Importation of Oversized Dracaena Spp. as Ornamental Plants from 

Costa Rica into the Continental United States 

A Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessment 

September 28, 2011 

Version 3 

Agency contact 

Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory 

Center for Plant Health Science and Technology 

United States Department of Agriculture 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

Plant Protection and Quarantine 

1730 Varsity Drive, Suite 300 

Raleigh, North Carolina, 27606
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 ii 

Executive Summary 

We assessed the risks associated with the importation of oversized Dracaena spp. plants from Costa Rica 

into the continental United States. Dracaena spp. plants are currently enterable into the United States, but 

the size of the plants are regulated in 7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(6)(i) and 7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(4). Dracaena spp. 

plants regulated in 7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(6)(i) cannot exceed 460 mm (18 inches) in length from the soil line 

(top of rooting zone for plants produced by air layering) to the farthest terminal growing point. The 

National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO) of Costa Rica, the National Phytosanitary Service of the 

Ministry of Agriculture and Husbandry (MAG-SFE), has requested that the Animal and Plant Health 

Inspection Service (APHIS) increase the size restriction to 1.37 m (54 inches). Plants regulated in 7 CFR 

319.37-2(b)(4) include single-stem canes without leaves, roots, sprouts, and branches, not to exceed 1.83 

m (6 feet) in length. No change in size was requested for the single-stem canes, and they will therefore 

not be affected by the proposed rule change for 7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(6)(i). 

We estimated plant pest risks associated with the importation of oversized Dracaena spp. plants from 

Costa Rica into the continental United States, i.e. Dracaena plants larger than 460 mm from the soil line 

or top of the root zone to the farthest terminal growth and up to 1.37 m (54 inches). We identified fifteen 

quarantine-significant pests likely to follow the pathway and pose phytosanitary risks to agriculture in the 

United States, as listed below. 

Type Organism Taxonomy 

Arthropod Ancistrocercus circumdatus Walker Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Caldwelliola reservata (Fowler) Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis (Bagnall) Thysanoptera: Thripidae 

Coccus viridis (Green) Hemiptera: Coccidae 

Erioloides consobrinus Saussure and Pictet Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Neoconocephalus affinis (Beauvois) Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Oncometopia clarior (Walker) Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 

Planococcus minor (Maskell) Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae 

Pseudococcus landoi (Balachowsky) Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae 

Xylosandrus morigerus (Blandford) Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Mollusk Diplosolenodes occidentalis (Guilding) Soleolifera: Veronicellidae 

Ovachlamys fulgens (Gude) Stylommatophora: Helicarionidae 

Pallifera costaricensis (Mörch) Stylommatophora: Philomycidae 

Sarasinula plebeia (Fisher) Soleolifera: Veronicellidae 

Succinea costaricana (Von Martens) Stylommatophora: Succineidae 

We estimated both the Consequences of Introduction and Likelihood of Introduction, and overall Pest 

Risk Potentials based on those, which estimate risks in the absence of mitigation. Ancistrocercus 

circumdatus, Chaetanaphothrips signipennis, Erioloides consobrinus, Neoconocephalus affinis, and 

Pallifera costaricensis had Medium pest risk potentials, while the remaining pests were High risk. 

Specific phytosanitary measures may be necessary for pests with Medium pest risk potentials, and are 

strongly recommended for pests with High pest risk potentials. 

Pest monitoring, plant health, and prophylactic insecticide programs are recommended to safeguard 

against the introduction of quarantine-significant pests. Mitigations are also recommended to reduce the 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 iii 

number of biological contaminants arriving in the United States in shipments of Dracaena spp. from 

Costa Rica. Possible programs are discussed under the heading Mitigation Options.
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 iv 

Table of Contents 

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................1

2. Risk Assessment .........................................................................................................................1

2.1. Initiating Event .................................................................................................................... 1

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Dracaena spp. .......................................................... 1

2.3. Current Status, Previous Risk Assessments, and Pest Interceptions ................................... 2

2.4. Pest Categorization .............................................................................................................. 3

2.5. Consequences of Introduction ........................................................................................... 20

2.6. Likelihood of Introduction ................................................................................................. 32

2.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 34

3. Mitigation Options ...................................................................................................................35

3.1. Costa Rica Clean Stock Program: Overview of 2006 Site Visit ........................................ 35

3.2. General Requirements ........................................................................................................ 37

3.3. Biological Contamination .................................................................................................. 37

3.4. Ambrosia Beetles ............................................................................................................... 38

3.5. Scale and Mealybugs ......................................................................................................... 38

3.6. Thrips ................................................................................................................................. 39

3.7. Snails and Slugs ................................................................................................................. 40

3.8. Caldwelliola reservata, Oncometopia clarior (Cicadellidae), Ancistrocercus circumdatus, 

Erioloides consobrinus, Neoconocephalus affinis (Tettigoniidae) ........................................... 40

4. Authors and Reviewers ............................................................................................................41

5. Literature Cited .......................................................................................................................42

6. Appendices ................................................................................................................................54

Appendix A: Pest Interceptions on Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica ....................................... 54
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 1 

1. Introduction 

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service 

(APHIS), Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ), Center for Plant Health Science and Technology 

(CPHST), Plant Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Laboratory (PERAL) prepared this risk assessment at 

the request of the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, San José, Costa Rica. We estimated the plant 

pest risks associated with the importation of oversized Dracaena spp. plants from Costa Rica into the 

continental United States, i.e. Dracaena plants larger than 460 mm from the soil line or top of the root 

zone to the farthest terminal growth and up to 1.37 m (54 inches). We assigned the qualitative terms High, 

Medium, or Low in accordance with the Guidelines for Pathway-Initiated Pest Risk Assessments, v. 5.02 

(PPQ, 2000). 

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), administered by the Food and Agriculture 

Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, provides guidance for conducting pest risk assessments 

(IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2) and the use of biological and phytosanitary terms (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #5). The 

terms and methods used to initiate, conduct, and report this assessment is consistent with these 

international guidelines. This document satisfies the requirements of the three stages of the FAO 

guidelines (Initiation, Risk Assessment, and Risk Management), and is consistent with applicable U.S. 

regulations, e.g., 7 CFR § 319.40-11 and 7 CFR § 319.37-8(g). 

The genus Dracaena is indigenous to Africa and Asia, but the plants are grown in most tropical regions of 

the world (Chase, 1987). There are approximately forty described species of Dracaena, but only six of 

them are grown commercially as ornamentals: D. deremensis, D. fragrans, D. godseffiana (= D. 

surculosa), D. marginata, D. reflexa, and D. sanderiana (Chen et al., 2002). These species are widely 

used in interior landscapes because they thrive in low light, require minimal care, and provide a diversity 

of colors, shapes, and sizes (Chen et al., 2002; Poole et al., 2003). Dracaena spp. production in the United 

States is concentrated in Florida and Hawaii (Chen et al., 2002; DeNeve, 1999). 

2. Risk Assessment 

2.1. Initiating Event 

We developed this risk assessment in response to a request by the government of Costa Rica, Ministro de 

Agricultura y Ganadería, San José, Costa Rica, for USDA authorization to permit importation of 

oversized Dracaena spp. into the United States. Entry of this commodity into the United States presents a 

potential pathway for the introduction of plant pests. The Plant Protection Act of 2000 (7 U.S.C. § 7701-

7786, 2000) and Title 7, Part 319, Section 37 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR § 

319.37, 2010) provide regulatory authority for the importation of propagative materials from foreign 

sources into the United States. 

2.2. Assessment of the Weed Potential of Dracaena spp. 

Here we examined the potential of the commodity to become a weed after it enters the United States. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 2 

Table 1. Assessment of the weed potential of Dracaena spp. 

Commodity: Dracaena spp. (Liliaceae) 

Phase 1: Is the species new to or not widely prevalent in the United States? Dracaena spp. are widely 

used in the United States as interior ornamentals (Chen et al., 2002; Poole et al., 2003). They are 

commercially grown in Florida and Hawaii (Chen et al., 2002; DeNeve, 1999). 

Phase 2: Is the species listed in:

No Geographical Atlas of World Weeds (Holm et al., 1979) 

No World’s Worst Weeds (Holm et al., 1977) or World Weeds: Natural Histories and 

Distribution (Holm et al., 1997) 

No Report of the Technical Committee to Evaluate Noxious Weeds: Exotic Weeds for Federal 

Noxious Weed Act (Gunn and Ritchie, 1982) 

No Economically Important Foreign Weeds (Reed, 1977) 

No Weed Science Society of America Composite List of Weeds (WSSA, 2003) 

No Does any literature indicate weed potential, e.g., AGRICOLA, CAB, Biological Abstracts, 

AGRIS search on “species name” combined with “weed” 

Phase 3: Conclusion: A pest-initiated risk assessment is not necessary because the above species and 

their cultivars are grown in the United States, and they are not considered weeds. 

2.3. Current Status, Previous Risk Assessments, and Pest Interceptions 

Current status, previous decisions, and pest interceptions are examined in this section. Title 7, Part 319, 

Section 37 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR § 319.37, 2010) specifically 

prohibits importation of Dracaena spp. from foreign sources that are in excess of 460 mm from the soil 

line or top of the root zone to the farthest terminal growth, unless they are imported under the 

conditions set forth in § 319.37-2(c). No change in size was requested for the single stem canes 

regulated in 7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(4), and they will therefore not be affected by the proposed rule change for 

7 CFR 319.37-2(b)(6)(i). 

We found no documents in the APHIS-PPQ Biological Assessment and Taxonomic Support (BATS) 

library regarding previous decisions on requests to import Dracaena spp. 

Since 1984, over 11,000 pests have been intercepted on Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica (Appendix A). 

There were 679 interceptions of pests identified to species level (122 species), 632 interceptions identified 

to genera level (153 genera), and 9,689 interceptions identified to family level (107 families). Among 

interceptions identified to the family level, 5,232 interceptions were undetermined species within the 

family Ciccadellidae, and 2,214 interceptions were unknown individuals within the family Tettigoniidae. 

Although pests identified to higher taxa (above species level) are not usually considered for further 

analysis (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2), the large number of interceptions of these pests with the commodity 

(eggs, adults, and immature stages) should be considered to reduce the number of interceptions in future 

shipments. Unless there is a methodology to allow us to identify the species of these immature stages, the 

possibility of introduction of a quarantine pest belonging to these families is High; therefore, the high 

number of interceptions belonging to these families are addressed in the risk management section. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 3 

2.4. Pest Categorization 

Here we determine whether or not pests are quarantine pests. First, we develop a comprehensive list of 

potential quarantine pests known to occur in the country or region from which the commodity is to be 

exported that are associated with the commodity. To be a quarantine pest, the organism must be “of 

potential economic importance” and must not yet be present in the area being assessed, or if present, 

should be under official control (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #5). Because all pests on the list are associated with 

the plant species, they are considered to be “of potential economic importance” (IPPC, 2007). The listed 

pests may or may not also occur in the United States. 

We list pests associated with Dracaena spp. plants in Costa Rica below (Table 2). We produced the list 

based on information provided by the National Phytosanitary Service of the Ministry of Agriculture and 

Husbandry (MAG-SFE) and our review of the scientific literature. In this list we identify (1) the presence 

or absence of these pests in the United States; (2) hosts; (3) the generally affected plant part or parts; (4) 

the quarantine status of the pest with respect to the United States; (5) the likelihood of the pest following 

the pathway on the importation of oversized Dracaena spp. plants; and (6) pertinent citations for the 

distribution or the biology of the pest. We shaded rows containing quarantine pests likely to follow the 

pathway and selected for further analysis. 

Even if non-quarantine pests are able to follow the pathway, phytosanitary measures against these pests 

would not be justified. Therefore, for those pests we do not need information on plant part association and 

whether the pest is likely to follow the pathway. Accordingly, in those cases we put N/A (= Not 

Applicable) in the columns for “Plant Part(s) Association” and “Likely to Follow Pathway.” 

Table 2. Pests that occur in Costa Rica associated with Dracaena spp. 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

ARTHROPODA 

ACARI 

Acaridae 

Tyrophagus 

putrescentiae 

(Schrank)

CR, US D. fragans, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007, ; 

Canfield and Wrenn, 

2009 , ; Halbert, 1998, 

2000; PestID, 2010 

Tarsonemidae 

Polyphagotarsonemus 

latus Banks

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007 ; Jeppson 

et al., 1975; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Tarsonemus confusus 

Ewing

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Delfinado, 1976; 

Halbert, 1997; PestID, 

2010; Zalom et al., 

2008 

 

1

 CR= Costa Rica, US= United States, CA= California, FL= Florida, HI= Hawaii, TX= Texas. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 4 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Tetranychidae 

Oligonychus yothersi

McGregor

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Jeppson 

et al., 1975; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Tetranychus urticae

Koch

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Bolland et al., 1998 ; 

CABI, 2007; Jeppson 

et al., 1975; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Tenuipalpidae 

Brevipalpus obovatus

Donnadieu

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Jeppson 

et al., 1975; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Brevipalpus phoenicis

(Geijskes)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Jeppson 

et al., 1975; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

INSECTA 

Coleoptera: Brentidae 

Brentus anchorago 

Linnaeus

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A BugGuide, 2010a; 

PestID, 2010; 

Thomas, 2007 

Coleoptera: Curculionidae 

Pantomorus cervinus

(Boheman)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Johnson 

and Lyon, 1991; 

O'Brien and Wibmer, 

1982 

Scyphophorus 

acupunctatus

Gyllenhal

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007 

Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae 

Metamasius 

hemipterus 

Linnaeus

CR, US (FL) D. fragrans, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Fruit, leaf, 

stem 

Yes2 Anderson, 2002; 

CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010; Weissling et al., 

2003; Woodruff and 

Baranowski, 1985 

Metamasius 

hemipterus sericeus

(Olivier)

CR, US (FL) D. marginata. Yes Fruit, leaf, 

stem 

Yes2

 PestID, 2010; 

Weissling and GiblinDavis, 2007 

Coleoptera: Platypodidae 

Euplatypus parallelus

(Fabricius)

CR, US D. fragrans No N/A N/A Atkinson, 2009; 

PestID, 2010 

 

2

 The only evidence that this pest was associated with the commodity is one interception on Dracaena sp. at a U.S. port-ofentry (PestID, 2010). One or a few interceptions is not sufficient evidence that the pest occurs in Costa Rica, or that it has a 

host association with the commodity, therefore we did not further analyze this pest. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 5 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Coleoptera: Scolytidae 

Xyleborus affinis

(Eichhoff)

CR, US D. fragrans, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; INBio, 

2001; Peck and 

Thomas, 1998; 

PestID, 2010 

Xyleborus ferrugineus 

Fabricius

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; INBio, 

2001; Peck and 

Thomas, 1998; 

PestID, 2010; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Xylosandrus 

morigerus 

(Blandford)

CR, US (HI) Dracaena sp. Yes Stem Yes CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002; 

Walker, 2008 

Hemiptera: Aphididae 

Hysteroneura setariae 

(Thomas)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Nuessly and Nagata, 

n.d. ; PestID, 2010; 

Stoetzel and Miller, 

2001 

Myzus persicae Sulzer CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Blackman and Eastop, 

2000; CABI, 2007; 

Sibaja and Sanabria, 

2002 

Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 

Caldwelliola 

reservata (Fowler)

CR Dracaeana sp. Yes Leaf Yes SFE-MAG n.d., 

Wilson et al., 2009 

Empoasca kraemeri

Ross and Moore

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Saunders et al., 1998 

Oncometopia clarior 

(Walker, 1851)

CR, US (TX) Dracaena sp Yes Leaf Yes BugGuide, 2010c; 

Maes and Godoy, 

1993; Protecnet, 

2010; Wilson et al., 

2009 

Hemiptera: Coccidae 

Coccus hesperidum

Linnaeus

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Coccus viridis (Green) CR, US (FL, 

HI) 

Dracaena sp. Yes Leaf, 

stem 

Yes Ben-Dov et al., 2001;, 

Bullock, 1989; CABI, 

2010; Nakahara, 1981

Parasaissetia nigra

(Nietner)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Protopulvinaria 

pyriformis

(Cockerell)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Saissetia coffeae

(Walker)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Saunders et al., 1998 

Hemiptera: Cydnidae 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 6 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Pangaeus bilineatus 

(Say)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Chapin et al., 2006; 

PestID, 2010 

Tominotus unisetosus 

Froeshner

CR, US D. deremensis No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Rider, 

2009 

Hemiptera: Diaspididae 

Abgrallaspis

cyanophylli [Syn 

Hemiberlesia 

cyanophylli]

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

Watson, n.d. 

Aonidiella aurantii

(Maskell)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; IIE, 

1996 

Aonidiella orientalis

(Newstead)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; IIE, 

1996; PestID, 2010 

Aspidiotus nerii 

Bouche

CR, US D. marginata, No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010; Watson, n.d. 

Chrysomphalus 

aonidum (Linnaeus)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; EPPO, 

2001; Sibaja and 

Sanabria, 2002; 

PestID, 2010 

Chrysomphalus 

dictyospermi

(Morgan )

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

Watson, n.d. 

Ischnaspis longirostris

(Signoret)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Lopholeucaspis 

cockerelli 

(Grandpré and 

Charmoy)

CR, US D. fragrans No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Pinnaspis aspidistrae 

(Signoret).

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

Watson, n.d. 

Pinnaspis buxi 

(Bouche)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

Watson, n.d.; Miller 

and Gimpel, 2001 

Pinnaspis strachani

(Cooley)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007; Coto 

and Saunders, 2001; 

PestID, 2010; 

Tenbrick and Hara, 

1992 

Pseudaulacaspis 

cockerelli (Cooley)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; CABI, 

2007 

Pseudaulacaspis 

pentagona

(Targioni Tozzetti)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Kosztarab, 1996; 

Kosztarab and Kozar, 

1988 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 7 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Pseudoparlatoria 

parlatorioides 

(Comstock)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A Burke et al., 1994; 

PestID, 2010; Weaver 

and Anderson, 2008 

Hemiptera: Flatidae 

Metcalfa pruinosa

(Say)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; EPPO, 

2001 

Hemiptera: Lygaeidae 

Melanocoryphus 

lateralis (Dallas)

CR US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A BugGuide, 2010b; 

GBIF, 2010c; PestID, 

2010 

Melanopleurus 

bistrangularis (Say)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A ITIS, 2010; PestID, 

2010 

Ochrimnus carnosulus 

(Van Duzee)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ashlock, 1975; 

PestID, 2010 

Hemiptera: Miridae 

Collaria oleosa 

(Distant).

CR, US D. fragans cv No N/A N/A MEM, 2010; PestID, 

2010 

Hemiptera: Ortheziidae 

Orthezia insignis

Browne

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Hemiptera: Pentatomidae 

Berecynthus hastator

Fabricius 

CR, US D. marginata Yes Leaf Yes2

 INBio, 1997a; PestID, 

2010; Rider, 2009 

Loxa viridis (palisot 

de Beauvois)

CR, US D. fragans No N/A N/A Eger II, 1978; 

Saunders et al., 1998 

Nezara viridula 

(Linnaeus)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Saunders et al., 1998 

Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae 

Dysmicoccus brevipes 

(Cockerell)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Ferrisia virgata 

(Cockerell)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Nipaecoccus nipae 

(Maskell

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 

Planococcus citri 

(Risso)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Planococcus minor

(Maskell, 1897) 

CR Dracaena sp. Yes Leaf Yes Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

Granara de Willink, 

1991; Williams and 

Granara de Willink, 

1992 

Pseudococcus 

jackbeardsleyi

Gimpel and Miller

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 8 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Pseudococcus landoi 

(Balachowsky)

CR D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Leaf, stem Yes Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

PestID, 2010; 

Williams and Granara 

de Willink, 1992 

Pseudococcus 

longispinus

Targioni Tozzetti

CR, US D. deremensis, 

godseffiana, D. 

reflexa, D. 

sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Hemiptera: Rhyparochromidae 

Neopamera 

neotropicalis 

(Kirkaldy)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Slater 

and Baranowski, 1983 

Paragonatas 

divergens (Distant)

CR, US D. fragrans, 

D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Baranowski and 

Slater, 1998; Dobbs 

and Brambilla, 2004; 

Dobbs and Henry, 

2008; PestID, 2010 

Hemiptera: Tingidae

Dichosysta pictipes 

Champion

CR, US D. reflexa No N/A N/A Barber, 1910; PestID, 

2010 

Hymenoptera: Formicidae 

Pheidole 

punctatissima Mayr

CR D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Stem Yes2

 Brown Jr., 1981; 

Longino and Cover, 

1997; PestID, 2010 

Tapinoma 

melanocephallum

(Fabricius)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A GISD, 2010; 

Nickerson and 

Bloomcamp, 2009; 

PestID, 2010 

Tetramoriun 

bicarinatum 

(Nylander)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; TAMU, 

2008 

Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae

Coptotermes crassus 

Snyder

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Constantino, 2000; 

PestID, 2010; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Isoptera: Termitidae 

Nasutitermes corniger

(Motschulsky)

CR, US (FL) Dracaena sp. [Yes] Stem Yes3

 CABI, 2007; 

Constantino, 2000; 

Gush et al., 1985; 

Scheffrahn et al., 

2005; Van Rossem et 

al., 1982 

 

3

 Species of the Termitidae family prefer decomposing rather than fresh wood as food source (Vasconcellos and Moura, 

2010). Moreover, termites may prefer plant material in decomposition due to the presence of microorganisms (principally 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 9 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae 

Bagisara rapanda

Fabricius

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Caenurgia togataria

Walker

CR, US (CA) Dracaena sp. Yes Leaf Yes2

 BSCIT, 2010; PestID, 

2010; VanDyk, 2010 

Helicoverpa zea

(Boddie)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Leucania latiuscula 

(Herrich-Shaeffer)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Pseudaletia sequax 

Franclemont

CR, US D. fragrans No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Ferguson et al., 1999; 

PestID, 2010 

Pseudoplusia 

includens (Walker) 

Syn: Chrysodeixis 

includens (Walker)

CR, US D. sanderiana No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; FUNET, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Spodoptera eridania 

(Cramer)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Capinera, 2001; 

PestID, 2010 

Spodoptera exigua

(Hübner)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Lepidoptera: Plutellidae 

Plutella xylostella

(Linneaus)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Orthoptera: Gryllidae 

Gryllodes sigillatus 

(Walker, F.)

CR, US D. marginata. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Gryllus assimilis

Fabricius

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

Orocharis saltator 

Uhlu

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Walker 

and Moore, 2010 

Orthoptera: Tetrigoidae 

Tettigidea lateralis

(Say)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Poole 

and Gentili, 1997 

Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Ancistrocercus 

circumdatus 

Walker.

CR Dracaena sp. Yes Leaves Yes Morris and Beier, 

1982; PestID, 2010; 

Savin and Morris, 

1999 

Erioloides 

consobrinus

Saussure and Pictet

CR D. marginata Yes Leaf Yes GBIF, 2010a; INBio, 

1997b; Naskrecki, 

2000; PestID, 2010 

 fungi) that can provide additional sources of nitrogen (Spears and Veckert 1979 in Vasconcellos and Moura, 2010). Most 

interceptions of Termitidae may result from human activity during packing procedures or contamination by hitch-hiking 

organisms not normally associated with the commodity. Therefore we did not further analyze them.
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 10 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Lirometopum 

coronatum Scudder

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A GBIF, 2010b; PestID, 

2010 

Neoconocephalus 

affinis (Beauvois)

CR, US (FL) D. marginata Yes Leaf Yes Naskrecki, 2000; 

PestID, 2010; Walker 

and Greenfield, 1983; 

Walker and Moore, 

2010; Snyder et al., 

2009 

Thysanoptera: Thripidae 

Caliothrips fasciatus 

(Pergande)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Mason, 1981; 

Saunders et al., 1998 

Chaetanaphothrips 

orchidii (Moulton)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis 

(Bagnall)

CR, US4 (HI, 

FL) 

Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Hara et 

al., 2002; PestID, 

2010, Denmark and 

Osborne, 1985. 

Frankliniella minuta 

(Moulton)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

University of 

California, 2010 

Heliothrips 

haemorrhoidalis

Bouché

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Sibaja 

and Sanabria, 2002 

MOLLUSKS 

Soleolifera: Veronicellidae 

Diplosolenodes 

occidentalis

(Guilding)

CR D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Leaf Yes Barker, 2002; CABI, 

2007; Coto and 

Saunders, 1987; 

INBio, 2001; PestID, 

2010 

Sarasinula plebeia 

(Fisher)

CR, US (FL 

TX) 

D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Leaf Yes Barrientos, 2003; 

CABI, 2007; Neck, 

1990 ; PestID, 2010; 

Thompson, 2008 

Stylommatophora: Agriolimacidae 

Agriolimax reticulatus 

Müller 

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Pilsbry, 

1948 

 

4 Chaetanaphothrips signipennis is widely distributed in Florida (Denmark, 1985; Frank, 1992). Records of this pest 

affecting Dracaena sp. was from Florida (Denmark, 1985). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 11 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Deroceras leave 

Müller

CR, US D. deremensis, 

D. fragans cv,

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. sanderiana, 

D. warneckii, 

Dracaena sp. 

No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

Thompson, 2008 

Stylommatophora: Bradybaeenidae 

Bradybaena similaris 

(Ferussac)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Stange, 

2006 

Stylommatophora: Bulimulidae 

Bulimulus corneus 

(Sowerby)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

alternans (Beck)

CR, US D. warneckii No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

inusitatus (Fulton)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

recluzianus 

(Pfeiffer)

CR, US D. warneckii No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

sulfureuss (Pfeiffer)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. warneckii 

No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

sulfureuss 

citronellas (Angas)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Drymaeus 

(Mesembrinus) 

transluscens 

(Broderip)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A Driesler, 2008; 

PestID, 2010 

Stylommatophora: Euconulidae 

Guppya gundlachi 

(Pfeiffer)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. reflexa, D. 

sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. surculosa, 

D. warneckii 

No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; 

White-McLean, 

2011

Stylommatophora: Gastrodontidae 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 12 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Zonitoides arboreus

(Say)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Frank, 2010; INBio, 

2001; PestID, 2010 

Stylommatophora: Helicarionidae 

Ovachlamys fulgens 

(Gude)

CR, US (FL, 

HI) 

D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. reflexa, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Leaf Yes Barrientos, 1998; 

Cowie, 2000; PestID, 

2010; Robinson, 

2003; Stange, 2006 

Stylommatophora: Philomycidae 

Pallifera costaricensis

(Mörch)

CR D. deremensis, 

D. fragrans

cv., D. 

marginata, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. warneckii 

Yes Leaf Yes INBio, 2001; PestID, 

2010 

Stylommatophora: Polygyridae 

Praticolella griseola 

(Pfeiffer)

CR, US D. fragans No N/A N/A Frank, 2010; Miller, 

1994; PestID, 2010 

Stylommatophora: Pupillidae 

Pupisoma 

dioscoricola (C.B. 

Adams) 

CR, US D. deremensis, 

D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Frank, 2010; 

Hausdorf, 2007; 

PestID, 2010 

Stylommatophora: Subulinidae 

Allopeaa gracilis 

(Hutton) 

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010; Lee, 

1975

Allopeaa micra 

(D’Orbigny) 

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Subulina octona

(Bruguière)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Barrientos, 2003; 

Godan, 1983 ; PestID, 

2010 

Stylommatophora: Succineidae 

Succinea costaricana

(Von Martens)

CR D. deremensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. reflexa, D. 

sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. surculosa, 

D. warneckii 

Yes Leaf Yes Barrientos, 2003; 

PestID, 2010; 

Villalobos et al., 1995

NEMATODES – TYLENCHIDA 

Heteroderidae 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 13 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Meloidogyne incognita

(Kofoid and White) 

Chitwood

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Marban 

and Flores, 1993; 

Solano et al., 2002 

Meloidogyne javanica 

(Treub) Chitwood

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Marban 

and Flores, 1993; 

Solano et al., 2002 

Hoplolaimidae 

Rotylenchulus 

reniformis Linford 

and Oliveira

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Ferris, 

1999; Inserra et al., 

1999 

Paratylenchidae 

Pratylenchus 

brachyurus 

(Godfrey) Filipjev 

and Schuurmans 

Stekhoven

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Lopez 

and Salazar, 1990 

Pratylenchus coffeae 

(Zimmermann) 

Filipjev and 

Schuurmans 

Steckhoven

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. sanderiana 

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; CaswellChen and Westerdahl, 

2003; Chase, 1987; 

Ferris, 1999 

Pratylenchus penetrans 

(Cobb) Filipjev and 

Schuurmans 

Stekhoven

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987 

FUNGI 

Aspergillus niger

Tiegh. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Eurotiales) 

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Botryotinia fuckeliana

(de Bary) Whetzel (= 

Botrytis cinerea

Pers.: Fr) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CR, US D. godseffiana No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Calonectria pteridis

Crous, M.J. 

Wingfield and 

Alfenas (= 

Cylindrocladium 

pteridis F. A. Wolf) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 14 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Chalara elegans Nag 

Raj and W.B. Kendr. 

(= Thielaviopsis 

basicola (Berk. & 

Broome) Ferraris) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Cochliobolus lunatus 

Nelson & Haasis. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US D. fragans. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; PestID, 

2010 

Colletotrichum

crassipes (Speg) 

Arx. (Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

CR, US D. deremensis, 

D. sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Colletotrichum

dematium (Pers., Fr.) 

Grove. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. warneckii 

No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides

(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc 

(Ascomycetes: 

Phyllachorales)

CR, US D. deremensis, 

D. fragans cv,

D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp., 

D. sanderiana 

No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Coniothyrium fuckellie

Sacc. (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Koike and Wilen, 

2009; PestID, 2010; 

PPDC, 2006 

Coniothyrium 

henriquesi (Thuem) 

tassi (Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Corticium rolfsii Curzi 

(= Sclerotium rolfsii 

Sacc.) 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Polyporales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Didymosphaeria 

rubicola Berl. 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US D. fragrans, 

D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Barr, 2009; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; Palm, 

2004 

Fusarium oxysporum

Schlechtendahl 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. marginata, 

D. reflexa, D. 

warneckii 

No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 15 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Gibberella fujikuroi

(Sawada) S. Ito (= 

Fusarium 

moniliforme

Sheldon) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. sanderiana, 

D. marginata, 

D. reflexa, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Glomerella cingulata 

(Stonem.) Spauld. & 

Schrenk (= 

Colletotrichum 

gloeosporioides 

(Penz.) Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Incertae sedis)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

D. 

godseffiana, 

D. sanderiana 

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; 

PestID, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Lasiodiplodia 

theobromae (Pat.) 

Griffiths & Maubl. 

(= Botryodiplodia 

theobromae Pat.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CR, US D. fragrans No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010 

Microsphaeropsis 

fuckelli (Sacc) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Myrothecium roridum

Tode (Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; PestID, 2010 

Nectria haematococca 

(Wollenw.) Gerlach 

(= Fusarium solani 

(Martius) Sacc.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. marginata, 

D. sanderiana 

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Paraphaeosphaeria 

obtusispora (Speg.) 

Erikss 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Phoma draconis (Berk. 

Ex. Cooke) Boerema 

(Ascomycetes: 

Pleosporales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 16 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

Phyllosticta 

cordylinophila P.A. 

Young 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CR D. fragans cv, 

Dracaena sp.

Yes Leaf Yes2

 Farr and Rossman, 

2010; PestID, 2010 

Phyllosticta draconis 

Berk. (= P. 

dracaenae Griff. & 

Maubl.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Dothideales)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. fragrans, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Chase, 1987; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; 

PestID, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Phytophthora 

cinnamomi Rands 

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, US D. marginata No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987 

Phytophthora 

nicotianae Breda de 

Haan (Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, US D. dermensis No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987 

Pythium 

aphanidermatum

(Edson) Fitzp. 

(Oomycetes: 

Pythiales)

CR, US D. dermensis No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010 

Schizophyllum 

commune Fr. 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Agaricales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Farr and Rossman, 

2010; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Sclerotinia 

sclerotiorum (Lib.) 

de Bary 

(Ascomycetes: 

Helotiales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010 

Thanatephorus 

cucumeris (Frank) 

Donk (= Rhizoctonia 

solani Kuehn.) 

(Basidiomycetes: 

Ceratobasidiales)

CR, US D. fragrans, 

D. marginata 

No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; Farr and 

Rossman, 2010; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Trullula melanochlora 

(Desm.) Höhn. 1915 

(Ascomycetes)

CR Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A PestID, 2010 

Volutella buxi (Fr) 

(Berk. & Br.) 

(Ascomycetes: 

Hypocreales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 17 

Pest Geographic 

distribution1 

Hosts Quarantine pest Plant part 

affected 

Follow 

pathway 

References 

BACTERIA 

Pectobacterium 

carotovorum subsp. 

carotovorum (Jones, 

1901) Hauben et al. 

1999 [Syn: Erwinia 

carotovora subsp. 

carotovora (Jones) 

Bergey et al. ] 

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, US D. dermensis, 

D. marginata, 

D. sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Bradbury, 1986; 

CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Dickeya chrysanthemi

(Burkholder et al. 

1953) Samson et al. 

2005. [Syn: Erwinia 

chrysanthemi 

(Burkh.) Young et 

al.] 

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, US D. marginata, 

D. sanderiana, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Bradbury, 1986; 

CABI, 2007; Chase, 

1987; Villalobos 

Calderon and 

Cardenas Diaz, 2002 

Dickeya zeae Samson 

et al. 2005 [Syn: 

Erwinia 

chrysanthemi pv. 

zeae (Sabet) Victoria 

et al.] 

(Enterobacteriales)

CR, US D. marginata, 

Dracaena sp.

No N/A N/A Bradbury, 1986; 

CABI, 2007 

Pseudomonas cichorii 

(Swingle) Stapp 

(Pseudomonadales)

CR, US Dracaena sp. No N/A N/A CABI, 2007; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002 

Xanthomonas 

axonopodis pv. 

dieffenbachiae

(McCulloch & 

Pirone 1939) 

Vauterin et al. 1995

[Syn: X. campestris 

pv. dieffenbachiae 

(McCulloch and 

Pirone) Dye 

(Xanthomonadales)

CR, US D. fragrans Bradbury, 1986; 

CABI, 2007; 

Villalobos Calderon 

and Cardenas Diaz, 

2002; EPPO, 1997, 

2.4.1. Pests not following the pathway

The biological hazard of organisms identified only to the genus level (Table 2; Appendix A) is not 

directly assessed in this document, because of the uncertainty due to the lack of species identification. 

This applies to the following genera: (Acari) Brevipalpus, Pediculaster, Tarsonemus, and Tetranychus; 

(Insecta) Abgrallaspis, Acrolophus, Agallia, Agroiconota, Alphitobius, Amblyrhetus, Anaulacomera, 

Anchonus, Anomala, Aonidiella, Aspidiotus, Bagnalliella, Blapstinus, Botocudo, Brachybaenus, Brentus, 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 18 

Caliothrips, Ceraspis, Charidotella, Cicadella, Clinodiplosis, Cocconotus, Coccotrypes, Colaspis, 

Conocephalus, Conoderus, Conotrachelus, Crematogaster, Cryptocephalus, Cyclocephala, Cyrtoxypha, 

Dallasiellus, Disonycha, Ditaphronotus, Dyscinetus, Dysmicoccus, Ecpantheria, Empoasca, Epitragus, 

Eubulus, Euetheola, Eurychilella, Euschistus, Exophthalmus, Ferrisia, Frankliniella, Fulvius, Geraeus, 

Glyphonyx, Gonatoides, Gongrocnemis, Gryllus, Gypona, Heteropsylla, Histiostoma, Homorocoryphus, 

Hoplosphyrum, Hypothenemus, Lagocheirus, Lepidosaphes, Lepturges, Leucothrips, Leucothyreus, 

Listronotus, Lobometopon, Megapenthes, Mesocordylus, Myochrous, Myodocha, Naupactus, 

Neoconocephalus, Neopamera, Nysius, Opogona, Orocharis, Oxythyrea, Ozophora, Paratrechina, 

Pheidolermes, Pheloconus, Phileurus, Phyllophaga, Physorhinus, Pinnaspis, Platynota, Platypus, 

Pseudococcus, Pulvinaria, Rhabdopterus, Spodoptera, Stenodontes, Strabala, Tenebrionidae, 

Trentepholia, Typophorus, Valtissius, and Xyleborus; (Mollusca) Bulimulus, Deroceras, Drymaeus, 

Euglandina, Gastrocopta, Liardettia, Lymnaea, and Succinea; (Nematoda) Aphelenchoides, Aphelenchus, 

Criconemella, Dorylaimoides, Helicotylenchus, Heterodera, Meloidogyne, Mononchus, Paratylenchus, 

Pratylenchus, Rotylenchus, Tylenchorhynchus, and Tylenchus; (Fungi) Alternaria, Ascochyta, 

Botryosphaeria, Cercospora, Cladosporium, Cochliobolus, Colletotrichum, Coniothyrium, Cordiceps, 

Curvularia, Didymella, Didymosphaeria, Diplodia, Discula, Elsinoë, Fusarium, Fusicoccum, 

Gloeosporium, Glomerella, Guignardia, Helminthosporium, Hendersonia, Hysterium, Lasiodiplodia, 

Leptosphaeria, Leptosphaerulinas, Macrophoma, Meliola, Microsphaeropsis, Mycosphaerella, 

Ophiobolus, Ophiodothella, Ophiosphaerella, Paraphaeosphaeria, Penicillium, Pestalotiopsis, 

Phaeoseptoria, Phaeosphaeria, Phoma, Phomatospora, Phomopsis, Phyllachora, Phyllosticta, 

Phytophthora, Pleospora, Pseudorobillarda, Pythium, Rosellinia, Septoria, and Verticillium; (Bacteria) 

Burkholderia, Erwinia, and Xanthomonas. According to the IPPC, 2007: ISPM #11), “The identity of the 

pest should be clearly defined to ensure that the assessment is being performed on a distinct organism, 

and that biological and other information used in the assessment is relevant to the organism in question.” 

The taxonomic level for organisms considered in risk assessments is usually species. Assessment of 

organisms of a higher or lower taxonomic level should be supported by a scientifically sound rationale. In 

cases where organisms below the species level are being analyzed, the rationale for this distinction should 

include evidence of reported significant variation in factors such as virulence, pesticide resistance, 

environmental adaptability, host range, or its role as a vector (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2, #11). 

Without other evidence, single or a few interceptions of known species on the commodity is not sufficient 

evidence of a host association, of the species’ presence in Costa Rica, or may not indicate an effective 

pathway for these pests to be introduced into new areas. We therefore did not further analyze species 

intercepted only once or at most a few times, as follows: (Insecta) Berecynthus hastator, Caenurgia 

togatera, Ceraspis centralis, Cicadella viridis5

, Conoderus pictus, C. rodriguezi, C. varians, 

Cyclocephala amazona, C. fulvipeeis, Dictyla monotropidia, Dysmicoccus mackenziei, Exophthalmus 

jekelianus, Haplia fusculalis, Ischnocodia annulus, Metamasius hemipterus carbonarius, Nasutitermes 

colombinicus, N. ephratae, N. guayanae, Ochlerus cinctus, Ozophora concava, Pangaeus piceatus, 

Paroecanthus annulatus, Platyarthron chilense, and Pseudococcus elisae; (Mollusca) Deroceras 

panormitanum, Leidyula moreleti, and Leptinaria unilamellata; (Fungi) Coniothyrium dracaenae, 

Mycosphaerella dracaenae, Phomopsis dracaenae, and Phyllosticta cordylinophila. If any of these pests 

are intercepted at higher rates in future, or we find additional evidence of their presence in Costa Rica and 

association with Dracaena spp., we may re-evaluate their risk. 

Some pests may not be associated with the commodity during transport or processing because of their 

inherent high mobility and/or instinct to avoid light. Human activity during packing procedures in the 

country of origin may also cause contamination by organisms not normally associated with the 

commodity, as for Nasutitermes columbicus, N. corniger, N. ephratae, N. guayanae, and Pheidole 

 

5

 This pest has been intercepted twice coming from Costa Rica (1998 and 2003), the identification was made from 

eggs (PestID, 2010). However, we found no records of its presence in Costa Rica (CABI, 2007, Protectnet, 2010). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 19 

punctatissima. Therefore we did not further analyze them. If more interceptions occur in future, we may 

re-evaluate their risk. 

Many of the pests infrequently intercepted on Dracaena spp. are considered biological contaminants 

because they are highly mobile, i.e., adults are capable of flight, or are associated with Dracaena spp. 

only by interception, i.e., not listed as pests of Dracaena spp. Many of the genera considered biological 

contaminants in this document are commonly collected in light traps. For example, Neoconocephalus

(Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Empoasca (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Euschistus (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), 

Myodocha (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae), Blapstinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), Phyllophaga (Coleoptera: 

Scarabaeidae), Anomala (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Cyclocephala (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Phileurus

(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Rhabdopterus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), and Conotrachelus (Coleoptera: 

Curculionidae) have been collected in light traps in Florida (Frost, 1964). Members of the orders 

Orthoptera and Lepidoptera were observed flying around illumination towers at the Juan Santamaría 

International Airport in Costa Rica (Gonzalez, 2003). Biological contamination of Costa Rican cargo 

aircraft due to the practice of loading commodities at night under white light is well documented, and 

Costa Rica is working with USDA-APHIS International Services to resolve the problem (Gonzalez, 2003; 

PPQ, 2004a). 

The fungi Coniothyrium dracaenae F. Stevens and Weedon (Ascomycetes: Pleosporales), 

Mycosphaerella dracaenae Tass (Ascomycetes: Dothideales), and Phomopsis dracaenae Sahni 

(Ascomycetes: Diaporthales) were previously reported as pests of Dracaena spp. in Costa Rica. Despite 

that, no records exist of their presence in Costa Rica (CABI, 2007; Farr and Rossman, 2010; MAGSFE, 2009 ). The only evidence of these pathogens affecting Dracaena spp. is a few interceptions at the 

port-of-entry (PestID, 2010). For these reasons, we did not list these species above. If more interceptions 

occur in future, or additional evidence is found of their presence in Costa Rica and their association with 

Dracaena spp., we may re-evaluate their risk. 

Lastly, we did not include the pests Dictyla monotropidia (Stal.) [Hemiptera: Tingidae] or Opogona 

sacchari Bojer [Lepidoptera: Tineidae] in the list above. Dracaena is not considered a host for D. 

monotropidia (FAO, 2007; PestID, 2010; Rosa et al., 2008). Opogona sacchari was previously 

considered present in Costa Rica. No records exist for its presence in Costa Rica, however (CABI, 2007). 

The government of Costa Rica has developed a plant pest response for O. sacchari in the event of its 

introduction (Sanabria, 2006). 

2.4.2. Quarantine pests likely to follow the pathway

We analyzed the pests listed below (Table 3) because they are quarantine pests of the United States, they 

are likely to accompany shipments of Dracaena spp., and scientifically sound reasons exist for their 

analysis. 

Mealybugs like Pseudococcus landoi are small, i.e., less than 4 mm (CABI, 2007; Kosztarab, 1996), and 

can be found on almost every part of their host plant (Borror et al., 1989. Pseudococcus landoi is 

generally regarded as polyphagous (Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992) and has been intercepted on 

Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica (PestID, 2010). 

The ambrosia beetle, X. morigerus, is reported as a pest of Dracaena spp. in Costa Rica (Sibaja and 

Sanabria, 2002). Ambrosia beetles excavate galleries in live trees (Arnett Jr. et al., 2002; Borror et al., 

1989). 

Snails and slugs do not move well; most are generalist feeders that spend little time searching for specific 

foods (Speiser, 2001). Many of them are herbivorous and considered agricultural pests, but most 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 20 

terrestrial gastropods feed on microorganisms associated with decaying vegetation (Speiser, 2001). Some 

snails that appear to be primarily detritivorous, such as O. fulgens (Barrientos, 1998), are still considered 

quarantine and agricultural pests because a small amount of gastropod feeding may cause a 

disproportionate amount of economic damage (Speiser, 2001). The slugs, D. occidentalis and P.

costaricensis, and the snails, O. fulgens and S. costaricana, have been intercepted multiple times on 

Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica (Barrientos, 1999; PestID, 2010; Villalobos et al., 1995). 

Table 3. Quarantine pests selected for further analysis. 

Type Organism Taxonomy 

Arthropod Ancistrocercus circumdatus Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Caldwelliola reservata Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis Thysanoptera: Thripidae 

Coccus viridis Hemiptera: Coccidae 

Erioloides consobrinus Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Neoconocephalus affinis Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae 

Oncometopia clarior Hemiptera: Cicadellidae 

Planococcus minor Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae 

 Pseudococcus landoi Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae 

Xylosandrus morigerus Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Mollusk Diplosolenodes occidentalis Soleolifera: Veronicellidae 

Ovachlamys fulgens Stylommatophora: Helicarionidae 

Pallifera costaricensis Stylommatophora: Philomycidae 

Sarasinula plebeia Soleolifera: Veronicellidae 

Succinea costaricana Stylommatophora: Succineidae 

2.5. Consequences of Introduction 

We rated Consequences of Introduction using five risk elements: climate-host interaction, host range, 

dispersal potential, economic impact and environmental impact. We assigned pests ratings of Low (1 

point), Medium (2 pts), or High (3 pts) for each risk element, and calculated a Cumulative Risk Rating by 

summing all risk elements for each pest (PPQ, 2000). We summarized the Consequences of Introduction 

values for each pest below (Table 4). 

2.5.1. Ancistrocercus circumdatus, Erioloides consobrinus, and Neoconocephalus affinis

Climate-Host Interaction. Ancistrocercus circumdatus is reported in Mexico (COL, 2008). Erioloides 

consobrinus was reported from Costa Rica (INBio, 1997b), Guatemala (ZipCodeZoo, 2010), South and 

Central America (COL, 2008). Neoconocephalus affinis is a Neotropical species that occurs in Costa Rica 

(INBio, 2001, PestID, 2010), Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Brazil, Jamaica, Mexico, Panama, 

Puerto Rico, and Surinam (Walker and Moore, 2010). It is common throughout the Caribbean but in the 

United States is known only from northern Key Largo (Walker and Moore, 2010). Neoconocephalus

affinis is characteristic of forest margins and lush secondary growth. It does not occur in dry or 

completely open habitats (Walker and Greenfield, 1983). Based on these distributions, we estimated that 

these Neotropical species could establish in U. S. Hardiness Zones 10-11. Thus, we assigned these species 

Low risk ratings for Climate-Host Interaction. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 21 

Host Range. Most katydids are primarily grass and foliage feeders, feeding on the seeds, leaves, and 

flowers of numerous plant species (Gangwere et al., 1997). Not all katydids are generalist plant-eaters, 

however. Some Tettigoniidae species from the Neotropical regions are predaceous (Conocephalus sp.) 

(Gurney, 1959). The creosote bush katydid (Bootettix argentatus) is the only one among the more than 

8000 species of katydids worldwide that feeds on a single species of plant—the creosote bush (Larrea 

tridentate) (Davidowitz, 2010). Adults of Neoconocephalus feed nearly exclusively on the seeds of 

grasses; juveniles apparently feed on grass flowers and developing seeds. Other foods-such as sedge 

fruits, grass leaves, and living insects-have been noted occasionally (Walker and Moore, 2010). Based on 

the above information the risk rating for Host Range is High.

Dispersal Potential. 

We found no records on the fecundity of A. circumdatus, E. consobrinus, or N. affinis in the literature. 

The fecundity of Orthoptera is, however, known to decrease with smaller body size, lower temperatures, 

or shorter growing seasons (Gangwere et al., 1997). The climate in the United States should be less 

favorable for orthopteran reproduction than the climate in Costa Rica. Members of these genera that could 

be introduced into the United States from Costa Rica are, therefore, assumed to have low to moderate 

fecundities. Voltinism was also not reported in the literature. Orthopterans are, however, known to exhibit 

plasticity in life history traits (Gangwere et al., 1997). The migratory locust, Locusta migratoria

(Orthoptera: Acrididae), for example, is univoltine in northern Japan, bivoltine in middle Japan, and 

multivoltine in southern Japan (Gangwere et al., 1997). We consider that these three species will behave 

as univoltine when introduced into the United States. The reproductive potentials of these two species that 

could be introduced into the United States from Costa Rica are, therefore, assumed to be low or moderate, 

with much uncertainty. 

Unlike reproductive potential, members of this genus are known for their rapid dispersal potential. Adults 

are capable of flight, and eggs, which are deposited on plant tissue, can be transported over long distances 

in infested commodities (Kessing and Mau, 1992; PestID, 2010). 

Therefore, although there is uncertainty about the reproductive potential ofA. circumdatus, E. 

consobrinus, and N. affinis, it is known that species in these three genera are capable of rapid dispersal, 

and we assigned a High risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Katydid species feed on other insects (Gurney, 1959; Kessing and Mau, 1992), seeds, 

leaves and flowers of numerous plants, and are considered pests when their populations are large 

(Bittenbender and Hirae, 1990; Kessing and Mau, 1992). The damage that they inflict on flower buds can 

reduce crop yield. Some other katydid species (e.g., Conocephalus saltator) cause minimal damage to 

macadamia flowers, yet these flowers fail to yield nuts (Bittenbender and Hirae, 1990). Other impacts 

could include stimulation of biological control programs (Kessing and Mau, 1992) and a loss of foreign 

and domestic markets. Therefore, we assigned these species a Medium risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Ancistrocercus circumdatus, E. consobrinus, and N. affinis may have direct or 

indirect impacts on plants listed as Threatened or Endangered in the United States and their presence may 

stimulate biological control programs (Kessing and Mau, 1992). These Tettigoniidae species are, 

therefore, assigned a Medium risk rating for Environmental Impact.

2.5.2. Caldwelliola reservata and Oncometopia clarior 

Climate-Host Interaction. Caldwelliola reservata is reported from Honduras, Belize, Costa Rica, 

Panama, Ecuador (Wilson et al., 2009), and from Mazatlan and Tampico in Mexico (Maes and Godoy, 

1993). Oncometopia clarior is reported from Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, El Salvador, 

Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, and Brazil (Maes and Godoy, 1993; Wilson et al., 2009). The 

(neotropical) climatic regions where these pests are found correspond to plant hardiness zones 10 to 13. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 22 

These pests may establish in plant hardiness zones 10 and 11 in the contiguous U.S. Because zone 11 is 

so small, that distribution warranted a rating of Low for these pests. 

Host Range. Leafhoppers have evolved several behavioral and physiological adaptations to utilize xylem 

fluid of variable composition, including polyphagy and high assimilation efficiency (Tipping et al., 2004). 

Oncometopia clarior was reported on Coffea sp. (Rojas et al., 2001; Garita-Cambronero et al., 2008), 

Cucurbita sp., Glycine sp., Vigna sp., Citrus sp., Lantana sp. (Maes and Godoy, 1993), and Dracaena sp. 

(von Marschall-Murillo, 2007). Caldwelliola reservata was reported on Coffea sp. (Rojas et al., 2001; 

Garita-Cambronero et al., 2008), and Dracaena sp. (von Marschall-Murillo, 2007). Based on this 

information, the risk rating for Host Range is High.

Dispersal Potential. Insect dispersal is a species-specific trait that can be influenced by numerous factors 

such as population density, reproductive status, biased sex ratio, host breadth, declining host quality, and 

changing environmental conditions (Taylor and Reling, 1986; Blackmer et al., 2004). Adults are capable 

of flight, and eggs, which are deposited on plant tissue, can be transported over long distances in infested 

commodities (Taylor and Reling, 1986; PestID, 2010). Therefore, although there is uncertainty about the 

reproductive potential of C. reservata and O. clarior, it is known that species in these genera are capable 

of rapid dispersal, and we assigned a High risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Their direct feeding damage, while it disfigures plants, is minor in comparison to the 

damage caused to numerous vegetable crops by transmission of several important diseases (Munyaneza, 

2003). Other impacts could include potential vector of virus and bacterial diseases, stimulation of control 

programs (biological, regulatory, chemical) which costs may be prohibitive, and a loss of foreign and 

domestic markets. These two genera are, therefore, assigned a High risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. There is not enough information to determine if these pests will cause a 

significant environmental impact, but the potential use of chemical or biological control programs may 

indirectly affect the environment. Therefore, we rated these pests Medium risk for Environmental Impact. 

2.5.3. Chaetanaphothrips signipennis

Climate-Host Interaction. Chaetanaphothrips signipennis is distributed throughout the Tropics. 

Countries in which it is found include: Australia, Fiji, Papua New Guinea in Oceania, India, Indonesia, 

Philippines, Singapore, and Sri Lanka in Asia, Mexico and the U.S. (HI, FL) in North America, Costa 

Rica, Guadaeloupe, Honduras, Martinique, Panama, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago in Central 

America and the Caribbean, and Brazil, in South America (CABI, 2010; Denmark and Osborne, 1985). 

One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). Based on the above information, 

we estimated that this species could establish in U. S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. This warrants a Medium

risk rating for Climate-Host Interaction. 

Host Range. Chaetanaphothrips signipennis, the green scale, attacks a wide host range of fruit and 

ornamental crops, including five families and more than 200 plant species. Plant hosts of economic 

importance include banana, and citrus, while feeding has also been recorded on tomato and a number of 

weed species (Simmonds, 1959). The host range includes the following: Agavaceae: Cordiline sp., 

Dracaena sp.; Araceae: Anthurium sp.; Marantaceaee: Maranta leuconeura; Musaceae: Musa sp., Musa x 

paradisiacal; and Strelitzacea: Strelitzia reginae (CABI, 2010; Denmark and Osborne, 1985). Based on 

the above information the risk rating for Host Range is High. 

Dispersal Potential. Chaetanaphothrips signipennis lays egg under the epidermis of the plant on shoots, 

edges of sheaths, and young leaves. On the fruit, eggs are also laid in sheltered bases and between fruits 

for protection. The eggs hatch in 1-2 weeks and the larvae crawl and feed for about one week before 

going to the soil to pupate. The pupae live for 7-12 days and the adults for 27-112 days (average 50-55 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 23 

days). The adults live on any sheltered part of the plant: in the bunch, under the sheaths, or on young 

leaves and petioles. Adult thrips reproduce sexually and there are more females than males in field 

populations. Under cool day conditions, the life cycle is prolonged (Caripest, n.d.). Thrips are among the 

weakest flying insects, yet their finely fringed wings enable them to remain airborne long enough for the 

wind to blow them to great heights and for long distances. Migration by flight from breeding sites is a 

regular event in the life cycle of many species. Although it produces widespread scattering, resulting in 

the loss of millions of individuals, it nevertheless ensures that breeding populations find fresh food and 

sheltered sites for protection during unfavorable seasons (Lewis, 1997). This species has a high 

reproductive rate with several generations per year, The movement of infected plant material enables long 

distance dispersal. Overall, we assigned a High risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Chaetanaphothrips signipennis is a pest of bananas in northern Queensland, 

Australia, but protecting bunches of fruit with impregnated bags during production appears to have 

reduced the importance of the pest (Pinese, 1987; CABI, 2010). Damages are usually minor, (CABI, 

2010). Therefore, we assigned this species a Low risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. There are no direct or indirect impacts on plants listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in the United States (NRCS, 2010). We also found no evidence for other environmental 

impacts, and therefore rated this species Low risk for this element. 

2.5.4. Coccus viridis

Climate-Host Interaction. Coccus viridis is cosmopolitan in distribution throughout the Tropics except 

for Australia. Countries in which it exists include the following: Portugal, and the Netherlands in Europe, 

Angola, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea; Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Niger, 

Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Yemen, Zaire, Zambia in 

Africa, Australia, Fiji, French Polynesia (Tahiti), Guam, Hawaiian Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, 

Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu; Vanuatu, Western Samoa in Oceania, Bangladesh, 

Cambodia, Burma China, India, Indonesia, Sumatra, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, 

Thailand, and Vietnam in Asia, Barbados, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, French 

Guiana, Guatemala; Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica; Martinique, Panama, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and 

Tobago in Central America and the Caribean; Barbados, Mexico, United States of America (Florida) in 

north America and Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Perú, Venezuela in South America. This scale was first 

found on Oahu in 1905, and is now present on all islands at elevations below 3500 feet (Mau and 

Kessing, 2007). Based on this, we estimated that C,. viridis could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. 

One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). This warrants a Medium risk 

rating for Climate-Host Interaction. 

Host Range. Coccus viridis, the green scale, has a wide host range of more than 50 families and more 

than 200 plant species. Plant hosts of economic importance include avocado, citrus, celery, coffee, and 

other vegetables, fruits, and ornamental crops. Its host range includes the following: Agavaceae: 

Dracaena sp.; Acanthaceae: Jacobinia mohintli, Odontonema sp., Sanchezia nobilis; Amaranthaceae: 

Gomphrena globate, G. globosa; Anacardiaceae: Campnosperma brevipetiolata, Mangifera indica, 

Schinus sp., S. molle, S. terebinthifolius;Annonaceae: Annona sp.; Apocynaceae: Alstonia macrophylla, 

Alyxia olivaeformis, Carissa grandiflora, Nerium sp., N. oleander, Ochrosia nakaiana, Plumeria sp, P. 

acutifolia, P. obtusa, P. rubra, P. tricolor, Rauwolfia vomitoria, Thevetia nereifolia; Aquifoliaceae: Ilex 

chinensis, I. macrothyrsa; Araceae: Caladium sp.; Araliaceae: Aralia sp., A. guilfoylei, Meryta 

macrophylla, Polyscias sp., P. guilfoylei, Schefflera sp.; Arecaceae: Areca catechu, Cocos sp., Cocos 

nucifera; Asclepiadaceae: Cryptostegia grandiflora; Asteraceae: Arctotis sp., Fitchia sp., Gerbera sp., G. 

jamesonii, Pluchea indica, Senecio sp.; Bignoniaceae: Tecomaria capensis; Boraginaceae: Cordia sp., C. 

alba, C. alliodora, C. myxa , C. nitida ; Bromeliaceae: Ananas comosus; Celastraceae: Maytenus sp.; 

Clusiaceae: Mammea Americana; Combretaceae: Terminalia catappa; Commelinaceae: Commelina sp.; 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 24 

Crassulaceae: Bryophyllum sp., B. pinnatum; Cucurbitaceae: Cucurbita pepo; Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea 

sp.; Ehretiaceae: Ehretia tinifolia; Euphorbiaceae: Carissa sp., C. carandas, Codiaeum sp., Croton sp., 

Manihot ceara, M. para, M. utilissima; Fabaceae: Cassia sp., Gliricidia sp., Inocarpus fagifer, Tipuana 

sp.; Flacourtiaceae: Dovyalis sp.; Goodeniaceae: Scaevola taccada; Hydrangeaceae: Hydrangea sp.; 

Lauraceae: Persea americana; Lecythidaceae: Barringtonia speciosa; Liliaceae: Cordyline terminalis;

Loganiaceae: Strychnos nuxvomica; Loranthaceae: Loranthus sp.; Lythraceae: Lagerstroemia indica; 

Malpighiaceae: Hiptage madablota; Malvaceae: Hibiscus sp.; Melastomataceae; Meliaceae: Melia 

azedarach; Moraceae: Ficus elastic; Myristicaceae: Myristica sp.; Myrsinaceae: Ardisia crispa, Moesa 

indica, Myrtaceae: Eucalyptus sp., Eugenia caryophyllata, E. malaccensis, E. uniflora, Melaleuca sp., 

Myricaria sp., Myrtella sp., Psidium friedrichsthalianum, P. guajava, P. littorale, P. pyriferum; 

Nyctaginaceae: Ceodes umbellifera; Orchidaceae: Broughtonia sp., Lissochilus sp.; Pandanaceae: 

Pandanus sp., Phyllanthaceae: Antidesma bunius; Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum sp., P. tobira; 

Podocarpaceae: Podocarpus sp., Polygonaceae: Coccoloba uvifera, Homalocladium sp., Muehlenbeckia 

platyclada, Polygonum convolvulus; Rubiaceae: Bobea mauaii; B. laevis, Canthium odoratum, 

Chioccoca racemosa, Cinchona sp., C. calisaya, C. succirubra, Coffea arabica, C. canephora, C. 

robusta, Faramea odoratissima, Gardenia. florida, G. jasminoides, G. taitensis, Genipa americana, Ixora 

sp. I. bandhuca, I. chinensis, I. coccinea, I. macrothyrsa, Morinda citrifolia, Platanocephalus chinensis 

P. morindaefolius, Psychotria boninensis, P. laurifolia, Randia nigrescens, R. tahitensis, Timoniussp., 

Rutaceae Aegle sp., A. chevalieri, A. marmelos, Atalantia citrioides, Balsamocitrus dawei, B. paniculata, 

Boninia grisea, Chaetospermum glutinosa, Citropsis schweinfurthii, Citrus aurantifolia, C. aurantium, C. 

aurantium bigaradia, C. decumanus, C. grandis, C. histrix, C. limon, C. nobilis, C. paradise, C. 

reticulata, C. sinensis, Clausena excavata, C. lansium, C. lunulata, Feroniella oblate, Hesperethusa 

crenulata, Lavanga scandens, Microcitrus australis, Murraya sp., M. exotica, Poncirus trifoliata, 

Triphasia trifolia; Sapindaceae: Dodonaea eriocarpa, Euphoria longana, Litchi chinensis, Melicoccus 

bijuga; Sapotaceae: Achras sapota, Chrysophyllum cainito, Lucuma mammosa, L. nervosa, Manilkara 

zapota, Mimusops sp., Palaquium formosanum, Planchonella sp., Pouteria obovata; Solanaceae: 

Brunfelsia nitida, Cestrum sp.; Sterculiaceae: Heritiera littoralis, Theobroma cacao; Theaceae: Camellia 

sinensis; Umbelliferae: Apium graveolans; Verbenaceae: Callicarpa lanata, Clerodendrum sp., Lantana 

camara, Verbena sp., Zingiberaceae: Alpinia sp., A. purpurataingiber officinale (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; 

CABI, 2010). Based on the above information the risk rating for Host Range is High. 

Dispersal Potential. Coccus viridis can lay up to 500 eggs. Larvae settle on the undersurface of leaves, 

on shoots and fruit. Once eggs hatch into crawlers they will wander around the plant or disperse to other 

hosts (Mau and Kessing, 2007). Once a suitable leaf or green shoot is found the nymphs settle and begin 

to feed and usually remain in this same spot unless their position becomes unfavorable. Mature females 

do not move (Mau, 2007). So, adults have very low motility and crawlers can only move to short 

distances within the infected plant or neighboring plants. Generation time varies from one to several 

months depending on temperature and food supply (CABI, 2010)., so that multiple generations are 

usually produced in a year. In Florida, one generation is completed in 50-70 days in the late summer 

(Hamon and Williams, 1984) and in Queensland, Australia 3-4 generations occur per year (Smith et 

al.,1997. The movement of infected plant material enables long distance dispersal. Overall, we assigned a 

High risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. 

Sap sucking and excretion of honey-dew attracts ants and tends to produce sooty moulds (CABI, 2010), 

which may reduce the growth of infected plants. Although damage is usually minor, C. viridis can be 

extremely devastating depending on place and crop (CABI, 2010). Therefore, we assigned it a Medium

risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Coccus viridis may have direct or indirect impacts on plants listed as Threatened 

or Endangered in the United States. Plants that could be directly impacted by the introduction of C. viridis
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 25 

include Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Ilex amelanchier, I. collina, I. cooki, I. glabra, I. krugiana, I. montana, I. 

opaca, I. verticillata, Cordia bellonis, C. globosa, Maytenus phyllanthoides, Cucurbita okeechobeensis, 

Croton glandulosus, C. humilis, C. willdenowii , and Manihot walkerae (NRCS, 2010). The presence of 

C. viridis may stimulate control programs. Thus, we assigned this pest a High risk rating. 

2.5.5. Diplosolenodes occidentalis

Climate-Host Interaction. Diplosolenodes occidentalis is a tropical species that occurs in Costa Rica, 

Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Nicaragua, and Puerto Rico (Caballero et al., 1991; CABI, 2007; Mijail 

Pérez and Adolfo López, 2003). Based on this distribution, we estimated that D. occidentalis could 

establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 10 and 11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones 

(NRCS, 2009). Because Zone 11 is so small, we assigned D. occidentalis a Low risk rating. 

Host Range. Slugs are opportunistic feeders (Capinera, 2001). Diplosolenodes occidentalis reportedly 

feeds on plants in the families Asteraceae (e.g., Helianthus and Lactuca), Brassicaceae (e.g., cruciferous 

crops), Fabaceae (e.g. Phaseolus), and Solanaceae (e.g., Solanum) (CABI, 2007; MAG., 1991). Thus, we 

rated D. occidentalis High risk for Host Range. 

Dispersal Potential. Slugs typically mature in a few months and produce an average of 100-200 eggs 

during their life, which can remain viable for more than one year (Capinera, 2001). They cease 

development during unfavorable conditions, so distinct generations are not usually apparent, but as many 

as three overlapping generations may be present at any given time (Capinera, 2001). Diplosolenodes 

occidentalis appears to be extremely prolific, with individuals depositing an average of 270 eggs in five 

days (Coto and Saunders, 1987). Slugs are not capable of long-distance dispersal under their own power, 

but they can be transported in shipments of infested commodities (Branson, 1980; PestID, 2010). We 

gave D. occidentalis a High risk rating for this element. 

Economic Impact. Veronicellid slugs cause considerable damage in tropical locations (Capinera, 2001). 

They kill seedlings by cutting them off near the surface of the soil, reduce marketable yields by feeding 

on the surfaces of vegetables, roots, tubers, and fruits, and increase production costs by requiring controls 

(Capinera, 2001). Contamination of commercial commodities with slugs and their slime can be as 

damaging as surface feeding (Capinera, 2001) because contaminated shipments must be treated or 

rejected at the port-of-entry (Prasher et al., 2002). Hence, we rated this pest High risk for this element. 

Environmental Impact. Diplosolenodes occidentalis could attack plants that are listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in 50 CFR § 17.12, such as Helianthus paradoxus and Solanum incompletum. Introduction of 

D. occidentalis into the United States may stimulate chemical and/or biological control programs because 

slugs are opportunistic feeders that cause considerable damage to cultivated crops (Capinera, 2001). Thus, 

we gave D. occidentalis a High risk rating for Environmental Impact. 

2.5.6. Ovachlamys fulgens 

Climate-Host Interaction. Ovachlamys fulgens was originally described from the Ryukyu Islands of 

Japan, but it has been introduced into other countries in shipments of ornamental plants (Barrientos, 

1999). It currently occurs in American Samoa (Vargo, 2000), Costa Rica (Barrientos, 1999), the Ryukyu 

Islands of Japan, Thailand, and Hawaii (Cowie, 2000). Based on this information, we estimated that O.

fulgens could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. Ovachlamys fulgens, therefore, is Medium risk for 

Climate-Host Interaction. 

Host Range. Ovachlamys fulgens is an important pest of orchids, and attacks a wide range of ornamental 

plants (Stange, 2006). It is typically found in leaf litter, but it has been collected on avocado, Persea 

americana (Lauraceae); mango, Mangifera (Anacardiaceae); Heliconia (Heliconiaceae); and Dracaena

(Agavaceae) (Stange, 2006). Thus, we rated it High risk for this element. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 26 

Dispersal Potential. Ovachlamys fulgens reproduces without mating, and matures and deposits about 165 

eggs during its nine-month life (Barrientos, 1998). It can jump when disturbed (Barrientos, 1998), but it is 

not capable of long-distance dispersal under its own power. Ovachlamys fulgens can, however, be 

transported over long distances in shipments of infested commodities (Barrientos, 1999; Cowie, 2000; 

PestID, 2010). Consequently, we rated it High risk for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Ovachlamys fulgens is an important pest of orchids and other ornamental plants 

(Stange, 2006). Even small amounts of gastropod feeding can cause a disproportionate amount of 

economic damage (Speiser, 2001). Introduction of O. fulgens into the continental United States is likely 

to cause a loss of markets because commodities contaminated with snails and slugs are not allowed to 

cross international borders (Villalobos et al., 1995). We rated it High risk for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Ovachlamys fulgens could attack plants that are listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in the United States, e.g., Helianthus paradoxus. Introduction may stimulate chemical and/or 

biological control programs because O. fulgens is an important pest of orchids and other ornamental 

plants (Stange, 2006). Therefore, we gave O. fulgens a High risk rating here. 

2.5.7. Pallifera costaricensis

Climate-Host Interaction. Pallifera costaricensis is a Central American species (Barrientos, 2004). It 

has been intercepted at U.S. ports-of-entry on a variety of commodities from Costa Rica, the Dominican 

Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, and Trinidad and Tobago (PestID, 2010). 

Based on this, we estimated that P. costaricensis could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or 

more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). This warrants a Medium risk rating. 

Host Range. Members of the family Philomycidae usually feed on fungi (Martin, 2000), and P. 

costaricensis is typically found on fungi and bromeliads in Costa Rican forests (Barrientos, 2004). There 

is no evidence that P. costaricensis is phytophagous (Robinson, 2004), e.g., economic damage has not 

been reported in the primary literature. Nonetheless, slugs tend to be omnivorous (Capinera, 2001). Thus, 

we gave P. costaricensis a Low risk rating for Host Range. 

Dispersal Potential. We found no published information on the reproductive potential of P. 

costaricensis. Slugs, however, typically mature in a few months and produce 100-200 eggs during their 

life, which can remain viable for more than one year (Capinera, 2001). They cease development during 

unfavorable conditions, so distinct generations are not usually apparent, but as many as three overlapping 

generations may be present at any given time (Capinera, 2001). Slugs are not capable of long-distance 

dispersal under their own power, but they can be transported over long distances in shipments of infested 

commodities (Branson, 1980; PestID, 2010). Based on this general information about slugs, we rated P. 

costaricensis High risk for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Reports of economic damage caused by P. costaricensis are scarce (Robinson, 2004). 

Introduction of P. costaricensis into the United States may still cause a loss of markets because 

commodities contaminated with snails and slugs are not allowed to cross international borders (Villalobos 

et al., 1995). Thus, we gave this pest a Low risk rating. 

Environmental Impact. Pallifera costaricensis is unlikely to impact plants listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in the United States. Introduction is also unlikely to stimulate chemical and/or biological 

control programs because P. costaricensis appears to be mycetophagous. Consequently, we rated this pest 

as Low risk for this element. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 27 

2.5.8. Planococcus minor

Climate-Host Interaction. Planococcus minor is cosmopolitan in distribution throughout the Tropics. 

Countries include Madagascar, Mauritius in Africa; Mexico and Bermuda in North America, Antigua, 

Barbados, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, 

Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands in Central America and the Caribbean; 

Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Uruguay in South America; Bangladesh, Borneo, Brunei, 

Burma, India, Japan, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka , Sumatra, 

Suriname, Taiwan, Tamil Nadu, Thailand in Asia; Australia, American Samoa, Fiji, French Polynesia, 

Papua New Guinea, New South Wales, and Solomon Islands in Oceania (Ben-Dov 2001; CABI 2007). 

Based on this, we estimated that P. minor could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or more of 

its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). This warrants a Medium risk rating for ClimateHost Interaction. 

Host Range. This pest is highly polyphagous and feeds on a variety of wild and cultivated plants. There 

are more than 250 reported host plants in nearly 80 families, including: Agavaceae: Dracaena sp.; 

Acanthaceae: Aphelandra sp., Graptophyllum sp., Justica carnea, Odontonema sp., Pachystachys 

coecinea; Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus sp.; Anacardiaceae: Anacardium occidentale, Mangifera indica, 

Spondias dulcis; Annonaceae: Annona muricata, A. reticulata, A. squamosa, Cananga odorata; 

Apiaceae: Apium graveolen; Apocynaceae: Plumeria rubra; Araceae: Aglaonema sp., Alocasia sp., A. 

macrorhiza, Colocasia esculenta, Cryptosperma chamissonis, Dieffenbachia, Epipremnum pinnatum, 

Philodendron fonzii, Pistia stratioites, Rhaphidophora vitiensis, Xanthosoma nigrum, X. sagittifolium; 

Araliaceae: Aralia sp., Hedera helix, Polyscias guilfoylei, Schefflera actinphylla; Asclepiadaceae: Araujia 

sericofera, Hoya sp.; Balsaminaceae: Impatiens balsamina, I. sultani; Barringtoniaceae: Barringtonia 

asiatica; Bignoniaceae: Bignonia sp.; Bischofiaceae: Bischofia javanica; Boraginaceae: Cordia alliodora, 

Tournefortia argentata; Bromeliaceae: Ananas comosus; Burseraceae: Canarium harveyi, Canarium 

indicum; Cactaceae: Harrisia portoricensis; Casuarinaceae: Casuarina equisetifolia;Combretaceae: 

Lumnitzera coccinea, Terminalia catappa; Commelinaceae: Commelina sp., Tradescantia sp.; 

Compositae: Bidens pilosa, Cichorium endivia, Dahlia sp., Emilia sonchifolia, Helianthus sp., Mikania 

scandens, Pluchea odorata, Synedrella nodiflora, Tagetes patula, Tithonia sp., Wedelia biflora Zinnia 

elegans; Convolvulaceae: Ipomoea batatas, I.pes-caprae, Merremia peltata; Corynocarpaceae: 

Corynocarpus sp.; Cruciferae: Brassica chinensis, B. oleracea, Raphanus sativus; Cucurbitaceae: 

Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Sechium edule; 

Cyperaceae: Cyperus rotundus; Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea alata, Euphorbiaceae: Acalypha godseffiana, 

A. hispida, A. tricolor, Aleurites moluccana, Antidesma sp., Codiaeum variegatum, Croton sp., Euphorbia 

atoto, E. geniculata, E. heterophylla, E. pulcherrima, Excoecaria agallocha, Glochidion ramiflorum, 

Hevea brasiliensis, Jatropha curcas, Macaranga aleuritoides, M. harveyana, M. macrophylla, M. 

tanarius, Mallotus japonicus, Manihot esculenta, Phyllanthus niruri, Ricinus communis, Geraniaceae: 

Pelargonium sp., Poaceae: Saccharum officinarum, Zea mayz; Guttiferae: Calophyllum inophyllum; 

Heliconiaceae: Heliconia aurantiaca; Iridaceae: Gladiolus sp.; Labiatae: Coleus blumei, Epimeredi 

indicum, Salvia officinalis; Lamiaceae: Hyptis pectinata, Ocimum basilicum; Lauraceae: Persea 

americana; Fabaceae: Acacia confuse, A. farnesiana, A. holosericea, A. spirobis, Adenanthera pavonina, 

Arachis hypogaea, Bauhinia monandra, Cajanus cajan, C. indicus, Calliandra houstoniana, Cassia alata, 

C. imperialis, Centrosema pubescens, Erythrina sp., Flemingia sp., Gliricidia maculate, G. sepium, 

Glycine max, Inocarpus fagifer, Leucaena glauca, L. leucocephala, Mimosa pigra, M. pudica, Mucuna 

pruriens, Phaseolus atropurpureus, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Wisteria sp.; Liliaceae: Asparagus 

plumosus, Caesia parviflora, Crinum asiaticum; Loganiaceae: Fagraea racemosa; Lythraceae: 

Lagerstroemia indica, Pemphis acidula; Magnoliaceae: Michelia figo; Malvaceae: Abutilon sp., 

Gossypium sp., Hibiscus manihot, H. tiliaceus, Pavonia sp.; Marantaceae: Maranta sp., Moraceae: 

Artocarpus altilis, A. heterophyllus, Broussonetia papyrifera, Castilloa elastic, Ficus benjamina, F. 

carica, F. congesta, F opositica, Morus alba; Musaceae: Musa sapientum, M. velutina; Myristiaceae: 

Myristica macrantha; Myrtaceae: Eucalyptus deglupta, Eugenia cumini, E. malaccensis, Psidium 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 28 

guajava, P. guajava; Oleaceae: Jasminum sp.; Onagraceae: Ludwigia octovalis; Orchidaceae: 

Dendrobium veratrifolium; Palmae: Areca catechu, Balaka seemanni, Chrysalidocarpus, Cocos nucifera, 

Howeia forsteriana; Pandanaceae: Pandanus edulis, P. foetida, P. maliformis, P. odoratissimus; 

Passifloraceae: Passiflora edulis; Piperaceae: Piper aduncum, P. methysticum, P. puberulum; Proteaceae: 

Macadamia tetraphylla; Rhamnaceae: Alphitonia zizyphoides; Rosaceae: Pyrus serotina, Rosa chinensis; 

Rubiaceae: Borreria laevis, Coffea arabica, C. canephora, C. liberica, Gardenia jasminoides, Guettarda 

speciosa, Ixora coccinea, Morinda citrifolia, Randia tahitensis; Rutaceae: Citrus aurantifolia, C. 

aurantium, C. grandis, C. limon, C.paradisi, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, Evodia hortensis; Sapotaceae: 

Manilkara zapota,, Pometia pinnata; Scrophulariaceae: Russelia equisetiformis; Solanaceae: Brunfelsia 

hispida, Capsicum annuum, C. frutescens, Datura metel, D. suaveolens, Lycopersicon esculentum, 

Solanum indicum, S. melongena, S. torvum, S. tuberosum; Sterculiaceae: Kleinhovia hospital, Theobroma 

cacao; Theaceae: Camellia sinensis, Tiliaceae: Triumfetta rhomboidea; Urticaceae: Boehmeria sp., 

Leucosyke sp., Pipturus argenteus, Procris pedunculata; Verbenaceae: Clerodendrum disparifolium, C. 

fallax, C. paniculatum, Premna obtusifolia, P. taitensis, Stachytarpheta, Tectona grandis, Verbena sp., 

Vitex trifolia, Vitidaceae: Vitis vinifera; Zingiberaceae: Alpinia nutans, A. purpurata, Elettaria 

cardamomum, Hedychium coronarium, Nicolaia speciosa, Zingiber officinale. Although Planococcus 

minor has a very broad host range, not all host records are necessarily reliable. Recent literature suggests 

that earlier records may be erroneous in certain regions due to misidentification of easily confused 

mealybugs, namely P. citri (Cox 1989, Williams and Granara de Willink 1992). 

 Based on the above information the risk rating for Host Range is High.

Dispersal Potential. We found very little specific information on the biology of P. minor. Females lay 

from 600 to 800 eggs, in large masses (IPM Thailand 2003), and may deposit eggs on non-hosts 

(Meyerdirk, 2003). Mealybugs can have 2 to 3 generations per year. Females are wingless, while the 

males are winged. Trade of commodities and propagative material appear to be the most likely pathway 

of P. minor into the United States. Therefore we assigned a Medium risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. It is difficult to determine the economic impact that P. minor may have on U.S. 

agriculture. While P. minor is a pest of several economically important hosts (such as potato, grapevine, 

corn, avocado, soybean, cotton, and citrus), the exact damage contributed to P. minor is difficult to assess 

as it is often found in scale complexes with other Planococcus species. Planococcus minor is a well 

known pest in cocoa growing regions, co-occurring with other closely related species (Cox, 1989). In 

New Guinea, P. minor made up 90 percent of a scale complex, which reduced the yield of coffee by 70- 

75 percent (Williams and Watson, 1988). Planococcus minor’s host range currently includes 250 plant 

species, but it could expand its host range to include native plants in the United States (Meyerdirk, 2003). 

Planococcus minor is a phloem feeder, and in general this may cause reduced yield, reduced plant or fruit 

quality; stunting, discoloration and defoliation. Indirect or secondary damage is caused by sooty mold 

growth on honeydew produced by the mealybug. Important plant viruses may also be vectored by P. 

minor (Cox, 1989). The establishment of any new pests of fruits and vegetables destined for fresh markets 

is likely to stimulate greater use of either chemical or biological controls to ensure market access. 

Therefore, we assigned these species a High risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Planococcus minor may have direct or indirect impacts on plants listed as 

threatened or endangered in the United States, including Acacia choriophylla, Acalypha deamii, A. 

virginica, Amaranthus brownie, A. pumilus, Bidens beckii, B. bidentoides, B. discoidea, B. eatonii, B. 

hyperborean, B. hyperborea var. hyperborean, B. laevis, B. mitis, B. wiebke, Centrosema virginianum, 

Commelina erecta, Cordia bellonis, C. sebestena, Croton alabamensis, C. glandulosus, and Cucurbita 

okeechobeensis (NRCS, 2010). In general, newly established species may adversely affect the 

environment in a number of ways. Introduced species may reduce biodiversity, disrupt ecosystem 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 29 

function, jeopardize endangered or threatened plants, degrade critical habitat, or stimulate use of chemical 

or biological controls. Therefore, we assigned this mealy bug species a High risk rating. 

2.5.9. Pseudococcus landoi 

Climate-Host Interaction. Pseudococcus landoi occurs in Antigua and Barbados, Brazil, Colombia, 

Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago (BenDov et al., 2001; Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992). Based on this distribution, we estimated that P.

landoi could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these 

zones (NRCS, 2009). Therefore, we rated P. landoi Medium risk. 

Host Range. Pseudococcus landoi is a widespread and polyphagous species in the Neotropics (Williams 

and Granara de Willink, 1992). It has been reported on the following plants: Yucca (Agavaceae); 

Philodendron (Araceae); Anthurium and Dieffenbachia (Araliaceae); Licania (Chrysobalanaceae); 

Codiaeum and Mabea (Euphorbiaceae); Phaseolus (Fabaceae); Heliconia (Heliconiaceae); Abelmoschus

(Malavaceae); Artocarpus and Ficus (Moraceae); Musa (Musaceae); orchids (Orchidaceae); Passiflora

(Passifloraceae); Piper (Piperaceae); Coffea and Sickingia (Rubiaceae); Theobroma (Sterculiaceae); 

Vochysia (Vochysiaceae); and Alpinia (Zingiberaceae) (Ben-Dov et al., 2001; Williams and Granara de 

Willink, 1992). This warrants a High risk rating for Host Range. 

Dispersal Potential. We found no specific information about this species in the literature, but female 

mealybugs may produce more than 100 eggs during their lives (Osborne, 2000). They can have up to nine 

generations a year depending on the weather and the exact species (CABI, 2007). Immature mealybugs 

can disperse on air currents, but long-distance dispersal occurs primarily in shipments of infested 

commodities (Kosztarab, 1996; Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992). We gave P. landoi a High risk 

rating for disperal potential. 

Economic Impact. As above, we found no specific information on impacts by P. landoi. Feeding by 

scale insects often results in poor growth, branch death, leaf drop, and sometimes plant death (Kosztarab, 

1996). These insects also excrete honeydew, which promotes the growth of sooty mold (Kosztarab, 1996). 

Sooty mold reduces photosynthesis, may cause poor growth and leaf drop, and may render commodities 

unmarketable (Daane and Bentley, 2003 ; Kosztarab, 1996). Some mealybugs have toxic saliva that 

discolors leaves and fruit, deforms branches, and may induce plant galls (Kosztarab, 1996). Mealybugs 

may also transmit devastating plant diseases (Kosztarab, 1996). Scale insects, including mealybugs, are 

estimated to cost North America growers $500 million annually in crop losses and control efforts 

(Kosztarab, 1996). Mealybugs can cause a loss of foreign and domestic markets because infested plants 

are often rejected at ports-of-entry (CABI, 2007). Thus, we rated P. landoi High risk for this element. 

Environmental Impact. Pseudococcus landoi is a polyphagous pest that could potentially attack plants 

that are listed as Threatened or Endangered within the Moraceae and Orchidaceae families in the United 

States (Williams and Granara de Willink, 1992). Its introduction might stimulate chemical or biological 

control programs because it attacks a wide range of economically important plants (Williams and Granara 

de Willink, 1992). We gave this pest a High risk rating for Environmental Impact. 

2.5.10. Sarasinula plebeia

Climate-Host Interaction. Sarisinula plebeia is a tropical species that occurs in Costa Rica, Honduras, 

Trinidad and Tobago, the United States [TX (CABI, 2007), FL (NAPIS, 2010)], Mexico, El Salvador, 

Nicaragua, Guatemala, Panama, and Belize (Naranjo-García et al., 2007). It can endure sub-freezing 

temperatures and rebuild its population within two months and one week, suggesting that S. plebeia is 

cold tolerant (Neck, 1990). This species of slug is likely to become established in human settlements, 

since it has an ample range of temperature tolerance, and human activities such as the introduction and 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 30 

watering of exotic plants promote its introduction and survival. Based on this distribution, we estimated 

that S. plebeia could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9 and 11. Because Zone 11 is so small, this 

warrants a Medium risk rating. 

Host Range. This pest reportedly feeds on plants in the families Asteraceae (Lactuca), Brassicaceae 

(cruciferous crops), Cucurbitaceae (Cucurbita sp.), Fabaceae (Phaseolus sp.), and Solanaceae (Solanum 

sp., Lycopersicon sp.) (CABI, 2007; Naranjo-García et al., 2007). It has been observed feeding on 

mahogany (Meliacae) and red cedar (Cupressaceae) trees in nurseries (Naranjo-García et al., 2007). This 

receives a High risk rating. 

Dispersal Potential. In Texas, introduced populations of S. plebeia occur close to human habitation 

where the watering of plants provides the necessary humid conditions for its survival (Neck, 1990) which 

may be dispersed by humans. This species of slug is likely to become established in human settlements, 

since it has an ample range of temperature tolerance, and human activities such as the introduction and 

watering of exotic plants promote its introduction, survival, and spread. This slug has less potential for 

spread since it is non-burrowing and is reported to be viviparous (Baker 1925 in Stange et al., 2009 ). 

Sarisinula plebeia is therefore assigned a Medium risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. This species is probably the most destructive threat to Florida agriculture of the three 

known Florida veronicellid slugs, (NAPIS, 2010; Stange et al., 2009). Where this slug is established, 

control measures may be necessary (Deisler and Stange, 1984; Stange et al., 2009). Sarisinula plebeia is 

assigned a High risk rating for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Sarisinula plebeia could attack plants that are listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in 50 CFR § 17.12, e.g., Solanum incompletum. Introduction of S. plebeia into the United 

States may stimulate chemical and/or biological control programs because slugs are opportunistic feeders 

that cause considerable damage to cultivated crops (Capinera, 2001). Therefore, we rated S. plebeia High

risk for this element. 

2.5.11. Succinea costaricana

Climate-Host Interaction. Succinea costaricana occurs in Central America from Mexico through Costa 

Rica (Villalobos et al., 1995). Based on this distribution, we estimated that S. costaricana could establish 

in U.S. Hardiness Zones 9-11. One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). This 

warrants a Medium risk rating. 

Host Range. Succinea costaricana is primarily a detritivore, but it will feed on live plants when food is 

scarce or young growth is available (Barrientos, 2004 ; Robinson, 2004). For example, in Costa Rica, S.

costaricana was observed feeding on the roots of orchids (Orchidaceae) and the young growth of several 

unidentified plants (Robinson, 2004). In addition, S. costaricana has been reared in the laboratory on 

Lactuca (Villalobos et al., 1995). Hence, we rated S. costaricana High risk for Host Range. 

Dispersal Potential. Succinea costaricana can reproduce without mating, and may deposit up to 396 

eggs during its 44-week lifespan (Villalobos et al., 1995). Succinea costaricana is not capable of longdistance dispersal under its own power, but it can be transported over long distances in shipments of 

infested commodities (PestID, 2010; Villalobos et al., 1995). Succinea costaricana is therefore assigned a 

High risk rating for Dispersal Potential. 

Economic Impact. Reports of economic damage caused by S. costaricana are scarce, but it has been 

observed feeding on the roots of orchids (Robinson, 2004). In general, snails tend to be omnivorous 

(Capinera, 2001), and a small amount of feeding may cause a disproportionate amount of economic 

damage (Speiser, 2001). Introduction of S. costaricana into the United States may cause a loss of markets 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 31 

because commodities contaminated with snails and slugs are not allowed to cross international borders 

(Villalobos et al., 1995). For these reasons, we rated S. costaricana High risk for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Succinea costaricana could attack plants that are listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in the United States, such as Piperia yadonii. Introduction may stimulate chemical and/or 

biological control programs because orchids are economically important plants. Therefore, we rated this 

pest High risk. 

2.5.12. Xylosandrus morigerus 

Climate-Host Interaction. Xylosandrus morigerus, the brown coffee twig beetle, is a widespread pest 

that occurs in Africa: the Congo, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Réunion; Asia: India, Indonesia, Jordan, 

Lebanon, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Vietnam; Central America: Costa Rica, Honduras, 

Panama, and the Campeche, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Veracruz areas of Mexico; the Caribbean: Puerto Rico 

and Trinidad and Tobago; Europe: Austria, the Czech Republic, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom; 

South America: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela; and Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, 

Micronesia, Fiji, Guam, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Hawaii (Bright and Skidmore, 

1997; CABI, 2007; Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995 ; Jordal and Kirkendall, 1998; Wood and Bright, 1992). 

Based on this distribution, we estimated that X. morigerus could establish in U.S. Hardiness Zones 6-11. 

One or more of its potential hosts occur in these zones (NRCS, 2009). This warrants a High risk rating for 

X. morigerus for this element. 

Host Range. Xylosandrus morigerus is extremely polyphagous, attacking hundreds of different hosts 

(Wood, 1982). Thirty-nine plant families and 85 genera contain at least one reported host (Beaver, 1976; 

Bright and Skidmore, 1997; CABI, 2007; Figueroa Potes, 1977; Jordal and Kirkendall, 1998; Kalshoven, 

1961; Schedl, 1962; Wood and Bright, 1992). Thus, we gave this pest a High risk rating. 

Dispersal Potential. Xylosandrus morigerus is a parthenogenetic species (CABI, 2007; Wood, 1982). A 

female can mature and deposit up to 59 eggs during her life (Jordal and Kirkendall, 1998). Multiple 

generations can occur each year because members of the genus Xylosandrus typically complete their life 

cycle in about one month (Wood, 1982). Females are strong fliers and can be transported over long 

distances in shipments of infested commodities (CABI, 2007). Accordingly, we gave X. morigerus a 

High risk rating here. 

Economic Impact. Xylosandrus species are known to attack actively growing stems of healthy plants 

(Wood, 1982). In Mexico, X. morigerus attacks and kills young healthy trees with great economic value, 

such as mahogany and red cedar (Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995). It is an important pest of coffee, tea, and 

cacao in other countries (Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995). Control efforts, which lower the value of the 

commodity, include the removal and destruction of infested plants and the application of contact 

insecticides (Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995). Establishment of X. morigerus in the continental United States is 

likely to lead to a loss of foreign and domestic markets because X. morigerus is considered a high-risk 

quarantine pest (CABI, 2007). Consequently, we rated X. morigerus High risk for Economic Impact. 

Environmental Impact. Xylosandrus morigerus could attack plants that are listed as Threatened or 

Endangered in 50 CFR § 17.12 (50 CFR§17.12, 2005), such as Baccharis vanessae and Crotalaria 

avonensis. Introduction of X. morigerus is likely to stimulate chemical or biological control programs 

because this pest kills economically valuable trees (Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995), and it is considered a 

high-risk quarantine pest (CABI, 2007). Therefore, we rated this pest High risk for Environmental 

Impact. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 32 

Table 4. Risk Rating for Consequences of Introduction.

Pest Risk Elements Cumulative 

Risk Ratinga Climate-Host 

interaction 

Host 

range 

Dispersal 

potential 

Economic 

impact 

Environmental 

impact 

Ancistrocercus 

circumdatus 

Low (1) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Med (11) 

Caldwelliola reservata Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (12) 

Coccus viridis Med (2) High (3) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (13) 

Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis 

Med (2) High (3) High (3) Low (1) Low (1) Med (10) 

Diplosolenodes 

occidentalis

Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (13) 

Erioloides consorbrinus Low (1) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Med (11) 

Neoconocephalus affinis Low (1) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (2) Med (11) 

Oncometopia clarior Low (1) High (3) High (3) High (3) Med (2) Med (12) 

Ovachlamys fulgens Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14) 

Pallifera costaricensis Med (2) Low (1) High (3) Low (1) Low (1) Low (8) 

Planococcus minor Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (13) 

Pseudococcus landoi Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14) 

Sarisinula plebeia Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (13) 

Succinea costaricana Med (2) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (14) 

Xylosandrus morigerus High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (3) High (15) a

 Low = 5-8 points, Medium = 9-12, and High = 13-15. 

2.6. Likelihood of Introduction 

Cumulative Risk Ratings for the Likelihood of Introduction are estimated from the quantity of the 

commodity that is expected to be imported annually and the probabilities that a pest would survive postharvest treatment and shipment, enter the United States undetected, and arrive in an area with a climate 

and host plants capable of supporting reproduction (PPQ, 2000). We summarized the cumulative risk 

ratings for Likelihood of Introduction below (Table 5). 

2.6.1. Quantity Imported Annually

Costa Rica intends to export two 40-foot-long shipping containers of oversized Dracaena spp. each week 

to the United States (Sibaja, 2004b). This quantity represents a High risk. 

2.6.2. Survive Post-Harvest Treatment

Arthropods that feed internally and pathogens that produce latent infections are expected to survive 

minimal post-harvest treatments, such as washing and culling. Therefore, we rated Xylosandrus 

morigerus High for this sub-element. 

Externally feeding arthropods and mollusks are less likely to survive post-harvest treatments than 

internally feeding organisms. However, minute organisms, like mites, nematodes, scales, thrips, and eggs, 

may survive minimal post-harvest treatments by hiding in recesses on the plant (Jacobsen and Hara, 2003; 

Lewis, 1997). Thus, we rated C. signipennis, C. viridis, P. minor, and P.landoi Medium risk. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 33 

Based on U.S. interception history (see Appendix A), all five mollusks seem likely to survive the postharvest treatments currently applied to Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica, although some will likely be 

removed. Thus, we rated D. occidentalis, P. costaricensis, S. plebeia, and S. costaricana as Medium risk. 

Cicadellidae and Tettigoniidae adults are very mobile insects that are unlikely to remain with the 

commodity during harvesting, handling, and shipping, because they most likely will fly away, but eggs 

attached to the leaves will survive treatments. Inspectors at ports–of-entry intercepted viable eggs of 

Cicadellidae and Tettigonidae species on Dracaena leaves, that were dip-treated with a pesticide solution 

at the packinghouse (PestID, 2010; Lenis, 2006). Therefore we assigned High risk ratings to C. reservata, 

O. clarior, A. circumdatus, E. consobrinus, and N. affinis. 

2.6.3. Survive Shipment

Dracaena spp. are typically shipped at 16-18°C (Poole et al., 2003). All pests are likely to survive these 

conditions, so we rated them all as High risk. 

2.6.4. Not Detected at Port-of-Entry

The probability that a pest is detected at the port-of-entry is a function of its size and degree of 

concealment. Internal feeders and latent diseases are more likely to escape detection. Therefore, we rated 

X. morigerus High risk. 

Minute pests are unlikely to be noticed, especially if hidden in recesses on the plant. For this reason, we 

also rated C. signipennis, C. viridis, P. minor and P. landoi as High risk. 

Caldwelliola reservata, O. clarior, A. circumdatus, E. consobrinus, and N. affinis lay eggs on Dracaena

leaves in groups that are more easily detected by port inspectors. Therefore, we assigned Low risk ratings 

for not detected at ports-of-entry to these pests.

The remaining external feeders—i.e., snails and slugs—may be visibly large, and slime trails may be 

evident even when the gastropods themselves are not visible. Still, they often escape detection on 

commercial commodities and become established outside of their native ranges (Branson, 1980). For 

these reasons, we gave them Medium risk ratings. 

2.6.5. Moved to Suitable Habitat

Dracaena species are widely used in interior landscapes because they thrive in low light and require 

minimal care (Chen et al., 2002; Poole et al., 2003). Consequently, Dracaena spp. are popular with U.S. 

consumers, and markets for these plants exist in all parts of the United States. Therefore, we rated this 

sub-element based on the estimated area in which each pest could establish (above). 

Because it could establish in half or more of the area of the United States, we gave Xylosandrus 

morigerus a High risk rating. 

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis, C.s viridis, P. minor, P. landoi, D. occidentalis, O. fulgens, P. 

costaricensis, S. plebeia, and S. costaricana, C. reservata, O. clarior, A. circumdatus, E. consobrinus, and

N. affinis, could establish in only about 10 percent of the United States (Zones 9-11). Thus, we rated them 

Medium risk. 

2.6.6. Contact with Host Material

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis, C. viridis, P. minor, P. landoi, C. reservata, O. clarior, A. circumdatus, 

E. consobrinus, N. affinis, and X. morigerus have wide host ranges and are capable of aerial dispersal. 

Thus, we gave them High risk ratings. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 34 

Snails and slugs are opportunistic feeders (Barker et al., 1998; Capinera, 2001) and suitable host material 

should be available in all areas of the United States. Because of this, we also gave them High risk ratings. 

2.7. Conclusion 

We summarized the Pest Risk Potentials for each pest below (Table 6). These ratings estimate the risk 

associated with importation of the commodity in the absence of mitigation. Additional, more specific 

phytosanitary measures beyond port-of-entry inspection may be necessary for Medium risk pests, and are 

strongly recommended for High risk pests. 

Table 5. Risk Rating for Likelihood of Introduction. The ratings for all pests for ‘Quantity 

imported annually,’ ‘Survive shipment,’ and ‘Contact with host material’ was High.a

Pest Survive postharvest treatmentNot detected at 

port-of-entry 

Moved to 

suitable habitat 

Cumulative Risk 

Ratingb

Ancistrocerus circundatus High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Caldwelliola reservata High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Coccus viridis High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Chaetanaphothrips 

signipennis 

Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (16) 

Diplosolenodes occidentalis Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (15) 

Erioloides consobrinus High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Neoconocephalus affinis High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Oncometopia clarior High (3) Low (1) Med (2) High (15) 

Ovachlamys fulgens Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (15) 

Pallifera costaricensis Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (15) 

Planococcu minor Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (16) 

Pseudococcus landoi Med (2) High (3) Med (2) High (16) 

Sarisinula plebeia Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (15) 

Succinea costaricana Med (2) Med (2) Med (2) High (15) 

Xylosandrus morigerus High (3) High (3) High (3) High (18) a

 These ratings add a total of 9 pts (= 3 + 3 + 3) to each row total. 

b

 Low = 6-9 points, Medium = 10-14 points, and High = 15-18 points. 

Table 6. Pest Risk Potentials, ranked by score 

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction 

Likelihood of 

Introduction 

Pest Risk Potentiala

Xylosandrus morigerus High (15) High (18) High (33) 

Pseudococcus landoi High (14) High (16) High (30) 

Planococcus minor High (13) High (16) High (29) 

Ovachlamys fulgens High (14) High (15) High (29) 

Succinea costaricana High (14) High (15) High (29) 

Coccus viridis High (13) High (15) High (28) 

Diplosolenodes occidentalis High (13) High (15) High (28) 

Sarasinula plebeia High (13) High (15) High (28) 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 35 

Pest Consequences of 

Introduction 

Likelihood of 

Introduction 

Pest Risk Potentiala

Caldwelliola reservata Med (12) High (15) High (27) 

Oncometopia clarior Med (12) High (15) High (27) 

Ancistrocercus circumdatus Med (11) High (15) Med (26) 

Erioloides consobrinus Med (11) High (15) Med (26) 

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis Med (10) High (16) Med (26) 

Neoconocephalus affinis Med (11) High (15) Med (26) 

Pallifera costaricensis Low (8) High (15) Med (23) a

 Low = 11-18 points, Medium = 19-26 pts, and High = 27-33 pts 

3. Mitigation Options 

This section describes the phytosanitary measures recommended for the importation of oversized 

Dracaena spp. plants from Costa Rica into the continental United States, i.e. Dracaena plants larger than 

460 mm from the soil line or top of the root zone to the farthest terminal growth and up to 1.37 m (54 

inches). The pest risks identified above are the baseline risk associated with the unmitigated importation 

of Dracaena spp. The mitigations described therein comprise a systems approach (‘Clean Stock 

Program’) designed to establish and maintain a pest-free production environment and ensure the use of 

pest-free plants. When applied to this importation, these measures may effectively mitigate the pest risk 

associated with this pathway. 

A written agreement between the government of Costa Rica and USDA-APHIS, which is called a 

bilateral work plan, will describe the details of any resulting importation program, including applicable 

mitigation measures. 

3.1. Costa Rica Clean Stock Program: Overview of 2006 Site Visit 

During the process of Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) negotiations, Costa Rica 

identified as one of its main priorities for the agricultural sector the exportation of Dracaena spp. plants 

over eighteen inches in length. The current regulation for the importation of such plants limits the size to 

eighteen inches. To accomplish this priority, the United States has requested that Costa Rica implement a 

‘Clean Stock Program’ that proves effective in reducing the risk of introducing pests into the United 

States prior to making any changes to the regulations. The main objective of this program is to reduce the 

number of pests that are being intercepted in commercial shipments of Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

(Lenis, 2006, Appendix A). 

3.1.1. Field Production

Dracaena spp. production takes place mostly in open fields where air layers and unrooted cuttings (URC) 

are harvested. Very large cuttings and layers generally have exposed stems at the base. In most cases, 

rooted cuttings (RC) are produced in raised beds. Air layered cuttings and URC are harvested directly 

from the field (Lenis, 2006). At every farm visited in 2006, there were Dracaena spp. plants of various 

sizes, shapes and age. Large plants had the lower part of the stems without leaves. 

Most farms are located in fields surrounded by areas not being cultivated and/or managed to control the 

incidence of pests. Some are located within cleared areas surrounded by natural growing plants such as 

trees, brush and grasses which serve as natural borders, fences, and wind breaks. The proximity of 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 36 

weeded areas in many of the fields was observed almost in all the farms visited. Weeds were also 

observed in and around some of the greenhouses and shaded field cultivation areas. This may contribute 

to the incidence of cicadellids and tettigoniids in Dracaena spp. plants (Lenis, 2006). 

3.1.2. Packinghouses

Packing facilities and the sophistication of the operations varied from farm to farm (Lenis, 2006). Some 

facilities had receiving areas which are completely screened, though gaps and holes could be observed in 

the enclosures. In some cases, Dracaena spp. plants are processed in open areas. Most were small to midsize operations with minimal practices to control weeds and create buffer zones with the surrounding 

natural vegetation composed of wooded areas, brush, etc. However, the growers apparently assumed that 

plants brought to the receiving/greenhouses areas are clean. 

In general, the packing facilities need to be safeguarded more efficiently to keep pests out of the 

enclosure. Some of the farms have made a substantial investment in screening the packing area and 

providing double doors for access into the facility. Some gaps and single-entry doors were observed in 

some farms and it would help greatly if those conditions are improved by closing as many gaps in the 

screening as possible (Lenis, 2006).

Inspection Facilities. Lenis (2006) observed that all growers/farms visited at the time needed to improve 

their facilities for inspection of the material prior to shipping. Some facilities had inspection tables which 

consist of a glass top with fluorescent lighting from underneath. This set up is inappropriate to inspect the 

plant material. All of the inspections are being conducted inside the packinghouse. Therefore, if any 

material is infested, the pests are being brought into the packing facility where the plants are packaged for 

shipping. The work flow must be changed to maintain the pest-freedom of the packinghouse. The 

inspection must be conducted in an area separated from the packinghouse and procedures established to 

handle rejected material and clean material. Some sanitation practices need to be followed to prevent 

cross contamination such as cleaning the inspection table after each inspection (Lenis, 2006). 

Treatments. Many packing plants conduct a dip just before the plants are packaged in cardboard boxes 

for export. This method is used to eliminate pests that may be present with the plants. During the site visit 

a random sample of cuttings of Codiaeum plants, already treated and packaged, was inspected. It took no 

longer than 30 seconds to find abundant live thrips larvae on the leaves of the cuttings. The same 

experience was observed with Dracaena spp. plants that were ready for shipment to the United States 

(Lenis, 2006). 

Conclusions. Based on the site visit report (Lenis, 2006), Dracaena spp. producers in Costa Rica should 

implement the recommendations provided during the visit. Infestations might be prevented by eliminating 

or minimizing conditions that favor the entry and multiplication of the pests. Residue after harvest or 

natural leaf fall should be cleaned up from the plants or the ground. Leaving the debris promotes the 

presence of pests, such as snails, which feed on the decaying plant material. Where pests are already in 

the cultivated areas and the greenhouses, steps should be taken to reduce their populations and/or 

eradicate them. Field workers need to be trained to prevent the spread of disease via contaminated tools 

and/or entering other fields or areas where the contaminant can be transported. Contamination of plants 

with weeds and cross-contamination of plants during harvesting needs to be addressed. Finally, control 

methods should be applied in the packing and inspection areas where grading, selection, discarding, and 

inspection of the plants take place. This may include cleaning and sterilizing inspection tables. 

Refuse/debris must be bagged and removed for destruction by burial or incineration. Areas in the 

packinghouse found with high infestation rates need to be considered for total removal to prevent further 

spread of the infestation. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 37 

3.2. General Requirements 

The families, genera, or species of plants examined in this risk assessment are not listed in the Nursery 

Stock Restrictions Manual (USDA, 2004). They are, therefore, generally admissible but subject to 

sections 2(b), 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 of 7 CFR § 319.37 (USDA, 2004) . 

3.2.1. Prohibited articles in 7 CFR § 319.37-2(b)(6)(i) 

Importation of Dracaena spp. plants from foreign sources that are in excess of 460 mm from the soil line 

or top of the root zone to the farthest terminal growth are prohibited articles, except as provided in 7 CFR 

319.37-2(c). This risk assessment was conducted to specifically determine if 7 CFR § 319.37-2(b)(6)(i) 

could be amended to allow the importation of Dracaena cuttings from Costa Rica up to 1.37 m (54 

inches). The single-stem Dracaena spp. canes without leaves, roots, sprouts, and branches, regulated in 7 

CFR 319.37-2(b)(4) will not be affected by the proposed rule change. 

3.2.2. Permits (7 CFR § 319.37-3)

Restricted articles that are listed in this section or 7 CFR § 319.37-6 or 7 CFR § 319.37-7 can be imported 

into the United States only after issuance of a permit written by USDA-APHIS-PPQ. 

3.2.3. Inspection, treatment, and phytosanitary certificates of inspection (7 CFR § 319.37-4)

A phytosanitary certificate of inspection must accompany restricted articles. Restricted articles may be 

inspected at the port of first arrival. They must undergo any treatment that is ordered by the inspector and 

contained in the Treatment Manual (USDA-APHIS, 2007). Restricted articles that are contaminated with 

a plant pest that cannot be eliminated by treatment will be denied entry at the port of first arrival. 

3.2.4. Approved packing material (7 CFR § 319.37-9)

Restricted articles must not be packed in packing material unless they were packed immediately prior to 

shipment in material listed in this section that was never used and is free from sand, soil or earth. 

3.2.5. Marking and identity (7 CFR § 319.37-10)

Restricted articles must be marked and identified with all information required by this section. 

3.2.6. Arrival identification (7 CFR § 319.37-11) 

The importer must promptly notify PPQ upon arrival of a restricted article. 

3.2.7. Prohibited articles accompanying restricted articles (7 CFR § 319.37-12) 

Prohibited articles must not be packed in the same container as restricted articles. 

3.2.8. Ports-of-entry 7 CFR § 319.37-14 

Restricted articles imported under a written permit must be imported to a designated port-of-entry. 

3.3. Biological Contamination 

PPQ (2004) demonstrated that loading commodities onto aircraft during the day might reduce the 

biological contamination rate by 32 percent. Daytime loading should be used as mitigation in conjunction 

with other strategies that limit arthropod access to cargo (PPQ, 2004a). Gonzalez (2003) recommended 

the following changes at Costa Rican airports to limit arthropod access to cargo and reduce the biological 

contamination rate: 1) Replace white lights in airport illumination towers and warehouses with yellow or 

insect repellent bulbs. 2) Use air or plastic curtains on warehouse doors to restrict the entry of arthropod 

pests. 3) Cover commodities with a fine mesh when they are on the airport runway. 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 38 

Improved sanitation and careful handling of the commodity should also reduce biological contamination. 

For example, the weevil Metamasius hemipterus is primarily a pest of coconut, banana, and sugarcane 

(CABI, 2007), but it has been intercepted three times on Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica (PestID, 2010). 

M. hemipterus is attracted to and oviposits in many plants that are not its primary host because they are 

damaged or contain rotten material (Weissling et al., 2003; Woodruff and Baranowski, 1985). Requiring 

the commodity to be free of rotten material and requiring wounds from intentionally stripped leaves to be 

dry prior to loading onto aircraft should, in theory, also reduce the biological contamination rate. 

Mitigations recommended to reduce the number of biological contaminants arriving in the United States 

in shipments of Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica are: 

 Airport illumination towers and warehouses should use yellow or insect-repellent bulbs 

 Warehouse doors should have air or plastic curtains that restrict the entry of arthropod pests 

 The commodity should be covered with a fine mesh when it is on the airport runway 

 Cargo flights should be loaded during the day 

 The commodity should be free of rotten material, and wounds from intentionally stripped leaves 

should be dry prior to loading onto aircraft 

3.4. Ambrosia Beetles 

Ambrosia beetles are difficult to control (Oliver and Mannion, 2001). Measures should therefore be taken 

to prevent initial borer infestation (Pirone, 1978). In addition to trapping, a monitoring program should 

include careful field inspections for signs of infestation. Visible symptoms of an infestation may include 

wilted leaves and compressed columns of masticated wood and frass projecting outwards from the 

entrance hole (Drees and Jackman, 1999; Drees et al., 1994). If trees infested with X. morigerus are 

discovered in a plantation, they should be removed and burnt or removed and treated with an insecticide 

dissolved in mineral oil (Cibrián Tovar et al., 1995). 

Any measure that improves plant health and removes conditions that favor an attack by wood-boring 

insects should be employed. This includes regular fertilization, watering during a temporary drought, and 

controlling all pests and pathogens that attack the tree (Pirone, 1978). Immediate pruning of any dead or 

dying plant part is strongly recommended to discourage colonization by ambrosia beetles (Drees et al., 

1994; Pirone, 1978; Tenbrick and Hara, 1994). Wounds should be immediately dressed with paint to 

further discourage an attack (Drees et al., 1994; Pirone, 1978). Recently transplanted trees are particularly 

susceptible to borer attack, so their trunks should be wrapped in burlap or a specialty paper (Pirone, 

1978). 

Timing of insecticide applications to control ambrosia beetles is critical and must be determined 

experimentally for the region and species of concern (Oliver and Mannion, 2001). Chlorpyrifos is used to 

control ambrosia beetles in the United States (Drees et al., 1994). It effectively killed 100% of adults and 

83% of all Xylosandrus compactus life stages in efficacy trials (Tenbrick and Hara, 1994). Chlorpyrifos is 

therefore a promising control for X. morigerus, if applied at the appropriate time. 

3.5. Scale and Mealybugs 

Scale insects and mealybugs have similar life histories and are controlled using similar management 

practices (Dreistadt, 1994). Successful control programs typically include monitoring, cultural, biological, 

and chemical components (Dreistadt, 1994). 

Direct observation, pheromone traps, and adhesive traps have all been used to monitor scale insect 

populations (Rosen, 1990). Direct observation of crawler emergence is used to time subsequent control 

efforts (Rosen, 1990). Pheromone traps are the most sophisticated method of monitoring (Rosen, 1990). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 39 

However, pheromones have not yet been developed for every pest species, and a lack of male 

identification manuals impedes their use (Rosen, 1990). Adhesive traps are the simplest and most 

inexpensive method of monitoring (Rosen, 1990). 

Cultural methods, such as regular watering and fertilization, should be employed to keep plants vigorous 

(Dreistadt, 1994). Ants should also be controlled because some of them tend scales and favor high pest 

populations (Dreistadt, 1994). Ants can be denied access to scale insects by coating the lower portion of 

plant stems with a sticky material and pruning plant parts that contact other objects (Dreistadt, 1994). 

High pressure water sprays can be used to physically remove mealybugs from infested plant material, but 

they are ineffective against most other scale insects (Dreistadt, 1994). If scales are localized to just a 

portion of the plant, then the infested area should be removed and destroyed (Dreistadt, 1994). 

Insecticidal soaps and narrow-range oils are effective against scale eggs and crawlers (Dreistadt, 1994; 

Rosen, 1990). Augmentive releases of commercially available natural enemies can severely reduce pest 

populations (Dreistadt, 1994; Rosen, 1990). Narrow spectrum or systemic insecticide may be needed 

when all else fails (Capinera, 2001; Dreistadt, 1994). 

In addition to inspection at the port of first arrival, post-entry inspections may be necessary to detect 

exotic scales and prevent them from establishing in the importing country (Rosen, 1990). 

3.6. Thrips 

Thrips cannot be effectively controlled with insecticides ( Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). A successful 

control program should, therefore, include monitoring, cultural, biological and chemical components. 

Thrips are extremely small, so monitoring requires a hand lens. Any plant part that is stippled, flecked 

with pale dots or distorted should be carefully examined (Dreistadt, 1994). Damage may persist long after 

the thrips population has been eradicated or controlled by natural forces (Dreistadt, 1994). For this reason, 

damage alone should not stimulate additional control measures (Dreistadt, 1994). In addition to inspecting 

damage, thrips can be sampled by beating foliage and branches (Dreistadt, 1994). Adult populations can 

also be monitored using yellow or blue sticky traps; the color depends on the species of interest (Dreistadt 

and Phillips, 2001). 

Any measure that improves plant health and removes conditions that favor increases in thrips populations 

should be employed. This includes the use of a fertilizer that releases nitrogen slowly, regular watering 

and selective pruning. Plants with high foliar nitrogen levels favor high thrips populations (Dreistadt and 

Phillips, 2001). Drought-stressed plants also favor high thrips populations (Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). 

For this reason, regular watering is encouraged. Overhead watering is beneficial because it removes dust 

particles that interfere with natural predators (Dreistadt, 1994). Infested and damaged plant parts should 

be removed and destroyed (Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). Old flowers should also be collected and 

destroyed (Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). Additional cultural methods, such as weed control and the use of 

reflective mulch, are encouraged because they can reduce the population of pest thrips (Dreistadt and 

Phillips, 2001). 

Insecticidal soaps and narrow-range oils are effective against thrips (Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). 

Augmentive releases of predaceous mites can severely reduce thrips populations (Dreistadt, 1994). A 

systemic insecticide may be need when all else fails (Dreistadt and Phillips, 2001). 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 40 

3.7. Snails and Slugs 

Chemicals alone rarely provide crops with adequate protection against pestiferous snails and slugs 

(Symondson, 1996). A combination of monitoring, cultural, and chemical controls are, therefore, 

recommended to manage pest species. 

The presence of snails and slugs can be detected using a variety of inexpensive and easily constructed 

traps. Inverted flower pots baited with grain or metaldehyde pellets, boards placed on the ground, and 

pitfall traps baited with beer or milk have all been used with some success (Capinera, 2001; Pirone, 1978; 

Symondson, 1996). Board traps are useful monitoring tools that also provide refugia for natural predators, 

like centipedes and ground beetles (Symondson, 1996). The rim of baited pitfall traps should be 1-2 cm 

above the soil line to avoid killing ground-dwelling beneficial arthropods (Symondson, 1996). In addition 

to providing a useful monitoring tool, pitfall traps can effectively reduce snail and slug populations when 

they are placed about a meter apart (Symondson, 1996). 

Any cultural control that reduces the favorability of the cultivated environment for snail and slug 

colonization or actively seeks to reduce snail and slug populations should be employed. This includes 

regular tilling of soil, ensuring that soil is properly drained, controlling weeds, removing crop debris, the 

use of barriers, and collecting snails and slugs by hand (Capinera, 2001; Pirone, 1978; Symondson, 1996). 

Snails and slugs are attracted to heavy wet soils, especially for oviposition (Capinera, 2001; Symondson, 

1996). Regular tilling and proper drainage makes soils less attractive to snail and slug populations 

(Capinera, 2001; Symondson, 1996). Tilling may also kill dormant snails and slugs and expose them and 

their eggs to natural predators (Pirone, 1978; Symondson, 1996). Weeds and crop debris act as refugia for 

snails and slugs, so they should be removed from the plantation (Coto and Saunders, 1987; Symondson, 

1996). Agricultural debris is actually used in Costa Rica as a trap for the slug Diplosolenodes occidentalis

(Coto and Saunders, 1987). Physical barriers of ash, copper, diatomaceous earth, egg shells, and sand may 

keep snails and slugs away from valuable plants (Capinera, 2001; Symondson, 1996). Finally, collecting 

snails and slugs at night by hand and killing them with salt or in boiling water can successfully reduce 

their populations (Symondson, 1996). 

Aluminum sulfate, copper sulfate, metaldehyde, and methiocarb are all used for snail and slug control 

(Capinera, 2001; Pirone, 1978; Symondson, 1996). Metaldehyde, unlike aluminum and copper sulfate, 

does not affect plant growth, and it is effective against most mollusks (Symondson, 1996). Metaldehyde 

pellets typically attract mollusks, but they should be spread thinly over an infested area to avoid repelling 

these organisms (Symondson, 1996). In addition to chemical control, a biological control program may be 

initiated (Symondson, 1996). 

3.8. Caldwelliola reservata, Oncometopia clarior (Cicadellidae), Ancistrocercus circumdatus, 

Erioloides consobrinus, Neoconocephalus affinis (Tettigoniidae) 

In addition to the Cicadellidae and Tettigoniidae species identified in this risk assessment, since 1984, 

over 7,000 pests belonging to these two familes have been intercepted on Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

(PestID, 2010, Appendix A). More than 5,000 interceptions were undetermined species within the family 

Ciccadellidae, and more than 2,000 interceptions were unknown individuals within the family 

Tettigoniidae. The interceptions comprised mostly eggs of these pests and most interceptions have been 

made from the leaves of Dracaena plants. Although pests identified to higher taxa (above species level) 

are not usually considered for further analysis (IPPC, 2007: ISPM #2), it is necessary to reduce the large 

number of interceptions of these pests (eggs, adults, and immature stages) with the commodity in future 

shipments. The possibility of introduction of a quarantine pest belonging to any of these identified species 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 41 

within these families seems high. Therefore, in this section we recommend mitigation options for these 

families. 

Management strategies are poorly defined or non-existent for many Orthoptera (Capinera, 2001). A 

typical integrated pest management program that relies on monitoring, cultural and chemical controls is 

therefore recommended. 

Visual inspection of the crop and nearby weedy areas is the only method available to detect orthopteran 

pest populations (Capinera, 2001). It is essential to identify all collected specimens to the specific level 

because many of the Orthoptera that occur in and around crops are not pests (Capinera, 2001). Land 

management is the most important element of an orthopteran pest control program (Capinera, 2001). 

Large patches of weedy vegetation that include a mixture of annual and perennial grasses favor 

orthopteran survival (Capinera, 2001). These areas should, therefore, be eliminated. Tillage is an effective 

method to remove weeds because it destroys the eggs of some pest species (Capinera, 2001). Tillage does 

not, however, remove eggs from the edges of fields, irrigation ditches, and roadways, which are favorite 

oviposition sites for some Orthoptera (Capinera, 2001). Physical barriers, like netting, have been used, but 

Orthoptera can chew through nets that are not constructed from metal screens (Capinera, 2001). Trenches 

with steep sides and vertical metal barriers topped with deflectors can prevent crickets from invading 

crops (Capinera, 2001). In addition to chemical control, biological control has been used (Capinera, 

2001). 

Recommendations were provided after the site visit to Dracaena spp. growers in Costa Rica in 2006 

(Lenis, 2006). To keep cicadellids and tettigoniids from entering the packinghouses and screened growing 

areas, the following measures could be taken: 

• Use appropriate screens 

• Enclose the area completely, avoiding gaps 

• Create a double-door system for entry and exit to the facility 

• Examine propagative material carefully prior to its introduction into the growing and packing areas 

• Place notices in the access doors warning personnel to keep doors closed at all times 

4. Authors and Reviewers 

Authors 

Keith E. Colpetzer, Entomologist, USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL 

Guillermo Sibaja Chinchilla, Entomologist, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Costa Rica 

Walter A. Gutierrez, Ph.D., Plant Pathologist, USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL 

Reviewers 

Gary L. Cave, Ph.D., Entomologist, USDA, APHIS, PPQ, CPHST, PERAL 
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 42 

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6. Appendices 

Appendix A: Pest Interceptions on Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Table A1. Pest interceptions for the period of 1984 to February 8, 2010 (PestID, 2010). 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Abgrallaspis cyanophylli (Signoret) 

(Diaspididae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Abgrallaspis sp. (Diaspididae) D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Acari, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 4 0 2 6

Acrolophus sp. (Acrolophidae) D. marginata 2 0 2

Agallia sp. (Cicadellidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Agriolimax reticulatus (Müller) 

(Agriolimacidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 2 3

Agroiconota sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Agromyzidae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Aleyrodidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Allopeas gracile (Hutton) (Subulinidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Allopeas micra (D’Orbigny) (Subulinidae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

Alphitobius sp. (Tenebrionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Alternaria sp. (Hyphomycetes) D. fragans cv 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Amblyrhetus sp. (Gryllidae) Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Anaulacomera sp. (Tettigoniidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Anchonus sp. (Curculionidae) D. fragrans 0 3 3

D. marginata 1 2 3

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Ancistrocercus circumdatus Walker 

(Tettigoniidae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Anobiidae, species of Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Anomala sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. marginata 0 3 3

Dracaena sp. 1 0 4 5

Anthophoridae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) 

(Diaspididae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Aonidiella sp. (Diaspididae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Aphididae, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 1 1 2

Aphodiinae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Araneae, species of D. reflexa 1 0 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 55 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Arctiidae, species of D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. marginata 2 0 1 3

Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Arctiinae, species of (Noctuidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Ascochyta sp. (Coelomycetes) D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 0 1 1

Ascomycete sp. Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Aspidiotus nerii Bouche. (Diaspididae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Aspidiotus sp. (Diaspididae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Asteraceae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Auchenorrhyncha, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Bagisara repanda Fabricius (Noctuidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Bagnalliella sp. (Phlaeothripidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Baridinae, species of (Curculionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Berecynthus hastator (Fabricius) 

(Pentatomidae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Blapstinus sp. (Tenebrionidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1 2

D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

D. marginata 0 3 3

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 2 0 8 11

Blattodea, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Botocudo sp. (Lygaeidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Botryosphaeria sp. (Botryosphaeriaceae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Brachybaenus sp. (Gryllacrididae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Braconidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Bradybaena similaris (Férrusac) 

(Bradybaenidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Brentus anchorago (Linnaeus) (Brentidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Brentus sp. (Brentidae) D. massangeana 0 1 1

Brevipalpus sp. (Tenuipalpidae) Dracaena sp. 3 0 3

Bulimulidae, sp. of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Bulimulus corneus (Sowerby) (Bulimulidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Bulimulus sp. (Bulimulidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Caenurgia togateria Walker (Noctuidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Crabidae, sp. of D. marginata 1 1 0 2

Crabodidae, sp. of D. marginata 1 0 1

Cassidinae, species of (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Cecidomyiidae, species of Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Cephaleuros virescens Kunze 

(Trentepohliaceae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Cerambycidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 56 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Ceraspis centralis Sharp (Scarabaeidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Ceraspis sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. fragrans cv. 2 0 2

D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Cercopidae, species of D. marginata 5 0 5

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Cercospora sp. (Hyphomycetes) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Cetoniinae, species of (Scarabaeidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton) 

(Thripidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Chaetanaphothrips signipennis (Bagnall) 

(Thripidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Charidotella sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. fragrans 0 1 1

Cholulu sp. (Heterogastridae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Chrysomelidae, species of D. marginata 4 0 4

Dracaena sp. 0 3 3

Chrysomphalus aoniidum (Linneaus) D. fragans 1 0 1

(Diaspididae) D. marginata 2 0 3 5

Dracaena sp. 1 7 1 13 22

Chrysomphalus dictyospermi (Morgan) 

(Diaspididae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Cicadella sp. (Cicadellidae) D. marginata 7 0 1 8

Dracaena sp. 1 0 3 4

Cicadella viridis (Linnaeus) (Cicadellidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Cicadellidae, species of D. bicolor 16 0 16

D. deremensis 4 0 1 5

D. fragrans 1 0 1 2

D. marginata 3 2353 3 4 0 189 2551

D. massangeana 3 0 3

D. reflexa 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 8 2366 8 2 1 268 2653

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Cicadellinae, species of (Cicadellidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Cicadellini, species of (Cicadellidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Cicadidae, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Cixiidae, species of D. warneckii 1 0 1

Cladosporium sp. (Hyphomycetes) D. marginata 0 1 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Clinodiplosis sp. (Cecidomyiidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 57 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Coccidae, species of D. bicolor 1 0 1

D. deremensis 2 0 1 3

D. marginata 41 0 4 45

Dracaena sp. 21 1 0 5 27

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Coccinrllidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Coccoidea, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 12 0 12

Cocconotus sp. (Tettigoniidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Coccotrypes sp. (Scolytidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 3 3

Cochliobolus lunatus R. R. Nelson & Haasis 

(Pleosporaceae) 

D. fragans 1 0 1

Cochliobolus sp. Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Colaspis sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 1 3

Coleoptera, species of D. fragans 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 5 1 0 5

Collaria oleosa (Distant) (Miridae) D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

Collembola, species of Dracaena sp. 2 0 1 3

Colletotrichum crassipes (Speg.) Arx D. deremensis 1 0 1

(Coelomycetes) D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 5 0 1 6

Colletotrichum dematium (Pers.:Fr.) Grove D. marginata 0 1 1

(Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz D. deremensis 1 0 1

& Sacc. (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 6 0 6

Colletotrichum sp. (Coelomycetes) D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 11 3 0 14

Coniothyrium dracaenae F. L. Stevens & D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

Weedon (Coelomycetes) D. marginata 1 0 1

Coniothyrium fuckelli Sacc (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Coniothyrium henriquesi (Thuem.) Tassi 

(Coelomycetes) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Coniothyrium sp. (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Conocephalus sp. (Tettigoniidae) D. marginata 45 0 45

Dracaena sp. 49 1 0 2 52

Conoderus pictus (Candeze) (Elateridae) D. marginata 0 1 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 58 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Conoderus rodriguezi Candeze (Elateridae) Dracaena sp. 1 1 2

Conoderus sp. (Elateridae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Conoderus varians (Steinheil) (Elateridae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Conotrachelus sp. (Curculionidae) D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

Copitarsia sp. (Noctuidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Coptotermes crassus Snyder 

(Rhinotermitidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Cordyceps sp. Acomycetes Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Coreidae, species of D. marginata 12 0 2 14

Dracaena sp. 10 0 3 13

Crematogaster sp. (Formicidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Cryptocephalus sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. marginata 0 1 1

Cryptorhynchinae, species of (Curculionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Cryptotermes sp. (Kalotermitidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Curculionidae, species of D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. marginata 0 3 3

D. massangeana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 3 4

Curvularia sp. (Hyphomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Cuscuta sp. (Convolvulaceae) D. fragrans 0 1 1

Cyclocephala amazona (Linnaeus) D. sanderiana 0 1 1

(Scarabaeidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Cyclocephala fulvipennis Burmeister 

(Scarabaeidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Cyclocephala sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. marginata 0 4 4

D. massangeana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 1 1 0 4 7

Cyrtoxipha sp. (Gryllidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dallasiellus sp. (Cydnidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Deroceras leave (Muller) (Agriolimacidae) D. deremensis 3 0 1 4

D. fragans cv 1 0 1

D. godseffiana 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 7 0 8 15

D. warneckii 0 1 1

Deroceras panormitanum (Lessona & 

Pollonera) (Agriolimacidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Deroceras sp. (Agriolimacidae) Dracaena sp. 1 2 0 2 5

Diaspididae, species of D. deremensis 16 0 16

D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 1 120 0 7 128

Dracaena sp. 179 0 25 204

Diastatidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 59 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Dichocysta pictioes Champion (Tingidae) D. reflexa 0 1 1

Dictyla monotropidia (Stal.) (Tingidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Didymella sp. (Pleosporaceae) D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

Didymosphaeria rubicola Berl D. fragans 8 0 1 9

(Didymosphaeriaceae) D. fragans cv 3 0 3

Dracaena sp. 7 0 2 9

Didymosphaeria sp. (Didymosphaeriaceae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 1 0 2

Diplopoda sp. Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Diplosolenodes occidentalis (Guilding) D. marginata 1 0 1

(Veronicellidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Diptera, species of D. deremensis 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Discula sp. Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Disonycha sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Ditaphronotus sp. (Tenebrionidae) D. fragans 1 0 1

Dorylaimoides sp. (Dorylaimiae) D. fragansa 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) alternans (Beck) 

(Bulimulidae) 

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) inusitatus (Fulton) 

(Bulimulidae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) recluzianus 

(Pfeiffer) (Bulimulidae) 

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) sulfureuss D. marginata 1 0 1 2

(Pfeiffer) (Bulimulidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

D. warneckii. 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) sulfureuss D. marginata 1 0 1

citronellus (Angas) (Bulimulidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Drymaeus (Mesembrinus) transluscens 

(Broderip) (Bulimulidae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Drymaeus sp. (Bulimulidae) D. marginata 6 0 2 8

Dracaena sp. 3 0 3 6

Dyscinetus sp. (Scarabaeidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) 

(Pseudococcidae) 

Dracaena sp. 2 2

Dysmicoccus mackenziei Beardsley 

(Pseudococcidae) 

D. marginata 1 1

Dysmicoccus sp. (Pseudococcidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Ecpantheria sp. (Arctiidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Elateridae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Elaterinae, species of (Elateridae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Elsinoe sp. (Elsinoaceae) D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 60 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Empoasca sp. (Cicadellidae) D. marginata 4 0 3 7

Dracaena sp. 3 0 1 4

Entiminae, species of (Curculionidae) D. massangeana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Epitragus sp. (Tenebrionidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Erioloides consobrinum (S.& P.) 

(Tettigoniidae) 

D. marginata 0 2 2

Erwinia sp. (Enterobacteriaceae) D. reflexa 0 1 1

Eubulus sp. (Curculionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Euetheola sp. (Scarabaeidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Euglandina sp. (Oleacinidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Euplatypus parallelus (Fabricius) 

(Platipodidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Eurychilella sp. (Miridae) D. marginata 0 3 3

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Euschistus sp. (Pentatomidae) D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Exophthalmus jekelianus (White) D. marginata 0 1 1

(Curculionidae) D. massangeana 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Exophthalmus sp. (Curculionidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Ferrisia sp. (Pseudococcidae) D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) (Pseudococcidae) D. marginata 5 0 5

Dracaena sp. 5 2 7

Flatidae, species of D. reflexa 0 1 1

Frankliniella minuta (Moulton) (Thripidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Frankliniella sp. (Thripidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Fulgoridae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Fulvus sp. (Miridae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Fusarium oxysporum Schlech 

(Hyphomycetes) 

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Fusarium sp. (Hyphomycetes) D. deremensis 0 1 1

D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 3 0 4 7

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Fusicoccum sp. (Coelomycetes) D. reflexa 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Gastrocopta sp. (Pupillidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Gelechiidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Gelechioidea, species of Dracaena sp. 0 1 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 61 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Geometridae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

D. massangeana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Geraeus sp. (Curculionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Glomerella cingulata (Stoneman) D. deremensis 2 0 2

(Glomerellaceae) Dracaena sp. 3 1 0 4

Glomerella sp. (Glomerellaceae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 5 0 3 8

Glyphonyx sp. (Elateridae) D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Gonatocerus sp. (Mymaridae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Gonatoides sp. (Rhyparochromidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Gongrocnemis sp. (Tettigoniidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Gracillariidae, species of D. marginata 3 0 1 4

Dracaena sp. 3 0 3

Gryllidae, species of D. fragrans 2 0 1 3

D. fragrans cv. 2 0 2

D. marginata 4 0 4 8

D. massangeana 1 0 1

D. reflexa 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 8 0 23 31

Gryllodes sigillatus (Walker, F.) (Gryllidaeae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Gryllus sp. (Gryllidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Guignardia sp. (Botryosphaeriaceae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Guppya gundlachi (Pfeiffer) (Euconulidae) D. deremensis 4 1 5

D. godseffiana. 1 0 1

D. marginata 2 0 2 4

D. reflexa 0 1 1

D. sanderianaa 1 0 1

Dracaena sp 1 21 1 0 18 41

D. surculosa 0 1 1

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Gypona sp. (Cicadellidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Haplia fusculalis (Hampson) (Pyralidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Hemiptera, species of) D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Hemisphaeriales, species of D. fragrans 2 0 2

Hendersonias sp. (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Hepialidae, species of D. fragrans 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 4 0 4
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 62 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Herminiinae, species of (Noctuidae) D. fragrans 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Heterodera sp. (Heteroderidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Heteropsylla sp. (Psyllidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Heteroptera, species of D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. fragrans 2 0 2

D. marginata 46 0 4 50

Dracaena sp. 29 0 3 32

Histiostoma sp. (Psyllidae) D. deremensis 1 1

Homophoeta cyanipennis octomaculata 

(Crotch) (Chrysomelidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Homoptera, species of D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. fragrans 1 0 1 2

D. marginata 22 0 2 24

Dracaena sp. 21 0 5 26

Homorocoryphus sp. (Tettigoniidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Hoplosphyrum sp. (Gryllidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Hymenoptera, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 3 0 3 6

Hypothenemus sp. (Scolytidae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Hysterium sp. D. fragrans 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) (Aphididae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Insect, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Insecta, species of D. bicolor 1 0 1

D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. fragrans 1 1 0 2

D. marginata 51 0 4 55

D. massangeana 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 38 0 3 41

Ischnocodia annulus (Fabricius) 

(Chrysomelidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Isopoda, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Lagocheirus sp. (Cerambycidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Lasiocampidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Lasiodiplodia sp. (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 1

Leidyula moreleti (Fischer) (Veronicellidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 63 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Lepidoptera, species of D. deremensis 2 0 1 3

D. fragrans 0 2 2

D. marginata 32 0 9 41

D. sanderiana 4 0 4

Dracaena sp. 48 0 11 59

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Lepidosaphes sp. (Diaspididae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Leptinaria unilamellata (D'Orbigny) 

(Subulinidae) 

Dracaena sp. 2 0 3 5

Leptosphaeria sp. (Leptosphaeriaceae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 1 2

Leptosphaerulina sp. (Pleosporaceae) Dracaena sp. 1 1 0 2

Lepturges sp. (Cerambicidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Leucania latiuscula (Herrich-Shaeffer) 

(Noctuidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Leucothrips sp. (Thripidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 3 0 3

Leucothyreus sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Liardettia sp. (Euconulidae) Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Limacodidae, species of Dracaena sp. 2 1 0 3

D. surculosa 0 1 1

Lirometopum coronatum (Tettigoniidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Listronotus sp. (Curculionidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Lobometopon sp. (Tenebrionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Loxa viridis (palisot de Beauvois) 

(Pentatomidae) 

D. fragrans 0 1 1

Lycaenidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Lygaeidae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Lygaeoidea, species of D. deremensis 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 3 0 1 4

Lymantriidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Lymnaea sp. (Lymnaeidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Lymnaeidae, species of Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Lyonetiidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Macrophoma sp. (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Margarodidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Megapenthes sp. (Elateridae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Melanocoryphus lateralis (Dallas) 

(Lygaeidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Melanopleurus bistrangularis (Say) D. marginata 2 0 5 7

(Lygaeidae) Dracaena sp. 2 1 0 2 5

Melyridae, species of D. fragrans 0 1 1

Membracidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Mesocordylus sp. (Dryophthoridae) D. fragrans 0 1 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 64 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Metamasius hemipterus (Linnaeus) D. fragrans 0 1 1

(Dryophthoridae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Metamasius hemipterus carbonarius

(Chevrolat) (Dryophthoridae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Metamasius hemipterus sericeus (Olivier) 

(Dryophthoridae) 

D. marginata 0 2 2

Microsphaeropsis fuckelli (Sacc) 

(Coelomycetes) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Microsphaeropsis sp. (Coelomycetes) D. marginata 0 1 1

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 7 2 0 5 14

Mikania sp. (Asteraceae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Miridae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 1 2

Mollusca, species of D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 1 3

Mononchus sp. (Mononchidae) D. fragans 0 2 2

Mycosphaerella dracaenae Tass 

(Mycosphaerellaceae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Mycosphaerella sp. (Mycosphaerellaceae) D. marginata 1 1 0 2

Dracaena sp. 5 0 2 7

Myochrous sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 2 2

Myodocha sp. (Rhyparochromidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Myrothecium roridum FR. (Mononchidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Nasutitermes ephratae (Holmgren) D. marginata 1 0 1

(Termitidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Nasutitermes guayanae Columbicus 

Holmgren (Termitidae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Nasutitermes sp. (Termitidae) D. marginata 0 2 2

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Naupactus sp. (Curculionidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Neoconocephalus affinis (Beauvois) 

(Tettigoniidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Neoconocephalus sp. (Tettigoniidae) D. marginata 0 3 3

Dracaena sp. 2 1 0 3

Neopamera neotropicalis (Kirkaldy) 

(Rhyparochromidae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Neopamera sp. (Rhyparochromidae) D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Neuroptera, species of Dracaena sp. 3 0 3

Nitidulidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 0 2 2
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 65 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Noctuidae, species of D. bicolor 1 0 1

D. marginata 83 0 5 88

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 94 1 1 0 18 114

Noctuinae, species of (Noctuidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Notodontidae, species of Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Nysius sp. (Lygaeidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Ochlerus cinctus Spinola (Pentatomidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Ochrimnus carnosulus (Van Duzee) 

(Lygaeidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Oecophoridae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Oligosita sp. (Trichogrammatidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Ophiobolus sp. D. fragrans 1 0 1

Ophiodothella sp. (Phyllachoraceae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Ophiosphaerella sp. D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Opogona sp. (Tineidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Oribatida, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Orocharis saltator Uhlu (Gryllidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Orocharis sp. (Gryllidae) D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Orthoptera, species of D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

D. marginata 45 0 1 46

Dracaena sp. 46 2 0 3 51

Ovachlamys fulgens (Gude) (Helicarionidae) D. deremensis 3 0 3

D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. godseffiana 3 0 3

D. marginata 11 0 1 12

D. reflexa 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 50 2 1 29 82

D. surculosa 0 1 1

D. warneckii 2 0 1 3

Oxythyrea sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Ozophora concava (Distant) D. marginata 0 1 1

(Rhyparochromidae) Dracaena sp. 1 1

Ozophora sp. (Rhyparochromidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Pallifera costaricensis (Mörch) D. deremensis 1 0 1

(Philomycidae) D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 9 1 0 2 12

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Pangaeus bilineatuss (Say) (Cydnidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pangaeus piceatus Stal (Cydnidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1
Pest Risk Assessment for Oversized Dracaena spp. from Costa Rica 

Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 66 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Paragonatas divergens (Distant) D. fragrans 1 0 1

(Rhyparochromidae) D. marginata 0 2 rs

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Paraphaeosphaeria obtusispora (Speg.) 

Erikss 

D. marginata 4 0 1 5

(Phaeosphaeriaceae) Dracaena sp. 10 0 2 12

Paraphaeosphaeria sp. (Phaeosphaeriaceae) D. bicolor 1 0 1

D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 7 0 7

Paratrechina sp. (Formicidae) D. marginata 0 2 1

Paroecanthus annulatus (Scudder) 

(Gryllidae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Paroecanthus sp. (Gryllidae) D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Pediculaster sp. (Pygmephoridae) D. fragans 0 1 1

Penicillium sp. (Hyphomycetes) D. fragans 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pentatomidae, species of D. cordyline 1 0 1

D. deremensis 4 0 4

D. fragrans 2 0 2 4

D. marginata 106 0 14 120

D. sanderiana 3 0 3

Dracaena sp. 128 1 0 21 150

Pentatomoidea, species of D. bicolor 1 0 1

D. marginata 21 0 21

Dracaena sp. 44 0 44

Pestalotiopsis sp. (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 1 1 2

Phaeoseptoria sp. (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans 0 2 2

D. marginata 0 2 2

D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 8 0 5 13

Phaeosphaeria sp. (Phaeosphaeriaceae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

D. sanderiana 0 2 2

Dracaena sp. 12 2 0 3 17

Pheidole punctatissima Mayr (Formicidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pheidole sp. (Formicidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Pheloconus sp. (Curculionidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Phileurus sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Phoma draconis (Berk. Ex. Cooke) Boerema 

(Coelomycetes) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 67 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Phoma sp. (Coelomycetes) D. deremensis 1 0 1 2

D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1

D. massangeana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 9 0 9 18

D. warneckii 2 0 2

Phomatospora sp. D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Phomopsis dracaenae Sahni (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Phomopsis sp. (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans 1 0 2 3

D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 8 4 0 4 16

Phyllachora sp. (Phyllachoraceae) D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Phyllophaga sp. (Scarabaeidae) D. fragrans 2 0 2

D. fragrans cv. 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 4 5

Phyllosticta cordylinophila P.A. Young D. marginata. 1 0 1

(Phyllachoraceae) Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Phyllosticta dracaenae P. Henn. D. compacta 1 0 1

(Coelomycetes) D. marginata 1 0 1

Phyllosticta sp. (Coelomycetes) Dracaena sp. 3 0 1 4

Physorhinus sp. (Elateridae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret). D. marginata 1 0 1

(Diaspididae) Dracaena sp. 4 0 1 5

Pinnaspis buxi (Bouche). (Diaspididae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Pinnaspis sp. (Diaspididae) D. marginata 8 0 1 9

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley). (Diaspididae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 2 1 0 3

Platyarthron chilense Thompson 

(Cerambycidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Platynota sp. (Tortricidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Platypodidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Platypus sp. (Platypodidae) D. fragrans 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 5 0 5

Pleospora sp. (Pleosporaceae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Plusiinae, species of (Noctuidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Plutella xylostella (Linneaus) (Plutellidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 68 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Plutellidae, species of D. bicolor 0 1 1

D. marginata 5 0 1 6

Dracaena sp. 5 0 1 6

Praticolella griseola (Pfeiffer) (Polygyridae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Pseudalacapsis cockerelli (Cooley) 

(Diaspididae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pseudococcidae, species of D. cordyline 1 0 1

D. deremensis 11 0 11

D. fragrans 1 0 1 2

D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

D. godseffiana 3 0 3

D. marginata 201 6 1 26 234

D. sanderiana 5 0 1 6

Dracaena sp. 1 228 4 8 0 54 295

D. surculosa 1 0 1

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Pseudococcus elisae Borchsenius D. marginata 1 0 1 2

(Pseudococcidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel & D. marginata 2 0 1 3

Miller (Pseudococcidae) Dracaena sp. 4 0 4

Pseudococcus landoi (Balachowsky) D. marginata 2 0 1 3

(Pseudococcidae) Dracaena sp. 1 1 0 2

Pseudococcus longipinus (Targioni -Tozzetti) D. deremensis 3 0 3

Pseudococcidae) D. marginata 8 0 8

D. sanderiana 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 9 0 9

Pseudococcus sp. (Pseudococcidae) D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 3 0 3

Dracaena sp. 1 2 1 1 0 5

Pseudomassaria, species of D. fragans cv 1 0 1

Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides (Comstock) 

(Diaspididae) 

D. marginata 1 0 1

Pseudophyllinae, species of (Tettigoniidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) (Noctuidae) D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Pseudorobillarda sp. Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Psocidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Psocoptera, species of D. marginata 3 0 1 4

Dracaena sp. 3 0 1 4

Psychidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Psyllidae, species of D. marginata 0 1 1

Pterophoridae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Ptinidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Pulvinaria sp. (Coccidae) D. marginata 1 0 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 69 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Pupisoma dioscoricola (C.B. Adams) D. deremensis 2 0 2

(Valloniidae) D. marginata 2 1 3

Dracaena sp. 2 3 5

Pyralidae, species of D. fragrans 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 1 0 2

Pyraustinae, species of (Crambidae) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Reduviidaes sp. D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2 4

Rhabditidae, species of (Crambidae) D. marginata 1 1 0 2

Rhabdopterus sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 2 2

D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Rhyparochrominae, species of 

(Rhyparochromidae) 

D. marginata 0 1 1

Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton D. deremensis 1 0 1

(Poaceae) D. marginata 1 3 1 0 10 15

Dracaena sp. 1 1 0 14 16

Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (Coccidae) D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Sarasinula plebeia (Fischer) (Veronicellidae) D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 1 0 2 3

Dracaena sp. 5 1 0 8 14

Saturniidae, species of D. fragrans 1 0 1

Scarabaeidae, species of D. fragrans 0 1 1

Sciaridae, sp. (Coelomycetes) D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 2 5 7

Septoria sp. (Coelomycetes) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Silvanidae, species of Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Solanum torvum Swartz (Solanaceae) D. fragrans 1 0 1

Spodoptera eridania (Cramer) (Noctuidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Spodoptera sp. (Noctuidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Stenodontes sp. (Cerambicidae) D. fragans 0 1 1

Sternorrhyncha, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Strabala sp. (Chrysomelidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Stratiomyidae, species of D. massangeana 0 1 1

Subulina octona (Burguiere) (Subulinidae) D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 0 5 5

Subulinidae, species of Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Succinea cf. costaricana Von Martens 

(Succineidae) 

Dracaena sp. 1 1 2 4
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 70 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Succinea costaricana Von Martens D. deremensis 4 0 6 10

(Succineidae) D. fragrans 2 0 1 3

D. godseffiana 3 26 1 0 9 39

D. marginata 90 0 40 130

D. reflexa 0 2 2

D. sanderiana 1 0 4 5

Dracaena sp. 3 260 3 5 1 202 474

D. surculosa 2 0 2

D. warneckii 1 0 1

Succinea sp. (Succineidae) D. deremensise 0 1 1

D. fragans 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 3 1 1 5

Syrphidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 4 0 1 5

Tapinoma melanocephallum (Fabricius) 

(Formicidae) 

D. marginata 1 1

Tarsonemus confuses Ewing (Tarsonemidae) Dracaena sp. 1 1

Tarsonemus sp. (Tarsonemidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Tenebrionidae, species of D. marginata 1 0 1

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Termitidae, species of D. marginata 0 2 2

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Tetramoriun bicarinatum (Nylander) 

(Formicidae) 

D. marginata 1 1

Tetranychidae, species of D. cordyline 3 0 3

D. marginata 14 0 2 16

D. sanderiana 3 0 3

Dracaena sp. 64 0 1 65

Tetranychus sp. (Tetranychidae) Dracaena sp. 21 1 0 1 23

Tettigidea lateralis (Say) (Tetrigidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Tettigidea sp. (Tetrigidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Tettigometridae, species of D. marginata 3 0 1 4

Dracaena sp. 1 5 1 0 4 11

Tettigoniidae, species of D. bicolor 9 0 9

D. cordyline 0 1 1

D. deremensis 5 0 5

D. fragrans 1 0 2 3

D. fragrans cv. 0 1 1

D. marginata 982 2 0 80 1064

D. massangeana 2 0 2

D. reflexa 5 0 5

D. sanderiana 5 0 5

Dracaena sp. 1 1026 4 1 0 86 1118

D. warneckii 1 0 1
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Ver. 3 September 28, 2011 71 

Pest Host Interceptions 

Cutting Leaf Plant Stem Other N/A Total

Tettigoniinae, species of (Tettigoniidae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 1 3

Thripidae, species of D. marginata 2 0 2

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Tineidae, species of D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 2 0 1 3

Dracaena sp. 1 3 0 4

Totinotus unicetosuss Froeshner (Cynidae) D. deremensis 0 1 1

Tortricidae, species of D. marginata 3 0 6 9

D. sanderiana 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 9 0 2 11

Tortricinae, species of (Tortricidae) D. marginata 1 0 1 2

Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Ttrentepholia sp. (Chrysomelidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Trichoptera, species of (Tortricidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Trullula melanchlora sp. (Chrysomelidae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 2

Typhlocybinae, species of (Cicadellidae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Typophorus sp. (Chrysomelidae) D. marginata 0 1 1

Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) D. fragrans 1 0 1

(Acaridae) Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Valtissius sp. (Rhyparochromidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Veronicellidae, species of D. deremensis 1 0 1

D. marginata 1 0 2 3

Dracaena sp. 0 2 2

Vertiginidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Volutella buxi (Fr) (Berk. & Br. Acomycetes Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Xyleborus afinis Eichhof (Scolytidae) Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Xyleborus ferrugineus (Fabricius) 

(Scolytidae) 

Dracaena sp. 0 1 1

Xyleborus sp. (Scolytidae) D. fragrans 0 1 1

D. marginata 0 1 1

Dracaena sp. 1 0 1 2

Zonitidae, species of Dracaena sp. 1 0 1

Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Gastrodontidae) Dracaena sp. 2 0 3 5

Grand totals 23 9,415 38 134 14 1,548 11,172