General Medical Sciences

(NIGMS) supports basic biomedical research on

genes, proteins, and cells. It also funds studies on

fundamental processes such as how cells communicate, how our bodies use energy, and how we

respond to medicines. The results of this research

increase our understanding of life and lay the

foundation for advances in the diagnosis, treatment,

and prevention of disease. The Institute’s research

training programs produce the next generation of

biomedical scientists, and NIGMS has programs

to encourage minorities underrepresented in 

biomedical science to pursue research careers.

NIGMS supported the research of most of the 

scientists mentioned in this booklet.

Disclaimer

Trade names have been used throughout this

booklet to illustrate concepts about medicines 

that are familiar to readers. The mention of

specific products is not an endorsement of their

use or effectiveness.
What Is NIGMS?

The National Institute of General Medical Sciences

(NIGMS) supports basic biomedical research on

genes, proteins, and cells. It also funds studies on

fundamental processes such as how cells communicate, how our bodies use energy, and how we

respond to medicines. The results of this research

increase our understanding of life and lay the

foundation for advances in the diagnosis, treatment,

and prevention of disease. The Institute’s research

training programs produce the next generation of

biomedical scientists, and NIGMS has programs

to encourage minorities underrepresented in 

biomedical science to pursue research careers.

NIGMS supported the research of most of the 

scientists mentioned in this booklet.

Disclaimer

Trade names have been used throughout this

booklet to illustrate concepts about medicines 

that are familiar to readers. The mention of

specific products is not an endorsement of their

use or effectiveness.
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We would like your comments on Medicines By Design.

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4. Usefulness and value of such a publication

Please comment on whether Medicines By Design helped you 

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2. What it’s like to be a scientist

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