FINAL REPORT 

of the

WORKSHOP ON LONG-TERM MONITORING OF GLACIERS OF 

NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHWESTERN EUROPE

Richard S. Williams, Jr., 1 and Jane G. Ferrigno,2 Workshop Coordinators

U.S. Geological Survey 

^oods Hole Field Center-Quissett Campus

384 Woods Hole Road 

Woods Hole, MA 02543-1598 U.S.A.

2955 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192-0001 U.S.A.

USGS OPEN-FILE REPORT 98-31

1997

This report is preliminary and has not yet been reviewed for conformity with USGS editorial 

standards. Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does 

not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.
science 

USGS

fora changing world

Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring

of Glaciers of North America

and Northwestern Europe

FINAL REPORT 

of the

WORKSHOP ON LONG-TERM MONITORING OF GLACIERS OF 

NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHWESTERN EUROPE

(Convened at the University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA on 11-13 September 1996)

Workshop Coordinators: Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Jane G. Ferrigno, USGS

INSTITUTIONAL PARTICIPATION:

Environment Canada 

Environmental Research Institute of

Michigan

Geological Survey of Canada 

Geological Survey of Denmark and

Greenland

International Glaciological Society 

National Aeronautics and Space

Administration 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

. French Space Agency

. National Energy Authority (Iceland)

. Portland State University

. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

. University of Alaska

.U.S. Department of the Interior

. University of Colorado

. University of Oslo (Norway)

. University of Wales (U.K.)

. University of Zurich-Irchel (Switzerland)

USGS 

Woods Hole, MA 02543

1997

Sponsored by: Global Change and Climate History Program, Geologic Division, USGS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Executive Summary 5

Workshop recommendations 7

Introduction 13

History of USGS Involvement in Glacier Studies 13

Climate Change and Variations in the Earth's Cryosphere 15

Reviews and Assessment of USGS Glaciology Programs 16

Objectives and Rationale for the Workshop 19

Participating Institutions 22

Structure of the Workshop 24

Acknowledgments 25

Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of North America 26 

and Northwestern Europe: Workshop Summaries and Abstracts

I. Existing Data Bases and Current Status for Monitoring Glaciers 27 

of North America and Northwestern Europe

ALASKA

Data Base and Geographical Perspective for Monitoring 28 

Glaciers of Alaska, by Dennis C. Trabant, USGS, with 

contributions from Carl S. Benson and Keith Echelmeyer, 

University of Alaska, and Phil Brease and James Roush, 

National Park Service.

CANADA

The Canadian Glacier Variations Monitoring and Assessment 37

Network: Status and Future Perspectives, by Michael N.

Demuth, National Hydrology Research Institute (Canada). 

Status of Glacier Monitoring in the Canadian Arctic, by 52

Roy M. Koerner, Geological Survey of Canada. 

Monitoring and Inventorying the Glaciers of Canada: An 53

Historical Review and Personal Comments, by C. Simon

L. Ommanney, International Glaciological Society.

CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES

Status of Glacier Monitoring and the Remote Sensing Snow- 56 

and Ice-Data Base in the Conterminous USA, by Robert M. 

Krimmel, USGS.

GREENLAND

Status of Glacier Monitoring of Greenland, by Anker Weidick, 58 

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (Denmark).
ICELAND

Glacier Monitoring in Iceland: The Glacier Variation Data Set 59 

of the Iceland Glaciological Society, by Oddur Sigurdsson, 

National Energy Authority (Iceland).

NORWAY AND SWEDEN

Status of Ground-Based Glacier Monitoring in Scandinavia 61 

and Svalbard, by Jon Ove Hagen, University of Oslo (Norway).

HIGH ARCTIC

Arctic Ice Masses, Recent Climate Change, and Implications for 62 

Global Sea Level, by Julien A. Dowdeswell, University of Wales, 

Centre for Glaciology

II. Current and Planned Remote Sensing Technology for Monitoring Glaciers 64

Monitoring Glaciers with Airborne and Spaceborne Laser Altimetry, 65

by James B. Garvin, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center 

Satellite Remote Sensing (Imaging), by Dorothy K. Hall, 68

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Use of Upcoming Satellite Technology, by Hugh H. Kieffer, USGS 70 

Glacier Monitoring Using Classified National Systems, 71

by Edward G. Josberger, USGS 

An Overview of LightsAR; A Proposed Radar Satellite, by James W. 72

Schoonmaker, Jr., USGS 

Monitoring of Glaciers: The NASA Pathfinder Program, by David A. 73

Kirtland, USGS 

Measurement of Changes in the Area and Volume of the Earth's Large 74

Glaciers with Satellite Sensors, by Richard S. Williams, Jr., USGS;

James B. Garvin, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; Oddur

Sigurdsson, National Energy Authority (Iceland); Dorothy K. Hall,

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; and Jane G. Ferrigno, USGS

III. International Data Centers for Archiving Ground, Airborne, and Satellite 77 

Data of Glaciers

Data Management for Long-Term Monitoring of Fluctuations of Glaciers 78 

of North America and Northwestern Europe, by Greg Scharfen, 

National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center-A for 

Glaciology, John L. Dwyer, EROS Data Center, and Stephan 

Suter, World Glacier Monitoring Service/Swiss Federal Institute of 

Technology

The World Glacier Monitoring Service, by Wilfried Haeberli, University 80 

of Zurich-Irchel, and Martin Hoelzle and Stephan Suter, Swiss 

Federal Institute of Technology
IV. Monitoring of Various Glaciers in North America and Northwestern Europe: 84 

Miscellaneous Contributions

Determination of Changes in the Volume of Mountain Glaciers Using 85 

Airborne Laser Altimetry, by Keith Echelmeyer, William D. Harrison, 

Joseph J. Sapiano, Gudfinna Adalgeirsdottir, Laurence Sombardier, 

Bernard T. Rabus, and Jeannette (De Mallie) Gorda, University of 

Alaska-Geophysical Institute

The Mass of McCall Glacier. Its Regional Relevance and Climatological 86 

Implications for Climate Change in the Arctic, by Bernard T. Rabus, 

and Keith Echelmeyer, University of Alaska-Geophysical Institute

Remote Sensing of Glacier Fluctuations Using Landsat Data: Lessons 87 

Learned, by John L. Dwyer, EROS Data Center

Glacier Recession and Ecological Implications at Glacier National Park, 88 

Montana, by Carl H. Key, Starr Johnson, and Daniel B. Fagre, USGS, 

and Richard K. Menicke, National Park Service

Glacier Monitoring in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska: Integrating 91 

Field Study and Remote Sensing, by James Roush and Phil Brease, 

National Park Service

An Integrated Approach for Monitoring Changes at Bering Glacier, Alaska, 92 

by Bruce F. Molnia and Austin Post, USGS

V. Appendices 98

1. Planned Agenda for Workshop on Monitoring Fluctuations of Glaciers of 99 

North America and Northwestern Europe

2. List of Attendees 101

3. List of Invitees Who Were Unable to Attend 108

4. Selected Background Reading [Pre-Workshop] 110

5. Selected Reading [Post-Workshop] 111

6. Importance of Revitalization of the USGS Glaciology Program, by 112 

Robert A. Bindschadler, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

7. Review of Past, Present, and Future Earth Observing Platforms (USGS Biological 114 

Resources Division)

8. Available Data from the World Glacier Monitoring Service 125

9. How to Get Data from the World Glacier Monitoring Service 138

10. International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) Priority Projects, 140 

Core Groups and Networks
Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring

of Glaciers of North America

and Northwestern Europe

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Geologic Division's Global Change and Climate History Program sponsored a 

Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe 

on 11-13 September 1996 hosted by the USGS (WRD) Ice and Climate Project at the 

University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA. The primary motivation for the Workshop was the 

recognition that airborne and satellite remote sensing of areal and volumetric changes in 

glaciers had reached the stage where quantitative scientific information could be derived from 

remotely-sensed data that had previously only been available from direct field measurements. 

In addition, many long-term national glacier-observation networks that had been established in 

the U.S. and Canada after World War II were being reduced or eliminated because of 

budgetary cutbacks. Institutional and programmatic reductions have caused the termination of 

many long-term datasets that are especially valuable in determining whether observed changes 

in key environmental parameters, such as glaciers, caused by changes in regional or local 

climate, are the result of natural variability, impact of human activity, or both. The Workshop 

provided the opportunity to develop a new strategy using satellite remote sensing, in 

conjunction with ground-based observations, to continue and possibly expand the existing 

ground-based network of glaciers being studied and monitored by various institutions in North 

America and Northwestern Europe. Such a plan would maximize the scientific results while 

utilizing available governmental funding in the most efficient and cost-effective way.

Thirty-two scientists with special knowledge of the glaciers of North America (Alaska, 

Canada, Western U.S., and Greenland) and Northwestern Europe (Iceland, Jan Mayen, 

Svalbard, Norway, Sweden, and the Russian Arctic Islands) participated; they represented 17 

different institutions, including 7 U.S. and 10 foreign. The four science divisions of the USGS 

[Biological Resources Division (BRD), Geologic Division (GD), National Mapping Division 

(NMD), and the Water Resources Division (WRD)] and the U.S. National Park Service of the 

U.S. Department of the Interior were all represented.

Part I of the Workshop included presentations by glaciologists from North America and 

Northwestern Europe on "Existing Data Bases and Current Status of Monitoring Glaciers of 

North America and Northwestern Europe." Part II of the Workshop included presentations by 

glaciologists, other scientists, and engineers about "Current and Planned Remote Sensing 

Technology for Monitoring Glaciers." Part III of the Workshop was composed of 

presentations by glaciological-archive managers [for example; UNESCO's World Glacier 

Monitoring Service (Zurich, Switzerland); NOAA's National Snow and Ice Data Center/World 

Data Center - A for Glaciology (Boulder, CO); and the USGS EROS Data Center (Sioux Falls, 

SD), etc.] on "International Data Centers for Archiving Ground, Airborne and Satellite Data of 

Glaciers."
Following the presentations, round-table discussions were held. The general consensus 

reached was:

 Long-term monitoring of selected glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe, as 

recommended in USGS Circular 1132 using a combination of traditional ground-based and 

airborne and satellite remote sensing methods, is of critical scientific value to understanding 

changes in glaciers, a climatically-sensitive element of the Earth's cryosphere and a keystone 

environmental parameter.

 Satellite remote-sensing technology represents the only feasible way of measuring and

monitoring changes in the area and volume of the Earth's large glaciers (e.g., ice sheets, ice 

caps, and ice fields), but ground-based observations at selected locations are necessary to 

validate analysis of remotely-sensed data of glaciers.

 Because glaciers are part of the Earth System; they should be studied globally and

systematically using a well planned and coordinated monitoring program carried out by the 

USGS and cooperating U.S. and foreign institutions.

 A better understanding of the role of glaciers in regional and global climate change is not just 

scientifically valuable, but is broadly relevant to governmental interests and responsibilities and 

to national and international programs, such as the U.S. Global Change Research Program and 

the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme for the following reasons:

 sea level change the melting of about 400 km3 of glacier ice will raise sea level 1 mm 

globally;

 the hydrologic cycle the cryosphere (glaciers; snow cover; sea, lake, and river ice; 

and permafrost or permanently frozen ground) is the frozen-water component of the 

hydrologic cycle; glaciers, for example "store" 2.15 percent of the Earth's water, the 

second largest reservoir of water, after the oceans (97.2 percent);

 glacier-related hazards e.g., glacier-outburst floods (jokulhlaups), surging glaciers, 

discharge of icebergs, etc.;

 ecosystem changes the increase or decrease in glacier area impacts high-mountain 

and high-latitude ecosystems (especially in National Parks and Monuments).

 The USGS glacier-studies program, while recognized as carrying out invaluable scientific 

studies and providing valuable scientific data on fluctuations and mass-balance of selected 

glaciers, could be more valuable if more focused and better coordinated internally [managed as 

a Bureau program (all four science divisions)] and if it had stronger external coordination, 

cooperation, and collaboration with USGS counterpart agencies in other nations involved in 

glacier monitoring (see table 1).

As a result of the discussions at the Workshop, the following recommendations are 

presented in the following two pages:
WORKSHOP RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The USGS should maintain its lengthy history of glacier studies with a revitalized and 

integrated bureau program based on a combination of ground-based, airborne, and 

satellite remote sensing methods as recommended in USGS Circular 1132. The program 

should be funded by the U.S. Global Change Research Program and other SIR funds, 

utilizing the respective scientific strengths of the four science divisions, in concert with 

strong collaboration with other agencies and institutions involved in glaciology, both 

domestic and foreign.

The USGS has been involved in glacier studies for 118 years and has the experience 

and current status as the principal Federal ecosystem agency to develop a strong integrated 

bureau-wide, glacier-monitoring program. It has been more than a decade since such a 

course of action was first recommended by various USGS scientists and later encouraged 

by Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist. It is now time to take decisive action in light of 

the importance of long-term monitoring of glacier fluctuations to assessing regional climate 

change and the obvious source of sustained funding through the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program. An integrated bureau program requires a strong leader with a 

national and international reputation in glaciology.

The USGS should consider glacier studies as an integrated Bureau program involving 

all four science divisions, with programmatic funding and staffing derived primarily from 

the U.S. Global Change Research Program and secondarily from surveys, investigations, 

and research (SIR) and/or outside funding agreements (OFA) funding for glacier 

hydrology, cold-regions hydrology, impact of glacier recession on regional ecosystems 

(e.g., Glacier National Park, Montana), and other glaciological research programs 

traditionally supported by the divisions. Through an integrated Bureau program, in which 

planned fiscal-year budget submissions by each division would be coordinated, each 

science division would operate independent projects that draw from their respective 

scientific strengths and programmatic histories, including existing intra-divisional, interdivisional, inter-agency, and non-USGS institutional (U.S. and foreign) cooperation and 

collaboration. Each USGS science division has the following glacier-studies strengths:

a. Water Resources Division (WRD) - Lead division in the continuation of long-term field 

studies of mass-balance, ice velocity, climate, runoff, and fluctuation of termini of selected 

glaciers in the conterminous U.S. and Alaska, field studies of glaciological hazards, 

glacier hydrology, and cold-regions hydrology. Close cooperation and collaboration with 

the other three USGS science divisions, collaboration with NASA Goddard Space Flight 

Center and several U.S. universities, National Park Service, and counterpart agencies in 

other nations (see following table: USGS and Counterpart Governmental Institutions in 

North America and Northwestern Europe Involved in Glacier Monitoring).
b. Geologic Division (GD) - Lead division in satellite remote sensing of glaciers of 

the Earth, with special reference to the glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe. Currently completing an 11-volume Satellite Image Atlas of 

Glaciers of the World (USGS Professional Paper 1386) that involves more than 60 

U.S. and foreign scientists in a baseline study, using Landsat images from the mid1970's, to establish the areal extent of glaciers worldwide. Close cooperation and 

collaboration with the other three USGS science divisions, NASA, National Park 

Service, and glaciological institutions in other nations.

c. National Mapping Division (NMD) - Lead division for production of conventional topographic, planimetric, image, and specialized thematic maps of glaciers, 

including digital and paper formats. Principal archive (EROS Data Center) for 

airborne and satellite imagery [e.g., Landsat, EOS (Mission to Planet Earth), 

classified source material (including imagery derived products or IDP'S), aerial 

photographs and images, etc.]. Close cooperation with other international archives, 

cooperation with the other three USGS science divisions, NSF, NASA, and 

NOAA.

d. Biological Resources Division (BRD) - Lead division for field and airborne

monitoring of glaciers in the National Parks of the conterminous U.S. and Alaska, 

especially impact of glacier recession on park ecosystems. Close cooperation with 

the National Park Service, the other three USGS science divisions, and Canada.

2. It is imperative that increased cooperation and collaboration, especially carrying out of 

joint (intra-or inter-national) field programs be a major objective of the USGS (see table 

1). Because of the global nature of glacier studies, the importance of glacier studies to 

monitoring global environmental change, and reduced funding to and "downsizing" of 

staffs at U.S. and foreign scientific institutions involved in glacier monitoring, there is a 

need to continue and integrate acquisition and analysis of environmentally critical, longterm field-based data sets for historical perspective and to validate analysis of remotely 

sensed data and expand them geographically where warranted scientifically.

3. A cooperative program between scientists and their respective institutions needs to be 

established to share remotely-sensed data and to provide for easy exchange of data for 

independent or collaborative studies, because of the high cost of airborne and satellite 

images and other data (e.g., laser altimetry, radar, interferometry, etc.) and the need for 

a coordinated, systematic, and repetitive regional data-acquisition program for airborne 

and satellite data.

4. It is recommended that strong international support be given for maintenance of the 

glacier data archives, because of the value of these data archives for monitoring glaciers 

and determining historical changes of glaciers in North America, especially the Canadian 

glacier archive and the GeoData Center in Alaska. The Canadian archive includes 

important data of both Canadian and U.S. glacierized basins. Because of funding
cutbacks and other organizational changes in Canada, the data may no longer be fully 

accessible to glaciologists and could be lost if not properly archived. The GeoData Center 

of the University of Alaska's Geophysical Institute in Fairbanks, AK, is a major archive 

for remotely-sensed data of Alaskan glaciers, including the 60,000+ aerial negatives 

acquired by the USGS between 1960 and 1996 (see summary in Part I, Data Base and 

Geographical Perspective for Monitoring Glaciers of Alaska by Trabant and others).

In conclusion, a strong U.S. Federal program of glacier studies has been the responsibility 

of the USGS for more than a century. The USGS needs to have an equally strong 

presence in glacier studies for the 21st century, based on a well managed and revitalized 

glacier studies program within the USGS, and a close cooperative effort among the four 

science divisions of the USGS, in collaboration with the U.S. National Park Service, other 

agencies involved with the Department of the Interior in the U.S. Global Change Research 

Program, such as NASA and NOAA, academic institutions, and USGS counterpart 

institutions in other nations.
Table 1. USGS and Counterpart Governmental Institutions in North America and Northwe

Involved in Glacier Monitoring

Institution

United States

USGS

Biological Resources 

Division

Geologic Division

National Mapping 

Division

Water Resources 

Division

U.S. National Park 

Service

NOAA

NASA

Miscellaneous Glacier 

Monitoring (e.g., 

Radio-echosounding , 

Glacier Hydrology, 

Satellite Remote 

Sensing, etc.)

X

X

X

X

X

Monitoring of 

Termini Fluctuations

X

X

X

X

Monitoring of Mass 

Balance

X

X

Topographic Mappi

of Glaciers

X

X

*National Snow and Ice Data Center

10
Institution

Canada

National Hydrology 

Research Institute

Geological Survey of 

Canada

Greenland (Denmark)

Geological Survey of 

Denmark and 

Greenland

National Survey and 

Cadastre

Iceland

National Energy 

Authority

Science Institute 

(University of 

Iceland)

National Land Survey 

of Iceland

Miscellaneous Glacier 

Monitoring (e.g., 

Radio-echosounding , 

Glacier Hydrology, 

Satellite Remote 

Sensing, etc.)

X

X

X

X

X

Monitoring of 

Termini Fluctuations

X

X

X

Monitoring of Mass 

Balance

X

X

X

Topographic Mapp

of Glaciers

X

X

11
Institution

Norway 

(including Svalbard 

and Jan Mayen)

Norwegian Water and 

Energy Authority

Norwegian Polar 

Institute

Russia

Institute of Geography 

(Russian Academy of 

Sciences)

United Kingdom

Scott Polar Research 

Institute

Centre for Glaciology 

(University of 

Wales)

Switzerland

World Glacier 

Monitoring Service

Miscellaneous Glacier 

Monitoring (e.g., 

Radio-echosounding , 

Glacier Hydrology, 

Satellite Remote 

Sensing, etc.)

X

X

X

X

X

Monitoring of 

Termini Fluctuations

X

X

Monitoring of Mass 

Balance

X

X

Topographic Mappi

of Glaciers

X

X

X

12
INTRODUCTION 

History of USGS Involvement in Glacier Studies

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was established by an Act of the U.S. Congress in 

1879. The first Director of the USGS (1879-1881), Clarence R. King, had a special interest in 

glaciers dating from his education at Yale University and his participation in the field parties of 

the U.S. Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel (1867-1872). King discovered 

Whitney Glacier on Mount Shasta on 11 September 1870 and three more glaciers on the north 

slope of the volcano. He published an article in the Atlantic Monthly (1871, v. 27, 8 March , 

p. 371-377) on "Active Glaciers within the United States." Israel C. Russell, a geologist with 

the USGS (1880-1892) and a founder of the National Geographic Society (NGS) in 1888, 

received the first research grant from the Society on 20 May 1890 to fund "The Mount St. 

Elias Expedition," the initial scientific study of one of the largest ice fields and associated 

outlet glaciers in North America. The NGS "had assembled contributions from 27 donors to 

help finance Russell's expedition....... where his team measured glaciers, gathered samples,

and made sketches for National Geographic Magazine."* Russell published a report on 

"Existing Glaciers of the United States," in the 5th Annual Report 1883-84 of the USGS (1885) 

and on the "Glaciers of Mount Rainier" in the l#h Annual Report 1896-97 of the USGS (1898). 

Harry F. Reid, in the 16th Annual Report 1894-95 of the USGS (1896), published a report on 

"Glacier Bay and Its Glaciers."

Throughout the 118-year history of the USGS, the agency has supported research on 

glaciers, with each of the original three science divisions providing scientific leadership at 

different periods during that span of time. From the late I9h century to the present time, the 

Geologic Division supported a variety of glacier studies, initially as an adjunct to geologic 

mapping of high mountain areas in the western United States and Alaska and later as elements 

of other programs, such as the present Global Change and Climate History Program. From the 

late 1920's to the end of World War II, Francois E. Matthes of the National Mapping Division 

[Topographic Division], published annual reports on glaciers of the United States in the 

Transactions of the American Geophysical Union (1932-1945). By the mid-1950's, scientific 

leadership on glacier studies was provided by the Water Resources Division, with the hiring of 

Mark F. Meier, who eventually would become one of the preeminent glaciologists in the 

United States and the international glaciological scientific community. Meier established a 

strong scientific program in glaciology in Tacoma, WA, and staffed it with a fine group of 

scientists and support staff. During his long tenure, he and his staff established a long-term 

program of glacier monitoring, including mass-balance studies of selected glaciers (e.g., South 

Cascade Glacier, WA) and terminus fluctuations (e.g., systematic annual aerial surveys of 

glaciers by Austin Post and Robert M. Krimmel), fundamental studies of glacier dynamics and

*Pollack, Henry, Cox, Rob, and Komar, Paul, 1996, a bit of history: Israel C. Russell: 

Geoscience News (University of Michigan, July, p. 11

13
hazards, including the cyclical advance and retreat of tidewater glaciers (e.g., Hubbard Glacier 

and Columbia Glacier, AK, respectively), and jokulhlaup (glacier outburst floods) occurrences 

in Alaska (lacustrine and volcanic) and from volcanoes in the Cascade Mountains of 

Washington and Oregon (e.g., Mount Rainier). In the early 1960's another group of 

glaciologists in the Water Resources Division under the leadership of Lawrence C. Mayo in 

Fairbanks, Alaska began a long series of studies of Alaska's glaciers. The scientific 

productivity of the "Meier Group" and the "Mayo Group" was enormous, a conclusion 

confirmed by reference to the 1996 USGS Open-File Report 95-723, "Bibliography of Glacier 

Studies by the U.S. Geological Survey."

The retirement of Meier from the USGS in 1985 marked the beginning of major funding 

and staffing reductions by WRD for glacier studies. By 1997, 7 glaciologists of the staff of the 

glaciology group in Tacoma, WA, and Fairbanks, AK, had retired, resigned, or been 

transferred to other projects; this critical scientific and manpower loss has not been replaced. 

The late William J. Campbell, who was the head of the USGS-WRD Cryospheric Interaction 

Project, assumed leadership of a combined glaciology, sea ice, and snow group; the combined 

staff was called the Ice and Climate Project (ICP). Campbell's primary scientific interest was 

sea ice monitoring using passive microwave satellite remote sensing. Working with the NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center and the French Space Agency, (Centre Nationale d'Etudes 

Spatiale (CNES)), he pioneered the use of microwave remote sensing of sea ice and used these 

techniques to determine long term trends in sea ice coverage. Under Campbell, the group 

continued the glacier-monitoring program and other snow and ice investigations despite severe 

budgetary restraints and the loss of additional staff that were also not replaced. In 1993, the 

year after the death of Campbell, the Ice and Climate Project moved from the administrative 

management of the WRD-National Research Program (NRP) to the Alaska District Office 

(ADO). The Fairbanks Glaciology Project and the Tacoma Ice and Climate Project are now 

considered part of the Alaska District Glacier and Snow Program. This combined group has 

continued strong programs in glacier mass balance of the three USGS benchmark glaciers, the 

relationship of mass balance with changes in global atmospheric circulation, glacier-climate 

interaction, tidewater glacier processes, microwave remote sensing of snow, and glaciervolcano and other glacier hazard analysis. However, Campbell was not replaced nor was a 

new leader appointed. The effect of the past 12 years of budgetary and staffing reductions has 

resulted in a greatly reduced glacier program in WRD without a clearly defined leader in 

glaciology for either WRD or the USGS.

Although the Alaska District Glacier and Snow Program (WRD) continues to be the 

principal focal point in the USGS for the scientific study of glaciers, the other three science 

divisions have also been active in glacier mapping, publication of a global inventory (baseline) 

of the areal extent of glaciers, and glacier monitoring. The National Mapping Division (NMD) 

compiles and publishes topographic, planimetric, and image maps of glaciers of the United 

States and Antarctica as part of its national topographic mapping responsibilities; Antarctic 

mapping is done as a cooperative endeavor with the National Science Foundation's Office of 

Polar Programs. NMD also operates the Advanced Systems Center in Reston, VA, to provide 

access to classified satellite imagery and other data useful for environmental monitoring by

14
scientists who have appropriate security clearances. The Geologic Division, with funding from 

the Global Change and Climate History Program (a component of the multiagency U.S. Global 

Change Research Program), is publishing an 11-volume series of books that represents a global 

glacier inventory of the areal extent of glaciers using Landsat images from the mid-1970's: 

Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World (USGS Professional Paper 1386 A-K) [http:// 

geochange.er.usgs.gov/pub/info/facts/atlas/index.html]. This long-term project involves more 

than 60 scientists, representing 25 nations and 45 different institutions; six volumes have been 

completed, including five published and a sixth to be printed in winter 1998 and a seventh in 

late 1998. Also, under the same project (Glacier Studies Project), satellite image maps and 

coastal-change and glaciological maps of Antarctica have been published* or are in 

preparation. In the mid-1970's, the Geologic Division began studying the glacial and 

sedimentation history of Alaskan coastal glaciers as part of the Outer Continental Shelf 

Environmental Assessment Project (OCSEAP) analysis of the Gulf of Alaska. This activity 

has evolved into the present decade-long study of the Malaspina and Bering Glaciers. From 

the late 1980's through the transfer of the collection in 1996 to the University of Alaska, this 

GD activity funded the USGS's airborne Alaskan glacier photo monitoring flights. More 

recently, arrangements have been made to systematically acquire classified data [e.g., National 

Technical Means (NTM)] of eight selected glaciers that are situated from the Brooks Range, 

AK to Nevada. The Biological Resources Division of the USGS and another Interior agency, 

the National Park Service, monitor the fluctuations of glaciers in selected national parks of the 

United States, with respect to impact on the ecosystem of changes in the areal extent of 

glaciers.

Climate Change and Variations in the Earth's Cryosphere

The cryosphere, one of the four components of the geosphere (lithosphere, hydrosphere, 

atmosphere, and cryosphere), is particularly sensitive to changes in regional and global 

climate. Glaciers, one of the four elements of the cryosphere [glaciers, floating ice, (sea, lake 

and river), snow, and permafrost (permanently frozen ground)] are excellent indicators of 

regional (and global) climate changes, because fluctuations in volume and area are linked to 

changes in winter and/or summer temperatures and/or in precipitation (amount and whether 

frozen or liquid). Glaciers are distributed on all continents, except Australia, at high 

elevations and/or high latitudes. Although 99 percent of the volume and 97 percent of the area 

of glacier ice on Earth is in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, 1 percent of the volume 

and 3 percent of the area of glacier ice are represented by ice caps, ice fields, valley glaciers, 

etc., outside of Greenland and Antarctica, and it is these smaller glaciers that are especially 

sensitive to climate change and have been markedly reduced in volume and area since the end 

of the "Little Ice Age" during the latter part of the 19fh century. [Whether the Antarctic and 

Greenland ice sheets are increasing or decreasing in volume and area or are in equilibrium is 

not yet known.]

*Swithinbank, C.W.M., Williams, R.S., Jr., Ferrigno, J.G., Lucchitta, B.K., Seekins, B.A., and Rosanova, 

C.E., 1997, Coastal-change and glaciological map of the Bakutis Coast, Antarctica: 1972-1990. U.S. 

Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map, I-2600-F; scale: 1:1,000,000, with 

accompanying booklet, 12 p.

15
Reviews and Assessment of USGS Glaciology Programs

During the past 15 years, there have been repeated attempts by USGS glaciologists, 

scientific program managers, and non-USGS scientists to define the role of the USGS in a 

national glaciological research program and to determine how the USGS program can be 

effectively linked to other national and international scientific programs in glaciology. These 

periodic assessments, of which this Workshop is the latest, have been motivated by changes in 

program resources (e.g., changes in funding and/or staff) or in program rationale. Initially, 

the study of glaciers was driven by mostly scientific considerations, to gain new knowledge 

about glacier dynamics and how glaciers respond to variations in regional climate, especially 

the retreat of mountain glaciers in the Pacific Northwest and tidewater glaciers in Alaska 

during the past century. More practical concerns, such as glacier hazards (e.g., lacustrine and 

volcanic jokulhlaups, volcanic lahars, calving glaciers, surging glaciers, etc.) and glacier 

hydrology (e.g., contribution of glacier meltwater to the volume of surface and groundwater 

discharge from a glacierized hydrologic basin), of concern to reservoir mangers for irrigation 

and hydroelectric power generation, also played a role.

In October 1982, Lawrence R. Mayo, a glaciologist with WRD's Cold Regions Hydrology 

Project Office in Fairbanks, AK, wrote "A Plan for Snow and Ice Research in the Water 

Resources Division, USGS," and sent it to all USGS glaciologists for review and comment. 

The 41-page document was a comprehensive assessment recommending glaciological studies 

by four project offices in WRD [e.g., Precipitation-Runoff Modeling led by George H. 

Leavesley (Denver, CO); Glaciology, led by Mark F. Meier (Tacoma, WA); Sea-Ice 

Dynamics led by William J. Campbell (Tacoma, WA); and Cold Regions Hydrology, led by 

Lawrence R. Mayo (Fairbanks, AK)]; he also envisioned the establishment of a fifth office for 

technology transfer. Mayo also referred to a previous WRD research plan on glaciology 

prepared in 1973.

In October 1988, Richard S. Williams, Jr., a research geologist and coordinator for 

Global-Change Activities with the Geologic Division, recommended the establishment of a 

"Branch of Glaciology and Glacial Geology" in the Office of Regional Geology to Benjamin A. 

Morgan, Chief Geologist. Appended to the memorandum was a two-page review of 

"Glaciological Research in the USGS," and a four-page review of the USGS and global 

glaciology.

In December 1989, Raymond D. Watts, a geophysicist with the National Mapping Division 

(formerly, detailed by the USGS as Executive Director of the U.S. Global Change Research 

Program and later Acting Assistant Director for Research, USGS), prepared a draft (10-p.) of 

"Recommendations for a Glacier Research Program for the U.S. Geological Survey," and 

circulated it to 24 USGS scientists and managers for review and comment with a 3-p. cover 

memorandum. In the cover memorandum, Watts argued for a coordinated USGS glaciology 

effort and referred to a tri-divisional (GD, NMD, WRD) initiative for cold-regions research 

encouraged by Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist (formerly, Hydrologist for Research and

16
External Coordination; Chief Scientist for WRD's contribution to the U.S. Global Change 

Research Program).

In 1989, Bruce F. Molnia, a glacial geologist with the Geologic Division, prepared a twopage pre-proposal "Inventory of North American Glaciers," to CD's Climate Change Program. 

Primarily directed at preparing a baseline for 30 selected glaciers from the Brooks Range to 

small glaciers in California and Colorado, Molnia relied heavily on the use of remote-sensing 

technology to carry out the work. His unsuccessful 1989 pre-proposal, Molnia's 1990 paper* 

arguing for a systematic monitoring of North American glaciers, and his 1993 ** paper on 

glacier monitoring for global change, however, provided early discussions of the importance of 

regional monitoring of glaciers with remote sensing technology.

In February 1991, the National Park Service , the U.S. Geological Survey, and the U.S. 

Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory jointly 

sponsored a workshop on Glaciers and Monitoring held in Anchorage, Alaska. The goal was 

to promote cooperation and coordination between state, federal and other agencies in glacier 

research, especially for the understanding of global climate change.

In May 1994, several WRD glaciologists and glaciologists from other Federal agencies and 

academic institutions participated in a two-day "Glacier-Climate Relationships Workshop" at 

the University of Washington (Seattle, WA). This Workshop was a precursor to the 1996 

Workshop and included some of the same participants.

In March 1996, John J. Conomos, Regional Hydrologist, Western Region (WRD), asked 

Thomas C. Winter, a WRD glaciologist, to lead a team of four USGS and two non-USGS 

scientists in a review of WRD's snow and ice projects. The 8-p report, "Hydrological Issues 

Related to Snow and Ice and the Need for Research and Basic Data on Snow and Ice in the 

Water Resources Division, USGS," was submitted by Winter to Conomos in April 1997.

Early in 1997, Robert A. Bindschadler, a glaciologist with NASA's Goddard Space Flight 

Center, sent a letter to Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist (WRD), on the "Importance of 

Revitalization of the USGS Glaciology Program." An edited version of that letter is included 

as Appendix 6 of this Workshop report.

*Molnia, B.F., 1990, One glacier's retreat, a global warming does not make An argument for 

systematic monitoring of North American glaciers [abs]: in Proc., International Conference 

on the Role of Polar Regions in Global Change, p. 25.

**Molnia, B.F., 1993, Glacier monitoring for global change; three case studies [abs.] in 

Kelmelis, J.A., and Snow, K.M., eds., Proc. of the U.S. Geological Survey Global 

Change Research Forum, Herndon, VA, March 18-20, 1991: U.S. Geological Survey 

Circular 1086, p. 99-100.

17
Two other reports related to glacier studies by the USGS and germane to the support of 

glacier monitoring by the USGS, and to the Workshop, were published by WRD in 1996, 

"Bibliography of Glacier Studies by the U.S. Geological Survey," USGS Open-File Report 95- 

723, by Elizabeth F. Snyder; and in 1997, "A Strategy for Monitoring Glaciers," USGS 

Circular 1132, by Andrew G. Fountain, Robert M. Krimmel and Dennis C. Trabant.

In late 1997, the Geologic Division's Strategic Science Team prepared a draft report, 

Geology for a Changing World, that addressed the importance of long-term monitoring of 

glaciers by the USGS under Science Goal 3, Anticipate the Environmental Hazards Posed by 

Climate Variability. In addition to noting the economic consequences of sea-level rise under 

climate warming, Number 2 of the 5 Strategic Actions recommended under Science Goal 3 is 

"2) In collaboration with other U.S. agencies and foreign institutions, initiate and expand longterm, baseline monitoring of key climate-change indicators such as glaciers, permafrost, and 

dune sand - (http://geology.usgs.gov/usgs/acgs/sst/draft.html)." Geology for a Changing 

World will be published in April 1998.

As noted, the Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of North America and 

Northwestern Europe represents the latest in the attempt to define the scientific rationale for 

glacier research by the USGS that will be supported by USGS managers and funded by the 

U.S. Congress. It does so by making global environmental change the "raison d'etre" and by 

involving other nations and institutions, especially USGS counterpart governmental 

institutions in North America and Northwestern Europe in an integrated bureau program 

dependent heavily on analysis of remotely-sensed data and close cooperation and collaboration 

with U.S. and foreign glaciologists and counterpart institutions.

Since the late 1980's, the increase in international scientific research on global 

environmental change and the development of the multiagency U.S. Global Change Research 

Program, the linkage between climate change, glacier fluctuation, and changes in eustatic sea 

level, has attracted growing attention. The Glacier Studies Project of the Geologic Division's 

Global Change and Climate History Program (Woods Hole, MA and Reston, VA), the 

Biological Research Division's glacier monitoring program in Glacier National Park (MT), 

some aspects of the National Mapping Division's glacier-mapping activities in Antarctica and 

the U.S. (Reston, VA), and part of the Water Resources Division Alaska District Glacier and 

Snow Program (Tacoma, WA; and Fairbanks, AK) are directed at addressing glacier-related 

global environmental change questions. It is clear that glacier studies by the USGS, in the 

context of the U.S. Global Change Research Program, must involve all four science divisions 

and should be treated as an integrated bureau-level research effort, with each division 

providing unique strengths through their individual programs and projects, with strong intradivisional, inter-divisional, inter-agency, and other U.S. and international governmental and 

institutional collaboration, including exchange of data and information.

18
Objectives and Rationale for the Workshop

Richard Z. Poore, Program Coordinator for the Global Change and Climate History 

Program, through which the Glacier Studies Project is funded, suggested that a workshop be 

convened to address the feasibility of using satellite remote-sensing technology, complemented 

by existing ground-based observation networks and aerial monitoring, to monitor fluctuations 

(areal and volumetric) of glaciers of North America. He concluded that the baseline of the 

areal extent of glaciers established by the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World (based 

on Landsat images from the mid-1970's) provided good control for regional studies, and that 

monitoring changes in the glaciers of North America in a long-term, systematic manner, would 

be the logical next step.

The two Workshop Coordinators, Richard S. Williams, Jr., and Jane G. Ferrigno, who are 

also the editors of the USGS Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World book series, agreed 

with Richard Z. Poore's suggestion, and began, during the early summer of 1996, the planning 

to convene such a workshop. We broadened the planned geographic area of the glaciers to be 

monitored from North America to include Northwestern Europe. This was done to include all 

of the major glacierized areas of the Northern Hemisphere, especially those influenced by the 

maritime climates of the North Pacific Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean.

The Glaciers of Europe (1386-E; 1993) and Greenland (1386-C; 1995) volumes of the 

Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World had already been published. Editing for the 

Glaciers of North America (1386-J) has either been completed (Glaciers of Mexico and 

Glaciers of the Western United States) or is in progress (Glaciers of Canada and Glaciers of 

Alaska) and writing for the Glaciers of Iceland (1386-D) is in progress. Therefore, a solid 

foundation of information, especially 1970's baseline data from satellite images, on the glaciers 

of North America and Northwestern Europe was already available and, most importantly, 

many of the authors of the Glacier Atlas volumes and other glaciologists knowledgeable about 

the geographic area agreed to participate in the Workshop.

Forty scientists, including several global-change research program managers, were invited 

to the Workshop. Thirty-two scientists attended the two-day workshop and one-day field trip 

to Mount Rainier on 11-13 September 1996. The Workshop was held at the University of 

Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA; local logistical and other support was provided by the Ice and 

Climate Project Office of the USGS's Water Resources Division. Several attendees 

participated in a post-Workshop field trip to selected glaciers of southeastern Alaska that was 

led by Bruce F. Molnia.

The primary motivation for the Workshop was the recognition that airborne and satellite 

remote sensing of areal and volumetric changes in glaciers had reached the stage where 

quantitative scientific information could be derived from such data that had previously only 

been available from direct field measurements. In addition, many long-term national glacierobservation networks that had been established after World War II were being reduced or

19
eliminated because of budgetary cutbacks of scientific programs within institutions, resulting in 

the termination of long-term datasets that are especially valuable in determining whether 

observed changes in key environmental parameters caused by changes in regional or local 

climate, such as glaciers, are the result of natural variability (e.g., global warming during the 

past century following the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the mid-to-late-1800 f s), impact of 

human activity (e.g., increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide 

and methane), or both (fig. 1). Although not directly addressed in the Workshop, analysis of 

glacier-ice cores has proven that human activity is responsible for a 100 ppm increase in 

"normal" concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere during an interglacial. Prior to 

industrialization, atmospheric concentration of CO2 was 280 ppm, the same concentration 

attained during the previous interglacial about 130,000 years ago. During maximum cooling 

during a glacial, CO2 concentration falls to 180 ppm. In less than 300 years, human activities 

have caused an increase in concentration of CO2 in the Earth's atmosphere comparable to the 

late Pleistocene and preindustrial Holocene increase (+100 ppm) that required more than 

20,000 years. Glacier ice, distributed on all the Earth's continents except Australia, contains 

records of the composition of past atmospheres, volcanic eruptions, dust content of the 

atmosphere, and other environmental "signals" that have high scientific value in assessing 

natural climate change for the past 200,000 years (ice cores from the Greenland and Antarctic 

ice sheets) and lesser periods of time for smaller glaciers (e.g., ice caps, ice fields, etc.).

It seemed a critical time to develop a new strategy using satellite remote sensing in 

conjunction with ground-based observations and compilation of data in a Geographic 

Information System (GIS) and to continue and possibly expand glacier monitoring by adding 

glaciers to the existing ground-based network of glaciers being studied and monitored by 

various institutions in North America and Northwestern Europe. Such a plan would maximize 

the scientific results while utilizing available funding in the most efficient and cost-effective 

way.

20
150°E

Glacier mass balance sites 

O <10 year record 

11 - 25 year record 

>25 year record 

Ice-covered areas

120°E

Figure 1 . Map showing the very small number of glacier mass-balance sites in current 

operation in North America and Northwestern Europe north of 6(f N. lat. by length of record 

in years. Thousands of glaciers exist within the Arctic but only a few have been or are being 

studied and monitored scientifically. Map courtesy of Julian A. Dowdeswell, Centre of 

Glaciology, University of Wales.

21
Participating Institutions

Thirty-two scientists, from the 40 invited, participated in the two-day Workshop on LongTerm Monitoring of Glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe, representing 17 

institutions, seven U.S. and ten foreign. Glaciologists with special knowledge of the glaciers 

of North America (Alaska, Canada, Western U.S., and Greenland) and Northwestern Europe 

(Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, Norway, Sweden, and the Russian Arctic Islands) attended the 

Workshop (see the list of Attendees and other Invitees in Section V, Appendices. Names of 

participating institutions are as follows:

PARTICIPATING INSTITUTIONS

Environment Canada, National Hydrology Research Institute

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan

Geological Survey of Canada, Glaciology Section (Terrain Sciences Division)

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (Denmark) 

[Danmarks og Gronlands Geologiske Undersogelse (GEUS)

International Glaciological Society (England, U.K.)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Goddard Space Flight Center

French Space Agency

[Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES)]

National Energy Authority (Iceland) 

[Orkustofnun]

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

Portland State University

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

[Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule (ETH)]

22
U.S. Department of the Interior 

National Park Service

Denali National Park and Preserve (AK)

Glacier National Park (MT) 

USGS

Biological Resources Division

Geologic Division

National Mapping Division

Water Resources Division

Office of the Director

University of Alaska, Geophysical Institute

University of Colorado

National Snow and Ice Data Center - World Data Center - A for Glaciology

University of Oslo (Norway), Department of Geography 

University of Wales (U.K.)

University of Zurich-Irchel (Switzerland), Geographical Institute 

[Universitat Zurich-Irchel, Geographisches Institut]

23
Structure of the Workshop

The two-day Workshop was organized around a series of presentations to bring all 

participants up to the same level of information. The presentations were followed by related 

and expanded discussions about the best way to cooperate in the use of currently available and 

existing and future planned technologies to carry out long-term ground, airborne, and satellite 

monitoring of fluctuations in glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe. We also 

discussed existing glacier datasets (ground observations, airborne images and satellite images) 

archived in various data centers in different nations and in the major international archives 

such as the IAHS (ICSI)/UNEP/ UNESCO World Glacier Monitoring Service (Zurich, 

Switzerland), NOAA's National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center - A for 

Glaciology (Boulder, CO), and the USGS EROS Data Center (Sioux Falls, SD), etc.

Part I of the two-day Workshop included presentations by glaciologists from Alaska, 

Canada, Conterminous United States, Denmark (for Greenland), Iceland, Norway (and 

Sweden), and Wales, U.K. (Russian Arctic Islands) on "Existing Data Bases and Current 

Status of Monitoring Glaciers of North America and Northwestern Europe." Part II of the 

Workshop included presentations by glaciologists, other scientists, and engineers about 

"Current and Planned Remote Sensing Technology for Monitoring Glaciers." Part III of the 

Workshop was composed of presentations by glaciological-archive managers on "International 

Data Centers for Archiving Ground, Airborne and Satellite Data of Glaciers."

All of the attendees (and non-attendees) were asked to provide an expanded abstract about 

their experience and perspective on glacier monitoring and related topics prior to the 

Workshop, so that the abstracts could be distributed to attendees. Selected background 

reading, was provided to each attendee.

On the afternoon of the second day of the Workshop glaciologists responsible for specific 

geographic areas or topics revised the original abstracts into brief comprehensive reviews with 

respect to the information presented and discussions held during the three sessions of the first 1 

1A days. Copies of these comprehensive reviews are arranged in the following sections 

according to the Workshop organization:

I. Existing Data Bases and Current Status for Monitoring Glaciers of North America and 

Northwestern Europe

II. Current and Planned Remote Sensing Technology for Monitoring Glaciers

III. International Data Centers for Archiving Ground, Airborne, and Satellite Data of 

Glaciers

IV. Monitoring of Various Glaciers in North America and Northwestern Europe. 

Miscellaneous Contributions

V. Appendices

Part I provides a geographic perspective, past and present. Part II gives a remote-sensing 

perspective, present and future. Part III provides a perspective on the major international data 

centers devoted, entirely or in part, to archiving of glaciological data. Part IV includes

24
miscellaneous studies of glaciers in North America using a combination of technologies. Part 

V provides background information about the Workshop, attendees, non-attendees, selected 

reading, and other important information.

Acknowledgments

Convening a Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of North America and 

Northwestern Europe and tending to the logistical and other needs of 32 U.S. and foreign 

glaciologists required substantial support from several dedicated individuals. From the Glacier 

Studies Project (Woods Hole, MA), the Workshop Coordinators are especially grateful to the 

outstanding support provided by Janice G. Goodell before, during, and after the Workshop. 

At the Water Resources Division (Ice and Climate Project Office in Tacoma, WA), Edward G. 

Josberger arranged much of the local logistics, including the conference room at the University 

of Puget Sound and myriad other details. We want to thank Ed for all his efforts and those of 

Jo Eggers (Tacoma, WA) for an exceptionally smooth operation; everything went off without a 

hitch. Bob and Birdie Krimmel hospitably opened their beautiful home on Vashon Island to all 

Workshop attendees for a cookout and informal evening session.

We also want to acknowledge the planning and leading of the post-Workshop field trip to 

Mount Rainier by Carolyn L. Driedger (Cascade Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, WA) to 

observe the effect of jokulhlaups/lahars on the landscape of Mount Rainier and environs and 

the potential hazards to life and property associated with a dormant volcano surmounted by an 

ice cap and many outlet/valley glaciers. Her scientific knowledge of Mount Rainier and its 

glaciological and volcanological hazards and her enthusiasm made for a most informative and 

enjoyable field trip.

We greatly appreciate the efforts of Bruce F. Molnia (Reston, VA) in planning and leading 

a post-Workshop field trip to the Bering Glacier and other glaciers in southeastern Alaska. 

The Alaska field trip was an option paid for by individual attendees.

We also appreciate the assistance of Clifford M. Nelson, USGS Historian, for providing 

and confirming information about the work on glaciers by the first director of the USGS.

Last, but not least, we are grateful for the programmatic and financial support from 

Richard Z. Poore, Program Manager, Global Change and Climate History Program, to 

convene the Workshop in Tacoma, WA, and to cover travel costs of the non-local attendees 

and other logistical costs.

25
LONG-TERM MONITORING OF GLACIERS 

OF NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHWESTERN EUROPE

WORKSHOP SUMMARIES AND ABSTRACTS

26
I.

EXISTING DATA BASES AND CURRENT STATUS

FOR MONITORING GLACIERS 

OF NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHWESTERN EUROPE

27
ALASKA

Data Base and Geographical Perspective for Monitoring Glaciers of Alaska

by

Dennis C. Trabant, USGS 

with contributions from workshop participants

Carl S. Benson, University of Alaska

Keith Echelmeyer, University of Alaska

Phil Brease, National Park Service

James Roush, National Park Service

The Alaska-Yukon glaciers cover about 100,000 km2 in Alaska and adjacent parts of Canada. 

This is equal to the ice covered area of the Queen Elizabeth Islands of Arctic Canada; either of 

which is the third largest ice mass on earth after Antarctica (13.6 xlCf km2) and Greenland 

(l.TxlO6 km2). The Alaska-Yukon glaciers differ from the other large glacier covered areas 

because of their high rates of mass flux, large amounts of temperate ice, and their location in 

areas of vigorous and expanding human activity. The glaciers of Alaska feed every major river 

in the state except the Colville and play an important role in the oceanography of the North 

Pacific Ocean and in the climate of North America. Glacier runoff constitutes a line-source of 

fresh water along the south gulf coast of Alaska that produces a fresh-water stream equal in 

discharge to the Mississippi River. When seeking the tie between climate and these glaciers it 

is important to understand that some glacier changes are driven by mechanisms that are only 

indirectly linked to climate, or are completely independent of climate; these include: the 

calving-glacier cycle, surging, and glacier-volcano interactions. Furthermore, the gradient of 

climates from Maritime to continental, to Arctic polar basin across Alaska is the strongest of 

any on earth. Glaciers exist in each climate region and should be studied as a continuum from 

maritime to Arctic-desert types.

The glacier data base for Alaska includes glacial geologic reconstructions of Late Cenozoic 

glacier extents; 18th century terminus positions recorded by La Perouse, Cook, Vancouver, and 

others; and detailed studies of glaciers near the close of the I9h century by Reid, Gilbert, Tarr, 

and Martin (see T.D. Hamilton, 1994, for summary and references). Compilations of statewide 

glacier data have been published by Capps (1932), Pewe and others (1953), Karlstrom and 

others (1964), Coulter and others (1965), Pewe (1975), and Mayo (1984) (see T.D. Hamilton, 

1994 for full references), and in Snyder (1996). The database also includes a large archive of 

aerial photographs and satellite images located at the GeoData Center of the University of 

Alaska's Geophysical Institute at Fairbanks, Alaska (see attached table, p. 35).

Seventy three glaciers in Alaska have baseline mass balance or detailed topology data that are 

important ground truth for the analysis and interpretation of satellite data (see attached table, p. 

31, which includes glaciers in Canada and the Western United States). An additional number of

28
glaciers have long series of terminus change measurements or have begun observations that are 

intended to produce long-term series (note especially those in Denali National Park and 

Preserve). In return, the surface-based data collection programs expect to benefit from new 

understanding of the relation between the measurement sites and regional glacier activity and 

guidance and backing in targeting effective expansion of the surface-based data collection 

efforts. The listed baseline glaciers are not uniformly distributed geographically but do include 

representatives for each of the recognized climate regions of Alaska. These data are products 

of several programmatic efforts: 1) Eight large-scale glacier maps produced by the 

International Geophysical Year (IGY) program in Alaska during the late 1950's. Many of the 

IGY glacier studies included some mass balance measurements; 2) Three International 

Hydrologic Decade (IHD) glacier mass balance programs operated during the 1960's (see 

accompanying table); 3) The U.S. Geological Survey benchmark glaciers (Gulkana and 

Wolverine), which have been sustained since beginning as IHD sites, include mass balance, 

climatological, and ice kinematics data; 4) Mass balance and longitudinal profiling of selected 

glaciers in Denali National Park and Preserve (DNP&P), Alaska, begun during 1991; a longterm commitment to continued surface-based measurements will be augmented by remote 

sensing information. The objective of the DNP&P work is regional characterization of glacier 

mass balance; 5) Airborne laser altitude profiles of 65 glaciers begun during 1992 under 

National Science Foundation funding to Echelmeyer and Harrison (written communication, 

1996); 6) The long-term studies by the Geologic division of the Bering, Malaspina, and 

Mendenhall Galciers; 7) The late Williams O. Field's work on North American glaciers, 

especially his research on glaciers in Glacier Bay National Monument, AK, that he began in 

the 1920's; and 8) The recently completed contribution to the Glaciers of North America 

volume of the Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World by Bruce F. Molnia (GD) and 

Robert M. Krimmel (WRD) (in press) on the Glaciers of Alaska.

An important subset of the listed glaciers are those with the longest records and where surfacebased and remote sensing monitoring programs continue to operate. The Gulkana and 

Wolverine Glaciers, the U.S. Geological Survey benchmark glaciers in Alaska, have the 

longest continuous time series of mass balance, and climatological measurements in Alaska. 

These records begin in the mid-1960's and are augmented by ice kinematics measurements that 

began during the early 1970's and, for some years, basin runoff was measured. Gulkana and 

Wolverine Glaciers have also been profiled by Echelmeyer and Harrison and are designated 

National Technical Means (NTM) fiducial sites. The next longest mass-balance and ice 

kinematics records are from McCall, Lemon Creek, and Black Rapids Glaciers. All of these 

glaciers have been profiled by Echelmeyer and Harrison. Mass balance at McCall Glacier was 

begun during the IGY, reinitiated during the IHD, and recently (1993 to present) by NSF grant 

to the University of Alaska Fairbanks (contact workshop participant Echelmeyer). There are 

both ice kinematics and some runoff data from McCall projects. Hydrologic balance 

measurements on Lemon Creek Glacier began during 1953 by the Juneau Icefield Research 

Project and basin runoff has been measured by the U.S. Geological Survey since 1951. The 

hydrologic balance data for Lemon Creek Glacier is discontinuous. Black Rapids Glacier mass 

balance and ice kinematics measurements began as a U.S. Geological Survey program during 

1973 and are continuing at present by NSF grant to the University of Alaska Fairbanks (W.D.

29
Harrison). Because NSF programs can not be perpetually extended, the surface-based 

observations sets at McCall and Black Rapids Glaciers will be discontinued unless alternate 

programs are identified. The most geographically comprehensive recent data are the 

unpublished surface altitude profiles of Keith Echelmeyer (workshop participant) and W.D. 

Harrison (University of Alaska Fairbanks, written communication).

Recognized glacier monitoring deficiencies in Alaska include: 1) Need to quantify mass 

balances on the large glaciers along the Gulf of Alaska where the mass fluxes are among the 

highest on Earth and where the largest glaciers exist; 2) extrapolate glacier-climate relations 

from the long-term measurement sites to typify regions; 3) thereby, define regions in which 

glacier activity may be represented by the activity measured at a single glacier; 4) thereby also 

identify under-sampled glacier systems; and 5) improve understanding of the details of the 

linkage between climate and glacier response.

Selected References

Hamilton, T.D., 1994, Late Cenozoic glaciation of Alaska, in Plafker, G., and Berg, H.C.,

eds., The geology of Alaska, v. G-l, The geology of North America: Geological Society of

America, p. 813-844. 

Mayo, L.R., 1984, Glacier mass balance and runoff research in the USA: Geografiska

Annaler, v. 66A, no. 3, p. 215-227. 

Molnia, B.F., and Krimmel, R.M., __, Glaciers of Alaska; Glaciers of the United States (J2); in Williams, R.S., Jr., and Ferrigno, J.G., eds., Satellite image atlas of glaciers of the

world: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-J (Glaciers of North America), in

press. 

Snyder, E.F., 1996, Bibliography of glacier studies by the U.S. Geological Survey: U.S.

Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-723, 35 p.

30
Western American Glaciers with Baseline Mass Balance or Detailed Topology

Glacier Names 

No. bv

Reqion

1

Explanation:

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

A

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

B

15

C

D

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

E

24

25

26

F

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

IGY IHD Mass

Balance

"No." location plotted on attached map

* - unofficial name

A = not plotted on attached map

Runoff

IGY = International Geophysical Year, 1958-59

IHD = International Hydrologic Decade, 1965-74

E&H 

Altitude

Profiles

Terminus

Change

Global 

Fiducial

sites

"d" following mass balance beginning year denotes discontinuous record

"s" following mass balance year denotes simulated record reconstruction

NorthWest 

LatitudeLong

mm de min

E&H Altitude Profiles = Echelmeyer and Harrison GPS/laser altimeter glacier longitudinal profiles

yy.ddd = year and Julian day of first measurement

"LP" = longitudinal surface altitude profile

"TP" = transverse surface altitude profile

"DEM" = digital elevation models for recent years

Global fiducial sites = primary data collection sites for classified systems

Data to be released through the National Technical Means program

Alaska

Aialik

Arey

Baird

Bear

Bear Lake

Bering

Black Rapids

Brady

Brady Icefield

Bravo

Burroughs

Cantwell

Chamberlin

Chemof

Chikuminuk

Cul de Sac

Columbia

North Crillon

South Crillon

Demorest

Dinglestad

Double

East Fork

Esetuk

Exit

Flute

Gillam

Glacier Bay

Gooseneck

Grand Pacific

Gulkana

Guyot

Hanging@McCall

Handing Icefield

Hidden

Holgate

Hubley North

Hubley South

Kachemak

+

+

+

1973

+

1974d

1965

+

+

d

yy.ddd

+

+

96.165

+

94.148

95.161

92.134

95.155

+

96.127

+

96.131

94.151

93.241

+

96.136

95.139

+

94.148

96.116

+

96.158

92.204

+

94.149

96.156

96.139

+

+

+

+

1996 &LP

+

f

1794-1986

LP&TP

1900-1996

-t59

69

57

59

60

60

63

58

58

69

58

63

69

59

60

62

60

58

58

58

59

60

63

69

60

61

63

58

69

50

63

60

69

60

59

59

69

69

59

57

19

15

55

11

10

30

21

40

16

57

25

17

50

7

25

10

39

36

36

42

42

19

18

10

8

40

22

20

4

16

4

18

0

45

51

17

17

43

149

143

132

149

149

143

145

136

136

143

136

149

144

150

159

152

147

137

137

134

150

152

147

144

149

149

147

136

143

137

145

141

143

150

138

149

143

143

150

44

49

15

31

18

50

53

37

47

51

12

22

54

21

17

45

5

28

23

8

25

38

17

20

40

20

17

0

48

3

25

22

50

0

35

52

44

44

38

31
34

3b

36

G

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

H

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

I

63

64

J

K

L

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

Kahiltna

Knik

Konamoxt

Hopkins

LeConte

Lemon Creek

Little Oinglestad

Little Jarvis

Malaspina

Matanuska

McCall

McCarthy

Mendenhall

Mt. Wrangeli

Muir

Mulct row

Northwestern

Novatak

Nunatak

Okpilak East

Okpilak west

Polychrome

Portage

Salmon

Shamrock

Sherman

Skilak

Southwestern

Susitna

Taku

Tanaina

Tatina

Tazlina

Toklat, AsHi*

Toklat, middle fork *

Toklat, west fork *

Traleika

Turquoise

Tustumena

Tuxedni

Variegated

West Gulkana

Wolverine

Wolverine Crag

Worthington

Yakutat

+

+

+

+

*

+

+

+

136 1

see Mayo

1953d

1958d

see Benson & Mot}

94.212

and Trabant. 1982 via Mayo, 1984

1951

d

+

96.158

96.166

93.246

+

95.151

95.156

93.208

+

95.154

+

fka, 1978 via Mayo, 1984

94.215

+

96.156

96.156

93.223

93.222

95.179

+

+

+

+

see Mayo, Zenone, & Trabant, 1977 via Mayo, 1984

96.169

96.136

see Bull & Marangunic, 1968 via Mayo, 1984

+

Jr

1994

1973d

1966 d

+

+

95.139

93.241

96.136

94.123

96.127

96.136

+

96.135

95.156

93.163

94.147

*

94.151

96.156

1996 & LP

~H

1996

1996

LP&TP +

62

61

59

56

58

59

59

59

61

69

61

58

62

59

63

59

59

59

69

69

63

60

56

61

60

60

59

63

58

61

62

61

63

63

63

63

60

60

60

60

63

60

69

61

59

29

24

23

49

21

42

25

42

45

21

36

25

0

0

24

47

33

51

9

9

27

46

10

11

33

19

48

26

25

8

18

44

31

22

22

13

47

3

15

0

15

22

20

10

28

151

148

137

132

134

150

136

140

147

143

142

134

144

136

150

150

138

139

144

144

149

148

130

152

145

150

149

147

134

149

153

146

150

150

150

150

152

150

153

139

145

148

143

145

138

15

34

38

22

21

25

25

37

35

51

49

33

0

0

33

3

40

16

12

12

50

48

8

49

13

2

55

12

3

31

23

25

2

5

9

42

57

34

2

22

29

30

48

42

54

M

76

N

O

P

Q

R

74

S

T

U

Yukon, Canada

Hazard

Kaskawulsh

Rusty

Steele

Trapridge

B.C. coast mtns.

Alexander

Andrei

Berendon

Bridge

Cathedral

Forrest Kerr

+

1968d

1979d

1978d

1967d

1976d

1971d

1978d

see Young, 1990

95.141

see Young, 1990

see Young, 1990

96.169

1945d

61

60

61

61

61

57

56

56

50

59

56

16

46

12

15

14

6

56

15

49

20

54

140

138

140

140

140

130

130

130

123

134

130

22

35

18

11

20

49

56

10

33

6

6

32
75

V

77

79

W

81

X

Y

Z

AA

AB

AC

AD

78

80

AE

82

83

AF

AG

AH

Al

AJ

AK

AL

AM

AN

AO

AP

AQ

AR

AS

AT

AU

AV

AW

AX

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

N1

Frank Mackie

Helm

Melbern

Place

Salmon

Sentinel

Sphinx

Sykora

Wedgemount

Yuri

Zavisha

CA interior mtns.

Athabasca

Drummond

Peyto

Ram River

Saskatchewan

Triumph

Woolsey

Canadian Arctic

Agassiz A

Baby A

Bams Ice Cap A

Boas A

Decade A

Devon Ice Cap A

East Ice Cap A

Oilman A

Laika A

Leopold A

Meighen Ice Cap A

Per Ardua A

South Ice Cap A

Thompson A

Unnamed A

+

+

Ward Hunt Ice Rise A

Ward Hunt Ice Shelf A

West Ice Cap A

White A

California

Maclure

Colorado

Andrews

Arapaho

Arikaree

Fair

Hendersen

Isabella

Navahoe

St. Vrain

Front Range

Montana

Grasshopper

Grinned

Sperry

Nevada

Wheeler

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

1975

1965

1965d

1976d

1976d

1978d

1976d

1965d

1965d

1966d

1959d

1963d

1970d

1965d

1961

1963d

1958d

1974d

1963d

1959

1964d

1963d

1966d

1958d

1960d

1963d

1959

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

96.169

96.158

1945d

see Young, 1 990

96.165

1945d

1945d

1947d

1945d

1952d

1942d

1945d

1959d

+

+

see Outcalt, 1965 via Mayo, 1984

see Waldrop, 1964 via Mayo, 1984

see Muller, 1977 v a Mayo, 1984

see Muller, 1977 via Mayo, 1984

see Muller, 1977 via Mayo, 1984

see Muller, 1 977 via Mayo, 1 984

see Muller, 1977 via Mayo, 1984

see Muller, 1977 via Mayo, 1984

see Johnson, 1979 via Mayo, 1984

see Alford & Clark, 1968 via Mayo, 1984

see Johnson, 1980 via Mayo, 1984

see Johnson, 1980 via Mayo, 1984

66

49

69

50

56

49

49

50

50

56

50

51

51

51

51

52

57

51

80

79

70

67

69

75

75

82

75

75

79

81

75

79

81

83

83

75

79

37

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

40

45

48

48

38

20

58

15

30

9

55

55

53

9

58

48

12

36

40

50

13

30

10

25

26

10

34

38

20

39

6

53

49

57

31

25

28

57

7

7

38

27

45

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

7

15

15

59

130

123

137

122

130

123

122

123

122

130

123

117

116

116

116

117

132

118

70

90

73

65

69

82

114

70

79

114

99

76

115

90

64

74

73

114

90

119

105

105

105

105

105

105

105

105

105

109

114

113

114

10

0

38

40

4

10

58

34

48

42

25

15

2

15

20

8

14

5

0

58

30

16

50

30

28

37

9

45

8

27

1

30

12

10

30

45

40

17

45

45

45

45

45

45

45

45

45

40

0

50

19

33
O1

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

Oregon

Eiiot

Washington

Blue

Coleman

Columbia

Daniels

Foss

Hoe

Ice Worm

Lower Curtis

Lynch

Mt. Baker

Mt. St. Helens

Mt. Rainier

Nisqually

Noisy

North Klawatti

Vesper

Rainbow

South Cascade

Spider

Thunder Creek

White

Yawning

Wyoming

Dinwoody

+

+

+

1984

1984

1984

1984

1984

1984

+

+

+

+

1974-75

1984

1957

1984

1884-1 974s

1984

+

96.172

96.172

96.177

96.177

96.177

96.172

+

1931 &TP

DEM

+

+

+

45

4/

48

47

47

47

47

47

48

47

48

46

46

46

48

48

45

48

48

48

4/

48

43

20

49

40

27

22

22

49

21

46

23

40

12

52

40

40

32

0

45

22

10

50

23

10

121

123

121

121

121

121

123

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

121

120

123

121

109

35

42

40

22

10

14

30

11

38

11

40

10

45

44

26

2

30

45

3

50

33

2

38

34
Aerial Photography and Satellite Images held by 

Geophysical Institute - GeoData Center

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

http: //www. asf. alaska. edu/daac_documents/avail_data. html#gdc

1938-1986 - Fairbanks Area Aerial Photography, miscellaneous photography.

1942-1950 - NARL Aerial Collection, black and white prints (no negs.). In process of being 

catalogued. Includes tri-camera photography. Mostly of North Slope, but some photos of 

Interior.

1948 - Wrangell Collection - Part 1: 1972-1974, 1981 Landsat - 157 images; Part II: 1948- 

1991 - Aerial photography - 2,057 prints and negatives.

1960-1996 - Approximately 60,000 aerial photographic negatives of glaciers of western North 

America; photographs from the U.S. Geological Survey's Ice and Climate Project collection 

acquired by Austin Post, Lawrence C. Mayo, and Robert M. Krimmel, other government 

agencies, and private contractors. All are large format, vertical and oblique aerial 

photographs, at various scales.

Miscellaneous Aerial Photography Collections:

1964 - 634 prints of Beluga Lake, Cordova and Turnagain Arm

1974, 1976, 1977 - 2,920 frames from several projects, including Susitna River Basin

Cooperative Project, and Kenai Peninsula Project.

1968 - Amchitka/Rat Islands Aerial Photography - 930 black and white prints.

1972 - Kaltag/Point Hope Aerial Photography, 494 CIR transparencies.

1972 - NP-3 Photography - 2375 frames of natural color and CIR transparencies.

1972-84 - Low Altitude Village Aerial Photography - Transferred from Rasmuson Library, 

1,600 black and white prints, with a few color prints.

1972-1990 - Landsat Imagery (CCT's and hard copy), (MSS) - 14,000 images.

1973-74 - Trading Bay Aerial Photography - 844 positive transparencies.

1974-1990 - NOAA /Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) - HRPT - (CCT's and hard 

copy).

1975, 1976 and 1984 - Airborne SAR flown in support of AIDJEX I, II and III, BESMEX, 

Microwave-76 and Winter-84 projects. Black and white strips (no negs.).

35
1976-1977 - National Ocean Service Aerial Photography- 1897 CIR and natural color 

transparencies.

1977 - APA Aerial Photography - 74 frames - CIR transparencies.

1977 - Denali Highway Project Aerial Photography - 60 CIR transparencies. 

July, 1978 - March, 1992 - DMSP (positive black and white film).

1978 - Gas Line Aerial Photography - 121 CIR transparencies.

1978-1986 - Alaska High Altitude Aerial Photography Program (AHAP) - CIR transparencies 

and B&W negatives. Roughly 150,000 frames.

1982-85, 1987, and 1989 - AeroMap U.S. Browse Photography - more than 3,000 prints of 

local areas.

36
The Canadian Glacier Variations Monitoring and Assessment Network 

Status and Future Perspectives

by

Michael N. Demuth 

National Hydrology Research Institute, Environment Canada

Introduction

Studies of glacier fluctuations (annual and seasonal mass balance, volume change and glacier 

margin variations) are a well recognized foundation for understanding changes in the energy 

and water fluxes at the surface of the earth (e.g., Haeberli 1994, Haeberli 1995). In general, 

mass balance fluctuations represent a direct response to climate forcing and shifting 

equilibrium line (limit of permanent glaciation) while the advance or retreat of the glacier 

margins represents a delayed/cumulative response. As such, glacier fluctuation records can 

provide both short and long-term perspectives on the nature of climate fluctuations and related 

influences on water resources (Appendix A).

Glaciers and other forms of perennial ice represent a significant portion of the world's 

freshwater resources (e.g., Meier and Roots 1982). Notably, the general past-century pattern 

of strong deglaciation has implications for global sea-level rise (Meier 1984, Dowdeswell 

1995). Moreover, deglaciation and headwater extension will modulate the regulatory role of 

glaciers. Human activities in semi-arid lands contiguous to regions where glaciers are 

extensively found, rely heavily on the seasonality of glacier contributions to streamflow (e.g., 

reservoirs for water supply and electrical production needs) (Young 1985, Demuth 1996a); as 

do the fast-response biota which reproduce in low-order, base-flow dependent habitats (Ward 

1994, Milner and Petts 1994).

Observations, Assessments and Reporting

The Canadian Glacier Variations Monitoring and Assessment Network (CGVMAN) resides at 

the National Hydrology Research Institute (NHRI), an Environment Canada research 

laboratory. CGVMAN is a new effort which hopes to revitalize glacier-related environmental 

monitoring and assessment in Canada. Currently, CGVMAN is a joint government-university 

effort centered around studies at four principle mass-balance network sites (remnants of the 

IHD network). The sites include: i) White Glacier (Axel Heiberg Island in the eastern high 

Arctic; see abstract by Koerner); ii) Peyto Glacier (Canadian Rockies-Eastern Slopes); iii) 

Place Glacier and Helm Glacier (Southern Coast Mountains of British Columbia) (Figure 1).

37
141«W 110°W

Pacific Ocean

 Currant

O Discontinued

60°N

Washington, USA

49°N

Figure I Benchmark glacier mass balance monitoring and assessment sites for western 

Canada, Alaska and the coterminous USA.

38
Operated by NHRI (Principle Investigator (PI) Demuth, except for Axel Heiberg area 

where PI Cogley and Adams), the current "benchmark" sites also provide infrastructure and 

support for university researchers and the opportunity for students to perform work towards 

their thesis project. In return, university staff assist NHRI in making routine mass balance 

observations. Current co-operation has been realized at Peyto Glacier between NHRI and 

Wilfrid Laurier University (PI Young) and the University of Toronto (PI Munro). Similarly, 

NHRI-CGVMAN and the NRCan - Polar Continental Shelf Project provides logistical support 

to Trent University for the White/Baby Glacier work. Similar partners are to be developed for 

operations at Place and Helm Glaciers. The applied methodology at these sites follows that of 

Ostrem and Brugman (1991) with the network safe-guarded by ablation tapes installed using a 

hot-water drilling apparatus. Data reduction is largely automated using an image analysis 

framework and pc-based water-equivalent mapping routines. The methodology is augmented 

by remote sensing (ERS-1 and RADARS AT SAR acquisition) at the close of summer-balance 

season.

While now a small fraction of a once more extensive network (e.g., Table la,b), 

CGVMAN represents a basic cross-section of mass balance gradient, equilibrium line altitude, 

mean annual air temperature and humidity as manifested by latitude and continentality (e.g., 

Figure 2). The discontinuation of an inner montane site (Woosley) and a humid central coastal 

site (Berendon) in the mid-70's, however, has been a significant setback. In 1995, work at 

Sentinel Glacier was minimized (terminus position only). Other work by Natural Resources 

Canada (NRCan) - Geological Survey of Canada, continues in the eastern Arctic (see abstract 

by Koerner). Notably, mass balance and mass balance-elevation band reporting had involved 

up to 22 glaciers nation-wide as recently as 1985 (e.g., Ommanney 1988). Reporting of data 

and assessments for the CGVMAN "benchmark" glaciers continues in the WGMS Glacier Mass 

Balance Bulletin (GMBB) through the WGMS Canadian Correspondent (White and Peyto will 

be new additions to GMBB#4).

Glacier variation observations (terminus position) and reporting had involved up to 

seventeen sites as recently as 1985 (e.g., Ommanney 1988). An unknown number of 

measurements continue (e.g., Ricker (personal communication 1996), has indicated that his 

efforts at Wedgemount Glacier are likely to come to a temporary hiatus). Some recent work 

by Brugman (personal communication 1994) has re-established quasi-regular measurements on 

Athabasca, Saskatchewan and Illecillewaet. Reporting these efforts and their resulting data 

through the WGMS Canadian Correspondent, however, has slowed considerably because of 

resource restrictions. With the departure of C.S.L. Ommanney, the entire WGMS reporting 

load has fallen on the shoulders of one individual (the current WGMS Canadian 

Correspondent). In the recent past, mass balance reporting to the GMBB was conducted by the 

principle investigator, while Ommanney would have provided the quadrennial reporting on 

variations, volume changes, hydro-meteorological observations and special events. The 

current WGMS Canadian Correspondent is investigating the possibility of again sharing the 

data reporting duties.

39
The need to co-operate, build partnerships and make wise use of diminishing research 

dollars, is illustrated by the observation that, for the numerous projects headed by Canadian 

glacier researchers, little consideration is given to operating process-based studies, for 

example, out of basins for which there are established facilities, geodetic benchmarks, baseline 

data, climate stations, accommodation, etcetera. Herein lies the basis for CGVMAN as 

described earlier; for re-establishing a critical mass and, moreover, for realizing network revitalization.

Appendix B provides a summary of recent CGVMAN activities and related contributions.

40
Table la Cordilleran glaciers in Canada having significant hydroiogical records (1940-1960's)

(updated and modified" from Young 1990).

REGION/Glacier Name

YUKON

Hazard ens. 140*21.9 

Steeie 6114 e-N 14010.6 

Trapridge emeu 140-20.0 

RUSty 6112.4'N 14017.9 

Kaskawulsh 6o*4s.o-N 139*08.0 

COAST MOUNTAINS B.C.

Nadahini 59*44.014 136*41. (rw 

Cathedral s9*2o.3N 134*08.3 

Alexander sT-oe. 130*49.1 

Yuii 56*58.014 130*42.TW

Andrei 56*55. 130*55.6 

Forest Kerr 56*54. VN 130*05.6 

Berendon+ sei4.8'N 130*05.0 

Salmon se-os-e-N isonw.trw 

Sykora s<rs2.rN 123^3.8-w 

Bridge 50*49.4^ 123-33.0 

Zavisha SOMBX-N 123-25.3-w

Place* 50^5.3'N 122*36.0W

Wedgemount sermon 122*47.8^

Helm 49-57.8'N 123*00.(rW 

SphinX 49^5.0'N 122-57.5W

Sentinel-i- 49^3.6-N 122-58.9^

INTERIOR RANGES

Illeciilewaet SIIAO-N nr^o.ow 

Wooisey* 5i*o7.5-N nsnas-w

BugabOO SOMO.O-N ne*45.ow

Kokanee 49M5.0-N HT^M.OW

ROCKY MOUNTAINS

Saskatchewan 52*12.5*1 17-08.2 

Athabasca 52ii.rNH7is.o-w 

Ram River+ 51*51. O-NIIBILS-W

PeytO* 51*40.6^116^2.8 

Drummond 51*35.5^116*02.0 

 » IHD Glaciers

1940's 1950's 1960's

 i

^ /\ ^ n

--X--XXXXX

------ z z - z

x-x-x-x-xx-x-x-x-xx-x-x-x-xXXX---XXXX

x-x-x-x-xx-x-x-x-xm

x-x-x-x-x-

--------zz

-------zoo

- zzzzzzzzz

^ A

-----z-ooo

-----z-zzz

-----ooooo

X---X-X-Xx---xo*o*o 

xxxxxxxxxx

- - - -oooooo

x-xxxxxxxx 

mmmmxxxxxx

-----ooooo 

x-x-o*oooo

* * * * y y

m =

variations

mass balance

variations and mass balance

other studies

other, some mass balance

other, some variations

** Illecillewaeu Nadahini. Bugaboo and Kokanee added.

41
Table Ib Cordilleran glaciers in Canada having significant hydrological records (1970-1990's)

(updated and modified" from Young 1990).

REGION/Glacier Name

YUKON

Hazard 61-15.774 140*21.9 

^4-^-^1 -^ oteeie 61*14.674 i4oio.e 

Trapridge 61-13.674 140*20.0 

RUSty 61*12.474 14017.9 

Kaskawulsh 6o*4s.aN 139*06.0 

COAST MOUNTAINS B.C.

Nadahini 59*44.074 iseMi.o 

Cathedral 59*2o.3N 134*06.3 

Alexander 57*08.474 130-49.1 

Yuri 5698.074 130*42^ 

Andrei 56*55.774 130*55.6 

Forest Ken* 56*54.174 130*05.6 

Berendon-*- 56*14.874 130*05.0 

Salmon S6*08.e74 130*04.0W

Sykora 50*52.774 123*33.8 

Bridge 50*49.474 123-33.0 

Zavisha 50*48.474 123^5.3 

Place-*- so*2*u74 122^8.0 

Wedgemount 50*09.274 122*47.8 

Helm 4997.874 123n».0-W 

SphinX 4995.074 12297.5 

Sentinel-*- 4993.674 122*58.9 

INTERIOR RANGES

Illecillewaet 5116.074 117-20.0 

Woolsey-*- 51*07.574 118-02.5 

Bugaboo 50*40.074 116*45.0 

Kokanee 49*45.074117*08.0 

ROCKY MOUNTAINS

Saskatchewan 5212.574117*08.2 

Athabasca 52ii.7-Nii7i5.o 

Ram River-*- 5191.07411511.5 

PeytO-*" 51*40.674 116*32.8 

Drummond 51*35.574 116*02.0 

+ IHD Glaciers

1970's 1980's 1990's

--ZZZZZ--ZI-Z

zzzzz-z- - -zz

zzzzzzz- - -- -

Z--ZZ-----J--

-ooo-c------ 

--------- oi oo

--------ooioo

--------ooioo

--------ooioo

000000-- - - - -

z-----------

------ooooioo

------ooooioo

------oooo;oo 

ooooooooooioo

--XX-XZXXXIX*

-----OOOOOIOO

x-x- - -oo*oioo 

*o*oooooooioo

X---XXXXXXIXX

000000------

OOOOOO-- - -- - 

OOOOOOOOOOIOO

zzzzzzz ziz z z z z z

I

000- ---0 

OOO----O 

OOO----O

o-------

0 0 - - - - 

0 0 - - - - 

0 0 - - - -

39

oooooooo * * *xxxxx

oooooooo

o -------

oooooooo

xxxxxxxx

0 0 O O 0 0 

X X X X X X 

0 O 0 O O O

0 0 0 0 0 X

x x x mmm 

- - - mm -

O 0 O O 0 0 0 OIO 0 O 0 0 0

x = variations

o = mass balance

* = variations and mass balance

z = other studies

s = other, some mass balance

m = other, some variations

** Illecillewaet. Nadahini. Bugaboo and Kokanee added.

42
UJ 5

E

til

a. 'o

5000

4000

3000 -

1 2000

(D

Accumulation Zone

(D 

O

£ 

CO 

.O

(0 

<D I

1000

Ablation Zone or 

Unglacierized

n Alaska Maritime

. .. __, , + New Zealand Maritime 

/ O i o Cordillera Inner Montane

South Cascade I _ 

 Scandmavia

4- Iceland

 Alaska Continental

A CordWera Northern Maritime 

D Cordillera Central Maritime 

V Cordillera Southern Maritime

 Alpe (Europe)

O Cordillera Continental

T Tianshan 

A Himalaya

 Svalbard Arctic Maritime 

4> Greenland

+ Antarctic

 * Canadian Arctic

-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 

mean summer temperature at ELA (°C)

Figure 2 A precipitation-temperature representation of Global glaciation (after Ohmura et 

al. 1992) showing the current mass balance network in the Canadian/U.S.A. cordillera, 

Alaska and the Canadian Arctic (* represents discontinued IHD sites in western Canada).

Data Archive/Retrieval

A review of the status of cryospheric observing systems and data sets in Canada has been 

provided by Barry (1995) in which he summarizes "The present status is considered to be 

unsatisfactory in a number of respects for the different cryospheric variables important for 

global change research.". One of the recommendations coming out of recent reviews of 

glacier related activities in Canada (Munro 1995, Demuth and Munro 1995) was the need to 

improve access to data bases concerning themselves with glacier variations. Munro (1995) goes 

on to summarize that despite a general concurrence that the quality of glacier related work 

coming from Canada was high, the conduct and organization of such efforts was sporadic and

43
improvements towards co-operation and inter-disciplinary study need to be made.

A recent proposal under CRYSYS has investigated the feasibility of augmenting a cryospheric 

data node with a "new" sub-node for glaciers. The feasibility study was centred around having 

the sub-node established at a university. The need for an effective cryospheric node to assist 

global change research has been demonstrated (e.g., Barry 1995) and is generally supported. 

While re-establishing the "glacier node" to another geographic location is an option, it is clear 

that what is required first and foremost is an infusion of capital and human resources to 

modernize the present node and improve access (the current node resides at the NHRICanadian Glacier Information Centre (CGIC).

One perspective on the current status of the CGIC is provided in the abstract by Ommanney. 

The results of the aforementioned CRYSYS feasibility study are not yet published. Appendix 

B describes several recent activities initiated by the author to improve (re-establish) the 

effectiveness of the CGIC.

Response and Future Perspective

In general, fiscal restraint continues to severely challenge the monitoring and assessment of 

freshwater resources in Canada. Moreover, ongoing efforts by Environment Canada 

(Canada's lead agency on surface water monitoring) to rationalize federal monitoring networks 

(e.g., Pilon et al. 1996), have not acknowledged the need to develop cooperative approaches 

with partners who are currently responsible for monitoring and assessing Canada's perennial 

snow and ice resources (NHRI and NRCan-GSC). When considering the utility of a national 

surface water data collection strategy for Canada, numerous observers feel that the 

data/analysis basis for assessing the impact of global change and being able to make informed 

water management decisions, is being acutely compromised by not considering the integration 

of programmes that monitor and assess the significant perennial snow/ice resource in Canada. 

Furthermore, while Canada must be able to address its own freshwater issues (e.g., those 

related to biological integrity, altered hydrological regimes and quality of life/human health), 

not having the ability to effectively assess the state of its perennial snow and ice resources will 

have a profound impact on Canada's contribution to the international study of global change 

(e.g., understanding historical and modern climate variations, global sea-level rise). Notably, 

Environment Canada made an announced commitment to UNESCO and the International 

Association of Hydrological Sciences/International Commission on Snow and Ice in 1965 (start 

of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD)) to monitor glacier variations as part of the 

global surveillance of glacier trends. This commitment was renewed in 1975 at the start of the 

International Hydrological Programme (IHP).

The general decline of support for glacier-related studies in Canada is complicated by eastern 

biases and the geographical isolation from the decision making table experienced by project 

scientists and science managers. Cuts in the budgets of numerous government departments, 

including those most active in scientific work (Environment, Fisheries and Oceans, Natural

44
Resources), have resulted in a troublesome deficit of expertise and mentorship (for glacier 

related work, the departure of numerous key contributors- Ommanney, Holdsworth, Alt, 

Perla). Currently, CGVMAN remains entirely funded by A-base dollars, however, at levels 

which barely sustain basic data collection and severely hamper efficient analysis/assessment, 

QA/QC and reporting activities. The increasing use of industrial-based 3rd party resources can 

further exacerbate the above situation. A recent runoff modelling study, supported by 

significant 3rd party hydro-authority money (e.g., Brugman et al. 1996), gave no consideration 

to co-lateral planning for the support of related national data collection and assessment 

activities- activities which, historically, established the regional data basis that ultimately 

provided relevance to the work.

To be effective and productive in contributing to related eco-system science and global 

change/water management research, CGVMAN may have to undergo additional 

transformations, beyond those related to efficiency and philosophical re-design. The 

operational aspects of CGVMAN and related management of the Canadian Glacier Information 

Centre may need to be aligned with other partners outside of NHRI and its confines as a 

research science institute. Koerner and others (1997), in a review of National Research 

Council and Environment of Canada glacier monitoring and research strongly recommended 

that the Federal Government Glacier Science Programme be an amalgamation in Ottawa at the 

Geological Survey of Canada of the two remaining Federal glacier science activities at the 

Geological Survey of Canada and the National Hydrology Research Institute. To ensure that 

CGVMAN's important contributions continue into the future, it must align itself with those 

elements in government, the universities and the private sector that have a broad philosophical 

interest in global change. It will then be pivotal for the sustainability of Canada's contribution 

to global environmental monitoring and assessment to: i) establish a foundation of short- and 

long-term, societal- and science-based issues; ii) recognize that, for geophysical and 

environmental systems undergoing unknown future change, monitoring, because it must remain 

flexible, is neither trivial nor routine; iii) broaden the relevance of glacier-related research and 

monitoring to other disciplines.

NHRI and CGVMAN hope to take a leadership role in bringing Canada's glacier and water 

resource community together to define a strategic direction for glacier-related work. Useful 

conceptual templates for such direction may be found in The Freshwater Imperative: A 

Research Agenda. (Naiman et al., 1995). Here, traditional approaches to the monitoring and 

assessment of freshwater eco-systems are challenged to revitalize linkages between research 

and management; linkages that enable policy, politics and socioeconomics to be based on basic 

curiosity-driven research, sound freshwater science/modelling capabilities, and predictive 

understanding. Pivotal will be the re-affirmation of the role of science and the assurance of 

informed public input through integrated monitoring, information and research pathways 

(Figure 3).

45
Public

 - - -> Identify Objectives < H

I 

I

Status of/Define: -4 

>Water Resources

>Ecosystems _____

>Global Change

Science

Implement Actions

 - - Monitoring and Research

Action _ _ Knowledge

Figure 3 A basic framework whereby science and the public form a substantive component 

in the process of identifying and promoting sustainable water resource and ecosystem 

qualities. Monitoring and research activities serve as a foundation for the ability to deal with 

unknown future changes to environmental and geophysical systems (adapted from Stanford, 

personal communication, 1995).

On a final note, as commented in an article reviewing the study of natural evaporation by Philip 

(1987), "... public research bodies are under increasing pressure to orient their research 

commercially. The politicians fail to grasp the consequent inefficiency for science and the loss to 

all mankind. ". For global change research in Canada, the same consequences will come true for 

those who orient such work around short-term flagship and 3rd party studies only, without 

consideration for the longevity and vitality of long-term monitoring and assessment programmes.

46
Literature Cited

Barry, R.G. 1995, Observing systems and data sets related to the cryosphere in Canada: A

contribution to planning for the global climate observing system: Atmosphere-Ocean, v. 33,

no. 4, p. 771-807. 

Brugman, M.M., Pietroniro, A., Adam, S., and Troka, J., 1996, Report on glacier runoff

component model and application to Illecillewaet and Columbia River Basins: Draft final

report to B.C. Hydro and Power Authority, unpublished report, 239 pp. 

Cogley, J.G., Adams, W.P., Ecclestone, M.A., Jung-Rothenhausler, F., and Ommanney, C.S.L.,

1995, Mass balance of Axel Heiberg Island glaciers 1960-1991: A reassessment and

discussion: National Hydrology Research Institute Science Report No. 6, 169 pp. 

Demuth, M.N., 1996a, Effects of short-term and historical glacier variations on cold stream

hydro-ecology: A synthesis and case study: National Hydrology Research Institute

Contribution Series CS-96002, 14 pp.

Demuth, M.N., 1996b, The significance of glacier contributions to reservoirs in the easternslopes montane eco-zone, Canadian Rocky Mountains: National Hydrology Research Institute

Contribution Series (in prep.). 

Demuth, M.N., and Munro, D.S., 1995, Review of glacier-related activities in Canada:

Rapporteur summary. Glacier breakout session, International GEWEX Workshop on Cold

Season/Region Hydrometeorology: National Hydrology Research Institute Contribution Series

CS-95011,4pp. 

Dowdeswell, J.A., 1995, Glaciers in the High Arctic and recent environmental change: Phil.

Trans. R. Soc. Land., A, v. 352, p. 321-334. 

Haeberli, W., 1995, Glacier fluctuations and climate change detection Operational elements of

a worldwide monitoring strategy: Bulletin, World Meteorological Organization, v. 44, no.

l,p. 23-31. 

Haeberli, W., 1994, Accelerated glacier and permafrost changes in the Alps: in Beniston, M., ed.,

Mountain Environments in Changing Climates, London and New York, Routledge. 

Koerner, R.M., Fisher, D.A., and Demuth, M. N., 1997, Review of National Research Council

and Environment Canada glacier monitoring and research. Recommendations for delivery of

a Federal Government Glacier Science Programme: Ottawa, Geological Survey of Canada, 3

November 1997 report. 

Meier, M., 1984, Contribution of small glaciers to global sea level: Science, v. 226, p.

1418-1421. 

Meier, M., and Roots, E.F., 1982, Glaciers as a water resource: Nature and Resources, v. 18,

p. 7-14. 

Milner, A.M., and Petts, G.E., 1994, Glacial rivers: Physical habitat and ecology: Freshwater

Biology, v. 32, no.2, p. 295-308. 

Munro D.S., 1995, Glacier research in Canada: National Hydrology Research Institute Contract

Report KW504-5-0069, 33 pp. 

Naiman, R.J., Magnuson, J.J., McKnight, D.M., and Stanford, J.A., eds., 1995, The Freshwater

Imperative- A Research Agenda: Washington, D.C., Island Press, 165 pp. 

Ohmura, A., Kasser, P., and Funk, M., 1992, Climate at the equilibrium line of glaciers: Journal

ofGlaciology v. 38, no. 130, p. 397-411.

47
Ommanney, C.S.L., 1988, 1980-1985 quadrennial report to the world glacier monitoring service

on Canadian glacier variations, mass balance and special events: National Hydrology Research

Institute Contribution Series CS-88014. 

Ostrem, G., and Brugman, M.M., 1991, Glacier mass-balance measurements: A manual for field

and office work: National Hydrology Research Institute Science Report No. 4, 224 pp. 

Philip, J.R., 1987, Advection, evaporation, and surface resistance: Irrigation Science, v. 8,

p.101-114. 

Pilon, P.J., Day, T.J., Yuzyk, T.R., and Hale, R.A., 1996, Challenges facing surface water

monitoring in Canada: Canadian Water Resources Journal, v. 21, no. 2, p. 157-164. 

Ward, J.V., 1994, Ecology of alpine streams: Freshwater Biology , v. 32, no. 2, p. 277-294. 

Young, G.J., 1985, Chapter 1 - Overview: in Techniques for Prediction of Runoff from

Glacierized Areas, International Association of Hydrological Science Publication, No. 149,

3-23. 

Young, G.J., 1990, Chapter 6 - Glacier Hydrology: in Northern Hydrology: Canadian

Perspectives, Prowse, T.D., and Ommanney, C.S.L. eds., National Hydrology Research

Institute Science Report, No. 1, 135-162.

48
Appendix A:

Glacier Mass Balance - A Foundation

A measure of the integrated energy and water fluxes at the earth's surface; providing 

both instantaneous (mass balance) and delayed/cumulative (terminus fluctuation) 

signals:

... assessment of regional and synoptic-scale climate variations.

... understanding global change and the role of anthropogenic forcing.

A tool with which to assess the state of a hydrological element and water resource 

which plays an important role in moderating streamflow:

... rivers which feed contiguous semi-arid regions.

... upper-catchment habitat.

... reservoir/irrigation infrastructure.

49
Appendix B: Recent CGVMAN and Related Contributions/Activities

1. An analysis of the mass balance record for White and Baby Glaciers (Cogley et al. 1995), 

is now available as an NHRI Science Report. The publication of this work was the turning 

point with respect to continued NRCan - Polar Continental Shelf Project logistical support 

for the CGVMAN-Trent University operation. The work in its own right will likely serve 

as a useful template for future reassessments and discussions of long-term glacier-related 

environmental time series.

2. On May 10-11, 1996, in Banff, Canada, the 100th anniversary of Peyto Glacier studies was 

celebrated at a workshop sponsored by NHRI and Wilfrid Laurier University - Cold 

Regions Research Centre. The workshop was held in conjunction with the Canadian 

Geophysical Union-Hydrology Section annual meeting. Invited speakers addressed a wide 

variety of topics related to Peyto as a glacier specifically and its broader context. Invited 

speakers including, Ostrem, Ohmuru, Young, Holdsworth, Collins, Morris, Luckman, 

Petts, Munro and Demuth are now in the midst of preparing written contributions towards 

a 100th anniversary publication to be edited by Young, Munro and Demuth.

3. A research team led by Professor Gordon Young at the Cold Regions Research Centre, 

Wilfrid Laurier University, is currently under contract to Alberta Environment to study the 

impact of glacier fluctuations on the flow regime of the Bow River.

4. CGVMAN has proposed to meld its efforts with ecological monitoring protocols in low 

order pro-glacial streams and lakes. These efforts will examine the nature of glacier 

fluctuation influences on habitat for keystone biota such as salmonids, the response of the 

zoobenthic community and its structure within the kryal and rhithral stream segments and 

associated riparian zones (e.g., Demuth 1996a, Milner and Petts 1995). This work will 

have ties with a European Union study (AASER) based out of the Environmental Studies 

programme at the University of Birmingham, UK.

5. The CGVMAN project is currently examining the contribution of glacier melt to the 

reservoir infra-structure of the Canadian portion of the eastern-slope montane eco-zone. 

Contributions to reservoir live storage and annual throughput are estimated at a scale larger 

than considered in most traditional investigations (Demuth 1996b). It is intended that these 

efforts, inpart, will generate support from Trans-Alta Utilities and Alberta Environment for 

CGVMAN activities.

6. A WWW site is being constructed from which information on facilities at CGVMAN sites, 

data view/retrieval services and links to CGVMAN partners will be provided. It is hoped 

that in the future, the CGVMAN WWW site will provide a destination for Canadian 

WGMS data describing glacier variations, volume changes, hydro-meteorological 

observations and special events.

50
7. At the NHRI - Canadian Glacier Information Centre, initiatives have begun to restore the 

GLADYS glacier inventory and PAPYRUS bibliographic data bases. NHRI and the USGS 

is co-operating to have the Glacier Atlas of Canada (GAC) reproduced in digital form. 

These initiatives, while moving forward, will likely progress slowly. Local funding for the 

work is currently limited to that remaining in the CGVMAN project budget after the annual 

logistical, observation and assessment tasks are completed. Notably, some significant 

support inkind for the GAC initiative has been discussed with USGS (Hugh Kieffer).

8. Brugman et al. (1996) have completed a comprehensive glacier runoff modelling study for 

the British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority. The study is centred around the 

historical and modern fluctuations of the Illecillewaet Glacier (Columbia River Basin). An 

algorithm simulating glacier melt is driven by coupling turbulent and radiation heat 

exchanges (measured in-situ), with glacier topographical and facies data derived from 

remote sensing imagery. Notably, the work has permitted the continuation of glacier 

variation observations for the Illecillewaet Glacier, supplementing a discontinuous, but 

never-the-less, substantial record dating back to the late 1800's.

51
CANADA

Status of Glacier Monitoring in the Canadian Arctic

by 

Roy M. Koerner, Geological Survey of Canada

Presently three groups work on Canadian Arctic Glaciers:

1: Trent University, Geography Dept: continuing the mass balance work on White and Baby 

Glaciers on Axel Heiberg Islands (begun in 1960) and recently published as an NHRI 

report.

2: University of Edmonton, Geography Dept: various glaciological activities in Northern 

Ellesmere Island, no glacier monitoring program.

3: Geological Survey of Canada: Mass balance of Devon (1961-), Meighen (1960-), and 

Melville S. Ice Caps (1963-), and a glacier on Northern Ellesmere (1977-). Main 

program, however, is ice core and spatial snow studies for (paleo)climatic change and 

pollution studies. This program has been extended to Penny Ice Cap (southern Baffin) and 

is run in cooperation with the University of New Hampshire (USA), National Institute 

Snow and Ice Studies and National Institute Polar Research, both Japan. The 

paleoclimate aspect of this work is allowing broad-based extensions of present-day mass 

balance conditions back in time.

All mass balance programs under #1 and #3 use traditional, ground-based techniques. Under 

#3, a start has been made to incorporate automatic weather stations mainly for temperature and 

snow accumulation records. This approach will soon include the use of (hopefully) 

inexpensive automatic ablatometers in the ablation zones. NASA (Thomas) has completed a set 

of airborne radar/laser/GPS measurements, along tracks suggested by the GSC, over most of 

the ice caps and glaciers of the Canadian Arctic. These tracks, once repeated will give a 

wide-scale measurement of glacier change.

52
CANADA

Monitoring and Inventorying the Glaciers of Canada: 

An Historical Review and Personal Comments

by 

C. Simon L. Ommanney, International Glaciological Society

Reflecting on the theme of the meeting and the current situation in Canada there are two 

observations I would make.

1. When considering the identification of a broader set of representative glaciers don't forget 

to consider previous discussions of this, as it may save some time.

When the International Hydrological Decade (IHD) program in Canada was established, apart 

from the representative glacier basins for the east-west and north-south profiles, a set of 

benchmark glaciers was also identified, to which the program would be extended as resources 

permitted^ to fill in gaps in the principal observation network, This theme was revisited by 

the North American Committee on Climate and Glaciers and discussed in the full report of that 

meeting which was summarized in the article in EOS. Andrew Fountain should have a set of 

notes from that meeting. There was also the meeting convened by the Alaskans in Eagle River 

to discuss a more limited network in that State and published by Matt Sturm and others. I also 

summarized some of the mass-balance network information in the new Ostrem mass-balance 

manual. Mike Demuth should be able to get copies of any of my reports at National 

Hydrology Research Institute (NHRI) and could bring them with him.

2) Of very great concern is the current situation in Canada with regard to data already 

collected.

As various government programs shut down, records were consolidated and eventually 

transferred to the National Hydrology Research Institute in Saskatoon which seemed to have a 

strong program and represented a chance for security and continuity. With cutbacks there this 

information has now become inaccessible and indeed may be in the process of becoming 

irretrievably lost. Much of the information I managed when I was there has been taken off the 

computers where the data bases were maintained and the hard files sent to dead storage or piled 

in a corner of a locked room. I was in Saskatoon recently and tried to track down information 

I knew existed about records from a US Army Air Force Task Force in the High Arctic in the 

mid 1940s. The availability of photography from this mission had been noted in memos I had 

placed in about 6 separate files. All files had been sent to dead storage in Edmonton and 

probably been shredded under a 25 year disposal rule even though I had specified when I was 

in Saskatoon that these files contained historically important records and should never be

53
destroyed. None of the files on Ellesmere Island included the memo that had been deposited in 

them in the mid 1970s. The flight lines for the photographs, the only copies in Canada as far 

as I know, have been removed from the map room to goodness knows where. A sorry tale that 

I would love to recount in person but I will have to settle for sending you these notes.

I think few people realize the extent of the collection that had been amassed in Saskatoon over 

the years and its vital importance to the glaciological and water-management community. The 

original collection goes back to the first glacier inventory that was started by Tuzo Wilson at 

the University of Toronto for the International Geophysical Year (IGY). This formed the basis 

of the IHD glacier inventory that was begun by George Falconer in the Geographical Branch 

that was subsequently transferred to the Glaciology Subdivision and came into my care as part 

of the Glacier Inventory Section in the late 1960s.

By the time this transfer took place the collection had been augmented by the acquisition of 

quite a large collection of historical photographs of Baffin and By lot Islands, with material 

collected by the Geographical Branch expeditions there, with the trimetrogon photographs 

mentioned above which provided coast and inland passes coverage principally for Axel 

Heiberg and Ellesmere Islands. As a result of a visit from Bill Field we also acquired several 

thousand photographs from the phototop stations occupied during the International Boundary 

Survey around the turn of the century - an unique record of glaciers in the Coast Ranges. 

There were also other records of glaciological interest such as a card catalogue of ice 

observations in Canada derived from historical texts.

The objective of the Canadian Glacier Inventory was to identify and measure every perennial 

snow and ice body in Canada. The raw materials for this work were aerial photographs and 

maps. Over the years we acquired COMPLETE air photograph coverage of all the glacierized 

areas in Canada, several tens of thousands of photographs. These included the coverage 

obtained by the Alberta Provincial Government as well as the British Columbia Government. 

No one could afford to buy this coverage today yet the photographs are no longer properly 

cared for or organized. The map collection was also complete, at least two copies of the 

largest scale map of every glacierized area in the country. As far as I could tell the collection 

remains where it was though I have no idea what losses it might have sustained. Related 

information, such as the flight lines mentioned above, appear to have been removed, I hope not 

destroyed.

Once the Defence Research Board's glaciological program on Ellesmere Island, headed by 

Geoffrey Hatterslye-Smith, was shut down responsibility and the records were transferred to 

NHRI, including the original field notebooks.

The Water Survey of Canada had carried out glacier observations, and latterly terrestrial 

photogrammetry, on many glaciers in western Canada from the mid 1940s until 1980. The 

original survey notebooks were all transferred to NHRI when the principal investigator retired 

and the program was terminated.

54
Other records were also donated to NHRI in the expectation that they would be looked after. 

Records from everywhere from Baffin Island and Labrador to Vancouver Island.

At the centre of this collection was the Canadian Glacier Inventory with quantitative 

information on about 40,000 of Canada's approximately 100,000 glaciers, and annotated maps 

and photographs of many more. Special software, called GLADYS, had been developed to 

store and retrieve the basic inventory data, and a bibliography, with some 40,000 references to 

all aspects of snow and ice studies in Canada from 1975 onwards, including more specific 

coverage of glaciers to the start of observation in Canada in the 1880s, was stored in a 

PAPYRUS data base.

Requests to NHRI from a variety of sources in the last two to three years have met with the 

response that none of this information is available. If this were a public company the 

shareholders would likely deem this to be criminal neglect of a fundamental asset. Considering 

that the cost to the Canadian taxpayer of acquiring this information over the last 40 years 

would have been in the order of millions, rather than thousands, of dollars no one can afford to 

stand by and see it lost to future generations.

Bibliography

National [sic] Committee on Climate and Glaciers, 1991, How to measure a glacier - reliable 

glacier measurements are important in monitoring river hydrology and climatic change: 

Earth in Space, for Teachers and Students of Science, v. 4, no. 4, p. 6-7.

North American Committee on Climate and Glaciers, 1991, Glacier mass-balance standards: 

EOS, v. 72, no. 46, p. 511-514.

Ommanney, C.S.L. 1991a, Appendix III. World-wide overview - glacier mass-balance

observations, in Ostrem, G.,and Brugman, M. eds., Glacier Mass-Balance Measurements 

a Manual for Field and Office Work: (NHRI Science Report 4.), Saskatoon, Sask., 

National Hydrology Research Institute, Environment Canada, p. 157-165.

Ommanney, C.S.L. 1991b, Glacier monitoring - international perspectives: (NHRI 

Contribution No. 91006.) Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, February, National Hydrology 

Research Institute.

55
CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES

Status of Glacier Monitoring and the Remote Sensing Snow-and Ice-Data Base

in the Conterminous USA

Robert Krimmel, USGS

More glaciers are presently monitored in the conterminous USA than ever before. Most 

glaciers are in National Parks, and since the early 1990's the National Park Service has begun 

a program to monitor glaciers in the National Parks. In 1996, 4 glaciers in North Cascades NP 

were monitored for the 4th year with seasonal balance measurements and annual vertical 

photography. Two of these glaciers will continue to be monitored indefinitely. In Olympic 

National Park, the Blue glacier has been continuously monitored since 1958, primarily by the 

University of Washington, and present efforts are to continue simple seasonal balance 

measurements, and to determine ice volume changes between several mapped dates. At Mt. 

Rainier National Park sequential vertical photography is done about every 5 years to measured 

ice surface levels and terminus changes. A program to measure altitudes along 3 transverse 

profiles of Nisqually Glacier, begun in the early 1930's, is continuing. In Glacier National 

Park, vertical photography of all the glaciers is obtained every 3 years, and a GIS data base 

including all available information about the changes is size of the glaciers has been developed. 

In Yosemite, McClure Glacier data from 1968-1974 has been assembled for publication, and a 

volunteer program is ongoing to monitor a nearby glacier. The US Geological Survey is 

continuing a program begun in 1958 to monitor South Cascade Glacier in Washington State 

with seasonal mass balance measurements combined with meteorological and hydrological 

measurements.

The glaciers within the conterminous USA are scattered over a large area, and tend to be 

small. Most glaciers taken individually are insignificant, but these small glaciers are very 

important hydrologically when taken as a whole, and should not be ignored in glacier 

inventories. Because of the small size of these glaciers, the present synoptic remote sensing 

data from Landsat and SPOT are of marginal use for glacier monitoring. Recent satellite 

sensors with less than 15m resolution have potential utility, as does a plethora of still-to-be 

released classified intelligence data. Presently, the most informative glacier data base is the 

USGS 7.5 minute (1:24,000 scale) topographic map set. Many of these maps are now 30-40 

years old, and show the glaciers as they were at that time. Despite the passage of time, these 

maps are often the most accurate portrayal of the snow and ice available. More recent 

mapping-quality photography is sometimes available through the National High Altitude 

Photography program, or within other agencies archives (such as state Department of Natural 

Resources, or the Forest Service), but are often difficult to locate. The USGS Ice and Climate 

Project also has acquired a collection of vertical and oblique photographs of glaciers of western 

North America, which are indexed by glacier name, and spans a time of 1960-1996. Only a 

small portion of this collection has been used to produce new glacier maps. Glacier 

inventories, which are a compilation of all the snow and ice areas within a specified geographic

56
area, have only been completed for the North Cascades of Washington. We presently can not 

give an area of snow and ice cover within most geographic areas simply because the 

inventories have never been completed. The data base exists, that being the previously 

mentioned topographic map series, combined with more recent photography which is usually 

available. A potentially extremely useful outfall from the topographic map series is a 

compilation of all snow and ice masses into a digital data base. Each snow patch could be 

defined by a polygon around its perimeter, with a low density digital elevation model of its 

topography, and geo-referenced with name (if there is one), latitude and longitude, date of the 

photography from which the map was made, and other relevant data. This would become a 

"snapshot" of snow and ice from several decades ago, would allow changes between that time 

and more recent measurements (whether aerial photography, satellite, or other means), and 

would allow simple searches and statistics to be used to make general statements concerning 

regional glacier areas. The glacier areas in the accumulation zone, which may change 

dramatically year-to-year, independently of the long-term "glacier fluctuation" change, must be 

"locked" to a specific value so that only the terminal changes are monitored. Snow and ice 

identification algorithms must be developed so that small changes in end-of-balance-year snow 

albedo, or other conditions that may artificially change the apparent area of snow or ice do not 

dominate results derived by massive processing of remote sensing data.

Careful analysis of the dual data set of topographic maps and recent aerial photography or 

other remote sensing material will allow the interim change in glacier area to be measured, and 

will supply vital global change measurements.

57
GREENLAND

Status of Glacier Monitoring of Greenland

by 

Anker Weidick, Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland

Abstract

A review of basic requirements for monitoring Greenland glaciers is presented. The 

requirements of uniform and near-contemporaneous coverage by aerial photographs and map 

series have greatly improved over the past decade, and at the same time, satellite information 

has developed as an important tool for mapping Greenland glaciers and their changes.

"Conventional" inventory work has not kept up with this development. So far only ca. 5000 

glacier units of West Greenland have been covered whereas there are an estimated minimum of 

ca. 15,000 glacier units in North and East Greenland still lacking. However, over the past 

decade a perusal of glaciers from the entire Greenland coastal area has been achieved. This 

was based on Landsat imagery, and shows the glacial characteristics from the different climatic 

regions of Greenland.*

From the work along these two lines of inventorying and from the current strong interest in 

local glaciers (due to their sensitivity to climatic change) it is clear that the paramount problem 

in Greenland is the determination of the total cover of local glaciers and hence, the delineation 

of the inland ice where it merges with local glaciers.

So far it is concluded that at least 10% of the total global coverage of local glaciers is to be 

found in Greenland, though this fact is often omitted from the literature.

First priority must therefore be to make an estimate of the local glacier coverage of Greenland 

on the basis of current 1:2.5 million map sheets, followed by a refinement of this figure by a 

detailed inventory of the lacking glaciers and supplying the individual glaciers with a proper 

address for filing of information and monitoring. The figure by the National Survey and 

Cadestre (KMS) is planned to be broken down into the glacier divisions suggested by the 

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS).

*Wiedick, A., 1995, Greenland, with a section on Landsat images of Greenland, by Williams, 

R.S., Jr., and Ferrigno, J.G., Satellite image atlas of glaciers of the world (Williams, R.S., 

Jr., and Ferrigno, J.G., editors): U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386-C, 

141. p.

58
ICELAND

Glacier Monitoring in Iceland: The Glacier Variation Data Set of 

the Iceland Glaciological Society

by 

Oddur Sigurdsson, National Energy Authority

Historical Review

Information on the postglacial-variation history is being revealed by on-going geological 

interpretation. For the past 1,100 years (historical time in Iceland; settlement began in ca. 

874) information can be derived from old manuscripts both directly and indirectly. Danish 

plane-table mapping (map scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000) was carried out during the years 

1903-1938, giving reliable information on the position of termini of many outlet glaciers, 

especially in southeastern Iceland in 1903-1904.

In the year 1930, Jon EyJ)6rsson began a systematic program of monitoring the frontal 

variation of selected glaciers. The program started by him has been expanded since that time 

and now includes 41 glaciers and outlet glaciers at 55 different locations.

Oblique aerial photographs have been obtained since 1937 by geodetic institutes and private 

persons. Ground-based data and datable photographs are found in various private collections 

and archives, including the Iceland Glaciological Society.

The U.S. Army Air Force, in association with the U.S. Army Map Service (AMS) acquired 

almost complete coverage of Iceland with vertical overlapping (stereo) aerial photographs in 

1945 and 1946; in 1956 and 1959-1961, the U.S. Air Force rephotographed most of Iceland in 

cooperation with the AMS and the Iceland Geodetic Institute (Landmaelingar Islands). 

Landmaelingar Islands has been taking vertical aerial photographs of various areas beginning in 

1952. According to a coverage plan of LI, glaciers are supposed to be rephotographed every 

10 years, but this is usually not the case. Information on the aerial photographic archive of 

Landmaelingar Islands can be obtained through their Remote Sensing Division.

Icelandic glaciers have been imaged by the Landsat (1-5) satellites since September 1972. 

Previous to that there may be existing classified satellite images, and photographs archived by 

intelligence agencies. Over time, additional spacecraft acquire data that are useful for 

glaciological information.

Mass balance of Icelandic glaciers was first carried out in the 1930's by the Swedish-Icelandic 

Expedition; it established a winter balance of 5 m water equivalent or more in the upper part of 

the accumulation area in the eastern part of the Vatnajokull ice cap. The summer balance at

59
the terminus proved to be in some cases about -12 m water equivalent. Winter balance has 

been measured yearly by the Iceland Glaciological Society since 1954 in the Grimsvotn caldera 

in the west-central part of Vatnajokull.

Regular pit and stake mass-balance measurements have been carried out on the northern side of 

Hofsjokull since 1988 and likewise on the Prandarjokull since 1991. Profiles of mass balance 

(pit and stake) have been established on the eastern and south-western side of Hofsjokull since 

1989. Similar profiles have been assessed on the Tungnaarjokull, Dyngjujokull, 

Koldukvislarjokull and Bniarjokull outlet glaciers of Vatnajokull since 1992 and the 

Eyjabakkajokull outlet glacier since 1991.

Interpretation of Glacier Fluctuations

Glacier variations in Iceland have been recorded systematically since the 1930's on 23 different 

outlet glaciers and other types of glaciers. Since that time, 18 more glaciers have been added 

to the monitoring system for Icelandic glaciers.

Twelve of the referenced glaciers are surge-type glaciers with virtually no indication of 

climatic control between surges. In the data set, 24 of the glaciers show little indication of 

surges and 4 are of uncertain or mixed character. The advance/retreat of some of the nonsurging glaciers is intimately related to the climate with reaction at the terminus most of the 

time occurring well within five years from a postulated change in mass balance. The rise of 

the mean summer temperature by approximately 0.6°C from the first to the second quarter of 

the 20th century resulted in a rapid retreat of all measured glaciers in Iceland for the first 20 

years of the measurement period, interrupted only in very few cases, mainly by surges. A 

turning point occurred around 1970 when most of the non-surging glaciers stopped retreating 

and many of them started to advance. Some of the glaciers have been advancing continuously 

since.

Since about 1970, the glaciers in the southernmost part of the country have regained about half 

of the ground lost since 1930, in the north about one third, in the west the recovery is about 

one quarter. In the southeast, some of the glaciers have been stationary for 30 years, while the 

easternmost ones have retreated slightly. Surge-type outlet glaciers with surge periods varying 

between 10 and 80 years are represented in the data set. In the period 1991-96 11 outlet 

glaciers have surged.

60
NORWAY AND SWEDEN

Status of Ground Based Glacier Monitoring in Scandinavia and Svalbard

by 

Jon Ove Hagen, Department of Physical Geography, University of Oslo

Abstract

Mass-balance investigations have been conducted for longer and shorter periods in a transect 

from south Norway to Svalbard, from 61°N to 80°N. Systematic measurements of glaciers have 

a long tradition in Norway. Since the beginning of this century, frontal positions have been 

measured annually, with small time gaps, on about fifteen glaciers, and for shorter periods on 

several other glaciers. Mass-balance measurements were started in 1948 on Storbreen in 

Jotunheimen, southern Norway, by the Norwegian Polar Institute. The Hydrology Department 

of the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Administration (NVE) initiated long-term mass 

balance studies on selected glaciers in southern Norway in 1962 and 1963. Glaciers regarded 

as representative for certain areas were selected.

Currently long time series are conducted on four glaciers in southern Norway (6FN - 62°Nmaritime and continental), one in Svartisen area (~ 66-67° - maritime) and one (Storglaciaren) 

in northern Sweden in the Kebnekaise area (68° N - continental). Storglaciaren has been 

measured since 1946, and has the longest continuous series in the world, two years longer that 

Storbreen in southern Norway. Further north in Norway there are no ongoing measurements, 

although there are large glacier areas. However, for a five year period (1989-1993) one glacier 

at 70°N was measured.

In Svalbard, annual mass balance investigations were started in 1966 on Broggerbreen (6.1 

km2) close to the research station Ny-Alesund ( 79PN 12° E) on the northwest coast of 

Spitsbergen by the Norwegian Polar Institute. Observations on some other glaciers have been 

carried out by Russian and Polish scientists in shorter periods in other parts of the island. 

Currently there are three running mass balance series, Broggerbreen (6.1 km2), Kongsvegen 

(105 km2) and Hansbreen (60 km2). The two latter are calving glaciers. Most of the glaciers in 

Svalbard are of surge type. It is therefore difficult to use the front position of a single glacier 

as a climate indicator, because the front will shrink and retreat in periods between 

surges. The front position therefore gives little information on whether the ice mass is growing 

or shrinking. Mass-balance measurements are therefore necessary to tell the true story about 

the volume change. Superimposed ice formation is important. Equilibrium-line altitude 

determination from aircraft or satellite is therefore difficult. On all investigated glaciers both 

accumulation and ablation have been measured by direct glaciological-stratigraphic method: 

snow-sounding profiles, density measurements, and stake readings. Most of the glaciers are 

fairly small (< 10 km2) cirque glaciers or outlet glaciers from ice caps. In Scandinavia there is 

no existing program to monitor glaciers by remote sensing.

61
HIGH ARCTIC

Arctic Ice Masses, Recent Climate Change, and Implications for

Global Sea Level

by 

Julian A. Dowdeswell, Centre for Glaciology, University of Wales

The Arctic appears to be an area of the globe which is particularly sensitive to climate change. 

Several General Circulation Model (GCM) simulations of future climatic response to 

increasing proportions of "Greenhouse gases" in the atmosphere have predicted that Arctic 

regions will experience enhanced warming relative to lower latitudes. Ice-core records from 

Greenland have also indicated very abrupt past environmental responses to shifts in the linked 

ocean atmosphere system. The winter inputs and summer losses of mass from the glaciers, ice 

caps and ice sheets covering over 2 million km2 of the Polar North vary in response to climate 

changes, and affect global sea level as increments of water are decanted to the oceans or stored 

in solid form. This area includes the 1.7 million km2 Greenland Ice Sheet, together with the 

glaciers and ice caps which extend over 250,000 km2 of the Arctic, on both the heavily 

glacierized archipelagos of the Canadian and Eurasian High arctic and the glaciers north of 

about 60°N within continental North America, Europe and Iceland.

High Arctic climate change over the last few hundred years includes the relatively cool Little 

Ice Age (LIA), followed by warming over the last hundred years or so, according to the 

oxygen isotopic and melt layer signals from ice cores and from the few long time series of 

direct meteorological observations available from the circum-polar North. Meteorological data 

from the Eurasian High Arctic (Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya) and Canadian 

High Arctic islands are scarce before the mid-Twentieth Century, but longer records from 

Svalbard and Greenland show warming from about 1910-20 (Dowdeswell, 1995). Other 

evidence of recent trends in High Arctic temperatures and precipitation is derived from ice 

cores, which show cooler temperatures (by 2-3°C) for several hundred years before 1900, with 

high interdecadal variability. The proportion of melt layers in ice cores has also risen over the 

last 70-130 years, indicating warming.

Two forms of observations have been made on recent trends in the mass balance of Arctic ice 

caps and the Greenland Ice Sheet: field and satellite measurements. There is widespread 

geological evidence of glacier retreat in the Arctic since about the turn of the century linked to 

the end of the LI A. An exception is the rapid advance of some surge-type ice masses. Field 

measurements of mass balance on ice caps in Arctic Canada, Svalbard and Severnaya Zemlya 

since 1950 show either negative or near-zero net balances, suggesting glacier thinning in 

response to recent climate warming (Dowdeswell, 1995). The total net input of melt from 

small glaciers and ice caps throughout the world is estimated at 0.4+0.2 mm yf 1 of sea-level 

rise, averaged over the past 60-80 years (Meier, 1993). On the Greenland Ice Sheet, satellite

62
radar altimetry is being used to measure whether the ice is thickening or thinning. The 18 km 

diameter footprint of the ERS-1 radar altimeter makes it unsuitable for making similar 

measurements of small ice caps (< 10,000 km2), but laser ranging systems of high accuracy 

will be used in future to measure changing surface elevation on these ice caps. Repeat radar 

altimeter measurements for the southern 40% of the Greenland Ice Sheet (constrained by 

satellite orbital parameters) shows a thickening by 230+70 mm yf1 , equal to between 0.2 and 

0.4 mm yr"1 of sea-level fall (Zwally and others, 1989; Wingham, 1995).

Predictions of ice-mass response to climate change have been modeled using two approaches: 

simple energy balance and more complex GCM experiments. A "greenhouse-induced" 

warming of 1°C in the High Arctic is predicted to produce a global sea-level rise of 0.063 mm 

yr" 1 from melting of Arctic ice caps (excluding Greenland) based on simple energy balance 

calculations. By contrast, recent GCM results for the Greenland Ice Sheet using a high 

resolution grid (T106) to improve modeling of altitudinal effects, suggests an increase of 

ablation by about 200 mm yr"1 (water equivalent) for a doubling of atmospheric CO^. (Ohmura, 

1995). This is equivalent to a sea-level rise of 1.1 mm yr"1 . However, similar high-resolution 

modeling of the Antarctic Ice Sheet shows an increase in mass balance of 23 mm yr" 1 , or a sea 

level fall of 0.9 mm yr"1 . According to these GCM experiments, the differing effects of 

doubling CO2 on the mass balance of the two great ice sheet may cancel each other out.

References

Dowdeswell, J.A., 1995, Glaciers in the High Arctic and recent environmental change:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series A., v. 352, p. 321-334. 

Ohmura, A. 1995, Mass balance of polar ice sheets: Unpublished Manuscript. 

Meier, M.F., 1993, Ice, climate, and sea level; do we know what is happening?, in Ice in the

Climate System: Peltier, W.R.,ed., NATO ARW Series C - Mathematical and Physical

Sciences - Global Environmental Changes, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, SpringerVerlag, p. 141-160. 

Wingham, D.J., 1995, Elevation change of the Greenland Ice Sheet and its measurement with

satellite radar altimetry: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series A, v. 352,

p. 335-346. 

Zwally, I.I.J., and others, 1989, Growth of Greenland Ice Sheet - measurement: Science,

v. 246, p. 1587-1589.

63
II.

CURRENT AND PLANNED

REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

FOR MONITORING GLACIERS

64
Monitoring Glaciers with Airborne and Spaceborne Laser Altimetry

by 

James B. Garvin, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Abstract

As with all dynamic landscapes, glaciers display telltale morphologic features that provide 

quantitative evidence of their deformation rates and of the basic physics of their motion. High 

spatial and vertical resolution topographic information is of unquestionable value when the 

magnitudes and rates of surficial deformation on active glaciers must be inferred, but prior to 

the advent of advanced optical and microwave topographic remote sensing devices over the 

past decade, establishing a time series of topographic measurements for any glacier would have 

involved an unfathomable amount of effort. Furthermore, traditional topographic measurement 

techniques are frequently inadequate for describing the diverse suite of topographic elements 

that are found on the upper surface of a glacier. Measurement of longitudinal cross-sections of 

active temperate glaciers by means of geodetic airborne laser altimetry was first initiated by a 

joint team of NASA and USGS scientists in the late 1980's. An early version of the high pulse 

repetition rate Airborne Terrain Mapper (ATM) profiling laser altimeter was operated from a 

NASA P-3 aircraft in an effort to quantify the geometry of the terminus regions of several 

outlet glaciers in southern Iceland. Combining high precision aircraft attitude sensing 

equipment (laser ring gyros) with kinematic GPS tracking methods to facilitate sub-meter level 

removal of aircraft platform motions facilitated 15-20 cm RMS vertical accuracy observations 

of Breidamerkurjokull (S. Iceland) with an along track sampling frequency of approximately 1 

m. Direct detection of all major crevasses was achieved in this pathfinding demonstration of 

the possibilities associated with low-altitude geodetic airborne profiling laser altimetry. 

Advances in airborne laser altimeter instrumentation at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center 

over the past seven years have provided a variety of approaches for monitoring glaciers on a 

routine basis. By developing cross-track scanning methods, as well as full echo recovery 

techniques, swaths of local glacier surface topography can be acquired with 1-5 m sampling 

scales. Swath widths currently exceed 100 m, and can be as large as 200 m. High altitude 

laser altimeter systems can synthesize footprints of various sizes (i.e., from 5 to 70 m in 

diameter), while measuring the complete echo resulting from transmitted laser pulses which 

interact with various features on glacier surfaces. Most recently, NASA deployed an array of 

three geodetic airborne laser altimeter sensors to Iceland, Jan Mayen, Svalbard, and 

Greenland. Included in this flight campaign was the SLICER large-footprint echo recovery 

lidar, the scanning ATM system, and a 2000 pulses per second ATM Profiler; in addition, the 

University of Kansas Ice Penetrating HF Radar was included. Both low and high altitude laser 

altimeter swaths were acquired for active outlet and icecap glaciers in Iceland and on Jan 

Mayen. Sub-meter accuracy topographic transects of the surging Sylgjujokull glacier (W. 

Vatnajb'kull, Iceland), of the Grimsvb'tn sub-glacial caldera, and of the ice cauldrons in the 

western portion of Vatnajokull were acquired between 27 May and 2 June, 1996. Laser 

altimeter profiles made up of footprints at the scale of those to be acquired as part of the

65
ICES AT component of NASA's orbiting Earth Observing System (EOS) were acquired; 30 m 

and 70 m diameter footprints were obtained in order to quantify how orbital laser altimeter 

echoes might be used to detect crevassed zones in glaciers at the margin of ice sheets or ice 

caps. Simultaneous acquisition of dense swaths of scanning laser altimetry will provide the 

ground truth (from the air). This Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) emulation 

dataset will be released to the Earth Science community hi a few months for detailed analysis.

NASA's strategy for monitoring important dynamic landscapes such as glaciers revolves 

around an array of passive imaging sensors (Landsat's ETM + , MODIS, ASTER, etc.), 

augmented by GLAS, which will orbit the Earth with the primary objective of sampling the 

polar icesheets and associated glaciers over a five year period in order to measure the mass 

balance of these important reservoirs. As presently designed, GLAS is a high vertical precision 

profiling system with a 70 m diameter footprint and with a sub-10 cm vertical precision. The 

GLAS sensor will be placed into a repeat orbit in ~ 2002, and in combination with the time 

series dataset of airborne laser altimeter observations of the Greenland ice sheet (i.e., under 

development since 1991 by R. Thomas and W. Krabill), it should provide the world glacier 

monitoring community with a potentially rich dataset of extremely precise profiles and spot 

elevation measurements for many high-latitude glaciers. With the apparent approval of the 

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission or SRTM, the prospects for 30 m per pixel digital elevation 

models of all continental glaciers lying between 60 N and 60 S latitudes are rapidly improving. 

As planned, the SRTM mission is to fly in late 1999 or early 2000, utilizing a novel C-band 

radar interferometry approach (InSAR) to produce nearly global DEM coverage of the Earth's 

land areas. While the vertical resolution of the InSAR DEM's will probably be ~ 10-15 m, the 

seamless 30 m gridding of this dataset could serve as an important foundation for future 

monitoring studies of temperate glaciers.

Further opportunities for spaceborne topographic remote sensing of glacier systems worldwide 

are emerging; NASA's fledgling Earth System Science Pathfinder (ESSP) program will solicit 

proposals for cost-constrained missions every two years, and the first selections were made in 

February 1997, with two missions to be launched around 2000. Polar orbiting satellite remote 

sensing systems are either in place or soon will be, some of which are ideally suited for glacier 

topographic and spatial monitoring. The Canadian RADARS AT system is a prime example. 

Indeed, Garvin, Williams and others will be utilizing monthly RADARS AT C-band SAR 

images of Iceland and Jan Mayen to track the spatial fluctuations of particularly dynamic 

glaciers in these regions over a three year period.

As a pathfinder to the next generation of orbital laser altimeter systems for Earth remote 

sensing, NASA recently flew the first of four Shuttle Laser Altimeter (SLA) experiments. In 

January of 1996, the SLA-01 experiment acquired over 80 hours of Earth surface observations 

during its week-long mission. While SLA-01 was restricted to an equatorial orbit (+28.5° N. 

and S. latitudes), orbital observations of ice covered surfaces in the Himalayas, at the summit 

of Mauna Kea volcano, and in other high relief mid-latitude localities suggests that future SLA 

spaceflight experiments could contribute to sub-arctic glacier topographic monitoring studies. 

Indeed, the SLA-02 experiment was successfully carried out as part of Space Transportation

66
System-85 (STS-85) in August 1997 in a 57° inclination orbit. SLA-02 was the first 

spaceflight demonstration of a 100 pulses per second (i.e., sub-100 m along track sampling) 

laser altimeter system in space, and will pave the way for future orbital scanning laser 

altimeter sensors. Designs are also underway at NASA for a wide-swath airborne laser 

altimeter system to be known as the Laser Vegetation Imaging Sensor (LVIS) (c.f. chief 

engineer J. Bryan Blair), which will be able to achieve 0.5 to 1.0 km wide swaths of sub-meter 

precision topography from moderate to high altitude aircraft platforms. The LVIS system 

could be utilized to develop baseline topographic reference maps (DEM's) of climatically 

important glacier systems in North America, Iceland, Greenland etc. over the next few years.

Finally, NASA is presently supporting a pathfinder study of the changing ice volume at the 

Mt. Rainier stratovolcano. This investigation, under the leadership of J.B. Garvin, involves 

the combination of geodetic airborne laser altimetry with airborne InSAR on an annual basis in 

order to quantify and model the volume changes in ice and snow deposits in the summit region 

of the edifice. A successful 1995 field season resulted in a laser altimeter model of the volume 

of the summit of Rainier (Sept. 1995), and airborne InSAR DEM's from August of 1995 are 

now in hand. Early evidence suggests that volumetric changes from 1994 to 1995 are 

insignificant. At the conclusion of this 3-year study, a geodetic database of annual laser 

altimeter measurements of the summit of Rainier will be available, as well as mathematical 

models of the summit topology and volume.

NASA has a profound interest in developing new remote sensing tools for monitoring dynamic 

landscapes and especially those that are coupled to short term climate change.

67
Satellite Remote Sensing (Imaging)

by 

Dorothy K. Hall, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

It is now feasible to infer regional mass balance of glaciers on each continent using satellite 

data from the early 1970s to the present. Measurements of synchronous and non-synchronous 

changes in glacier mass balance worldwide will allow us to relate those changes to sea level 

change, and to regional and global climate.

Utilizing regularly-acquired Landsat and SAR image data, one can gain a global perspective on 

glacier changes over almost a quarter of a century. Glaciers monitored for variations in 

glacier-terminus position probably account for less than 1 percent of the total number and area 

of glaciers worldwide, and the number of glaciers monitored for mass balance is only about 

one-tenth of the total number monitored for terminus variations (Wood, 1988). Thus, in order 

to study glacier.changes worldwide, remote sensing must be employed (UNESCO, in press). 

Long-term studies of glacier-terminus position change can be accomplished using satellite data 

(Williams et al., 1997). Sustained change in glacier-terminus position is usually indicative of a 

mass balance change (Haeberli and Hoelzle, 1995). It is anticipated that, in the future, 

glacier-facies boundaries can be studied to detect changes that can be related to mass balance 

using a combination of Landsat and SAR data.

The primary imaging sensors for use in monitoring small glaciers in the world are the visible 

and near-infrared sensors on the Landsat satellites, since 1972, and the C-band synthetic 

aperture radar (SAR) sensors on the European Earth Resources Satellite (ERS)-l, -2, on 

Canada's RADARS AT, and the L-band SAR on the Japanese Earth Resources Satellite-1 

(JERS-1). The SAR satellite data have been available continuously since 1991.

Visible and near-infrared Landsat data have been useful for mapping glaciers and ice sheets, 

and specifically, mapping glacier area, glacier-terminus position, glacier velocity, and 

snowline position. Dynamic events such as glacier surges and jokulhlaups have also been 

recorded by Landsat.

Prominent glaciological features that may be detected using SAR data include: detection of 

melt onset, glacier-terminus position and transient snowline (Fahnestock and others, 1993; Hall 

and others, 1995). The glacier facies (Benson, 1962) can also be studied. Some of the radar 

backscatter zones detected by SAR sensors may be, but are not necessarily, related to the 

glacier facies (Smith and others, in press).

In addition to the use of satellite-derived imagery for glacier mass balance studies, SAR data 

may be useful for determining streamflow and discharge from glacier-fed streams (Smith and 

others, 1995; in press)

68
References

Benson, C.S., 1962, Stratigraphic studies in the snow and firn of the Greenland ice sheet:

CRREL Research Report 70. 

Fahnestock, M., Bindschadler, R., Kowk, R., and Jezek, K., 1993, Greenland ice sheet

surface properties and ice dynamics from ERS-1 SAR imagery: Science, v. 262, no. 5139,

p. 1530-1534. 

Haeberli, W., and Hoelzle, M., 1995, Application of inventory data for estimating

characteristics of and regional climate-change effects on mountain glaciers - a pilot study

with the European Alps: Annals of Glaciology, v. 21, p. 206-212. 

Hall, D.K., Williams, R.S., Jr., and Sigurdsson , O., 1995, Glaciological observations of

Bruarjokull, Iceland, using synthetic aperture radar and thematic mapper satellite data:

Annals of Glaciology, v. 21, p. 271-276. 

Smith, L.C., Isacks, B.L., Forster, R.R., Bloom, A.L., and Preuss, L, 1995, Estimation of

discharge from braided glacial rivers using ERS-1 synthetic aperture radar - first results:

Water Resources Research, v. 31, no. 5, p. 1325-1329. 

Smith, L.C., Forster, R.R., Isacks, B.L., and Hall, D.K., in press, Seasonal climatic forcings

on alpine glaciers revealed using orbital synthetic aperture radar: Journal of Glaciology. 

UNESCO, in press, Into the 2nd Century of World Glacier Monitoring - Prospects and

Strategies: UNESCO IHP series. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., Hall, D.K., Sigurdsson, O., and Chien, J.Y.L., 1997, Comparison of

satellite-derived with ground-based fluctuations of the margins of Vatnajokull, Iceland -

1973-1992: Annals of Glaciology, v. 24, p. 72-80. 

Wood, F.B., 1988, Global alpine glacier trends, 1960s to 1980s: Arctic and Alpine Research,

v. 20, no. 4, p. 404-413.

69
Use of Upcoming Satellite Technology

by 

Hugh H. Kieffer, USGS

Satellite remote sensing can now allow a globally-uniform inventory of land ice. Although 

some regional inventories now exist, major regions have little or irregular coverage. No 

substantial Geographic Information System (GIS) inventories exist, even for the best-studied 

regions, such as Scandinavia and the Alps. Analog maps, even if of high resolution, do not 

support quantitative assessment of change without intense human labor. A digital geographic 

database incorporating detailed location of glacier boundaries is required for practical 

quantitative determination of change among glaciers. Considering the importance of glaciers 

as an indicator of climate, and the value that a global baseline would have to future studies of 

climate change, it is imperative that an image-based global GIS of glaciers (e.g., small 

mountain glaciers, ice fields, ice caps, ice sheets, outlet glaciers from the latter three types) be 

created as soon as practical, with Digital Terrain models (DTM's) where possible. This can be 

augmented by historical data of lower resolution or less complete coverage.

Both high-resolution optical (15m) and radar (~25m) imaging will be available in the next few 

years. Their combined capabilities can be used to map the more difficult situations, including 

mapping of debris-laden termini. The potential of combining these with precision altimetry 

surveys will allow remote mapping of ice volume changes.

Global Land Ice Monitoring from Space (GLIMS) is a specific program that has been 

established to use the EOS ASTER instrument (15m, along-track stereo, plus multiband 

imaging) to map the areal extent of all land ice and the annual motion of large glaciers. The 

image data will be archived at EDC, and derived products related to glaciers curated by 

NSIDC. The data acquisition required for 3 to 5 image attempts each year for the periphery of 

Greenland and Antarctica, and all other land ice, has been considered in the design 

of ASTER and in its mission planning and data-processing requirements; the GLIMS data 

requirements represent less than 1% of the total ASTER capability. The GLIMS concept 

includes involvement of "Regional Centers" with expertise on the typical weather/climate and 

specific glacier conditions of each area; the overall activity would be coordinated by the 

USGS. The GLIMS data base will be cross-indexed to World Glacier Monitoring Service 

(WGMS), which maintains an archive of scalar data for ~ 100,000 glaciers.

The GLIMS concept is distinctly different than, and complementary to, detailed observations 

on a small number of "benchmark" glaciers. It also complements the comprehensive overview 

of the Earth's glaciers from 1970's Landsat MSS images that are discussed in U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1386 A-K, Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World.

70
Glacier Monitoring Using Classified National Systems

by

Edward G. Josberger 

U.S. Geological Survey

Abstract

In 1992, the United States government established a program to evaluate the utility of classified 

U.S. remote sensing capabilities for addressing environmental issues. These sensors provide 

unique capabilities such as global coverage, high resolution, timely revisits, along with a four 

decade long archive of observations. Under this program, there are on going efforts to 

evaluate the capability of classified national systems for obtaining fundamental glacier 

observations, such as extent, surface velocities, firn-line position, and volume change. Robert 

A. Bindschadler, a glaciologist with NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center and a member of 

the Environmental Task Force (ETF), conceived of a glacier mass-balance feasibility study 

using data from classified systems and, with the author, is leading a joint MEDEA/USGS 

Project to critically assess the value of classified data sources to support glaciological 

investigations. Preliminary results indicate that classified systems can provide information not 

presently attainable from civil systems.

Although the imagery used in these studies remains classified at the present tune, a process has 

been established for the generation and release of imagery derived products (IDP'S) 

unclassified information derived from classified systems. A policy signed in October 1996 

allows for the generation and distribution of unclassified information from classified systems. 

The process for declassifying products is still young, the number of products being approved 

for release is increasing and expected to become even greater. The USGS glacier program will 

significantly benefit from this capability through the generation of: (1) terminus-movement 

maps; (2) flow-rate measurements; (3) firn- line maps; and (4) high resolution glacier digital 

elevation models for volumetric change determinations.

A program is also being established for obtaining and archiving classified imagery to create a 

legacy of high quality imagery for the future. Under this program, imagery will be collected at 

appropriate intervals at a number of environmentally significant sites (termed fiducials) 

worldwide and archived at the Advanced Systems Center in Reston, VA. Civil agency users 

with the necessary clearances will have immediate access to the data as it is collected. The 

USGS has already recommended a number of glacier sites to be included in this program.

Classified systems can play an important role in the future monitoring of glaciers. The fiducials 

program is a first step in ensuring that a quality record of glacier imagery is available. With 

the approval of the derived-products policy, all federal agency personnel, with or without 

clearances can utilize information from classified systems. It is important that any long-term 

plans for glacier monitoring take advantage of the information provided by these systems. 

An Overview of LightSAR; A Proposed Radar Satellite

71
by 

James W. Schoonmaker, Jr., USGS

Abstract

The use of radar to map temperate glaciers and monitor their changing conditions has some 

advantages over traditional aerial photographs (Schoonmaker et al., 1989). Radar, being an 

active sensor in the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum, is capable of day or night 

imaging in almost all weather conditions. Radar, especially synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 

can also be used as a complementary data source with photography and multispectral imagery 

(Montgomery, 1996).

In August 1996, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) held a workshop 

at the EROS Data Center (EDC), Sioux Falls, SD, on a proposed synthetic aperture radar 

satellite designed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and dubbed LightSAR. Due to the 

possible applicability of LightSAR data to glaciology, a brief overview of the system was 

presented. Briefing materials were obtained from JPL's handout (Anon., 1996).

LightSAR as proposed will build upon experience gained from previous radar satellites: Seasat, 

ERS-1, JERS-1, SIR-C, and Radarsat. It will be low cost with a planned launch in September 

1999 for a 3 year mission. The pay load will be L-band synthetic aperture radar, 

multi-resolution/swath, multi-polarization, repeat path interferometry (stereo). Resolution will 

vary with swath; from spotlight (3 m, 15x20 km) to broad scan (100 m, 280 km). Orbit 

characteristics are: sun synchronous, near polar, 600 km, 10 day repeat cycle, with near global 

coverage (small gap around poles only).

Bibliography

Anonymous, 1996, LightSAR preliminary phase A study, Jet Propulsion Laboratory:

Applications of Future US Spaceborne Imaging Radar Missions Workshop, Sioux Falls, 

SD, Aug. 27-29, 1996.

Montgomery, D.R., ed., 1996, Operational use of civil space-based synthetic aperture radar 

(SAR): JPL Publication 96-16, Pasadena, CA, p. 9-1.

Schoonmaker, J.W., Jr., Jones, J.E., and Molnia, B.F., 1989, Preliminary results of glacier 

studies from digital radar data: ASPRS/ACSM Annual Convention, Remote Sensing, 

Agenda for the 90's, Baltimore, MD, 1989, Technical Papers, v. 3, p. 1-9.

72
Monitoring of Glaciers: The NASA Pathfinder Program

by 

David A. Kirtland, USGS

Abstract

The recent IPCC report discussion of the cryosphere noted medium confidence among experts 

in the belief that as much as one quarter of the world's mountain glacier mass would disappear 

if climate projections for 2050 were realized. Current trends show little change in some 

mountain glaciers and significant change in others. The report goes on to describe possible 

impacts associated with this and other cryosphere-related changes to include changes in 

seasonal water availability, altered landscapes, and changes in carbon dioxide and methane 

released to the atmosphere. Internationally coordinated glacier monitoring has been going on 

for over a century, and during the last several decades satellites have greatly improved 

monitoring capabilities (Fitzharris, 1996). To improve confidence in the understanding of the 

dynamic nature of glaciers and the impacts of changes in them, the NASA Pathfinder Program 

is using existing satellite-based data sets to study global change. Scientists studying glaciers 

have been directly involved in the levels and types of processing and end-to-end management 

needed to generate consistent products from satellite data for the user community. Examples 

of Pathfinder data sets include those generated by the Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (AVHRR) aboard NOAA weather satellites and the Thematic Mapper (TM) and 

Multispectral Scanner (MSS) instruments carried on the Landsat series of satellites. Data 

gathered by several instruments planned for the Earth Observing System component of Mission 

to Planet Earth in addition to synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data can also be used to monitor 

glaciers. Careful reprocessing of existing data from these instruments is paramount to ensure 

the greatest accuracy possible for comparison of changes in glaciers over time. Landsat 

images have been used to measure ice flow rates, as well as glacier advance and retreat. SAR 

data enables monitoring unencumbered by cloud cover and solar illumination conditions. 

Understanding the spatial and temporal variations in the responses of glaciers to changes in 

climate is critical to understanding their sensitivity to climate. The advantages of using remote 

sensing technology to monitor glaciers are evident in the ability to monitor hard-to-access or 

inaccessible glaciers and the ability to expand the spatial and temporal coverage required to 

compile sufficient empirical evidence of glacier dynamics. Data sets documenting these 

changes are valuable to climate modelers and researchers investigating the consequences of 

global change. 

Reference:

Fitzharris, B.B., 1996, The cryosphere: Changes and their impacts; in Climate Change 1995, 

Impacts, adaptations and mitigation of climate change: scientific-technical analyses; 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 

241-260.

73
Measurement of Changes in the Area and Volume of the 

Earth's Large Glaciers with Satellite Sensors

by

Richard S. Williams, Jr., USGS,

James B. Garvin, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center

Oddur Sigurdsson, National Energy Authority (Iceland)

Dorothy K. Hall, NASA, Goddard Space Flight Center

Jane G. Ferrigno, USGS

Abstract

The global observation and measurement of changes in glaciers has been the long-term goal of 

glaciologists. Although several selected small glaciers have been surveyed and monitored for 

long periods, more than 100 years in the case of termini fluctuations and more than 50 years in 

the case of mass-balance measurements, most of the world's glaciers, large and small, have 

never been studied scientifically. Satellite remote-sensing technology has become an 

increasingly important tool to glaciologists in the measurement of changes in the areal extent of 

the Earth's large glaciers (e.g., Antarctic ice sheet, Greenland ice sheet, ice caps, and ice 

fields) on a global basis (Williams, 1986a; Williams and Ferrigno, 1994). Techniques have 

also been developed to measure changes in surface topography with radar altimeters (Zwally 

and others, 1983; Bindschadler and others, 1989) and with laser altimeters (Garvin and 

Williams, 1993; Krabill and others, 1995a,b; Thomas and others, 1995, Garvin and others, in 

press) and to determine volumetric change of glaciers. The Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets 

make up an estimated 99.3 percent of the volume of glacier ice on the planet, and ice caps and 

ice fields make up most of the remaining volume. Satellite remote-sensing technology 

represents the only feasible way of measuring and monitoring changes in the area and volume 

of these large ice masses (Williams, 1985; Williams and others, 1995; Williams and Hall, 

1993, in press) .

Calculation of change in area for a large glacier can be accomplished from maps, vertical aerial 

photographs, and satellite images (Williams, 1986b; Williams, 1987; Hall and others, 1992; 

Williams and others, 1997). Calculation of change in volume for a large glacier can also be 

accomplished, if the elevation of the surface can be determined at two time periods. Haakensen 

(1986) compared sequential maps of two Norwegian glaciers, Hellstugubreen and Grasubreen, 

that were compiled by stereophotogrammetric methods, to calculate changes in area and in 

volume and compare the volumetric changes to ground-based mass-balance measurements. 

With either airborne (Garvin and Williams, 1993; Garvin and others, in press) or satellite laser 

altimetry, the surface elevation of a large glacier can be determined from a series of profiles. 

If the profile grid spacing is sufficient to accurately represent the surface then calculations of 

elevation changes can be made at the same network of grid points.

The development and deployment of satellite-borne laser altimeters will soon provide 

glaciologists with a tool to accurately measure (± 1 m) the topographic surface of large ice

74
masses and, more importantly, permit the calculation of changes in surface elevation and 

surface configuration of large glaciers over time. For example, the January 1996 Space Shuttle 

Mission (STS-72) carried a Shuttle Laser Altimeter (SLA) instrument into Earth orbit (SLA-01 

experiment) for meter-precision measurements of the Earth's surface topography and structure 

between 28.45° north and south latitudes. Vertical accuracy of these data is ~1 m, and 1 m 

RMS-quality data were achieved across the surface of the Red Sea and Lake Chad. An August 

1997 Space Shuttle Mission (STS-85) carried an SLA instrument into Earth orbit (SLA-02 

experiment) for meter-precision measurements of the Earth's surface between about 57° north 

and south latitudes. The orbital inclination of STS-85 passed over all of the Southern 

Hemisphere except for Antarctica and the Sub-Antarctic islands. Of particular glaciological 

interest in South America are its two largest glaciers, the Northern and Southern Patagonian 

Ice Fields situated in the southern part of the Andes Mountains on the border between Chile 

and Argentina. Future studies, including glaciological investigations, will utilize extensively 

laser data that is acquired from space on a repetitive and systematic basis.

References

Bindschadler, R.A., Zwally, H.J., Major, J.A., and Brenner, A.C., 1989, Surface topography

of the Greenland ice sheet from satellite radar altimetry: National Aeronautics and Space

Administration, Special Publication SP-503, 105 p. 

Garvin, J.B, and Williams, R.S., Jr., 1993, Geodetic airborne laser altimetry of

Breidamerkurjokull and Skeidararjokull, Iceland, and Jakobshavn Isbrae, Greenland:

Annals of Glaciology, v. 17, p. 379-385. 

Garvin, J.B., Williams, R.S., Jr., and Sigurdsson, O., in press, Geodetic airborne laser

altimetry of a surging outlet/piedmont glacier, Skeidararjokull, Iceland. 

Haakensen, Nils, 1986, Glacier mapping to confirm results from mass-balance measurements:

Annals of Glaciology, v. 8, p. 73-77. 

Hall, D.K., Williams, R.S., Jr., and Bayr, K.J., 1992, Glacier recession in Iceland and

Austria as observed from space: EOS (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 73,

no. 12, p. 129, 135, and 141. 

Krabill, W., Thomas, R., Jezek, K., Kuivinen, K., and Manizade, S., 1995, Greenland ice

sheet thickness changes measured by laser altimetry: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 22,

no. 17, p. 2341-2344. 

Krabill, W.B., Thomas, R.H., Martin, C.F., Swift, R.N., and Frederick, E.B., 1995b,

Accuracy of airborne laser altimetry over the Greenland ice sheet: International Journal of

Remote Sensing, v. 16, no. 7, p. 1211-1222. 

Thomas, R., Krabill, W., Frederick, E., and Jezek, K.C., 1995, Thickening of Jakobshavn

Isbrae, West Greenland measured by airborne laser altimetry: Annals of Glaciology, v. 21,

p. 259-162.

75
Williams, R.S., Jr., 1985, Monitoring the area and volume of ice caps and ice sheets: Present

and future opportunities using satellite remote-sensing technology: in Glaciers, Ice Sheets,

and Sea Level: Effects of a CO2-Induced Climatic Change (Report of a Workshop held in

Seattle, Washington, September 13-15, 1984), Polar Research Board, National Research

Council, Washington, D.C., National Academy Press, p. 232-240. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., 1986a, Glaciers and glacial landforms; Chapter 9 in Short, N.M., and

Blair, R.W., Jr., editors, Geomorpholoy from space. A global overview of regional

landforms: NASA Special Publication, SP-486, p. 521-596. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., 1986b, Glacier inventories of Iceland: Evaluation and use of sources of

data: Annals of Glaciology, v. 8, p. 184-191. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., 1987, Satellite remote sensing of Vatnajb'kull, Iceland: Annals of

Glaciology, v. 9, p. 127-135. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., and Ferrigno, J.G., 1994, Satellite image atlas of glaciers of the world:

U.S. Geological Survey Global Change Fact Sheet, FS 94-009, 2 p. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., and Hall, D.K., 1993, Glaciers; in chapter on the cryosphere: in Gurney,

R.J., Foster, J.L., and Parkinson, C.L., eds.; Atlas of Earth Observations Related to

Global Change: Cambridge, (U.K.), Cambridge University Press, p. 401-422. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., and Hall, D.K., in press, Use of remote sensing techniques; in Haeberli,

W., editor, Into the 2nd century of world glacier monitoring: Prospects and strategies:

UNESCO International Hydrological Programme Series. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., Ferrigno, J.G., and Swithinbank, C., Lucchitta, B.K., and Seekins, B.A.,

1995, Coastal change and glaciological maps of Antarctica: Annals of Glaciology, v. 21,

p. 284-290. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., Hall, D.K., Sigurdsson, O., and Chien, J.Y.L., 1997, Comparison of

satellite-derived with ground-based measurements of the fluctuations of the margins of

Vatnajokull, Iceland: 1973-1992: Annals of Glaciology, v. 24, p. 72-80. 

Zwally, H.J., Bindschadler, R.A., Brenner, A.C., Martin, T.V., and Thomas, R.H., 1983,

Surface elevation contours of Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: Journal of Geophysical

Research, v. 88, no. C3, p. 1589-1596.

76
III.

INTERNATIONAL DATA CENTERS FOR ARCHIVING

GROUND, AIRBORNE, AND SATELLITE DATA

OF GLACIERS

77
Data Management for Long-Term Monitoring of Fluctuations of Glaciers of 

North America and Northwestern Europe

by 

Greg Scharfen, National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center-A for Glaciology

John L. Dwyer, Earth Resources Observations System (EROS) Data Center 

Stephan Suter, World Glacier Monitoring Service/Swiss Federal Institute of Technology

Data management support for glacier-related data varies depending on the sponsoring agency 

and government. Principal data centers represented at this workshop that provide services to 

the international community are the National Snow and Ice Data Center/World Data Center-A 

for Glaciology (NSIDC/WDC-A), the Earth Resources Observations System (EROS) Data 

Center (EDC) and the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS).

NSIDC/WDC-A supports the glaciological community with a variety of data management 

activities. These include: an extensive bibliographic collection of reports, reprints and 

periodicals; a microfilm copy and computer index of the USGS glacier photo collection to 

1982; the American Geographical Society collection of approximately 10,000 glacier photos; 

a World Wide Web-based inventory of glacier information (This includes entries for more than 

34,000 glaciers from the Former Soviet Union and China, each with up to 28 variables). 

Cooperative efforts with the WGMS are resulting in expansion of the inventory to include 

glaciers from New Zealand, the Alps, Norway and West Greenland); and the NSF-funded 

Arctic System Science (ARCSS) Data Coordination Center at NSIDC (including the 

archival of the Greenland Ice Sheet Program 2 (GISP2) data). Research activities include a 

Global Glacier Mass Balance Synthesis and a study of West Antarctic Ice Streams using 

various remote sensing data.

NSIDC is one of several NASA Earth Observation System Data and Information 

System (EOSDIS) Distributed Active Archives Centers (DAACs). The NSIDC DAAC is 

responsible for higher level cryospheric and polar products from the Moderate Resolution 

Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR) 

and the Geoscience Laser Altimetry System (GLAS). The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal 

Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) will provide a global source of well calibrated, 

high resolution data for glaciological studies using visible, near infrared and thermal infrared 

data. The derivation of glaciological information from ASTER data is being coordinated by 

the USGS in Flagstaff, AZ, and is called Glacier Land Ice Monitoring System (GLIMS). 

NSIDC is participating in this cooperative effort with regional partners to assemble an 

extensive collection of ASTER images and to conduct regular surveys of representative 

glaciers using these images. NSIDC is planning to be the EOSDIS node for access to the 

derived glaciological data from GLIMS.

EDC has responsibility for the archive, management, and distribution of numerous collections 

of aerial photography, digital geospatial data, and airborne and spaceborne remotely sensed

78
data, the latter of which comprises the National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive 

(NSLRSDA) that resides at EDC. The USGS data at EDC that are relevant to the glaciological 

research community include: black & white, color, and color-infrared aerial photography; 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic mapper (TM) data; NOAA Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data; digital elevation models (OEMs); and digital line 

graph (DLG) base cartographic data.

EDC supports NASA EOSDIS as the Land Processes DAAC. As part of the EDC EOSDIS 

Version 0 activities, numerous data sets have been acquired, processed, and archived for 

distribution in support of current global change research. These data include: Landsat 

Pathfinder data sets; NASA aircraft scanner data (NS001, thematic mapper simulator, and 

thermal infrared multispectral scanner); Shuttle Imaging Radar-C (SIR-C); and 1 km global 

digital elevation model data. The EDC DAAC will be responsible for the processing, 

archiving, and distribution of selected higher level data products from the MODIS and ASTER 

instruments (including ASTER data used in GLIMS analyses). The EDC will also have the 

primary U.S. responsibility for the reception, processing, archive, and distribution of Landsat 

7 enhanced thematic mapper (ETM+) data.

The WGMS maintains glacier inventory data (spatial distribution of world surface ice), and 

glacier fluctuation data (changes in time of glacier parameters like mass balance, length 

changes, area/volume changes, ELA, AAR, etc.). Inventory data currently exist from 36 

countries and about 70,000 glaciers; fluctuation data is archived from 33 countries and about 

1,550 glaciers, including "high quality" mass-balance data from 58 glaciers in North and South 

America, Europe, Africa, and Asia. More information on types and availability of data are 

given in Appendices 8 and 9.

Other data centers important to the glaciological community include the National Hydrology 

Research Institute in Saskatoon, Canada, the Geophysical Institute's GeoData Center at the 

University of Alaska, Fairbanks, (see list attached to Trabant, and others, summary on Alaska 

on p. 35 of this report) and the Arctic and Antarctic Data Center in St. Petersburg, Russia.

NSIDC/WDC-A, EDC and the WGMS have the capability or are developing systems to 

support data archive and distribution, coordination of metadata, referral services, a user 

interface, and scientific stewardship of data sets. Increasingly, these centers coordinate their 

activities to provide a common basis for user services, cross-referral of information, and 

submission of metadata to international data dictionaries such as the Global Change Master 

Directory (GCMD), the Arctic Environmental Data Directory (AEDD) and the Antarctic Data 

Directory (ADD).

We encourage individual scientists to become familiar and utilize the services at these facilities 

and to coordinate published results and documented data sets with them. We also recommend 

the identification of other organizations and individuals responsible for glacier-related 

information in each country.

79
The World Glacier Monitoring Service

by

Wilfried Haeberli, University of Zurich-Irchel, and Martin Hoelzle and Stephan Suter, 

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich

Abstract

Since the beginning of internationally-coordinated, systematic observations on glacier 

variations in 1894, a valuable and increasingly important data basis on glacier changes has 

been built up. In 1986, the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) started to maintain and 

continue the collection of information on ongoing glacier changes, when the two former 

International Commission on Snow and Ice (ICSI) services Permanent Service on Fluctuations 

of Glaciers (PSFG) and Temporal Technical Secretary/World Glacier Inventory (TTS/WGI) 

were combined.

As a contribution to the Global Environment Monitoring System Global Terrestrial Observing 

System (GEMS/GTOS) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and to the 

International Hydrological Programme (IHP) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and 

Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the WGMS of the ICSI International Association of the 

Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) and the Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical Data 

Analysis Services (FAGS)/International Commission on Snow and Ice (ICSU) today collects 

and publishes worldwide standardized glacier data. At present, the WGMS gets important 

financial and logistic support from the University of Zurich and the Swiss Federal Institute of 

Technology, Zurich. The tasks of the WGMS are to continuously upgrade, collect and 

periodically publish glacier inventory and fluctuation data, as well as to include satellite 

observations of remote glaciers and to assess ongoing changes. The WGMS database stores 

two types of data: The World Glacier Inventory (WGI) contains glacier data describing the 

spatial variability, and the Fluctuations of Glaciers (FoG) contains data documenting changes 

over time. These data are stored at the ETH on the database system 'Oracle', which allows fast 

and selective data access. Glacier inventory data are an excellent tool in detecting regional 

climate-change effects. By applying a parameterization scheme on basic glacier inventory data, 

it is possible to assess and simulate regional aspects of past and future climate changes. Such a 

scheme was successfully applied to the European Alps. Long-term mass balance 

measurements for selected glaciers are a valuable regional climate signal and help with 

understanding the processes of energy- and mass exchange at the glacier-atmosphere interface. 

As only a few glaciers can be observed in detail, it is necessary to extend mass-balance 

information in space. Over time spans which match or exceed the characteristic dynamic 

response time it is possible to assess mass-balance information using glacier-termini changes. 

With this method not only secular mass-balance evolutions can be analysed but also 

information during the whole Holocene glacier-climate history be gained, which is certainly a 

key issue with respect to the present global-change discussion.

80
In a time with limited funding possibilities and observation networks being under increasing 

pressure, cost-saving technologies for long-term glacier observations must be developed and 

applied. Aerial photogrammetric and satellite imaging and laser-altimeter techniques must 

become more widely applied to observe glacier length, area changes, and changes in surface 

elevation at a global scale. It is of fundamental importance to maintain the current massbalance programmes for assessing the representativity of results from remote sensing and 

modelling in view of potential acceleration of atmospheric warming.

A recently completed report from a WGMS Review Panel to the ICSI bureau recognizes the 

importance of a WGMS to the scientific community and notes a 'considerable interest 1 . The 

WGMS is expanding its efforts to serve the user community in getting high quality and easy 

accessible data. This will happen through data exchange with the World Data Center A for 

Glaciology (WDC-A) and the Global Resources Information Database (GRID) of GEMS as 

well as the WWW homepage, where the user will have the opportunity to directly access the 

database of the WGMS (http://www.geo.unizh.ch/wgms). An ICSI working group was 

established to help improve the funding for WGMS.

Bibliography

Fluctuations of Glaciers:

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1988, Fluctuations of Glaciers 1980-1985; Haeberli, W., and

Miiller, P., eds.: Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1993a, Fluctuations of Glaciers (1985-1990, Haeberli, W., and

Hoelzle, M., eds., Paris.

IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO, 1977b, Fluctuations of glaciers 1970-1975: Miiller, R., ed., Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO, 1985, Fluctuations of glaciers 1975-1980: Haeberli, W., ed., Paris. 

UNESCO, 1969, Variations of existing glaciers: UNESCO/IAHS Technical Papers in

Hydrology 3.

Glacier Inventory:

IAHS, 1980, World Glacier Inventory - Proceedings of the workshop at Riederalp,

Switzerland, 17-22 September 1978: IAHS Publication 126. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1977a, Instructions for the compilation and assemblage of data

for a world glacier inventory; Supplement: Identification/glacier number, Miiller, F., ed.,

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ETH Ziirich.

81
IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1983, Guidelines for preliminary glacier inventories,

Scherler, K., ed., Temporal Technical Secretariat for the World Glacier Inventory

(TTS/WGI), ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1989, World glacier inventory - status 1988, Haeberli, W.,

Bosch, H., Scherler, K., 0strem, G., and Wallen, C.C., eds., Nairobi. 

Haeberli, W., and Hoelzle, M., 1995, Application of inventory data for estimating

characteristics of and regional climate change effects on mountain glaciers a pilot study

with the European Alps. Annals of Glaciology, v. 21, p. 206-212. 

UNESCO, 1970, Perennnial ice and snow masses. A guide for compilation and assemblage of

data for a World Glacier Inventory: UNESCO/IAHS Technical Papers in Hydrology 1. 

UNESCO, 1970/73, Combined heat, ice and water balances at selected glacier basins. Part I:

A guide for compilation and assemblage of data for glacier mass balance measurements.

Part II: Specifications, standards and data exchange: UNESCO/IAHS Technical Papers in

Hydrology 5.

Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin:

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1991, Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 1, Haberli, W., and

Herren, E., eds.: World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1993, Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 2, Haeberli, W.,

Herren, E., and Hoelzle, M., eds., World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1994, Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 3, Haeberli, W.

Hoelzle, M, and Bosch, H., eds., World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO, 1996, Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 4, Haeberli, W.

Hoelzle, M, and Bosch, H., eds., World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich.

Global Glacier Monitoring:

Haeberli, W., in press, Historical evolution and operational aspects of worldwide glacier 

monitoring, in Haeberli, W., Hoelzle, M. and Suter, S., eds., Into the Second Century of 

World Glacier Monitoring - Prospects and Strategies: Paris, UNESCO publishing.

Hoelzle, M. And Trindler, M., in press, Data management and application, in Haeberli,

W., Hoelzle, M. and Suter, S., eds., Into the Second Century of World Glacier Monitoring 

- Prospects and Strategies: Paris, UNESCO publishing.

General/Overviews:

Haeberli, W.,1995, Glacier fluctuations and climate change detection operational elements of 

a worldwide monitoring strategy: WMO Bulletin 44, v. 1, p. 23-31.

82
Haeberli, W., 1996, glacier fluctuations and climate change detection: Geografia Fisica e 

Dinamica Quaternaria, v. 18, p. 191-199.

Haeberli, W., Miiller, P., Alean, P., and Bosch, H., 1989, Glacier changes following the 

Little Ice Age a survey of the international data basis and its perspectives, in Oerlemans, 

J., ed., Glacier Fluctuations and Climatic Change: Kluwer, p. 77-101.

UNEP, 1991, Environmental data report: Third edition 1991-92, Oxford, Blackwell.

UNEP, 1992, Glaciers and the environment: UNEP/GEMS Environment Library 9.

UNEP, 1994, Environmental data report: Fourth Edition 1993-94, Oxford, Blackwell.

83
IV.

MONITORING OF VARIOUS GLACIERS

IN NORTH AMERICA AND NORTHWESTERN EUROPE:

MISCELLANEOUS CONTRIBUTIONS

84
Determination of Changes in the Volume of Mountain Glaciers 

Using Airborne Laser Altimetry

by

Keith Echelmeyer, William D. Harrison, Joseph J. Sapiano, Gudfinna Adalgeirsdottir,

Laurence Sombardier, Bernard T. Rabus, and Jeannette (DeMallie) Gorda

University of Alaska-Geophysical Institute

The changing volume of mountain glaciers in Alaska, Canada and the northwestern United 

States is believed to provide a significant contribution to the ongoing rise in sea level, and it is 

also a quality indicator of climatic change. In order to measure these changes, we have 

developed a compact, lightweight and relatively inexpensive laser profiling system which can 

be mounted in small aircraft capable of operating in mountain valleys. The system consists of 

a laser ranger for measuring the height of the aircraft above the glacier surface, a vertical axis 

gyroscope for determining the pointing direction of the laser, and Global Positioning System 

(GPS) receivers operated in kinematic mode for determining the position of the aircraft. 

Surface elevation profiles resulting from this system are accurate to about 0.3 m over a wide 

variety of surfaces and surface slopes (Echelmeyer and others, 1996).

Volume changes over decadal time scales can be obtained by comparison of these surface 

profiles with existing maps, while recent changes over shorter time scales can be obtained by 

repeat laser profiling. The accuracy of the longer-time scale volume changes is limited by the 

accuracy of the existing maps, which is on the order of 5 to 10 m.

Over the past 5 years we have profiled over 60 glaciers in Alaska, Canada and Washington. 

The broad spectrum of glaciers which we have profiled cover most of the climatic zones where 

glaciers occur in western North America, and cover many different sizes and types of 

mountain glaciers. They include small glaciers in the Brooks Range of arctic Alaska, which 

are very sensitive to the amplified climatic changes predicted in the Arctic; small glaciers in 

western Alaska, which are indicators of climatic change in the Bering Sea region; large 

glaciers along the Gulf of Alaska, which are thought to be major contributors to sea level rise; 

surging glaciers before and during surge; both terrestrial and tidewater glaciers along the coast 

of Alaska and British Columbia; and the smaller glaciers in the Cascades and Olympic 

Mountains of Washington.

Preliminary results show that regional trends in mass balance are complex, but most glaciers 

studied have undergone a loss of mass since the 1950's. It is interesting to note that not all 

termini have retreated over the same period.

Echelmeyer, K.A., Harrison, W.D., Larsen, C.F., Sapiano, J., Mitchell, I.E., DeMallie, J., 

Rabus, B., Adalgeirsdottir, G., and Sombardier, L., 1996, Airborne surface profiling of 

glaciers: a case-study in Alaska: Journal of Glaciology, v. 42, no. 142, p. 538-547.

85
The Mass of McCall Glacier. Its Regional Relevance and 

Climatological Implications for Climate Change in the Arctic

by

Bernard T. Rabus and Keith Echelmeyer 

University of Alaska-Geophysical Institute

McCall Glacier has the only long-term mass balance record in Arctic Alaska. Mean annual 

balances over the periods 1958-71 and 1972-93 were -0.13 m and -0.33 m respectively; recent 

annual balances (1992-95) are around -0.6 m. For an arctic glacier with low mass exchange 

rate this marks a dramatically negative trend. Elevation profiles and terminus outlines, 

recently acquired with airborne and ground-based GPS methods on McCall and ten other 

glaciers of various sizes and aspects within a 30 km radius, were compared with topographic 

maps made several decades earlier. Comparison of the elevation changes of McCall and the 

other glaciers from 1956 to present show no major differences in the common parts of their 

elevation ranges. During this time span most glaciers have cumulative balances between -10 

and -13 m (McCall: -12m). This indicates that McCall Glacier is representative for the region. 

Contrary to the cumulative balances which are similar for the different glaciers, the changes in 

terminus position vary markedly. This complicated regional pattern is dominated by effects of 

glacier geometry and flow dynamics in the terminus region. To estimate mass balance 

disturbances from fractional length changes is not possible in this area.

To show that the mass balance of McCall Glacier detects climate change on a larger synoptic 

scale we show results from a simple two parameter degree day/accumulation model. The 

model uses radiosonde temperature and ground precipitation data from coastal weather stations 

at Barrow (Alaska) or Inuvik (Canada) as input and is calibrated with a subset of the known 

annual mass balances of McCall Glacier. Positive degree days and accumulation calculated by 

the model show significantly different trends for Barrow and Inuvik; Inuvik data reproduce all 

measured annual mass balances of McCall Glacier within a 20% error band and also 

quantitatively reproduce the long-term trend towards negative balances. Barrow data on the 

other hand fail to reproduce either annual balances or the long term trend within reasonable 

error. Contrary to measurements, balances modeled from Barrow data are generally too 

negative except for a short period of positive balances in the 1970's. For their limited time 

range, 1948 to 1989, Kaktovik (Alaska) data gave results similar to those obtained with the 

Inuvik data. We speculate that the average location of the Arctic front in summer which 

separates Inuvik, Kaktovik and McCall Glacier from Barrow creates distinct climatic regions 

with non-identical climate change scenarios that explain the observed differences in modeled 

degree days and accumulation.

Given our results, we conclude that McCall Glacier is representative of a synoptic scale region 

and its mass balance record is an important measure of ongoing climate change in the Arctic.

86
Remote Sensing of Glacier Fluctuations Using Landsat Data: Lessons Learned

by

John L. Dwyer 

Hughes STX Corp. 1 , EROS Data Center, Sioux Falls, SD 57198

Abstract

Ten Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic mapper (TM) images acquired between 

1978 and 1991 were analyzed to map the positions of more than 75 ice fronts for tidewater and 

land-terminating glaciers in East Greenland. The images had different internal geometric 

characteristics due to variations among the individual satellite orbital geometries and the types 

of processing applied by the satellite ground receiving stations. The images were coregistered 

to a single Landsat TM reference scene with a 30 meter by 30 meter pixel resolution, and error 

budgets associated with image registration were formulated. Scenes were individually contrast 

enhanced as false-color composites and integrated into a geographic information system (GIS). 

Softcopy digitizing tools within the GIS were used to compile maps of glacier basins and timestep overlays of ice front positions from which planimetric areal changes to glacier extents 

were calculated. The changes to glacier extent were then quantified to include uncertainties 

attributable to misregistration errors. Automated image cross-correlation techniques were 

applied to two Landsat TM images acquired in July and September of 1989 to derive surface 

velocity estimates for nine large glaciers in the study area.

The delineation and quantification of changes to land-terminating glacier extents were 

significantly compromised by the inability to consistently identify the boundary of ice fronts 

mantled with debris The spatial resolution of the images further precluded interpretation of 

surface morphological variations in the glacier terminus areas that might otherwise have aided 

inferences of the ice front positions. The lack of sufficient radiometric calibration data specific 

to the satellite sensors and ground processing systems also precluded attempts to spectrally 

discriminate changes in surface reflectance at the ice-moraine contacts. The contrast between 

highly reflective ice-snow and dark sediment often contributed to "memory effects" in the 

spectral response at the satellite sensors such that the discrimination of surface reflectance 

variations were "blurred". Increases in the extent of ice-snow cover were more readily 

discernible than states of regression or stagnation.

1 Work performed under U.S. Geological Survey contract 1434-92-C-40004

87
Glacier Recession and Ecological Implications at Glacier National Park, Montana

by

Carl H. Key, Starr Johnson, and Daniel B. Fagre, USGS/Biological Resources Division

Richard K. Menicke, National Park Service

Glacier National Park contains 37 named glaciers that currently exist in various cirque, niche, 

ice apron, group and remnant forms. Thorough glacier surveys began with mapping the first 

USGS 30-minute quadrangles (1904-1914), and the work of Alden (1914). Only two glaciers, 

Sperry and Grinnell, have repeated assessment of surface profiles and movement to potentially 

reconstruct a history of mass balance (Johnson 1980). An additional nine glaciers have been 

mapped for terminus positions at varying intervals, extending back to the mid-1800's (Carrara 

and McGimsey 1981, 1988). Evidence for a general, regional recession is not new, but was 

recognized early this century (Dyson 1940). What is now known as the Little Ice Age (LIA) 

culminated here during the mid-19th century when Park glaciers were at their late-Neoglacial 

maxima (Carrara 1989). Since then, retreat has been consistent, with previous studies 

referencing conditions up to the late 1970's.

After nearly a 20-yr hiatus, we have begun to update the state of knowledge about glaciers of 

the region. Efforts to assemble and digitize historic maps and monitoring information proceed, 

adding new data to broaden spatial and temporal coverage. Work to digitize and assess 11 

previously-mapped glaciers is complete, including delineation of 1993 perimeters on six of 

those. Recently digitized USGS 7.5-minute quadrangles exhibit about 83 ice and snow bodies 

larger than 10 ha (24.7 ac), at the time of aerial photography (1963-1966). This, the only 

comprehensive Park survey of perennial ice and snow to date, includes the named glaciers, 

separate pieces of former glaciers, and assorted patches (ice aprons, glacierets and snowfields) 

which may have not been true glaciers even during the LIA. The actual number of true 

glaciers (past and present), and the total extent of glacial recession since the LIA has yet to be 

determined empirically.

On six glaciers mapped from 1993 aerial photos, and two mapped through 1979, retreat from 

1850 termini ranged from 818-1440 m and averaged 1244 m. Overall retreat rates varied 

between 6-17 m/yr. Those glaciers were reduced in area by 62-80%, for an average shrinkage 

to 27% of the estimated area in 1850. Retreat rates were not constant over time on any single 

glacier, but roughly correlated with warm-dry trends in climate. Agassiz and Jackson 

Glaciers, for example, lost between 3-117 m/yr through various periods from 1850-1979 

(Carrara and McGimsey 1981). Pulses of recession occurred during the 1920's through the 

mid-1940's, and seem to be recurring now, as evidenced by change since 1979.

Of interest to ecosystem modeling and climate change research is how observed glacier 

changes might affect streams and surface characteristics across a mountain landscape. Using 

calculated retreat rates and the park-wide status of perennial ice and snow in 1966, regional 

conditions were projected for 1850 and 1993 on a drainage to drainage basis. Total area 

occupied by ice at the end of the LIA was estimated to be 99 km2 . Of 84 basins completely
within the Park, 25 contained 1% or more perennial ice cover, and 19 contained 3% or more. 

Estimated quantities were reduced by 1993 to 26 km2 total ice cover, 18 basins at 1% or more 

perennial ice, and only 4 basins with 3% or more. Decreased perennial ice within glacial 

basins, coupled with reduced number of glacial basins overall, likely reduced the moderating 

influence of glaciers on stream flow regimes throughout the year, and amplified bioticallystressful declines in run-off, particularly in late summer. On an ecosystem basis, such changes 

potentially represented significant alterations to lake and stream hydrology, and ultimately 

aquatic biota, in just the last 150 years.

Further work in the Glacier Park area is needed to complete regional assessment of glacial 

recession, and address climatological and ecological implications. Efforts continue to map the 

LIA maxima and the present status of glaciers throughout the park, and to build digital spatial 

models of recession. We hope to acquire new aerial photography in 1998. From guidelines 

for a comprehensive monitoring program (Fountain et al. 1997), a need exists for first-time, 

repeated mapping of accumulation and ablation zones to derive, if possible, time series of 

equilibrium line altitude and mass balance. Other primary field measurements are needed for 

monitoring at least one benchmark glacier. Also, stream gauging is needed to more precisely 

measure glacier contribution to hydrologic processes, which link in various ways to biological 

responses. Finally, future plans include development of new analytical approaches using 

satellite technologies to map margins and surface characteristics of small alpine glaciers.

References

Alden, W.C., 1914, Glaciers of Glacier National Park: National Park Service, U.S.

Department of Interior, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 44 p. 

Carrara, P.E., 1989, Late Quaternary glacial and vegetative history of the Glacier National

Park region, Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1902, 64 p. 

Carrara, P.E., and McGimsey, R.G., 1981, The late neoglacial histories of the Agassiz and

Jackson Glaciers, Glacier National Park, Montana: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 13, p.

183-196. 

____ 1988, Map showing distribution of moraines and extent of glaciers from the mid-19th

century to 1979 in the Mount Jackson area, Glacier National Park, Montana: U.S.

Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-1508-C, scale 1:24,000. 

Dyson, J.L., 1940, Recession of glaciers in Glacier National Park, Montana: American

Geophysical Union Transactions, 21st Annual Meeting, pt. 1, p. 508-510. 

Fountain, A.G., Krimmel, R.M., and Trabant, D.C., 1997, A strategy for monitoring

glaciers: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1132, 19 p. 

Johnson, Arthur, 1980, Grinnell and Sperry Glaciers, Glacier National Park, Montana - A

record of vanishing ice: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1180, 29 p.

Following the Glacier Monitoring Workshop, Vice President Al Gore, having seen some of our figures in climate 

change documents, expressed a personal interest in learning more about the glacier research being conducted at 

Glacier National Park. On 9/2/97 the Vice President visited for a hike to Grinnell Glacier, accompanied by 

Montana Senator Max Baucus, former Congressman Pat Williams and the authors. Grinnell Glacier provided a 

dramatic setting in which to discuss climate change issues and the value of glacier investigations.

89
Sperry Glacier 1850-1993

Grinnell Glacier 1850-1993

1 kilometer

Glacier Recessions Over Time 

Glacier National Park, MT

- -Sperry

-*-Grinnell

-*-Swiftcurrent

-a-Harrison

-B-Agassiz

- -Vulture

-e-Jackson

- -Pumpelly

LOLOCOCOr^-OOOOO3CT3CD-» -< CVIC\JCO^J-T}-LOI-OC£3r--r COCOO3 

OO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO O5 O*> O*3 O*3 O"5 O5 CT5 O5 CTJ CT5 CT5 CT5 CT5 CD O5 O5

Year

I^USGS Biological RMOurcM Division. Glaciar FieW Station. C. Key. provisional data 1997. Carrara and MeQunsay 1988. A. Johnson 1980.

90
Glacier Monitoring in Denali National Park and Preserve, Alaska: 

Integrating Field Study and Remote Sensing

by 

James Roush and Phil Brease, National Park Service

The objective of glacier research in Denali National Park and Preserve is to develop a regional 

assessment and long-term monitoring program of glacier mass balance and flow. Glacier 

monitoring is carried out in Denali to meet the need for interpretation of Park resources, to 

support Park efforts at long-term ecological monitoring, and to fulfill the international 

responsibilities of Denali as a Biosphere Reserve. The latter requirement pertains specifically 

to the need to monitor indicators of global climate change. Glaciers may be among the most 

sensitive of Park resources to long-term trends in climatic conditions. Monitoring glacier mass 

balance and the resulting variations in geometry and flow may provide Denali with a measure 

of climate changes and their magnitude in south-central and interior Alaska. In this way, 

Denali may provide useful data on climatic trends which will be of interest to the international 

scientific community, and which will also meet the needs of the National Park Service.

Denali's glacier-monitoring program is currently under development. It is recognized that a 

major challenge to the goal of glacier assessment and monitoring on a regional (Park-wide) 

scale is the practical difficulty of glacier field study. In order to address this challenge, a 

variable scale study design is being implemented which will minimize difficult and costly field 

work by relying on remote sensing for regional assessments and long-term monitoring. Under 

this design, only one benchmark glacier is selected for field monitoring in each major climatic 

region of the Park. These glaciers need to be representative of glaciers in their region, be 

clearly visible in remotely sensed imagery, and be practical for field study (in terms of size, 

setting, and accessibility). First, an initial regional inventory of glacier conditions would be 

made with remote sensing imagery (most likely satellite synthetic aperture radar). The results 

of that inventory would be used to select suitable index glaciers. Detailed field study of the 

index glaciers would then be used as ground-truth data for remote sensing studies of glaciers 

throughout the Park. Finally, the ground-truthed remote sensing imagery would be used for 

long term monitoring of glaciers on a Park-wide scale.

If successful, Denali's glacier-monitoring efforts will not only support NPS managers and 

interpreters, but will also provide valuable information for the scientific community at large on 

the effects of global climate change in Alaska. The results of our research will be shared with 

those outside the NPS by publication in professional journals and by archiving in the 

appropriate locations.

91
An Integrated Approach for Monitoring Changes at Bering Glacier, Alaska

by

Bruce F. Molnia, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA 22092 

Austin Post, U.S. Geological Survey (Retired), Vashon, WA. 98070

Abstract

Monitoring changes at Bering Glacier, Alaska has been accomplished through a multi- faceted 

approach involving the collection and analysis of a variety of remotely-sensed data, field 

measurements and observations, and the analysis of historical maps and reports, leading to the 

development of a geographic information system (GIS). Integrating the results from these 

individual approaches has produced a detailed understanding of the twentieth century history of 

Bering Glacier and a comprehensive picture of the 1993-95 surge of the glacier.

Introduction

Bering Glacier, located in coastal southcentral Alaska, is the largest and longest glacier in 

continental North America (Molnia and Post, 1995). During the twentieth century, as much as 

12 km of terminus retreat, accompanied by several hundred meters of glacier thinning, and as 

many as six major surges have occurred. Documenting this complex sequence of events and 

monitoring the resulting changes has been possible through a multi-faceted approach involving 

the collection and analysis of a variety of remotely-sensed data; field measurements and 

observations; and the analysis of historical maps and reports, some more than 150 years old. 

Much of these data are being incorporated into a developing geographic information system 

(GIS).

Monitoring changes at Bering Glacier, or for that matter any glacier, requires establishment of 

a baseline(s) or other reference standard(s). Later observations are then compared to this 

baseline(s) or standard(s), resulting in the determination of quantity and rate of change. For 

Bering Glacier, this baseline is complex and dynamic, consisting of multiple baseline data sets. 

For example, the position and elevation of the glacier's terminus was known from field 

observations and mapping since the first half-decade of the twentieth century. Additionally, 

much information about the glacier's geography was previously known from the nineteenth 

century (Molnia and Post, 1995). These observations provide a baseline against which to 

measure twentieth century retreat and thinning. Later observations have provided details about 

changes in terminus position in the early 1920s, late 1930s, late 1940s, early and late 1950s, 

and virtually every year since 1960. Since August 1993, the start of terminus displacement in 

the latest surge of Bering Glacier, field and remote-sensing observations have been made 

almost monthly.

One of the first steps necessary to monitor and record changes at Bering Glacier was the 

compilation and construction of a complete map base of the Bering's eastern piedmont lobe.

92
The base map is being used for depicting the many identified locations of the glacier's terminus 

since 1900 and for plotting the locations and values of measured parameters. The map is based 

on U.S. Geological Survey topographic data (1904 - 1906, 1957, 1972), GPS measurements 

(1990 - 1995), and vertical aerial photography (1990 - 1995).

This map presently is the basis for "analogue" or paper monitoring and change detection. This 

map is also being used as the base map for the development of a digital Bering Glacier 

Geographic Information System (GIS) currently being developed jointly with the U.S. Bureau 

of Land Management (BLM), an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior. The GIS is 

being formulated for the integration, display, manipulation, and storage of the various 

geographically located data and information available for Bering Glacier.

During the 1993 - 1995 surge, airborne remotely-sensed data were collected approximately 

every 30 - 60 days. Combined with the quantity and variety of all of the other data collected 

during the surge, this may be the best documented surge event of any glacier.

Bering Glacier Data

Airborne and spaceborne remotely-sensed data of Bering Glacier include:

 1) more than 75 vertical and oblique aerial photographic data sets, containing about ten 

thousand photographs (1938 - present);

 2) more than 50 multispectral scanner and thematic mapper Landsat images 

(1972 - 1992);

 3) about 50 digital satellite, Shuttle, and airborne 

radar images (1978 - 1995); and

 4) about 15 hours of airborne video 

(1989 - present).

Field observations and measurements include:

 1) feature mapping (1974 - present);

 2) time lapse photography from in-situ camera systems (1993 - 1996);

 3) sequential photography from reoccupation of marked photo stations (1946 - present);

 4) discharge measurements and flow information from telemetering stage recorders 

(1991 - 1995);

 5)ice-penetrating radar surveys (1990 - 1993);

 6) high resolution marine seismic reflection surveys of Vitus Lake, the glacier's ice 

marginal basin (1991 and 1993);

 7) seismic refraction surveys of the glacier's outwash plain (1991 - 1993);

 8) dendrochronological and tree coring studies (1976 - present);

 9) monitoring of movement and erosion stakes at selected terminus sites (1993 - 

present);

 10) precision location of features using differential GPS (1992 - 1995); and

 11) water sampling for water chemistry and suspended sediment load, (1976 - 1980, 

1993, 1995).

93
Historical data include:

 1) eighteenth, nineteenth, and early twentieth century exploration maps, description of 

voyages, and reports of expeditions;

 2) nineteenth century published maps and nautical charts; and

 3) late nineteenth and early twentieth century geological reports; and

 4) field photography obtained from 1897 and 1905.

Description of Bering Glacier Data

Aerial Photography -- More than 75 vertical and oblique aerial photographic data sets, 

containing more than ten thousand aerial photographs of Bering Glacier have been collected. 

These sets date from 1938 to May 1996 and include images ranging in size from 9 in by 9 in to 

35 mm. As the USGS, using differential GPS, has precisely determined the location of more 

than 100 geographic features within the Bering Glacier study area, photographs containing 

these features, especially those collected vertically, can be geographically referenced and used 

for precise change measurement and for inclusion in the Bering Glacier GIS.

The earliest aerial photographs, made by Bradford Washburn in 1938, while exploring 

mountain climbing routes in the Chugach and Saint Elias Mountains, clearly depict terminus 

position, outwash plain configuration and location, marginal lake size and level, and recent 

surge history. Later aerial photographs provide data to continue to monitor changes in these 

parameters. Since about 1960, vertical and oblique photography has been collected almost 

annually by the USGS. They have been the source of much detailed information for 

continuation of monitoring changes.

Since May 1993, more than 20 oblique color and black-and-white aerial photographic sets and 

more than 10 vertical aerial photographic sets have been collected to document surge related 

changes.

Landsat Imagery more than 50 multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic mapper (TM) 

Landsat images dating from 1972 - 1992 have been obtained. As each of these images covers 

about a 200 km by 200 km area, virtually all of Bering Glacier can be observed at many single 

points in time. These images are being used in both an analogue and digital manner to monitor 

changes in terminus position, changes in snow cover and ablation, sediment production and 

dispersal, surge displacement of medial moraine features, and changes in proglacial vegetation. 

As all of these Landsat images are geographically registered, they will be a vital component in 

the information base of the Bering Glacier GIS.

Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Data (SAR) ~ Since 1992, about 50 digital satellite SAR 

images of Bering Glacier have been collected by the SAR sensor on the European Space 

Agency's ERS-1 satellite. These images, downloaded at the University of Alaska's SAR 

Facility (ASF) in Fairbanks, have been processed by USGS to monitor and determine rate and 

style of ice displacement during the 1993-94 phase of the latest surge, changes in terminus 

position, changes in snow cover and ablation, and sediment production and dispersal. Bering

94
Glacier was selected by the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) to be an 

ecological research site for 1994 and 1995 environmental missions of the Shuttle Imaging 

Radar (SIR-C)experiment. As a result, two additional radar data sets of parts of the terminus 

were obtained. Digital SAR data can be merged with other digital remotely sensed data and 

incorporated into the Bering Glacier GIS. Mapped derivative information can be scanned into 

the GIS as well.

Airborne Synthetic Aperature Radar Data Two other side looking, airborne radar images 

(SLAR), high-resolution X-Band, SAR radar images, of Bering Glacier were collected by the 

USGS in 1986 and 1990. They have been used to monitor changes in terminus position, 

changes in snow cover and ablation, sediment production and dispersal, and iceberg 

production.

Airborne video about 15 hours of airborne video has been collected between 1989 and May 

1996. This video, collected in VHS, S-VHS, and 8 mm formats, shows numerous surface 

features of the glacier from before, during, and after the latest surge. These data are useful 

as a supplement to the numerous photographic data sets.

Feature mapping Since 1974, field studies have been conducted to "ground truth" many 

geomorphic and geographic features that had been identified from aerial photography. This 

has included confirming the identification of and age of moraines, and the character of surface 

and outcrop sediment deposits.

Time lapse photography Time lapse photography from in-situ camera systems has been used 

since 1993 to monitor changes during the latest surge of the glacier. In 1994, as many as five 

cameras were deployed simultaneously. Cameras ranged from a single 16 mm movie camera 

which took one image every five minutes to several 35 mm cameras which took one image 

every 24 hours. The 16 mm film has been converted to video.

Sequential photography reoccupation of marked photo stations has yielded many pairs, 

triplets, and multiple-year sequential photo sets which are excellent for monitoring change. In 

1995, the authors relocated and revisited photo stations originally established in 1946 by 

USGS geologist Don J. Miller. Comparison of the 1995 photographs with the 1946 

photographs document 50 years of change at many ice-marginal locations north of the 

piedmont lobe.

Discharge measurements and stage information from telemetering recorders In 1991 and 

1993, USGS hydrologists determined the discharge of the Seal River, the largest distributary of 

the Bering Glacier. In both instances, discharge was calculated using the cross-sectional area 

method. Beginning in 1994, recording stage gauges have been used to monitor surge related 

discharge fluctuations, with the data telemetered to Fairbanks, AK. Several flood events 

associated with the surge have been identified.

95
Ice-penetrating radar surveys - In 1990 and again in 1993, USGS collected a total of more 

than 100 ice thickness measurements using ice-penetrating radar. These surveys have provided 

detailed information about the depth to the bedrock underlying the glacier and the thickness 

of the ice at the time of the survey. The location of each survey point was determined using 

GPS. Knowing the elevation of the bed permits calculation of changes in glacier thickness 

through time. This has permitted monitoring of total thickness changes during the period 1972 

- 1991, a period of time in which the glacier thinned as much as 165 m (20%) (Molnia and 

Post, 1995).

High resolution marine seismic reflection surveys high resolution marine seismic reflection 

surveys of Virus Lake, the glacier's ice marginal basin were conducted in 1991 and 1993 

using GPS navigation. These surveys, which yielded profiles of more than 500 km of the 

basin, showed that much of the basin is more than 200 m below sea level and is filled with as 

much as 110m of recent sediment. This information, combined with a knowledge of ice 

margin locations and the date of and sequence of glacier retreat permits detailed monitoring of 

sedimentation rates and volumes. Since much of the area that was profiled was subsequently 

covered by advancing ice in the 1993-95 surge, a baseline of pre-surge depth and sediment 

thickness information now exists for comparison with post-surge retreat measurements.

Seismic refraction surveys of the glacier's outwash plain Seismic refraction surveys of the 

glacier's outwash plain were performed from 1991 to 1993. These data determined the depth 

to bedrock underlying the glacier's forelands and the thickness of sediment. Based on these 

measurements, it was determined that the forelands overlie a deep basin which extends several 

hundred meters below sea level and which connects to a deep submarine trough in the Gulf of 

Alaska.

Dendrochronological. paleobotanical. and tree coring studies Studies conducted since 1976 

have resulted in 32 14C dates obtained from peat, sub-fossil wood, and shell samples collected 

by the authors from the margins of the glacier. Additionally, a 1,200 year tree ring 

chronology, with "floating" calendar dates for some samples reaching nearly 2,000 years, 

augment the other glacier data. This information has resulted in dating of many exposed 

moraines. Additionally, monitoring of recently formed moraines permits an understanding of 

rates of and types of vegetation development. This information is useful for determining the 

sequence and age of many twentieth century moraines around the margin of Bering glacier.

Monitoring of movement and erosion stakes at selected terminus sites ~ Beginning in 1993, 

lines of stakes were set out at about 20 locations around the surging margin of the glacier. 

These lines were checked on a daily to weekly cycle to monitor short term rates of terminus 

change. Results showed that the western margin of the glacier advanced more rapidly than the 

eastern and that maximum daily rates of advance on land were about 5 m per day. In July 

1995, one group of stations was placed to monitor the amount and rate of shoreline bluff 

erosion and retreat associated with the advance of the glacier's southeast margin. 

Interpretation of the resulting measurements suggest bluff retreat rates approaching 1.5 m per 

day.

96
Precision determination of feature locations using differential GPS ~ Between 1992 and 1995, 

more than 100 geographic features identifiable on USGS vertical photography were precisely 

located using differential GPS. Exact positioning of these locations permits detailed 

calculation of changes in many different types of features. Additionally, each of these features 

can be incorporated into the GIS base map.

Water sampling - Between 1976 and 1980, and again in 1992, 1994, and 1995, water samples 

were collected from Vitus Lake and the Seal River. These samples were used to monitor 

changes in the suspended sediment load of the lake and river and to determine the temperature 

and salinity of the lake. Data collected in 1992 indicated that the lake was actually a marine 

embayment with near-marine salinities. The subsequent surge flushed nearly all of this marine 

water from the basin and changed salinities to those of nearly fresh water.

Analysis of eighteenth, nineteenth and early-twentieth century exploration maps, description of 

voyages, and reports of expeditions, nineteenth century published maps and nautical charts, 

and late nineteenth and early twentieth century geological reports has provided a much longer 

term perspective on the glacier's post-Little Ice Age history than could be obtained from 

present day measurements. For instance, a description of the character of the glaciers surface 

from the late 1830s by Belcher (1843) suggests that the glacier was surging at the time of his 

observation. Similarly, field photography obtained by an 1897 climbing expedition and a 1905 

geological field party clearly show the character and position of parts of the glacier's margin. 

All of these historical data are useful for understanding how the glacier has behaved in the 

past.

Summary

A variety of techniques have been used to monitoring changes at Bering Glacier, Alaska. 

Monitoring has been accomplished through a multi-faceted approach involving the collection 

and analysis of remotely-sensed data, field measurements and observations, and the analysis of 

historical maps and reports. Ultimately, these data will be incorporated into developing a 

geographic information system (GIS). Integrating the results from these individual approaches 

has produced a detailed understanding of the twentieth century history of Bering Glacier and a 

comprehensive picture of the 1993-95 surge of the glacier.

References

Belcher, E.B., 1843, Narrative of a Voyage Around the World Performed in Her Majesty's

Ship Sulphur During the Years 1836-1842. London; Henry Colburn, Publisher. 

Molnia, B.F. and Austin Post, 1995, Holocene History of the Bering Glacier, Alaska: A

Prelude to the 1993-1994 Surge. Phys. Geogr., 16, 87-117.

97
V. 

APPENDICES

1. Planned Agenda for Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of North America 

and Northwestern Europe

2. List of Attendees

3. List of Invitees Who Were Unable to Attend

4. Selected Background Reading [Pre-Workshop]

5. Selected Reading [Post-Workshop]

6. Importance of Revitalization of the USGS Glaciology Program by Robert A. 

Bindschadler, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

7. Review of Past, Present and Future Earth Observing Platforms (USGS Biological 

Resources Division)

8. Available data from the World Glacier Monitoring Service

9. How to get data from the World Glacier Monitoring Service

10. International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) Priority Projects

98
10 Sep 96 (Tues)

11 Serj 96 (Wed)

Time 

8:00 - 8:30

8:30

9:00

9:30

10:00

10:30

11:00

11:30

Noon

- 9:00

- 9:30

- 10:00

- 10:30

- 11:00

- 11:30

- Noon

- 12:30

Planned Agenda for

Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Glaciers of 

North America and Northwestern Europe

University of Puget Sound

Student Union Building

Tacoma, Washington

11-13 September 1996

Arrive in Tacoma. WA by non-local attendees 

Overnight at Tacoma area hotel

AM SESSION 1 - Existing Remote Sensing Data Bases and Current 

Status of Glacier Monitoring: State/Country Summaries

12:30 2:00

Introduction

Alaska

Canada (Western)

Canada (Arctic)

Break - Coffee, etc.

Conterminous U.S./Mexico

Greenland

Iceland

Norway

Lunch at the Student Union

Rapporteur

Richard S. Williams, Jr./ 

Jane G. Ferrigno 

Dennis C. Trabant 

Michael Demuth 

Roy M. Koerner

Robert M. Krimmel 

Anker Weidick 

Oddur Sigurdsson 

Jon Ove Hagen

Time

2:00 - 2:30 

2:30 - 3:00

3:00 

3:30 

4:00 

4:30

- 3:30

- 4:00

- 4:30

- 5:00

5:00 - 5:30 

5:30 - 6:00 

7:00

PM SESSION 2 - Glacier Monitoring:

Ground. Airborne, and Satellite - Topical Summaries

World Glacier Monitoring Service 

Historical Reconstruction of Glacier

Fluctuation from Remote Sensing Data Sets 

Airborne and Satellite Altimetry 

Break - Coffee, etc. 

Satellite Remote Sensing (Imaging) 

Airborne and Satellite Remote Sensing

of Svalbard (Norway) 

Global Glacier Monitoring with

EOS ASTER 

Glacier Monitoring with Classified Data Sets

Rapporteur 

Wilfried Haeberli 

Bruce M. Molnia

James M. Garvin

Dorothy K. Hall 

Julian H. Dowdeswell

Hugh H. Kieffer 

Edward G. Josberger

Cookout at Krimmel home on Vaushon Island, Puget Sound

99
12 Sep 96 (Thurs): AM Session 3 - Selection of Representative Glaciers for Long-Term 

Ground. Airborne, and Satellite Monitoring

Time Activity 

8:30 - 10:00 Discussion groups by country on which glaciers of North America and northwestern

Europe should be included in a "representative" set of glaciers for long-term

monitoring led by state/country Rapporteurs 

10:00 - 10:30 Break - Coffee, etc. 

10:30 - 11:30 Series of 10-min. presentations by Rapporteurs for the selected "representative"

glaciers for each geographic area 

11:30 - 12:30 General discussion by Workshop attendees on the use of the World Wide Web site

and e-mail connection for exchanging information on fluctuation of "representative"

glaciers of North America and northwestern Europe 

12:30- 2:00 Lunch at Student Union

PM Session 4 -Draft of Final Workshop Report

Time Activity

2:00 - 3:00 Rapporteurs and Workshop Coordinators meet to write final draft of Workshop report

3:00 - 3:30 Break - coffee, etc.

3:30 - 5:00 Continued work on final draft of Workshop report

7:00 Dinner at the Upper Room (local restaurant)

13 Sep 96 (TrD: Field Trip to Nisqually Glacier. Mount Rainier National Park. WA 

Field Trip Leader: Carolyn L. Driedger

Time 

9:00 am 

10:30 am

Noon

Noon-1:00 

1:00-2:00 

2:00 - 2:30 

2:30 - 3:00 

3:00 - 5:00

Evening

14 Sep 96 (Sat)

Departure from Tacoma area hotel via bus

Start of series of stops along Rt. 706 within the Park boundary:

(1) Flood deposits along Tahoma Creek from jokulhlaups from South Tahoma Glacier 

discharge;

(2) Flood deposits along Kautz Creek;

(3) Termini of Nisqually Glacier from bridge over Nisqually River 

Arrival at Visitor Center, Paradise

Hike up to Alta Vista and/or Panorama Point with box lunches

Lunch at Alta Vista or Panorama Point overlooking Nisqually Glacier

Return to Visitor Center

Visitor Center

Drive back to Tacoma Sheraton Hotel

Dinner (own Arrangements)

Travel home from Tacoma. WA for non-local attendees or

Optional two-day post-Workshop Field Trip to Bering, Childs, Sheridan, Portage, and Exit

Glaciers, Southeastern Alaska led by Bruce F. Molnia. The costs of the post-Workshop

Alaska Field Trip will be assumed by the participant. The estimated cost of the

Alaska Field Trip is $1,000 ± $200 depending on the number of participants.

100
Workshop on

Long-Term Monitoring of Fluctuations of Glaciers 

of North America and Northwestern Europe

University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA on 11-13 September 1996

List of Attendees

Scientist

Carl S. Benson 

Geophysical Institute 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320 

Tel: 907-474-7450 

Fax: 907-474-7290 

e-mail: benson@gi.alaska.edu

Robert A. Bindschadler

Code 971 (Oceans and Ice Branch)

NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center

Greenbelt, MD 20771

Tel: 301-286-7611

Fax: 301-286-0240

e-mail: bob@laural.gsfc.nasa.gov

Phil Brease

Denali National Park and Preserve

National Park Service

P.O. Box 9

Denali National Park, AK 99755

Tel: 907-683-9551

Fax: 907-683-9639

e-mail: phil_brease@nps.gov

Michael Demuth

National Hydrology Research Institute

Environment Canada

11 Innovation Blvd.

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5

Canada

Tel: 306-975-5754

Fax: 306-975-5143

e-mail: demuthm@nhrisv. nhrc. sk. doe. ca

Specialty

glaciology, glacier/volcano interaction, 

glacier facies, Alaskan glaciers, Greenland 

ice sheet

glaciology, radar, altimetry, satellite remote 

sensing, Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, 

leader WAIS Project

naturalist/interpreter, glaciers of Denali 

National Park, AK

glaciology, Canadian glaciers, (mass 

balance, fluctuations), radar geophysics,

natural science

101
Julian A. Dowdeswell 

Centre for Glaciology 

Institute of Earth Studies 

University of Wales 

Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3DB 

Wales, U.K.

Tel: 011-44-1970-622782 

Fax: 011-44-1970-622780 

e-mail: jud@aber.ac.uk

Carolyn L. Driedger 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Cascades Volcano Observatory 

5400 Mac Arthur Blvd. 

Vancouver, WA 98661 

Tel: 360-696-7867 

Fax: 360-696-7866 

e-mail: driedger@usgs.gov

John L. Dwyer

U.S. Geological Survey

EROS Data Center

Sioux Falls, SD 57198

Tel: 605-594-6060

Fax: 605-594-6567

e-mail: spectra@edcserverl .cr.usgs.gov

Keith Echelmeyer 

Geophysical Institute 

University of Alaska Fairbanks 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320 

Tel: 907-474-7477 

Fax: 907-474-7290 

e-mail: kechel@gi.alaska.edu

Dan Fagre

U.S. Geological Survey/BRD

Science Center, Glacier National Park

W. Glacier, MT 59926

Tel: 406-888-7993

Fax: 406-888-7990

e-mail: dan_fagre@nbs.gov

glaciology, airborne and satellite remote 

sensing, radio echo-sounding, satellite 

radar interferometry, glaciological 

remote sensing of Svalbard

hydrology, glacier/volcano interaction, 

radio-echosounding, Cascades glaciers, 

glaciers of Mt. Rainier specialist

glaciology, Greenland ice sheet, satellite 

remote sensing

glaciology, airborne remote sensing, airborne 

laser altimetry, ice physics, mass balance

global change, ecosystem modeling, glaciers of 

Glacier National Park, MT, Biological 

Resources Division

102
Jane G. Ferrigno* 

U.S. Geological Survey 

955 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192 

Tel: 703-648-6360 

Fax: 703-648-6524 

e-mail: jferrign@usgs.gov

Andrew G. Fountain 

Dept. of Geology 

Portland State University 

Portland, OR 97207-0751 

Tel: 503-287-3515 

Fax: 503-725-3025 

e-mail: bjaf@odin.cc.pdx.edu 

e-mail: andrew@usgs.gov

James B. Garvin*

NASA

Goddard Space Flight Center

Code 921

Greenbelt, MD 20771

Tel: 301-286-6565

Fax: 301-286-1616

e-mail: garvin@denali. gsfc. nasa. gov

Jon Ove Hagen 

Department of Geography 

University of Oslo 

Box 1042 Blindern 

N-0316 Oslo, Norway 

Tel: 011-47-2285-4038 

Fax: 011-47-2285-7230 

e-mail: j.o.hagen@geografi.uio.no

Dorothy K. Hall*

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center

(Hydrological Sciences Branch)

Code 974

Bldg. 22, Rm. C79B

Greenbelt, MD 20771

Tel: 301-286-6892

Fax: 301-286-1758

e-mail: dhall@glacier. gsfc. nasa. gov

glaciology, co-editor Satellite Image Atlas 

of Glaciers of the World, satellite 

glaciology , satellite remote sensing, global 

perspective, author, Chapter G, Glaciers of 

Iran (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-G) and 

co-author Chapter A, Introduction, and 

Chapter K, Monitoring and Understanding 

Past and Present Changes in the Cryosphere, 

global perspective

glaciology, U.S. glaciers, representative to 

International Commission on Snow and Ice 

and to AGU's Committee on Snow, Ice 

and Permafrost

astrogeophysics, quantitative 

geomorphology, airborne and satellite 

remote sensing altimetry,geophysics, 

Cascade glaciers, Iceland glaciers, Jan 

Mayen glaciers, co-author, Chapter K 

(USGS Prof. Paper 1386-K)

glaciology, Chairman of the International 

Arctic Science Committee's Committee on 

Arctic Glaciology

glaciology, satellite remote sensing of ice 

and snow, imaging sensors, glaciers of 

Alaska, Austria, and Iceland, co-author, 

Chapter K (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-K)

103
StevenM. Hodge 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Resources Division 

Ice and Climate Project 

University of Puget Sound 

Tacoma, WA 98416 

Tel: 253-593-6516 

Fax: 253-383-7967 

e-mail: smhodge@usgs.gov

Janet Hren

U.S. Geological Survey 

Office of the Director 

107 National Center 

Reston, Va 20192 

Tel: 703-648-4480 

Fax: 703-648-5470 

e-mail: jhren@usgs.gov

Edward G. Josberger 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

Ice and Climate Project 

University of Puget Sound 

Tacoma, WA 98416 

Tel: 253-593-6516 

Fax: 253-383-7967 

e-mail: ejosberg@usgs.gov

Hugh H. Kieffer

U.S. Geological Survey

2255 N. Gemini Dr.

Flagstaff, AZ 86001

Tel: 520-556-7015

Fax: 520-556-7014

e-mail: hkieffer@flagmail .wr.usgs.gov

Roy M. Koerner* 

Terrain Sciences Division 

Glaciology Section 

Geological Survey of Canada 

601 Booth Street 

Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE8 

Canada

Tel: 613-996-7623 

Fax: 613-996-5448 

e-mail: koerner@gsc.emr.ca 

koerner@nrcan.gc.ca

glaciology, radio-echosounding, glacierbalance relationship, U.S. glaciers, Greenland Water 

and Antarctic ice sheets

Environment Theme Coordinator for USGS

glaciology, oceanography, classified U.S. data 

sets, climate-glacier fluctuation relationships

astrogeophysics, satellite remote sensing of 

glaciers, Team Member on EOS ASTER

glaciology, Arctic ice caps, glacial 

geology, Canadian glaciers, co-author, 

Chapter J, Glaciers of Canada (USGS Prof. 

Paper 1386-J)

104
Robert M. Krimmel* 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

Ice and Climate Project 

University of Puget Sound 

Tacoma, WA 98416 

Tel: 253-593-6516 

Fax: 253-383-7967 

e-mail: rkrimmel@usgs.gov

Norm Malinas

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan

P.O. Box 134001 (1975 Green Rd., 48105-2554)

Ann Arbor, MI 48113-4001

Tel: 313-994-1200, Ext. 2593

Fax: 313-994-5824

e-mail: malinas@erim.org.

Nelly M. Mognard-Campbell

Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales

(CNES-CESBIO)

c/o U.S. Geological Survey

Ice and Climate Project

University of Puget Sound

Tacoma, WA 98416

Tel: 253-593-6516

Fax: 253-383-7967

e-mail: nmognard@usgs.gov

Bruce F. Molnia* 

U.S. Geological Survey 

917 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192 

Tel: 703-648-4120 

Fax: 703-648-4227 

e-mail: bmolnia@usgs.gov

Bruce H. Raup

U.S. Geological Survey

2255 North Gemini Drive

Flagstaff, AZ 86001

Tel: 520-556-7022

Fax: 520-556-7014

e-mail: braup@flagmail. wr. usgs. go v

glaciology, mass-balance studies of 

conterminous U.S. and Alaskan glaciers, 

annual aerial documentation of glacier 

fluctuation, co-author, Chapter J, Glaciers 

of Alaska (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-J)

remote sensing, SAR applications, classified 

U.S. data sets

sea ice; glaciers; ERS SAR data; 

liaison with CNES (France)

marine geology and geophysics, remote 

sensing, glacial geology, tidewater glaciers, 

Bering Glacier, Alaskan glaciers, coauthor, Chapter J, Glaciers of Alaska 

(USGS Prof. Paper 1386-J)

glaciology, EOS ASTER team for 

global glacier monitoring

105
James Roush

Denali National Park and Preserve

National Park Service

P.O. Box 9

Denali National Park, AK 99755

Tel: 907-683-9514

Fax: 907-683-9639

e-mail: jamie_roush@nps.gov

Greg Scharfen

National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)

University of Colorado

Campus Box 449

(1540 30th Street, Bldg. RL2 - Rm. 201)

Boulder, CO 80309-0449

Tel: 303-492-6197

Fax: 303-492-2468

e-mail: scharfen@kry os. Colorado. edu

James W. Schoonmaker, Jr.

U.S. Geological Survey

521 National Center

Reston, VA 20192

Tel: 703-648-7848

Fax: 703-648-7873

e-mail: jwschoonmaker@usgs.gov

Oddur Sigurdsson*

Orkustofmm

Grensasvegi 9

IS 108 Reykjavik

Island (Iceland)

Tel: 011-354-569-6036

Fax: 011-354-568-8896

e-mail: osig@os.is

Stephan Suter

Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule Zurich

Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau

Hydrologie und Glaziologie 

Gloriastrasse 37/39 

ETH-Zentrum 

CH-8092 Zurich 

Schweiz (Switzerland) 

Tel: 011-41-1-6324123 

Fax: 011-41-1-632-1192 

e-mail: suter@ezvaw7. vmsmail. ethz. ch 

e-mail: stsuter@geo.unizh.ch

glaciological remote sensing, 

Alaskan glaciers

glaciology (glaciers, snow, sea ice, 

permafrost), satellite data, glaciological 

data archive and distribution center, NSIDC 

DAAC

geodetic engineering, field surveys, Antarctic 

ice sheet, Alaska glaciers, classified data sets, 

remote sensing and digital image processing

glaciology, glaciers of Iceland, annual 

fluctuation (termini and mass-balance) 

measurements, co-author, Chapter D, 

Glaciers of Iceland (USGS Prof. Paper 1368-D)

glaciology, World Glacier Monitoring 

Service, glaciological data archive and 

distribution center

106
Dennis C. Trabant 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Glaciology Project Office 

800 Yukon Drive 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-5170 

Tel: 907-479-5645 

Fax: 907-456-0356 

e-mail: dtrabant@usgs.gov

Anker Weidick*

GEUS

Danmarks og Gr0nlands Geologiske

Unders0gelse

Thoravej 8

DK-2400 K0benhavn NV

Danmark (Denmark)

Tel: 011-45-31-106600 (will be changed)

Fax: 011-45-31-196868

e-mail: none

Richard S. Williams, Jr.*

U.S. Geological Survey

Woods Hole Field Center

Quissett Campus, 384 Woods Hole Rd.

Woods Hole, MA 02543-1598

Tel: 508-457-2347

Fax: 508-457-2310

e-mail: rswilliams@usgs.gov

glaciology, glaciers of Alaska, massbalance measurements

glaciology, glacial and Quaternary geology, 

Greenland ice sheet, author, Chapter C, 

Greenland (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-C)

glaciology, co-editor, Satellite Image Atlas 

of the World, satellite glaciology, satellite 

remote sensing, co-author, Chapter D, Glaciers 

of Iceland (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-D), 

Chapter A, Introduction, and Chapter K, 

Monitoring and Understanding Past and 

Present Changes in the Cryosphere), global 

perspective

*Author, Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1386 A-K

107
Workshop on

Long-Term Monitoring of Fluctuations of Glaciers 

of North America and Northwestern Europe

University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA on 11-13 September 1996 

List of Invitees Who Were Unable to Attend

Scientist

Stanley G. Coloff 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Biological Resources Division 

301 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192 

Tel: 703-648-4083 

Fax: 703-648-4238 

e-mail: stan_coloff@usgs.gov

Wilfried Haeberli* 

Geographisches Institut 

Universitat Zurich-Irchel 

Winterthurerstrasse 190 

CH-8057 Zurich 

Schweiz (Switzerland) 

Tel: 011-41-1-635-5120 

Fax: 011-41-1-635-6848 

e-mail: haeberli@geo.unizh.ch

David A. Kirtland 

U.S. Geological Survey 

519 National Center 

Reston, VA 20192 

Tel: 703-648-4712 

Fax: 703-648-5542 

e-mail: dakirtland@usgs.gov

Harry F. Lins 

U.S. Geological Survey 

415 National Center 

Reston, Va 20192 

Tel: 703-648-5712 

Fax: 703-648-5295 

e-mail: hlins@usgs.gov

Speciality

ecology, population dynamics, global 

change coordinator for Biological 

Resources Division (vice NBS)

glaciology, Director, World Glacier 

Monitoring Service, glacier hazards in 

Switzerland, Italy, Argentina, global 

perspective, co-author, Chapter K 

(USGS Prof. Paper 1386-K)

geography, global environmental change, 

operations research, global change program 

coordinator for NMD

hydroclimatology, global change program 

coordinator for WRD

108
Mark F. Meier*

Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research

University of Colorado

Campus Box 450

Boulder, CO 80309-0450

Tel: 303-492-6556

Fax: 303-492-6388

e-mail: Mark.Meier@Colorado.EDU

Gordon L. Nelson 

U.S. Geological Survey 

Water Resources Division 

4230 University Drive, Suite 201 

Anchorage, AK 99508-4664 

Tel: 907-786-7711 

Fax: 907-786-7150 

e-mail: glnelson@usgs.gov

C. Simon L. Ommanney*

Secretary General

International Glaciological Society

Lensfield Road

Cambridge CB2 1ER

England, UK

Tel: 011-44-1223-355974

Fax: 011-44-1223-336543

e-mail: Int_Glaciol_Soc@compuserve. com

Richard Z. Poore

U.S. Geological Survey

906 National Center

Reston, VA 20192

Tel: 703-648-5270

Fax: 703-648-6647

e-mail: rpoore@geochange. er .usgs. gov

glaciology, glaciers and sea level, glaciers 

and climate, global perspective, co-author 

Chapter K (USGS Prof. Paper 1386-K)

glaciology, Alaskan glaciers, WRD District 

Chief for Alaska

glaciology, geography, glaciers of Canada 

co-author, Chapter J, Glaciers of Canada 

(USGS Prof. Paper 1836-J)

paleoclimatology, paleoenvironmental 

change, global change program coordinator 

forGD

* Author, Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 

1836 A-K.

109
Selected Background Reading

for

Workshop on Long-Term Monitoring of Fluctuations of Glaciers 

of North America and Northwestern Europe

Anonymous, 1994, Glacier-Climate Relationships Workshop: University of Washington, Seattle,

WA (17-18 May 1994), 4 p. (Xerox report of workshop). 

Fountain, A., Trabant, D., Brugman, M.M., Ommanney, C.S.L., and Monroe, D.S., 1991,

Glacier mass-balance standards: EOS (Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 72, no.

46, p. 511 and p. 514. 

Fountain, A.G., Krimmel, R.M., and Trabant, D.C., 1997, A strategy for monitoring glaciers:

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1132. 

Haeberli, W., 1995, Glacier fluctuations and climate change detection - operational elements of a

worldwide monitoring strategy: World Meteorological Organization Bulletin, v. 44, no. 1, p.

23-31. 

Haeberli, W., ed., in press, Into the 2nd century of world glacier monitoring: Prospects and

strategies: UNESCO International Hydrological Programme Series. 

Haeberli, W., and Hoelzle, M., 1995, Application of inventory data for estimating characteristcs

of and regional climate-change effects on mountain glaciers: a pilot study with the European

Alps: Annals of Glaciology, v. 21, p. 206-212. 

Kargel, J.S., 1996, Global land ice monitoring with satellites (GLIMS): NSIDC Notes, Issue No.

16 (Winter 1996), p. 2-3. 

Molnia, B.F. and Post, A., 1995, Holocene history of Bering Glacier, Alaska; A prelude to the

1993-1994 surge: Physical Geography, v. 16, p. 87-117. 

Oerlemans, J., and Fortuin, J.P.F., 1992, Sensitivity of glaciers and small ice caps to greenhouse

warming: Science, v. 258, no. 5079, p. 115-117. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., Workshop Coordinator, 1995, Final report of the Polar Research Program

Strategies Workshop: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-247, 71 p. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., and Hall, D.K., in press, Use of remote sensing techniques; in Haeberli, W.,

ed., Into the 2nd century of world glacier monitoring: Prospects and strategies: UNESCO

International Hydrological Programme Series. 

Williams, R.S., Jr., Hall, D.K., Sigurdsson, Oddur, and Chien, J.Y.L., 1997, Comparison of

satellite-derived with ground-based measurements of the fluctuations of the margins of

Vatnajokull, Iceland: 1973-1992: Annals of Glaciology, v. 24, p. 72-80.

110
Selected [Post-Workshop] Reading

Dowdeswell, J.A., 1995, Glaciers in the High Arctic and recent environmental change: 

Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London, A, v. 352, p. 321-334.

Dowdeswell, J.A., Hagen, J.O., Bjornsson, Helgi, Glazovsky, A.F., Harrison, W.D., Homlund, 

Per, Jania, Jacek, Koerner, R.M., Lefauconnier, Bernard, Ommanney, C.S.L., and Thomas, 

R.H., 1997, The mass balance of circum-Arctic glaciers and recent climate change: Quaternary 

Research, v. 48, no. 1, p. 1-14.

Dyurgerov, M.B., and Meier, M.F., 1997, Mass balance of mountain and subpolar glaciers: A 

new global assessment for 1961-1990: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 29, no. 4, p. 379-391.

Dyurgerov, M.B., and Meier, M.F., 1997, Year-to-year fluctuations of global mass balance of 

small glaciers and their contribution to sea-level changes: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 29, 

no. 4, p. 392-402.

Hodge, S.M., Trabant, D.C., Krimmel, R.M., Heinrichs, T.A., March, R.S., and Josberger, 

E.G., in press, Climate variations and changes hi mass of three glaciers in western North 

America: Journal of Climate.

Key, C.H., Fagare, D.B., and Menicke, R.K., , Glacier recession in Glacier National Park, 

Montana; section in Krimmel, R.M., Glaciers of the Western United States: in Williams, R.S., 

Jr., and Ferrigno, J.G., editors, Satellite image atlas of glaciers of the world, U.S. Geological 

Survey Professional Paper 1386-J (Glaciers of North America, in preparation).

Padovani, E.R., 1997, Glacier recession as an indicator of regional climate change: The glaciers 

of Glacier National Park and North America: Briefing paper (29 August 1997) prepared for 

Vice President Al Gore prior to his 2 September 1997 field trip to and address at Glacier 

National Park, Montana; Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the 

President, 8 p. (with 3 attachments).

Snyder, E.F., 1996, Bibliography of glacier studies by the U.S. Geological Survey: U.S. 

Geological Survey Open-File Report 95-723, 35 p.

Winter, T., Cayan, D., Dozier, J., Raymond, C., Smith, J., and Winograd, I., 1997,

Hydrological issues related to snow and ice and the need for research and basic data on snow 

and ice in the Water Resources Division, USGS: Report prepared by Thomas C. Winter et al. 

and submitted to T. John Conomos, Regional Hydrologist (Western Region), Water Resources 

Division, on 2 April 1997, in response to a letter from T.J. Conomos on 20 March 1996 that 

established the "review committee," 8 p.

Ill
Importance of Revitalization of the USGS Glaciology Program

by 

Robert A. Bindschadler, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center

Glaciology is directly related to at least three major national responsibilities of the USGS:

 Assessing the "frozen water" component of the nation's natural resources,

 Evaluating the hazards associated with glaciers, and

 Contributing to the U.S. Global Change Research Program.

It remains to be determined how much permanent ice exists within the US, but there are many 

hydrologic basins of the United States that contain significant amounts of glacier ice. If inadequate 

water-resource management is continued, the future of glaciers will have an increasingly important 

impact on the viability of these watershed areas and the people living in them. An assessment of the 

glacier-ice volumes in these areas is needed, along with predictions of how future climate conditions 

might affect their continuing capability to contribute to the water supply and for how long.

Quite separate from the issue of water-resource management, glacier ice presents a variety of hazards 

to citizens of this country. High on the list are glacier-dammed lakes that can produce sudden 

outburst floods (jokulhlaups) (such as Russell "Lake", that formed briefly by the damming of Russell 

Fiord by Hubbard Glacier); rapidly retreating tidewater glaciers that produce large volumes of 

icebergs, potentially endangering shipping traffic (such as occurred at Columbia Glacier); outbursts of 

englacially stored water generated by subglacier geothermal activity and/or meltwater (believed 

responsible for the deadly "lahars" which have occurred repeatedly in Mt. Rainier National Park); and 

jokulhlaups produced by subglacier volcanic activity in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. These 

effects require knowledge of glacier dynamics to undertake and interpret field-, airborne-, and 

satellite- measurement programs that can determine the risks of these hazards to the U.S.

Finally, the extended time series of mass balances on "benchmark" glaciers (South Cascade, Gulkana, 

Wolverine) has enormous value in recording long-term changes in mountain climates. Continuation of 

this unique data set must remain in the Survey's mission, but to increase the value and relevance of the 

data set, it must be put in a regional and global context. The value of these records could be further 

enhanced by extending this climate/glacier-behavior data set by better utilization of past maps, USGS 

and other photographic archives, and past, present, and future remotely sensed data from aircraft and 

satellites.

Implementation Plan

The USGS presently has most of the tools and personnel to achieve major progress on meeting all of 

these objectives. What is lacking since the retirement of Mark F. Meier in 1985 and the death of 

William J. Campbell in 1992, is a dynamic glaciologist with the vision, expertise, and managerial 

skills to execute a Bureau Program and to ensure that the products from the program are relevant to 

the USGS mission, the national interest, and the international scientific community. Traditional

112
techniques have served the USGS's glaciology program well over years, but new remote sensing and 

GIS-based techniques can realize increased cost-effectiveness and scientific productivity. Satellite 

remote sensing will give the benchmark glacier data a much-needed regional context. GIS-based 

analysis will make past, present, and future data sets immediately comparable. It will also make the 

glacier data more accessible and useful to all Divisions of the USGS, to other bureaus in the U.S. 

Department of the Interior (e.g., Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, etc.) to other 

government agencies, and to collaborating colleagues in USGS counterpart agencies in other nations 

involved in glacier studies and monitoring.

This program should not stand in isolation. Strengthening of collaborations with glaciologists at the 

USGS's Cascade Volcano Observatory, the University of Washington, and other institutions in North 

America and Northwestern Europe, should continue. Image-analysis expertise in the Geologic 

Division, photographic/mapping expertise in the National Mapping Division, and field monitoring of 

glaciers in National Parks by the Water Resources Division and the Biological Resources Division 

offer the possibility of conducting a strong USGS glaciology program across the four science 

divisions. Equally important are associations with other nation's glacier-monitoring programs, 

especially USGS counterpart governmental agencies.

There is a rare opportunity to revitalize the USGS's program in glaciology into one that embraces 

national responsibilities that are part of USGS's mission, utilizes state-of-the-art techniques, and 

coordinates the broad talents of a group of very capable persons to achieve a meaningful bureau 

program of glacier research. The Water Resources Division, for example, has some of the best 

glacier surveyors in the world and a staff of professional glaciologists with proven track records. The 

USGS should be proud of their accomplishments. An internationally recognized glaciologist, at the 

forefront of developing remote sensing applications, capable of managing and sustaining a productive 

research team in a challenging funding environment, with extensive national and international 

contacts, is needed to reestablish the USGS as the lead Federal agency in glacier studies and to forge a 

strong cooperative scientific program with other institutions (U.S., Canada, and other foreign nations) 

that will serve the nation well as it enters the 21st century.

113
Appendix 7

REVIEW OF PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 

EARTH OBSERVING PLATFORMS*

USGS Biological Resources Division

*Excerpted from copies of viewgraphs prepared by the USGS Biological Resources Division, Office 

of Biological Information and Outreach (OBIO), Earth Observation Platforms, "An Overview," 2 

April 1997, 17 p.

114
CURRENT DATA SOURCES AND 

RESOLUTION

SENSOR

Satellite, Optical:

Satellite, Radar:

Airborne: 

Geophysical:

SOURCE

JERS-1 

IRS-1

LANDSAT TM 

LANDSAT MSS 

SPOT PAN 

SPOT MSS

ERS-1

JERS-1

RADARSAT

Air/Ortho Photo

Gravity 

Magnetics 

Radiometrics 

Seismic

PIXEL

RESOLUTION

(in meters for satellite imagery)

24

36

30

80

10

20

30

18

varies

varies

varies 

varies 

varies 

varies

SPATIAL RESOLUTION (PIXEL)

Low

Medium

High

> 30 meter

6 meter- 30 meter

1 meter- 5 meter

115
SATELLITE ORBITS

Three types of orbits for earth observing systems: 

Polar Orbit 

Geostationary Orbit 

Shuttle Orbit

Polar Orbit - satellite tracks near the North and South poles at an altitude above the 

earth at 500 to 1000 km. Polar orbits provides for coverage over most of the earth's 

surface.

Repeat Cycle - is expressed in days and represents the time taken for the satellite to 

return to the same position over the earth's surface. LANDS AT 5 has a repeat cycle of 

16 days.

Sun-synchronus - the satellite passes over an area at approximately the same local sun 

time as the satellite passes over the equator.

Period - time taken to complete one orbit around the earth.

Inclination - the angle which the satellite orbit makes with the equator is defined as its 

inclination. A polar orbit would have an inclination of 90 degrees. Landsat 5 has an 

orbital inclination of 98.2 degrees. It is measured on the North and South (or 

descending) part of the orbit.

Coverage - represents the areas of the earth which are observed after one repeat cycle. 

For polar orbits this is usually given as maximum latitudes North and South.

Geostationary Orbits - the satellite possessed an orbital speed matching the rotation rate 

of the earth. At an altitude of 35,900 km. Coverage of the earth is limited to one 

specific hemisphere.

116
LU

LU

S

INTERMEDIATE RESOLUTION LAND IMAGING SAT

THE FIRST QUARTER CENTURY

1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 

Landsat 1

Landsat 2

Landsal 3

Landsal 4

Landsal 5

Spol 1

IRS-1A

Spot 2

IRS-1B

JERS-1

Spot 3

IRS-P2

IRS-1C

Aimaz 1

ERS-1

JERS-1

ERS-2

RADARSAT

OPTICAL

RADAR
INTERMEDIATE RESOLUTION LAND IMAGING SATELLITES

THE NEXT TEN YEARS

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

Landsat 5

Spot 2. 3

IRS-1B, P2

IRS-1C, 10

MOMS

AOEOS-1

C8EHS1.2

SPOT 4

IRS-P5

.Landsat 7

Resource-21

1RS-2A£B

SPOT5A.5B

EOSAM-2

SPIN-2

EarthWatchEB-1,2

Spaceimaging 1,2

iarthWatch QB-1^

Orb!mage1,2

GOE1.2

RS-CARTOSAT1.2

Clark

Lewis

EOSAM-1

EO-1

-V*

Warfighter 1

2005

LANDSAT UKE

(failed on 30 June 1997)

EXPERIMENTAL

(failed to

RADAR

118
LAND IMAGING SATELLITES PLANNED TO BE OPERATING IN T

COUNTRY SAT PROGRAM 

OWNER

INSTRUMENT(S) LAUNCH SENSOR 

TYPES

RESOLUTION IN METERS

PAN

THEMATIC MAPPER BANDS

VNIR

1234

SWIR

6 7

FREQUENT GLOBAL COVERAGE, UNDSAT UK! CLASSIFICATION CAPABIUTY

INDIA Gov. IRS-1 C.D

JAPAN Gov. ADEOS

CHINA-BRAZIL Gov. CEBRS

FRANCS Gov. Spol 4

INDIA Gov. IRS-P5

U S Gov. Landsat 7

U S. {com~j Resource 21

INDIA Gov. . IRS-2A

LISS-3,PAN,(V'FS)

AVNIR

CCO.IRMSS

HRVIR, (VEGETATION)

LISS 4, L1SS-3'

XXX

LISS 4', LISS-31 , (WIFS)

HIGH RESOLUTION, SMALL AREA COVERAGE (PAN & VNIR ONLY)

RUSSIA

US

US

us 

us

RUSSIA 

US.

INDIA

Gov. SPIN-2 KVR-1000, TK-350

Com. EarthWatch EartyBIrd

Com. Spacelmaglng StS

Com. EarthWatch QuIckBIrd

Com Orblmage

Gov. Almaz 18

ICom. IGCE

Gov. IRS-P6

Orb View

1 SLR, 3 SARs, 4 SCANNERS'

XXX

PAN

MULTISPECTRAL, HYPERSPECTRAL APPUCATION TESTS

US. Gov. TRW Lewis H3

US/JAPAN Gov. EOSAM-1 ASTER. (MODIS),(

US Gov. EO-1 XXX ': 

US Gov. Warllghter 1 XXX

SAR

ASAR

1 SLR, 3 SARs. 4 SCANNERS*

RADAR

CANADA

ESA

RUSSIA

Mulilspectral

Hyperspectral

Panchromatic

Rada;

Film

n

VTJIR

SWIR

TIP

Gov. Radarsat

Gov. Poem

Gov. Almaz 18

M

H

P

R

(1)

Inlrarad

Visible end near IR

Short wave IR

ThenmallR

'95 M&P

'96 MiP

'97 MSP

'97 MiP'

'08 M

'98 M&P

'99 M

'00 M

'96 P(l)

'96 MSP

 97 MSP

'98 M&P

'98 MSP

'98 M&P&H

'99 P

 99 P

 96 HIP

'96 M

'99 M&H

'99 MorH

'95 R

'98 R

'98 M&P&R

8

6

20, 80

10

15

23 23 23

18 16 16 16

20 20 20 20

20 20 20

<10 <10 <10

30 30 30 30

10 10 10 10

555

70

80 80

20

70

30 30

20

70

2,10

3

1

1

1&2

2.6

1

2.5

15 15 15

4 4.4 4

4444

6866

4,10 4,10 4,10 

6 128 bands O 30

15 15 15

128 bands O 30

256 bands O 3

6 bands O 30

250 bands O 3

Minimum of 60 bands Irom 0.4 to 5 \an O 

2.5 4,10 4,10 4,10

All satellites In polar tun synchronous orbits except SPIN-2 (65 Deg), ALMAZ IB (73 Deg), QuIckBIrd 

F/A - fore/an stereo, C/T side to side stereo. AB stereo satellites; have 2 to 3 day site repeat cap

(XXX) - Wide swath, tower resolution hsl used lor near daffy, large area vegetation mopping

 . Swath Is achieved by two elde by side Instruments

 - 4 satellites are planned to provide 3.5 to 4 day global repeal coverage.

 ". SLR-3,SAR-3,SAR.101 SAR-70.0E3,MSU-E,(MSU-SK.8ROSM)
CURRENT, PLANNED AND PROPOSED LAND OBSERVATION

SATELLITES

COUNTRY SAT 

OWNER

PROGRAM INSTRUMENTS)

FREQUENT GLOBAL COVERAGE, MULTISPECTRAL CLASSIRCATiON FOCUS

US.

INDIA

FRANCE

INDIA

INDIA

GERMAN?

JAPAN

INDIA

CHNA-BRAZ3L

FRANCE

INDIA

UJSL

UJSL j

INDIA

It lANUtl

INDIA

FRANCE

UJSL

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

I Com.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

LandsatS

IRS-1B

Spot3

P2

IRS-1C

PPJROOA

ADEOS

IRS-1D

CEERS

Spot 4

FtS-PS

Landsat?

1 Resource 21

1RS-2A

SpOtSA

WS-2B

Spot SB

EOSAM-2

TM

USS-2, (USS-t)

HRV

USS-2

USS-3.PAN,(WIFS)

MOMS-02

AVMR

USS-3.PAN,(WIFS)

GCD.RMSS

HRVW.(VBGnATION)

USS4.USS-3-

EIMf

xa

USS^.USS-y.CrVIFS)

HRQ.(VEGnATON)

USS4.LtS&3>.(WIFS)

HRQ.(yEGnATON)

LATI (MOOtS)

'85

'91

 93

 94

"95

 96

 96

 97

 97

 -97

 98

 98

 99

 oo

 02

 04

 04

 04

M

M

MSP

M

MSP

MSP

MSP

MSP

MSP

MSP

M

M&P

M

M

MSP

M

MSP

MSP

HIGH RESOLUTION, SHALL AREA COVERAGE (PAN &VMR ONLY)

RUSSIA

UJSL

UJSL

UJS.

UJSL

UJS.

INDIA

Gov.

Com.

Com.

Com.

Com

Com.

Gov.

SPIN-2

EaithWatcti

SpaceJrnaojnQ

EaittiWatcti

Ofbbnsge

GCE

RSP6

WfiES, UULnSI'EdFIAL, mFtKS»*tU

UJSL Gov. CTAOaik

UJSL

U.SJJAPAN

us

us

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov..

TRW Lewis

EOSAM-1

EO-1

Warflgtrter 1

KVR-1000. TK-350

EwtyBlfd

SS '

QufcfcBird

OrbVtew

»oc

PAN

1 HAL APPUCAT1ON TESTS

H9

ASTER. (MODIS)

»OC

xa

 98

 98

 97

 98

 98

 98

 99

 97

 97

 98

 99

 99

P(0

MSP

MSP

- MSP

MSP

P

P

MSP

HSP

M

MSH

MorH

RADAR AND RADAR PLUS OPTICAL

RUSSIA

ESA,

JAPAN

ujs.-GER.-rr.

ESA

CANADA

ESA

RUSSIA

RUSSIA

JAPAN

RUSSIA

JAPAN

INDIA

JAPAN

JAPAN

JAPAN

Multtspectral

Hypers pectral

Panchromatic

Radar

Film

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.*

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

Gov.

M

H

P

R

(f)

Almazl

ERS-1

JERS-1

SAR

SAR

OPS, SAR

Shuttle Radar snc/X-SAR

ERS-2

Radaisat

Poem

AlmazlB

AlmazlC

ALOS

Almaz2

ALOS-A1

IRS-3

ALOS-B1

ALOS-A2

ALOS-B2

SAR

SAR

ASAR

1 SLR. 3 SARs. 4 SCANNERS*

1 SLR. 3 SARS. 4 SCANNERS*

AVNIR-2.VSAR

1 SLR. 3 SARs. 4 SCANNERS*

AVNIR-3.VSAR

MULTJ FREQ POL SAR

A-SAR

AVNIR-4. VSAR

A-SAR

 91

 91

 92

 94

 94

 95

 98

 98

 01

 02

 04

 04

 04

 06

 07

'09

R

R

MSR

R

R

R-.

R

MSP&R

MSP&R

MSP&R

M&P&R

M&P&R

R

R

M&P&R

n

' = SLR-3. SAR-3. SAR- 10, SAR-70

OES. MSU- . (MSU-SK. SROSM)

(XXX) = Wide field of view, lower res. sensors

120
SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR 

APPLICATIONS

SAR Provides High-Resolution Imagery, Independent of Cloud Cover, Sensitive to 

Survace Roughness, Structure, and Dielectric Constant.

Flooding

Vegetation growth and leaf-shedding

Environmental damage to vegetation

Slash and burn agriculture

Logging

Change of surface moisture content

Change of vegetation moisture content

Rain and snow storms

Freezing and thawing changes

Erosion

Earthquakes

Surface motion (glaciers)

Land subsidence

Swelling in volcanically active regions

121
FUTURE CAPABILITIES

- Additional Revisit Cycles

-Stereo Imaging

-Programmable Sensors

-On-board Data Storage

-Improved Communications

122
FUTURE SENSOR AVAILABAILITY

Spot 3-4 

IRS-P2,1B

ERS-1,2

Priroda-mom2

Lewis

Clark

Early Bird

CRSS

ASTROVISION

EXEGLASS

SEASTAR

ADEOS

RADARSAT

123
CRITICAL ISSUES

-Coverage frequency and timeliness

-Spatial resolution

-Sensor calibration 

-Atmospheric Correction

124
Appendix S

Available data from the WGMS

The international data basis contains two different kinds of information about glaciers of the 

20th century:

- glacier inventory data describing the spatial variability

- glacier fluctuation data documenting changes in time

Written publications

Inventory Data: World glacier inventory - status 1988

Fluctuations Data: Fluctuations of Glaciers 1959-1965 (Vol. I) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1965-1970 (Vol. II) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1970-1975 (Vol. HI) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1975-1980 (Vol. IV) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1980-1985 (Vol. V) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1985-1990 (Vol. VI) 

Fluctuations of Glaciers 1990-1995 (Vol. VII)*

Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 1 (1988-1989) 

Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 2 (1990-1991) 

Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 3 (1992-1993) 

Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 4 (1994-1995)

* to be published by the end of 1997

Digital data

Data quality

The WGMS cannot guarantee for the correctness of the inventory and fluctuation data. The 

accuracy of the data is the responsibility of the data collectors in the individual countries. All 

data are subject to plausibility checks while loading them into the database (Haeberli and 

Hoelzle 1995, Hoelzle and Trindler, 1997). There are some exceptions which are marked with 

'unchecked1 .

WORLD GLACIER INVENTORY (WGI)

Structure of the database

The WGI database contains glacier data describing the spatial variability of the worlds ice 

masses (IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO 1989). This database presently consists of three tables 

(see Fig. 1). The WGIjGla table contains static information about the glaciers like location 

(latitude and longitude) and names. A second table WGI_Var stores variable information 

about the glaciers such as, for example, glacier length, area and the photo-, map- or satellite 

image year. The third table WGI_Edi contains information about the investigators of the 

different countries. Appendix Al gives a detailed list of all items available within the World 

Glacier Inventory database.

125
-2-

WGI_Edi

PK: country_code

WGI_Gla

PK: political_unit. river_basin 

FK: political_unit

WGI_Var

PK: political_unit. river_basin. year 

FK: political_unit. river_basm

Fig. 1 Database scheme for the World Glacier Inventory data. PK means primary key and FK 

means foreign key.

Data extent

The following table gives an overview on the countries and mountain ranges from which 

detailed inventory data exist, the number of loaded glaciers and data quality.

TABLE 3.1 Countries and mountain ranges / regions from which detailed inventory data exist, 

the number of loaded glaciers and data quality. 'Y' means that data exist but have 

not yet been entered into the database; 'complete' that the whole country is covered.

Country (Denotation of political state) 

and Mountain Ranees / Regions

Number of loaded 

Glaciers

Data Quality / Remarks

Afghanistan (AF)

 Panjshir

 Safed Khirs

Argentina (RA)

 Prov. of Rio Negro (Rio Manso)

 Prov. of Mendoza

 Prov. of Neuquen

South Pataeonia (Are. part) 47.5°S - 51.0°S

2,706

Bolivia (RB)

 Cordillera Oriental

1.696

unchecked

Austria (A) 

complete

Bhutan (BH)

complete

925

Y

checked

checked

Canada (CD)

 Vancouver Island

 Stikine River

 Yukon Territory

 Southeast Ellesmere Island

 Axel Heiberc Island

14,964 unchecked

Chile (RC)

 Prov. of Santiago and O'Higgins

 North Patacoman Icefield fRio Baker)

1.294 unchecked

China (CN)

 Altai Shan

 Qilian Shan

 Tian Shan

12.183 unchecked; 

survey year partly missing

CIS <SU) 

complete

20.908 unchecked: 

survey vear missing

126
-3-

Colombia (CO)

 Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta

Ecuador (EC) 

complete

France (F)

complete

Germany (D)

complete

Greenland (GL) 

 West Greenland. 63° - 64°N

Iceland (IS) 

announced

India (IN) 

 Baspa River

Indonesia (RI) 

complete

Y

113

1,130

5

45

Y

Y

Y

unchecked

checked

checked

checked

Iran (IR)

Italy (I)

complete

Japan (J) 

complete

Kenya (KN) 

complete

Mexico (MX) 

complete

1,376

Y

Y

Y

checked

Mongolia (MG)

Nepal (NP) 

 Ganees river drainage basin

New Zealand (NZ) 

complete

Norway (N)

complete

Pakistan (PK) 

 Nanga Parbat 

 Chitral

130

3,153

2,998

69 

Y

checked

checked

checked

checked

Peru (PE)

 Northern Cordilleras (Blanca. Huailanca,

Huayhuash, Raura. La Viuda, Huagaruncho, Central, 

Huaytaballanu. Chonta)

1,679 checked

Spain (E)

complete

31 checked

Sweden (S) 

complete

303 checked

Switzerland (CH) 

complete_____

1,828 checked

Tanzania (TZ) 

complete

Turkey (TR)

Uganda (UG) 

complete

United States (US)

 Sierra Nevada

 Front Range

 Olympic Mountains

 North Cascade Range

 Brooks Ranee. Alaska

2,519 unchecked

Venezuela (VZ)

complete

Total 70,055

127
-4-

FLUCTUATIONS OF GLACIERS (FOG)

Structure of the database

The FoG database presently consists of seven tables (see Fig. 2). The data model follows a 

thematic grouping of the data in order to get a better overview.

The table Glacier contains the basic data of each glacier such as, for example, name and 

location (latitude and longitude). These data seldom change over time. Further on, the main 

differentiation is made by yearly and altitudinal changes. For example, the table 

Mass_Balance_Overview contains yearly variable mass balance information such as values 

for the accumulation and ablation area or the equilibrium line altitude (ELA). Mass balance 

data itself can be related to the whole glacier but also to specific altitudinal ranges. Therefore, 

a new table MassJBalance was created storing data which depend on time and on altitude. 

The same idea is behind the other two tables Glacier_State and GlacierJSection. The table 

Glacier_State contains yearly information such as, for example, length variation (qualitative 

and quantitative) or highest, median and lowest elevation. In the table GlacierJSection, 

altitudinal information such as changes in volume, area and thickness is stored additionally. 

The table Territory contains information about country names and codes, the table 

SpecJEvents on Special Events like glacier surges, calving instabilities, glacier floods, debris 

flows, mudflows, large ice avalanches and tectonic impacts (earthquake, volcanic eruption). 

In Appendix A2 each item and its meaning are given in tabular form.

Territory 

Pfccode

Glacier

PK: intemal_key 

FK: political_unit

Glacier State

PK; glacier.year 

FK: glacier

Spec Events

PK: glacier, year 

FK: glacier

Mass Balance Overview

PK: glacier, year 

FK: glacier

Glacier Section

PK: glacier, year. lower_bound 

FK: glacier, year

Mass Balance

PK: glacier, year, lower_bound 

FK: glacier, year

Fig. 2 Database scheme for the Fluctuations of Glaciers data. PK: means primary key and FK: 

means foreign key.

Data extent

Table 2 gives an overview on the countries from which fluctuation data exist and the number 

of glaciers with corresponding data. An additional column shows the number of glaciers for 

each country which entered the last edition of the Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin (MBB 4). 

This series resumes high quality up-to-date mass balance data. At the present state the 

database of the FoG contains data from the last four volumes of the IAHS publication series 

Fluctuations of Glaciers (IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO 1977, 1985, IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO

128
-5-

1988, 1993a, in preparation). The data are stored according to general information on the 

observed glaciers, variations in front position (glacier length changes), mass balance, mass 

balance versus altitude, changes in volume, area and thickness. In addition, all mass balance 

data from the Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin are available in the same database 

(IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO 1991, 1993b, 1994, 1996).

TABLE 2 Countries and count of glaciers within the Fluctuations of Glaciers (FoG) database 

and within the Glacier Mass Balance Bulletin No. 4 (MBB 4).

Country FoG

(count of glaciers

with data within the

database)

MBB 4

(count of glaciers

with data in the

publication)

Antarctica

Argentina

Australia

Austria

Bolivia

Canada

Chile

China

Colombia

France

Germany

Greenland

CIS

Iceland

India

Indonesia

Italy

Japan

Kenya

Mexico

Nepal

New Zealand

Norway

Pakistan

Peru

Poland

Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Uganda

United Kingdom

United States

Venezuela

Total

39

10

16

142

2

107

36

38

20

11

5

15

177

62

5

6

276

2

13

2

14

83

52

37

10

4

33

21

118

1

33

197

1

1,555

8

2

4

1

2

9

7

2

1

14

1

4

2

3

60

129
-6-

References

HAEBERLI, W. AND HOELZLE, M. (1995): Application of inventory data for estimating

characteristics of and regional climate change effects on mountain glaciers - a pilot

study with the European Alps. Annals of Glaciology 21, p. 206-212. 

HOELZLE, M. AND TRINDLER, M. (in press): Data management and application. In: Into the

Second Century of World Glacier Monitoring - Prospects and Strategies (Haeberli,

W., Hoelzle, M. and Suter, S.; eds.). UNESCO publishing, Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1988): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1980-1985 (Haeberli, W. and

Miiller, P.; eds.), Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1989): World glacier inventory - status 1988 (Haeberli, W.,

Bosch, H., Scherler, K, 0strem, G. and Walten, C. C; eds.). Nairobi. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1991): Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 1 (Haeberli, W. and

Herren, E.; eds.). World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO(1993a): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1985-1990 (Haeberli, W. and

Hoelzle, M.; eds.), Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1993b): Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 2 (Haeberli, W.,

Herren, E. and Hoelzle, M.; eds.). World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1994): Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 3 (Haeberli, W.,

Hoelzle, M. and Bosch, H.; eds.). World Glacier Monitoring Service, ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (1996): Glacier mass balance bulletin no. 4 (Haeberli, W.,

Hoelzle, M. and Suter, S.; eds.). World Glacier Monitoring Service, University of

Zurich and ETH Zurich. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNEP/UNESCO (in preparation): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1990-1995 (Haeberli,

W., Hoelzle, M., Suter, S. and Frauenfelder, R.; eds.). World Glacier Monitoring

Service, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich.

IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO(1967): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1959-1965(Kasser,P.; ed.), Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO(1973): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1965-1970 (Kasser, P.; ed.), Paris. 

IAHS(ICSI)/UNESCO(1977): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1970-1975 (Muller, F.; edXParis. 

IAHSaCSI)/UNESCO (1985): Fluctuations of Glaciers 1975-1980 (Haeberli, W.;edX Paris.

130
-7-

Al The table and item list for the World Glacier Inventory (WGI) 

database

TABLEAU WGI Edi

CtrjDode

EdLYear

EdLName

EdLAdr

TABLE A 1.2

PoliticaLUnit

River_Basin

Free_Position

LocaLCode

Vaw _Add_Code

Name

Card_Point_Lat

Degrees_Lat

Minutes_Lat

Card_Point_Lon

Degrees_Lon

Minutes_Lon

Coordinates

Nr_States

OfficiaLRem

InternaLRem

Ructu_Key

Varchar2(2)

Number(4)

Varchar2(20)

Varchar2(30)

WGI.Gla

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(5)

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(3)

Number(3)

Varchar2(16)

Varchar2(1)

Number(2)

Number(4,2)

Varchar2(1)

Number(3)

Number(4,2)

Varchar2(15)

Number(1)

Varchar2(255)

Varchar2(255)

Number(5)

Not Null/PK Country Code

Year of the Edition

Editor names

Editor addresses

Not Null/PK Political Unit part of the WGI-number 

(Position 1 and 2)

Not Null/PK Code for the determination of the 

hydrological catchment areas (Position 3 

designates the continent, positions 4 to 7 

are for the drainage code)

Free ly chosen number (Position 8 and 9)

Local Code helps to make the WGInumber clear (Positions 10 to 12)

Not Null/PK Additional Code to clear double WGInumbers

Name

Cardinal point (N or S)

Latitude in degrees

Latitude in minutes and seconds

Cardinal point (E or W)

Longitude in degrees

Longitude in minutes and seconds

Coordinates

Number of independant states

Official remarks

Internal remarks

Reference Key to the FoG

131
-8-

TABLEA1.3 WGI__Var

Political_Unit

River_Basin

Free_Position

LocaJ_Code

VAW_Add_Code

Year

Nr_Drainage_B

Map_Scale

Photo_Type

Photo_Year

Total_Area

Area_Accuracy

State.Area

Exposed_Area

Ablation_Area

Mean.Width

Mean_Length

Max_Len_Tot

Max_Len_Expo

Max_Len_Abla

Expos_Acc_Area

Expos_Abl_Area

Highest_Elev

Median_E!ev

Lowest_Elev_Tot

Lowest_EIev_Exp

Mean_Elev_Acc

Mean_Elev_Abl

Prim_Classific

Form

Frontal_Chars

Longi_Prof

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(5)

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(3)

Number(3)

Number(4)

Number(1)

Number(4)

Varchar2(1)

Number(4)

Number(8,3)

Varchar2(1)

Number(8.3)

Number(8,3)

Number(8,3)

Number(4,1)

Number(4,1)

Number(4,1)

Number(4,1)

Number(4,1)

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(2)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Not Null/PK Political Unit part of the WGI-number 

(Position 1 and 2)

Not Null/PK Code for the determination of the 

hydrological catchment areas (Position 3 

designates the continent, positions 4 to 7 

are for the drainage code)

Free ly chosen number (Position 8 and 9)

Local Code helps to make the WGInumber clear (Positions 10 to 12)

Not Null/PK Additional Code to dear double WGInumbers

Not Null/PK Year of the map or photo year

Number of drainage basins

Map scale

Photo type

Photo year

Total surface area

Accuracy rating of the area

Total area in the state concerned

Total exposed surface area

Ablation area

Mean width

Mean length

Maximum length total

Maximum length exposed

Maximum length ablation area

Exposition accumulation area

Exposition ablation area

Highest elevation

Median elevation (mostly mean elevation)

Lowest elevation total

Lowest elevation exposed

Mean elevation accumulation area

Mean elevation ablation area

Primary classification

Form

Frontal characteristics

Longitudinal profile

132
-9-

Source_Nouri Varchar2(1) Major source of nourishment

Acti_Tongue Varchar2(1) Activity of the tongue

Acti_From Number(4) Beginning of the period for which the 

tongue activity was assessed

Acti_To Number(4) End of the period for which the tongue 

activity was assessed

MoracH Varchar2(1) Moraine classification

Moracl2 Varchar2(2) Moraine classification

Snow Line Elev Number(4) Snow-line elevation

Snow Line Acer Varchar2(1) Snow-line elevation accuracy rating

Snow_Line_Date Varchar2(8) Snow-line elevation date

Mean_Depth Number(4) Mean depth

Depth_Accuracy Varchar2(1) Mean depth accuracy rating

Loading_0ate Date Date of loading into database

133
-10-

A2 The table and item list for the Fluctuations of Glaciers (FoG) 

database

TABLE A2.1 Glacier

lnternal_Key

Political_Unit

River_Basin

Free_Position

LocaLCode

Local.PSFG

Name

Gen_Location

Spec.Location

Latitude

Card_Point_Lat

Longitude

Card_Point_Lon

Prim_Classific

Form

Frontal_Chars

Rrst_Survey_FR

Rrst_Mass_Bal

Expos_Acc_Area

Expos_Abl_Area

To_be_published

MSB

Remarks

Authors

Number(5)

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(5)

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(3)

Varchar2(5)

Varchar2(15)

Varchar2(15)

Varchar2(15)

Number(4,2)

Varchar2(1)

Number(5,2)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Date

Date

Varchar2(2)

Varchar2(2)

Number{4)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(500)

Varchar2(100)

Not Null/PK Internal Key

Not Null/FK Political Unit part of the WGI-number 

(Position 1 and 2)

Code for the determination of the 

hydroiogical catchment areas (Position 3 

designates the continent, positions 4 to 7 

are for the drainage code)

Free ly chosen number (Position 8 and 9)

Local Code helps to make the WGInumber clear (Positions 10 to 12)

This glacier number should be unique for 

each country.

Name of the glacier

Geographical location (general)

Geographical location (more specific)

Latitude in degrees and minutes

Cardinal point (N or S)

Longitude in degrees and minutes

Cardinal point (E or W)

Primary Classification

Form

Frontal characteristics

Year of the first quantitative survey

Year of the first mass balance survey

Exposition of accumulation area

Exposition of the ablation area

Publication number (Vol. 1 to VI)

Mass Balance Bulletin Key

Remarks

Names of the principal investigators

134
-11-

TABLE A2.2

Glacier

Year

Highest_e!ev

Median_e!ev

Lowest_e!ev

Snout_point_alt

Error_Altitude

Length

Variation_horiz

Qualitative_var

Error_variation

Date_Survey

Method_Survey

Reference_date

Published

Frontaljnvest

Frontal.spons

Frontal_remarks

TABLE A2.3

Glacier

Year

Lower_Bound

Upper_Bound

Area

Area_Change

Thickness_Chg

Volume_Change

Reference_date

Published

Glacier_State

Number(5)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4,1)

Number(5,2)

Number(6,1)

Varchar2(2)

Number(4,1)

Date

Char(1)

Date

Number(4)

Varchar2(50)

Varchar2(100)

Varchar2(500)

Glacier_Section

Number(5)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number (4)

Number(8,3)

Number(6)

Number(6)

Number(12)

Date

Number(4)

Not Null/PK Reference to the table Glacier 

Intemai.Key

Not Null/PK Year is together with 'Glacier1 the Primary 

Key

Highest Eevation

Median Elevation

Lowest Bevetation

Altitude of the snout

Estimated maximum error in altitude

Length of the glacier

Quantitative variation between previous 

and present survey

Qualitative variation between previous and 

present survey

Estimated maximum error in variation

Date of the survey

Method of the survey

Date of last survey

Last year of publication series

Information on the Investigator

Information on the Sponsoring Agency

Remarks to the measurements

Not Null/PK Reference on table Glacier.State

Not Null/PK Reference on table Glacier.State

Not Null/PK Lower value of altitude interval

Upper value of altitude interval

Area for each altitude interval

Area change for each altitude interval

Thickness change for each altitude 

interval

Volume change for each altitude interval

Date of last survey

Last year of publication series

135
-12-

TABLE A2.4 Mass_Balance_Overview

Glacier

Year

Time_System

Beginn_Period

EndJ/Vinter

End_Period

Equilibr_Ln_Alt

Min_Sites_Acc

Max__Sites_Acc

Min_Sites_Abl

Max_Sites_Abl

Acc_Area

Abl_Area

AAR

Rating_ELA

Rating_AAR

TABLE A2.5

Glacier

Year

Lower_Bound

Upper_Bound

Area

Winter_Balance

Summer_Ba!ance

Net_Acc

Net_Ab!

Net_Balance

Published

Mass_BalJnvest

Mass_Bal_Spons

Number(5)

Number(4)

Varchar2(3)

Date

Date

Date

Number(4)

Number(3)

Number(3)

Number(3)

Number(3)

Number(8,3)

Number(8,3)

Number(4,1)

Varchar2(1)

Varchar2(1)

Mass_Balance

Number(5)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(4)

Number(8,3)

Number(5)

Number(5)

Number(5)

Number(5)

Number(S)

Number(4)

Varchar2(50)

Varchar2(100)

Not Null/PK Reference to table Glacier

Not Null/PK Year is together with 'Glacier1 the 

Primary Key

Time system

Begin of survey period

End of winter season

End of survey period

Equilibrium line altitude

Number of minimum measurement sites 

in the accumulation area

Number of maximum measurement sites 

in the accumulation area

Number of minimum measurement sites 

in the ablation area

Number of maximum measurement sites 

in the ablation area

Accumulation area

Ablation area

Accumulation area ratio

Rating of the ELA

Rating of the AAR

Not Null/PK Reference to table 

Mass_Balance_Overview

Not Null/PK Reference to table 

Mass_Balance_Overview

Not Null/PK Lower value of altitude interval

Upper value of altitude interval

Area for each altitude interval

Winter Balance

Summer Balance

Net Accumulation

Net Ablation

Net Balance

Last year of publication series

Information on the Investigator

Information on the Sponsoring Agency

136
-13-

Mass_Bal_Remarks Varchar2(500) Remarks to the measurements

TABLE A2.6 Territory

Code Varchar2(2) Not Null/PK Country Code

Name Varchar2(20) Name of the Country

Report_Position Number(2) Position in the FoG report

TABLE A2.6 Spec_Events

Glacier

Type_Event

Number(S) Not Null/PK Reference to table Glacier

Year Number(4) Not Null/PK Year is together with'Glacier1 the

Primary Key

Number (4) Code describing the type of event

Description Varchar2(2000) Description of the event

Data_Source Varchar2(500) Source of the data

Spec_Remarks Varchar2(500) Remarks to the event

Published Number(4) Last year of publication series

137
Appendix 9

How to get data from the WGMS

There are 5 possibilities to get data from the WGMS:

1. if you prefer getting your data in a written form on paper we can either send you 

copies of our written publications (see 'Available data from the WGMS1 ) or printouts of the requested data. Please use the latter proceeding to be sure to get the latest 

data as the database is regularly updated. For addresses see below.

2. you can get data in plain ASCII code on a diskette. Tell us what data you need and 

send us a diskette. For addresses see below.

3. you can get data in plain ASCII code via FTP. Tell us what data you need, the 

address of your computer (e.g. apache.ethz.ch or 129.132.2.75), the name and - if 

necessary - the password of your account and the directory where you would like to 

have your data. For addresses see below. __

4. if you have a connection to the INTERNET and if you have access to an ORACLE 

database on a UNIX system you can directly login to the WGMS database via 

SQL*NET. Use the following statement: sqlplus wgmsuser/wgms@rz where 'rz1 is 

an alias for: rz = (DESCRIPTION = (ADDRESS « (PROTOCOL = tcp) (HOST « apache.ethz.ch)

(PORT = 1521)) (CONNECTJDATA = (SID = rz)))

and has to be defined on your machine within a 'tnsnames.ora' file.

A 'wgmsuser1 has all 'select' rights to the WGMS database and therefore to the tables

(see: 'Available data from the WGMS1 ) via SQL statements.

Here are some query examples:

WGI

This example shows a query on the World Glacier Inventory (WGI) database. It 

selects the sum of total area of all glaciers, which are presently stored in the database 

grouped by country: 

select political_unit, sum(total_area) from \vgms.wgi_var group by political_unit

Result:

PoliticalJJnit

A

CO

CH

CN

D

E

F

GL

1

N

NP

N2

PE

PK

RA

RB

RC

S

SU (CIS)

US

Sum (Total_Area)

542.23

34,859.63

1,341.69

11,470.18

1.15

527

424.01

1,070.20

754.29

35.865.51

1,641.55

1.159.10

1131.07

301.26

3,795.16

509.50

1.978.50

313.07

82.127.52

1,087.26

FoG

The last example shows a query on the Fluctuations of Glaciers (FoG) database. The 

following query allows one to obtain mass balance-, equilibrium line altitude- and 

accumulation area ratio data: _

138
-2-

select a.name, b.year, b.equilibr_ln_alt, b.aar, c.netjbalance from wgms.glacier a,

\vgms.mass_balance_overview b, wgms.massjyalance c

where a.name like 'STORGLACIAEREN'

and a.internal_key - b.glacier

and a.internal_key = c.glacier

and c.year = b.year

and c.lower_bound = 9999

and b.year = 1983

order by a.name,b.year;

Result:___________________________________________ 

Name____________Year EquilIbr_Ln_AIt_____AAR______Net.Balance 

Storglaciaeren 1983 1.402_______54 280

A 'wgmsuser1 has the ability to print the selected data on a ASCII-File. With the

following commands at the beginning of a question, a file will be written to the host

computer:

spool test.dat

setpagesize 2000

select ...from ... where...

spool off

5. By the end of 1997 it will be possible to directly access the WGMS database via 

World Wide Web. As soon as this will be possible there will be an anouncement on 

the WGMS Homepage or via the list server of IGS. The WGMS Homepage is 

reachable via: 

http://www.geo.unizh.ch/wgins/

Addresses of the WGMS: _________

World Glacier Monitoring Service

Prof. Or. W. Haeberii, Director

Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

Phone: +417(0)1/635 51 20/21

Fax: +417(0)1/6356848

e-mail: haeberli @geo.unizh.ch __ _______________________

World Glacier Monitoring Service

Dr. M. Hoelzle

Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich Switzerland

Phone: +41/(0)1/632 40 94

Fax: +41/(0)1/632 11 92

e-mail: hoelzle@vaw.baum.ethz.ch

or

Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

Phone: +417(0)1/63551 39

Fax: +417(0)1/6356848 __________________________

World Glacier Monitoring Service

S. Suter

Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zentrum, CH-8092 Zurich Switzerland

Phone: +417(0)1/632 41 23

Fax: +417(0)1/6321192

e-mail: stephan.suter® vaw.baum.ethz.ch

or

Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland

Phone: +41/(0)1/63551 39

Fax: +417(0)1/6356848

e-mail: stsuter@ geo. unizh.ch ________________________

139
Appendix 10

INTERNATIONAL ARCTIC SCIENCE COMMITTEE (IASC)* 

IASC Priority Projects

Core Groups and Networks (Status on 20 April 1995): 

Names and Addresses of IASC Core Group 2.1:

Mass Balance of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

Names and Addresses of IASC Network 2.1

Mass Balance of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

*Information furnished by Carl S. Benson, University of Alaska, Geophysical Institute 

Address of IASC Secretariat:

Odd Rogne

Middlethunsgate 29

P.O. Box 5072, Majorstua

0301 Oslo, Norway

Tel: 47-22-95-96-00

Fax: 47-22-95-96-01

e-mail: iasc@polar.no

140
IASC Core Group 2.1

Mass Balance of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

CANADA

DENMARK

FRANCE

JAPAN

NORWAY

(Chairman)

Dr. Roy M. Koerner 

Terrain Sciences Division 

Geological Survey of Canada 

601 Booth Street 

Ottawa, Ontario K1A OE8

Dr. Niels Reeh

Danish Center for Remote Sensing

Electromagnetics Institute

Technical University of Denmark

B348

DK-2800 Lyngby

Dr. Bernard Lefauconnier

LGGE

BP96

38402 St Martin d'Heres CEDEX

Dr. Okistugu Watanabe 

National Institute of Polar Research 

9-10 Kaga 1-Chome, Itabashi-ku 

Tokyo 173

Dr. Ton Ove Hagen 

Dept. of Geography 

University of Oslo 

Box 1042 Blindern 

0316 Oslo

Fax: 1-613-996-5448 

Phone: 1-613-997-7623

Fax: 45-4593-1634 

Phone: 45-4525-3800

Fax: 33-76-82-4200 

Phone: 33-76-82-4201

Fax: 81-3-3962-5719 

Phone: 81-3-3962-4711

Fax: 47-22-85-7230

Phone: 47-22-85-4038

e-mail: j. o. hagen@geografi.uio. no

RUSSIA

RUSSIA

Dr. Andrei F. Glazovsky 

Deputy Director 

Geographical Institute 

Staromonetny Street 29 

Moscow 109017

Dr. Vladimir Kotlyakov 

Geographical Institute 

Staromonetny Street 29 

Moscow 109017

Fax: 7-095-230-2090 

Telex: 411781 GLOBE SU

141
SWEDEN

(Secretary)

UNITED 

KINDDOM

Dr. Per Holmlund 

Dept. Of Physical Geography 

Stockholm University 

S-1069 Stockholm

Dr. Julian A. Dowdeswell 

Centre for Glaciology 

Institute of Earth Sciences 

University of Wales 

Aberystwyth, Dyfed SY23 3DB

Fax: 46-8-164818 

Phone: 46-8-164811

Fax: 44-1970-622780

Phone: 44-1970-622782

e-mail: jud@aber.ac.uk

Note: We asked the WG for advice on a group of 5-7 persons. As the WG contains many active and 

good scientists, there were problems making a selection. Geographical coverage of glaciers has been 

one of the criteria for the Core Group.

142
IASC Network 2.1

Mass Balance of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

CANADA

CANADA

FINLAND

FRANCE

GERMANY

ICELAND

NETHERLANDS

POLAND

Dr. David Fisher 

Geological Survey of Canada

Dr. Gerald Holds worth 

University of Calgary

Dr. JohnC. Moore

Arctic Centre, University of Lapland

Box 122

FIN-96101 Rovaniemi

Dr. Louis Reynaud

LGGE, Domaine Universitaire

54, rue Moliere, P B 96

38402 St Martin d'Heres, CEDEX

Prof. H. Miller

AWI Institute for Polar and

Marine Research 

P.O. Box 120161 

D-27515 Bremerhaven 12

Dr. Helgi Bjornsson 

Science Institute 

University of Iceland 

Dunhaga 5 

107-Reykjavik

Prof. Dr. J. Oerlemans 

IMOU, University of Utrecht 

P.O. Box 80 005 

3508 TA Utrecht

Dr. Jacek Jania

Dept. Of Geomorphology

Univ. of Silesia,

Fac. Of Earth Science

ill. Bedzinska 60

41-200 Sosnowiec

Fax: 1-613-996-5448

Fax: 1-403-282-4609

Fax: 358-60-324-777 

Phone: 358-60-324-757

Fax: 33-76-824201

Fax: 49-471-483-149

e-mail: miller@awi-bremerhaven. de

Fax: 354-1-28801

Phone: 354-1-694730

e-mail: hb@raunvis. hi. is

Fax: 31-30-543163 

Phone: 31-30-533272

Fax: 48-32-664351

Phone: 48-32-662025

Telex: 315920

143
SWITZERLAND Prof. Atsumu Ohmura Fax: 41-1-362-5197

Department of Geography Phone: 41-1-257-5220 or 11 

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology 

Winterthurerstr. 190 

CH-8057 Zurich

USA Dr. Richard Alley e-mail: ralley@essc.psu.edu

College of Earth and Mineral Sciences 

Pennsylvania State University 

0306 Deike Building 

University Park, PA 16802

USA Dr. Roger Barry e-mail: roger.barry@colorado.edu

World Data Center - A for Glaciology 

Campus Box 216 

University of Colorado 

Boulder, CO 80309-0216

USA Dr. William Harrison Fax: 1-907-474-7290

Professor of Physics Phone: 1-907-474-7558 

Geophysical Institute e-mail: harrison@dino.gi.alaska.edu 

P O Box 757320 

University of Alaska 

Fairbanks, AK 99775-7320

USA Dr. Mark Meier Fax: 1-303-492-6388

Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research e-mail: mark.meier@colorado.edu 

University of Colorado at Boulder 

1560 Thirtieth St. # 261 

Campus Box 450 

Boulder, CO 80309

USA Dr. Terry Tucker Fax: 1-603-646-4644

Research Division, Snow and Ice Branch 

CRREL 

Hanover, NH

USA Dr. Ed Waddington

Department of Geosciences 

University of Arizona 

Tuscon, AZ

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