EPA 402-R-06-007

www.epa.gov

October 2006

Inventory of Radiological

Methodologies

For Sites Contaminated

With Radioactive Materials

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Air and Radiation

Office of Radiation and Indoor Air

National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory

Montgomery, AL 36115
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

This report was prepared for the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory of the Office of

Radiation and Indoor Air, United States Environmental Protection Agency. It was prepared by Environmental

Management Support, Inc., of Silver Spring, Maryland, under contract 68-W-00-084, work assignment 46,

and contract 68-W-03-038, work assignments 10 and 26, all managed by David Garman. Mention of trade

names or specific applications does not imply endorsement or acceptance by EPA. For further information,

contact Dr. John Griggs, U.S. EPA, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, National Air and Radiation

Environmental Laboratory, 540 South Morris Avenue, Montgomery, AL 36115-2601.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

Preface

This compendium is part of a continuing effort by the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air and the

Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation to provide guidance to engineers and

scientists responsible for managing the cleanup of sites contaminated with radioactive materials.

The document focuses on the radionuclides likely to be found in soil and water at cleanup sites

contaminated with radioactive materials. However, its general principles apply also to other media

that require analysis to support cleanup activities. It is not a complete catalog of analytical methodologies, but rather is intended to assist project managers in understanding the concepts, requirements, practices, and limitations of radioanalytical laboratory analyses of environmental samples.

As with any technical endeavor, actual radioanalytical projects may require particular methods or

techniques to meet specific analytical protocol specifications and data quality objectives.

Detailed guidance on recommended radioanalytical practices may be found in current editions of

the Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual (MARLAP) and the MultiAgency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM), both referenced in this

document. 

Comments on this document, or suggestions for future editions, should be addressed to:

Dr. John Griggs

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Radiation and Indoor Air

National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory

540 South Morris Avenue

Montgomery, AL 36115-2601

(334) 270-3450

griggs.john@epa.gov
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

Acknowledgments

This manual was developed by the National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory (NAREL)

of EPA’s Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (ORIA) in collaboration with ORIA’s Radiation

Protection Division’s Site Cleanup Center and with support from the Office of Superfund

Remediation and Technology Innovation. 

Dr. John Griggs served as project lead for this document. Several individuals provided valuable

support and input to this document throughout its development. Special acknowledgment and

appreciation are extended to Mr. Stuart Walker, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology

Innovation; Mr. Ronald Wilhelm, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air; Ms. Schatzi Fitz-James,

Office of Emergency Management, Homeland Security Laboratory Response Center; and Mr. David

Garman, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, NAREL. Numerous individuals both inside and outside

of EPA provided peer review of this document, and their suggestions contributed greatly to the

quality and consistency of the final document.

Technical support was provided by Dr. N. Jay Bassin, Dr. Robert Litman, Dr. David McCurdy, and

Mr. Robert Shannon of Environmental Management Support, Inc.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

v

Contents

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Radiometric Unit Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii

1 Introduction ...............................................................1

1.1 Scope and Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Principles of Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3 Radioactive Decay Chains .................................................5

1.4 Radionuclides Covered in this Document .....................................5

2 Overview of a Cleanup Process and Radiological Methodologies .....................7

2.1 Laboratory and Field Screening Methodologies ................................7

2.1.1 Gross Alpha and Gross Beta Methods ..................................7

2.1.2 Gamma Analysis ..................................................9

2.2 Routine Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2.1 Gross Alpha and Gross Beta Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2.2 Spectrometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.3 Specialized Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.3.1 Mass Spectrometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.3.2 Kinetic Phosphorimetry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4 Measurement Quality Objectives and Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 General Analytical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3.1 Site Source Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1.1 DOE Site Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1.2 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

3.2 Sample Preservation and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3.2.2 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.3 Parameters Affecting Quantification Using Radioactive Decay Counting Techniques . 19

3.4 Negative Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.5 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.6 Sample Analysis Turnaround Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.6.1 Sample Receipt by the Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6.2 Sample Preparation Before Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.6.3 Homogeneity and Adequate Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3.6.4 Sample Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.6.5 Oxidation State and Speciation of Radionuclides in Environmental Samples . . 25

3.6.6 Addition of Radiotracers or Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.7 Chemical Separation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.8 Sample Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.9 Data Review and Report Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
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3.10 Units Used in Radioactivity Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.11 Measurement Quality Objectives and Performance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.12 Selecting a Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.12.1 Performance-Based Method Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.12.2 Sources for Specific Method Information Available to the General Public . . . . 31

4 Radioanalytical Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4.1 Radioactive Decay Emissions Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1.1 Gas Proportional Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1.2 Liquid Scintillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4.1.2.1 Routine LSC Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.1.2.2 Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.1.2.3 Cerenkov Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.1.3 Gamma Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4.1.4 Alpha Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4.2 Atom-Counting Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.2.1 Kinetic Phosphorimetry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

4.2.2 Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.2.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

4.2.2.2 Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.2.2.3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.2.3 Summary of Analytical Methodologies, Minimum Detectable Concentrations, and

Instrument Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Chemical and Physical Properties for Selected Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.1 Americium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.2 Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.3 Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

5.4 Cesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.5 Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5.6 Hydrogen (Tritium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.7 Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.8 Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5.9 Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

5.10 Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

5.11 Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.12 Plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

5.13 Radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5.14 Strontium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.15 Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.16 Technetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

5.17 Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5.18 Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

6 Reference Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.1 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

6.2 Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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Appendix A: Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Appendix B: Principles of Radioactive Decay and Radioactive Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

B.1Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

B.1.1 Nuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

B.1.2 Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

B.1.3 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

B.1.4 Radioactive Decay Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

B.1.4.1Alpha Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

B.1.4.2Beta Particles, Positrons, and Conversion Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

B.1.4.3X-Rays, Gamma Rays, and Bremsstrahlung Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

B.1.5 Techniques for Radionuclide Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

B.1.6 Radioactive Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

B.1.7 Useful Websites and Sources for Background Information on Radioactivity . . . 77

Appendix C: Radionuclide Parameters and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Appendix D: Tables of Radioanalysis Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Appendix E: Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

List of Figures

Figure 1 — Schematic example of sample process flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 2 — Nominal minimum detectable concentration for different radiation-detection and atomcounting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Figure 3 — Uranium-238 decay chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 4 — Thorium-232 decay chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 5 — Uranium-235 decay chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Figure 6 — Environmental and chemical factors affecting radioactive equilibrium . . . . . . . . . 77

List of Tables

Table 1 — Radionuclides covered in this manual .....................................5

Table 2 — Radionuclides with low-abundance gamma rays ............................9

Table 3 — Longer-lived radionuclides at DOE sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Table 4 — Principal natural radionuclide decay series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Table 5 — Summary of preservation techniques for aqueous samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Table 6 — Summary of elements and their common oxidation states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Table 7 — Energy range of radiochemical analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Table 8 — Possible gamma emitters that could appear in analyses due to NORM or NPP . . . . 35

Table 9 — Number of atoms of radionuclides with activity of 0.1 Bq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Table 10 — Analytical methods applicable to each radionuclide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Table 11 — Decommissioning status for shut-down power reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Table 12 — Important parameters associated with NPP analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
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Acronyms and Abbreviations

(Excluding chemical symbols and formulas)

A . . . . . . . . . . . atomic mass number, sum of protons (Z) and neutrons (N)

AA . . . . . . . . . atomic absorption

AMS . . . . . . . . accelerator mass spectrometry

AMU . . . . . . . atomic mass unit

APS . . . . . . . . analytical protocol specification

AS . . . . . . . . . alpha spectrometry

ASTM . . . . . . American Society for Testing and Materials

ASV . . . . . . . . anodic stripping voltammetry

β–

, β+ . . . . . . . . negatively and positively charged beta particles

Bq . . . . . . . . . . becquerel (1 dps)

BWR . . . . . . . boiling water reactor

CERCLA . . . . Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of

1980 (“Superfund”)

CFR . . . . . . . . Code of Federal Regulations

CIA . . . . . . . . . United States Central Intelligence Agency

Ci . . . . . . . . . . curie

CsI(Tl) . . . . . . thallium-activated cesium iodide detector

d . . . . . . . . . . . day

DCGL . . . . . . . derived concentration guideline level

DHS . . . . . . . . United States Department of Homeland Security

DIL . . . . . . . . . derived intervention level

DOD . . . . . . . . United States Department of Defense

DOE . . . . . . . . United States Department of Energy

DQO . . . . . . . . data quality objective

dpm . . . . . . . . disintegration per minute

dps . . . . . . . . . disintegration per second

DTPA . . . . . . . diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid

DU . . . . . . . . . depleted uranium

e– . . . . . . . . . . . electron

Eβmax . . . . . . . . maximum energy of the beta-particle emission

EDTA . . . . . . . ethylenediamine tetraacetate

EPA . . . . . . . . United States Environmental Protection Agency

FRMAC . . . . . Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (DOE)

FTIR . . . . . . . . Fourier transform infrared

g . . . . . . . . . . . gram

Ge . . . . . . . . . . germanium semiconductor

GP . . . . . . . . . gas proportional 

GPC . . . . . . . . gas proportional counting

GS . . . . . . . . . gamma spectrometry

Gy . . . . . . . . . . gray

h ........... hour

HPGe . . . . . . . high-purity germanium detector

HTGR . . . . . . . high-temperature gas-cooled reactor

IC . . . . . . . . . . ion chromatography
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ICP . . . . . . . . . inductively coupled plasma 

ICP-MS . . . . . inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric 

IDA . . . . . . . . isotopic dilution analysis

IND . . . . . . . . improvised nuclear device (i.e., a nuclear bomb)

ISE . . . . . . . . . ion-selective electrode

ISO . . . . . . . . . International Organization for Standardization

IUPAC . . . . . . International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry

keV . . . . . . . . . thousand electron volts

KPA . . . . . . . . kinetic phosphorimetry analysis

LEGe . . . . . . . low-energy germanium

LCS . . . . . . . . laboratory control sample

LS . . . . . . . . . . liquid scintillation

LSC . . . . . . . . liquid scintillation counter

MARLAP . . . . Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual

MARSSIM . . . Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual

mCi . . . . . . . . . millicurie (10–3 Ci)

MCL . . . . . . . . maximum contaminant level 

MDA . . . . . . . minimum detectable activity (of a radionuclide)

MDC . . . . . . . minimum detectable concentration

MeV . . . . . . . . million electron volts

min . . . . . . . . . minute

MQO . . . . . . . measurement quality objective

MS . . . . . . . . . mass spectrometry

N . . . . . . . . . . . number of neutrons in the nucleus

NaI(Tl) . . . . . . thallium-activated sodium iodide detector

NCP . . . . . . . . National Oil and Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan

ng . . . . . . . . . . nanogram (10–9 g)

NORM . . . . . . naturally occurring radioactive material

NPP . . . . . . . . nuclear power plant site decommissioning

NRC . . . . . . . . United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

PAG . . . . . . . . protective action guideline

PCB . . . . . . . . polychlorinated biphenyl

pCi . . . . . . . . . picocurie (10–12 Ci)

PERALS® . . . . Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation

PDMS . . . . . . . post-defueling monitored storage

PMT . . . . . . . . photomultiplier tube

PWR . . . . . . . . pressurized water reactor

QA . . . . . . . . . quality assurance

QC . . . . . . . . . quality control

rad . . . . . . . . . radiation absorbed dose

RDD . . . . . . . . radiological dispersal device (i.e., “dirty bomb”)

REGe . . . . . . . reverse-electrode germanium

rem . . . . . . . . . roentgen equivalent: man

s . . . . . . . . . . . second

Sv . . . . . . . . . . sievert

Si . . . . . . . . . . silicon semiconductor

SI . . . . . . . . . . International System of Units

SOW . . . . . . . . statement of work
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

x

t1⁄2 . . . . . . . . . . half-life

TENORM . . . . technologically enhanced, naturally occurring radioactive materials

TIMS . . . . . . . thermal ionization mass spectrometry

UV-VIS . . . . . ultraviolet-visible spectrometry

VOC . . . . . . . . volatile organic compound

y . . . . . . . . . . . year

Z . . . . . . . . . . . atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

xi

Radiometric Unit Conversions

To Convert To Multiply by To Convert To Multiply by

Years (y) Seconds (s)

Minutes (min)

Hours (h)

3.16 × 107

5.26 × 105

8.77 × 103

s

min

h

y 3.17 × 10–8

1.90 × 10–6

1.14 × 10–4

Disintegrations

per second (dps)

Becquerels (Bq) 1.00 Bq dps 1.00

Bq

Bq/kg

Bq/m3

Bq/m3

Picocuries (pCi)

pCi/g

pCi/L

Bq/L

27.0

2.70 × 10–2

2.70 × 10–2

103

pCi

pCi/g

pCi/L

Bq/L

Bq

Bq/kg

Bq/m3

Bq/m3

3.70 × 10–2

37.0

37.0

10–3

Microcuries per

milliliter

(μCi/mL)

pCi/L 109 pCi/L μCi/mL 10–9

Disintegrations

per minute (dpm)

μCi

pCi

4.50 × 10–7

4.50 × 10–1

pCi dpm 2.22

Gallons (gal) Liters (L) 3.78 Liters Gallons 0.264

Gray (Gy) rad 100 rad Gy 10–2

Roentgen

Equivalent Man

(rem)

Sievert (Sv) 10–2 Sv rem 102
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

xii
1

INVENTORY OF RADIOLOGICAL METHODOLOGIES

1 Introduction

This report describes appropriate radioanalytical methodologies used to characterize environmental

samples containing radionuclides, including screening methodologies and radionuclide-specific

analyses. The document is intended for nonradioanalytical specialists, such as Remedial Project

Managers or Site Assessment Managers with backgrounds in geology, engineering, or hydrology.

Appendix A contains a glossary of terms used in this document.

This introduction briefly covers the nature and major types of radiation, natural and anthropogenic

sources of radionuclides, physical considerations unique to radiochemical analysis (such as halflife), the general ways that different types of radiation may be measured, and an overview of the

major techniques (such as spectrometry, gross alpha and beta analysis, liquid scintillation and

proportional counting). This section also summarizes the aspects of radionuclides that differentiate

their analysis from stable and more common chemical contaminants. A more comprehensive

discussion of these topics is found in Appendix B.

Section 2 discusses the application of a long-term cleanup process with respect to radiological

methodologies described in this document and their application to the media described herein. It

provides the overview perspective of which methodologies would be applied at different stages of

a project, and how these support the measurement quality objectives (MQO) for the project. This

section puts into perspective how results of initial analyses would be used to provide more detailed

decision making regarding subsequent analyses and the methodologies to be used.

Section 3 reviews analytical considerations, such as the source term at representative types of sites

(DOE cleanup and naturally occurring radioactive materials waste sites). The section also considers

sample preservation and transport, parameters affecting quantification (such as oxidation state of

the radionuclide), measurement uncertainty, sample analysis and turnaround time, and measurement

quality objectives and performance testing.

Section 4 discusses appropriate analytical methodologies and includes tables indicating their

suitability for various environmental requirements, such as environmental media, screening, concentration, typical detection limits, and any advantages or disadvantages to the methodologies for use

in mixed-waste situations. The section concludes with information on applicable analytical methods

for each radionuclide and their detection limits.

Section 5 provides methodologies and unique radioanalytical issues for 18 selected elements. For

each of the elements, a table in Appendix D summarizes the key isotopes of that element, their

radioactive emissions, achievable detection levels, and typical sample processing times for the

techniques used for analysis. Section 6 is a list of sources and web sites with reference materials that

support this document.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

1

Other media, including milk, meat, produce, and forage may require analysis for some site cleanup projects and during

responses at a nuclear power plant incident. Radionuclides in these media are analyzed routinely by EPA, and achievable

MDC values are available at www.epa.gov/narel/radnet/erdonline.html.

2

FIGURE 1 — Schematic example of sample process flow

1.1 Scope and Purpose

The analysis of environmental samples for radionuclides requires the overlap of many different

scientific disciplines. This document provides an overview of how these disciplines mesh during the

sampling and analysis process. It does not go into the underlying scientific principles for each of

these disciplines but instead provides a summary of information, which will help to guide the user

when evaluating the process of radionuclide analysis in environmental samples. 

The information presented here represents a small portion of the potential process for the

investigation and evaluation of sites that may have become radioactively contaminated. It is

important to note that this information can be used at many different stages of a site project in order

to select the appropriate methodology for the analysis results required to support the project MQOs.

Figure 1 shows the major steps for processing an environmental sample from receipt by the

laboratory to reporting. Each of these steps is described in this document, as well as the effect each

can have on final analytical results. 

The scope of the document is limited to selected types of sites, samples, radionuclides, and

analytical methodologies. This document focuses on water and soil samples1

, and how sampling,

sample transport and preservation, and chemical analyses can determine the overall reliability of the
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

3

final data. Appendix C identifies characteristics and parameters for radionuclides to be found at

these sites. The types of sites that this document addresses are: 

 C Department of Energy (DOE) site cleanup activities and

 C Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) site cleanup activities.

For completeness, some data are provided in the appendices relevant to nuclear power plant

decommissioning.

The types of applicable water samples are ground water, surface runoff, and drinking water. This

document specifically excludes wastewater, seawater, or any water that has been chemically treated.

The three types of water samples addressed in this document have chemical characteristics that are

similar. Therefore, no distinction will be made between the way in which they are described in this

document for the purposes of radionuclide analysis. However, the water samples that are addressed

here may contain hazardous materials or hazardous wastes. For example, ground-water samples at

a DOE site may contain radionuclides like 137Cs and 3

H and also volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

or lead. 

The types of applicable soil samples are those expected to be found in a “clean” environment that

have been subjected to radioactive contamination. These samples may contain however materials

like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and paint residues. Thus, types of soils specifically excluded

are municipal landfill soils, sanitary waste system sludges, soils with significant contamination from

organic solvent or solid wastes, or ocean sediment. 

The information provided in this document can assist individuals involved in a cleanup process for

a radioactively contaminated site. Three tiers of radioanalytical methodologies are presented that

may be used during the various phases of a cleanup process, including methodologies for soil

screening (EPA, 2000) and the determination of site-specific soil partition coefficients (Kd).

Although typical values of soil partition coefficients for radionuclides can be found in published

references (EPA, 1999), in many cases it may be desirable to determine a site-specific Kd value for

use in computer pathway analysis models in order to obtain a better estimate of the radiation risks

for existing or future radionuclide contamination and to determine acceptable remediation limits.

In most cases, in order to obtain accurate estimates of a site-specific Kd value for a radionuclide,

highly accurate (radionuclide-specific) laboratory radioanalytical methods should be used. It is

important that unique analytical protocol specifications be developed for the radioanalytical analyses

used for the determination of site-specific Kd values.

1.2 Principles of Radioactivity

A more detailed technical description of radioactivity can be found in Appendix B. The chemistry

of an element is determined by the number of protons in its nucleus. Elements are subdivided into

nuclides, defined as any species of atom having a specified number of protons and neutrons. For a

given number of protons, that element will be stable only if certain number(s) of neutrons are present

as well. Two atoms of an element with differing numbers of neutrons are referred to as isotopes.

Certain combinations of protons and neutrons lead the nucleus to be unstable and undergo

decomposition, known as radioactive decay. A nuclide that undergoes radioactive decay is referred

to as a radionuclide. The rate of radioactive decay is specific for each radionuclide and can provide

a means for distinguishing one radionuclide from another. The rate of decay is related to the number
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

4

of total radioactive atoms present at the time of measurement, or 

A = λN

where A is the rate of decay or “activity,” measured in atoms decaying per second

λ is the decay constant for the radionuclide in units of sec–1 (. 0.693/t1/2), and 

N is the number of atoms present at the time of the measurement.

The following formula identifies how the rate of radioactive decay changes as a function of time for

any radionuclide:

A = A0 e–λt

where A is the rate of decay at the time of measurement

A0 is the rate of decay at some time before the measurement is made, and 

t is the time elapsed between the two activity measurements in the same units as λ.

When the radionuclide undergoes decay, it is seeking to obtain energetic stability. In order to

achieve this stability, one or more atomic particles or photons will be emitted. This emission is

referred to as “radiation.” The basic types of radiation are:

 C Alpha 

 C Beta negative (equivalent to an electron)

 C Beta positive (a positron)

 C Gamma

 C X-rays.

The measurement of the energy, type, and number of these particles or photons emitted (per unit

time interval) can be related to the quantity of the radionuclides present in the sample. The

traditional radiochemical methods of analysis (such as gas proportional counting, liquid scintillation

and gamma-ray analyses) are able to provide specific analytical values for most radionuclides. 

Some radionuclides have half-lives and particle energies that make it impossible to distinguish one

radionuclide from another with conventional techniques. Examples of these are 239Pu and 240Pu, or

243Cm and 244Cm. Their alpha particle energies are too close to be distinguished by particle counting

techniques, and their half-lives are too long to distinguish between the two isotopes by the rate-ofdecay evaluation method. Thus they are generally reported as a combined activity, such as “239/240Pu

= 4.1×10–2 pCi/L,” signifying that the stated value is the sum of the two radionuclide activities.

In recent years specialized methodologies (such as accelerator mass spectrometry, or inductively

coupled plasma-mass spectrometry) have been developed to analyze for such radionuclides

individually. These are discussed in sections 2, 3, and 4. These techniques look for total number of

atoms present of the radionuclides rather than examining the decay characteristics of the

radionuclides. 
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

5

1.3 Radioactive Decay Chains

Many naturally occurring radionuclides undergo decay to atoms that are also radioactive. The

second generation radionuclide (referred to as first progeny) will decay to another atom, which also

may be radioactive. For a radionuclide such as 238U, this pattern continues until a stable element is

reached. The term used to describe the connection of these radionuclides is “decay chain.” The 238U

decay chain has 14 progeny participants. This means that typical environmental samples containing

238U will also contain some concentration of all of its progeny as well. The amount of each will

depend on the sample history, environmental conditions and the individual chemistry of each

progeny and the parent.

1.4 Radionuclides Covered in this Document

The specific radionuclides discussed in this document are listed in Table 1, together with their

minimum detection limits and maximum allowable effluent concentrations in water according to

federal regulations. Other parameters are listed in Appendices A and B.

TABLE 1 — Radionuclides covered in this manual

Element

(Symbol)

Radionuclide/

Isotope

(Mass Number)

Minimum Detection

Limits*

pCi/L (mg/L)

Maximum Contaminant Levels in

Water†

 pCi/L (mg/L)

Americium (Am) 241 § 15** (4.38×10–9)

243 § 15** (7.53×10–8)

Bismuth (Bi) 210 § —

Carbon (C) 14 § 2,000 (4.48×10–7)

Cesium (Cs) 134 10 (7.7×10–12 ) 80 (6.22×10–11)

137 § 200 (2.31×10–9)

Cobalt (Co) 60 § 100 (8.86×10–12)

Hydrogen (H) 3 1 × 103

 (1.03×10–10 ) 20,000 (N/A)

Iodine (I) 125 § —

129 § 1 (5.68×10–6)

131 1 (8.0×10–15 ) 3 (2.41×10–15)

Iridium (Ir) 192 § 100 (2.41×10–15)

Lead (Pb) 210 § —

Nickel (Ni) 59 § 300 (3.77×10–6)

63 § 50 (8.83×10–10)

Phosphorus (P) 32 § 30 (1.05×10–13)

Plutonium (Pu) 238 § 15** (8.87×10–10)

239 § 15** (2.42×10–7)

240 § 15** (2.76×10–10)

241 § 300 (2.92×10–9)

Radium (Ra) 226 1 (1.0×10–9 )5‡

 (5.06×10–9)

228 1 (3.7×10–12 )5‡

 (1.8×10–11)

Strontium (Sr) 89 10 (3.4×10–13 ) 20 (6.89×10–13)

90 2 (1.4×10–11 ) 8 (5.81×10–11)

Sulfur (S) 35 § 500 (inorganic only) (1.17×10–11)

Technetium (Tc) 99 § 900 (5.32×10–5)

Thorium (Th) 227 § 15** (4.88×10–13)

228 § 15** (1.83×10–11)

230 § 15** (7.29×10–7)

232 § 15** (1.37×10–1)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

Element

(Symbol)

Radionuclide/

Isotope

(Mass Number)

Minimum Detection

Limits*

pCi/L (mg/L)

Maximum Contaminant Levels in

Water†

 pCi/L (mg/L)

6

Uranium (U)¶ 234 § 1.5 (2.41×10–7) 15 (2.41×10–6)

235 § 1.5 (6.9×10–4) 15 (6.9×10–3)

238 1.0 (0.003) 10 (0.03)

Natural Uranium (U)¶ § — 2.0 (3.0×10–3) 20 (0.03)

Gross alpha (α) — 3 15†

 (N/A)

Gross beta (β) —4 4†

 mrem/y (N/A)

*

 40 CFR 141 (EPA, 2002)

§

 The MDCs for these radionuclides are 10 percent of the concentration required for an individual whole body dose of

4 mrem/y (for β/γ emitters), 15 pCi/L for α emitters (except 238U), or 0.03 mg/L (for total uranium), based on a daily

intake of 2 L of water. As an example, this would be about 10 pCi/L (8.8×10–12 mg/L) for 60Co.

†

 Only radium and uranium have MCLs (EPA, 2002). Values for the other radionuclides are derived from the gross alpha

and gross beta MCL values. To avoid exceeding the MCL, the total gross alpha or gross beta radionuclide activities

should not exceed 15 pCi/L.

‡

 The limit for 226Ra + 228Ra is 5 pCi/L. ** Assumes that the gross alpha concentration limit applies to each isotope.

¶

 If uranium is determined by mass-type methods ( i.e., fluorometric or laser phosphorimetry), a 0.67 pCi/μg uranium

conversion factor must be used. This conversion factor is based on the 1:1 activity ratio of 234U to 238U that is

characteristic of naturally occurring uranium in rock. The actual relationship between uranium mass concentration

(μg/L) and activity (pCi/L) varies somewhat in drinking water sources, because the relative amounts of the

radioactive isotopes that make up naturally occurring uranium (238U, 235U, and 234U) vary among drinking water

sources. The typical conversion factors that are observed in drinking water range from 0.67 up to 1.5 pCi/μg. 

The drinking water regulations lists the “maximum contaminant level” (MCL) for each radionuclide

as the concentration (in pCi/L) that would result in a dose of 4 mrem/y if ingested. MCLs are often

risk-based cleanup levels. OSWER Directive 9200.4-18 (EPA, 1997) provides guidance on

establishing risk-based protective cleanup levels for Superfund sites contaminated with radiation.

For each emitter that is detected by the laboratory, the analyst must divide the pCi/L found in the

sample by the value in the conversion tables. This provides a fraction of how much the particular

beta or photon emitter is providing towards the maximum of 4 mrem/y for all of the beta photon

emitters (EPA, 2002). In order to ensure that the 4 mrem/y dose limit is not exceeded, the sum of

the individual fractions (for each radionuclide) should not exceed 1.0. Table 1 identifies the

minimum detection limit (also referred to as the “required detection limit,” or RDL) that any

radioanalytical method must have in order to be acceptable for processing samples for that

radionuclide. The example below demonstrates the calculation of the sum of fractions for a sample

containing strontium and tritium:

 Radionuclide 

MCL

 (pCi/L) 

Sample

 (pCi/L) Fraction 90Sr 8 6 0.75

3

H 20,000 8,000 0.40 

Sum of fractions: 1.15

Although each radionuclide individually is less than its respective MCL, the sum of the fractions is

greater than 1.0. Therefore, this would not be an acceptable water source. Facilities that discharge

radionuclides in their wastewater streams, have limits identified in 10 CFR 20 based on the radiation

dose calculated by analyzing environmental pathways. The effluent concentration values noted here

are from 10 CFR 20 (Appendix B, Table 2, Column 2), and have been converted to pCi/L. These

values are included here as a reference. Specific effluent limits for individual sites would be
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

7

established based on the requirements of the project.

2 Overview of a Cleanup Process and Radiological Methodologies

Radioactive contamination in soil and water can be determined by several different laboratory

methodologies. However, the type of site, the stage of the project that is being investigated, the

levels to which the contamination is to be determined at that site, and the specificity of the analyses

needed, will determine which of these methodologies will be appropriate. Methodologies used for

determination of radioactivity can be placed into three broad categories:

 • Screening,

 • Routine, and

 • Specialized.

Each of these methodologies may be appropriate at different stages of a cleanup process. The

greatest selectivity for radionuclides will lie in the specialized methodologies. These generally will

be the most expensive and take the longest amount of time to perform.

2.1 Laboratory and Field Screening Methodologies

Using screening methodologies, it is possible to identify sites requiring immediate actions, as well

as areas requiring additional investigation. The screening methodologies may also allow the site

investigation team the insight into choosing which more sophisticated methodologies or analytical

techniques may be required. 

Screening methodologies will generally be relatively quick (minutes to hours), are not radionuclidespecific, require instrumentation that is not sophisticated and can be used with a minimal degree of

user training. An additional advantage is that considerable time is saved, because these techniques

do not employ chemical separations. Thus, it would be considered a limited-scope assessment

intended to determine the potential of the site for significant harm to public health or the

environment. 

Site-specific action levels that are established early in the cleanup process may be adjusted as

additional data are assessed. Preliminary screening levels may initiate immediate response activities,

or may indicate that radionuclide-specific methodologies should be used for more definitive

measurements. For example, emergency response or removal could be triggered by the results of a

screening method above a certain threshold. The action levels may need to be flexible enough to

expand the scope of investigation for potential radionuclides so that the initial assessment can

accurately depict the problem. More detailed information on these detection methodologies is

provided in Section 4.

2.1.1 Gross Alpha and Gross Beta Methods

Gross screening methods are applicable when the MCL or derived concentration guideline level

(DCGL) of the radionuclide of interest is much greater than the concentrations of the total background radionuclides in the sample. These methods can identify the presence of radionuclides that

emit alpha or beta particles. The measurement made will identify the total number of particles
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

8

detected per unit time (e.g., per minute). However, it does not identify the amount or type of each

radionuclide that may be present. It allows the comparison of measurements in the suspect area to

measurements in nearby areas that are known to be free of the contamination under investigation.

Because the specific identity of the radionuclide may not be a principal concern at this point, this

analysis will identify the overall extent of the contamination in terms of gross quantity (measured

in counts per minute, cpm) and areas affected (in land area measurement units as well as depth

profile). If the gross-screening method is calibrated using a reference radionuclide, then analytical

results will be reported in disintegrations per minute.

Detection methods commonly used for making screening measurements include:

 • Alpha/beta survey-type detectors (usually hand held);

 • Gas flow proportional counters;

 • Liquid scintillation detectors; and 

 • Other devices that have a thin “window” (i.e. the detector covering) that will allow the emitted

particles to interact with the detector. 

These detection devices can differentiate between alpha particles and beta particles because their

energies on the detector are significantly different. However, without chemical separation, no

significant information about specific radionuclides can be gained by the gross alpha or beta count

rates.

Individual radionuclides will be either alpha or beta emitters (most of these will also emit gamma

radiation as a result of the alpha or beta decay). Alpha or beta particles emitted by different

radionuclides may not have the same energies, and this will result in different detection efficiencies.

Two examples of how these methods might be valuable will help to identify the conditions under

which they may be used. 

Example 1. An old manufacturing process for luminescent dials used 226Ra. The storage area for the radium

was in the basement of the building (3 m below grade), which has since been filled in with soil. It is

necessary to determine the gross level of activity prior to site excavation to assess subsequent worker

hazards. An in situ measurement of radiation at grade using a hand-held device would most likely not yield

useful information because 226Ra is principally an alpha emitter (see Table 2), and these emissions would

not penetrate the soil. The progeny of 226Ra are all alpha and beta emitters, and their decay emissions would

also be shielded by the soil depth. However, thinly sliced segments of 3-m borings, could be measured

individually in the field with a α/β survey meter, or in the lab with a GP detector.

Example 2. A well located 0.5 km from the site in Example 1 may be affected by the radium in the soil.

Samples of the water may be analyzed at a laboratory without any sample preparation. A liquid scintillation counter can be used for gross alpha determination, by appropriate adjustment of the instrument for

alpha response.

As shown in these examples, some types of screening methodology may not be applicable to certain

types of samples. For example an α/β survey meter would not be readily applicable to a screening

analysis of water samples for alpha emitters, nor would a liquid scintillation detector be applicable

for direct analysis of soils. The alpha/beta survey methods can be used in the field as well as in the

laboratory. The other methods are easily adaptable to field laboratories.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

9

2.1.2 Gamma Analysis

Four distinct detection methods exist for screening-level gamma analysis:

 • Geiger-Mueller (G-M) detector with a “beta shield”;

 • Cesium iodide [CsI(Tl)] detector (usually found only at research laboratories);

 • Sodium iodide [NaI(Tl)] detector; and

 • Germanium (HPGe) detector.

The four detection methods listed above are in order of increasing specificity and decreasing ease

of field measurement. The G-M detector with the beta shield closed will yield information regarding

gamma emitters above a certain energy threshold (~100 keV depending on the thickness of the beta

shield). The beta shield is a piece of metal (either steel or aluminum) that will absorb betas so they

do not interact with the gas-filled chamber of the counter. No information on the range of gamma

energies or the specific radionuclides would be available from this technique. The instrument is hand

held and needs no auxiliary equipment. The CsI(Tl) detector has low-energy resolution for gamma

rays in the energy range of ~20 keV to 3,000 keV. It is very efficient, but it can only resolve peaks

that are on the order of 150–200 keV apart. 

The NaI(Tl) detector is sensitive in the range of ~20 keV to 2,500 keV, depending on the detector

housing thickness and size of the detector. It can provide general information regarding the distribution of energies of the gamma emitters in the samples, and has a very high efficiency. However, it

most likely cannot provide specific radionuclide identification. This is due to its limited ability to

distinguish gamma rays that are less than ~50 keV apart. Newer instruments can be hand held, but

older ones may need a high voltage power supply and cables.

The HPGe detectors can provide significant details regarding specific gamma emitting

radionuclides. It can distinguish gamma rays that are within about 1.5 keV of each other. A recent

application for this type of detection system is called ISOCS (“In Situ Objects Counting System”).

This unit is field-portable, is mounted on a rolling cart, and requires a high-voltage power supply

and a supply of liquid nitrogen or an electronic cooling system.

Obviously, if the analytes in question are not gamma emitters (or weakly gamma emitting; see Table

2), then using this screening method may not provide useful information. These methods are used

routinely in the laboratory. However, several adaptations to the detection system hardware exist that

allow them to be used in the field.

TABLE 2 — Radionuclides with low-abundance gamma rays

Radionuclide 89Sr 90Sr/90Y 241Pu 242Pu 129I 252Cf 226Ra

Principal Decay β– β– β– α β– α α

Gamma, keV 909 1761 149 44.9 40 (32 X-ray) 43 (100) 186 (262)

Abundance, % 9.5×10–4 1.1×10–2 1.9×10–4 4.2×10–2 7.5 (92.5) 16 (0.2) 3.3 (5×10–3

) Radionuclide 241Am 237Np 232Th 243Cm 228Th

Principal Decay αα α α α

Gamma, keV 59.5 86.5 911 (from 228Ac) 278 84

Abundance, % 35.7 12.6 27.2 14 1.21

Note: Several of these have additional, lower-abundance gamma rays as well
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

10

2.2 Routine Methodologies

In order to obtain radioactivity concentration for a specific radionuclide at environmental levels in

either soil or water media, chemical separations usually need to be performed. Data collected by

these routine methodologies are often used to characterize the concentration and distribution of

radionuclides; assess risk to human health and the environment; and potentially select technologies

for treatability testing to evaluate the performance and cost of the treatment technologies that are

being considered for cleanup. Because each treatment effort may be radionuclide- and matrixspecific, a method that can differentiate the various radionuclides is important.

There are many different analytical procedures for separation of radionuclides from each other in

water and soil matrices. In each case, the chemical (i.e., elemental) characteristic of the analyte is

used for separating it from each of the other elements that may be present. Separation techniques,

such as precipitation, electroplating, or evaporation, are used to minimize the volume of the sample

fraction to be analyzed. At that point, the methods discussed in Chapter 5 (in greater detail) would

be used to quantify the activity of the radionuclide present. The routine methods are identified in the

next sections.

2.2.1 Gross Alpha and Gross Beta Methods

The analysis of radionuclides using these general methods of detection includes:

 • Gas proportional counting;

 • Liquid scintillation counting; and

 • Cerenkov counting (high-energy beta counting).

Each of these methods relies on effective chemical separation to determine low-level activity and

discriminate specific radionuclides (i.e., eliminate other radionuclides that might yield a positive

count rate when the radionuclide of interest is not present). Their major advantages are that these

methods generally have high detection efficiency and may minimize the sample counting time to

achieve a specific MDC. Their disadvantage is that they lack the energy discrimination necessary

to distinguish alpha or beta particles of different energies.

2.2.2 Spectrometric Methods

The methods that can be considered spectrometric are:

 • Alpha spectrometry;

 • Gamma spectrometry [either HPGe or NaI(Tl)]; and

 • Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®).

The most discriminating of these analyses is alpha and gamma (HPGe) spectrometry because of the

high resolution of the solid state detectors they use. Thus, the identifying photon energies from 134Cs

and 137Cs can be separated using gamma spectrometry, and the identifying alpha energies from

241Am and 243Am can be separated using alpha spectrometry. PERALS® can be used instead of alpha

spectrometry, or a NaI(Tl) detector can be used instead of an HPGe when effective chemical

separations are performed. They can be used to distinguish alpha particle energies that are ~150 keV
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

11

different, and gamma ray energies as close as 50 keV, respectively. All of these methods are

described in detail in Section 4.

2.3 Specialized Methodologies

The specialized methodologies discussed in this document are kinetic phosphorimetry analysis

(KPA) and mass spectrometry. In contrast to measuring radioactive decay emissions, these specialized methodologies detect and measure the number of atoms of an element or isotope in a sample

by either emission of UV radiation from an excited state or by atom counting, respectively. Mass

spectrometry is used when there is a need to distinguish isotopes of the same element from one

another. This becomes important when the contamination may be from different types of sources.

For example, naturally occurring uranium is 99.27 percent abundant (by weight) in the 238U isotope,

0.72 percent in the 235U isotope and 0.006 percent in the 234U isotope. Fuel used for nuclear power

plants will be enriched in the 235U isotope up to ~5 percent, weapons grade will be above 90 percent.

Thus, the isotopic distribution of the uranium will help identify where it came from.

2.3.1 Mass Spectrometric Methods

Conventional techniques for radiochemical analysis are based on the chemical properties of

radionuclides that allow them to be separated from all other stable elements in the mixture of the

sample. At times it is extremely important to identify the specific isotopic mixture of some

radionuclides (e.g., U, Pu, Np, and Am) in order to determine the source of the contamination. 

Three different methods that are based on the same principle, charge to mass ratio of the ionized

atom, can be used to identify the specific isotopic ratios of radionuclides. These are:

 • Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS);

 • Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS); and

 • Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS).

In each one of these methods, the sample is vaporized into its elemental constituents, the elements

ionized and passed through a mass spectrometer. The distinct advantage of these methods is that the

separation is based on the mass of the isotopes involved and not on their chemical nature. Thus,

analysis of several different radionuclides, as well as different isotopes of a single element can be

performed simultaneously. This type of analysis would most likely not be used in the initial phases

of a site evaluation due to the specific nature of the analysis. However, during later phases, these

methods could be used to collect site-specific data sufficient to characterize site conditions. They

might also be used after remediation activities have been implemented to assess whether or not

speciation of uranium or plutonium isotopes is necessary.

Currently, ICP-MS techniques are best suited for radionuclides with half-lives greater than about

10,000 years, when more sensitive analyses are required (such as for environmental levels of 239Pu)

or when isotopic analyses are required to separate isotopes whose decay emissions prevent separate

quantification (such as 240Pu from 239Pu). Methods employing specialized radiochemical separations

and the most sensitive mass spectrometers are currently being developed for radionuclides with

shorter half-lives, such as 90Sr.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

12

2.3.2 Kinetic Phosphorimetry Analysis

KPA is a rapid method used primarily for the analysis of elemental uranium and thorium. This

method relies on the electronic structure of the uranium and thorium ions in solution to establish

valence orbitals that yield phosphorescent states. These states can be used to distinguish the uranium

and thorium emissions from many other elements. Thus this method does not use the radioactive

properties of these ions at all in determining their presence. The disadvantages are that—without

chemical processing of the sample—the minimum detectable concentration is higher than by

conventional radiation detection methods, and the measurement quality for these two elements is

compromised because KPA does not distinguish isotopes.

2.4 Measurement Quality Objectives and Methodologies

Measurement quality objectives (MQOs) are the analytical data requirements of the data quality

objectives and serve as measurement performance criteria or objectives of the analytical process for

a specific project. MARLAP (2004, see Chapter 3) provides guidance on developing MQOs for

selected method performance characteristics, such as method uncertainty at an analyte concentration,

analyte detectability (minimum detectable concentration), minimum quantifiable concentration,

applicable analyte concentration range, method specificity (ability to isolate one radionuclide from

another), and method ruggedness. Each phase of the cleanup process for a site may have different

MQOs. These MQOs will drive the specificity of the method or analysis to be used.

Referring to the example earlier in this chapter, suppose one MQO for the initial characterization

was:

Samples shall be analyzed to 15 pCi/g beta and 20 pCi/g alpha with a measurement

uncertainty of 2.2 and 3.0 pCi/g, respectively, at those concentrations.

It certainly would be possible to apply routine methodologies for Ra, Pb, Bi, Rn and Po analyses and

sum each of these to determine the total activity. One could also apply some of the specialized

methodologies to the analysis of 226Ra and mathematically estimate (conservatively) the activities

of the remaining radionuclides from the 226Ra decay chain. However, both of these approaches

would be time consuming and highly specific, for an MQO that is more easily determined using a

screening method. Later on during the site remediation and follow up activities, the MQOs might

become more radionuclide specific such as, “the 226Ra shall be analyzed to 1.5 pCi/g with a relative

measurement uncertainty at that level of 20 percent.” In this case, the necessary method would have

to be able to eliminate the interference from all other chemically similar radionuclides, as well as

hone in on 226Ra specifically.

3 General Analytical Considerations

The information presented in this document on radioanalytical concepts takes into consideration the

major source terms of the radioactivity generated by man-made processes at various sites throughout

the country. The types of sites that this document is aimed at are: 

 • Department of Energy (DOE) and Department of Defense (DOD) site cleanup activities; and

 • Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials waste (NORM).
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

13

A summary of the important processes and radionuclides generated at each site will be discussed

in subsequent subsections. 

3.1 Site Source Term

This section discusses DOE cleanup sites and wastes containing naturally occurring radioactive

materials. The decommissioning of commercial nuclear power facilities, and the required radionuclide analyses for that specific process, are regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC,

2004) and are outside the scope of this report. However, for completeness, Appendix E provides an

overview of issues associated with nuclear power plant decommissioning sites.

3.1.1 DOE Site Cleanup

Known as “legacy wastes,” substantial amounts of radioactive wastes have been produced in the

nation’s nuclear weapons productions program since 1942. Wastes for this program resulted from

the mining of uranium ore, extraction (milling) of uranium from the ore, 235U isotopic enrichment

of the uranium, and fabrication of uranium fuel from the enriched uranium to operate nuclear

reactors for the production of 239/240Pu. The generation of the fissile materials of plutonium and

uranium for the nuclear weapons program resulted in radioactive wastes at DOE sites throughout

the country and at uranium mining and milling operational sites, mainly in the western states. Many

of these facilities have had inadvertent releases that have led to environmental contamination. The

radioactive wastes from the uranium mining and milling operations will be discussed under the

subsection dealing with NORM waste.

Nuclear weapons production involves eight general groupings of activities including:

 • Uranium mining, milling, and refining;

 • Isotope separations (uranium enrichment);

 • Fuel and target fabrication;

 • Reactor operations;

 • Chemical separations;

 • Weapons component fabrication;

 • Weapons operations; and

 • Research, development, and testing.

Waste generated by chemical separations processes accounts for more than 85 percent of the

radioactivity generated in the nuclear weapons production process. Waste is created by the acid

dissolution of the spent fuel rods (and targets) from reactor operations and subsequent separation

of the plutonium and uranium using a chemical process. Chemical separations operations were

mainly conducted at the Hanford Site in Washington, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory

(INEL) Site in Idaho, and the Savannah River Site in South Carolina. 

According to DOE (1997a), there are 79 million cubic meters of contaminated solid environmental

media associated with the nuclear weapons complex, of which 70 percent is contaminated with

radionuclides. In addition, there are about 1,800 million cubic meters of contaminated soil, of which

57 percent is contaminated with radionuclides.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

14

DOE has listed 38 sites that have more than 1,000 m3 of contaminated solid media and 17 that have

more than 100,000 m3. Of the 38 sites listed, those with the greatest volume of waste (more than

1,000,000 m3

) are Fernald (Ohio), Hanford (Washington), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

(California), Los Alamos National laboratory (New Mexico), Nevada Test Site (Nevada), and the

Savannah River Site (South Carolina). The radionuclides in the waste and surrounding area at these

sites vary according to the type of activity or operations conducted at the site. The radionuclides

persisting at these sites depend on the amount of radioactivity produced during the operations and

the nuclide’s half-life. In some cases, a radionuclide with a half-life in years, such as tritium (3

H),

with t1⁄2 = 12.3 y, or 60Co, with t1⁄2 = 5.27 y, will be found in environmental waste if it was produced

in significant quantities during operations.

As of 1991, the longer-lived radionuclides important for DOE site cleanup that are routinely

analyzed are provided in Table 3. Some of the nuclides listed below may not be the result of

operations but are included to be analyzed in the facility’s standardized environmental monitoring

program and, thus, may represent nuclides that are or were measured from atmospheric weapons

testing conducted decades prior. 

TABLE 3 — Longer-lived radionuclides at DOE sites

Facility Soil Surface Water

Ground

Water Sediment

Fernald Uranium 137Cs, 237Np, 90Sr, 232Th, U 99Tc, U

Hanford 137Cs 137Cs, 3

H, 129I, 239/240Pu, 90Sr,

Ra

INEL 137Cs, 60Co, 238/239Pu, 90Sr 3

H, 129I, 238/239Pu, 90Sr 137Cs, 60Co, 90Sr

Los Alamos

National

Laboratory

241Am, 137Cs, 3

H, 238/239/240Pu, 90Sr, Th, U

137Cs, 3

H, 238/239/240Pu, U 239/240Pu

Nevada Test

Site

241Am*, 60Co, 154Eu*, 137Cs, 238/239/240Pu*, 90Sr, 235/238U60Co*, 3

H, 238/239/240Pu*

137Cs, 60Co, 3

H, 238/239/240Pu*, 90Sr

137Cs, 239/240Pu*

Oak Ridge

National

Laboratory

241Am, 60Co, 137Cs, 244Cm, 238/239Pu, Ra-228, 90Sr, 232/233/234/235/238U241Am, 137Cs, 60Co, 244Cm, 90Sr, 3

H

137Cs*, 3

H*, 60Co*, 154Eu, 238/239Pu, 90Sr*, 99Tc, 232Th, 232/233/234/235/238U

241Am, 60Co, 137Cs, 244Cm, 238/239Pu, 90Sr, 232/233/234/235/238U, 154Eu

Rocky Flats 241Am, 3

H*, 238/239/240Pu, 234/235/238U

238/239/240Pu 137Cs*, 3

H*, 90Sr*, 234/235/238U* 137Cs, 230/239Pu

Savannah

River Site

137Cs, 3

H, 129I, 90Sr 137Cs*, 60Co*, 3

H, 129I*, 90Sr*, 234/235/238U

137Cs*, 60Co*, 3

H, 238/239Pu, 226/228Ra, 90Sr, 234/235/238U

3

H, 243/244Cm, 137Cs, 129I*, 90Sr*, 228Th, 235/238U

* Potential contamination not fully determined.

Source: OTA, 1991

3.1.2 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials Waste

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) are defined as those containing naturally

occurring radionuclides—not produced by humans—in sufficient quantities or concentrations that

require control for purposes of radiological protection of the public or the environment. In most

cases, NORM may have been technologically enhanced in composition, concentration, availability,

or proximity to people. NORM does not include source, by-product, or special nuclear material

(related to the source term and products of the nuclear fuel cycle), commercial products containing
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

15

small quantities of natural radioactive materials, or natural radon in buildings (Health Physics

Society, www.HPS.org). The radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium, carbon, potassium,

polonium, lead, and radon are the principal radionuclides considered under NORM (Table 4). 

TABLE 4 — Principal natural radionuclide decay series

Nuclide Half-Life Major Radiations

Uranium-238 Series 4.47 × 109

 years alpha, X-rays

Thorium-234 24.1 days beta, gamma, X-rays

Protactinium-234m 1.17 minutes beta, gamma

Uranium-234 245,000 years alpha, X-rays

Thorium-230 77,000 years alpha, X-rays

Radium-226 1,600 years alpha, gamma

Radon-222 3.83 days alpha

Polonium-218 3.05 minutes alpha

Lead-214 26.8 minutes beta, gamma, X-rays

Bismuth-214 19.7 minutes beta, gamma

Polonium-214 164 microseconds alpha

Lead-210 22.2 years beta, gamma, X-rays

Bismuth-210 5.01 days beta

Polonium-210 138 days alpha

Lead-206 stable

Thorium-232 Series 14.1 × 109

 years alpha, X-rays

Radium-228 5.75 years beta

Actinium-228 6.13 hours beta, gamma, X-rays

Thorium-228 1.91 years alpha, gamma, X-rays

Radium-224 3.66 days alpha, gamma

Radon-220 55.6 seconds alpha

Polonium-216 0.15 seconds alpha

Lead-212 10.64 hours beta, gamma, X-rays

Bismuth-212 60.6 minutes alpha, beta, gamma, X-rays

Polonium-212 0.305 microseconds alpha

Thallium-208 3.07 minutes beta, gamma

Lead-208 stable

Non-Series Radionuclides

Potassium-40 1.28 × 109 years beta, gamma

These radionuclides, and more than a dozen other radioactive elements, are present in rocks, soils,

building materials, consumer products, foods, and industrial wastes generated from mining, oil and

gas extraction, mineral extraction, and geothermal wells. Commercial and consumer products, such

as lawn fertilizers, watch dials, smoke detectors, gas lantern mantles, ceramic glazes, and air filters,

may contain the long-lived radionuclides of uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium.

Regulators are most interested in the large amount of NORM waste generated from industries

conducting metal mining and processing and oil and gas extraction processes. On an annual basis,

these industries generate nearly a billion metric tons of NORM waste. More recently, programs have

been established by the state regulators and EPA to address the technologically enhanced, naturally

occurring radioactive materials (TENORM) wastes from these industries. (See www.epa.gov/

radiation/tenorm/about.htm). 
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

16

The TENORM waste matrices that are evaluated include surface and ground water, produced waters

(effluents), soil, sediments, sludge, and mineral (barite) scale from pipes or conduits. The concentrations of the NORM radionuclides vary according to geographical location and chemical processing

and extraction practices. For example, the 226Ra concentration in produced water from the oil and

gas extraction industries in Texas, New Mexico, Louisiana, and Mississippi typically ranges

between about 1 and 1,000 pCi/L. Additional information on TENORM can be found at the

following websites: 

 • www.tenorm.com/bkgrnd.htm

 • pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0142-99/

 • pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-0142-99/fs-0142-99.pdf (concentration of NORM in oil and gas industry)

With two exceptions, TENORM and NORM are regulated primarily by individual state radiation

control programs and not by federal agencies. Exceptions include the transportation of NORMcontaining wastes (subject to U.S. Department of Transportation regulations) and NORM

management activities (may be subject to regulations promulgated by the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration, e.g., www.rrc.state.tx.us/divisions/og/key-programs/norm.html). The state

regulatory requirements applicable to TENORM or NORM-containing wastes can be reviewed on

the State Regulations and Guidelines page of the website (www.tenorm.com/regs2.htm#States).

Several organizations have been actively developing guidance on the regulation of NORM. The

Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors maintains suggested state regulations for control

of radiation, available at www.crcpd.org/SSRCRs/TOC_4-2004-on-line.pdf.

The principal radionuclides of concern for TENORM are from the three naturally occurring decay

series of 238U, 235U, and 232Th, and the long-lived radionuclide, 40K. Table 4 lists components of the

uranium and thorium series, along with 40K. Generally, the 235U (known as the actinium series) series

does not play a significant role in industrial TENORM due to its very low presence (1/20 of the

radioactivity concentration of 238U) in the natural environment. The radionuclides in the decay series

attain a state of secular radioactive equilibrium (see Appendix B) if not subjected to chemical or

physical separation. Technological enhancement of NORM as well as natural, physical, and

chemical reactions in the environment often interfere with this equilibrium balance.

3.2 Sample Preservation and Transport

The entire process of transporting water and soil samples from the sample site to the laboratory

should be carefully planned. Project planners should discuss with the contract laboratory specifics

about sample container types, sample volumes or masses required for each analysis and matrix, and

preservation techniques to be used for each matrix/radionuclide combination. Container or sample

integrity can be compromised if the sample temperature becomes too high or too low. In either case,

the sample may be damaged if temperature variations cause too much stress. The sample integrity

must be carefully considered prior to performing an analysis. The sample preservation requirements

should be part of the project’s analytical protocol specifications (APSs). General information

regarding this aspect of sample handling can be found in MARLAP (2004), DOE (1997b), 40 CFR

136 Table II, and ASTM Volume 11.02 (requirements specified for each radionuclide within its

procedure). 

In addition, when a container is broken, other samples can be affected because shipping labels

(sample identification) are obscured or because the other sample’s integrity is compromised by
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

17

contamination from the sample that leaked. Personnel who collect the samples should ensure that

the sample containers are firmly sealed, and that the samples will not experience extremes of heat

or cold during the transport based on the type of vehicle, the route, and the estimated time of the trip.

Simply shipping samples in ice packs, or insulation will not ensure that they will be protected from

temperature extremes.

3.2.1 Water

The chemical concentration of radionuclides in water samples is extremely small. For nonradioactive materials, trace quantities are measured in the part-per-million (ppm) to part-per-billion

(ppb) range. Radionuclides at environmental concentrations are 6 to 12 orders of magnitude lower

in mass concentration than this. At these very low mass concentrations, oxidation-reduction,

complexation, and volatilization reactions can occur, which can change the chemical identity of a

species in solution. These reactions can lead to irreversible deposition of radionuclides on the

container wall. Small mass losses of radionuclides to the container walls during transport and

storage can significantly affect their measured concentration. It is extremely important, therefore,

that appropriate preservation techniques be specified in the sampling documents for the project. 

For most radionuclides identified in this document (with the exception of carbon, hydrogen, and

iodine), preservation of the water sample at the sample site will include some form of acid

preservation using HCl or HNO3 to less than pH 2.0. There are three different possible points at

which to acidify the samples:

 C Acid is added to the sample vessel prior to the introduction of the sample;

 C Acid is added to the sample after filtration at the sample site; and 

 C Acid is added to the sample after filtration in the lab (this requires a very short transit time from

the field to the laboratory, usually only a few hours).

The process to be used for preserving samples generally is stated in the project statement of work

(SOW) and the APS. The decision as to when to filter or preserve must be based on the project

specific measurement quality objectives.

In addition to acidification, other sampling requirements such as the type of container, the storage

temperature, and the storage period may be specified. These requirements will depend on the

expected chemical nature of the radionuclide and the chemical nature of the sample medium. Storage

containers are generally Teflon or high-density polyethylene. The composition of the sampling

container is also important because:

 C Some containers are more susceptible to radionuclide adsorption;

 C Glass presents breakage concerns during shipping and handling;

 C Glass containers also contain NORM which may leach in the acid environment and raise sample

background counts; and

 C Some containers (e.g., polystyrene culture flasks) are not stable with the concentrations of added

acid necessary for preservation.

When required and specified, a typical storage temperature is usually 4 EC. This is usually only

necessary when biological activity may alter the chemical species of the radionuclide or when

volatile radionuclides (such as 14C) or any radioiodines are present.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

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Additional sample preservation requirements may be necessary for certain radionuclides (elements),

depending on the nature of the sample and the specific radionuclide being sampled. Some of these

considerations are:

 C Addition of carrier or tracer;

 C Addition of oxidizing or reducing agents; and

 C Elimination of air space in sample bottle.

This may be important for the isotopes of S, P, Tc, U, C, I, and Pu in certain matrices. There are four

exceptions to the preservation described above. When sampling and analyzing for these

radionuclides in particular, the laboratory and the field-sampling personnel must communicate the

exact methods being used by each so that there is continuity in the sample-preservation process. This

is usually done in the APS or the SOW.

 C Hydrogen (specifically tritium, designated as T) in environmental water samples will almost

certainly be present as H-O-T. The only preservation methodology recommended for samples

that are to be analyzed for T is to reduce sample temperature to 4 EC as soon as possible.

Addition of acids to the sample may interfere with subsequent laboratory analysis. Plastic

containers should not be used for tritium samples with very high specific activity (curie levels

and above).

 C Analysis for 14C in environmental water samples can deal with several different chemical carbon

forms. The two most prevalent are carbonate and bicarbonate. In both cases addition of acid to

preserve the sample will result in these species being transformed to CO2 and the expulsion of

the formed carbon dioxide gas from the sample. This will cause a loss of analyte. Presence of

14C in organic molecules may be oxidized to carbon dioxide by addition of acid, also causing

loss of the analyte. Here again the only recommended technique for preservation would be to

reduce sample temperature to 4 EC as soon as possible. However, some projects have used a

mildly alkaline solution of NaOH or NH3 to prevent losses of 14C by maintaining the carbon in

its carbonate (CO3

–2) form. 

 C Iodine analysis in environmental water samples presents a significant challenge because it may

exist in as many as six different oxidation states. Iodine is also subject to conversion to volatile

I2 in acidic solutions containing oxygen. For these reasons, it is advisable to add iodide carrier

and thiosulfate (or an equivalent reducing agent) to minimize loss of iodine during sample

preservation and storage. Consideration should be given to collecting samples for iodine analysis

in glass versus plastic containers. Reduction of sample temperature to 4 EC is also

recommended. A summary of preservation techniques that have been successfully employed for

water samples is shown in Table 5. This is a general summary and specific preservation

techniques should be based on project-specific data quality objectives or APSs.

 C Polonium-210 should be preserved only with HCl at a pH less than 2.0.

It is also important to note that the amount of added acid or reagent may contribute to the overall

sample volume. This should be taken into account when determining the sample volume so that an

appropriate correction may be made.
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TABLE 5 — Summary of preservation techniques for aqueous samples

Element*

Acid

pH <2 Temperature

Base

pH > 9

Reducing

Agent

Oxidizing 

Agent

Americium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Bismuth (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Carbon 4 EC NH3

Cesium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Cobalt (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Hydrogen 4 EC

Iodine 4 EC NaOH S2O 3

–2

Iridium†

Lead HNO3 4 EC HNO3

Nickel (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Phosphorus (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Polonium (HCl)

Plutonium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC NaNO2

Radium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Strontium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Sulfur‡ 4 EC NaOH

Technetium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Thorium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

Uranium (HCl) HNO3 4 EC

* Preservation techniques are generally specified to maintain the element in its most commonly occurring

oxidation state as found in the environment. Project-specific APSs must be developed for each project,

radionuclide, and matrix. This would include the concentration of the preservative, and (for example) the type

of acid to be used.

†

 Iridium, because of its chemical inertness, will be in the zero valence state, and no specific preservation is

better than any other.

‡

 Depending upon the type of sulfur compounds expected, basic solution may be the best preservative to prevent

volatilization of sulfur as H2S or SO2.

3.2.2 Soil

Generally, there are no specific requirements for sample preservation for soil samples. However, two

items should be considered before the start of any project. The first is to minimize the amount of air

space that is in the sample container. This will minimize the potential for volatilization/oxidation

of certain species. The second is to reduce the sample temperature to 4 EC as soon as possible to

minimize any biological activity participating in elemental oxidation-reduction.

3.3 Parameters Affecting Quantification Using Radioactive Decay Counting Techniques

In order to quantify the activity of a particular radionuclide, several sample- and instrument-related

parameters or factors are used:

 • Sample size (mass or volume);

 • Branching fraction (ratio) of the particle emission being counted (B). This is the fraction of all

decays that result in emission of the characteristic radiation (alpha, beta or gamma);

 • Counting interval (t), with the same counting interval for sample and background;

 • Number of accumulated sample counts (Csample);
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20

 • Number of background counts for the equivalent sample count interval (Cbg);

 • Chemical yield of the analysis (Y);

 • Detector efficiency (E) for the particular emission of the radionuclide [this is also affected by

the detector and detection methodology];

 • Decay constant of the radioisotope (λ = 0.693/t1⁄2);

 • Time intervals between sampling and beginning the sample count (T); 

 • Correction factor for radioactive decay of the radionuclide or its progeny during the counting

interval (λt / [1– e–λt]); and

 • Correction factor for the ingrowth of progeny used to calculate the activity of a parent (I).

The concentration of a radionuclide in a sample (in units of activity per unit mass or volume) can

be estimated through the following general formula and the specific analysis parameter or factor:

Activity (pCi / L) (1) [CF][C C ][e ][ t]

[t][B][Y][E][V][1 e ][I]

Sample bg

T

t = −

− −

λ

λ

λ

In Equation 1, CF represents a units conversion factor, and all other symbols are identified above.

A different equation would be used when the instrument background is counted longer than the

sample.

Although all of these parameters or factors affect the smallest amount of radioactive material that

can be quantified (i.e., MDC), the two that the analyst can change to lower the MDC are the sample

size and the counting interval. The sample size will have a one-for-one affect on the MDC, but not

so with the counting time, because the counting time is related to the net decays determined. The

term [Csample–Cbg] begins to approach zero when Csample is only slightly greater than Cbg when the

sample and background are counted for the same time. Due to the nature of radioactive decay, a

statistical distribution (estimated by a Poisson Distribution) defines the possible counts that can be

recorded in a certain time. In some instances, the background may have higher counts than the

sample for the same counting interval. For more detailed information, review MARLAP (2004,

Chapter 19).

3.4 Negative Results

The decay of radioactive atoms is a random phenomenon. The number of observed decays in a given

time is characterized by Poisson statistics. The mathematical conclusion of this statistical function

is that if we were to count the same sample for a limited number of successive intervals ( e.g., less

than 25), we would get a different number of counts each time. The range of values that we would

observe would be Csample ± t(Csample)

1⁄2, where t is the parameter representing the degree of confidence

in the measurement result. This relationship is true for both sample and background measurements.

As the counting time increases, the number of observed detector events will increase, but the average

count rate (counts/unit time) remains approximately the same. However, the relative uncertainty of

the measurement — [Csample]

1⁄2 / [Csample] — will decrease.

If the background were counted for two different time periods, two different results would be

expected. Although the background has not changed, the measurement results would vary because

they are affected by measurement uncertainty and the random nature of radioactive decay.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

21

If a sample’s radionuclide concentration is very close to background, it is possible to have fewer

counts in the sample than in the background, even when counted for an equal time period. In this

case, the final sample value would be negative. (If the background and the sample are both counted

several times, on some occasions the sample might have larger counts than the background. In this

instance the sample activity would be positive.) Atom-counting techniques experience the same

difficulties in measuring amounts of radionuclides close to the background level. The net signal

detected from the sample (number of atoms) can be less than the measured background from blanks

(or the instrument). This will also lead to the occurrence of a negative value for the analyte.

Two conclusions can be drawn about negative sample values. First, when analytical results yield

negative values, the radionuclide concentration will be very small—approaching that of background.

Second, to minimize the possibility of reporting that no activity is present when some exists (a

“Type II” decision error, sometimes referred to as a “false negative”), the count time or sample size

may need to be increased (i.e., more atoms are present) to improve the statistics and reduce the

relative uncertainty of each measurement. For more detailed information, review MARLAP (2004,

Chapter 19).

3.5 Measurement Uncertainty

The term “uncertainty” refers to a lack of complete knowledge about something of interest. The

radioanalytical process requires several different measurements to be made. Each laboratory

measurement involves uncertainty, which must be considered when analytical results are used as

part of a basis for making decisions. Every measured value obtained by a radioanalytical procedure

should be accompanied by an explicit uncertainty estimate. It is often stated that field sampling

uncertainties are so large that laboratory measurement uncertainties contribute insignificantly to the

total uncertainty. These claims may be true in some cases, however that is not a reason for failing

to perform a full evaluation of the laboratory measurement uncertainty. A realistic estimate of the

measurement uncertainty is one of the most useful quality indicators for a result.

Measurement uncertainty will be caused by random effects and systematic effects in the measurement process. Random effects cause the measured result to vary randomly when the measurement

is repeated. Systematic effects cause the result to differ from the measured value by an absolute or

relative amount. A systematic error is often referred to as “bias.” Systematic effects may also cause

the results to vary in a nonrandom manner. Generally, both random and systematic effects are

present in the laboratory measurement process. 

The measurement uncertainty of a sample result should not be confused with the error of a sample

measurement. Error of the sample measurement is a theoretical concept that refers to the difference

between the “true” value and the measured value. As the “true” value can only be estimated by

repeated measurements, and because each measurement has its own uncertainty, the error cannot

really be known or measured. 

Some measurement errors are spurious errors, such as those caused by analyst blunders or instrument malfunctions. Spurious errors cannot be taken into account in the statistical evaluation of

measurement uncertainty. They need to be avoided by the use of good laboratory practices. Such

practices would be part of the analytical laboratory’s protocols or procedures, which would be

written. Such documents should also have a method for detecting such errors and a means through

which they are corrected by appropriate quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) activities.
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For example, consider a laboratory analysis that yields a value of 100 pCi/Liter for 137Cs. Assume

that we “know” the true value to be 110 pCi/L. The error would be –10 pCi/L. However, we do not

know exactly the true value or the measured value. We can ascertain how uncertain we are of both

values by the uncertainty in the measurements. Measurement uncertainty is the parameter that

analysts use to judge the precision of the analysis. A statistical parameter associated with the

uncertainty is the confidence level. The confidence level tells the analyst how sure he is of the

measured value. It is based on the standard deviation of the analysis and is constant. This uncertainty

is often expressed as a ± value after the analytical result and stated to be at a certain confidence

level. 

For the same example, assume that the value was reported as 100 ± 25 pCi/L, the uncertainty is at

the 95 percent confidence level, and there is no measurement bias. The “true” radionuclide

concentration value of the sample would be within the 95 percent confidence interval (75 to 125

pCi/L) that has been established for the measurement. In addition, if the sample were to be

repeatedly re-analyzed using the same method, 95 percent of the measured concentration values

would be within the confidence interval. The reported measurement uncertainty for an individual

analysis should be consistent (same magnitude or less) with the required method uncertainty for the

radioanalytical method and sample matrix as defined in the measurement quality objectives (MQOs).

Several different measurements may be made on a sample in the laboratory, all of which contribute

to the measurement uncertainty. (Uncertainties associated with sampling are very complex and are

not within the scope of this report.) The following is a list of some of these sources:

 • Mass or volume of the sample;

 • Sample counts;

 • Background counts;

 • Tracer (counts) or carrier (mass);

 • Decay correction; and

 • Chemical yield.

In addition to these, some of the indirect contributors to the measurement uncertainty are half-life,

detector efficiency, and the branching fraction of the radioactive particle.

The total measurement uncertainty of a radioactivity measurement may be expressed mathematically

as the partial derivative of the radioactivity value with respect to all the input parameters that

determine it. It is unnecessary to pursue this exact mathematical derivation in this document

(MARLAP, 2004, Chapter 19). However, it is important that full consideration be given to each of

the input parameters to equations like Equation 1 on page 20 and how they impact the total

measurement uncertainty. The project planning document should identify how the measurement

uncertainty will be calculated.

3.6 Sample Analysis Turnaround Time

Turnaround time is an important aspect of the overall analytical process that is often overlooked in

the planning phases of a project. The elements of this part of the process are:

 • Sample receipt by the laboratory;
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23

 • Sample preparation before analysis;

 • Analytical separation process;

 • Sample counting; and

 • Data review and report generation.

Depending upon the specific analysis, these elements can take a significant period of time: a week

or more is a common turnaround time for these analyses. Each of these elements is explained in the

subsections that follow. The time involved in determining the mass of a sample, or precipitate is

usually between 5 and 20 minutes and is not included in the discussion below. 

The term “constant weight” is used in many protocols. This is a repetitive process requiring, at a

minimum, two cycles of drying, cooling, and weighing. This process will take a minimum of 21⁄2

hours to as long as 8 hours, depending on the nature of the sample and its water content.

An estimate of the amount of time for single-sample analysis for each element for specific methodologies is provided in the tables in Appendix D. These times can be affected by the skill of the

analyst, the complexity of the matrix, and the detection sensitivity desired. These times also

represent no delays between sample cataloging, digestion, separation, and counting in the laboratory.

(Note that the analysis times in these tables do not include data verification/validation or report

generation and approval. Routine turnaround times for final reporting of sample results is usually

30 days; “expedited” is two weeks, and “rush” reporting is one week.) Specific methodologies that

change these times and detection capabilities are currently being developed. 

3.6.1 Sample Receipt by the Laboratory

In every instance of sample transfer to a contract laboratory, sample receipt is critical, because it

establishes the sample integrity, identity, and suitability to be analyzed for the radionuclides in

question. The receiver must verify the number of sample bottles, their identity and container

integrity as compared to the chain-of-custody form that accompanies the samples. For certain

samples, a radiation survey of the shipping and sample containers may have to be performed. In

addition, any preservation requirements must be verified as acceptable. All anomalies must be noted

by the laboratory and should be verified with the remedial project manager or on-scene coordinator

(or equivalent) before any laboratory processing occurs. Once accepted, the samples are entered into

the laboratory’s data management system. The total time that this step takes can be several hours,

depending upon the number of samples being transferred to the laboratory. 

3.6.2 Sample Preparation Before Analysis

Most samples require preparation prior to performing the separation of the radionuclides of interest

from all the other elements in the sample matrix. Two separate examples identify the types of sample

preparation that may be needed. These examples focus on the laboratory aspect of sample

processing. Other sample constituents can affect sample holding time, preparation, and separation.

The presence of paints, VOCs, PCBs, chromium, or lead may significantly affect sample holding

times (required for nonradioactive analytes in the sample) as well as sample preparation prior to

processing. The manner in which the samples are handled by field and laboratory personnel will

need to be considered if these types of hazardous materials may be present. Thus, it is important that

planning documents effectively communicate these facts to personnel handling and processing these

samples in the field as well as in the laboratory.
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Example 1: Tritium Analysis in Water and Soil

Analyzing tritium in water requires elimination of as much chemical interference as possible in the sample

by distilling the water before liquid scintillation analysis. The distillation process should take between 30

minutes and 1 hour for laboratories that are set up to perform this analysis.

In the instance of performing tritium analysis on a soil sample, the sample must be passed through a sieve

of uniform size as determined by the APSs of the project (this may have been done in the field or may be

done in the laboratory, where it takes from 20 minutes to 1 hour). The soil must be weighed as received,

then a measured amount of “clean” water, and acid or oxidant, added. A parallel sample must be dried at

105 EC to achieve constant weight, thus allowing the determination of moisture content of the soil sample

as received. The sample with “clean” water and additives is then allowed to equilibrate for up to 12 hours

(dependent upon the APSs), before distilling the water from the sample. 

Example 2: Americium Analysis in Soil

Soil samples containing americium require the same sieving steps as tritium to ensure that the particle

size meets the APSs. The sample will then be dried to constant weight and then may either undergo

combustion in an oven (3-8 hours) or wet acid digestion (2-6 hours). In both cases, the purpose is to

remove the extraneous organic material in the sample and solubilize the americium (the oven

combustion is followed by acid dissolution).

Inherent to any sample preparation process is ensuring that all ions of the analytes are in the same

oxidation state or chemical form, and that any tracers or carriers have been added. This part of the

sample preparation can take up to one hour to complete, depending on the number of possible different

oxidation states or species of the analyte that may be present.

3.6.3 Homogeneity and Adequate Sample Preparation

This aspect of the sample needs to be defined in the project APSs and SOW. It identifies how to

assess if the sample is homogeneous to start, or if some physical adaptation must be performed.

If river water was sampled for the analysis of 60Co, what are the sample homogeneity criteria we

would be looking for? Cobalt can exist in both soluble and insoluble forms in the environment.

Thus, an important consideration would be to determine if the sample had suspended matter, and

what was the composition of the suspended matter. Some of the decisions that need to be made prior

to taking the sample are:

 • Should the sample be filtered?

 • If the sample is filtered, should the suspended matter be analyzed?

 • If the water and suspended matter are analyzed separately, should the final result be combined?

 • If the sample is not filtered, what measures are taken to assure that the suspended matter is the

appropriate fraction of the water taken for analysis?

A similar set of decisions needs to be made for soil samples:

 • Is plant material removed from the sample? Analyzed separately?

 • Does the soil need to be ground to a uniform size (and what is that size)?

 • Should stones above a certain size be removed?
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 • Should the soil be weighed as is, or dried at a certain temperature?

The APS also should identify the sequence for drying, mixing, and removing a portion of the soil

for analysis. For example, “The whole sample as received is to be dried at 110 EC, then sieved

through an 8-mesh (2.38 mm) screen. The resultant material should then be blended for 15 minutes

in a ball mill. A separate portion of approximately 10 percent of that final mass is removed for

analysis.”

Sample homogeneity and representative subsampling are extremely important when relating the final

results of analytical techniques that use different masses of sample for analysis. For example, gamma

spectrometry typically requires a large sample (100 to 4,000 g), while only 1 to 10 g is needed for

alpha spectrometry. Inadequate sample homogenization or ineffective subsampling can result in

misleading comparisons. Sample preparation and laboratory subsampling are discussed in detail in

MARLAP (2004, Chapter 12, Laboratory Sample Preparation, and Appendix F, Laboratory

Subsampling).

3.6.4 Sample Digestion

Once a homogeneous sample has been selected, digestion assures that all of the sample can be

dissolved in one solution. The objective of sample digestion is to dissolve a solid sample

quantitatively in water to produce a solution (homogeneous mixture), so that subsequent chemical

separation and analysis may be performed. Because very few natural or organic materials are readily

soluble in water, these materials routinely require the use of acids or fusion salts to bring the

radionuclides into solution. These reagents typically achieve dissolution through an oxidationreduction process that leaves the constituent elements in a more soluble form. In addition, each

radionuclide to be analyzed, should be in a stable oxidation state prior to performing any chemical

separations.

The three main methods of sample digestion for solids are wet digestion (using concentrated acids),

salt fusion (using a solid flux melt and forming a single molten, nonaqueous phase with the sample)

and combustion (using a stream of air in a high temperature furnace).

3.6.5 Oxidation State and Speciation of Radionuclides in Environmental Samples

Generally, analysis of environmental samples requires the total amount of a radionuclide present,

regardless of what oxidation or speciation state it is in, to be determined. Certain elements can exist

in more than one oxidation state. This means that before sample analysis begins, any carriers/tracers,

and all species of an element are brought to the same oxidation state prior to any chemical separations being performed. This ensures that when we use carriers or tracers to monitor the chemical

yield of the analysis, the amount of analyte and carrier/tracer recovered is the same percentage (see

Equation 1 on page 20).

In some instances, it may be necessary to know the following information about the radionuclides

as well:

 C Different oxidation states of the radionuclides;

 C Soluble versus insoluble fraction of the radionuclides;

 C Chemical or molecular form (i.e., ionic or covalent bonding) of the radionuclides; and
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26

 C Chelating agents present that can complex the radionuclides.

The most accurate way to assess these parameters is to use direct analytical methods like anodic

stripping voltammetry (ASV), ion chromatography (IC), ion selective electrode (ISE), Fourier

transform infrared (FTIR), or UV-visible spectrometry (UV-VIS). However, these methods, with

their conventional detectors, will require relatively large masses of the radionuclides (milligrams

to micrograms, 10–3 to 10–6 g). Environmental samples typically have only picogram (10–12 g) to

attogram (10–15 g) quantities of radionuclides. 

Using conventional methods would require performing analysis on a split sample: one analysis for

the total mass of the radionuclide, the other for a specific oxidation state that will remain unchanged

by the procedure, such as mild acid dissolution or chelate leaching. This would be further

complicated if several different oxidation states of the radionuclide are possible. (Such a case exists

with plutonium, where as many as four different states (+3, +4, V, and VI) can exist simultaneously.)

Thus, indirect methods, which require chemical separation and radiochemical analysis, may provide

the most suitable method for determining chemical speciation.

Recent work in this area has coupled ion chromatography with ICP-MS instruments. The enhanced

sensitivity using the ICP-MS technique allowed the eluent of the ion exchange column to be

monitored continuously for samples whose transuranic concentration were in the range of pCi/L.

Rollin and Eklund (2000) were successful in separating and quantifying U+4 and U(VI) in laboratory

standards. Truscott et al. (2001) identified an unexpected change in oxidation state of uranium from

VI to (+4) by using a reducing agent (Rongalite®) for plutonium. In these analyses of ocean water,

the ion exchange columns were able to separate different oxidation states of neptunium, plutonium,

and uranium.

Chemical speciation also can be performed by sequential aqueous extraction techniques that do not

affect the oxidation state of the radionuclides during the extraction process (Schultz et al., 1998).

Although the oxidation state of the transuranics are not identified specifically, the geological fraction

of sediment that the radionuclides are associated with can be determined. This identifies the mobility

of the radionuclides in the sediment environment. 

There are other elements that also can be in multiple oxidation states in the environment in addition

to the specific examples cited here. Table 6 summarizes the possible oxidation states of the radionuclides identified in this document. It is important to note that these radionuclides are “ultra-trace”

components of the sample mixture (on a mass or molar basis), and the oxidation states of these ions

can be affected significantly by the major sample ionic content. How rapidly changes can occur

depends on several factors, including time, temperature of the medium sampled, temperature at

which the sample is preserved, presence or absence of oxygen in the sample environment and its

stored container, presence of bacteria, and sample degassing after being extricated from its matrix.

TABLE 6 — Summary of elements and their common oxidation states

Element

Oxidation State

-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7

Americium ! "

Bismuth !

Carbon " !
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Element

Oxidation State

-2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7

27

Cesium !

Cobalt "

Hydrogen ""!

Iodine* !"""" """

Iridium !" ""

Lead ! "

Nickel ! "

Phosphorus " !

Plutonium "!"""

Radium !

Strontium !

Sulfur " ""!

Technetium " !

Thorium !

Uranium """!

" Allowable state ! Most common state

* The oxidation state of iodine depends significantly on the presence of other oxidizing or reducing materials.

3.6.6 Addition of Radiotracers or Carriers

A carrier is a stable (non-radioactive) isotope of an element that is chemically identical to the radionuclide of interest. A radiotracer is a radioisotope, not found in the type of sample being processed,

which is chemically the same as the radionuclide of interest. Carriers or radiotracers may be added

to monitor for the loss of a radionuclide during chemical processing. In some instances (e.g.,

technetium) neither a radiotracer nor a carrier is possible, and a surrogate is used (for technetium,

it is usually rhenium).

The addition of carriers and radiotracers should be made as early on in the chemical analysis as

possible, but before any chemical separations to the sample have occurred.

3.7 Chemical Separation Process

The chemical separation of the analyte from other chemical elements or compounds in the sample

mixture is achieved through methods such as:

 C Precipitation/filtration/centrifugation;

 C Ion exchange;

 C Complex formation;

 C Solvent extraction;

 C Oxidation-reduction; and

 C Electroplating.

In many analyses, these methods are used in combination several times to achieve separation. Each

of these methods individually can take several hours to complete. The longer times will be required

when there are significant concentrations of interfering radionuclides.
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In several different methods of analysis (90Sr, 226Ra, and 228Ra are noteworthy), once a certain degree

of separation has been achieved, the progeny of the radionuclide of interest are allowed to “grow

in” so that the parent nuclide can be indirectly determined. This ingrowth period can take several

hours to weeks, depending upon the half-life of the progeny.

A specific example of this type of method is used in the determination of 228Ra. The particle

emission from 228Ra (5.8 y half-life) is a very low-energy beta that is poorly detected using gasproportional counting. The first progeny of 228Ra (228Ac) has a short half-life (6 hours) and emits a

beta particle of higher energy compared to 228Ra, allowing better detection (quantification

capability). Because actinium and radium are chemically different, they may not be in radioactive

equilibrium in the environmental sample attained (see Appendix B). A separation of the radium is

performed using a barium sulfate precipitation method coupled with a complex formation reaction

to chemically isolate the radium from the actinium. This portion of the method will take 6-9 hours.

At that point, the actinium is allowed to “grow in” in a matrix containing only radium. This process

of ingrowth can take up to 36 hours, depending on the minimum detectable concentration desired.

The actinium is separated from the parent radium through solvent extraction, ion exchange, or

precipitation and counted.

3.8 Sample Counting

The length of time that a sample is counted will depend on two principal factors: the radionuclide’s

half-life and the minimum detectable concentration to be achieved. The previous section provides

an example (Ra-Ac analysis) where the count time not only needs to take place immediately after

the separation of the actinium from the radium parent, but counting for more than about 10 hours

will not yield significantly better or more precise measurements. After a certain length of time, the

activity of the short-lived 228Ac will begin to approach the background activity (for low-activity

samples).

Radionuclides with long half-lives (weeks to years) can be counted for as much as two days to help

achieve the required minimum detectable concentration. Counting a sample longer than two days

is not advisable, because changes in the background count rate may occur. Application of a

background determined by a shorter counting time also may bias an analysis because it may not be

representative of the background in a longer counting interval.

3.9 Data Review and Report Generation

The raw data must be converted to a final analytical value in the appropriate units (i.e., pCi/L or

pCi/g), and a total uncertainty calculated based on the test parameters. A laboratory quality system

will have certain requirements for data review, verification, and validation. This process ensures that

there are no transcription errors, the calculations have been performed correctly, QC samples (splits,

spikes, duplicates, etc.) are satisfactory, and the entire process of sample analysis meets the MQOs

of the project. It usually also requires a manual calculation of the results for a small percentage of

the data to ensure any computational errors have been fixed.

The length of this process will depend on the number of samples and the types of analyses that have

been performed. However, for an individual radionuclide and one sample, the process can take as

long as 20 minutes. The sum of the times for each of the individual sections stated here will yield

the total turnaround time for just the laboratory portion of the process.
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3.10 Units Used in Radioactivity Measurements

The traditional unit for measurement of radioactivity is the curie (Ci). This unit is equivalent to

3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second (dps). This is the disintegration rate of 1 g of 226Ra. The

measurement of radioactivity in environmental samples is very small compared to this traditional

unit, and frequently the unit used is picocuries (pCi), equivalent to 10–12 Ci. For water samples, the

most commonly used concentration expression is pCi/L, for soil samples pCi/kg. It should be noted

that some projects are now using units of pCi/g for reporting purposes. Other fractional units for the

curie (such as “milli” and “micro”) are also in common use. In recent years, the international

community has switched to the becquerel (Bq) as the unit of radioactivity measurement. This unit

is equivalent to 1.0 dps (see Unit Conversion Table on page xii).

The energy of radioactive particles is measured either in millions of electron volts (MeV) or

thousands of electron volts (keV). The energies of both alpha and beta emitters are usually referred

to in units of MeV, while gamma emitters are generally cited in keV. The range of energies

generally examined in radiochemical analyses are listed in Table 7.

TABLE 7 — Energy range of radiochemical analyses

Alpha (α) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 to 10 MeV

Beta (β) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.005 to 4 MeV

Gamma (γ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 to 2,000 keV

Low-energy photon or X-ray . . . . . . . .3 to 60 keV

The half-life of a radionuclide is the amount of time it takes for one-half of the initial number of

radionuclide atoms to decay, leaving one-half of the initial radionuclide atoms remaining.. The unit

for the measurement of half-life is variable, and there are not strict guidelines. Half-lives less than

one hour generally are measured in minutes, those less than one day in hours, and those less than

a year in days. Appendix B, Section B.1.3 (page 71) provides more details about half-life and decay.

3.11 Measurement Quality Objectives and Performance Testing

The measurement of radionuclides in water and soil samples can present significant challenges to

the analyst because of the variety of matrix elements and compounds and the range of possible

radionuclide concentrations. An MQO, for the processes covered by this document, is a statement

that defines the radionuclide to be determined, the uncertainty of the measurement of that nuclide

at a certain target concentration, the minimum detectable concentration (MDC) to be achieved for

a particular radionuclide, and under what circumstances the radionuclide should be determined (see

MARLAP, 2004, Chapter 3). As an example, consider the following statements as part of the

APSs/MQOs for analysis of radium in ground water at a hypothetical remediation site:

 C Radium-226 and 228Ra are to be determined separately.

 C Analysis can be performed in the presence of concentrations of up to 1,000 ppm calcium.

 C At a concentration of 3.0 pCi/L, the method uncertainty at the 95 percent confidence level shall

be 0.6 pCi/L.

 C The presence of organic solvents at less than 100 ppm will not interfere with the analytical

process.
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These APS/MQO statements are both qualitative and quantitative. They show that the developer of

the MQO has a basic knowledge of the materials to be analyzed, the site characteristics and the

levels at which decisions will be made based on measurement uncertainties. Such statements (and

perhaps more) would be required for each analyte.

Demonstration of the MQOs is usually a requirement of the project. Performance testing is a

mechanism whereby the analysts are routinely presented with the project analytes in matrices that

challenge the MQOs. These samples may be artificial or spiked, and can be prepared by an

independent, outside laboratory or an independent branch of the analytical laboratory. Performance

testing samples are different from the QC samples that will be measured as part of the overall QA

process for the project, in that they provide evidence that the MQOs have been achieved. For the

MQOs cited above, a performance testing sample might contain both isotopes of radium at a

concentration of 1.0 pCi/L, with 500 ppm of calcium as a contaminant in the aqueous sample. 

3.12 Selecting a Method

3.12.1 Performance-Based Method Selection

Typically, a laboratory will have developed and validated various methods to address the radionuclides, radionuclide concentration levels (environmental or effluents), and matrices expected from

their customers and markets. However, a laboratory normally will select a particular radioanalytical

method that will meet APSs contained in a statement of work or contract written by a client. The

APSs include MQOs required for the laboratory’s sample analyses, i.e., method uncertainty at a

radionuclide concentration, MDC, minimum quantifiable concentration, method selectivity, etc.

(MARLAP, 2004, Chapter 3). This type of method selection is referred to as “a performance-based

approach to method selection.” Performance-based method selection allows the laboratory to choose

a method for processing samples as long as it can meet the required APSs and MQOs. Method

performance for a project is demonstrated in the form of method validation documentation for the

MQO requirements. During a project, ongoing method performance is monitored through performance evaluation programs, project-specific performance-testing samples or internal batch quality

control samples. Additional information on laboratory method selection, project method validation

and ongoing method evaluation can be found in MARLAP (2004, Chapters 6 and 7). 

For purposes of this document, a “laboratory method” includes all physical, chemical, radiometric,

and spectrometric processes conducted at a laboratory to provide an analytical result. Each method

addresses a particular radionuclide in a specified matrix or, in some cases, a group of radionuclides

having the same decay emission category (α, β, γ) that can be identified through spectrometric

means. Depending on the category, a method may involve any or all of the following processes:

sample preparation or dissolution, chemical separations, mounting the resultant product for counting,

nuclear instrumentation counting, and analytical calculations. Multiple radionuclides in a sample

may require different analytical detection techniques for which a laboratory may use a sequential

separation method that addresses multiple radionuclides or stand-alone individual methods for each

radionuclide. The APSs should ensure that certain parameters that affect method selection, such as

sample preservation for each radionuclide and the sample size, are addressed. 
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3.12.2 Sources for Specific Method Information Available to the General Public

Major civilian laboratories and nuclear facilities include: Los Alamos National Laboratory,

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Argonne National

Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratories, Savannah

River Site, and Hanford (all with DOE); DHS’s Environmental Measurements Laboratory; and

EPA’s National Air and Radiation Environmental Laboratory. Certain departments or organizations

within these laboratories have radiochemistry methods in the form of stand-alone standard operating

procedures or within a manual. Each laboratory or specific department may have its own policy on

the distribution of radiochemical methods employed for environmental matrices. In some cases, it

may be easier to obtain an individual method rather than a manual compilation. The most direct way

of obtaining methods is to contact the manager of the chemistry or environmental surveillance

department.

4 Radioanalytical Methodologies

As discussed in Section 2, three general methodologies are considered important to the cleanup

process: screening, routine radionuclide-specific, and specialized. The methodology selected for

sample analysis in a particular phase of the cleanup process is related to the analytical protocol

specifications/MQOs for the cleanup phase being conducted. This section addresses the typical

methodologies to detect and quantify radionuclides in various matrices. Two modes of detection are

discussed: radioactive decay emission measurements and atom counting measurements. Radioactive

decay emissions measurements detect and quantify the α, β–

, and β+ particles, electrons, X-rays, or

γ rays emitted during the radioactive decay process. Because radioactivity is measured in terms of

activity (becquerels, or disintegrations per second), measuring the detection rate for each type of

emission (detections measured per unit time), together with information on emission probability of

the type of emission, is the most direct way to quantify radioactivity. Radioactive decay emissions

measurements come under the screening and radionuclide-specific methodologies. Atom-counting

methods (Section 4.2) are the specialized methodologies that measure the number of radionuclide

atoms directly or measure the light emissions from all stimulated atoms in an element. Given the

number of atoms or mass of the radionuclide and its half-life, the radionuclide’s radioactivity can

be calculated (Appendix B, Section B.1.3, on page 71). Atom counting methodologies include mass

spectrometry and kinetic phosphorimetry analysis. 

The method selected depends upon the type of sample and the MQOs for the particular project, types

of interferences that may be present, cost, and available equipment. Methods associated with routine

radionuclide-specific and specialized methodologies may require some chemical separation prior

to the final analysis to minimize interferences from other radionuclides and to concentrate the

analyte into a smaller analytical sample. With the exception of drinking water, there are no

“government-approved” methods for chemical separations used for the determination of

radionuclides. However, the analytical techniques presented here are well established. Tables in

Appendix D are set up for each element. Each table summarizes the detection techniques that are

appropriate for each radionuclide, whether or not chemical separation is necessary, the routinely

achievable MDC values, and the amount of time required to perform the chemical and data analysis.

Important considerations affecting MDCs are explained in the box preceding the tables in Appendix

D (page 80). These tables should be used as a general guide to selecting the methodology

appropriate to the DQOs of the project.
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4.1 Radioactive Decay Emissions Measurements

4.1.1 Gas Proportional Counting

Gas proportional counting (GPC) is capable of quantifying radionuclides emitting alpha and beta

particles (with energies greater than about 150 keV) in small, dry test sources. Although this

radiation detection method can differentiate between alpha and beta particles striking the detector,

it does not have the resolution necessary to discern individual alpha or beta particle energies.

Because of this, GPC is useful only for gross alpha and beta screening applications. The most

common GPC configuration for evaporated water, soil, or air-filter samples of small residual mass

is counting in a metal planchet between 1 and 5 cm in diameter and 0.3 and 0.6 cm in height. 

Test-source masses are kept between 25 and 200 mg to minimize the self-absorption effects of alpha

and beta particles in the source matrix. When there is a possibility of variable test-source mass, a

detector-efficiency curve for a specific radionuclide is generated as a function of test-source mass.

For gross alpha and beta counting applications, the accuracy of a result depends on matching the

target nuclide with the nuclide used for calibration and the number of other alpha- and beta-emitting

nuclides present in the sample. Measurement accuracies for gross alpha- and beta-particle counting

are obtainable as low as 10 to 15 percent for single nuclides, but inaccuracies of 100 to 200 percent

are not uncommon for mixtures of nuclides or heavy test sources. Data analysts should not expect

that the gross alpha or beta activity in a sample will be equivalent to the summation of the individual

activities of the alpha- or beta-emitting nuclides in the sample.

GPC also may be used for specific radionuclide analysis following radiochemical processing of a

sample during the early investigation or remediation phases. GPC normally is applied to the

measurement of 90Sr, 89Sr, 131I, 210Pb, 210Po, 210Bi, 228Ra, and total (alpha) radium following chemical

purification.

The typical GP detector backgrounds for alpha and beta particles are < 0.1 cpm and < 1 cpm,

respectively. For most applications and nominal measurement times and sample sizes, the

quantification capability is typically # 1 pCi for alpha or beta measurements. With proper detector

calibration, chemical-yield determination, and chemical isolation of the target nuclide, GPC can be

very accurate for specific nuclides (a relative standard deviation of about 3 to 5 percent) when

sufficient activity is present at levels greater than 100 times the detection limit. 

4.1.2 Liquid Scintillation

Liquid scintillation counting (LSC) involves the detection of light generated by the interaction of

charged particles with an aqueous solution containing organic molecules (i.e., a scintillator as a

solute) that convert the absorbed energy into light photons. However, the detection of Cerenkov

radiation, because of its production mechanism, does not require the use of an organic scintillator.

A LSC is a low-resolution energy spectrometer that can distinguish between wide-banded alpha or

beta energy regions. As such, most LSC analyses involve the measurement of a single radionuclide

when possible, avoiding spectral interferences from other radionuclides. Analytical methods have

been developed to process samples and provide a final test source matrix required for LS counting.

This detection methodology is used for beta measurements involving very-low (18 keV) to highenergy (2,200 keV) beta-emitting radionuclides and for Cerenkov counting of high energy (> 1,000

keV) beta particle measurements. The typical applications of LSC are presented below.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

33

Sample analysis by liquid scintillation counting methods may occur in all phases of the cleanup

process, but its use as a screening methodology for α, β– and β+ particles is somewhat limited

primarily to a clear water matrix having a minimum of chemical interferences. Application of the

LSC as a radionuclide-specific methodology will be principally in the early investigation and

remediation phases when the radionuclide has been identified. Because LSC is not a non-destruction

sample processing method and is not a high-resolution spectrometer, sample analysis will require

sample (non-aqueous) digestion and chemical processing for the radionuclide of interest.

4.1.2.1 Routine LSC Analysis

In routine LSC applications, a small-volume (1 – 10 mL) aqueous test source is combined with a

commercially available organic scintillation cocktail (10 – 15 mL) and counted in a ~ 25 mL lowbackground plastic vial for a reasonable counting interval (e.g., 100 – 400 minutes). The aqueous

test sources may include distilled water for tritium analysis to highly acid nitrate solutions for 90Sr

analysis. In some cases, a dry test source is added to the liquid or gel scintillation cocktail. Examples

of these include the insertion of an air particulate filter paper into a liquid scintillation cocktail and

the dispersion of dry BaCO3 precipitate containing 14C into a scintillation gel. 

In order to prepare a test source for counting, a sample must be processed so that contaminants are

removed or the radionuclide (element) is isolated from the sample and chemically purified. Solid

samples must undergo a digestion or an acid leaching process to make the radionuclide available for

chemical purification. Care must be taken to ensure that the chemical solution containing the

purified radionuclide does not cause enhancement or degradation of the light output from the LS

cocktail used. Typically, techniques for the measurement of changes in detector response due to

chemiluminescence or phosphorescence (light enhancements) or quenching (light degradation from

chemical agents or color) are incorporated in the instrument measurement protocols for the

radionuclide method. 

LSC is not as sensitive as other detection techniques for alpha and beta particle quantification.

However, many of the detrimental physical parameters affecting other detection techniques are

avoided with this detection technique, including test-source preparation problems and selfabsorption and backscatter effects that cause variability in detector efficiency. The beta-emitting

radionuclides important to environmental surveillance, effluent analysis, and site decommissioning

and decontamination commonly analyzed by LSC include 3

H, 14C, 55Fe, 63Ni, 99Tc, 89Sr, 90Sr, 129I, and

241Pu. For intermediate levels of contamination, when the detection limit for the alpha emitting

nuclides is higher than for low-level environmental levels, LSC can be used for the analysis of a

single alpha-emitting radionuclide in a sample, such as 234U, 235U,238U, 223Ra, 224Ra, 226Ra, 238Pu, 239Pu,

242Cm, 243Cm, 244Cm, 230Th, 232Th, 241Am, and 237Np. Because of the poor alpha resolution of the LS

process (>300 keV), it is not readily used for isotopic analysis of multiple isotopes (e.g., 234U, 235U

and 238U). For the cleanup process, the LSC method can be used in the early investigation and the

remediation phases depending on the detection limit requirements.

4.1.2.2 Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation

The PERALS® spectrometer combines liquid scintillation counting with electronic discrimination

to reduce the background from X- and gamma-ray photons and to eliminate interferences from beta

emitters in the test source. PERALS is used in conjunction with specially manufactured cocktails

that combine an organic extractant (for the element of interest) with an alpha particle scintillator.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

34

The test source must be prepared in a similar fashion as routine LSC applications; the element or

radionuclide must be put into an aqueous solution quantitatively. Once into solution, the extractant

scintillator extracts the radionuclide or element from the solution nearly quantitatively. An isotopic

tracer of the same oxidation state as the sample can be used to verify the quantitative recovery of

the target radionuclide from the sample digestion and extraction processes. Currently, extractant

scintillators have been developed that permit analysis of 226Ra, 230/232Th, 234/238U, 237Np, 238/239/240Pu,

241/243Am, and 244Cm.

The PERALS spectrometer has better alpha-particle resolution capability compared to a standard

LSC. An alpha peak resolution of 300 keV is obtainable for most extractant scintillators and

radionuclides. Because the alpha background (2 × 10–5 counts per second) for this system is much

lower than the standard LSC, its detection capability for the alpha-emitting radionuclides is similar

to that obtained from alpha spectrometry using solid state detectors. Typical detection limits for

aqueous samples range from 0.0005 to 0.024 Bq/L, depending on sample volume, interferences, and

counting time.

For the cleanup process, the PERALS method can be used in the early investigation and the

remediation phases depending on the detection limit requirements.

4.1.2.3 Cerenkov Counting

When charged particles pass through a dielectric medium (such as water) at speeds greater than the

speed of light in that medium, they will emit Cerenkov photon radiation in the direction of travel.

Cerenkov radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet wavelength region. On a practical basis, Cerenkov

counting is applied to radionuclides emitting beta particles having an Eβmax greater than 1,000 keV.

The detector counting efficiency for nuclides in water increases as the Eβmax increases greater than

1,000 keV, ranging from about 7 percent at 1,000 keV to 70 percent at 3,520 keV. 

There are certain unique advantages to using the Cerenkov radiation detection technique for the

analysis of high-energy beta-emitting radionuclides. In particular, there is discrimination between

detected high-energy beta particles and non-detected low-energy beta emissions. This advantage has

been used to analyze 89Sr (Eβmax = 1,488 keV and detection efficiency of about 28 percent) in the

presence of 90Sr (Eβmax = 546 keV and detector efficiency of < 1 percent). Another advantage is the

avoidance of using an organic scintillator and its disposal as a mixed waste and the ability to recover

unaltered test sources for other purposes. In addition to water, Cerenkov radiation is produced in

very acidic and alkaline solutions, solutions that may not be compatible with scintillation cocktails.

Normally, an analytical method is developed so that the aqueous test source solution is prepared to

avoid color quenching of Cerenkov light emissions. 

The application of Cerenkov counting to environmental samples has been limited and not fully

investigated. Currently, the detection methodology has been mainly used for 89Sr, 90Sr/Y, and 32P in

effluents and environmental media. For the cleanup process, the Cerenkov LSC method can be used

in the early investigation and the remediation phases depending on the detection limit requirements.

4.1.3 Gamma Spectrometry

Gamma spectrometry is a sensitive method of analysis that can yield analytical data for several

different nuclides in a single sample analysis. Gamma-ray emission from a radionuclide is usually
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

35

preceded by the particle emissions from radioactive beta decay (either β- or β+) and sometimes by

alpha decay. The decay leaves the nucleus in either a ground or excited state. If the nucleus is in an

excited state, the decay to ground state typically is achieved by gamma emission. A nucleus may

have many different energy levels through which it must pass before attaining a ground state

configuration. This means that there can be one or more gamma rays emitted from an excited

nucleus. Not all transitions have the same probability. If a nuclide emits a gamma ray of a specified

energy each time it decays, its transition probability will be 1.0. Cobalt-60 has two gamma rays

(1,173 and 1,332 keV) that are emitted, and each transition has a probability of at least 0.99.

Technicum-99 emits a gamma ray at 90 keV with a probability of <0.001. Thus, it is much easier

(and more practical) to detect the 60Co by gamma spectrometry than the 99Tc when present at very

low concentrations in the environment.

Although gamma rays interact with a HPGe detector through three major mechanisms, the most

important mechanism for gamma spectrometry is the photoelectric effect interaction, in which all

the photon’s energy is absorbed by the detector in a single event. Particularly in samples where the

radionuclide concentration is very low, each gamma ray will be easily identified from other gamma

rays. Each radionuclide emits gamma ray(s) at one or more energies characteristic to that nuclide,

enabling the spectroscopist to identify radionuclides present in the sample uniquely. The intensity

of the gamma radiation per unit time can be used to quantify the number of radionuclide atoms that

have undergone decay. From this measurement, the concentration of the radionuclide (i.e., pCi/g or

pCi/L) present in the sample being analyzed can be calculated. 

Of the radionuclides listed in Section 1.5, the following can be determined routinely by gamma

spectrometry.

 C Americium-241

 C Cesium-134 and 137

 C Cobalt-60

 C Iodine-131

 C Iridium-192

It is important to note that due to the manner in which gamma-ray spectrometry is performed,

“other” gamma emitters (e.g., 40K, 7

Be, 228Ac, 125Sb, etc.) that are outside the scope of this document

may be detected in the spectrum. These radionuclides could be from NORM or nuclear power plant

(NPP) decommissioning sites. Those present from facility decommissioning will depend upon the

length of time between when the plant was operating and when the samples are taken (due to halflife considerations). Some of these are listed in Table 8.

Table 8 — Possible gamma emitters that could appear in analyses due to NORM or NPP

NORM 40K 228Ac 7

Be 212/214Pb 212/214Bi 222Rn 234Th

Half-life 1.27 × 109

 y 6.15 h 53.3 d 10.6 h

26.8 min

60.6 min

19.9 min

3.82 d 24.1 d

NPP* 108m/110mAg 57/58Co 54Mn 152/154/155Eu 45Ca 125Sb

Half-life 418 y

250 d

271 d

70.9 d

312 d 13.5 y

8.59 y

4.76 y

163 d 2.76 y

* Also see Appendix E, Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning Sites
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

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Some of the other radionuclides may emit gamma rays upon decay, but the probability of gamma

emission is very low. This means that other methodologies would be more applicable for very low

concentrations of the other gamma ray-emitting isotopes.

As a nondestructive method of sample analysis, gamma spectrometry is very applicable as a

screening and a radionuclide-specific methodology that can be used during all phases of the cleanup

process. In most instances for screening applications, a medium-resolution, high-detection efficiency

probe as part of a gamma survey unit can be used in the early investigation phase as a limited

spectrometer. A common gamma probe for surveys is a NaI(Tl), with a resolution >70 keV and a

dimension of 2.5 cm length by 2.5 cm diameter (or 5.1 cm long by 5.1 cm across). The response of

the NaI(Tl) probe is calibrated to the radionuclide (or mixture of radionuclides) of interest and the

physical dimensions (geometry) of the source of the radioactivity. The typical geometries for

surveys include walls, equipment, and the ground. When evaluating a single nuclide, or two nuclides

having gamma energies differing by 200 keV, survey measurements using this type of probe will

quantify the gamma-emitting radionuclides in survey units (areal concentration) of a contaminated

site. When there is a mixture of gamma ray-emitting radionuclides, survey measurements can be

used to compare the gamma flux (total detector response over the entire energy range) from one

survey area to another or to a reference background. Information on NaI detector calibrations can

be found in NRC (1997).

For high-resolution, radionuclide-specific gamma spectrometry, high-purity germanium HPGe

detectors are most frequently used for identifying and quantifying the gamma radiations. This type

of detector, when properly shielded and collimated, also can be used as part of a portable gamma

spectrometry system for performing in situ field surveys. In situ gamma-ray spectrometry has been

employed by the Department of Energy for more than thirty years (Beck et al., 1972; Shebell, 2003)

for measuring large areas of contaminated soil and applying computer algorithms to correlate the

measured gamma spectral response to specific radionuclide soil concentrations (areal and volumetric

contamination). However, soil core samples typically are collected (in the same measurement area)

and analyzed to verify the soil depth profile (of the radionuclide contamination) that is used in the

in situ software algorithms. In many cases, in situ gamma spectrometry has been found to be an

effective field measurement tool that is quick and reduces the number of laboratory analyses that

must be taken. More recently, one manufacturer has designed a portable gamma spectrometry

system for measuring the average surface contamination of building structures.

Within most laboratories, a highly shielded HPGe-detector gamma-ray spectrometry system is used

as a non-destructive, radionuclide-specific method. Samples of any matrix can be analyzed by this

method as long as the detector is calibrated for the sample geometry and density (Z value) and

radionuclide gamma energy. Typical sample volumes include 500 grams for solid matrices and one

or 3.5 liters for liquid samples. Commonly used counting (measurement) times range from 6,000 to

60,000 seconds, depending on the required MDC value. In some cases, mobile laboratories have

been constructed to house a highly shielded HPGe-detector gamma-ray spectrometry system for field

analyses during the assessment, site inspection, and remediation phases. 

4.1.4 Alpha Spectrometry

Alpha spectrometry is a radionuclide-specific method used in the laboratory to identify and quantify

pure alpha-emitting radionuclides. Most laboratories employ an alpha spectrometry system as a

routine detection method for the difficult-to-measure alpha-emitting radionuclides. A high-resolution
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

37

alpha spectrometry system used in a laboratory consists of a semiconductor detector in a vacuum

chamber electronically coupled to a multichannel analyzer operating over an energy range between

4 MeV and 8 MeV. In general, ion-implanted silicon or silicon surface barrier detectors having a

diameter of ~ 25 mm and a very thin sensitive depth (typically <400 μm) are used for alpha

spectrometry applications. Because the energy of the alpha particle is severely attenuated by matter,

a sample must be chemically processed and the radionuclide deposited (electroplated or microprecipitation) without interferences on a metal disk or filter paper mount. The final mount is inserted

into a vacuum chamber containing the semiconductor detector and analyzed in a near vacuum to

avoid degradation of the alpha particle energy and alpha spectrum. Spectral resolution of alphaparticle energies more than 50 keV apart can be obtained with electrodeposition- and microprecipitation-mounting techniques.

Alpha spectrometry as a radionuclide-specific method can be used during the early investigation and

remediation phases. In most cases, alpha spectrometry is chosen when the historical source term

information indicates the likely presence of the alpha-emitting radionuclides or when alpha

screening has indicated elevated alpha levels. For routine low-level environmental radionuclide

analyses, the typical sample processing time for most methods is one day for sample processing and

one day for counting. The typical minimum detectable activity obtained in a 60,000 second

measurement is ~ 0.03 pCi or 0.001 Bq per sample for water and soil samples. The method is used

for isotopic analysis of 234U, 235U, and 238U; 210Po, 223Ra, 224Ra, and 226Ra; 237Np, 238Pu, and 239Pu;

241Am, 242Cm, and 244Cm; and 228Th, 230Th, and 232Th.

4.2 Atom-Counting Methods

Atom-counting methods are grouped within the special methodologies (Section 2.3) and are used

in the analysis of certain longer-lived radionuclides (e.g., 232Th, 235U, and 238U) when very low

activity levels are encountered or when isotopic mass ratios are required. Atom-counting methods

are confined to laboratory operations and are not typically used in the field. The application of the

atom-counting methods would be for characterizing the radioactive source by isotope or element

during the characterization and remediation phases. 

The two-atom counting methods discussed in this document include kinetic phosphorimetry analysis

(KPA) and mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometric methods can be used in the characterization

phase to determine if the isotopic ratio (e.g., 240Pu/239Pu mass ratio) is a signature of the source-term

contamination. Highly sensitive mass-spectrometric measurement of the ratio of 238U:235U is used

routinely to determine whether uranium is of natural origin or if it may be contaminated with

depleted uranium or enriched uranium. In some cases, a highly sensitive elemental analysis (such

as uranium and thorium) rather than an isotopic analysis would be more applicable, e.g., the nonmass spectrometric atom-counting method of KPA. Sample-processing time usually is longer and

much more expensive for mass spectrometric analyses compared to KPA. Therefore, the sample

analysis by mass spectrometry would only be used in those phases when isotopic identification or

low-activity measurements for very long-lived radionuclides are required.

4.2.1 Kinetic Phosphorimetry Analysis

Kinetic phosphorimetry analysis is based on the measurement of ionic phosphorescence of a species

taken at selected time intervals after excitation. The intensity of the phosphorescence is related to
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

38

the concentration of the analyte. KPA does not measure radioactive emissions but UV-V as light

emitted from a sample solution containing certain molecular species.

The analyte in the sample solution is excited by using a laser (commonly a nitrogen laser is used)

of energy equal to or greater than the excitation transition energy. A short laser pulse (on the order

of nanoseconds) will initiate a measurement cycle. Phosphorescence emission is measured at right

angles to the excitation wavelength, and delayed between 0.0001 and 10 seconds, from the incident

excitation.

Because KPA is an outer electronic orbital phenomenon (that is, it involves valence shell electron

orbitals and higher energy orbitals), the valence state of the analyte can have a significant effect on

the analysis. It is also important to note that the phosphorescent light emission is independent of the

specific isotopes of the element present in the sample. All isotopes of the element will yield the same

phosphorescence as long as they are in the same oxidation state. For example, U+4 is not sensitive

to the process, but U(VI) is sensitive. Thus, a sample to be analyzed by KPA for uranium would

need to have all the uranium oxidized to U(VI) using an oxidant such as nitric or perchloric acid.

KPA has been applied to uranium and lanthanide analyses in the range of 0.01 ppb (~ 0.2 mBq/L)

to percent by weight composition of materials. The method lends itself to the analysis of samples

with significant uranium content (ores, mill tailings, soils contaminated with spilled uranium

solutions, etc.) as opposed to background uranium measurements (seawater, river sediments etc.).

4.2.2 Mass Spectrometry

Detection of elements by mass spectrometry (MS) does not depend on the atoms’ radioactive or

chemical properties. It depends only on the mass of the nucleus and the ionic charge of the atom

when introduced into the mass spectrometer. There are a variety of methods by which samples may

be introduced into the detection system. These methods become part of the hyphenated name with

MS. 

Generally, MS techniques have better quantification capabilities than radioactive decay-emission

detection techniques for low-activity (< 0.1 Bq) samples of radionuclides with half-lives greater than

about 100 years. Decay-emission measurement techniques have trouble distinguishing background

decay emissions per unit time from low-activity samples. Table 9 identifies, for a given

concentration, the number of atoms present for radionuclides with a wide range of half-lives. Note

that the same activity has vastly differing numbers of atoms, but the activity concentrations are the

same.

TABLE 9 — Number of atoms of radionuclides with activity of 0.1 Bq

Radionuclide Half-life (years) Atoms

Concentration

pCi/L

Concentration

moles/L

210Bi 1.37 × 10–2 6.23 × 104 2.7 1.03 × 10–19

90Sr 2.91 × 101 1.33 × 108 2.7 2.21 × 10–16

243Am 7.37 × 103 3.35 × 1010 2.7 5.56 × 10–14

99Tc 2.13 × 105 9.68 × 1011 2.7 1.60 × 10–12

232Th 1.4 × 1010 6.36 × 1016 2.7 1.06 × 10–7
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

39

As with most highly sensitive analyses, mass spectrometry methods require sample preparation/

digestion and chemical isolation and purification prior to injecting the test source into the mass

spectrometer. In addition, special highly purified reagents (e.g., nitric acid) and benchware (beakers,

vials, etc.) must be used to avoid contamination of the sample with minute trace quantities of the

target element or radionuclide. Depending on the element or target radionuclide, the sample preparation and chemical processing may be conducted in a clean room to prevent contamination from

ambient airborne contaminants. A few of the more commonly used mass spectrometric methods are

identified below.

4.2.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry

ICP-MS is a hybrid technique for elemental analysis. It is the connection of an inductively coupled

plasma (ICP) unit for measuring emission lines of excited atoms with a mass spectrometer (MS).

The method uses the ICP portion to introduce samples as ionized gasses into the mass spectrometer,

which sorts out these ions based on their charge to mass ratio. The integrated instrument has the

following basic components:

 • Sample introduction system

 • Torch

 • Interface

 • Vacuum system 

 • Lens

 • Quadrupole

 • Detector

Most samples that are analyzed by ICP-MS are liquids. These samples would have undergone

digestion in aqueous media in exactly the same way as any sample prepared for radioactivity

measurements but with less emphasis on major elemental interferences. The sample is introduced

to an argon plasma torch using a nebulizer spray chamber (analogous to the type used in an atomic

absorption spectrometer). The argon plasma transforms all constituents to ionized elements. The ions

are passed through a vacuum interface through a focusing lens and into the quadrupole mass

separator. The ions are focused onto a detector (similar to a PMT) that counts individual events at

a particular charge-to-mass ratio. Commercial instruments have the capability of scanning the mass

range from 1 to 240 atomic mass units (amu) in a few tenths of a second and achieving detection

limits in the 0.1 to 1 ppb range during that time. Solid and gaseous samples can also be analyzed

directly by altering the sample introduction format. As with all other methods of analysis that require

sample preparation, this method can be affected by incomplete sample dissolution.

The benefit of this technique is that it counts atoms present in the sample as opposed to waiting for

decay events to occur. Thus it has a specific advantage over decay-particle-detection techniques for

long-lived isotopes, i.e., signal accumulation time is much less. Another advantage is that for

isotopes like 239Pu and 240Pu (which have alpha particle energies that are almost exactly the same),

the mass separation can be used effectively to identify and quantify these isotopes separately.

This technique has potential isobaric interferences resulting from combinations of abundant ions in

the mass spectrometer. An instance of isobaric interference comes from a combination of 58Ni and

1

H (noted as “Ni-58:H” in the Appendix D table) as a combined ion yielding a signal at mass number
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

40

59. For example, if 59Ni were being analyzed from reactor-coolant piping, the 58Ni would be present

in large mass amounts from the steel, and the 1H would come from the water matrix. Thus, an

interference correction must be applied.

This technique also has great utility in assessing the isotopic ratios of certain elements that can

determine what the sample history has been. This technique of isotopic ratios can also be used for

a trace element technique known as isotopic dilution analysis (IDA).

4.2.2.2 Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) ionizes an element by heating a metal filament on

which the target nuclide has been electroplated. TIMS has been used to analyze 235U, 238U, 239Pu, and

240Pu in a variety of environmental and bioassay matrices. A detection limit of about 6 μBq per

sample is typical for 239Pu. TIMS and quadrupole ICP-MS have similar detection limits for

uranium—about 0.1 pg for total uranium (based on 238U) and about 15 pg for a 238U/235U ratio of 138

(natural abundance). TIMS is able to measure 238U/235U ratios in ranges between 138 and 220 for

levels between 25 to more than 350 ng/kg. 

4.2.2.3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry

Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) is a sensitive analytical technique that uses an ion accelerator

and a beam transport system to provide different levels of mass and charge analysis, ultimately

counting individual ionized atoms. The low range sensitivity of AMS is not encumbered by the halflife of the isotope being measured, because the atoms, not their radioactive emissions, are counted.

Isobaric identification is possible because AMS is unaffected by most background mass peaks,

because molecular ions are destroyed in the transport of the ions through the instrument. A basic

system is composed of the following:

 • A sample holder;

 • An ionizing source projected onto the sample;

 • An injection system that includes beam transport, and beam analysis equipment;

 • A tandem accelerators; and

 • A detector (gas ionization counters are commonly used).

The sample holder is a metal cup (aluminum and copper have been used) in which the solid sample

is held. An ion beam is then directed at the sample to cause it to sputter. Sputter sources (e.g., heated

cesium metal producing Cs+

) cause the sample to form negative ions. Ions produced in the sample

from the sputter source impact undergo energy and mass analysis before being injected into the

accelerator. The accelerator can have low and high energy tubes with a thin foil or gas stripper

placed in the high-voltage terminal between the low- and high-energy tubes to convert negative ions

to positive ions. The positive ions are then put through a second mass analyzer before being focused

on a gas ionization-type detector. The measured pulse height from the detector is directly related to

the number of produced electrons in the detector. The number of electrons is a measure of the energy

the ion lost inside the active detector space. These detectors have two advantages: they are not

subject to radiation damage and can be adjusted for varying atomic units. 

The benefit of AMS analysis for long-lived isotopes is that instead of counting random events from

large samples over the course of days, milligram samples can be analyzed in several minutes. The
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

41

FIGURE 2 — Nominal minimum detectable concentration for different

radiation-detection and atom-counting methods

sensitivity of AMS is five to six orders of magnitude below radioactivity measurements for these

long-lived isotopes. Among the radioisotopes that can be analyzed by this method are 129I, 14C,

59/63Ni, 3

H, 7/10Be, 41Ca, 36Cl, 90Sr, 99Tc, 129I, 239Pu, 240Pu, and 236U. Some disadvantages of this method

are:

 • Not all atoms can be analyzed because they do not all produce significantly long-lived negative

ions;

 • The final analyte form must be a solid that is formed after sample treatment;

 • The instrumentation is currently very expensive;

 • The equipment takes up a considerable amount of floor space (9 – 185 m2

, depending upon the

number and types of isotopes being analyzed); and

 • AMS can suffer from isobaric interferences similar to that of ICP-MS.

4.2.3 Summary of Analytical Methodologies, Minimum Detectable Concentrations, and

Instrument Types

Figure 2 displays the range of concentrations that the different radioanalytical methods described

above generally are capable of achieving. Note that each methodology will have a specific MDC for

each of the different radionuclides. 
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

42

Table 10 summarizes the applicability of the analytical methodologies described in this section to

various radionuclides. 

TABLE 10 — Analytical methods applicable to each radionuclide

Screening Routine Radiochemical Special

Method

Nuclide

GP

α

LSC

β

GP

β GG†† GS† GP AS KPA LS PERALS® Cerenkov

ICPMS TIMS AMS

241Am ! ! ""! " " " 243Am ! "! " " " 210Bi "! ! " " 14C ! " ! "" 242/243/244Cm ! ! "" 134Cs "!!! 137Cs "!!! 60Co "!!! 55Fe !" ! 3

H !!" 125I "! " 129I ! " "" ! ! ! ! 131I ! ! ! !! " 192Ir " ! !" 237Np ! " ! """ 59Ni "" ! 63Ni ! "! " 32P "! " ! " 210Pb " ! " "! " 210Po ! ! 238Pu ! !" 239Pu ! !"* """ 240Pu ! !"* """ 241Pu ! ! 226Ra § ! " "!" " " 228Ra ! ! !! " 89Sr "! ! " 90Sr "! ! " 35S !" " " 99Tc !" " ! " " " 227Th ! "! " 228Th ! "! ! " 230Th ! ! " """ 232Th ! "! ! " !" " 234U ! ! " """ 235U ! "! ! " "" " 238U ! "! ! " !" "

U, total ! " "! ! " ! " "

 Notes: " Applicable technique ! Most common technique

GPC: gas proportional counting; LS: liquid scintillation counting; GG: gross gamma counting using NaI(Tl) and Ge

detectors; GS: gamma spectrometry; AS: alpha spectrometry; LS: liquid scintillation; KPA: kinetic phosphorimetry

analysis; ICP-MS: inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; TIMS: thermal ionization mass spectrometry; AMS:

accelerator mass spectrometry. 

* 239/240Pu cannot be resolved by this technique, and the reported results are the sum of the activities of the two isotopes.

† GS also includes low-energy gamma- and X-ray analysis

§ 226Ra is commonly analyzed by radon emanation (see Section 5.13)

†† Gross gamma screening for environmental levels of 226Ra, 228Ra, 210Pb, U, Th, and transuranics applies only to solid

samples.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

43

5 Chemical and Physical Properties for Selected Radionuclides

The radionuclides in this document represent the most common or significant (in terms of radiationhealth effects) likely to be encountered at a large cleanup site. For example, the radionuclides found

at NORM sites are radium, uranium, thorium, and their decay products. If wastes from processing

ores containing these materials are causing elevated radioactivity, it is likely that the isotopes listed

here as NORM would be responsible for that elevated activity. Similarly, a DOE site decommissioning may contain the radionuclides in the transuranic family (e.g., plutonium and americium).

Other radionuclides may be present (e.g., 40K, 7

Be, 228Ac, etc.), but their quantity, concentration, or

dose consequence will be negligible compared to those described here.

This section provides a brief description of the chemical separation and analytical techniques for

each radionuclide. Appendix D contains tables for each element that provide technical information

regarding radionuclide detection limits by specific methodologies (page 80).

5.1 Americium

Americium has no naturally occurring isotopes. It is produced synthetically by neutron

bombardment of 238U or 239Pu followed by beta decay of the unstable intermediates. Americium-241

(t1⁄2 = 432 y) is found in military wastes and can be extracted from reactor wastes. Some industrial

ionization sources also contain americium. Kilogram quantities of 241Am are available, but only 10-

to 100-g quantities of 243Am (t1⁄2 . 7,371 y) are prepared. Low-energy gamma emission from 241Am

is used to measure the thickness of metal sheets and metal coatings, the degree of soil compaction,

and sediment concentration in streams and to induce X-ray fluorescence in chemical analysis. As

an alpha emitter, it is mixed with beryllium to produce a neutron source for oil-well logging and to

measure water content in soils and industrial process streams. The alpha source is also used to

eliminate static electricity and as an ionization source in smoke detectors. 

Am+3 is the oxidation state that would be found in environmental samples. Although other oxidation

states exist, they are not chemically stable and are reduced or oxidized to the +3 state in solution.

Free radicals produced by radiolysis of water by alpha particles reduce the higher states

spontaneously to Am+3. The +3 oxidation state exists as Am(OH)3 in alkaline solution. Simple

tetravalent americium is unstable in mineral acid solutions, disproportionating rapidly to produce

Am+3 and AmO2

+1 [Am(V)] in nitric and perchloric acid solutions. Conversely, dissociation of

Am(OH)4 or AmO2 (both Am+4) in sulfuric acid solutions produces solutions containing Am+3 and

AmO2

+2. Stability is provided by complexation with fluoride ions and oxygen-containing ligands

such as carbonate and phosphate ions. 

Americium is generally thought to be adsorbed by soils at pH values found in the environment.

Complexation of Am+3 by naturally occurring ligands (humic and fulvic acids), however, would be

expected to strongly reduce its adsorption. 

Laboratory analysis of americium involves separation from other transuranic elements by methods

of ion exchange, solvent extraction/extraction chromotography, or precipitation. Gamma spectrometry can be used for analysis of 241Am when in sufficient quantity, while both 241Am and 243Am can

be determined by alpha spectrometry.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

44

Am-243 has been used as a monitor for 241Am yield when it is known that no 243Am is present in the

sample. Cm-243 has been used as a surrogate yield monitor as well. No other radionuclides are

routinely used as yield monitors. Gravimetric separation of americium for alpha analysis is achieved

using either neodymium or lanthanum fluoride as a carrier (actually a co-precipitant).

5.2 Bismuth

Bismuth has the highest atomic mass of any stable element. It has only one stable isotope, 209Bi.

Bi-210 (t1⁄2 . 5.0 d) is part of the decay chain of 238U, as is its immediate precursor, 210Pb, which has

a half-life of 22.2 years. In many types of environmental samples, these radionuclides may be found

in secular equilibrium with each other. However, due to some differences in solubility and

complexation, the secular equilibrium connection may be broken. This means that some or all of the

210Bi present may be unsupported (see Appendix B). Thus, the sampling conditions, time to start

chemical analysis, and time to complete the analysis all become important in the determination of

210Bi.

Because 210Bi is a beta emitter but not a strong gamma emitter, it is most frequently measured either

by GP counting or by liquid scintillation. In either case, chemical separation is required first. This

is routinely accomplished through ion exchange and precipitation. Bismuth has only one oxidation

state (+3), making its sample processing relatively straightforward. 

Chemical yield of bismuth can be monitored using stable bismuth carrier and determining it either

gravimetrically as bismuth oxychloride or spectrophotometrically using atomic absorption or

colorimetric techniques.

5.3 Carbon

The chemistry of carbon compounds and their occurrence are too extensive to be summarized here.

Fortunately, only one isotope of carbon, 14C (t1⁄2 . 5,720 y, beta emission), is significant for analysis

in environmental samples. However, 14C is incorporated into many organic compounds as a tracer

for research. Once the 14C is covalently bound in a molecule, its chemistry follows that of the

molecule and not of carbon, unless the organic molecule is destroyed. In those instances it would

most likely be converted to carbon dioxide. Therefore, in those instances in which it is suspected that

organic compounds may be present, sampling methods should not be employed that could possibly

exclude any 14C compounds. As mentioned in Section 3.2.1, samples to be analyzed for 14C should

not be preserved in acid. Addition of acid could cause oxidation of any organic material containing

14C, which would be subsequently expelled as CO2 gas. Additionally, the sample analysis regime

should include oxidation of the parent molecule to carbon dioxide. This will depend on whether or

not multiple compounds may be present that contain 14C. Where more than one type of compound

may be present, sample oxidation is required. The CO2 is captured subsequently and prepared for

liquid scintillation analysis. The liquid sample prepared in this fashion may also be used for ICP-MS

analysis. AMS has become a feasible technique for carbon, especially for solid samples.

No other significantly long-lived radionuclides of 14C exist. Thus, a radiotracer yield monitor is not

available, and 100 percent recovery would be assumed. Certain methods that use a carbon carrier

and determine the original carbon content of the sample can realize specific recovery data. This is

generally done using sample oxidation and subsequent BaCO3 gravimetry.
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45

5.4 Cesium

Cesium has two principal isotopes that are discussed in this document, 137Cs (t1⁄2 .30 y) and 134Cs

(t1⁄2 . 2.1 y). Cesium is in the IA group of the Periodic Table, which means that it is present in

samples either as the metal or in the +1 oxidation state. The metal has a melting point of 28 EC and

oxidizes rapidly in air to yield Cs2O. The chemistry of cesium is relatively simple. It forms weak

complex ions in aqueous media and can be separated/concentrated by ion exchange chromatography

using a cation resin. Cesium does not form any anionic complexes, and this can be used as an

effective separation tool if other radionuclides that do form anionic complexes are present. Cesium

can move very rapidly in ground water. Cesium is still found in a variety of environmental matrices

as a result of nuclear fallout and nuclear power plant discharges. The concentrations at which these

isotopes are being found is decreasing overall.

Cesium-137 is used as a check source for a variety of different instruments and is readily available

as a radioisotope. Although present as a solid material in such sources, if the source is damaged,

leakage of the cesium is likely due to its solubility and volatility.

In most cases chemical separation from other radionuclides is not performed. The two radionuclides

of cesium are usually measured directly by gamma ray spectrometry, whether the sample is soil or

water. There is no significant concern for decay correction because of the long half-lives of the two

isotopes. 

One significant precaution should be noted in the analysis of 134Cs. Results may be biased low due

to gamma-ray coincidence summing effects when using gamma-ray spectrometry. This effect may

be accounted for by calibration correction, increasing sample-to-detector distance, or direct

calibration with a 134Cs source.

A chemical yield monitor for cesium is not generally used because it is almost always determined

without chemical separation by gamma spectrometry.

5.5 Cobalt

The principal radioisotopes of cobalt (with their half-lives) are 57Co (t1⁄2 . 272 d), 58Co (t1⁄2 . 71 d),

and 60Co (t1⁄2 . 5.27 y). All these isotopes may be found in effluents and components of nuclear

power plants. The 60Co isotope is used to sterilize food by irradiation and in cancer treatments as a

radiation source. Thus there are significant quantities of 60Co available. Isotopes 57 and 58 can be

determined by X-ray as well as gamma spectrometry. The 60Co isotope is easily determined by

gamma spectrometry because no significant decay of the isotope occurs during sampling and

analysis, it has two gamma rays with energies high enough that they are not attenuated by sample

density, and each decay of the isotope leads to each of the gamma rays being produced.

Cobalt only has one oxidation state (+2) to be concerned with in environmental samples. It is easily

solubilized by either hydrochloric or nitric acid and will form both positive and negative complexes

in aqueous solutions with a variety of anions. For this reason, it is easily separated from other metal

ions by ion-exchange chromatography using either a cation or anion resin. Cobalt forms very

insoluble CoS in environments where sulfide ions are present. Because some water samples will

have sulfide ions present due to the presence of decaying organic materials, some cobalt can be lost

to container adsorption or inadvertent decantation. Potentially high bias can occur if sedimentation
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

46

occurs while the sample is being counted directly on a gamma ray spectrometer. Care must be taken

with these samples. In addition, if the sample is processed so that the cobalt is chemically separated,

special techniques to dissolve the CoS may be required.

All three isotopes of cobalt decay by gamma emission. For this reason, these nuclides are generally

determined without chemical separation when they are present in significant activity. A chemical

yield monitor is not generally used, as no analyte separation is involved using gamma ray spectrometry. 

5.6 Hydrogen (Tritium)

Tritium (3

H; t1⁄2 . 12.3 y) is found most commonly in water. The only radioactive isotope of

hydrogen, its chemistry is that of the hydrogen ion. Once in the environment, most compounds that

contain tritium will undergo oxidation to water. Tritium has been incorporated into a variety of

compounds in which it is covalently bound. It has a great utility as a chemical tracer on organic and

specific bio-molecules when it is incorporated into a non-labile portion of the molecule. Tritium

containing compounds are used in liquid crystal devices (LCDs) and for illumination in certain types

of signs.

The beta particle emitted by the tritium atom is of very low energy. Liquid scintillation is by far the

most commonly used technique of analysis for tritium in water or solid samples. Both atomic mass

spectrometry and ICP-MS have been used for its analysis (Chiarappa-Zucca, 2002; Demange, 2002).

One of the interesting characteristics of tritium in the environment is that it will migrate easily.

Because it is chemically identical to hydrogen, it can exchange freely with hydrogen atoms in water

molecules. This means that tritium can have countercurrent flow in aquifers and other ground

waters. It also means that it will diffuse rapidly.

Its characteristic of being easily exchangeable with water is also a positive aspect because it can be

easily separated from other materials based on the physical properties of water. Thus, if tritium

analysis of a soil sample is necessary, the water can be separated by filtration, distillation, or freezedrying, and the resultant water (free of everything else) can be analyzed directly for tritium.

Tritium naturally exists in the environment as a result of cosmic ray interaction with atoms of the

upper atmosphere. It also exists as a result of atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons and discharges

from nuclear power plants and other facilities where tritium is produced. The concentration in the

environment due to natural sources is less than 50 pCi/L (1.8 Bq/L).

There are underground aquifers that have been isolated from the environment for very long periods

of time. Water taken from such a location will have much lower concentrations of tritium (sometimes referred to as “dead water”) than those water sources that can exchange with the environment,

because of tritium’s relatively short half-life.

Analysis for tritium does not involve the use of a chemical yield monitor. Because the tritium in the

samples is part of a water molecule, water is the “preservative”: ensuring that no tritium is lost in

processing.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

47

5.7 Iodine

Iodine belongs to the halogen family (Periodic Table Group VII) of elements and can exist in seven

different oxidation states. Its most common states are -1, +1, (V), and (VII). Iodine does not exist

in the environment in its elemental form. Elemental iodine sublimes at ambient temperatures.

All iodine radionuclides are produced as a result of nuclear fission (e.g., 129I, t1⁄2 . 1.57 × 107

 y and

131I, t1⁄2 . 8.1 d) or cyclotron production (e.g., 125I, t1⁄2 . 59.4 d) of specific isotopes. Very low levels

of 129I exist in the environment as a result of spontaneous fission. However, this concentration is well

below that which would be determined by routine radiochemical analysis (Cecil et al., 2003).

Isotopes of 125I and 131I are routinely produced for radio-therapeutic purposes, and are commonly

found as contaminants in medical wastes and wastewater. Iodine-129 is a fission product. Its lowenergy beta and gamma emissions make it difficult to determine in most matrices without some form

of chemical separation.

The chemistry of iodine can create significant challenges to the sampler and analyst. The multivalent

nature of iodine can create problems with sample storage and transit prior to analysis. Although the

elemental state does not exist in the environment, it can be formed as a result of other chemicals in

the sample (e.g., oxygen). Thus, some iodine may be lost as a result of volatilization unless steps are

taken to ensure all iodine is converted to the I–

 ion immediately following sampling.

Analysis of iodine is somewhat different than with most other radionuclides, because it is the

complex former (i.e., the ligand) rather than the central ion (like the metallic radionuclides, sulfur

or phosphorus) of a molecule. Anion exchange resin is commonly used to concentrate 131I (iodide)

from water and milk samples. Solvent extraction of iodine as I2 has been used successfully to

separate iodine from other radionuclides. However, this method means that there is a likelihood of

loss of iodine as a result of volatilization. Thus, the most effective means of separating iodine from

other radionuclides generally is through use of an iodide carrier followed by oxidation reduction and

precipitation reactions specific to iodine. 

Each nuclide of iodine may be analyzed by a different method. Iodine-131 can be determined in

liquid samples, directly, by its characteristic gamma ray at 364 keV. Analysis of environmental

samples is very time dependant due to the 8-day half-life of 131I. It is important for analysis of this

isotope to know the time period of sample collection (start to stop), as well as the times to final

separation of iodine (if performed), and of the total sample counting interval. All these factor into

the calculation of activity. 

Iodine-125 decays by electron capture and emits characteristic X-rays at 28.6 keV (usually analyzed

with a low-energy germanium detector). Because of its long half-life and low emission energies, 129I

is most easily analyzed by liquid scintillation. Chemical yield for iodine can be determined gravimetrically using iodine carrier and precipitating quantitatively as PdI4, AgI, and CuI.

5.8 Iridium

Iridium is one of the noble metals. It is in Group VIII of the Periodic Table and has a very low

natural abundance in the Earth’s crust. Heating any iridium compounds above 200 EC in air will

yield the metal (the melting point of the metal is 2,443 EC). Iridium can form halogenated com-
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

48

pounds in the +1, +3, and +4 oxidation states. However, the most stable form of this element is as

the metal.

Iridium has two stable isotopes, 191Ir and 193Ir. Iridium-192 (t1⁄2 . 73.8 d) is formed as a result of

neutron irradiation of the 191Ir isotope. It undergoes radioactive decay by both β– (95%) and β+

 (5%).

It is principally a low-energy gamma and X-ray emitter. These characteristics make it easily

identifiable without any chemical separation. 

Iridium-192 is used principally for radiography of steel components and brachytherapy (implanting

radioisotope seeds within or very close to tumors). The iridium, used as a point source, is in the

shape of a small needle (sometimes called a “seed”) and is only several millimeters in each

dimension. These sources are on the order of 1-500 Ci each. The seeds are shipped in individual

containers for shielding as the metal. It is unlikely for the seed to disperse easily in the environment

due to the extreme inertness of the iridium metal. Dispersion of powdered material by an explosive

device would yield contamination over a large area, that would settle rapidly (due to its high density

of 22.5 g/cm3

) and remain relatively fixed in place due to its inertness.

The most effective technique of analysis would be by HPGe (high-purity germanium) detection.

However because the emitted gamma rays are of low energy, precautions should be taken with

sample thickness to avoid self-shielding. Dissolution of a sample containing iridium, using normal

acid digestion, would leave the iridium behind in the residue. This might be one method of

separating the iridium from almost all other radionuclides. 

5.9 Lead

Lead has several naturally occurring radionuclides because it forms part of the naturally occurring

decay chains of all the thorium and uranium isotopes. The isotope of interest in NORM waste is

210Pb (t1⁄2 . 22.2 y), which decays principally by low-energy beta-gamma emission. The two other

isotopes commonly associated with this type of sample would be 212Pb (t1⁄2 . 11 h) and 214Pb (t1⁄2 . 27

min). These isotopes are usually determined in conjunction with radium/radon radioactive equilibria

because their activity builds up so quickly (due to their short half-lives) after separation of these

radionuclides. 

Lead may be found in one of three oxidation states: 0, +2, or +4. The +2 state is more commonly

encountered in water and soil samples. Lead nitrates, perchlorates, fluorides, chlorides (in hot

water), and acetates are all soluble. Lead forms very stable complexes with chelates such as

ethylenediamine tetraacetate (EDTA) and amines, but it is only weakly associated in complexes with

inorganic ligands. Thus in solutions of concentrated acids, it is present as a cation and can be easily

removed by cation exchange. 

Lead forms very insoluble salts with hydroxide, sulfate, and sulfide. However, it does form

extremely stable compounds in organic solvents with sulfur-based organic ligands such as dithiocarbamate and diphenylthiocarbazone.

In most samples that are analyzed for lead radionuclides, the amount of stable lead is very small and

lead carrier is often added to determine the yield. However, it may be necessary to assess the

samples’ stable lead concentration prior to performing radiochemical lead analysis.
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49

It should be noted that freshly prepared lead and lead salts from ore may have measurable quantities

of 210Pb in it. Thus the material used as carrier for lead should be evaluated for its 210Pb content. For

low-level detection of gamma rays with germanium detectors, the preferred type of lead shielding

to use is “old lead” (usually more than 100 years from when it was produced from an ore). The 210Pb

has undergone about four half-lives at that time and will yield low background radiation.

The relatively long half-life for 210Pb, and the low energy of its decay particles makes it difficult to

determine at very low levels. One method of analysis uses the in-growth of the first progeny of lead

210Bi (t1⁄2 . 5.0 d). Lead is then determined based on the activity of the shorter lived bismuth isotope

determined at a fixed time after separation of lead from bismuth in HCl solution. Bismuth

precipitates as an insoluble oxychloride in hot water and lead chloride remains in solution.

5.10 Nickel

The two isotopes of nickel addressed in this document, 59Ni (t1⁄2 . 76,400 y) and 63Ni (t1⁄2 . 100 y) are

both formed as a consequence of neutron activation of elemental nickel. Nickel is used as an

alloying element in stainless steel, Inconel®, and other components used in nuclear reactors. The

radionuclides can be formed as a result of direct irradiation of reactor components by neutrons, or

corrosion products transported through the reactor core can become radioactive.

Neither radioisotope of nickel produces a gamma ray when it undergoes decay. The electron capture

decay of 59Ni yields a low-energy X-ray from cobalt of 6.93 keV, while the energy of the β– decay

of 63Ni is of very low energy (0.06 MeV). Both of these circumstances necessitate the chemical

separation of nickel from other radionuclides before they can be analytically determined.

Nickel has only one oxidation state that is seen under normal aqueous chemistry conditions; +2. It

can be oxidized to the +3 or +4 state by very strong oxidants. Both of these are unstable in solution

and revert to the +2 oxidation state. The soluble salts of nickel are the chlorides, fluorides, sulfates,

nitrates, perchlorates, and iodides. Nickel sulfide and nickel hydroxide are very insoluble

compounds of nickel. The sulfide, upon extended exposure to an aerated, basic solution, will form

Ni(OH)S (one of the few, stable, +3 compounds), which is extremely difficult to redissolve. The

hydroxide is a light-green gelatinous precipitate that can act as a scavenger for other radionuclides.

However, its gelatinous nature makes it extremely difficult to filter. It is therefore seldom used, and

care should be taken to avoid its formation in aqueous solutions.

Nickel analysis is aided by its favorable complexation with ammonia and amines. This feature

provides the principal means of chemical separation of nickel from its other transition metal

counterparts, as well as the transuranics. In ammoniacal solution between pH 6-9, nickel is very

soluble, while most other metals precipitate as the hydroxide. Nickel also will form complexes with

amines in organic phases making solvent extraction an attractive means of separation.

Nickel forms very weak complexes with chloride and fluoride, which can be used to separate it from

other transition metals by anion exchange chromatography. Chemical yield determination for nickel

can be performed gravimetrically using the nickel dimethylglyoxime precipitate or by atomic

absorption analysis.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

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5.11 Phosphorus

Phosphorus has two radionuclides that are used routinely, 32P (t1⁄2 . 14 d) and 33P (t1⁄2 . 25 d). Both

isotopes usually are produced by a particle accelerator nuclear reaction on a sulfur target. Both

nuclides emit only beta particles, so the two most common methodologies of analysis are liquid

scintillation and gas proportional counting. All other isotopes of phosphorus are much shorter lived

(t1⁄2 < 3 min) and not commonly used.

The radiochemistry of phosphorus is somewhat different from the other radionuclides. Phosphorus

is found in the environment, principally in the orthophosphate (PO4

3-) form. Phosphorus, like carbon,

is non-metallic and is usually found covalently bound into many different types of compounds. In

these forms, it does not react as orthophosphate but as the molecule of which it is a part. As with

carbon, phosphorus must be determined either from the chemistry of the molecule it is contained in,

or the material must be digested so that phosphorus converts to its principal inorganic form,

orthophosphate. If chemical separation is performed, the yield for phosphorus analysis would be

determined gravimetrically using a precipitate such as barium phosphate. Analysis for 32P can be

done directly from many types of biological matrices if no other radionuclides are present, because

of the high beta particle energy (1.71 MeV) it emits. 

5.12 Plutonium

Plutonium has no naturally occurring radionuclides. Its presence in the environment is due almost

entirely to anthropogenic activities (a very small quantity is present as a result of naturally occurring

spontaneous fission). Plutonium isotopes discussed in this document are formed as a result of

neutron capture of uranium isotopes that are in the vicinity of other, fissioning, uranium isotopes.

The fuel in nuclear reactors can produce several different isotopes of plutonium due to multiple

neutron capture by the same nuclide. Thus the activation of 238U leads to the formation of 239U, which

decays through 239Np to 239Pu. Because the half-life of 239Pu is 2.4×104 years, it can capture

additional neutrons while in the reactor core. In this manner of multiple neutron captures, 240Pu, and

241Pu, can be formed. Some of the 235U also undergoes similar multiple neutron capture and 238Pu can

be formed.

Other radionuclides, like 236/237Pu, are accelerator produced and are used as tracers in the analysis

of the reactor produced plutonium isotopes.

Plutonium can have oxidation states of +3, +4, (V), and (VI). The roman numeral notations for

oxidation state identify that the plutonium is the central atom of an oxo-complex in water. Thus, the

species in water, which corresponds to Pu(VI) is PuO2

+2, and for Pu(V) is PuO2+1. The chemistry of

plutonium is quite complex. A solution of plutonium initially of one oxidation state will undergo

several different disproportionation and oxidation reduction reactions until all four of the above

oxidation states are present. This peculiar chemistry for plutonium requires sample storage and

analytical separations to have significant types of chemical additives to ensure that plutonium is

maintained in the proper oxidation state for analysis and separation. Plutonium also has the ability

to form long polymeric type chains, where the molecular weight of the chain can reach several

thousand daltons. This occurs when storage of solutions is allowed for long time periods (greater

than six months). These chains are not easily solubilized nor broken down, thus the analytical result

for plutonium in these samples will be biased low.
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51

The ability to exist in multiple oxidation states makes separation schemes for plutonium somewhat

interesting. Plutonium can react with inorganic ions like nitrates, chlorides and fluorides to form

anionic complexes in the +3 or +4 oxidation state. However, these complexes are not formed in the

(V) or (VI) oxidation state due to steric interference from the oxygen atoms. The differences in these

chemistries can be advantageously used to separate the different oxidation states of plutonium (i.e.,

chemical speciation) in an individual sample, or it can be used to separate all plutonium isotopes

from other transuranics that behave as cations (e.g., Th, Am, Cm). In a specific application of this

behavior, Kim et al. (2000) used a TRU® resin to concentrate all the cationic transuranic ions. The

Pu was present as the +4 ion due to oxidation with acidic nitrite. The americium was eluted in dilute

HCl, and then the plutonium was reduced back to the +3 oxidation state in HCl, causing the anionic

chloro- complex to form, releasing the plutonium from the column. 

Separation techniques for plutonium also include solvent extraction and precipitation methods. In

every case, the separation of this element requires several layers of analytical techniques. First to

remove the bulk of the elements in the first row transition series, then to separate out each of the

transuranics individually. The final step in plutonium separation prior to analytical determination

is either precipitation or electroplating. In the former, the Pu+4 will be separated via coprecipitation

with neodymium, cerium, or lanthanum fluoride. In the latter, the plutonium will be plated onto a

platinum, stainless steel, or nickel disc in an infinitely thin film.

The analytical separation of plutonium from other transuranics is not the final hurdle in plutonium

analysis. Five different isotopes of plutonium, 238, 239, 240, 241, and 242 all may be found in

environmental samples. Plutonium-241 is easily distinguishable because it is the only beta emitter;

the rest are alpha emitters. Isotopes 238 and 242 emit distinctly different alpha particle energies from

239 and 240, and each other and are also readily determined via alpha spectrometry. However, 239Pu

has alpha particles at 5.156 and 5.144 MeV and 240Pu has alpha particles at 5.168 and 5.124 MeV.

These alpha particle energies are not significantly different, and cannot be resolved via alpha

spectrometric techniques. The half-lives of these two isotopes are sufficiently long so that neither

significantly decays during the sampling and analysis time frame. Thus it is common to report the

results for these two isotopes together, as a single value.

If the analytical value for each of these isotopes is necessary, then techniques such as ICP-MS,

TIMS, or AMS are required. These techniques will be able to separate these two isotopes based on

their mass so that individual values may be obtained, however the current cost of such analyses are

very high compared to conventional analytical methodologies.

5.13 Radium

Radium has no stable isotopes. It is a member of the uranium and thorium natural decay chains. The

isotopes that are normally encountered in environmental samples are 223Ra (t1⁄2 . 11.4 d), 226Ra (from

235U and 238U decay), and 224Ra (t1⁄2 . 3.66 d) and 228Ra (from 232Th decay). Radium-226 (t1⁄2 .

1.60 × 103

 y) is the most abundant isotopic form, decaying by emission of an alpha particle to

produce 222Rn. The next most abundant isotope is 228Ra (t1⁄2 . 5.76 y), which decays by β–

 emission.

Radium is most closely associated with uranium and thorium ore deposits. Interaction with the soil

and ground water will cause some of the radium to become separated from the parent ore due to

differences in chemical solubility. When this occurs, and the radium is found “free” in soil or water,

it is said to be “unsupported.”
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

52

Historically, radium has been extracted from ores through barium sulfate precipitation. The radium

isotopes have been used to produce luminous paints and for radiation therapy. While neither of these

have current application, there are many sources that were made in the early Twentieth Century that

remain uncontrolled. Radium sources are used for measuring metal or material thicknesses, as a

source of actinium and polonium (used to produce anti-static devices), and as a neutron source

(when mixed with beryllium). 

Radium is in the same group in the Periodic Table as barium and calcium. Its chemical properties

are very closely related to these two elements. Its only oxidation state is +2. Radium salts that are

soluble are chloride, bromide nitrate, and hydroxide. Carbonate, phosphate, and fluoride are

sparingly soluble, while sulfate is the most insoluble. Procedures for the separation of radium almost

universally rely on barium as the means to coprecipitate radium as the sulfate. 

Radium is not soluble in organic solvents or solvents combined with many chelating agents. This

provides a convenient means of separation of radium from many other radionuclides, especially the

transuranics. It forms weak complexes with EDTA and most inorganic complexing agents. However,

it is very strongly complexed by diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), as a -3 anion. 

In dilute acid solution, radium is present as the divalent cation. Because many other radionuclides

form anionic complexes in dilute HCl, radium is easily separated from many other radionuclides

using a cation exchange resin. Additionally, newly developed ion-exchange filters that contain

radium-selective chelants have been used successfully to concentrate radium directly from environmental waters.

Ironically, the two major isotopes of radium may not be measured directly when trying to assess low

level concentrations. The radium is concentrated from a large volume of water, and its progeny 222Rn

is allowed to in-grow for up to 21 days. The radon gas is sparged into a closed container, allowed

to equilibrate with its progeny (total of about 10 hours), and then counted with a special device

known as a “Lucas Cell” (alpha scintillation cell) using a photomultiplier tube. This technique is

known as “radon emanation.” It is very effective for 226Ra analysis because of the physical

separation of its first progeny, 222Rn (a noble gas), by expulsion into the evacuated Lucas Cell. The

Lucas Cell is calibrated with a known 226Ra source using radon emanation. The calibration is

therefore specific for 222Rn and all its progeny, which come into secular equilibrium with 222Rn (see

Section B.1.6, “Radioactive Equilibrium,” on page 76).

Radium-228 is a very low-energy beta emitter (0.039 MeV) and does not lend itself to low MDCs

using gas proportional counting. However the first progeny of 228Ra is 228Ac (t1⁄2 . 6.2 h), which

achieves equilibrium with the radium in about 36 hours. It can be measured by either gas proportional counting or by gamma spectrometry.

5.14 Strontium

Strontium has four stable isotopes. Its principal radioisotopes are 89Sr and 90Sr (both a result of

fission of uranium or plutonium), 85Sr (used principally as a radiotracer), and 82Sr. Radiostrontium

sources are used as depth measurement devices, calibration sources, environmental and biological

tracers, and in the treatment of some cancers.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

53

Strontium is a member of Group II of the Periodic Table and is chemically related to both barium

and radium. It has only one oxidation state, +2, thus making its chemistry very straightforward. The

soluble salts of strontium are chloride, fluoride, acetate, nitrate, chlorate, and permanganate. The

hydroxide and the carbonate are slightly soluble. Strontium oxalate and sulfate are fairly insoluble.

Both have been used to separate strontium gravimetrically. The nitrate can be made insoluble in

fuming nitric acid, and this technique has been used as a means of chemical separation. 

Strontium does not form strong complexes. The most significant one is with EDTA, which is used

in many separation schemes for isolation of strontium from other radionuclides. Because of its poor

ability to complex, it is present as a cation in most solutions. This can be used advantageously to

separate it from other metals that can form anionic complexes. Thus, complexing transition metals

like cobalt, nickel, or iron with chlorides, and using an anion-exchange resin, will bind the anionic

complexes to the resin allowing strontium be removed. Alternatively, the complexed solution may

be passed through a cation resin, which will retain the strontium, while the other complexed

radionuclides pass through the column.

The two principal long-lived isotopes of strontium produced from fission are 89Sr (t1⁄2 . 50.5 d) and

90Sr (t1⁄2 . 28.8 y). Both are beta emitters, and because they are the same element, they cannot be

separated chemically. Their β-particle energies are not sufficiently different to be easily

distinguished using gas proportional or liquid scintillation counting techniques. 

Several techniques have been devised to deal with this problem. A popular indirect method can be

used to analyze both strontium radionuclides. It initially counts the separated strontium isotopes. The

separated strontium is allowed to build up 90Y (t1⁄2 . 64 h) over a defined period of up to about two

weeks. The 90Y is then separated chemically from the strontium radionuclides, and analyzed. Due

to the laws of radioactive equilibrium (see Appendix B), the amount of 90Sr that produced the 90Y

can be calculated. This can be subtracted from the initial total strontium activity to yield an activity

of 89Sr. This limits the MDCs that can be achieved and also increases the analytical uncertainty close

to the MDC.

Samples of soil or water from areas not directly impacted by an operating nuclear facility or recent

weapons testing are not likely to contain 89Sr, due to its short half-life. However, in effluents from

nuclear facilities and some wastes, both radionuclides will be present. (It should be noted that 140Ba

may also be present in these types of samples.) Because the chemistry of barium and strontium are

so similar, the analytical separations process should specifically eliminate barium. This is usually

performed through a BaCrO4 precipitation (the strontium salt is soluble).

Yield for strontium analysis is determined either gravimetrically by using stable strontium carrier

or by using a 85Sr radiotracer. When a strontium carrier is employed, the carbonate or oxalate is

precipitated, dried, and weighed. The amount also may be determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. Using 85Sr radiotracer, the decay is by electron capture and gamma emission, thus allowing

an independent method (gamma spectrometry) of determining its yield without interfering with the

beta analysis.

5.15 Sulfur

Sulfur is similar to phosphorus and carbon in that it forms many chemically stable organic

compounds through covalent bonding. In environmental water samples, sulfur mainly exists as
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

54

sulfate (SO4

–2). Other inorganic forms of sulfur are sulfide (S–2), thiosulfate (S2O3–2), sulfite (SO3–2),

and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Sulfur has oxidation states -2,+2, +4, and (VI), and they can be present in

both organic and inorganic compounds. 

Sulfur has one long-lived radioisotope (35S, t1⁄2 . 87 d), which when incorporated into organic

materials, is a radiotracer for the specific characteristics of the organic material. This radionuclide

is a beta-only emitter (Eβmax = 0.167 MeV) and can be detected using either liquid scintillation or

GPC.

Environmental samples that contain sulfur are subject to attack by microorganisms, which can

change the oxidation state of the sulfur. Desulfovibrio desulfuricans is a sulfate-reducing bacterium,

ubiquitous in the soil sample, which can change oxidized sulfur species into hydrogen sulfide. Thus,

it is important to know the condition of the sampling so that loss of this isotope as a result of this

bacteria can be addressed.

As with phosphorus, if sulfur may be present as part of an organic compound, then sampling and

analytical protocols need to address that particular compound. One means of separation from other

materials is that sulfur can be oxidized to sulfate and easily separated by gravimetric analysis. Acid

digestion or sample combustion with stable sulfate as a carrier can be successfully employed for

yield determination of the sample digestion process.

5.16 Technetium

Technetium is an oddity in the middle of the Periodic Table; it has no stable isotopes. Any

primordial technetium has decayed away because its longest-lived isotope, 98Tc, has a half-life of

only 4.2 ×106 years. The most significant isotope produced as a result of nuclear fission, 99Tc, has

a half-life of 2.1 × 105

 years. It decays by emission of a beta particle (Eβmax = 0.29 MeV). In the

environment, very small quantities of this isotope can be ascribed to the natural fission process of

uranium ores.

Technetium-99 is the most significant technetium isotope present in wastes from nuclear power

plants, especially in spent fuel. Medical wastes are an additional source of 99Tc, because 99mTc (the

“m” is for “metastable”) is used as a radio-imaging isotope for oncological assessments. The

isomeric isotope 99mTc has a half-life of only six hours, and decays directly to the ground state, 99Tc

through gamma emission.

The chemistry of technetium is very similar to that of rhenium. The most common oxidation states

of technetium are (+4) and (VII). In an oxidative environment, technetium will be present as the

pertechnetate ion, TcO–

4, which has significant mobility in ground water (i.e., not well retained by

soils). In reducing environments, technetium will form partially soluble TcO2. 

Technetium forms complexes with organic and inorganic ligands under many different conditions

and can be easily separated from other radionuclides using ion chromatography. Radiochemical

analysis for 99Tc can be performed by GPC, using the gamma emitter 99mTc (t1⁄2 . 6 h) to monitor

yield. In ICP-MS and some gravimetric analyses, rhenium is used as a yield monitor for technetium.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

55

5.17 Thorium

Thorium is the second member of the actinide series. It has as its principal isotope 232Th, which has

a half-life of 1.4 × 1010 years. Thorium is naturally occurring and is a normal radioactive constituent

of cement and concrete. Thorium has five additional naturally occurring radioisotopes (227, 228,

230, 231, and 234, with half-lives of 18.7 d, 1.91 y, 7.54 × 104

 y, 1.06 d, and 24.1 d, respectively)

that result from the uranium and thorium decay chains.

The presence of thorium is often not discovered directly, but through the radioactive emissions of

its progeny radium, actinium, polonium, bismuth, and lead. Thorium is a refractory material with

a very high melting point.

The chemistry of thorium in solution is relatively simple because it is difficult to reduce to the metal,

and it only has one oxidation state, +4. Although thorium is more abundant in the Earth’s crust than

uranium by an order of magnitude, it is much more insoluble than uranium and is less commonly

encountered in surface and ground water. The soluble compounds of thorium include the nitrate,

sulfate, chloride and perchlorate. Most other thorium compounds (particularly hydroxide, fluoride,

and phosphate) are insoluble in water. Therefore, the pH of the environment in which the thorium

radionuclides exist will determine its mobility.

Thorium is most likely present as a hydrated cation below a pH of 3.0. Above pH 3.0 the thorium

most likely exists as a colloid. This property makes it easily amenable to separation from other trace

constituents by flocculation (like using a ferric or aluminum hydroxide precipitate). Thus it is

important to maintain a low pH and avoid precipitates (even at the low pH) so that thorium will not

be dissipated into different phases as a result of this colloidal behavior.

Soil samples analyzed for thorium should be completely dissolved. Acid leaching of the soil may

not be sufficient to solubilize all the thorium. Fusion using sodium carbonate, potassium fluoride,

and potassium bisulfate generally will provide the best means of bringing the thorium into the melt

and successfully solubilizing it in subsequent steps. 

Many inorganic and organic thorium compounds and complexes are soluble in organic solvents.

This is due to the large size of the thorium ion, which results in a relatively low charge density of

the ion and its complexes and compounds. This property forms the basis of several different

separation schemes for thorium. Thorium also forms several different types of anionic and cationic

complexes in aqueous solutions that can be used to successfully separate thorium from other cations.

One such method is the use of concentrated nitric acid to separate thorium from other actinides and

its progeny using an anion exchange resin. The hexanitrato-thorate complex is strongly bound to the

anion resin while other cations pass through. 

Analyses of 227Th, 228Th, 230Th, and 232Th are usually performed by alpha spectrometry or GPC.

Thorium-229 has been used as a yield monitor for alpha spectrometric analysis of these

radionuclides because it is not commonly encountered. 

Thorium-231 (t1⁄2 . 1.1 d) and 234Th (t1⁄2 . 24 d) are both beta emitters and first progeny of 235U and

238U, respectively. Their short half-lives make them good markers for the relative amounts of these

two uranium isotopes. Thorium-234 is also a gamma emitter. However, its gamma rays are in the
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

56

low energy end of the spectrum (<100 keV) and are generally obscured by background radiation if

measurable quantities of other gamma emitters are present.

5.18 Uranium

Uranium is the last of the naturally occurring elements in the Periodic Table. Although it has no

stable isotopes, the long half-life of 238U (t1⁄2 . 4.47 × 109

 y) and 235U (t1⁄2 . 7.0 × 108 y) makes their

presence in the environment possible. Long before uranium was associated with radioactivity, it was

known as a ceramic glaze. The brilliant orange color that its oxide imparts to pottery made it popular

through the 1930s. Although identified on the chart of the nuclides as a naturally occurring isotope,

234U is present as a result of being the third progeny of the 238U decay chain. Its natural abundance

of 0.0055 is due solely to the 238U decay chain. 

Uranium has several different oxidation states that exist in solution chemistry and several may be

stable in the environment. The most common oxidation state is (VI) as the uranyl ion, UO2

2+. This

oxo-complex of uranium has a significant effect on its solution chemistry. Although the uranium has

an oxidation number of (VI), the ion in solution has a +2 charge and may behave as an anion due

to the effect of the bulky, negative oxygen atoms attached to the central uranium ion. The +3, +4,

and (V) oxidation states also can be stable in solution. The U(V) ion is present as the UO2

+1 ion, and

may disproportionate to yield U+4 and U(VI), if not appropriately stabilized.

Uranium has special significance because it is part of the uranium fuel cycle used for nuclear power

reactors and also used for nuclear weapons. The enrichment process (by ultracentrifugation or gas

diffusion) leaves a material behind that is depleted in the fissionable isotope, 235U. This leftover

material is designated “depleted uranium” (DU). DU has a use in conventional weapons as antitank

ordnance due to its high density. It also may be used as ballast on commercial airliners. In both

instances, these are still radioactive materials and should be handled appropriately. Although of little

value for direct fission, DU can be used as a blanketing material in a breeder reactor to absorb

neutrons and form 239Pu, which is fissile.

Uranium is soluble in water in part due to its ability to complex with the carbonate ion. Uranium

forms a myriad of carbonate complexes from pH 1 to 14. Solubility of uranium compounds is

directly dependent upon the oxidation state of the uranium. With the exception of fluoride, uranium

(+3 and +4) halide compounds are water soluble. The U(VI) compounds follow their own rule of

solubility, and the sulfate, bicarbonate, carbonate, chromate tungstate, and nitrate are all soluble.

The solution chemistry of uranium is probably more extensive than that of any other radionuclide.

It has many different organic complexes that it can form and be extracted into various solvents. It

complexes with many inorganic and organic ions to form cationic and anionic complexes. Two of

the most significant solution characteristics of uranium will be described here. Uranium as the uranyl

ion (VI), will not precipitate or coprecipitate in fluoride media. The oxygen atoms attached to the

uranium inhibit the precipitation of uranium. However if the uranium is reduced using TiCl3, to U+4,

the uranium will easily coprecipitate with either neodymium or lanthanum fluoride. The other

anomalous behavior of uranium is related to ion exchange capability. The U(VI) ion is less strongly

bound to cation resin than the +4 oxidation state, again due to the bulky, negative field established

by the two oxygen atoms on the U(VI) ion.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

57

U(VI) will form strong anionic complexes with halides, and these have been used as separation

techniques from other transuranics using an anion resin material.

All of the naturally occurring uranium isotopes are alpha emitters. Analysis for uranium isotopes

may use 232U (t1⁄2 . 68.9 y) as a radiotracer, because it is not part of any decay series. Uranium-232

is a long-lived alpha emitter, whose alpha particles can be easily distinguished from the other

uranium isotopes. Uranium may also be analyzed by its ability to phosphoresce chemically. This is

a very unique property of uranium based solely on its chemical structure and having nothing to do

with its being radioactive. None of the other transuranic elements possess this particular capability

thus distinguishing uranium by this property. This analytical methodology is used for concentrations

of uranium in the part-per-million range and above. It should be noted that the presence of uranium

in environmental samples means that all of its progeny will be present to a varying extent based on

solubility.

6 Reference Materials

6.1 Citations

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) C1345, Standard Test Method for Analysis of

Total and Isotopic Uranium and Thorium in Soil by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometry, 2001 West Conshohocken, PA.

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D5673, Standard Test Method for Elements

in Water by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry, 2003 West Conshohocken, PA.

Benitez-Nelson, C.R. and K.O. Buesseler. 1998. “P-32 and P-33 Activities in Rainwater and

Seawater,” Anal. Chem. 70, p. 64.

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 2003. Terrorist CBRN: Materials and Threats (U). CTC

2003-40058. 6 pp. 

Cecil, L.D., L.F. Hall, and J.R. Green. 2003. “Reevaluation of Background Iodine-129 Concentrations in Water from the Snake River Plain Aquifer, Idaho.” U.S. Geological Survey WaterResources Investigations Report 03-4106, prepared in cooperation with the U.S. Department of

Energy, DOE/ID-22186. Available at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri034106/.

Chiarappa-Zucca, M.L., K.H. Dingley, M.L. Roberts, C.A. Velsko, and A.H. Love. 2002. “Sample

Preparation for Quantitation of Tritium by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry,”Anal. Chem., 74,

p. 6285.

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 1997a. Linking Legacies: Connecting the Cold War Nuclear

Weapons Production Processes To Their Environmental Consequences (DOE/EM-0319). Office

of Environmental Management, Washington, DC. Available at: legacystory.apps.em.doe.gov/

index.asp.
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U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 1997b. EML Procedures Manual, Chieco, N.A., Bogen, DC., and

Knutson, E.O., Eds., HASL-300, 28th Edition, DOE Environmental Measurements Laboratory,

New York. Available at: http://www.eml.st.dhs.gov/publications/procman/.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1994. Methods for the Determination of Inorganic

Substances in Environmental Samples, Supplement 1. EPA Method 200.8 (Rev 5.4). EPA/600/

R-93/100. Publication PB95-125472 available to order from National Technical Information

Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161, www.ntis.gov/search/product.asp?

ABBR=PB95125472&starDB=GRAHIST.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1997. “Establishment of Cleanup Levels for

CERCLA Sites with Radioactive Contamination.” Washington, DC: Office of Emergency and

Remedial Response and Office of Radiation and Indoor Air. OSWER Directive 9200.4-18,

August 22. Available at www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/radiation/pdf/radguide.pdf.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1999. Understanding Variation in Partition

Coefficient, Kd, Values, Volumes I and II. Washington, DC: Office of Air and Radiation, EPA

402-R-99-004A&B. Available at: www.epa.gov/radiation/cleanup/partition.htm.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2000. Soil Screening Guidance for Radionuclides:

User’s Guide. Washington, DC: Office of Radiation and Indoor Air and Office of Solid Waste

and Emergency Response, EPA/540-R-00-007. OSWER Directive 9355.4-16A. Available at:

www.epa.gov/superfund/resources/radiation/radssg.htm#user.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002. Implementation Guidance for Radionuclides.

Washington, DC: Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (4606 M), EPA 816-F-00-002.

Available at: www.epa.gov/safewater/rads/final_rads_implementation_guidance.pdf

Demange, D., M. Grivet, H. Pialot, and A. Chambaudet. 2002. “Indirect Tritium Determination by

an Original 3He Ingrowth Method Using a Standard Helium Leak Detector Mass Spectrometer,”

Anal. Chem., 74, p. 3183.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2004. Supporting Document for Guidance Levels for

Radionuclides in Domestic and Imported Foods [Docket No. 2003D-0558]. Center for Food

Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages. Available at

www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/nucleve2.html.

Friedlander, G., Kennedy, J.W., Macias, E.S., and Miller, J.M. 1981. Nuclear and Radiochemistry,

John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Health Physics Society. Online fact sheet on naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM),

available at: hps.org/publicinformation/ate/q1009.html. 

Interagency Working Group on Radiological Dispersal Devices (IWGRDD). 2003. Radiological

Dispersal Devices: An Initial Study to Identify Radioactive Materials of Greatest Concern and

Approached to Their Tracking, Tagging, and Disposition. Report to the Nuclear Regulatory

Commission and the Secretary of Energy, May.
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Kim, G., W.C. Burnett, and E.P. Horwitz. 2000. “Efficient Preconcentration and Separation of

Actinide Elements from Large Soil and Sediment Samples,” Anal. Chem., 72, p. 4882.

Lapp, R.E. and H.L. Andrews. 1964. Nuclear Radiation Physics, 3rd Edition. Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice Hall.

MARLAP. 2004. Multi-Agency Radiological Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual. Volumes

1 – 3. Washington, DC: EPA 402-B-04-001A-C, NUREG 1576, NTIS PB2004-105421. July.

Available at www.epa.gov/radiation/marlap/manual.htm.

MARSSIM. 2000. Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual, Revision 1.

NUREG 1575 Rev 1, EPA 402-R-97-016 Rev1, DOE/EH-0624 Rev1. August. Available at:

www.epa.gov/radiation/marssim/index.html.

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 1984. Long-Lived Activation Products in Reactor

Materials. NUREG/CR-3474. NRC, Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 1997. Minimum Detectable Concentrations with

Typical Radiation Survey Instruments for Various Contaminants and Field Conditions..

NUREG/CR-1507. NRC, Washington, DC. 

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 2004. Fact Sheet on Decommissioning Nuclear Power

Plants. NRC, Washington, DC. Available at www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/factsheets/decommissioning.html.

Office of Technology Assessments (OTA). 1991. Complex Cleanup: The Environmental Legacy of

Nuclear Weapons Production. Congress of the United States, Office of Technology

Assessments, OTA-O-484, NTIS #PB91-143743, February.

Ognibene, Ted J., Graham Bench, John S. Vogel, Graham F. Peaslee, and Steve Murov. 2003. “A

High Throughput Method for the Conversion of CO2 Obtained from Biochemical Samples to

Graphite in Septa-sealed Vials for Quantification of 14C Quantification via Accelerator Mass

Spectrometry,” J. Anal. Chem. 75, pp. 2192-2196.

Rollin, Stefan, and Ulla-Britt Eklund. 2000. “Determination of U(IV) and U(VI) by Ion Chromatography-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry and Its Application to Kinetic Studies,”

J. Chromatogr. A, 884, pp. 131-141.

Schultz, M.K., W. Burnett, K.G.W. Inn, and G. Smith. 1998. “Geochemical Partitioning of Actinides

Using Sequential Chemical Extractions: Comparison to Stable Elements,” J. Radioanal. Nucl.

Chem., 234, p. 251.

Shebell, P. 2003. “An In Situ Gamma-ray Spectrometry Intercomparison,” Health Physics, 85(6),

pp. 662 - 677.

Truscott, James B., Phil Jones, Ben E. Fairman, and El Hywel Evans. 2001. “Determination of

Actinides in Environmental and Biological Samples Using High Performance Chelation Ion
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

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Chromatography Coupled to Sector-Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry,”J.

Chromatogr. A, 928, pp. 91-98.

6.2 Other Sources

Adolff, J.-P. and Guillaumont, R. 1993. Fundamentals of Radiochemistry, CRC Press, Boca Raton,

Florida.

American Public Health Association (APHA). 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of

Water and Waste Water, 20th Edition. Washington, DC. Available at: www.standardmethods.org.

Choppin, G., Rydberg, J., Liljenzin, J.O. 1995. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry,

Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

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Eisenbud, Merril, and Thomas Gesell. 1997. Environmental Radioactivity from Natural, Industrial,

and Military Sources. Fourth Edition. San Diego: Academic Press. 656 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980. Upgrading Environmental Radiation Data,

Health Physics Society Committee Report HPSR-1, EPA, 520/1-80-012, EPA, Office of

Radiation Programs, Washington, DC.

Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC). 2004. FRMAC Laboratory

Analysis Manual. Las Vegas, NV: U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration,

Nevada Support Facility (DOE/NV/11718–852). Available at: www.nv.doe.gov/library/

publications/frmac/DOENV11718_852.pdf.

Gilmore, G. and J.D. Hemingway. 1995. Practical Gamma-Ray Spectrometry, John Wiley,

Chichester.

Gy, Pierre M. 1992. Sampling of Heterogeneous and Dynamic Material Systems: Theories of

Heterogeneity, Sampling, and Homogenizing. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Horrocks, D.L. 1970. Applications of Liquid Scintillation Counting, Academic Press.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1993a. International Vocabulary of Basic and

General Terms in Metrology. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1993b. Statistics – Vocabulary and Symbols –

Part 1: Probability and General Statistical Terms. ISO 3534-1. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1995. Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty

in Measurement. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). 1997. Capability of Detection – Part 1: Terms

and Definitions. ISO 11843-1. ISO, Geneva, Switzerland.
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International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). 1995. Nomenclature in Evaluation

of Analytical Methods Including Detection and Quantification Capabilities. Pure and Applied

Chemistry 67:10, pp. 1699–1723.

Knoll, G. F. 1989. Radiation Detection and Measurement, 2nd Edition. New York: John Wiley &

Sons.

McDowell, C.A. 1963. Mass Spectrometry. (Editor) New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Mann, W.B., A. Rytz, and A. Spernol. 1991. Radioactivity Measurements, Principles and Practice.

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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). 1978. Technology, Safety and Costs of

Decommissioning a Reference Pressurized Water Reactor Power Station.. NUREG/CR-0130.

NRC, Washington, DC. 

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Elaboration of a Proposed Position for Radiological Effluent and Environmental Measurements.

NUREG/CR-4007. NRC, Washington, DC.

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Isotopes: Chart of the Nuclides. 15th Edition. Lockheed Martin and General Electric.

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An Emerging Method for Analysis of Long-Lived Radionuclides,” Radioactivity and

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Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

62

Appendix A: Glossary

(Note: terms in italics within definitions contain their own entries)

activity (A), radioactive: (1) The rate of nuclear transformations of a radioactive substance, i.e., the

number of radioactive atoms undergoing nuclear transformation (nuclear decay) per unit time; (2)

The number of nuclear decays occurring in a given quantity of material in a small time interval,

divided by the time interval: A = –dN/dt.

alpha particle (α): Essentially a helium nucleus, comprised of two protons and two neutrons (Z =

2, A = 4). An α particle is the heaviest particle emitted during radioactive decay. 

analytical data requirements: Measurement performance criteria used to select and decide how the

laboratory analyses will be conducted and used for the initial, ongoing, and final evaluation of the

laboratory’s performance and the laboratory data. Analytical data requirements are often described

in terms of sensitivity (method detection capability), completeness, precision, and accuracy or bias.

In a performance-based approach, the project-specific analytical data requirements serve as

measurement performance criteria and decisions on how the laboratory analyses will be conducted,

e.g., method selection, etc. 

analytical method: A major component of an analytical protocol that normally includes written

procedures for sample digestion, chemical separation (if required), and counting (analyte quantification through radioactive decay emission or atom counting measurement techniques.

analytical protocol: A compilation of specific procedures/methods that are performed in succession

for a particular analytical process. With a performance-based approach, there may be a number of

appropriate analytical protocols for a particular analytical process. The analytical protocol is

generally more inclusive of the activities that make up the analytical process than is the analytical

method. See analytical method.

analytical protocol specification (APS): The output of a directed planning process that contains the

project’s analytical data needs and requirements in an organized, concise form. The level of

specificity in the APS should be limited to those requirements that are considered essential to

meeting the project’s analytical data requirements to allow the laboratory the flexibility of selecting

the protocols or methods that meet the analytical requirements. 

atomic mass (A): The sum of an atom’s protons (Z) and neutrons (N); also called “atomic weight.”

Isotopes of a given element all have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons,

so they have different masses (see atomic number).

atomic number (Z): The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus. The atomic number defines an

element’s chemical properties, and hence its place in the Periodic Table. 

becquerel (Bq): The SI unit of radioactivity, defined as one disintegration (decay) per second. The

more common unit is the picocurie (pCi) or 10–12 Ci, which equals 2.22 disintegrations per minute

(dpm), or 0.037 Bq. See curie.
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beta particle: Beta particles (β–) and positrons (β+) are essentially electrons, but they originate in

the nucleus of an atom. A conversion electron (e–) is generated from the interaction of a gamma ray

with an orbital electron. All of these particles have the same mass and charge. Conversion electrons

are monoenergetic, having the energy of the gamma ray minus the energy needed to remove the

electron from orbit. Beta particles and positrons always have an energy distribution from zero to a

maximum.

branching decay: This occurs when a radionuclide can decay by more than one mode. Examples

of this would be 235U decaying by alpha emission or by spontaneous fission, or 214Bi decaying by β–

or α emission. Generally, for any radionuclide, one possible decay mode predominates by orders of

magnitude. The half-life denoted is the aggregate half-life of all the decay modes, proportional to

their percent abundance. However, each branching decay has its own half-life.

branching fraction: The fraction of particles or photons with a specific energy that result from the

decay of a particular radionuclide. For example, the branching fractions for the 134Cs γ rays at 795

and 605 keV are 0.854 and 0.976, respectively (for every 1,000 decay events, 854 and 976 of these

γ rays, respectively would be emitted). Also referred to as “branching ratio,” “emission probability,”

and “particle yield.”

bremsstrahlung radiation: When an electron passes through matter, it can undergo a very large

acceleration (deceleration). The resulting loss by the electron of radiant energy (photons) is called

bremsstrahlung (from the German “bremsen,” to brake, and “Strahlung”) radiation.

carrier: A stable isotope of an element (usually the analyte) added to increase the total amount of

that element so that a measurable mass of the element is present.

carrier-free radiotracer: (1) A radioactive isotope tracer that is essentially free from stable (nonradioactive) isotopes of the element in question. (2) Addition of a specific, nonradioactive isotope

of an element to change the measured isotopic abundance of the element in the sample. Such

materials are usually designated as nonisotopic material or marked with the symbol “c.f.” (see

carrier, radiotracer).

Cerenkov radiation: Cerenkov radiation is emitted in the ultraviolet spectrum when a fast charged

particle traverses a dielectric medium (like water) at a velocity exceeding the velocity of light in that

medium. It is analogous to the “sonic boom” generated by a craft exceeding the speed of sound. 

check source: A sealed source used to verify the operabilitly of an installed radiation detector. The

source is shielded from the detector except during brief intervals when it is inserted in front of the

active detector surface. The response that the detector yields must be above a certain number of

counts for the detector to be considered operable.

chelate: A class of metal-organic or metal-inorganic compounds in which the metal atom or ion is

held by a pair of ligand atoms in a single molecule.

constant weight: A process by which a sample is heated in an oven at about 105 EC for at least one

hour, cooled in a desiccator, then weighed. This process is performed at least twice so that two
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

64

successive mass determinations agree to within a range determined by the analytical protocols for

the project.

conversion electron: See beta particle.

counting efficiency: the ratio of the events detected (and registered) by a radiation detection system

to the number of particles or photons emitted from a radioactive source. The counting efficiency

may be a function of many) variables, such as radiation energy, source composition, and source or

detector geometry.

count time: The time interval for the counting of a sample or source by a radiation detector (also

referred to as the “live” time or analysis time).

critical value: In the context of analyte detection, the minimum measured value (e.g., of the

instrument signal or the analyte concentration) required to give confidence (to a given probability)

that a positive (different than background) amount of analyte is present in the material analyzed. The

critical value is sometimes called the critical level or decision level.

cross-contamination: Cross-contamination occurs when radioactive material in one sample is

inadvertently transferred to an uncontaminated sample, which can result from using contaminated

sampling equipment and chemicals, and improperly cleaned glassware, crucibles, grinders, etc.

Cross-contamination may also occur from spills, as well as airborne dusts of contaminated materials

created during grinding.

crosstalk: A phenomenon in gas proportional counting or liquid scintillation counting when an

emission of an alpha particle is recorded as a beta particle count or vice versa. This is due to the

ionization affects of the particles at different energies.

curie (Ci): The common unit of radioactivity. Originally defined as the radioactivity of 1 g of pure

radium; since 1953 defined as exactly 3.7 × 1010 disintegrations per second, or 3.7 × 1010 Bq.

Because the Ci is such a large value, the more common unit is the picocurie, or 10–12 Ci. See

becquerel.

data package: The information the laboratory should produce after processing samples so that data

verification, validation, and quality assessment can be done.

Data Quality Objective (DQO): DQOs are qualitative and quantitative statements that clarify the

study objectives, define the most appropriate type of data to collect, determine the most appropriate

conditions from which to collect the data, and specify tolerable limits on decision error rates. The

DQOs should encompass the total uncertainty resulting from all data collection activities, including

analytical and sampling activities.

decay: The decrease in the number of atoms of any radioactive material with the passage of time

due to the spontaneous emission from the nuclei of photons or alpha or beta particles, often

accompanied by gamma radiation. Eventually, all radioactive materials decay to stable elements.

See radioactive, decay chain.
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decay chain: A decay chain or decay series begins with a parent radioisotope (also called a parent

radionuclide or parent nuclide). As a result of the radioactive decay process, one element is

transformed into another. The newly formed element, the decay product or progeny, may itself be

radioactive and eventually decay to form another nuclide. Moreover, this third decay product may

be unstable and in turn decay to form a fourth, fifth, or more generations of other radioactive decay

products. The final decay product in the series will be a stable element. Elements with extremely

long half-lives may be considered stable in most cases. Examples of important naturally occurring

decay chains include the uranium series, the thorium series, and the actinium series. 

decay emissions: The emissions of alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays from an atomic

nucleus, which accompany a nuclear transformation from one chemical atom to another or from a

higher nuclear energy state to lower one.

derived concentration guideline level: A derived radionuclide-specific activity concentration within

a survey unit corresponding to the release criterion. DCGLs are derived from activity/dose

relationships through various exposure-pathway scenarios.

eluent: The mobile phase in chromatography. Also called “eluant.” Elution is the removal, by means

of a suitable solvent, of one material from another that is insoluble in that solvent, as in chromatography.

error: The difference between a measured result and the true or expected value of the analyte being

measured. The error of a measurement is primarily a theoretical concept, because its true value is

never known. See also measurement uncertainty.

extractant: An agent used to isolate or extract a substance from a mixture or combination of

substances. An extractant scintillator extracts the radionuclide or element from the solution.

gamma ray (γ): After alpha or beta emission, the nucleus may still possess excess energy (i.e., they

remain unstable). The extra energy is given off in the form of gamma radiation. Gamma rays, like

X-rays, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum (beyond ultraviolet wavelengths), and their energies

correspond to the difference in the energy levels in the nucleus from which they come. These

discrete energies are used to identify the radionuclides from which they originated. Gamma rays

typically accompany α, β–

, and β+ emission but originate from the resultant nucleus of the decay

process after the particle emission. See X-rays.

gray (Gy): The SI unit for absorbed radiation dose. One gray is 1 joule of energy absorbed per

kilogram of matter, equal to 100 rad. 

half-life (t1⁄2): The time required for one-half of the atoms of a particular radionuclide in a sample

to disintegrate or undergo nuclear transformation.

ingrowth: The occurrence and increase of a progeny radionuclide within a sample, initially

containing only the parent radionuclide, caused by radioactive decay of the parent. 

ion-exchange chromatography: A separation method based on the reversible exchange of ions in

a mobile phase with ions bonded to a solid ionic phase. Ions that are bonded less strongly to the solid
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66

phase (of opposite charge) are displaced by ions that bond more strongly bonded. Separation of

analyte ions depends on the relative strength of bonding to the solid phase. Those less strongly

bonded ions are released from the solid phase earlier and eluted sooner.

isobar: Nuclides that have the same atomic mass number but a different number of protons (Z) and

neutrons (N). Isobars have different chemical properties. For example, 36Cl (Z = 17, N = 19) and 36S

(Z = 16, N = 20) are isobars because they have the same atomic mass even though they are

chemically different. As radionuclides, isobars may be related through radioactive decay by β+

, β–,

or electron capture. For example, 90Sr (Z = 38, N = 52) decays to 90Y (Z = 39, N = 51) by βemission. These two radionuclides are isobars.

isomeric transition: The transition, via gamma-ray emission, of a nucleus from a high-energy state

to a lower-energy state without accompanying particle emission, e.g., 99mTc ÷ 99Tc + γ.

isotope: Nuclides having the same number of protons in their nuclei (same atomic number), but

differing in the number of neutrons (different mass number). Thus, hydrogen (Z = 1) has one proton.

Tritium (3

H) is an atom of hydrogen with one proton and two neutrons, with an atomic mass of 3.

A “radioisotope” is an isotope with radioactive properties. See nuclide and radionuclide.

laboratory control sample (LCS): (Also referred to as a “QC sample.”) A standard material of

known composition or an artificial sample (created by fortification of a clean material similar in

nature to the environmental sample), which is prepared and analyzed in the same manner as the

environmental sample. In an ideal situation, the result of an analysis of the laboratory control

sample should be equivalent to (give 100 percent of) the target analyte concentration or activity

known to be present in the fortified sample or standard material. 

ligand: Two atoms of a single molecule holding a metal atom or ion in a chelate.

measurement quality objective (MQO): The analytical data requirements of the Data Quality

Objectives that are project- or program-specific. MQOs can be quantitative or qualitative. MQOs

serve as measurement performance criteria or objectives of the analytical process. Quantitative

MQOs are statements of required analyte detectability or the uncertainty of the analytical protocol

at a specified radionuclide concentration, such as the action level. Qualitative MQOs are statements

of the required specificity of the analytical protocol, e.g., the ability to analyze for the radionuclide

of concern given the presence of interferences.

measurement uncertainty: Uncertainty of measurement is defined as a parameter, associated with

the result of a measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of values that could reasonably be

attributed to the measurand. The uncertainty of a measured value is typically expressed as an

estimated standard deviation, called a standard uncertainty.

minimum detectable concentration (MDC):The MDC is the “true” concentration of analyte

required to give a specified high probability that the measured response will be greater than the

critical value. The International Standards Organization (ISO) refers to the MDC as the “minimum

detectable value of the net state variable.” They define this as the smallest (true) value of the net

state variable that gives a specified probability that the value of the response variable will exceed

its critical value, i.e., that the material analyzed is not blank. The “minimum detectable activity
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(MDA)” is similar, but relates to the quantity (activity) of a radionuclide rather than the

concentration of a radionuclide.

mixed wastes: Regulated wastes containing both chemically hazardous and radiological materials.

monoenergetic: The quality of a particle or quantum of energy that has a discrete, well-defined

energy range. This is a characteristic of emitted alpha particles and gamma- and X-rays.

net count rate: The value resulting from the subtraction of the background count rate, instrument

background or appropriate blank from the total (gross) count rate of a source or sample.

nuclide: A general term for an atom with a given combination of protons, neutrons, and nuclear

energy state. See radionuclide and isotope.

parent radionuclide: The initial radionuclide in a decay series that decays to form one or more

progeny

Poisson distribution: The distribution of the total radioactive counts obtained over time as a result

of fluctuations governed by the laws of probability, as is the case for the radioactive decay process.

positron: See beta particle.

progeny: One or more radionuclides that form from radioactive decay of a parent radionuclide in

a decay series.

quality assurance (QA): An integrated system of management activities involving planning,

implementation, assessment, reporting, and quality improvement to ensure that a process, item, or

service is of the type and quality needed and expected.

quality control (QC): Monitoring key laboratory performance indicators as a means of determining

if a laboratory’s measurement processes are in control. 

quality control samples: Samples analyzed for the purpose of assessing imprecision and bias. 

quality indicators: Measurable attributes of the attainment of the necessary quality for a particular

environmental decision. Precision, bias, completeness, and sensitivity are common data quality

indicators for which quantitative MQOs could be developed during the planning process.

quality system: The quality system oversees the implementation of QC samples, documentation of

QC sample compliance or noncompliance with MQOs, audits, surveillances, performance evaluation

sample analyses, corrective actions, quality improvement, and reports to management. 

radioactive: (1) the property possessed by some elements or isotopes of spontaneously emitting

radiations by the transformation of their nucleus. (2) The product of nuclear transformations

(disintegrations) in which the energy (or a fraction thereof) of the process is emitted in the form of

alpha particles, beta particles, or photons. See decay.
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radiochemical analysis: The analysis of a sample matrix for its radionuclide content, both

qualitatively and quantitatively.

radiolysis: Chemical reactions, including decomposition, induced by radiation.

radionuclide: A species of atom characterized by its mass number, atomic number, and nuclear

energy state, providing that the mean half-life in that state is long enough to be observable. The

majority of known nuclides are radioactive. The term “radionuclide” is used when referring to a

specific radioactive nuclide without relating it to other isotopes of an element. 

radiotracer: (1) A radioactive isotope of the analyte that is added to the sample to measure any

losses of the analyte during the chemical separations or other processes employed in the analysis

(the chemical yield). (2) A radioactive element that is present in only extremely minute quantities,

on the order of 10–15 to 10–11 Molar.

recovery: The actual amount of material detected in a laboratory control sample (LCS) or spiked

sample, expressed in percent of the amount of material that was added. In an ideal situation, the

result of an analysis of the laboratory control sample should be equivalent to (give 100 percent of)

the target analyte concentration or activity known to be present in the fortified sample or standard

material. The result normally is expressed as percent recovery. Because most radioanalytical

methods use radiotracers or analyze a radionuclide in a sample without losses, recovery is a

measure of method bias for repetitive measurements. The LCS recovery differs from the recovery

of a matrix spike in that the matrix spike is added directly to the environmental sample and the

percent recovery is determined by comparing the difference between the original and spiked samples

after accounting for the activity in the original (unspiked) sample.

rem: The common unit for the effective or “equivalent” dose of radiation received by a living

organism, equal to the actual dose (in rads) multiplied by a factor representing the danger of the

radiation. “Rem” stands for “roentgen equivalent man,” meaning that it measures the biological

effects of ionizing radiation in humans. One rem is equal to 0.01 Sv. See sievert.

representativeness: (1) The term employed for the degree to which samples properly reflect their

parent populations. (2) A representative sample is a sample collected in such a manner that it reflects

one or more characteristics of interest (as defined by the project objectives) of a population from

which it was collected. (3) One of the five principal data quality indicators (i.e., precision, bias,

representativeness, comparability, and completeness). 

reproducibility: A measure of laboratory precision based on each sample matrix. Duplicate or

replicate sample results are used to evaluate reproducibility of the complete laboratory subsampling, preparation, and analytical process.

SAFSTOR: A method of decommissioning in which the nuclear facility is placed and maintained

in such condition that the nuclear facility can be safely stored and subsequently decontaminated to

levels that permit release for unrestricted use.

sievert (Sv): The SI unit for the effective dose of radiation received by a living organism. It is the

actual dose received (“grays” in SI or “rads” in traditional units) times a factor that is larger for more

dangerous forms of radiation. One sievert is 100 rem. Radiation doses are often measured in
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millisieverts (mSv). An effective dose of 1 Sv requires 1 gray of beta or gamma radiation but only

0.05 gray of alpha radiation or 0.1 gray of neutron radiation. 

spike: (Also termed “matrix spike.) A known amount of target analyte added to the environmental

sample in order to establish if the method or procedure is appropriate for the analysis of the

particular matrix and how the target analyte responds when the environmental sample is prepared

and measured, thereby estimating the bias introduced by the sample matrix.

standard uncertainty: The estimated standard deviation associated with a measured value.

Statistically, the standard uncertainty of x is denoted by u(x).

uncertainty: The term “uncertainty” may have several shades of meaning. In general it refers to a

lack of complete knowledge about something of interest. It usually refers to “uncertainty of

measurement,” which is a parameter associated with the result of a measurement that characterizes

the dispersion of the values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand. See also, standard

uncertainty.

X-rays: First discovered in 1895, X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths

shorter than visible or radio waves. X-rays originate from the realignment of atomic shells (orbital

electrons) during the decay process. While they exhibit the same dual behavior as light (waves and

photons), and they can be polarized or refracted, they are capable of penetrating matter. See gamma

rays.
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Appendix B: Principles of Radioactive Decay and Radioactive Equilibrium

B.1Introduction

This discussion on radioactivity and radiation provides the basic concepts of nuclides, radionuclides,

radioactive decay, and decay emissions. These concepts are important to the measurement of

radioactivity from samples. This fundamental knowledge, in addition to the historical site assessment, will assist the project managers in determining the scope of work that may originate from the

various sites. 

B.1.1 Nuclides

Elements may be differentiated by their physical and chemical characteristics. The elements are

arranged within the Periodic Table according to the number of protons in their nucleus (atomic

number, or “Z number”); all atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons.

Individual elements may have more than one “isotope,” which are atoms of an element that have the

same number of protons (Z) but a different number of neutrons (N) in their nucleus. For example,

in addition to the stable 27Al, there are 14 other known isotopes of aluminum ranging in mass

number between 22 and 35. For aluminum, these other 14 isotopes are radioactive or unstable

nuclides. Other elements, such as iron (Fe), have several stable isotopes of different abundances

(

54Fe – 5.8 percent, 56Fe – 91.8 percent, 57Fe – 2.1 percent, and 58Fe – 0.3 percent) as well as

radioactive isotopes. When referring to a radioactive isotope of an element, the term “radioisotope”

often is used. Isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties, whether they are

radioactive or not. The ratio of Z to N determines the stability of the nucleus (i.e. whether or not the

atom is radioactive). 

The general term for a specific combination of Z and N is a “nuclide.” The mass number (A) of the

nuclide is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons (A = Z + N). The positive charge of the

nucleus (Z+) establishes the number of electrons in the neutral atom, and determines the

configuration of the outermost electrons. This element-specific structure of the electron cloud of the

neutral atom determines how the atom will ionize, and thus its chemical properties.

When writing a specific nuclide in symbolic form, the atomic number and mass are included. For

example, the symbolic form of stable aluminum is , which is the only stable nuclide (100 percent 13

27Al

abundance) of aluminum. Common nomenclature normally does not include the Z number in the

symbolic form because the element symbol (Al) uniquely represents the number of protons in the

nucleus for that element— 27Al. 

Nuclides with the same atomic mass (Z + N) are called “isobars.” For example, 36Cl and 36S,

although chemically and physically different because of their different Z numbers, are isobars

because their A values are the same.

B.1.2 Radionuclides

The majority of known nuclides are radioactive. The term “radionuclide” is used when referring to

a specific radioactive nuclide without relating it to other isotopes of an element. The radioactive
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decay of each radionuclide is unique in terms of its mean time (or half-life) for decay and the nuclear

emissions during the decay process. Radionuclides can be found in nature but most are generated

by man-made nuclear reactions such as nuclear fission or activation. Naturally occurring radionuclides can be delineated into two groups according to their origin, primordial and cosmogenic.

Primordial radionuclides are those nuclides that have been present since the formation of the Earth,

and whose half-lives are sufficiently long to permit detection of these nuclides today. Examples of

primordial nuclides are 238U and 232Th. In some cases, the primordial nuclides decay into a series of

other shorter lived radionuclides (referred to as a “decay chain”). Cosmogenic radionuclides are

those nuclides formed by the irradiation of stable elements, primarily in the atmosphere, by neutrons,

gamma rays, or protons from solar irradiance. Cosmogenic radionuclides have half-lives that may

be short or very long (7

Be and 14C, respectively).

There are three long-lived, naturally occurring, radionuclides that are the “parents” of decay chains

with numerous members: 238U, 232Th, and 235U. An additional decay chain once existed from 237Np

(t1⁄2 . 2.1 × 106 y), which has long since “died out,” because the half-lives of the parent and progeny

are much shorter than the age of the Earth (about 4.6 × 109

 y). The decay chains of the existing longlived radionculides are depicted in Figures 3, 4, and 5.

B.1.3 Radioactive Decay

It has been recognized that a nuclide will be stable if it contains a certain combination of neutrons

and protons. Of the known elements, only elements from hydrogen (Z = 1) to bismuth (Z = 83) have

stable nuclides. Technetium (43) and promethium (61), however, are exceptions and have no stable

isotopes. If one plots the number of protons (Z) against the number of neutrons (N), it becomes

apparent that the stable nuclides form a “line of stability” with a slope of about one (or N . Z) for

the first 20 elements and a slope of less than one (or N > Z) for higher Z elements. When a nuclide

has too many neutrons, the nucleus is unstable, and a neutron will be converted to a proton resulting

in β– emission. An example of this is

27

60

28

60 Co Ni β−

⎯ →⎯ .

When a nuclide has too many protons, the nucleus is also unstable, and a proton is converted to a

neutron either through a positron emission or capture of an orbital electron (electron capture).

Examples of these changes include: 

27

58

26

58 Co Fe β+

⎯ →⎯

and

27

58

26

58 Co e Fe

−

⎯ → ⎯⎯⎯⎯ capture

For nuclides that have a large excess of neutrons and protons, the nucleus can approach stability by

emitting an alpha particle Examples of an alpha emission that result in stable or unstable ( He ). 2

4 2+

nuclides are:

84

212

82

208 Po⎯ →⎯α Pb (stable)

 and

88

226

86

222 Ra Rn (unstable: radioactive) ⎯ →⎯α
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FIGURE 3 — Uranium-238 decay chain

FIGURE 4 — Thorium-232 decay chain

FIGURE 5 — Uranium-235 decay chain
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During radioactive decay, the number of atoms (N) of a radionuclide decreases over time according

to its own characteristic decay rate. Mathematically, the number of atoms decaying (dN) in a short

time interval (dt) can be expressed as:

dN = –λN dt 

where λ is the decay constant for the radionuclide. 

Integrating the differential equation results in the well-known radioactive decay equation:

N Ne t t = − −

0

λ 0 ( )

where: N is the number of radioactive atoms remaining at time t, and 

N0 is the initial number of atoms at time t0. 

There is an important relationship between the radionuclide’s decay constant and its half-life. By

definition, the half-life (t1⁄2) of a radionuclide is the time interval needed to reduce the number of

atoms by half. Simplifying the equation for λ with N = 1⁄2N0 would result in λ = [loge 2]/t1⁄2, or λ =

0.6931/t1⁄2. In most reference materials on the properties of the various radionuclides, the half-life

of the radionuclide will be specified, typically in units of years (y), days (d), hours (h), minutes (m)

or seconds (s). The λ is expressed in reciprocal time units; y-1, d-1, h-1, min-1, or s-1.

Most radioactive measurements deal with activity or the number of atoms decaying per unit of time.

A radionuclide’s activity is calculated by the equation A = N λ. The new unit of radioactivity is the

becquerel (Bq), and is defined as one disintegration (decay) per second. The more common unit is

the picocurie (pCi) or 10-12 Ci, which equals 2.22 disintegrations per minute (dpm), or 0.037 Bq. For

example, 500 Bq of 60Co will decay to 250 Bq in one half-life (t1⁄2 . 5.27 y).

B.1.4 Radioactive Decay Emissions

Unstable nuclides (radionuclides) decay randomly to stable and unstable nuclides of lower atomic

mass. The difference between the masses of the original nuclide, and the decay product (progeny)

nuclide is related to the radiation emitted during the decay process according to Einstein’s famous

mass-energy equation, E = mc2. 

Emissions from the nucleus of an atom during radioactive decay that are important to the measurement of radioactivity in samples include alpha particles, beta particles (as β–

 or β+), gamma rays, and

X-rays (which also may be emitted as a result of electron capture and other nuclear phenomena). The

energy of these emissions is stated in terms of electron volts (eV), which is equivalent to 1.6 × 10–12

erg. Energies of alpha and beta particles are generally expressed in MeV while that for gamma- and

X-rays are expressed in keV.

B.1.4.1Alpha Particles

An alpha particle (α) is the heaviest particle emitted during radioactive decay (heavier particles can

occur but are rare). An α particle is essentially a helium nucleus, comprised of two protons and two

neutrons (Z = 2, A = 4). When ejected from the nucleus of a heavier unstable atom during

radioactive decay (“alpha emission”), it always has a discrete energy (“monoenergetic”). However,

the decay process may emit an alpha particle of one of several possible discrete energies, each with
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a probability of emission per decay. For example, for 241Am, an alpha particle emission may have

one of three energies, each with a different probability of emission: 5.486 MeV (85.2 percent

probability), 5.443 MeV (12.8 percent), and 5.388 MeV (1.4 percent). The “signature” of an alpha

emitting radionuclide is its alpha particle energy. This energy signature, along with the nuclide’s

half-life, are specific to the identification of an alpha-emitting radionuclide. For example, the alpha

energy of 210Po (t1⁄2 . 138 d) is 5.305 MeV, while the alpha energy of 208Po (t1⁄2 . 2.90 y) is 5.116

MeV. Typically, the shorter the half-life, the greater the energy of the alpha particle.

When interacting with materials, alpha particles have a very short penetration range and travel in

a nearly a straight manner, i.e., with minimal scattering. This is especially important when detecting

alpha particle emissions from radionuclides isolated by radiochemical means. A 5 MeV alpha

particle has a range of about 3.5 cm in air and 0.03 mm in skin or water. As such, test sources

containing alpha-emitting radionuclides must be extremely thin for proper detection and energy

identification, typically in the micron thickness range. It should be noted that particle and photon

absorption thickness are stated in units of milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm2

), which for

particles is equivalent to the range (cm) times density of material (g/cm3

). 

B.1.4.2Beta Particles, Positrons, and Conversion Electrons 

Beta particles (β–

) and positrons (β+) originate in the nucleus of an atom, while a conversion electron

is generated from the interaction of a gamma ray with an orbital electron. All of these particles have

the same mass, but the beta and conversion electrons (β– and e–) have a negative charge while the

positron has a positive charge. The charge of a β–, β+, and e– is 1.602 × 10–19 Coulombs. Like α

particles, conversion electrons are monoenergetic, having the energy of the gamma ray minus the

energy needed to remove the electron from orbit. The emissions of beta particles and positrons

always have an energy distribution from zero to a maximum, Eβmax, with an average of

approximately a Eβmax. 

Because an electron has a low mass and a single charge, it is more easily scattered and less readily

absorbed in materials compared to other nuclear particles such as alphas and protons. In addition,

as a result of this scattering, an electron’s path through material is nonlinear and tortuous.

Absorption of β–

, β+, and e– in materials is relatively independent of the atomic number of the

material. However, their absorption range varies according to the density of the material. For

energies above one MeV, the range of a β–

 and β+ is linear with respect to energy (Lapp and

Andrews, 1964). The range of a tritium beta particle of Eβmax = 0.018 MeV is 0.6 mg/cm2

 (6 μm in

water), while the range for a 32P beta particle of Eβmax = 1.71 MeV is 800 mg/cm2

 (8 mm in water).

Different radiation detection methodologies are used for low energy (< 0.200 MeV) β–

, β+, and e–

compared to those of medium to high energy. 

B.1.4.3X-Rays, Gamma Rays, and Bremsstrahlung Radiation

X- and gamma (γ) rays are electromagnetic radiations that have defined energies. X-rays originate

from the realignment of atomic shells (orbital electrons) during the decay process. One requirement

for an X-ray emission is the creation of an electron vacancy in an inner shell. Because there are

many electron shells for atoms of atomic number greater than 10 (neon), there is a probability that

the X-rays from a radioactive decay will have more than one energy. However, the energy of an Xray is always smaller than the highest electron-binding energy in atomic shells or under about 100
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

75

keV. The probability of an X-ray emission of a specific energy per atomic disintegration has been

determined and is listed with the characteristic of the radionuclide. 

Gamma rays originate from the nucleus of an atom as a result of nuclear de-excitation and have

energies from about 20 keV to several MeV. Following α, β–

, or β+ emission, the nucleus may still

have excess energy; this energy is released in the form of gamma rays. Gamma rays are more

probable with β– and β+ emissions than with α emissions. Gamma-ray emission, without

accompanying particle emission, is known as “isomeric transition” (the nucleus goes from an excited

state to a ground state). The discrete energies of the X- and γ-rays are used to identify the

radionuclides from which they originated.

For a laboratory application, bremsstrahlung radiation is produced whenever electrons (β– and β+)

are decelerated in matter. Unlike X- and γ-rays, bremsstrahlung radiation shows a continuous

spectrum of photon energy extending from zero to the maximum energy (Eβmax) of the β–

 or β+. There

are only a few radioanalytical methods that use bremsstrahlung radiation detection as a means to

quantify a radionuclide. 

The degree of interaction of photons, such as X-, γ-, and bremsstrahlung radiations, is highly

dependent on the photon energy. Gamma-rays, which have energies typically > 100 keV, are more

penetrating and are less absorbed by matter compared to lower energy X-rays (typically less than

100 keV). This is an important characteristic when choosing a radiation detector and for shielding

detectors from photons originating from outside (external background radiations) the sample being

analyzed. For most remediation sample analyses, gamma-ray detectors are typically shielded with

a minimum of 102 mm of lead or other very dense material.

B.1.5 Techniques for Radionuclide Detection

When there is sufficient activity, the detection and identification of a specific radionuclide is

accomplished by evaluating the radiological and chemical properties of the nuclide of interest. For

radionuclides that emit characteristic gamma rays of a specific energy, the detection and identification of the nuclide is based on the radiological characteristics only. For nuclides that emit beta and

alpha particles, a combination of radiological and chemical characteristics may be needed to identify

and quantify the nuclide of interest. In these cases, the nuclide is isolated from the sample matrix

through chemical means and then concentrated in some final chemical form (e.g., 89SrCO3) used as

a test source. The resulting test source can be analyzed by either a beta or alpha detector depending

on the nuclide’s decay scheme or particle emission. In some cases, where there may be several

isotopes of the element in the test source, a particle energy spectrometry measurement is necessary

to discern the various isotopes, e.g., 238Pu and 239Pu. Also, radioanalytical methodologies may

employ chemical separation schemes and detectors that are specific to identifying and quantifying

a radioactive decay product of the nuclide of interest. Examples of this type of methodology

application include separating and analyzing 90Y, the short lived (t1⁄2 . 64.0 h) decay of 90Sr and the

collection and analysis of 222Rn (t1⁄2 .3.82 d), the first decay product of 226Ra.

Radiation detection methodologies have been developed based on the physical interaction of the

decay emissions with special materials that have certain characteristics that may be measured

following the absorption of the radiation. Radiation detectors may be based on the following

physical principles: ionization of gases, creation of electron-hole pairs in semiconductor materials,

and the change of energy states with subsequent light emissions for certain organic and inorganic
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

76

materials. Examples of these radiation detection methodologies include gas proportional counting

for α and β detection, large germanium and silicon semiconductor detectors for X- and γ-ray

detection and spectrometry, silicon semiconductor detectors for α spectrometry, and organic liquid

scintillation counting for low-energy β particles and limited α spectrometry.

B.1.6 Radioactive Equilibrium

When the decay product of a radionuclide is another radionuclide, three distinct cases—referred to

as “radioactive equilibria”—may be derived mathematically. These are based on the relationship of

the half-lives of the original and newly formed radionuclide. These cases are referred to as secular,

transient, and no equilibrium, and the relationship is referred to as “parent-progeny” (Friedlander

et al., 1981). Thus, radioactive equilibrium may be described as the relative proportion of the

activity of each of two or more radionuclides.

These relationships become complex when the progeny gives rise to a nuclide that is also radioactive. In this case, the relationship would become, [parent] ý [1st progeny] ý[2 nd progeny]. This

connection of the radionuclides is referred to as a radioactive decay chain. When the parent of the

chain is present, some number of atoms of all of the progeny in the chain will be present eventually

as the predecessor radionuclides undergo radioactive decay. Examples of these chains are:

SECULAR EQUILIBRIUM

Decay-chain nuclides: 238U ý 234Th ý 234mPa ý many others

Half-lives: 4.47 × 109 y 24.1 d 1.2 min

TRANSIENT EQUILIBRIUM

Decay-chain nuclides: 95Zr ý 95Nb

Half-lives: 64 d 35 d

NO EQUILIBRIUM

Decay-chain nuclides: 210Bi ý 210Po ý 206Pb (stable)

Half-lives: 5 d 1.38 × 102 d

The relationship expressing the number of atoms of each of the radionuclides present in a decay

chain after a certain period of time has elapsed can be expressed by the Batemann Equation

(Friedlander et al., 1981). If a quantity of the parent is chemically isolated, the amount of each

progeny can be calculated for any time period after the time of separation. For environmental

samples, the secular and transient equilibria are most significant because the parent radionuclide has

a long half-life, and the progeny have relatively short half-lives or a shorter half-life than the parent.

In many cases, if the progeny were present all by themselves, they would decay and might not be

detected. But because of the decay chain relationship, new progeny continue to be formed by the

parent. Thus, it appears that the half-life of the progeny is the same as that of the parent.

However, in the environment, this decay equilibrium can be upset because of the different chemical

properties of each of the radionuclides in the decay chain. Figure 6 shows an example of how this

upset to the radioactive equilibrium can occur. Initially the 232Th and 228Ra and 238U and 226Ra (from

two separate radioactive decay chains), establish a radioactive equilibrium with their respective

progeny, radium and radon. These radioactive equilibria initially occur in their respective media.

Thorium does not dissolve in water (indicated by the “X” over that arrow), while radium does. As
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

77

FIGURE 6 — Environmental and chemical factors affecting radioactive equilibrium

the radium dissolves, it is only partially “supported” in the water, because the thorium does not

dissolve. 

The other decay chain has 226Ra as the fifth progeny of 238U. Because uranium is more soluble than

thorium, the decay chain in the liquid phase is fed continually by its parent. Initially, it is in radioactive equilibrium with the radium and radon decay products in water. The 226Ra is fully supported.

However, due to the volatility of radon, it escapes the water column and is “unsupported” in air by

radium because radium is not volatile (also indicated by the “X” over that transition). When radon

is volatilized from water, but radium is not, the radon in the water is not completely supported; there

is a loss of radon to the air, but radium keeps feeding the radon to the water. In each case where the

progeny are less than fully supported, there will be an indeterminable or nonexistent radioactive

equilibrium. Samples with radionuclides that are partially or fully unsupported need special attention

when establishing the time from sampling to analysis, because in some instances the radionuclide

of interest may decay away before analysis can occur. 

Similar cases of radionuclide progeny being unsupported in an environmental medium hold true for

other radionuclides discussed in this document such as plutonium, americium, and lead.

B.1.7 Useful Websites and Sources for Background Information on Radioactivity

 • Units of measure: www.physics.nist.gov/cuu/index.html

 • Table of nuclides: http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/

 • Periodic chart of the elements: www.webelements.com

The following websites can be used to access technical reference material such as nuclide decay

schemes, half-lives, and decay emissions:

 C All nuclides; National Nuclear Data Center: 

www.nndc.bnl.gov

www.nndc.bnl.gov/nndc/ensdf/
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

78

 C Nuclides typical for natural background and environmental remediation; DHS Environment

Measurements Laboratory, EML Publications, Procedure Manual (HASL 300), Chapter 5

Radionuclide Data: www.eml.st.dhs.gov/publications/procman/.

 C Gamma-ray spectra and decay schemes: www.inl.gov/gammaray/catalogs/index.shtml 

 C Radiochemical processes: library.lanl.gov/radiochemistry/elements.htm

 C Statistical applications to measurements including process control:

www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/index2.htm

ie.lbl.gov/toi/

www.inl.gov/gammaray/links.shtml 

 C Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC): 

 www.nv.doe.gov.nationalsecurity/homelandsecurity/frmac/default.htm
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

79

Appendix C: Radionuclide Parameters and Characteristics

Radionuclide Decay Mode Half-Life Means of Production

DOE*NPPNORM

241Am α, γ 423 y Activation U U

243Am α, γ 7.37 × 103

 y Activation U

210Bi β 5.0 d Natural decay of 238U U U

14C β 5.72 × 103

 y Cosmic Radiation, activation U U

134Cs β, γ 2.0 y Fission U U

137Cs β, γ 30 y Fission U U

60Co β, γ 5.3 y Activation U U

3

H β 12.3 y Cosmic radiation, fission U U

125I g, γ 59.4 d Accelerator U

129I β, γ 1.6 × 107

 y Fission U U

131I β, γ 8.0 d Accelerator, fission U U

192Ir β, γ 73.8 d Activation U

210Pb β, γ 22.6 y Natural decay of 238U U

59Ni g 7.6 × 104

 y Activation U U

63Ni β 100 y Activation U U

32P β 14.3 d Accelerator U U

238Pu α 87.7 y Activation U U

239Pu α 2.4 × 104

 y Activation U U

240Pu α 6.6 × 103

 y Activation U U

241Pu β, α 14.4 y Activation U U

226Ra α 1.6 × 103

 y Natural decay of 238U U

228Ra β 5.8 y Natural decay of 232Th U

89Sr β 50.5 d Fission U U

90Sr β 28.8 y Fission U U

35S β 87.2 d Accelerator U U

99Tc β 2.1 × 105

 y Fission, accelerator U U

227Th α, γ 18.7 d Natural decay of 235U U U

228Th α, γ 1.9 y Natural decay of 232Th U

230Th α, γ 7.5 × 104

 y Natural decay of 238U U U

232Th α 1.4 × 1010 y Primordial U

234U α 2.4 × 105

 y Natural decay of 238U U U

235U α, γ 7.0 × 108

 y Primordial UUU

238U α 4.5 × 109

 y Primordial UUU

 * DOE — Department of Energy site cleanup activities

 NORM — Naturally occurring radioactive materials waste

 NPP — Nuclear power plant site decommissioning
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

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Appendix D: Tables of Radioanalysis Parameters

Page

Americium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Cesium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Hydrogen (Tritium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Plutonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Radium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Strontium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Technetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Thorium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Uranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

The following tables identify many analytical parameters for the radionuclides discussed in this

document. The column labeled “Typical MDC” refers to minimum detectable values that can

reasonably be achieved with each type of instrument based on the listed sample size and count

time. Other factors, such as instrument efficiency and detector background, play an important part

in what the lowest achievable detection level will be with a particular instrument. Note that the

values listed in these tables as “Typical MDC” are below any required MDC values that may be

listed by EPA. 
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

81

TABLE 1 — Americium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy

of Detected

Particle (b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GS 241 433 (, 0.0595 N 1.0 20 1 – 1.5 20 – 24 Compton background from

higher-energy (-rays

NPP, DOE

GS 241 433 (, 0.0595 N 1.0 54 (f) 0.5 0.1 Compton background from

higher-energy (-rays

AS 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 0.05 0.2 1 – 2 16 – 24 Pu-238 NPP, DOE

AS 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 0.05 54 (f) 1 2– 4 Pu-238

AS 243 7370 ", 5.276 Y 0.05 0.5 1 – 2 16 – 24 DOE

GP 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 0.1 0.5 1 – 2 16 – 24 Pu-238 NPP, DOEGP 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 0.1 54 (f) 1 2– 4 Pu-238

Soil grams pCi/g

GS 241 433 (, 0.0595 N 100 0.75 1 – 1.5 16 – 24 1. Self-absorption by sample

2. Compton background fromhigher-energy (-rays

NPP, DOE

GS 241 433 (, 0.0595 N 100 917 0.5 0.1 1. Self-absorption by sample

2. Compton background fromhigher-energy (-rays

AS 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 0.5 0.1 4 – 5 16 – 24 Pu-238 NPP, DOE

AS 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 5 917 2 – 3 16 – 24 Pu-238

AS 243 7370 ", 5.276 Y 5 0.5 4 – 5 16 – 24 NPP, DOE

GP 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 10 0.01 4 – 5 16 – 24 NPP, DOEGP 241 433 ", 5.486 Y 10 917 2 – 3 2 – 4

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. MDC for Am-241 in water represents the sum of Am-241, Pu-238, and Pu-239/240Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-MassSpectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), Photon-Electron

Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

82

TABLE 2 — Bismuth

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(days)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

InterferingMaterials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GP 210 5.01

$, 1.162 Y 1.0 0.5 2 – 3 10 – 16 NORM

LSC 210 5.01

$, 1.1623 Y 0.1 0.3 2 – 3 10 – 16 NORM

Soil grams pCi/g

GP 210 5.01

$, 1.162 Y 1 0.05 2 – 3 10 – 20 NORM

LSC 210 5.01

$, 1.162 Y 1 0.5 2 – 3 4 – 5 NORM

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NORM based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
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83

TABLE 3 — Carbon

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy

of Detected

Particle 

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

Interfering Materials

(f)

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

LS 14 5,715

$, 0.157 Y 0.05 100 3 4 – 6 NPP, DOE

GPC 14 5,715

$, 0.157 Y 0.1 100 4 4 – 6 Final sample thickness NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

LS 14 5,715

$, 0.157 Y 5 0.2 5 4 – 6 NPP, DOE

GPC 14 5,715

$, 0.157 Y 5 4 5 4 – 6 Final sample thickness NPP, DOE

AMS 14 5,715 N/A N 0.001 (f) 0.01 (f) 2 0.5 NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Value for minimum total carbon in the sample; the sample size should be based on achieving this much total carbon. If there was 0.001 g of carbon in a 1 g sample, the

achievable MDC would be about 10 (Ognibene et al., 2003).

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

84

TABLE 4 — Cesium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy

of Detected

Particle (b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count

Time

(Hours)

Interfering Materials

(e)

Source (f)

Water liters pCi/L

GS 134 2.065 (, 0.605 N 4 5 – 15 1– 6 Co-58, Sb-125, Coincidence sum NPP, DOE

GS 137 30.07 (, 0.662 N 4 5 – 15 1 6 Ag-110m, Co-60, Single escape

peak

NPP, DOE

GS 134 2.065 (, 0.605 N 4 32,000 (g) 0.1 0.2 Co-58, Sb-125, Coincidence sum

GS 137 30.07 (, 0.662 N 4 32,000 (g) 0.1 0.2 Ag-110m, Co-60, Single escape

peak

Soil grams pCi/g

GS 134 2.065 (, 0.605 N 100 0.1 1 3 Co-58, Sb-125, Coincidence sum NPP, DOEGS 137 30.07 (, 0.662 N 100 0.05 1 3 Ag-110m, Co-60, Single escape

peak

NPP, DOE

GS 134 2.065 (, 0.605 N 100 — 0.1 0.1 Co-58, Sb-125, Coincidence sum

GS 137 30.07 (, 0.662 N 100 55,560 0.1 0.1 Ag-110m, Co-60, Single escape

peak

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Cs-134 activity will be underestimated unless correction is made specifically for coincidence-sum effects.f. Source as noted in Section 1.1G. MDC in water is for combined Cs-134 and Cs-137Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

85

TABLE 5 — Cobalt

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

InterferingMaterials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GS 60 5.271 (, 1.332, 1.173 N 4 5 1 6 NPP, DOEGS 60 5.271 (, 1.332, 1.173 N 4 — 0.2 0.5

Soil grams pCi/g

GS 60 5.271 (, 1.332, 1.173 N 100 0.1 1 6 NPP, DOEGS 60 5.271 (, 1.332, 1.173 N 100 13,100 0.1 0.25

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

86

TABLE 6 — Hydrogen (Tritium)

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L (f)

LSC 3 12.3

$, 0.018 N 0.005 300 0.3 2 Colored matter,

turbidity

NPP, DOE

LSC 3 12.3

$, 0.018 Y

(electrolysis)

0.05 5.0 5.0 2 Electrophilic

compounds

NPP, DOE

LSC 3 12.3

$, 0.018 ( 0.005 200 0.4 2 NPP, DOE

ICP-MS 3 12.3 N/A N 0.015 100 1 1 NPP, DOE

ICP-MS (g) He-3 12.3 N/A N 0.015 100 1 1 NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

LSC 3 12.3

$, 0.018 N 100 0.05 1 5 Colored matter,

turbidity, electrophiliccompounds

NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Typical MDC is limited by levels of naturally occurring tritium in water at 50 pCi/Lg. This ICP-MS method counts the number of tritium-progeny atoms (3He)

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

87

TABLE 7 — Iodine

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life Primary Energy of

Detected Particle (b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source( e, f)

Water liters pCi/L

GS (LEGe) 125 59.4 d X-ray, 0.0355, 0.029 Y 1 (h) 2 – 3 2 – 4 DOEGS (LEGe) 129 1.57 × 107 y X-ray, 0.0396, 0.0298 Y 1 20 2 – 3 2 – 4 NPP, DOE

GS (LEGe) 129 1.57 × 107 y X-ray, 0.0396, 0.0298 Y 1 1,500 0.5 1

GS 131 8.02 d X-ray, 0.365 N 4 50 0.1 3 Compton background NPPGP 131 8.02 d

$ Y 1 1.0 2 2 – 4 NPP, DOE

LSC 129 1.57 × 107 y

$–, 0.15 Y 1 50 2 – 3 3 – 4 C-14 NPP, DOE

LSC 131 8.02 d

$–, 0.606 Y 1 0.5 2 – 3 3 NPP

LSC 129 1.57 × 107 y

$–, 0.15 Y 1 1,500 2 2 C-14

ICP-MS 129 1.57 × 107 y N/A N 0.05 0.02 0.5 .5 NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

GS (LEGe) 125 59.4 d X-ray, 0.0355, 0.029 Y 50 (h) 2 – 3 2 – 4 DOEGS (LEGe) 129 1.57 × 107 y X-ray, 0.0396 Y 50 1 3 – 4 2 – 4 NPP, DOE

GS 131 8.02 d X-ray, 0.365 N 50 10 (g) 0.1 1.2 Compton background NPP

LSC 129 1.57 × 107 y

$–, 0.15 Y 50 400 2 – 3 3 – 4 C-14 NPP, DOE

AMS 129 1.57 × 107 y N/A N 0.001 (i) 0.001 (i) 0.5 0.5 NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80.d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. I-131 also has many commercial and medical applications outside NPP and DOE facilitiesg. MDC is for NPP site. Due to the short half-life of I-131, the typical MDC could be an order of magnitude higher. h. The activity of I-125 usually is relatively high, so most laboratories do not identify an MDC for this radionuclide. However, based on detector characteristics for a LEGE, the large

yield for the iodine X-ray, and chemical separation concentration factors, MDC is estimated at 10 pCi/L and 1 pCi/g for water and soil, respectively.

i. The value of 0.001 represents the mass of stable I-127 in the sample required to achieve the detection limit of 10–3 pCi/g.

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Low-Energy Germanium (LEGe), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Reverse-Energy Germanium(REGe), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

88

TABLE 8 — Iridium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(days)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source (e, f)

Water pCi/L

GS 192 73.8 (, 0.316 N (g) (h) 0.5 2 – 3 Compton background from

higher-energy (-rays

DOE, MIW 

Soil grams pCi/g

GS 192 73.8 (, 0.316 N 50 (h) 0.5 2 – 3 Compton background from

higher-energy (-rays

DOE, MIW 

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for DOE and MIW based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Medical/Industrial Waste is the most likely source (not discussed in this text).

g. Due to iridium’s inertness and density, is unlikely to be found in water samples as a soluble component.h. Because of its unusual nature as a contaminant, a routine MDC is not available. However, it may be detectable as low as 25 pCi/L (using filtration) or 25 pCi/g.Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

89

TABLE 9 — Lead

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GP 210 22.6

$, 0.017 Y 1 1.0 7 2 – 5 C-14 NORM

GS (f) 210 22.6 (, 0.0456 N 4 5 1 5 Sample self-attenuation;

210Pb inherent in ( shielding

NORM

Soil grams pCi/g

GP 210 22.6

$, 0.017 Y 1 5 7 5 – 10 C-14 NORM

GS (f) 210 22.6 (, 0.0456 N 100 50 1 10 Sample self-attenuation;

210Pb inherent in ( shielding

NORM

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NORM based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Because of low gamma energy, extended range or low-energy detector (REGe or LEGe) is needed.Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Low-Energy Germanium (LEGe), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Reverse-EnergyGermanium (REGe), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

90

TABLE 10 — Nickel

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

Interfering Materials

(h)

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GS (g) 59 7.6 × 104 X-ray, 0.00748 Y 0.2 5 1 – 2 3 Co-58 NPP, DOE

GP 63 100

$, 0.0669 Y 0.2 10 1 – 2 5 NPP, DOE

LSC 63 100

$, 0.0669 Y 0.2 10 1 – 2 2 NPP, DOE

ICP-MS 59 7.6 × 104 N/A Y 0.02 1 – 2 0.5 Ni-58:H, Fe-58:H NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

GS (g) 59 7.6 × 104 X-ray, 0.00748 Y 1 5 2 – 3 3 Co-58 NPP, DOE

GP 63 100

$, 0.0669 Y 1 10 2 – 3 5 NPP, DOE

LSC 63 100

$, 0.0669 Y 1 10 2 – 3 2 NPP, DOE

AMS 59 7.6 × 104 N/A N 0.001 1.25 × 10–3 1 0.5 Ni-58:H, Fe-58:H NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Unit is pCi per mass of analyteg. X-ray regionh. For ICP-MS and AMS, mass interference occurs from combinations of other high-abundance atoms in the mass spectrometer. An example is isobaric interference for Ni59 from the atom combination of Ni-58 and H (both stable isotopes and present in high concentrations relative to the Ni-59).

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

91

TABLE 11 — Phosphorus

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(days)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours) Interfering Materials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

LSC 32 14.3

$, 1.71 N (f) 0.01 500 1 4 P-33, Sr-89 DOE

LSC (g) 32 14.3

$, 1.71 Y 20 1 3 5 P-33, Sr-89 DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

LSC 32 14.3

$, 1.71 Y 1 10 2 5 P-33, Sr-89 DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Benitez-Nelson and Buesseler (1998)g. “No chemical separation” MDC applies only when no other radionuclides are present.Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

92

TABLE 12 — Plutonium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle 

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical MDC

(c, h)

Total Analysis Time

(days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

Interfering

Materials

(i)

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

AS 238 87.7 ", 5.499 Y 1 0.1 1 – 2 days 10 – 24 Am-241 NPP, DOE

AS 239 2.41 × 104 ", 5.156 Y 1 0.1 (h) 1 – 2 days 10 – 24 NPP, DOE AS 240 6.56 × 103 ", 5.156 Y 1 NPP, DOE

AS 238 87.7 ", 5.499 Y 1 70 (f) 1 1 Am-241AS 239 2.41 × 104 ", 5.156 Y 1 70 (h,f) 1 1 AS 240 6.56 × 103 ", 5.156 Y 1

LSC 241 14.4

$, 0.021 Y 1 15 1 – 2 1 NPP, DOE

LSC 241 14.4

$, 0.021 Y 1 3,200 1 1

ICP-MS 239 2.41 × 104 N/A Y 1 10–4 1 – 2 0.05 U-238:H NPP, DOE

ICP-MS 240 6.56 × 103 N/A Y 1 0.1 1 – 2 0.05 Ra-226:N NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

AS 238 87.7 ", 5.499 Y 1 0.1 2 – 3 10 – 24 Am-241 NPP, DOEAS 239 2.41 × 104 ", 5.156 Y 1 0.1 (h) 2 – 3 10 – 24 NPP, DOE AS 240 6.56 × 103 ", 5.168 Y 1 NPP, DOE

AS 238 87.7 ", 5.499 Y 1 100 1 1 Am-241AS 239 2.41 × 104 ", 5.156 Y 1 944 (h) 1 1 AS 240 6.56 × 103 ", 5.168 Y 1

LSC 241 14.4

$, 0.021 Y 1 15 2 – 3 1 NPP, DOE

LSC 241 14.4

$, 0.021 Y 1 1,000 1 1

AMS 238 87.7 N/A Y N/A N/A 1 0.05 Ra-226:C NPP, DOEAMS 239 2.41 × 104 N/A Y 0.001 2.7 × 10 –5 (g) 1 0.05 U-238:H NPP, DOE

AMS 240 6.56 × 103 N/A Y 0.001 2.7 × 10–5 (g) 1 0.05 Ra-226:N NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in

Section 3.3 and box on page 80. Soil and water values for Pu-238 are conservativeestimates

d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any

QC validation)

e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. MDC for Pu-239 Am-241 in water represents the sum of Am-241, Pu-238, and Pu-239/240

g. Value is the number of pCi detected in 0.001 g of sampleh. Pu-239 and Pu-240 "-particle energies are too close to be distinguished. The activity

reported is the sum of the two isotopes.

i. For ICP-MS and AMS, mass interferences occur from combinations of other highabundance atoms in the mass spectrometer. An example is isobaric interference for

Pu-240 from the atom combination of Ra-226 (potentially abundant) and N-14 (stableisotope present in high concentrations relative to Pu-240)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

93

TABLE 13 — Radium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N) Sample Size

Typical

MDC

(c, h)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

Interfering Materials

(h)

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

GP-a (g) 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 1 0.1 5 5 – 8 Th-230, U-234 NORM

AS 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 1 0.1 1 8 Th-230, U-234 NORM

GP-

$ 228 5.76

$, (f) Y 2 0.5 3 6 – 8 Sr-90 NORM

GS 226 1.62 × 103 (, 0.186 Y 4 1.4 1 4 Pa-234 NORM

PERALS® 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 1 2 1 8 Th-230, U-234 NORM

GP 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 0.5 0.5 7 3 – 5 NORM

Soil grams pCi/g

GP-a (g) 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 1 0.1 7 5 – 8 Th-230, U-234 NORM

AS 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 10 1 1.5 8 Sr-90, Th-230, U-234 NORM

GP-

$ 228 5.76

$, (f) Y 1 0.02 5 6 – 8 NORM

GS 226 1.62 × 103 (, 0.186 N 200 1.4 1 10 Pa-234 NORM

PERALS® 226 1.62 × 103 ", 4.78 Y 10 1 2 8 Th-230, U-234 NORM

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NORM based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. The progeny Ac-228 is actually counted. Its 

$-particle energy is 1.2 MeV.

g. Using radon + progeny ingrowth method with Lucas cell. h. Non-radioactive barium, calcium, and strontium are significant chemical interferences in the analysis of any radium isotope because of their similar chemical reactivity.

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

94

TABLE 14 — Strontium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample Size

(g)

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

(f)

InterferingMaterials

Source (ef)

Water liters pCi/L

LSC 89 50.5 d

$, 1.49 Y 1.00 2 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

LSC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 1 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

LSC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 4,300 2 5 Ca/Mg

GPC 89 50.5 d

$, 1.49 Y 1.00 1 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

GPC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 0.2 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

GPC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 4,300 2 5 Ca/Mg

Soil grams pCi/g

LSC 89 50.5 d

$, 1.49 Y 2 0.5 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

LSC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 2 1 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

LSC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 306,000 2 5 Ca/Mg

GPC 89 50.5 d

$, 1.49 Y 2 0.5 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

GPC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 2 0.1 7 – 18 3 – 17 Ca/Mg, Ba-140 NPP, DOE

GPC 90 28.8 y

$, 0.546 Y 1.00 306,000 2 5 Ca/Mg

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. Sr-89 would not be present from DOE samples, so the analysis times are shorter and a single count would be sufficient.Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

95

TABLE 15 — Sulfur

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(days)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

InterferingMaterials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

LSC 35 87.2

$, 0.167 Y 1 1 2 5 C-14, P-33, Tc-99 DOE

LSC 35 87.2

$, 0.167 N 1 10 2 5 C-14, P-33, Tc-99 DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

LSC 35 87.2

$, 0.167 Y 1 1 2 5 C-14, P-33, Tc-99 DOE

LSC 35 87.2

$, 0.167 N 1 10 2 5 C-14, P-33, Tc-99 DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

96

TABLE 16 — Technetium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N)

Sample

Size

Typical

MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

InterferingMaterials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

LSC 99 2.135 × 105 $, 0.294 Y 0.25 15 2 5 NPP, DOE

GP 99 2.135 × 105 $, 0.294 Y 0.25 15 2 5 NPP, DOE

ICP-MS 99 2.135 × 105 N/A Y 0.25 9 × 10–3 2 0.05 NPP, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

LSC 99 2.135 × 105 $, 0.294 Y 2 15 2 5 NPP, DOE

GP 99 2.135 × 105 $, 0.294 Y 0.25 15 2 5 NPP, DOE

ICP-MS 99 2.135 × 105 N/A Y 20 0.02 2 0.05 NPP, DOE

AMS 99 2.135 × 105 N/A N 10 2 × 10–4 1 0.05 NPP, DOE

Notes: (All beta-particle energies are beta maximums)

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for NPP and DOE based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

97

TABLE 17 — Thorium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N) Sample Size

Typical MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

InterferingMaterials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

AS 227 18.7 d ", 6.04 Y 1 1 2 2 NORM, DOEAS 228 1.9 y ", 5.42 Y 0.2 1 2 2 NORM, DOEAS 230 7.54 × 104 y ", 4.69 Y 0.2 1 2 2 NORM, DOE

AS 232 1.4 × 1010 y ", 4.01 Y 0.2 1 2 2 NORM, DOE

ICP-MS 232 1.4 × 1010 y N/A Y 10–3 1 12 238U, 235U NORM, DOE

GS 228 1.9 y (, 0.084 N 4 15 1 6 NORM, DOE

PERALS® 232 1.4 × 1010 y ", 4.01 Y 0.25 0.1 2 24 238U NORM, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

AS 227 18.7 d ", 6.04 Y 2 0.6 3 2 NORM, DOEAS 228 1.9 y ", 5.42 Y 2 0.6 3 2 NORM, DOEAS 230 7.54 × 104 y ", 4.69 Y 2 0.6 3 2 NORM, DOE

AS 232 1.4 × 1010 y ", 4.01 Y 2 0.6 3 2 NORM, DOE

ICP-MS 232 1.4 × 1010 y N/A Y 2.50 × 10–4 19 pg (66 pCi) 3 2 238U, 235U NORM, DOE

GS 228 1.9 y (, 0.084 N 4 15 1 6 NORM, DOE

PERALS® 232 1.4 × 1010 y ", 4.01 Y 2 0.5 2 24 238U NORM, DOE

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for DOE and NORM based on sample size and count time; see discussion in Section 3.3 and box on page 80d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC validation)e. Source as noted in Section 1.1Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow Proportional Counting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometric Analysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphorescence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), PhotonElectron Rejecting Alpha Liquid Scintillation (PERALS®

)
Inventory of Radiological Methodologies

98

TABLE 18 — Uranium

Matrix

Method

(a) Analyte

Half-Life

(years)

Primary Energy of

Detected Particle

(b)

Chemical

Separation

(Y/N) Sample Size

Typical MDC

(c)

Total Analysis

Time (days)

(d)

Count Time

(Hours)

Interfering

Materials

Source (e)

Water liters pCi/L

AS 234 2.46 × 105 ", 4.776 Y 0.2 1 2 10 NORM, DOE

AS 235 7.04 × 108 ", 4.395 Y 0.2 1 2 10 NORM, DOEAS 238 4.47 × 109 ", 4.197 Y 0.2 1 2 10 NORM, DOE

KPA Total N/A N/A N 0.002 0.5 (0.34 ppb) 0.2 0.5 (g) NORM, DOE

PERALS® 238 4.47 × 109 ", 4.197 Y 0.5 2 2 12 Th-232 NORM, DOEPERALS® 234 2.46 × 105 ", 4.776 Y 0.5 3 2 12 Th-232 NORM, DOEICP-MS 234 2.46 × 105 N/A Y 0.1 ~6 × 10–5 (~10–15g) 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOE

ICP-MS 235 7.04 × 108 N/A Y 0.1 ~2 × 10–8 (~10–15g) 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOEICP-MS 238 4.47 × 109 N/A Y 0.1 ~3 × 10–9 (~10–15g) 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOEICP-MS 234 2.46 × 105 N/A N (h) 0.1 120 (0.02 :g/L)h 0.5 0.05 NORM, DOE

ICP-MS 235 7.04 × 108 N/A N (h) 0.1 0.04 (0.02 :g/L)h 0.5 0.05 NORM, DOEICP-MS 238 4.47 × 109 N/A N (h) 0.1 7 × 10–3 (0.02 :g/L)h 0.5 0.05 NORM, DOE

Soil grams pCi/g

AS 234 2.46 × 105 ", 4.776 Y 2 0.6 3 10 NORM, DOE

AS 235 7.04 × 108 ", 4.395 Y 2 0.6 3 10 NORM, DOEAS 238 4.47 × 109 ", 4.197 Y 2 0.6 3 10 NORM, DOEAS 234 2.46 × 105 ", 4.776 Y 2 1,300 2 0.5AS 235 7.04 × 108 ", 4.395 Y 2 1,300 2 0.5AS 238 4.47 × 109 ", 4.197 Y 2 1,300 2 0.5

KPA Total N/A N/A Y 1 3.5 × 10–4 (1 ng/g) 1 0.5 (g) NORM, DOE

KPA Total N/A N/A Y 1 3,300 (9.65 mg/g) 0.2 0.5 (g)

PERALS® 238 4.47 × 109 ", 4.197 Y 5 1 2 15 Th-232 NORM, DOE

PERALS® 234 2.46 × 105 ", 4.776 Y 5 2 2 15 Th-232 NORM, DOEICP-MS 234 2.46 × 105 N/A Y 10 3.1 (0.5 ng/g)f 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOE

ICP-MS 235 7.04 × 108 N/A Y 10 1.1x10–3 (0.5 ng/g)f 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOEICP-MS 238 4.47 × 109 N/A Y 10 1.7x10–4 (0.5 ng/g)f 1 – 2 0.05 NORM, DOE

Notes:

a. Method descriptions in Section 4.1b. Units are MeV for decay particles, N/A for atom count methods (see Section 3.10)c. Typical MDCs for DOE and NORM based on sample size and count time; see discussion in

Section 3.3 and box on page 80

d. Time required to generate final data in laboratory (excluding data report generation or any QC

validation)

e. Source as noted in Section 1.1f. From ASTM Method C1345

g. Fluorescent materialsh. From ASTM Method D5673-03 and EPA 200.8. Requires sample preparation of the

100 mL sample. See references for details.

Alpha Spectrometry (AS), Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS), Gas Flow ProportionalCounting (GP), Gamma Spectrometry (GS), Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass SpectrometricAnalysis (ICP-MS), Kinetic Phosphoresence Analysis (KPA), Liquid Scintillation Counting(LSC), Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS), Photon-Electron Rejecting Alpha LiquidScintillation (PERALS®

)
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Appendix E: Nuclear Power Plant Decommissioning Sites

The decommissioning of commercial nuclear power facilities, and the required radionuclide analyses

for that specific process, are regulated by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. However, for

completeness, this appendix provides an overview of issues associated with nuclear power facilities.

The radionuclides found at these sites will be products of nuclear fission and nuclear activation.

Table 12 identifies the most commonly encountered radionuclides at these sites. 

Since the 1970s, 20 major commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs) throughout the country have

shut down and are in various stages of decommissioning, including SAFSTOR. SAFSTOR is a

decommissioning process in which the nuclear facility is placed and maintained in such a condition

that the nuclear facility can be safely stored and subsequently decontaminated to levels that permit

release for unrestricted use. These nuclear power stations use boiling water reactors (BWR),

pressurized water reactors (PWR), or high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGR). Table 11 lists

the NPPs currently under some stage of decommissioning.

TABLE 11 — Decommissioning status for shut-down power reactors

Reactor Type Thermal

Power Location Shutdown Status FuelOnsite

Indian Point I PWR 615 MW Buchanan, NY 10/31/74 SAFSTOR Yes

Dresden I BWR 700 MW Morris, IL 10/31/78 SAFSTOR Yes

Fermi I Fast Breeder 200 MW Monroe Co., MI 9/22/72 SAFSTOR No

GE VBWR BWR 50 MW Alameda Co., CA 12/9/63 SAFSTOR No

Yankee Rowe PWR 600 MW Franklin Co., MA 10/1/91 DECON Yes

CVTR

Pressure

Tube, Heavy

Water

65 MW Parr, SC 1/67 License

Terminated No

Big Rock Point BWR 67 MW Charlevoix, MI 8/97 DECON Yes

Pathfinder Superheat

BWR 190 MW Sioux Falls, SD 9/16/67 DECON NRC

Part 30 No

Humboldt Bay 3 BWR 200 MW Eureka, CA 7/02/76 SAFSTOR Yes

Peach Bottom I HTGR 115 MW York Co., PA 10/31/74 SAFSTOR No

San Onofre I PWR 1347 MW San Clemente, CA 11/30/92 DECON Yes

Haddam Neck PWR 1825 MW Haddam Neck, CT 7/22/96 DECON Yes

Fort St. Vrain HTGR 842 MW Platteville, CO 8/18/89 License

Terminated

Yes

Millstone I BWR 2011 MW Waterford, CT 11/04/95 DECON Yes

Zion I PWR 3250 MW Zion, IL 2/98 SAFSTOR Yes

Zion 2 PWR 3250 MW Zion, IL 2/98 SAFSTOR Yes

Maine Yankee PWR 2772 MW Bath, ME 12/96 DECON Yes

Rancho Seco PWR 2772 MW Sacramento, CA 6/7/89 DECON Yes

Three Mile Island 2 PWR 2772 MW Middletown, PA 3/28/79 SAFSTOR* No

Saxton PWR 28 MW Saxton, PA 5/72 DECON No

Shoreham BWR 2436 MW Suffolk Co., NY 6/28/89 License

Terminated No

Trojan PWR 3411 MW Portland, OR 11/9/92 DECON Yes

LaCrosse BWR 165 MW LaCrosse, WI 4/30/87 SAFSTOR Yes

* Post-defueling monitored storage (PDMS).
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Since 1989, most of the NPPs undergoing active decommissioning (rather than SAFSTOR) are in

the northeast, including Shoreham in New York, Yankee Rowe in Massachusetts, Maine Yankee

in Maine, and Hadden Neck and Millstone I in Connecticut. The Indian Point I NPP in New York

is in SAFSTOR, and Shoreham NPP in New York has been decommissioned and its license

terminated.

Most NPPs undergoing decommissioning will follow the guidance in the Multi-Agency Radiation

Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM, 2000) and perform a site characterization study.

Site characterization combines the information gathered during a historical site assessment (HSA)

and radiation surveys or sampling of the various affected and unaffected areas of the site. The

purpose of a HSA is to identify:

 C The radionuclides generated or used at the site during its operation and any potential residual

contamination by these radionuclides;

 C Potentially contaminated areas; and

 C Potentially contaminated media, including buildings, surface and ground water, surface and

subsurface soil/media, and sediment. 

The decommissioning process involves the dismantling and disposal of the NPP by component and

structure, the transfer of the spent fuel to interim storage facilities, the cleanup of residual surface

and subsurface contamination onsite and cleanup of offsite contamination from previous operations,

and the decommissioning process. 

The nuclides that may be found at nuclear power stations undergoing decommissioning include the

fission and activation products generated during the operation of the plant. The nuclides found

depend on the type of reactor, fuel components, and the time interval to initiate the decommissioning

process after the plant is shut down. For example, the nuclides and their activity levels generated in

a HTGR are very different than those generated by a BWR or PWR. In addition, certain radionuclides are more prevalent in PWR than BWR, and even within a reactor type, certain nuclides may

be characteristic to specific fuel components, e.g., 108mAg and 110mAg for a PWR.

In most cases, NPP personnel will have knowledge of the nuclides present onsite and in the environment as a result of power generation operations. Usually a detailed nuclide characterization of the

radioactivity onsite is determined as a result of requirements to meet 10 CFR 61 for waste disposal

of materials from various waste streams in a NPP and 10 CFR 50 for effluent monitoring

requirements. Regulations codified at 10 CFR 61 require the quantification of the most active

radionuclides as well as the hard-to-detect (difficult-to-measure), long-lived, pure alpha and beta

nuclides for each identified waste stream, e.g., primary coolant, primary cleanup components such

as filters and resins, crud, dry active waste, and metal components. The former category includes

the gamma-ray emitting nuclides having a half-life greater than 0.1 years. Table 12 provides a listing

of the nuclides requiring quantification, their physical characteristics, the required detection limits

to be met during analyses and the typical techniques for detection and chemical yield determination.

For these “Part 61” measurements, scaling factors (based on the activity ratios) are calculated

between the easier to detect gamma emitting nuclides and the hard-to-detect nuclides. 

During operations and maintenance of a nuclear plant, there is a potential for the dispersion of radioactive materials onsite, and in some cases, for subsurface dispersion from leaking tanks or piping

or spills. In addition, normal liquid effluent releases can result in the buildup of certain longer-lived
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radionuclides in the sediment of rivers, reservoirs or impoundments. During the decommissioning

process involving the dismantlement and transfer of highly radioactive structures (component of the

reactor, reactor vessel, pressurizers, primary coolant piping and valves, spent fuel pool and fuel

transfer areas, and structural support materials), there may be a possibility that radioactive materials

may spread to other areas of the site or to the offsite environs. 

TABLE 12 — Important parameters associated with NPP analyses

Nuclide

Half-life

(year)

Radiation Emitted

(keV)*

Detection

Technique†

MDC

(nCi/g)

Chemical Yield

Determination

γ Emitters > 0.1 γ(100 - 2000) Ge detector - γ

spectrometry

137Cs: 10, 

others: 7,000

No chemical

separation — direct

measurement

3

H 12.3 β (18.6) LS 400

No chemical

separation— direct

measurement 14C 5,730 β (156) LS 80 Gravimetric

55Fe‡ 2.7 X-Ray (5.89) Low-energy Ge/Si,

LS 7,000 ICP, AA

59Ni 75,000 X-Ray (6.92) Low-energy Ge/Si,

LS 2,200 ICP, AA

63Ni 100 β (65.9) LS 35 ICP, AA 90Sr 28.6 β (546) GP, Cerenkov - LS 0.4 Gravimetric, 85Sr

94Nb‡ 20,300 β (471), γ(703, 871) Ge detector - γ

spectrometry 2 ICP

99Tc 2.13 × 105 β (294) GP, LS 30 99mTc, Re (ICP-MS)

129I 1.57 × 107 β (152), γ(39.6) Low-energy Ge/Si,

LS, GP 0.8 Gravimetric

237Np‡ 2.14 × 106 α (4771, 4788),

γ(86.5, 29.4) α spectrometry 1 239Np

238Pu 87.8 α (5436, 5499) α spectrometry 1 236Pu or 242Pu

239Pu 24,100 α (5105, 5143,

5155) α spectrometry 1 236Pu or 242Pu

240Pu 6,570 α (5123, 5168) α spectrometry 1 236Pu or 242Pu 241Pu 14.4 β (20.8) LS 35 236Pu or 242Pu 242Pu 3.76 × 105 α (4856, 4901) α spectrometry 1 236Pu

241Am 432 α (5443, 5485),

γ(59)

α spectrometry, γ

spectrometry 1 243Am

243Am 7,380 α (5234, 5279),

γ(74.7)

α spectrometry, γ

spectrometry 1 —

242Cm‡ 0.446 α (6069, 6113) α spectrometry 1 243Am

243Cm‡ 28.5 α (5742, 5784),

γ(228, 278)

α spectrometry, γ

spectrometry 1 243Am

244Cm‡ 18.1 α (5763, 5805) α spectrometry 1 243Am

* For beta emitters, column refers to maximum energy.

† LS – liquid scintillation, Ge – germanium semiconductor, Si – silicon semiconductor, GP – gas proportional counting,

ICP – inductively coupled plasma analysis, ICP-MS – inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, AA – atomic

absorption

‡These radionuclides are included in this table for completeness, but are not discussed in this document.

The information gained from the 10 CFR 61 analyses (scaling factors) may be used to estimate the

levels of the hard-to-detect radionuclides in contaminated materials, subsurface soils or ground
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102

water. If hard-to-detect radionuclides are suspected for a given waste discharge or contamination

process, the easier-to-detect gamma-emitting nuclides are quantified, and then the hard-to-detect

nuclides are estimated from applying the scaling factors or analyzed at an offsite contract laboratory

that can provide the required detection capability. 

The primary gamma-ray emitting nuclides found at most NPPs undergoing decommissioning include

60Co, 134Cs, 137Cs, 152Eu, 154Eu, and 155Eu. If decommissioning is initiated within a few years after

plant shutdown, 54Mn, 65Zn, and 57Co may be present in sufficient quantities to be detected by

gamma-ray spectrometry. NRC (1978 and 1984) list the radionuclides existing in concrete, rebar,

and surface contamination.