GAO

United States General Accounting Office

Report to Congressional Requesters

August 2000 FOOD IRRADIATION

Available Research

Indicates That

Benefits Outweigh

Risks

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Contents

Letter 3

Appendixes Appendix I: Scope and Methodology 24

Appendix II: Chronology of Food Irradiation Events 27

Appendix III: Food Products Approved for Irradiation in the

United States 28

Appendix IV: Commonly Asked Questions and Answers About

Food Irradiation 29

Appendix V: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 31

Tables Table 1: Estimated Annual Quantities and Percentage of

Consumption for Irradiated Food in the United States,

as of January 2000 11

Figures Figure 1: The International Food Irradiation Symbol—the Radura 9

Abbreviations

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FDA Food and Drug Administration

FSIS Food Safety and Inspection Service

HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency

kGy kiloGray

NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission

USDA U.S. Department of Agriculture

WHO World Health Organization
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United States General Accounting Office

Washington, D.C. 20548

Resources, Community, and

Economic Development Division

B-215168 Letr

August 24, 2000

The Honorable Tom Bliley

Chairman, Committee on Commerce

The Honorable Fred Upton

Chairman, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations

Committee on Commerce

House of Representatives

While the U.S. food supply is generally considered to be one of the safest in

the world, foodborne illness continues to be a source of concern for

consumers. Each year, millions of Americans become ill from foodborne

infections and up to 5,000 people die. The economic costs are also large—

the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates that diseases caused

by seven major foodborne pathogens could result in medical costs and

productivity losses of between $6.6 billion and $37.1 billion annually.

Furthermore, recalls of contaminated food—such as the massive recalls of

thousands of pounds of ground beef contaminated with Escherichia coli

(E. coli) O157:H7—have resulted in severe economic losses to the affected

industry.

There is no silver bullet on the horizon to eliminate foodborne illness.

However, many food safety experts believe that irradiation can be an

effective tool in helping to control foodborne pathogens and should be

incorporated as part of a comprehensive program to enhance food safety.

Irradiation, which involves exposing food briefly to radiant energy (such as

gamma rays1 or high-energy electrons), can reduce or eliminate

microorganisms that contaminate food or cause food spoilage and

deterioration. Nearly 40 countries worldwide have approved the use of

irradiation for various types of food.

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has primary

regulatory responsibility for ensuring the safe use of irradiation on all

foods. At the same time, USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service is

responsible for the lawful processing of meat, poultry, and some egg

1

Cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope, is one of two approved gamma ray sources for food

irradiation. Cesium-137 is the other approved source; however, it is not currently being used

commercially for irradiating food.
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products, including the irradiation of such products. Hence the two

agencies have overlapping responsibilities for ensuring the safety of certain

irradiated foods. To date, irradiation has been approved by FDA (and USDA

where applicable) for use on uncooked meat and poultry and fresh shell

eggs, as well as a variety of other foods, including spices and fresh fruits

and vegetables. Final approval for the irradiation of meat (including ground

beef) took effect in February 2000. This action has heightened interest in

using irradiation to reduce foodborne pathogens. Ground beef poses

particular food safety concerns because the grinding process can spread

pathogens present on the meat’s surface throughout the product.

While federal food safety agencies have approved irradiation as safe for a

variety of foods, concerns about the safety of these foods (such as toxicity

and reduced nutritional quality), the impact of the irradiation process on

worker safety and the environment, and consumers’ willingness to

purchase irradiated foods have limited their availability in the United

States. In response to these concerns, you asked that we determine (1) the

extent and the purposes for which food irradiation is being used in the

United States and (2) the scientifically supported benefits and risks of food

irradiation.

Results in Brief To date, only limited amounts of irradiated foods have been sold in the

United States. Irradiated spices, herbs, and dry vegetable seasonings

constitute the largest category of irradiated food; in 1999, about 95 million

pounds of these products were irradiated, accounting for about 10 percent

of their total consumption. In addition, small amounts of irradiated fresh

fruits, vegetables, and poultry have been available in wholesale and retail

markets, primarily in Florida and several midwestern states. Irradiated

frozen ground beef has recently begun to be marketed in several

midwestern states and Florida. The major purchasers of irradiated foods

are health care and food service establishments, which purchase them

primarily to minimize the threat of foodborne illness. For example, nursing

homes and hospitals serve irradiated poultry to patients with weakened

immune systems to reduce the risk of contracting a foodborne illness that

would further jeopardize their condition. Concerns on the part of food

processors, retailers, and others about consumer acceptance of irradiated

foods have limited their availability to date.

Scientific studies conducted by public and private researchers worldwide

over the past 50 years support the benefits of food irradiation while

indicating minimal potential risks. For example, an expert committee
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convened by the World Health Organization reviewed the findings of over

500 studies and concluded that food irradiation creates no toxicological,

microbiological, or nutritional problems. Cited benefits of food irradiation

include (1) reducing foodborne pathogens; (2) extending the shelf life of

some fruits and vegetables by preventing sprouting, deactivating mold, and

killing bacteria; and (3) controlling insect pests—thus reducing the need

for environmentally harmful fumigants. These studies have not borne out

concerns about the safety of consuming irradiated foods. For example, the

studies indicated that chemical compounds in irradiated food are generally

the same as those in cooked foods, and any differences do not put

consumers at risk. As for nutritional quality, the main components of

food—carbohydrates, protein, and fats—undergo minimal change during

irradiation, and vitamin loss corresponds to that in foods that are cooked,

canned, or held in cold storage. Finally, regarding worker safety and the

environment, commercial irradiation plants are strictly regulated.

Worldwide, over the past 30 years, while several accidents have resulted in

injury or death to workers because of radiation exposure, all of the

accidents occurred because safety systems and control procedures had

been bypassed. Furthermore, in North America, in over 40 years of

transporting the types of radioactive isotopes used for irradiation, there

has never been an accident resulting in the escape of these materials into

the environment.

We provided a draft of this report to FDA for its review and comment. FDA

officials, including the Director of the Division of Product Policy, Center for

Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, generally agreed with the information

presented in the report and provided technical clarifications, which were

incorporated as appropriate.

Background

Several Processes Are Used

to Irradiate Food

Food irradiation is the process of exposing food, either prepackaged or in

bulk, to controlled levels of ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is a type of

energy similar to radio and television waves, microwaves, and infrared

radiation. However, the high energy produced by ionizing radiation allows

it to penetrate deeply into food, killing microorganisms without

significantly raising the food’s temperature.
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In the United States, three types of ionizing radiation have been approved

for irradiating food—gamma rays, high-energy electrons (sometimes

referred to as electron beams), and X-rays. Until recently, gamma rays—

specifically, those produced by cobalt-60—have been the exclusive source

of food irradiation in the United States. While the three types of ionizing

radiation have the same effects on food, there are some differences in how

they work. For example, electron beams and X-ray radiators are operated

by electricity and do not use radioactive isotopes (e.g., cobalt-60).

However, electron beams cannot penetrate as far into food as gamma rays

or X-rays;2 thus, they are used primarily for treating thin packages of food

or a thin stream of grains or powders.

Only two gamma ray facilities in the United States are used primarily for

irradiating food. However, many such facilities are used for other purposes,

such as sterilizing medical, pharmaceutical, and consumer products (e.g.,

syringes, bandages, dairy and juice containers, and baby bottle nipples).3

The one electron beam facility that irradiates food commercially began

supplying irradiated ground beef to grocery stores in Minnesota in May of

this year. Additional electron beam facilities are expected to begin

irradiating beef and poultry for commercial sale later this year and early

next year. However, as with gamma ray facilities, other electron beam

plants—primarily used for sterilizing medical supplies—have been

operational for years. X-ray technology is still being tested for use in food

irradiation, and a plant is being constructed in Hawaii to disinfest tropical

fruit. However, at this point, X-ray technology is not as economical as

gamma rays or electron beam technology.

Depending on the dose of radiation used, rapidly growing cells (such as

those in foodborne pathogens, spoilage microorganisms,4 insects,

parasites, and plant tissues) are deactivated or killed. As a result,

irradiation is used for a variety of purposes, such as reducing or eliminating

foodborne pathogens, disinfesting food, and extending product shelf life.

However, not all foods are suitable for irradiation. For example, some fruits

2

Electron beams have a maximum one-sided treatment penetration capability of about 1-1⁄2

inches in food items at the approved dose ranges; with double-sided electron beam

treatment, these items can be no more than about 3-1⁄2 inches thick.

3

Some of these facilities also treat food products.

4

Spoilage microorganisms, such as certain bacteria, yeast, and mold, cause strong odors and

shorten shelf life but are not generally associated with human illness.
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are very sensitive to radiation and their skins are damaged, and other foods

(such as cucumbers, grapes, and some tomatoes) turn mushy.

In the United States, FDA first approved irradiation for use on a food

product (i.e., wheat and wheat flour) in 1963. (See app. II for a chronology

of food irradiation events.) Since then, it has been approved for use on such

products as vegetables, spices, fruits, poultry, and, most recently,

refrigerated and frozen uncooked meat and fresh shell eggs. Worldwide,

almost 40 countries permit the use of irradiation on over 50 different foods,

and an estimated 500,000 tons of food are irradiated annually. However,

national laws are divergent. For example, the European Union has not yet

agreed on guidelines for regulating food irradiation, primarily because of

resistance from Germany. On the other hand, the Netherlands, Belgium,

and France irradiate many types of food, including considerable amounts

of frozen seafood and frog legs and dry food ingredients. Spices are

irradiated in many countries, including Argentina, Israel, Norway, France,

South Africa, and Mexico.

Many Federal Agencies

Regulate Food Irradiation

Many federal agencies have regulatory responsibilities related to food

irradiation, including FDA, USDA, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission

(NRC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and the

Department of Transportation—with FDA having primary regulatory

responsibility for ensuring the safety of irradiated foods. These agencies

regulate a range of issues, including the types of food that can be irradiated,

the process by which food can be irradiated, the safe use of radiation, the

safety of the workers in irradiation facilities, and the safe transportation of

radioactive material.
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Under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, FDA has overall

responsibility for regulating the safety of all foods, except for meat, poultry,

and some egg products that are USDA’s responsibility. FDA’s specific

responsibilities for food irradiation derive from the Food Additives

Amendment of 1958, which gave the agency responsibility for ensuring the

safety of food additives. While most food additives are substances that are

added to foods, the act specifically defined the source of radiation to be a

food additive.5 Radiation sources (i.e., cobalt-60, electron beams, and X-ray

generators) are considered to be food additives because their use could

affect the characteristics of food. FDA’s responsibilities for food irradiation

include (1) determining the safety of the radiation sources used in food

processing; (2) issuing regulations that prescribe the conditions under

which foods can be irradiated and the maximum permitted radiation dose,

which is measured in units called kiloGray (kGy);6 and (3) inspecting the

facilities that irradiate food products.

Food additive regulations governing the use of food irradiation are initiated

either by a petition submitted to the agency or, less often, by FDA itself. In

both instances, FDA must determine whether the additive is safe under all

conditions of permitted use. Once FDA issues a final regulation, the

additive can be used by anyone who adheres to the specified conditions of

use. Since 1963, FDA has approved the use of irradiation for several foods

to (1) reduce illness-causing microorganisms, (2) retard product

maturation, and/or (3) meet quarantine requirements for certain insect

pests. Petitions to irradiate shellfish, seeds for sprouts, nonrefrigerated

meat products, and processed foods are pending. (See app. III for a list of

foods and uses approved by FDA.)

USDA’s Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) is also responsible for

ensuring the safety of certain irradiated foods. Under the Federal Meat

Inspection Act, the Poultry Products Inspection Act, and the Egg Products

Inspection Act,7 FSIS is responsible for prohibiting the marketing of

5

Under 21 U.S.C. 321(s), “a food additive is any substance the intended use of which results

or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component

or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food (including any source of

radiation. . .).”

6

The kiloGray is the unit of measurement for the amount of energy absorbed by food during

the irradiation process. For example, FDA has approved a dose of up to 7 kiloGray for

frozen meat to control pathogens and extend shelf life.

7

21 U.S.C. 601 et. seq., 21 U.S.C. 451 et. seq., and 21 U.S.C. 1031 et. seq., respectively.
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adulterated meat, poultry, and egg products. When irradiated, these

products are considered adulterated and, thus, cannot be sold unless they

have been irradiated in conformity with FDA’s and USDA’s regulations.

Both FDA and USDA require that irradiated food products be labeled; in

general, their labeling regulations are similar. For example, both agencies

require irradiated foods to be labeled with the international food irradiation

symbol—the radura. (See fig. 1)

Figure 1: The International Food Irradiation Symbol—the Radura

Source: USDA.

In addition, the label must state that the product has been intentionally

subjected to radiation. However, FDA’s and FSIS’ labeling requirements

differ in at least one respect. FSIS’ regulations require that irradiated meat

and poultry ingredients in multi-ingredient meat and poultry products be

identified on the list of ingredients. FDA does not have a similar

requirement for multi-ingredient products.

In November 1997, the Congress directed FDA to reconsider its overall

labeling requirement and seek public comment on possible changes. In

February 1999, FDA issued a notice discussing labeling issues and invited

public comments on whether changes were needed. As of June 2000, FDA

had not completed analyzing the approximately 4,500 public comments it

had received.
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USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service regulates the use of

irradiation as a pest control treatment on quarantined fruits and vegetables.

Many countries (including the United States) require treatment of certain

fresh produce, such as citrus, mangoes, and papayas, that often harbor

nonnative insects or plant pathogenic pests that would have a negative

economic, health, or environmental impact, if introduced. Currently, the

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service permits the use of irradiation

to destroy these pests in certain fresh produce imported from Hawaii

before their interstate distribution on the U.S. mainland.

NRC, the Department of Transportation, and the Occupational Safety and

Health Administration have primary responsibilities for environmental and

worker safety issues relating to radioactive materials.

• NRC is responsible for ensuring that nuclear materials are used safely

within irradiation facilities. Food irradiation facilities must meet NRC’s

design, operating, management, training, and other requirements and

are inspected yearly for compliance. In some instances, NRC

relinquishes regulatory authority to state governments, which must

require at least as much protection as NRC. Food irradiation facilities

that use electron beams and X-ray technology are regulated by state

governments.

• NRC and the Department of Transportation share primary responsibility

for regulating the transport of radioactive materials. (The U.S. Postal

Service, the Department of Energy, and the states are also involved in

regulating the transportation of these materials.)

• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulates worker

safety in food irradiation facilities. The agency requires that all radiation

facilities operate under a worker safety program that, among other

things, establishes procedures to protect workers from accidental

exposure to radiation. This includes prominently displaying caution

signs, labels, and signals and providing each employee with a personal

device to measure radiation absorption. NRC, FSIS, and the Animal and

Plant Health Inspection Service regulate aspects of worker protection in

facilities that use nuclear materials, irradiate meat and poultry, and

irradiate plant products, respectively.
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Quantities and Uses of

Irradiated Food in the

United States are

Limited

Despite extensive research on the safety of irradiated food and the

approval of irradiation for several food products, only limited amounts of

irradiated food are available in the United States. The food industry cites

concerns about consumer acceptance as a major reason for the limited

availability of irradiated food. While still limited, with the recent approvals

of meat and fresh shell egg irradiation, the availability of irradiated food is

increasing; additional increases are anticipated as a result of the expected

approval of irradiation for other foods along with increased consumer

education about food irradiation. Health care and food service

establishments have been the primary users of irradiated food;8 they

purchase these foods primarily to minimize the threat of foodborne

illnesses.

Volume of Irradiated Food

Is Small but Increasing

In the United States, an estimated 97 million pounds of food products are

irradiated annually, representing a tiny fraction of the total amount of food

consumed. Spices, herbs, and seasonings are the largest category of

irradiated food, accounting for about 95 million pounds annually. Fruits

and vegetables account for about 1.5 million pounds annually, and poultry

accounts for approximately 500,000 pounds. Table 1 lists the estimated

quantities and percentage of annual consumption for the types of foods

that are irradiated in the United States.

Table 1: Estimated Annual Quantities and Percentage of Consumption for Irradiated

Food in the United States, as of January 2000

Notes: Refrigerated and frozen uncooked beef, pork, lamb, and goat have been approved for

irradiation; however, as of January 2000, these products were not available commercially.

8

This does not include spices, herbs, and dry vegetable substances that are used as

ingredients in other food products.

Food product

Amount irradiated

(millions of pounds)

Percentage of annual

consumption

Spices and dry or dehydrated

aromatic vegetable substancesa

95.0 9.5

Fruits and vegetables 1.5 0.002

Fresh and frozen uncooked

poultry

0.5 0.002

Total 97.0
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a

Refers to substances used for flavoring or aroma (e.g., culinary herbs, seeds, spices, and

vegetable seasonings).

Source: GAO’s presentation of information from 21 C.F.R. 179.26 (Apr. 1, 1999, ed.) and estimates

provided by the International Atomic Energy Agency and officials from the food irradiation industry.

Concerns about consumer acceptance of irradiated food are often cited by

food industry officials as a major reason for the limited use of this

technology. While several retail establishments, including a Chicago-area

supermarket and Florida-area restaurant chain, sell irradiated chicken and

some irradiated fruit, the nationwide availability of irradiated food has

been extremely limited. Officials from a supplier of irradiated poultry said

that, on several occasions, they tried to establish partnerships with poultry

producers and retailers to expand the scope of their business but were

unsuccessful. They said that retailers were reluctant to be the first to sell

irradiated food in their areas.

Attitudes might be changing, however. Government and food industry

officials believe that the market for irradiated food will increase following

the recent approval to irradiate meat and fresh shell eggs and the

anticipated approval for ready-to-eat products, such as precooked beef

patties, luncheon meats, and sprouts. According to an irradiation company

official, retailers and others might have more of an incentive to purchase

irradiated beef, and particularly ground beef, because nonirradiated ground

beef and beef are significant sources of E. coli O157:H7—a deadly

foodborne pathogen. USDA considers raw beef products containing this

pathogen to be adulterated, and the product must be destroyed. Although

poultry is a source of dangerous foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella

(several species) and Campylobacter jejuni, these pathogens have not been

declared adulterants, and products found to contain them are not required

to be destroyed.9

In addition, consumers might be more inclined to purchase irradiated food

as a result of the concerted public education effort that food irradiation

companies have undertaken. These companies are using pamphlets,

videos, and other educational tools to inform retailers and the public about

the benefits of irradiation. The results of several consumer surveys indicate

that as consumers become more educated about food irradiation, they are

more likely to purchase these foods.

9

In addition, poultry is more likely than beef to be thoroughly cooked prior to consumption;

proper cooking kills most pathogens, thus making the product safer to eat.
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Earlier this year, two food irradiation companies collaborated with several

large food producers to test irradiated foods for consumer acceptance and

marketability. One of the companies aligned with a beef processor to

introduce irradiated beef patties into Minnesota supermarkets in May 2000.

According to a company official, the patties were introduced into 84 stores

on the first day, and over 250 supermarkets in five states were receiving

irradiated beef patties by June 2000. The second company has established a

partnership with a beef processor in Florida. As of June 2000, a few small

food retailers have purchased irradiated beef products from this company.

Irradiated Foods Are

Purchased Primarily for

Their Food Safety Benefits

According to consumer surveys,10 irradiated food is purchased primarily

for food safety benefits. These benefits are particularly important to health

care and food service establishments—the primary purchasers of

irradiated foods. For example, nursing homes and hospitals serve

irradiated poultry to patients with weakened immune systems to reduce

the risk of contracting a foodborne illness that would further jeopardize

their health. In addition, a restaurant chain in Florida serves irradiated

chicken to reduce its risk of having an outbreak of a foodborne illness. With

the recent outbreaks of Listeria monocytogenes (a foodborne pathogen

most commonly found in processed meats and soft cheeses), food

processors are expected to become major users of food irradiation if the

petition to allow irradiating ready-to-eat, processed food is approved.

Scientific Evidence

Supports the Benefits

of Food Irradiation and

Indicates that Risks are

Minimal

Irradiation has been studied extensively, and the consensus emerging from

these studies is that food irradiation is a safe, effective tool for reducing

foodborne pathogens. Other benefits of food irradiation include extending

the shelf life of certain foods, decontaminating spices and other

seasonings, and controlling insect infestation in grain products, fruits, and

vegetables.

Moreover, the risks that have sometimes been attributed to irradiated

food—such as the creation of potentially harmful chemical by-products

and the loss of nutrients—have been shown to be minimal. Worker and

environmental safety issues, particularly with respect to the use of cobalt10Consumer Expectations Regarding Irradiated Foods, Christine Bruhn, Director, Center for

Consumer Research, University of California-Davis, Apr. 2000; Consumer Perceptions of

Meat Irradiation, Marjorie Troxel, Research Specialists, Sosland Research Services, Apr.

2000.
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60 (a source of gamma rays) in food irradiation, have also raised concerns.

However, irradiation facilities are subject to strict federal and state

regulations. Worldwide, over the past 30 years, while several accidents

have injured or killed workers because of radiation exposure, all of these

accidents occurred because safety systems and control procedures had

been bypassed. Furthermore, in North America, in over four decades of

transporting the types of radioactive isotopes used for irradiation, there

has never been an accident resulting in the escape of radioactive materials

into the environment. (See app. IV for commonly asked questions and

answers on the benefits, the risks, and other issues relating to food

irradiation.)

Numerous national and international health and scientific organizations—

including the American Medical Association, FDA, the World Health

Organization, and the Food and Agriculture Organization—have endorsed

food irradiation. Most major U.S. food-related consumer groups cautiously

support or are neutral on the use of food irradiation, particularly for

vulnerable populations. However, several groups—such as Public Citizen

and Food and Water, Inc.—oppose its use because they believe that FDA

has not sufficiently proven that irradiation can safely be used on food and

that more long-term research on the effects of consuming irradiated food is

needed.

Irradiation Reduces

Foodborne Pathogens,

Extends Shelf Life,

Decontaminates Spices, and

Controls Insect Infestation

A major benefit of food irradiation is its effectiveness as a tool in reducing

foodborne pathogens, according to numerous studies conducted

worldwide for over 50 years. Irradiation, within approved dosages, has

been shown to destroy at least 99.9 percent of common foodborne

pathogens, such as Salmonella (various species), Campylobacter jejuni, E.

coli O157:H7, and Listeria monocytogenes, which are associated with meat

and poultry.11 However, irradiation at the approved doses does not sterilize

food nor make it shelf-stable (i.e., capable of being stored without

refrigeration); FDA officials and others emphasize that irradiation does not

replace proper food handling—irradiated food must still be properly

refrigerated and cooked prior to consumption.

11Viruses, bacterial spores, some mold and yeasts, mycotoxins produced by certain types of

bacteria and mold, and prion particles (the agent thought to be responsible for bovine

spongiform encephalopathy, or “mad cow” disease) are highly resistant to irradiation.
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Because of irradiation’s effectiveness in controlling common foodborne

pathogens and in treating packaged food (thereby minimizing the

possibility of cross-contamination prior to consumer use), federal food

safety officials and others view irradiation as an effective critical control

point in a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system.12

According to a food scientist who is currently the director of the Food

Chemicals Codex at the National Academies Institute of Medicine,

irradiation fulfills several conditions necessary for a critical control point.

In addition to its pathogen-reducing abilities, appropriate radiation doses

are well-known, and compliance can be monitored by accurately

measuring the absorbed radiation dosage.

A second important benefit of irradiation is that it can prolong the shelf life

of many fruits and vegetables. It does this by reducing spoilage bacteria

and mold and inhibiting sprouting and maturation. As a result, products can

be harvested when fully ripened and can be transported and displayed for

longer periods while maintaining desirable sensory qualities longer than

nonirradiated products. For example, according to the Council for

Agricultural Science and Technology,13 irradiating strawberries extends

their refrigerated shelf life to 3 weeks without decay or shrinkage.

Irradiation can also be used as an alternative to chemical sprout inhibitors

for tubers, bulbs, and root crops. These inhibitors are considered by some

to be harmful, and many countries have prohibited their use. The softening

and browning associated with the ripening of certain fruits and vegetables,

such as bananas, mangoes, and mushrooms, can be delayed with

irradiation.

Irradiation is also an effective means to decontaminate certain food

products, thereby eliminating or reducing the use of toxic or

environmentally harmful fumigants. Spices, herbs, and dry vegetable

seasonings are the most commonly irradiated food products in the United

States. These products are frequently dried in the open air and become

12A HACCP system is a science-based process intended to identify potential sources of

pathogen contamination and establish procedures to prevent contamination. All state and

federally inspected meat and poultry slaughter and processing plants are required to have

HACCP plans. A critical control point is a point, step, or procedure at which control can be

applied and a food safety hazard can be prevented or reduced to an acceptable level.

13The Council is a nonprofit organization composed of 38 scientific societies and other

members (e.g., individuals, companies, and nonprofits). Its mission is to identify food and

fiber, environmental, and other agricultural issues and interpret related scientific research

information for public policy decisionmakers.
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severely contaminated by air- and soil-borne microorganisms and insects.

Food processors often fumigate spices, herbs, and dry vegetable

seasonings with ethylene oxide to reduce or eliminate pathogens and with

methyl bromide to reduce insects. However, both of these products are

extremely toxic and/or damaging to the environment—ethylene oxide has

been banned in many countries and methyl bromide is being phased out

globally for environmental reasons.

Finally, irradiation can be used as a pest control treatment on quarantined

fruits and vegetables to prevent the importation of harmful pests—such as

the Mediterranean fruit fly. To minimize this risk, USDA’s Animal and Plant

Health Inspection Service’s quarantine procedures require the use of

fumigation or heat (hot water or hot air) or cold treatment of fruit that is

not ripe. Irradiation treatment is an effective alternative for many types of

fresh produce because it can be used on riper fruit and on fruit that cannot

tolerate heat treatment. Moreover, a number of past quarantine treatments

have recently been prohibited—an example being fumigation with ethylene

dibromide. In 1997, the Inspection Service issued a final rule allowing the

use of irradiation as a quarantine treatment for papayas, carambola, and

litchi coming from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland. In May 2000, the Inspection

Service proposed a rule to allow irradiation for use in killing fruit flies and

mango seed weevils on fruits and vegetables imported into the United

States. If approved, this rule will further expand the use of irradiation in

pest control.

Scientific Studies Indicate

Minimal Risks Are

Associated With Food

Irradiation

Despite the benefits of irradiation, the widespread use of irradiated food

hinges largely on consumer confidence in the safety and the

wholesomeness of these products. The cumulative evidence from over four

decades of research—carried out in laboratories in the United States,

Europe, and other countries worldwide—indicates that irradiated food is

safe to eat. The food is not radioactive; there is no evidence of toxic

substances resulting from irradiation; and there is no evidence or reason to

expect that irradiation produces more virulent pathogens among those that

survive irradiation treatment. In addition, nutritional losses from food

irradiation are similar to other forms of food processing and would not

adversely affect a food’s nutritional value. In particular:
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• Radioactivity in irradiated foods is not seen as a concern because the

energy in the currently approved radiation sources (cobalt-60, cesium137, electron beams, and X-rays) is too low to induce radioactivity.

According to the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation,14

irradiation cannot increase the normal trace amounts of background

radioactivity of food at approved energy levels—no matter how long the

food is exposed to the radiation source or how much of the energy dose

is absorbed.

• With regard to toxicity, the evidence from numerous studies conducted

worldwide over the past 50 years indicates that the compounds formed

in irradiated food are generally the same as those produced during

cooking, canning, pasteurization, and other forms of food preparation

and that any differences do not put consumers at risk.15 Three United

Nations agencies—the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the

World Health Organization (WHO), and the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA)—convened Joint Expert Committees on the

Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods in 1964, 1969, 1976, and 1980 to

evaluate studies on the safety of irradiated foods and other irradiationrelated issues. These committees’ evaluations, along with independent

evaluations by experts in Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Japan, the

United Kingdom, and the United States, found no toxic effects as a

result of consuming irradiated food. In 1992, WHO had an expert

committee evaluate all the literature and data available since 1980—

over 500 studies—on the safety of irradiated food. This committee

reiterated earlier findings that food irradiation causes no toxicological,

microbiological, or nutritional problems that adversely effect human

health.

• Finally, FDA has found no evidence that food irradiation results in

pathogenic bacteria that are more virulent or more resistant to heat

(e.g., less likely to be destroyed in cooking). In fact, pathogenic bacteria

that survive irradiation are destroyed at lower cooking temperatures

than those that have not been irradiated.

14The International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation, established under the aegis of

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO), and

the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides information to these three United

Nations agencies and their member nations on the safe and proper use of food irradiation

technology.

15The standard procedure in these studies is to feed laboratory animals the irradiated food

product and look for health indicators, such as impacts on longevity, reproductive capacity,

and tumor incidence.
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Page 18 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

In addition to safety issues, nutritional loss has been a concern. While some

nutrient losses are associated with irradiation, they are less than those

associated with cooking or many other food-processing methods,

according to the Institute of Food Technologists’ Expert Panel on Food

Safety and Nutrition. Furthermore, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—the

main components of food—are not significantly affected by irradiation

doses even greater than those currently approved by FDA. Food processors

minimize nutrient loss by irradiating food in a cold or frozen state and

under reduced levels of oxygen.

There is also some vitamin loss associated with irradiation—with certain

vitamins, such as thiamin (B1), ascorbic acid (C), and alpha-tocopherol

(E)—more affected by irradiation than others. However, according to the

Institute of Food Technologists, it is highly doubtful that there would ever

be any vitamin deficiency resulting from eating irradiated food. For

example, thiamin is the most radiation-sensitive, water-soluble vitamin.

With regard to this vitamin, the American Dietetic Association’s position

statement on food irradiation notes that FDA evaluated an extreme case in

which all meat, poultry, and fish were irradiated at the maximum

permissible dose under conditions resulting in the maximum destruction of

thiamin. Even in these circumstances, the average thiamin intake was

above the Recommended Dietary Allowance, leading FDA to conclude that

there was no deleterious effect on the total dietary intake of thiamin as a

result of irradiating foods. In its 1980 evaluation of food irradiation, the

Joint Expert Committee convened by FAO, WHO, and IAEA concluded that

irradiation caused no special nutritional problems in food. Another meeting

of experts in 1997—organized by the same three international

organizations—concluded that even high doses of irradiation (i.e., over 10

kGy) would not result in nutrient losses that could adversely affect a food’s

nutritional value.

Worker and Environmental

Safety Is a Concern, but the

Record Has Been Good

Worldwide, there are about 170 industrial gamma irradiation facilities,

about 40 of which are in the United States. While some of these facilities

process food, most are used to sterilize medical equipment and consumer

goods. However, the technology and equipment used in these facilities are

similar, regardless of the product that is being irradiated. While all

industrial activities typically pose certain risks to human beings and the

environment, reports by the Council for Agricultural Science and

Technology and the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation

state that the radiation processing industry is considered to have a strong
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Page 19 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

safety record.16 According to the International Consultative Group on Food

Irradiation, over the past 30 years worldwide, several accidents have

resulted in injury or death to workers because of radiation exposure;

however, all of these accidents occurred because safety systems had been

bypassed and proper control procedures had not been followed.

Furthermore, none of the accidents endangered public health or

environmental safety.

To decrease the risk of accidental exposure to ionizing radiation,

irradiation facilities are built with several layers of redundant protection to

detect equipment malfunctions and protect employees from accidental

exposure. Potentially hazardous areas are monitored; a system of

interlocks prevents unauthorized entry while products are being irradiated;

and a maze constructed of thick concrete walls protects workers from

radiation. Furthermore, all irradiation facilities must be licensed and are

subject to regular inspections, audits, and other reviews to ensure that they

are safely and properly operated.17 In the United States, NRC has exempted

facilities that use radioisotopes (such as cobalt-60 and cesium-137) from

having to prepare an environmental impact statement (which is required

for nuclear facilities) because it found that these facilities do “not

individually or cumulatively have a significant effect on the human

environment.”

All radioactive materials required for irradiation facilities are transported

in lead-shielded steel casks. The containers meet stringent national and

international government standards designed to withstand the most severe

accidents, including collisions, punctures, and exposure to fire and water.

In North America, in over 40 years of transporting the types of radioactive

isotopes used for irradiation, there has never been an accident resulting in

the escape of radioactive materials into the environment. According to the

International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation, this excellent safety

record exceeds that of other industries shipping hazardous materials, such

as toxic chemicals, crude oil, or gasoline.

16Issue Paper: Radiation Pasteurization of Food, Council for Agricultural Science and

Technology, No. 7, Apr. 1996; Facts About Food Irradiation, the International Consultative

Group on Food Irradiation, 1999.

17As discussed, U.S. facilities using gamma ray sources must be licensed by NRC; those

using electron beams and X-rays are licensed by the states.
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Page 20 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

While Major Health and

Scientific Organizations

Endorse Food Irradiation,

Some U.S. Consumer

Groups Have Reservations

About, or Oppose, the

Practice

Many prominent health and scientific organizations have agreed that food

irradiation is an effective tool for enhancing food safety. Trade groups, such

as the American Meat Institute, the Grocery Manufacturers of America, and

the National Food Processors Association, also support irradiation. In

addition, nearly 40 countries, including the United States, Canada, the

United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, South Africa,

Argentina, Brazil, China, India, and Russia, have approved food irradiation

for certain types of food.

Following are some of the major scientific and health-related organizations

that consider food irradiation to be safe:

• U.S. government agencies

• Food and Drug Administration

• Department of Agriculture

• Public Health Service

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

• U.S. scientific and health-related organizations

• American Dietetic Association

• American Medical Association

• American Veterinary Medical Association

• Council for Agricultural Science and Technology

• Institute of Food Technologists

• National Association of State Departments of Agriculture

• International scientific and health-related organizations

• Food and Agriculture Organization

• International Atomic Energy Agency

• World Health Organization

• Codex Alimentarius Commission

• Scientific Committee of the European Union

At the same time, however, FDA officials and others caution that

irradiation should not be seen as a panacea but as an intervention strategy

that can be used as part of a comprehensive food safety program. When

irradiation is used to control bacteria, it should be part of a well-designed

HACCP system.

Major U.S. consumer food groups, including the Center for Science in the

Public Interest, Safe Tables Our Priority, the National Consumer League,

and the Consumer Federation of America, for the most part, cautiously

support or are neutral regarding the limited use of food irradiation. In
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Page 21 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

general, the groups acknowledge that irradiation can be an effective tool to

eliminate pathogens in food, particularly for consumers with compromised

or vulnerable immune systems, but they are concerned that the process

could be used at the “end of the line to mask inadequate sanitation

practices in processing plants.” They generally believe there is a continuing

need for strong government food safety inspection programs and clear

labeling of irradiated foods, and some groups advocate stronger labeling

requirements. However, several consumer groups, such as Food and Water,

Inc. and Public Citizen, strongly oppose food irradiation. Among other

things, they believe that FDA has not sufficiently proven that irradiation

can safely be used on food and that more long-term research on the effects

of consuming irradiated food is needed.

Agency Comments We provided the Food and Drug Administration with a draft of this report

for its review and comment. We met with the Director of the Division of

Product Policy, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, and several

officials from the Center’s Office of the Director as well as representatives

from the Office of Legislation and the Office of the Chief Counsel. These

officials generally agreed with the substance of the report and provided

technical and clarifying comments that we have incorporated as

appropriate.

We conducted our work from January through July 2000 in accordance

with generally accepted government auditing standards. Appendix I

discusses our scope and methodology.

As arranged with your offices, unless you publicly announce the contents

earlier, we plan no further distribution of this report until 30 days after the

date of this letter. At that time, we will provide copies to interested

congressional committees; the Honorable Dan Glickman, Secretary of

Agriculture; the Honorable Donna E. Shalala, Secretary of Health and

Human Services; and other interested parties. We will also make copies

available to others on request.
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Page 22 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

If you or your staffs have any questions about this report, please contact

me at (202) 512-5138. Key contributors to this report are listed in appendix

V.

Robert E. Robertson

Associate Director,

Food and Agriculture Issues
Page 23 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation
Page 24 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

Appendix I

Scope and Methodology ApApenednxidexiIs

To determine the extent and the purposes for which food irradiation is

being used, we interviewed representatives from the federal government,

the food irradiation and food processing industries, and food industry

organizations. Specifically, we interviewed and obtained information from

officials from the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) Center for Food

Safety and Applied Nutrition and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s

(USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), Animal and Plant

Health Inspection Service, Economic Research Service, and Agricultural

Research Service. We interviewed officials from five major North American

irradiation firms—Food Technology Service, Inc., Titan Corporation, IBA

Food Safety Division, STERIS Corporation-Isomedix Services, and MDS

Nordion—as well as the National Food Processors Association; the

American Spice Trade Association; and the American Meat Institute. We

also obtained data on the quantities of irradiated food from the five

irradiation firms, the American Spice Trade Association, the International

Atomic Energy Agency, the International Consultative Group on Food

Irradiation, and USDA.

To determine the scientifically supportable benefits and risks of food

irradiation, we reviewed reports, journal articles, position papers, and

other documents prepared by public and private organizations in the

United States and other countries, international organizations, and

individual scientists. Many of these documents draw upon scientific studies

conducted in the United States and elsewhere over the past 50 years. These

documents were prepared by the following organizations:

1. Federal agencies, including USDA’s Economic Research Service,

FSIS, and Agricultural Research Service; the Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention; and FDA’s Center for Food Safety and Applied

Nutrition;

2. U.S. food and health-related organizations, public policy

organizations, and universities, including the American Council on

Science and Health; the Council for Agricultural Science and

Technology; the Foundation for Food Irradiation Education; the

Institute of Food Technologists; the American Enterprise InstituteBrookings: Joint Center for Regulatory Studies; the American Dietetic

Association; the American Medical Association; Iowa State University;

Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and the universities of

California-Davis, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, and Michigan;
Appendix I

Scope and Methodology

Page 25 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

3. International food and health-related organizations, including the

Joint Expert Committee on the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods,

sponsored by the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and

Agriculture Organization, and the World Health Organization; the

International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation; and the

International Food Information Council;

4. Consumer and public interest organizations, including Public

Citizen; Safe Tables Our Priority; Food and Water, Inc.; the Center for

Science in the Public Interest; and the International Organization of

Consumers Unions; and

5. Industry trade associations, including the National Food Processors

Association, the Grocery Manufacturers of America, the American Meat

Institute, and the American Spice Trade Association.

In addition, we reviewed texts by scientists and others including Safety of

Irradiated Foods, by J.F. Diehl, Marcel Dekker, Inc., second edition, 1995;

Biology of Food Irradiation, by David R. Murray, Research Studies Press,

LTD and John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1990; and Food Irradiation: Who Wants

It? by Tony Webb, Tim Lang, and Kathleen Tucker, Thorsons Publishers,

Inc., 1987.

Our examination of the benefits and the risks of food irradiation also

included a review of FDA’s and FSIS’ final rules relating to the irradiation of

fresh foods, spices, poultry, and refrigerated or frozen meat. We also

reviewed a petition to irradiate raw and preprocessed vegetables and fruits

and certain multi-ingredient food products for which a final rule has not yet

been issued. Among other things, these documents evaluate the safety of

irradiation and include assessments of the chemical reactions that occur as

a result of irradiation, toxicity studies of irradiated foods, studies of the

nutritional adequacy of irradiated products, and studies of the effects of

irradiation on microorganisms. We also reviewed FSIS’ Review of Risk

Analysis Issues for information relating to environmental impact and

worker and transportation safety issues and reviewed comments

proponents or opponents of food irradiation have provided to FDA on its

proposed rules.

Finally, for added perspective on the stated positions of some of these

organizations, we interviewed the Director, Division of Product Policy, FDA

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition; the Director, Regulations

Development and Analysis Division, FSIS; executives from the five major
Appendix I

Scope and Methodology

Page 26 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

North American irradiation firms; officials from consumer and public

interest organizations, including the Center for Science in the Public

Interest, the Consumer Federation of America, Food and Water, Inc., Public

Citizen, and Safe Tables Our Priority; and representatives from two food

industry organizations, the American Meat Institute and the National Food

Processors Association. We also attended the international food irradiation

conference held in Arlington, Virginia, in April 2000.

We conducted our review from January through July 2000 in accordance

with generally accepted government auditing standards.
Page 27 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

Appendix II

Chronology of Food Irradiation Events ApendxiI

Year Event

1905 Scientists receive patents for a food preservative process that uses ionizing radiation to kill

bacteria in food.

1921 U.S. patent is granted for a process to kill Trichinella spiralis in meat by using X-ray

technology.

1953-1980 The U.S. government forms the National Food Irradiation Program. Under this program, the

U.S. Army and the Atomic Energy Commission sponsor many research projects on food

irradiation.

1958 The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act is amended and defines sources of radiation intended

for use in processing food as a new food additive. Act administered by FDA.

1963 FDA approves irradiation to control insects in wheat and flour.

1964 FDA approves irradiation to inhibit sprouting in white potatoes.

1964-1968 The U.S. Army and the Atomic Energy Commission petition FDA to approve the irradiation

of several packaging materials.

1966 The U.S. Army and USDA petition FDA to approve the irradiation of ham.

1971 FDA approves the irradiation of several packaging materials based on the 1964-68 petition

by the U.S. Army and the Atomic Energy Commission.

1976 The U.S. Army contracts with commercial companies to study the wholesomeness of

irradiated ham, pork, and chicken.

1980 USDA inherits the U.S. Army’s food irradiation program.

1985 FDA approves irradiation at specific doses to control Trichinella spiralis in pork.

1986 FDA approves irradiation at specific doses to delay maturation, inhibit growth, and disinfect

foods, including vegetables and spices.

The Federal Meat Inspection Act is amended to permit gamma radiation to control

Trichinella spiralis in fresh or previously frozen pork. Law is administered by USDA.

1990 FDA approves irradiation for poultry to control salmonella and other foodborne bacteria.

1992 USDA approves irradiation for poultry to control salmonella and other foodborne bacteria.

1997 FDA’s regulations are amended to permit ionized radiation as a source of radiation to treat

refrigerated or frozen uncooked meat, meat byproducts, and certain food products to control

foodborne pathogens and to extend shelf life.

2000 USDA’s regulations are amended to allow the irradiation of refrigerated and frozen

uncooked meat, meat byproducts, and certain other meat food products to reduce the levels

of foodborne pathogens and to extend shelf life.

FDA’s regulations are amended to permit the irradiation of fresh shell eggs to control

salmonella.
Page 28 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

Appendix III

Food Products Approved for Irradiation in the

United States ApendxiI

a

Maximum dose increased from 0.10 to 0.15 on November 9, 1965.

b

Insect deinfestation approved June 1984.

c

Refers to substances used as ingredients for flavoring or aroma (e.g., culinary herbs, seeds,

spices, and vegetable seasonings). Includes turmeric and paprika when used as color

additives.

Source: 21 C.F.R. 179.26 (Apr. 1, 1999, ed.) and FDA and USDA/FSIS officials.

Food product Agency and approval date Purpose for irradiation

Maximum permitted dosage

(kiloGray)

Wheat and wheat powder FDA − August 21,1963 Insect Deinfestation 0.20 to 0.50

White potatoes FDA − July 8, 1964 Inhibit sprout development 0.05 to 0.15a

Spices and dry vegetables FDA − July 5, 1983 Microbial disinfection and

insect deinfestationb

10.0

Dry or dehydrated enzyme

preparations

FDA − June 10, 1985 Microbial disinfection 10.0

Pork carcasses or fresh

nonheated processed cuts

FDA − July 22, 1985 Control Trichinella spiralis 0.30 to 1.00

Fresh foods FDA − April 18, 1986 Delay maturation 1.0

Dry or dehydrated aromatic

vegetable substancesc

FDA − April 18, 1986 Microbial disinfection 30.0

Fresh, frozen uncooked

poultry

FDA − May 2, 1990

USDA − October 21, 1992

Control foodborne

pathogens

3.0

Refrigerated and frozen

uncooked beef, lamb, goat,

and pork

FDA − December 3, 1997

USDA − February 22, 2000

Control foodborne

pathogens and extend shelf

life

4.5 (refrigerated)

7.0 (frozen)

Fresh shell eggs FDA − July 21, 2000 Control salmonella 3.0
Page 29 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

Appendix IV

Commonly Asked Questions and Answers

About Food Irradiation ApendxiIV

How does food irradiation work to reduce or eliminate foodborne

microorganisms and insects?

Exposing food to radiation energy disrupts the organic processes essential

to life and the reproduction of organisms. During the irradiation process,

energy waves from gamma rays, electrons, or X-rays break molecular

bonds inside the genetic material of pathogens, spoilage organisms, and

insects, which causes them to die or prevents them from replicating.

Do microorganisms that survive irradiation treatment at low or

medium doses pose a more serious threat than if they had not been

irradiated at all?

FDA has found no evidence that food irradiation results in pathogens that

are more virulent or more resistant to heat after treatment. To the contrary,

research shows that radiation is more likely to reduce the virulence of any

surviving pathogens. For example, bacteria that survive irradiation are

destroyed at a lower cooking temperature than bacteria that have not been

irradiated.

Does the dose of irradiation required for destroying

microorganisms in food differ for electron beam, gamma ray, and Xray processing?

The absorbed dose, measured in kiloGray, delivered by the three processes

has the same effects on microorganisms and food. The absorbed dose is

controlled by the intensity of radiation and the length of time the food is

exposed.

Does irradiated food need to be refrigerated?

At the approved doses, irradiation does not eliminate the need for

refrigeration or the need for careful handling, storage, and cooking of

perishable foods. For example, the levels of irradiation approved for

poultry can reduce the numbers of pathogenic and spoilage bacteria.

However, the product is not sterilized and still requires proper refrigeration

and handling by retailers and consumers.

Can irradiation make spoiled or dirty food marketable?

Irradiation cannot reverse the spoilage process—the bad appearance, taste,

and/or smell will remain the same after irradiation. In addition, current
Appendix IV

Commonly Asked Questions and Answers

About Food Irradiation

Page 30 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

regulations do not allow food processors to use doses of irradiation on

meat, poultry, fruits, and vegetables that would be high enough to sterilize

extremely contaminated food. If a processor attempted to use a

sterilization dose on many of these products, the odor, flavor, taste, and

texture would be seriously impaired and the consumer would reject such

products.

Will irradiated food be more expensive?

While there have been relatively few irradiated products marketed to date,

those that have been sold have been more expensive than their

counterparts. According to food irradiation industry officials, meat and

poultry could be 3 to 8 cents a pound more; fruits and vegetables could cost

2 to 3 cents a pound more. However, as a facility irradiates more food, the

cost per pound should decline over time.

Does USDA accept imported meat and poultry that have been

irradiated in other countries for distribution in the United States?

Yes, provided they are treated and labeled consistent with USDA’s

regulations.

Can an accident at a gamma ray facility lead to the “meltdown” of

the irradiator and the release of radioactivity into the atmosphere?

It is impossible for a meltdown to occur in an irradiation facility or for the

radiation source to explode. The source of radiation used at irradiation

facilities cannot produce neutrons, which can make materials radioactive,

so no chain reaction can occur. Similarly, nothing inside the irradiation

facility—the food being processed, the machinery, or the walls—can

become radioactive.

Is food irradiated with nuclear waste materials?

None of the gamma irradiators in the United States use radioactive waste

materials. All U.S. gamma irradiation facilities use colbalt-60 as the

irradiation source. This source does not produce radioactive waste

material because it can be returned to the supplier for reactivation or reuse

in another application.
Page 31 GAO/RCED-00-217 Benefits and Risks of Food Irradiation

Appendix V

GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments ApendxiV

GAO Contacts Robert E. Robertson (202) 512-5138

Jerilynn Hoy (202) 512-5138

Acknowledgments In addition to those named above, Rebecca Johnson and John Smith made

key contributions to this report.

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