Participants Manual 

 
Crisis & Emergency 

Risk Communication

by Leaders for Leaders

Crisis & Emergency 

Communicating in a crisis is 

different 

Communicating in a crisis is 

different 

 In a serious crisis, all affected people . . .

– Take in information differently

– Process information differently

– Act on information differently

 In a catastrophic event: communication is 

different

 Be first, be right, be credible

By Leaders for Leaders

 Governor Frank Keating—Oklahoma City 

bombing

 CDC Director, Dr. Julie Gerberding—SARS

 Dr.s Ivan Walks & John Agwunobi—Anthrax

 Montgomery County’s Douglas Duncan—sniper 

shooting

 Mayor Patricia Owens—Grand Forks flood/ fire

 Mayor Rudolph Giuliani—World Trade Center

 Fire Chief Jeff Bowman—San Diego forest fires 
The Risk of Disasters 

Is Increasing

The Risk of Disasters 

 Increased terrorism

 Population density

 Aging U.S. population

 International travel speed

 Emerging diseases

What the public seeks from 

your communication

What the public seeks from 

5 public concerns. . .

1. Gain wanted facts

2. Empower decisionmaking

3. Involved as a participant, not spectator

4. Provide watchguard over resource allocation

5. Recover or preserve well-being and normalcy
Crisis and Emergency Risk 

Communication impacts 

Crisis and Emergency Risk 

Communication impacts 

5 organizational concerns -- you need to. . .

1. Execute response and recovery efforts

2. Decrease illness, injury, and deaths

3. Avoid misallocation of limited resources

4. Reduce rumors surrounding recovery

5. Avoid wasting resources 

What Private Business Learned

 Greatest threat to business is reputational risk 

(2004 PricewaterhouseCoopers survey)

 High costs associated with not attending to 

reputational risk early, especially in crises

 Examples

– Exxon—Valdez spill--$16 billion (with a b)

– Ford/Firestone—Product recall--$5 billion

– Coca-Cola—Product recall--$103 million

5 communication failures that 

kill operational success

5 communication failures that 

1. Mixed messages from multiple experts

2. Information released late

3. Paternalistic attitudes

4. Not countering rumors and myths in real-time

5. Public power struggles and confusion
5 communication steps that 

boost operational success

5 communication steps that 

1. Execute a solid communication plan

2. Be the first source for information

3. Express empathy early

4. Show competence and expertise

5. Remain honest and open

Psychology 

of a Crisis

Psychology 

What Do People Feel Inside When 

a Disaster Looms or Occurs?

What Do People Feel Inside When 

Psychological barriers:

1. Fear, anxiety, confusion, dread

2. Hopelessness or helplessness

3. Seldom panic

4. Fight or flight
Individuals at risk—the cost?

 Dependence on special relationships

 MUPS—Multiple Unexplained Physical 

Symptoms

 Self-destructive behaviors

 Stigmatization

Communicating in 

a Crisis Is Different

Communicating in 

 Uncertainty is greatest concern for most

 Reduce anxiety-Give people things to do

 Public seeks restored self-control

 Public must feel empowered – reduce fear and 

victimization

Decisionmaking in 

a Crisis Is Different

Decisionmaking in 

 People simplify

 Cling to current beliefs

 We remember what we see or previously 

experience (first messages carry more weight)

 People limit intake of new information (3-7 bits)
How Do We Communicate 

About Risk in an Emergency?

How Do We Communicate 

All risks are not accepted equally

 Voluntary vs. involuntary

 Controlled personally vs. controlled by others

 Familiar vs. exotic

 Natural vs. manmade

 Reversible vs. permanent

 Statistical vs. anecdotal

 Fairly vs. unfairly distributed

 Affecting adults vs. affecting children

Be Careful With Risk 

Comparisons

Be Careful With Risk 

 Are they similarly accepted based on

– high/low hazard (property/people measure)

– high/low outrage (emotional measure)

A. High hazard B. High outrage

C. Low hazard D. Low outrage

Risk Acceptance Examples

 Dying by falling coconut or dying by shark

– Natural vs. manmade

– Fairly vs. unfairly distributed

– Familiar vs. exotic

– Controlled by self vs. outside control of self
Emergency Risk 

Communication Principles

Emergency Risk 

 Don’t overreassure

 Acknowledge that there is a process in place

 Express wishes

 Give people things to do

 Ask more of people

Messages and 

Audiences

Messages and 
What the Public Will Ask First

What does this mean to me?

What the Public Will Ask First

 Are my family and I safe?

 What have you found that may affect me?

 What can I do to protect myself and my family?

 Who caused this?

 Can you fix it?

What the Media Will Ask First

 What happened?

 Who is in charge?

 Has this been contained?

 Are victims being helped?

 What can we expect?

 What should we do?

 Why did this happen?

 Did you have forewarning?

Public Information Release

 What to release

 When to release

 How to release

 Where to release

 Who to release

 Why release 
Judging the Message

 Speed counts – marker for preparedness

 Facts – consistency is vital

 Trusted source – can’t fake these

5 Key Elements To Build Trust 5 Key Elements To Build Trust

1. Expressed empathy

2. Competence

3. Honesty

4. Commitment

5. Accountability

Initial Message

Must 

 Be short

 Be relevant

 Give positive action steps

 Be repeated
Initial Message

Must Not

 Use jargon

 Be judgmental

 Make promises that can’t be kept

 Include humor

The STARCC Principle

Your public messages in a crisis must be:

Simple

Timely

Accurate

Relevant

Credible

Consistent

Working With 

the Media

Working With 
What is news?

 Change or controversy

 Black or white, not gray

 Crises or opportunities

 Entertain versus inform

 Individual versus group/officials

How To Work With Reporters

 Reporters want a front seat to the action and all 

information NOW.

 Preparation will save relationships.

 If you don’t have the facts, tell them the process.

 Reality Check: 70,000 media outlets in U.S. 

Media cover the news 24/7.

Information sought by media

 Casualty numbers, condition, treatment

 Property damage

 Response and relief activities

 Resulting effects (anxiety, stress)

 Questions are predictable
Media, Too, Are Affected 

by Crises

Media, Too, Are Affected 

 Verification

 Adversarial role

 National dominance

 Lack of scientific expertise

Media and Crisis Coverage

 Evidence strongly suggests that coverage is 

more factual when reporters have more 

information. They become more interpretative 

when they have less information.

 What should we conclude?

Media Availability or Press 

Conferences “In Person” Tips

Media Availability or Press 

 Determine in advance who will answer questions 

about specific subject matters

 Assume that every mike is “alive” the entire time

 Sitting or standing?
Two press conference killers

 Have “hangers on” from your organization 

circling the room 

 Being visible to the media/public while waiting to 

begin the press conference

Writing for the Media 

During a Crisis

Writing for the Media 

 The pressure will be tremendous from all 

quarters.

 It must be fast and accurate.

 It’s like cooking a turkey when people are 

starving.

 If information isn’t finalized, explain the process.

Role of a Spokesperson 

in an Emergency

Role of a Spokesperson 

 Take your organization from an “it” to a “we”

 Remove the psychological barriers within the 

audience

 Ultimately, reduce the incidence of illness, injury, 

and death by getting it right
Spokesperson Qualities

 What makes a good spokesperson?

 What doesn’t make a good spokesperson?

 How to be a great spokesperson after 5 minutes 

of training!

Great Spokesperson Step 1

 It’s more than “acting natural.” Every 

organization has an identity. Try to embody that 

identity.

 Example: CDC has a history of going into harm’s 

way to help people. We humbly go where we are 

asked. We value our partners and won’t steal the 

show. Therefore, a spokesperson would express 

a desire to help, show courage, and express the 

value of partners. “Committed but not showy.”

Great Spokesperson Step 2

 Know your audience

 Your audience is NOT the reporter interviewing 

you
Spokesperson 

Recommendations

Spokesperson 

 Stay within the scope of your responsibility

 Tell the truth

 Follow up on issues

 Expect criticism

Your Interview Rights

 Know who will do the interview

 Know and limit the interview to agreed subjects 

 Set limits on time and format

 Ask who else will be or has been interviewed

 Decline to be interviewed

 Decline to answer a question

You Do Not Have the Right To:

 Embarrass or argue with a reporter

 Demand that your remarks not be edited

 Demand the opportunity to edit the piece

 Insist that an adversary not be interviewed

 Lie

 Demand that an answer you’ve given not be used

 State what you are about to say is “off the record” 

or not attributable to you
Sensational or Unrelated 

Questions

Sensational or Unrelated 

“Bridges” back to what you want to say:

 “What I think you are really asking is . . .”

 “The overall issue is . . .”

 “What’s important to remember is . . .”

 “It’s our policy to not discuss [topic], but what I 

can tell you . . .”

Effective Nonverbal 

Communication

Effective Nonverbal 

 Do maintain eye contact

 Do maintain an open posture

 Do not retreat behind physical barriers such as 

podiums or tables

 Do not frown or show anger or disbelief through 

facial expression

 Do not dress in a way that emphasizes the 

differences between you and your audience

Grief in context

 Circumstances of the death

 Nature of the relationship

 Experienced loss before

 Any secondary losses
Stakeholder/ 

Partner 

Communication

Stakeholder/ 

Partner 

Stakeholder/Partner 

Communication

Stakeholder/Partner 

 Stakeholders have a special connection to you 

and your involvement in the emergency.

 They are interested in how the incident will 

impact them.

 Partners have a working relationship to you and 

collaborate in an official capacity on the 

emergency issue or other issues.

 They are interested in fulfilling their role in the 

incident and staying informed.
Trust and Mistrust

 Stakeholders judge the response to an issue or 

crisis based on trust

 Trust is the natural consequence of promises 

fulfilled

 Mistrust is an outgrowth of the perception that 

promises were broken and values violated

 CDC fulfills trust by combining our best science 

with strong ethics and values

Consequences of mistrust

 Health recommendations ignored and disease 

and death go up

 Demands for misallocation of resources

 Public health policies circumvented

 Opportunists prey on others in the “trust gap”

 Fiscal and medical resources are wasted

We can’t accomplish our mission

5 Mistakes With Stakeholders

 Inadequate access

 Lack of clarity

 No energy for response

 Too little, too late

 Perception of arrogance
When Stakeholders Are Upset When Stakeholders Are Upset

 Four elements of response are key

– Speed of response

– Avoid missteps during crisis resolution

– Accept responsibility

– Acknowledge the emotional context

If Harm Has Occurred

 Stop doing what caused the harm 

 Apologize--when it can do the most good

 Make it better 

 Don’t do it again

None of this actually happens until you 

communicate that its happening

What Stops Us from Responding What Stops Us from Responding 

 Denial

 Emotional conflict (fight or flight)

 Worry about liability

 Saying “I’m sorry” feels like failure for some
Egregious Mistakes Egregious Mistakes 

 Deny the problem exists

 Shoot the messenger

 Respond with silence

 Respond with evasion/half truths

 Selectively tell the story

 Overtell the story

 Take an “I” perspective

 Point fingers

Stakeholders can be . . . Stakeholders can be . . .

 Advocate–maintain loyalty

 Adversary–discourage negative action

 Ambivalent–keep neutral or move to advocate

Causes of conflict: perception 

by either party of . . . 

t: perception 

by either party of . . . 

 Superiority

 Injustice

 Distrust

 Vulnerability

 Helplessness
Dealing With Angry People

Anger arises when people. . .

 Have been hurt

 Feel threatened by risks out of their control

 Are not respected

 Have their fundamental beliefs challenged

Sometimes, anger arises when . . .

 Media arrive

 Damages may be in play

Don’t lecture at the Townhall Don’t lecture at the Townhall

 Easy but not effective

 Doesn’t change thoughts/behaviors

 Key: don’t give a solution, rather help audience 

discover solution by asking questions

2 simple tips to gain acceptance

1. Accumulate “yeses”

2. Don’t say “yes, but”—say “yes, and”
Tale of Two Cities: Smallpox

 Milwaukee, Wisconsin, experienced a Smallpox 

outbreak in 1894 of fairly major proportions, and 

caused urban rioting for about a month in the 

city streets—why? 

 New York City experienced the last Smallpox 

outbreak in this country in 1947. People stayed 

in line for hours, full days, and came back the 

next day in some cases with no unrest—why?

– Judith W. Leavitt, PhD, University of Wisconsin

Media Law

First Amendment

 “In the First Amendment the founding fathers 

gave the free press protection it must have to 

fulfill its essential role in our democracy. The 

press was to serve the governed, not the 

governors.”

– New York Times Co. v U.S., 403 U.S. 713 (1971)
Media’s right to acquire news

 Press has right to acquire news from any source 

by any lawful means

 No Constitutional right to special access

 Information not available to the public:

– Crime scene

– Disasters

– Police station

– Hospital lab

– Other places

Right to acquire information

 Available or open to the public

 Place or process historically open to the public:

– Hospitals?

– Jails?

– Courtrooms?

– Meeting/conference rooms?

Media’s right of publication

 Once information is acquired

 Ability to restrict information;

– Severely limited

– Heavy burden to prevent or prohibit

– Minneapolis Star Tribune v. U.S., 713 F Supp. 1308 (S. Minn, 1988)
Assisting the media

 Inviting media on search or arrest in private 

citizen’s home is not protected by 1st

Amendment and may result in civil liability

– Violation of 4th Amendment Rights

Employees access to media

 Freedom of speech may be Constitutionally 

protected: if public value outweighs detrimental 

impact

 May be required to follow chain of command

 Ability to choose spokesperson:

– Police officer has no 1st Amendment right to 

speak or act on behalf of department when 

not authorized to do so. – Koch v. City of Portland, 766 P.2d 405 (Ore. App. 1988)

CDC’s principles of 

communication for public

CDC’s principles of 

 Communication will be open, honest, and based 

on sound science, conveying accurate 

information

 Information will not be withheld solely to protect 

CDC or the government from criticism or 

embarrassment

 Information will be released consistent with the 

Freedom of Information Act
What did you learn?
 

EXCERCISES 

 
Exercise 1 

Psychology of a Crisis 

Directions: For each of the following scenarios, check one box to indicate the combination of 

hazard perceived by public health officials and outrage you think the general public will 

experience. 

Scenario 1: Pandemic influenza in the United States 

 High Hazard Low Hazard 

High Outrage 

Low Outrage 

Scenario 2: Bioterrorism attack with plague in the United States 

 High Hazard Low Hazard 

High Outrage 

Low Outrage 

Scenario 3: Pertussis outbreak in an elementary school 

 High Hazard Low Hazard 

High Outrage 

Low Outrage 

Scenario 4: Hepatitis A outbreak among children resulting from 

their eating illegally imported strawberries as a part of a 

USDA-supported school lunch 

 High Hazard Low Hazard 

High Outrage 

Low Outrage 
Exercise 2 

Messages & Audiences 

Directions: Divide into small groups. On your own, read the scenario below and the main 

message points that a state public health official is considering using to develop the first press 

statement released at 1 p.m. (Note: The official has more information about the event than is 

provided below. The scenario is simply meant to provide you with a very brief synopsis of the 

event.) After you read the information below, take about 10 minutes and please do the 

following with the other members of your group: 

■ Use the Message Development for Emergency Communication tool on the following page 

to “rate” this group of message points in terms of appropriateness and whether they cover 

the six basic emergency message components. 

■ Decide whether you think this set of messages is adequate or needs improvement. 

■ If the set of messages needs improvement, what are other message points that you would 

add or how would you change the existing ones? 

Sarin Chemical Release 

October, Houston: At noon, the Galleria mall security manager called 911 and said that people 

inside are gasping for air and convulsing. It appears, from multiple reports, that people in the mall 

parking lot are also convulsing and asphyxiating. First responders are exhibiting similar 

symptoms. Footage from hospitals is being shown on television. Communities around the mall 

are self-evacuating. A KPRC-TV reporter was contacted by a caller who claims to have released a 

nerve agent at the mall. A couple of hours later, a preliminary report is that 400 people are dead 

and that more than 2,000 people in the surrounding area have been affected by the release. Media 

reports include rumors of widespread panic. 

Proposed message points: 

■ There was a Sarin gas release at the Galleria mall in Houston, TX, at noon today. 

■ An unidentified caller who contacted KPRC-TV claims that this is a bioterrorism event, 

although we do not know at this time what terrorist group committed this act. We have no 

evidence at this time that additional acts of terrorism are planned either in Houston or in other 

parts of the country. 

■ This is a terrible act and we will do everything we can to provide you with the information 

you need for your and your family’s health as soon as possible. 

■ Sarin is a nerve gas, which can be deadly, but only for those directly exposed to high 

concentrations of the gas. We are in the process of talking with medical and environmental 

experts to see if people in close proximity to the mall should evacuate and should be able to 

tell people what they should do within the hour. 

■ Victims are being taken to area hospitals. At this time we do not know how many people are 

sick or dead and do not wish to speculate. 
Message Development for Emergency Communication 

First, consider the following: 

Audience: Purpose of Message: Method of Delivery: 

 Relationship to event 

 Demographics (age, language, 

education, culture) 

 Level of outrage (based on risk 

principles) 

 Give facts/update 

 Rally to action 

 Clarify event status 

 Address rumors 

 Satisfy media requests 

 Print media release 

 Web release 

 Spokesperson (TV or in-person 

appearance) 

 Radio 

 Other (e.g., recorded phone message) 

Six Basic Emergency Message Components: 

1. Expression of empathy: 

2. Clarifying facts/call for action: 

Who 

What 

Where 

When 

Why 

How 

3. What we don’t know: 

 

4. Process to get answers: 

 

5. Statement of commitment: 

6. Referrals: 

 For more information 

 Next scheduled update 

Finally, check your message for the following: 

Positive action steps 

Honest/open tone 

Applied risk communication principles 

Test for clarity 

Use simple words, short sentences 

Avoid jargon 

Avoid judgmental phrases 

Avoid humor 

Avoid extreme speculation 
 

TOOLS 

 
CERC TOOLS

Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication (CERC):

Leader Pre-event Checklist

The following are keys to successful crisis communication. Discuss these

with your communication director.

We know:

 Public information and media response is perceived by us as critical to

our operational success

 Spokespersons (by topic) are identified and trained (e.g., empathy,

honesty, commitment)

 Crisis Communication plan is integrated into overall operational plan

 A written procedure and agreement on clearance procedures is in place

 These clearance procedures take 15 minutes or less to accomplish

 These clearance procedures ensure accurate information is released

 These clearance procedures have been tested in drills/exercises

 These clearance procedures allow for authority delegation to speed

response

 Contact information (including after hours) for primary media is handy

to all who need it

 Adequate manpower and equipment is set aside to keep a 24-hour

media operation going for up to 10 days

 Our information telephone number (hotline) for public inquiries is

ready with trained operators

 Our response partners are identified and know our communication role

and expectations

 Our stakeholders are identified and know how we will respond directly

to them

 We have the capability of holding a national press conference if needed

 We can monitor media reports and public inquiries for rumors and

respond to rumors in real time

 Strategic National Stockpile communication tools are in place

 Our emergency response plan notifies the communication director in

first wave of calls/pages

 As an important stakeholder, we know our elected officials will want to

communicate to constituents about this crisis and we have a plan to

ensure a consistent message is delivered to the public

 Our Internet site can post media and public information materials

within 45 minutes of final clearance

 We have an accountability plan to public/media about resource allocations during and after the crisis such as a web page that shows where

disaster response funds are going that is updated routinely

 We can conduct a meaningful town hall meeting during crisis recovery

 All potential incident command or department leaders are fully trained

in Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication and understand their

role as a spokesperson
Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication (CERC):

Crisis Leader—First Message

Build credibility with these 6 emergency message components:

1. Expression of empathy (e.g., understand you are hurt, confused,

anxious, frightened):

______________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2. Clarifying facts (Fill in only VERIFIED facts, skip if not certain):

Who________________________________________________________

What (Action)________________________________________________

Where_______________________________________________________

When_______________________________________________________

Why________________________________________________________

How________________________________________________________

3. What we don’t know:______________________________________

_________________________________________________________

4. Process to get answers:_____________________________________

__________________________________________________________

5. Statement of commitment:_________________________________

__________________________________________________________

6. Referrals (If possible, skip if not yet ready):

For more information_____________________________________

Next scheduled update____________________________________

Finally, check your message for the following:

Delivered: _________Time _________ Date

Positive action steps

Honest/open tone

Say “we” not “I”

Careful with early promises (can you do it?)

Avoid jargon

Avoid judgmental phrases

Avoid humor

Avoid extreme speculation

CERC TOOLS
Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication (CERC):

First Response to Media Inquiries

By phone to media:  “We’ve just learned about the situation and are trying to get more

complete information now. How can I reach you when I have more

information?”

 “All our efforts are directed at bringing the situation under control, so

I’m not going to speculate about the cause of the incident.” How can I

reach you when I have more information?”

 “I’m not the authority on this subject Let me have XXXX call you

right back.”

 “We’re preparing a statement on that now. Can I fax it to you in about

two hours?”

 “You may check our web site for background information and I will

fax/e-mail you with the time of our next update.”

At incident site or press availability:

Response to Inquiries (you are authorized to give out the following information)

Date: _________

Time: __________

Approved by: ________________________

This is an evolving emergency and I know that—just like we do—you

want as much information as possible right now. I wish I could answer all

of your questions here. While we work to get your questions answered as

quickly as possible, I want to tell you what we can confirm right now: ; At approximately, ________ (time), a (brief description of what happened) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ; At this point, we do not know the number of ___________________

(persons ill, persons exposed, injuries, deaths, etc.).

; We have a system (plan, procedure, operation) in place for just such an

emergency and we are being assisted by __________________ (e.g.,

police, FBI, EOC) as part of that plan.

The situation is (under)(not yet under) control and we are working with

(local, State, Federal) authorities to (e.g., contain this situation, determine

how this happened, determine what actions may be needed by individuals

and the community to prevent this from happening again).

We will continue to gather information and release it to you as soon as

possible. I will be back to you within __________________(amount of

time, 2 hours or less) to give you an update. As soon as we have more

confirmed information, it will be provided. We ask for your patience as we

respond to this emergency. For more information: __________________

CERC TOOLS

CERC TOOLS
CERC TOOLS

CERC TOOLS

Crisis & Emergency Risk Communication (CERC):

Stakeholder Reaction Assessment

Stakeholder group __________________________________________

Importance to success of communication in this incident (circle):

Least 1 2 3 4 5 Most

Advocate _________ Adversary___________Ambivalent___________

Importance of this stakeholder group?

_________________________________________________________

Likely initial reaction? ______________________________________

What would cause a change in position?

_________________________________________________________

Key messages: ____________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Key contacts: ______________________________________________

Opportunities for feedback: ___________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Agreed on strategies to inform/involve stakeholders:

_________________________________________________________

Products to provide: ________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Contact updates: ___________________________________________

Date, with whom, and how: __________________________________

_________________________________________________________
CERC: Media Expectations in a Crisis

What do the media expect from you and your organization? No one can satisfy all

desires from the media. So ask them what they expect.

Media expect:  Equal access to information.  You to honestly answer their questions.  Timely release of information.  You to squash rumors quickly or they will continue to report the

speculation.

 You to commit to a schedule for media availabilities.  Your organization to provide subject matter experts if you want an

official view reported.

 Their calls to be returned.  That what you tell them is accurate or you’ll tell them that the information is preliminary and could change.  You to tell them if you do not have an answer and explain the process

you’re using to get it.

 A consistent message from your organization and your partners in the

response.

 You to have some modicum of understanding about how the news

business works.

 To be treated with respect.

You can meet their expectations if you have a communication plan and

sufficient resources committed to public information and media relations.

CERC TOOLS

CERC TOOLS