CBM 2002-3

Management of Hepatitis C: 2002

 January 1997 through April 2002

4841 Citations

Prepared by

Kristine M. Scannell, M.S.L.S., National Library of Medicine

Carolyn C. Willard, M.L.S., National Library of Medicine

Leonard B. Seeff, M.D., National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases

2002 June

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

 AND HUMAN SERVICES

Public Health Service

National Institutes of Health

National Library of Medicine

Reference Section

8600 Rockville Pike

Bethesda, Maryland 20894
ii

SERIES NOTE

Each bibliography in the Current Bibliographies in Medicine (CBM) series covers a distinct subject area of

biomedicine and fulfills a current awareness function. Online databases and the Internet are the primary

sources for citations in these bibliographies. Relevance to the subject is the only criterion for inclusion of

works in a CBM; the format, ownership, or location of the material are not considered.

Other publications in the Current Bibliographies in Medicine series are available through the Library's

World Wide Web site at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/resources.html

Comments and suggestions on this series may be addressed to:

Karen Patrias, Editor

Current Bibliographies in Medicine

Reference Section

National Library of Medicine

Bethesda, MD 20894

Phone: 301-496-6097

E-mail: custserv@nlm.nih.gov

PubMed®, LOCATORplus®, and the NLM Gateway

The Library offers three interfaces to its databases; all are available on the World Wide Web. PubMed

provides access primarily to the journal literature; LOCATORplus is an online catalog of the books, journal

titles, and audiovisuals held by the Library; and the NLM Gateway serves as an entry point for a variety of

databases and other Library products. Further information on PubMed, LOCATORplus, and the NLM

Gateway may be found at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/.
iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

Natural History

Course and Outcome of Hepatitis C 1

Burden of Hepatitis C in the U.S. 17

Natural History of Chronic Hepatitis C 18

Fibrosis and Disease Progression 29

Non-invasive Monitoring of Hepatitis C 36

Use and Interpretation of Virologic Tests 43

Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Hepatitis C 66

Epidemiology and Spread

Epidemiology and the Prevention and Spread of Hepatitis C Virus 84

Sexual Transmission 118

Maternal-Infant Transmission 120

Therapy of Hepatitis C

Introduction to the Therapy of Hepatitis C 125

Optimal Therapy of Hepatitis C 152

Retreatment of Hepatitis C 159

Issues in Therapy of Hepatitis C

Monitoring Viral Levels During Therapy 161

Role of Liver Biopsy in Therapy 161 

Therapy in Special Situtations

Children with Hepatitis C 166 

Patients with Normal ALT Levels 171

Patients with Cirrhosis 173

Acute Hepatitis C 174

Treatment of Special Patient Groups

Hepatitis C and HIV 175

Injecting Drug Use and Hepatitis C 185

Alcohol Use and Hepatitis C 193

Other Special Populations 195

Side Effects and Future Therapies

Side Effects of Therapy and Management 210

Future Therapies of Hepatitis C 218

Animal Models 221

Pathogenesis of Hepatitis C 222

Rheumatology and Hepatitis C 233

Transplants and Hepatitis C 248

Immunology and Hepatitis C 262
iv
v

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis C is the most common viral infection in the United States. The virus infects approximately 2% of

the U.S., which translates to about 4 million infected persons. Globally, it is believed there are between 140

million and 170 million people with this virus. The infection begins insidiously and progresses from acute

to chronic hepatitis in 50% to 85% of those initially infected. A proportion of those with chronic hepatitis C

will advance, usually silently, to develop cirrhosis and, in a smaller fraction, to primary liver cancer.

Indeed, chronic hepatitis C is now the most common basis requiring liver transplantation and the most

common cause in the U.S. for developing liver cancer.

Although efforts to develop a vaccine to prevent the infection have so far been unsuccessful, treatment and

management of the illness have been possible and thus have received much attention. Such treatment has

been difficult because response rates, as defined by sustained loss of virus, were for a long time quite low,

and side effects of treatment have been extremely common and unpleasant.

Because of the difficulties regarding treatment of this common infection, the National Institutes of Health

(NIH) decided in 1997 to hold a Consensus Development Conference on Hepatitis C. This successful

conference developed guidelines for management and treatment that represented the state of the art for

several years. However, because the response rate at the time was limited, and because only focused

treatment trials had been conducted, recommendation for treatment was restricted to a select population.

In the five years since the first NIH Consensus Conference, a great deal more has been learned about

diagnostic tests, the natural history of the disease, the pathogenesis, and the management and treatment. In

particular, treatment effectiveness has increased greatly and it appears that some genetic forms of the

infection can now be cured in most instances. Still, although treatment effectiveness has improved, the

response rate is far from ideal among those with the most common genetic form of the viral infection. It

does appear, however, that certain subgroups of infected persons who were excluded from treatment at the

time of the first NIH Consensus Conference, are now regarded as acceptable candidates for treatment

consideration.

Because of the remarkable increase in knowledge of hepatitis C in the past five years, the NIH has decided

to hold a second Consensus Development Conference on hepatitis C. The Conference will review the

advances that have occurred, update the medical community and public of these advances, and consider

modifications of the original guidelines. This bibliography has been prepared in support of the conference

titled Management of Heptitis C: 2002 to be held on June 10-12, 2002 in Bethesda, MD. For this

bibliography a search was conducted of the vast literature that has accumulated on this topic in the interim.

It contains selected citations to journal articles mainly in English from January 1997 to April 2002.

References appear in fifteen broad categories that parallel the topics presented at the Conference. An item

may appear in more than one category.

For a literature review on hepatitis C before 1997, please see Current Bibliographies in Medicine no. 97-1,

Management of Hepatitis C, found at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/cbm/Hepatitis_C.html.

The compilers wish to thank Oluchi Ukaegbu, National Library of Medicine, for her valuable production

assistance.

This publication is not copyrighted and may be freely reproduced. However any reproductions of this

bibliography, in whole or in part, should include all credits. If you wish to cite this bibliography, the correct

format is:

Scannell, Kristine M.; Willard, Carolyn C.; Seeff, Leonard B., compilers. Management of hepatitis C: 2002

[bibliography on the Internet]. Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine (US); 2002 Jun . 280 p.

(Current bibliographies in medicine; no. 2002-3). 4841 citations from January 1997 through June 2002.

Available from: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/cbm/hepatitis_c_2002.pdf
vi

SAMPLE CITATIONS

Citations are formatted according to the rules established for Index Medicus®*. Sample journal citations

appear below. For journal articles written in a foreign language, the English translation of the title displays

in brackets and the three-letter abbreviation for the language of publication appears at the end of the

citation.

An availability statement follows many journal article citations. This statement contains the identification

number (PMID) for the citation in the NLM PubMed retrieval system. The user may enter this number in

PubMed on the NLM Web site (http://pubmed.gov/) to retrieve the record, which includes an abstract for

most articles and may also provide a link to the publisher's Internet site.

Journal Articles:

Example:

Liang TJ, Rehermann B, Seeff LB, Hoofnagle JH. Pathogenesis, natural history, treatment, and prevention

of hepatitis C. Ann Intern Med. 2000 Feb 15;132(4):296-305. Available from: PubMed; PMID 10681285.

Order, with separating punctuation:

Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, Author 4. Article Title. Abbreviated Journal Title.

Date;Volume(Issue):Pages. Availability.

Example:

Seeff LB, Miller RN, Rabkin CS, Buskell-Bales Z, Straley-Eason KD, Smoak BL, Johnson LD, Lee SR,

Kaplan EL. 45-year follow-up of hepatitis C virus infection in healthy young adults. Ann Intern Med. 2000

Jan 18;132(2):105-11. Available from: PubMed; PMID 10644270.

Order, with separating punctuation:

Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, Author 4, Author 5, Author 6, Author 7, Author 8, Author 9. Article Title.

Abbreviated Journal Title. Date;Volume(Issue):Pages. Availability.

* For details of the formats used for references, see the following publications:

Patrias, Karen. National Library of Medicine recommended formats for bibliographic citation. Bethesda

(MD): The Library; 1991 Apr. Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB91-182030.

Patrias, Karen. National Library of Medicine recommended formats for bibliographic citation. Supplement:

Internet formats. Bethesda (MD): The Library; 2001 Jul. Available from:

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/formats/internet.pdf
1

Natural History

- Course and Outcome of Hepatitis C

Abe T, Nakajima A, Matsunaga M, Sakuragi S, Komatsu M.

Decreased tear lactoferrin concentration in patients with

chronic hepatitis C. Br J Ophthalmol. 1999 Jun;83(6):684-7.

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Abe Y, Tanaka Y, Takenaka M, Yoshida H, Yatsuhashi H,

Yano M. Leucocytoclastic vasculitis associated with mixed

cryoglobulinaemia and hepatitis C virus infection. Br J

Dermatol. 1997 Feb;136(2):272-4. Available from: PubMed;

PMID 9068749

Abu-Shakra M, Sukenik S, Buskila D. Systemic sclerosis:

another rheumatic disease associated with hepatitis C virus

infection. Clin Rheumatol. 2000;19(5):378-80. Available

from: PubMed; PMID 11055827

Adams G, Kuntz S, Rabalais G, Bratcher D, Tamburro CH,

Kotwal GJ. Natural recovery from acute hepatitis C virus

infection by agammaglobulinemic twin children. Pediatr

Infect Dis J. 1997 May;16(5):533-4. Available from:

PubMed; PMID 9154556

Adinolfi LE, Andreana A, Utili R, Zampino R, Ragone E,

Ruggiero G. HCV RNA levels in serum, liver, and peripheral

blood mononuclear cells of chronic hepatitis C patients and

their relationship to liver injury. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998

Nov;93(11):2162-6. Available from: PubMed; PMID

9820390

Agarwal S, Gockerman JP, Aldous MD, Swaim MW.

Primary central nervous system lymphoma, presenting as

diabetes insipidus, as a sequela of hepatitis C. Am J Med.

1999;107(3):303-4. Available from: PubMed; PMID

10492338

Agnello V. Hepatitis C virus infection and type II

cryoglobulinemia: an immunological perspective.

Hepatology. 1997 Dec;26(6):1375-9. Erratum in: Hepatology

1998 Mar;27(3):889. Available from: PubMed; PMID

9397973

Agnello V. Mixed cryoglobulinaemia after hepatitis C virus:

more and less ambiguity. Ann Rheum Dis. 1998

Dec;57(12):701-2. Available from: PubMed; PMID

10070267

Agnello V, Abel G. Localization of hepatitis C virus in

cutaneous vasculitic lesions in patients with type II

cryoglobulinemia. Arthritis Rheum. 1997 Nov;40(11):2007-

15. Available from: PubMed; PMID 9365090

Agnello V, Liang TJ. Is hepatitis C virus a

sialodacryoadenitis virus? Hepatology. 1997 Aug;26(2):509-

10. Available from: PubMed; PMID 9252169

Ahmed ME, al-Knaway B, al-Wabel AH, Malik GM, Foli

AK. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in southern Saudi

Arabia. J R Coll Physicians Lond. 1997 Jan-Feb;31(1):62-4.

Available from: PubMed; PMID 9044201

Ahmed S, Shurafa MS, Bishop CR, Varterasian M.

Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia in young AfricanAmerican adults. Am J Hematol. 1999 Mar;60(3):229-30.

Available from: PubMed; PMID 10072116

Al-Awami Y, Sears DA, Carrum G, Udden MM, Alter BP,

Conlon CL. Pure red cell aplasia associated with hepatitis C

infection. Am J Med Sci. 1997 Aug;314(2):113-7. Available

from: PubMed; PMID 9258213

Albalate M, Farinas MC, Octavio JG, Perez JH, Goicoechea

M, Caramelo C. Development of porphyria cutanea tarda in a

hemodialysis patient after reactivation of hepatitis C virus

infection. Nephron. 2001 Jun;88(2):170-3. Available from:

PubMed; PMID 11399922

Alexander GJ. An association between hepatitis C virus

infection and type 2 diabetes mellitus: what is the

connection? Ann Intern Med. 2000 Oct 17;133(8):650-2.

Available from: PubMed; PMID 11033595

Alter H. Discovery of non-A, non-B hepatitis and

identification of its etiology. Am J Med. 1999 Dec

27;107(6B):16S-20S. Available from: PubMed; PMID

10653450

Alvares-Da-Silva MR, Francisconi CF, Waechter FL. Acute

hepatitis C complicated by pancreatitis: another extrahepatic

manifestation of hepatitis C virus? J Viral Hepat. 2000

Jan;7(1):84-6. Available from: PubMed; PMID 10718948

Amin GA, El Biali M, Esmail Y, El Ibrahim SH, Nagy A,

Fadali G, Zaki A. Study of iron status in patients with

chronic hepatitis C with and without schistosomal hepatic

fibrosis. J Med Res Inst. 1999;20(1):101-11.

Amin Gamal AM, Esmael Y, Nagy A, Zaki A. Assessment

of patients with schistosomal hepatic fibrosis with and

without chronic hepatitis C by some fibrogenesis markers,

abdominal ultrasonography and liver histopathology. J Med

Res Inst. 1999;20(1):112-24.

Amoroso P, Rapicetta M, Tosti ME, Mele A, Spada E,

Buonocore S, Lettieri G, Pierri P, Chionne P, Ciccaglione

AR, Sagliocca L. Correlation between virus genotype and

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Jun;28(6):939-44. Available from: PubMed; PMID 9672167

Aquino RT, Chieffi PP, Catunda SM, Araujo MF, Ribeiro

MC, Taddeo EF, Rolim EG. Hepatitis B and C virus markers

among patients with hepatosplenic mansonic schistosomiasis.

Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2000 Nov-Dec;42(6):313-20.

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Nakamura I, Suzuki Y, Saitoh S, Kobayashi M, Kobayashi

M, Kobayashi M, Kumada H. Clinical and virological

features of chronic hepatitis C carriers with normal alanine

aminotransferase levels despite positive serum HCV-RNA
2

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Arase Y, Ikeda K, Chayama K, Murashima N, Tsubota A,

Suzuki Y, Saitoh S, Kobayashi M, Kobayashi M, Suzuki F,

Kumada H. Fluctuation patterns of HCV-RNA serum level in

patients with chronic hepatitis C. J Gastroenterol.

2000;35(3):221-5. Available from: PubMed; PMID

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Arico M, Bissolati M, Bossi G, Asti M, Cerino A, Caselli D,

Ricci A, Klersy C, Silini E, Mondelli MU. GB virus type C

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Available from: PubMed; PMID 10037134

Armstrong SA, Gangam N, Chipman ML, Rootman DS. The

prevalence of positive hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV

serology in cornea donors prescreened by medical and social

history in Ontario, Canada. Cornea. 1997 Sep;16(5):512-6.

Available from: PubMed; PMID 9294680

Arrieta JJ, Rodriguez-Inigo E, Casqueiro M, Bartolom?e J,

Manzarbeitia F, Herrero M, Pardo M, Carreno V. Detection

of hepatitis C virus replication by In situ hybridization in

epithelial cells of anti-hepatitis C virus-positive patients with

and without oral lichen planus. Hepatology. 2000

Jul;32(1):97-103. Available from: PubMed; PMID 10869295

Arrieta JJ, Rodriguez-Inigo E, Ortiz-Movilla N, Bartolome J,

Pardo M, Manzarbeitia F, Oliva H, Macias DM, Carreno V.

In situ detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in salivary glands.

Am J Pathol. 2001 Jan;158(1):259-64. Available from:

PubMed; PMID 11141499

Ascoli V, Lo Coco F, Artini M, Levrero M, Fruscalzo A,

Mecucci C. Primary effusion Burkitt's lymphoma with

t(8;22) in a patient with hepatitis C virus-related cirrhosis.

Hum Pathol. 1997 Jan;28(1):101-4. Comment in: Hum

Pathol. 1997 Dec;28(12):1439-40. Available from: PubMed;

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Ascoli V, Lo Coco F, Artini M, Levrero M, Martelli M,

Negro F. Extranodal lymphomas associated with hepatitis C

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Bacon BR. Iron and hepatitis C. Gut. 1997 Jul;41(1):127-8.

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May;42(5):759-60. Available from: PubMed; PMID 9274485

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Banner BF, Karamitsios N, Smith L, Bonkovsky HL.

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Am J Gastroenterol. 1998 Sep;93(9):1541-5. Available from:

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Banno H, Takama H, Nitta Y, Ikeya T, Hirooka Y. Lichen

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Baratz KH, Fulcher SF, Bourne WM. Hepatitis C-associated

keratitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 1998 Apr;116(4):529-30.

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Barkhuizen A, Rosen HR, Wolf S, Flora K, Benner K,

Bennett RM. Musculoskeletal pain and fatigue are associated

with chronic hepatitis C: a report of 239 hepatology clinic

patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 1999 May;94(5):1355-60.

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Bauduer F, Katsahian S, Blanchard Y, Oui B, Capdupuy C,

Renoux M. Descriptive epidemiology of non-Hodgkin

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Bauduer F, Marty F, Larrouy M, Ducout L. Immunologic

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Baumert TF, Wellnitz S, Aono S, Satoi J, Herion D, Tilman

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TJ. Antibodies against hepatitis C virus-like particles and

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2000 Sep;32(3):610-7. Available from: PubMed; PMID

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Belgodere X, Viraben R, Gorguet B, Allaouchiche B,

Lieutaud O, Maestracci D. Guess what! Cutaneous

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2000 Sep;47(3):328-9. Available from: PubMed; PMID

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Chapman BA, Burt MJ, Frampton CM, Chapman TM,

Whitehead MR, Upton JD, George PM. Influence of

haemochromatosis gene mutations on treatment outcomes in

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Chau TN , Lai ST, Lai JY, Yuen H. Acute viral hepatitis in

Hong Kong: a study of recent incidences. Hong Kong Med J.

1997 Sep;3(3):261-6.

Chen JD, Chung JL, Kao JH, Chen DS. Post-partum acute

exacerbation of chronic hepatitis in a hepatitis C-carrier

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Chern JP, Lin KH, Lu MY, Lin DT, Lin KS, Chen JD, Fu

CC. Abnormal glucose tolerance in transfusion-dependent

beta-thalassemic patients. Diabetes Care. 2001

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Chia SC, Bergasa NV, Kleiner DE, Goodman Z, Hoofnagle

JH, Di Bisceglie AM. Pruritus as a presenting symptom of

chronic hepatitis C. Dig Dis Sci. 1998 Oct;43(10):2177-83.

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Chowla A, Malhi-Chowla N, Chidambaram A, Surick B.

Primary hepatic lymphoma in hepatitis C: case report and

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