The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Contract number: D11PX18749

Draft report prepared for

Risk Management Agency, USDA 

September 2011

Promar International

333 N. Fairfax Street, Suite 202

Alexandria, VA 22314 USA

Tel:(703) 739-9090

Fax:(703) 739-9098
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The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Draft report prepared for

Risk Management Agency, USDA

CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I

SECTION 1: THE FEASIBILITY REVIEW 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Objectives 1

1.3 Scope of study 1

1.3.1 Species 1

1.3.2 Types of aquaculture production reviewed 1

1.4 Feasibility study approach 2

1.5 The review of documentation in the NRMFPA 4

1.6 Interviews and specialist support 6

SECTION 2: US AQUACULTURE SECTOR CONTEXT 7

2.1 Global aquaculture development 7

2.1.1 Global production 8

2.1.2 US production 11

2.1.3 Consumption 11

2.1.4 Global trade 12

2.1.5 Key factors affecting demand in mature markets 13

2.1.6 Asia dominates sub-tropical and tropical aquaculture production 14

2.2 The future 16

2.2.1 The US competitive position and potential 18

SECTION 3: AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS 25

3.1 Ponds 25

3.2 Cages or net cages 26

3.3 Recirculating systems 27

3.4 Offshore aquaculture 33

3.5 Biosecurity 34
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3.6 Aquatic animal health products 37

3.7 Causes of death in aquaculture 39

SECTION 4: AQUACULTURE INSURANCE 40

4.1 The previous review of aquaculture insurance 40

4.2 Aquaculture crop insurance – the private insurer’s perspective 41

4.3 RMA insurance plan design issues 43

4.3.1 Insurability and determinability 44

4.3.2 Measurability 48

4.3.3 Inventory measurement 50

4.3.4 Actuarial assessment of data limitations 55

4.3.5 Data availability 55

4.3.6 Rating and pricing 57

4.3.7 Willingness to pay 60

4.4 The availability of other methods of managing risk 61

4.4.1 The status of private aquaculture insurance in the US 61

4.4.2 Federal or state programs 65

SECTION 5: BRIEF PROFILE OF EACH SPECIES 69

5.1 US farming of marine finfish species for food 69

5.2 Atlantic salmon (salmo salar) 71

5.2.1 Status and trends 71

5.2.2 Output (volume and value) 76

5.2.3 Number of producers and regional distribution 77

5.2.4 Concentration of ownership 79

5.2.5 Markets 80

5.2.6 Price data 81

5.2.7 Availability of production history and other data 81

5.2.8 Biology 85

5.2.9 Production system 85

5.2.10 Length of production cycle 89

5.2.11 Key factors affecting success 90

5.2.12 Perils 94

5.2.13 Classification of perils 98

5.2.14 Crop insurance issues 99

5.3 Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) 100

5.3.1 Status and trends 100

5.3.2 Output (volume and value) 101

5.3.3 Number of producers 102

5.3.4 Concentration of ownership 102

5.3.5 Regional distribution of production 103

5.3.6 Markets 103

5.3.7 Price data 108
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5.3.8 Availability of production history and other data 108

5.3.9 Biology 109

5.3.10 Production system 109

5.3.11 Length of production cycle 110

5.3.12 Key factors affecting success 111

5.3.13 Perils 111

5.3.14 Classification of perils 112

5.3.15 Crop insurance issues 112

5.4 Red drum (also redfish - Sciaenops ocellatus) 113

5.5 Amberjack (yellowtail or kampachi - Seriola rivoliana) and moi (Polydactylus sexfilis)

114

5.6 Summer flounder (Palalychthis dentatus) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) 115

SECTION 6: FEASIBILITY RECOMMENDATIONS 116

6.1 Criteria for assessing RMA insurance plan feasibility 116

6.1.1 Aquaculture production systems and crop insurance 116

6.1.2 Key crop insurance issues 116

6.2 Summary of conclusions by species 120

6.3 Concluding comments 126

APPENDIX 1. SOURCES OF AQUACULTURE FISH PRICES 128

APPENDIX 2. AQUACULTURE PERMIT CHECKLIST FOR THE STATE OF 

WASHINGTON 130

APPENDIX 3. BIBLIOGRAPHY 131

List of figures

Figure 1: The fish and crustacean production (million MT)...........................................................................................8

Figure 2: Development of capture and all aquaculture output (million MT).............................................................8

Figure 3: Development of aquaculture output (million MT) .........................................................................................9

Figure 4: Share of aquaculture production, 2008 .......................................................................................................... 10

Figure 5: The development of global production of the species under review..................................................... 10

Figure 6: Share of world fisheries production destined to exports.......................................................................... 12

Figure 7: World fish trade: Export value ($ billion)...................................................................................................... 13

Figure 8: Hourly compensation costs of manufacturing employees in selected economies and regions (Index 

$29.98 =100, 2006)............................................................................................................................................................... 15

Figure 9: Unit process flow diagram used to rear tilapia in a RAS ........................................................................... 29

Figure 10: Decision tree for identification of insurable diseases............................................................................... 46

Figure 12: Urner Barry's US Fresh Farmed Salmon Index ($/lb)............................................................................... 74

Figure 13: US consumption of salmon (lbs/head).......................................................................................................... 75

Figure 14: US imports of Atlantic salmon, by country, in million dollars................................................................ 76

Figure 15: Aquaculture leases in Maine............................................................................................................................ 78

Figure 16: Salmon aquaculture leases in Washington................................................................................................... 79
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Figure 17: US farmed shrimp production, in million pounds....................................................................................102

Figure 18: US shrimp imports by product form (million pounds, 2008) ...............................................................103

Figure 19: Shrimp price ($/lb.) by size (end of July 2010) - MX west coast whites............................................104

Figure 20: US Shrimp imports - Volume by form (‘000 pounds, 1995-2008) ......................................................105

Figure 21: US shrimp imports by country and volume (thousand pounds)..........................................................106

Figure 22: The Urner Barry shrimp price index (composite $/lb)..........................................................................106

List of tables

Table 1: Finfish and crustacean production, 2008............................................................................................................7

Table 2: US aquaculture production volume and value, by species in 2005 and 2010 ........................................ 11

Table 3: Approved vaccines for aquatic animal health ................................................................................................. 38

Table 4: Sample count example ......................................................................................................................................... 53

Table 5: Survival rate during grow-out on Texas pond shrimp farms. .................................................................... 56

Table 6: Survival rate on one Florida farm in 2010....................................................................................................... 56

Table 7: Estimated production summary for US marine food fish aquaculture, 2010, pounds......................... 69

Table 8: US marine finfish farming for food by state .................................................................................................... 70

Table 9: Estimate of the average farming costs to grow salmon in 2009 24............................................................ 82

Table 10: US unit value of shrimp imports by country($/lb)....................................................................................107

Table 11: Individual pond production summary from a Florida farm.....................................................................108
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

A new industry

• While aquaculture has a long history, modern intensive aquaculture is quite recent. Some 

parts of modern aquaculture are built around species that only recently have been 

domesticated for farming in more intensive production systems. Moreover, unlike animal 

agriculture, aquaculture involves a much larger and diverse range of species, each with their 

own distinct character under domestication. 

Fragile, sensitive animals

• Most species are highly sensitive to unfavorable aquatic environmental conditions. Minor 

deviations from optimal conditions can result in poor growth, poor health, and high mortality. 

Biosecurity measures must ensure that potential threats to the health and well-being of 

aquatic animals are addressed. Threats can be introduced through the water, purchased 

broodstock, eggs, fry, fingerlings, feed, or visiting vehicles and personnel. 

A complex aquatic environment

• Aquatic environments contain dissolved compounds and various organisms that both 

promote and constrain aquatic animal health. Aquaculture management demands continuous 

monitoring of the aquatic environment to ensure the conditions are conducive to good health 

and growth. The volume and quality of the water supply available to the aquaculture facilities 

represents one of the key factors affecting success. 

The structure of aquaculture

• Aquaculture produces a range of products. Food fish account for roughly 60% of sales of US 

aquaculture products (Census of Agriculture 2007). Sport fish account for 6% of sales, and 

baitfish 3%, ornamental fish 4%, crustaceans 4%, mollusks 17% and other aquaculture 6%. 

Scope of insurance feasibility study

• Our attention focuses on a small list of saltwater aquatic animals that are raised for food 

(salmon, and shrimp). Atlantic salmon is the only species grown in any volume in saltwater 

aquaculture in the United States.

• Alaska invests heavily in Pacific salmon hatcheries and the release of juveniles to support 

ocean ranching of Pacific salmon species. These are excluded from the scope of this study. 

The breeding and production of disease-resistant young shrimp (nauplii and post-larvae (PL)) 

are also excluded. 

• Hence, we review the feasibility of providing mortality insurance for the main saltwater 

species primarily farmed in the United States for use as food (salmon and marine shrimp). 

The US salmon and shrimp sectors differ considerably in terms of structure, relative scale, 

production methods, risk profiles and competitive position. 

• We rejected at an early stage the provision of insurance for poor quality product. Problems 

with the appearance of the final product (including those resulting from diseases) are strongly 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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influenced by management practices. Because of this, offering coverage for the loss of value 

of aquaculture products through RMA insurance is inappropriate. 

Absence of statistical description of the US aquaculture sector

• The last Census of Aquaculture was in 2005. The 2010 Census of Aquaculture was canceled. 

Some aspects of aquaculture production were covered in the 2007 Census of Agriculture, 

although the coverage was very limited. There have been many changes in the condition of 

the sector since the last Census of Aquaculture. While both the salmon and shrimp 

production sectors are relatively small, there is very little reliable data that describes farm 

performance and its relationship to production practices. 

US aquaculture is under intensive and ongoing competitive pressure 

• The US imports 85% of the seafood it consumes. In general, US aquaculture has been under 

substantial pressure because of competition from imports. Most of US aquaculture cannot 

compete in commodity markets where price is critical. Consequently, in general, there is 

emphasis on supplying markets where premium prices are available, and where imported 

supplies cannot compete (e.g. local and live markets). 

• This is less true for the US salmon sector, which competes in the US market against imported 

fresh farmed supplies of Atlantic salmon, and some fresh and frozen ocean-harvested Pacific 

salmon mainly from Alaska. The US shrimp industry has contracted rapidly and is struggling 

for survival. There are ongoing attempts to develop inland saltwater shrimp production in 

recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) to meet local market requirements. So far, this 

represents a very small volume of production. 

• There are major constraints on the growth of the US saltwater aquaculture sector. In 

particular, the limited availability of suitable marine sites for cage production of salmon, the 

low level of competitiveness of US shrimp production against the competition, the regulatory 

framework affecting the use of coastal land and marine areas, and the lack of critical mass 

inhibit growth in the industry. Investments in inland recirculating systems are expensive and 

are largely targeted at meeting the needs of higher value niche markets. 

US aquaculture output value is relatively small

• Salmon is estimated to be the second most important farmed species in the United States 

with a 2010 value of $150 million. This value varies considerably with the fluctuations in the 

annual average market price. The value of shrimp production is estimated to be less than $10 

million, less than half of the figure recorded in the 2005 Census of Aquaculture. This 

represents a very small sector  only 9 of the 124 agriculture and horticultural crop 

categories identified in the Crop Values 2010 report issued by the National Agricultural 

Statistics Service (NASS), had a value of less than $10 million. There are several other 

species in saltwater aquaculture production in the United States but none have significant 

levels of production.

The structure of each industry varies considerably

• The ownership of the salmon industry is highly concentrated with only two international 

players operating all the farms off the coast of Maine and Washington. One of these is 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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Canadian with operations in Canada, Chile, southern Europe and the United States. The 

other is a US-based venture capital company with seafood and aquaculture interests in 

various countries. 

• The shrimp industry (five players in Texas, accounting for 85% of US production) comprises a 

very small number of operations with different levels of intensity of production and hence 

very different risks. In addition, there are a small number (we estimate 5 or 6 at most) 

operating shrimp production in RAS. RAS shrimp production has witnessed several business 

failures as investors have failed to identify the potential risks of this relatively new method of 

shrimp culture. 

Production systems with very different character

• Atlantic salmon are almost exclusively grown in saltwater net cages in protected, inshore 

marine environments, although there is one land-based company growing coho salmon in 

freshwater in the state of Washington, and there are plans for RAS production of Atlantic 

salmon in freshwater in the northeast. Shrimp are mainly cultured in pond systems, although 

the production system adopted may vary considerably depending on the stocking intensity. 

Traditionally, these ponds involved continuous recirculation of saltwater taken from adjacent 

estuarine or inshore marine sources. More recently, the exchange of water has been 

decreased substantially in response to environmental concerns. Pond systems tend to be 

much cheaper to operate, largely because of the lower investment costs required. 

Recirculating systems for inland shrimp are a recent innovation. They are the most expensive 

production system as they involve investment in facilities to raise aquatic animals in a more 

intensive environment. This involves investing in buildings and equipment that can both 

control and monitor the continuously recirculating aqueous environment of the shrimp and 

the resulting wastewater and waste material. Interest in recirculating systems has grown 

recently as there are fewer issues with wastewater and adverse environmental impacts, and 

they can produce warm water species throughout the year. 

• There is substantial interest in offshore aquaculture production, although the development of 

this sector is embryonic. Various technologies have been developed to enhance the resilience 

of cages in offshore conditions and to reduce various direct costs (e.g. labor and transport). 

However, apart from the Mediterranean production of sea bass/sea bream, there has been 

little success in developing an offshore aquaculture industry. Regulatory factors remain a 

major constraint on offshore production in US state and federal waters, despite recent policy 

initiatives. There are a handful of commercial and experimental fish farming operations in 

state-controlled waters off of Hawaii, California and some states in the northeast. These are 

each involved in raising different species (but not salmon or shrimp).

Production systems have different types of risk 

• With the exception of RAS, there are limited opportunities to control growing conditions in 

most production systems. Net cages are located in a marine environment that is vulnerable 

to change. The quality of the water can be modified by aeration or forced circulation, but 

control may be limited. Enhanced net cage systems suitable for offshore production reduce 

some of the challenges in relation to water quality, although new risks are likely to be 

present. Pond systems are more exposed to weather and other perils. The ability to closely 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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monitor and adjust the water quality is more limited. Consequently, great care has to be 

taken to ensure that stocking densities and feed procedures do not result in changes in water 

quality that stress the stock. Predation is a challenge for both net cages and ponds as 

appropriate protection is expensive. Shrimp cultured in pond systems are vulnerable to 

diseases that may be transmitted by either incoming water supply or overflying birds. Shrimp 

production throughout the world has been plagued by occasional disease outbreaks that have 

decimated production. 

• Net cages need careful location and regional or area management to ensure that farmable 

water is available during all seasons. Again, stocking densities and feeding routines are critical 

to maintaining fish health and avoiding environmental deterioration. Novel technologies such 

as underwater cameras and monitors are available to assist management control. Movement 

between facilities has been common, although, following requirements for certification of 

responsible management (e.g., for Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) Atlantic salmon 

management certification), there is a trend to more single batch production. 

• Recirculating systems offer considerable opportunity to monitor and control the aquatic 

environment. However, the engineering and management challenge is probably greater than 

in any of the other systems as the system must continually maintain water quality by 

recirculation through filters and treatment. High levels of intensity result in narrow margins 

of error for a wide range of aqueous parameters, and very high levels of management 

expertise are required to ensure continuous high levels of performance. The design and 

engineering of recirculating systems is critical in minimizing the threat of bacterial and fungal 

diseases. Tight biosecurity measures are required to ensure that disease and pest challenges 

are minimized. The use of saltwater, with its corrosive properties, represents an additional 

challenge for engineering the production of shrimp in RAS. Also, raising shrimp in intensive 

recirculating systems is relatively novel and scientific understanding is poorly developed to 

support the industry. The US Marine Shrimp Program now focuses almost all of its attention 

on production technologies for RAS. 

Perils

• A wide range of perils can cause mortality in fish, and these will vary by production system. 

As indicated above, many are linked to the quality of business management and aquatic animal 

husbandry. Biosecurity breaches that result in disease outbreaks are a major concern, 

although attention to detail can reduce this risk. In particular, both salmon and shrimp 

production has been seriously compromised by the introduction of disease through 

contaminated genetic or juvenile stock. Ensuring that eggs and young stock are disease free 

represents a critical component of biosecurity. Monitoring devices and alarm systems should 

be an integral part of all aquaculture facilities. All equipment should be maintained adequately 

for continuous operation, and for certain key pieces of equipment, backup is required. The 

fish farmer needs to have in stock appropriate resources to ensure that electricity can be 

generated in the event of a power outage. Reserve oxygen supplies, filters and other 

essential equipment should be in stock to ensure the regular functioning of pumps, lifts and 

filters. 

• As a ready supply of good quality water is critical to aquaculture, any threat to its supply 

represents a major risk. Flooding and other weather related events are a peril associated 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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with coastal aquaculture, particularly for pond-based systems. Any deterioration in the 

quality of water supply represents another peril. This can be caused by a wide range of 

factors. In saltwater aquaculture, human activity can pollute farmed water, although a number 

of natural events can also threaten water quality. 

• There are no published data that describe the incidence of these perils in salmon or shrimp 

farming, nor the size of losses. However, the private insurance industry is likely to hold these 

data for the significant volume of insured farmed Atlantic salmon production globally. Disease 

is likely to be an most important cause of loss for both species.

Disease

• Viral diseases are by far the most important diseases having economic impact on salmon and 

shrimp production. The outbreak of the virus infectious salmon anemia (ISA) in Chile in 2007 

resulted in a halving of production, the laying off of 26,000 workers, and estimated losses of 

$2 billion. The Maine salmon industry was decimated by an outbreak of the same disease in 

2001, which was contained by compulsory depopulation and a government animal health 

emergency indemnity program that cost $8.3 million. Shrimp industries in several countries 

have been almost wiped out by similar viral disease events. 

• Both salmon and shrimp are also subject to bacterial diseases and parasite threats. There are 

reports that shrimp produced in a RAS are subject to more bacterial and fungal challenges for 

unknown reasons, although stress is one likely explanation. Infection may result in death, 

lethargy, generally poor growth, or reduced marketability due to appearance. For most 

common diseases, there is a correlation between the quality of management and the 

susceptibility to disease. For viral diseases, the most effective method of control is through 

stocking juveniles that have been bred from stock that are resistant to these viral diseases and 

are tested as free of other diseases, although some vaccines have been developed to combat 

some viruses. Both the Atlantic salmon and marine shrimp industries rely heavily on the 

maintenance of general health through improved breeding, and disease free hatchery 

procedures and juvenile/post-larvae transfers to production containment structures. As with 

other species, disease outbreaks are often linked to high levels of stress in aquatic animals 

because of poor management of water quality, crowding, or inappropriate feed. 

• Land-based aquaculture operations have available to them a number of procedures or 

treatments to modify the quality of water (e.g. aeration, filtering, UV treatment, etc.). In 

some cases, the only solution for serious viral or bacterial diseases is to depopulate ponds or 

net pens and disinfect or relocate a containment structure to remove or isolate the cause of 

the disease. In general, with both fixed and mobile containment structures, fallowing should 

be an integral part of a production plan to break a disease or parasite cycle. Fallowing of net 

cages is also recommended to ensure that waste does not accumulate on lake, reservoir, or 

marine floors. There are a limited number of animal health products that can be used to 

treat some diseases.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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The earlier NRMFPA review of feasibility of crop insurance 

• The National Risk Management Feasibility Program for Aquaculture (NRMFPA) study 

reviewed the crop insurance feasibility for catfish, trout, and baitfish in freshwater and salmon

in saltwater. Baitfish and salmon were rejected as candidates. Baitfish were rejected because 

of lack of interest in the industry, sparse price data, and difficulties measuring inventory and 

loss. Salmon was rejected as private insurance is available to that sector and is regularly 

purchased. Catfish insurance was recommended as a pilot to cover disruption in electricity 

supply, and it excluded catastrophic coverage except flood and rupture of containment 

structures because of flood. Trout production in raceways was recommended as feasible, 

covering mortality losses because of some specified diseases and other general perils as part 

of catastrophic coverage. 

• The previous study took place over seven years and included several specific scientific studies. 

The program involved collaboration among university aquaculture departments, extension 

workers, and representatives of the different species industries. While most of this research 

focused on trout and catfish production, a profile was prepared for salmon and several 

components of the research covered crop insurance issues that are relevant to all species. 

There was no consideration of marine shrimp (litopenaeus vannamei). For example, the 

review of issues such as inventory measurement, disease spread, private sector insurance and 

yield verification were of value when considering aquaculture insurance generally, as were the 

workshops with actuarial practitioners, aquaculture production specialists and farmers. None 

of the documents supplied to us for this project suggested that any actuarial analysis was 

undertaken for the salmon industry. Indeed, there is no reference to any specific analysis of 

the insurability of the US salmon industry in any of the documents. Apart from the salmon 

profile, the only specific reference to salmon insurability is made in a letter to salmon 

producers and a single paragraph in the project report. The RMA staff recommended against 

proceeding with draft policies prepared for trout and catfish, and this recommendation was 

endorsed by the Board of the FCIC. 

Our approach

• Our feasibility study reviews that material, updates the information on Atlantic salmon, and 

provides a review of marine shrimp. It also focuses on some of the key issues identified in the 

previous study. Our approach is based on an assessment of the size and structure of the 

industry, insurability, determinability, measurability, actuarial assessment, and availability of 

private insurance.

The size and structure of the industry:

• Industry size and/or structure considerations raise challenges for RMA industry insurance 

plans for both salmon and shrimp. The salmon industry is of good size but is comprised of 

only two companies. The shrimp industry is very small, with only a few producers.

Insurability and determinability

Knowledge of the perils that might result in loss:

• It is relatively easy for specialists in the field to arrive at a list of perils that can affect 

production at different stages for both species reviewed. However, there is little empirical 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

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data on the incidence of those perils. In addition to losses because of natural (weatherrelated) events, disease and parasites appear to be the most important perils affecting shrimp 

and salmon production.

The perils must result in acute loss:

• In general, losses that result from poor growth are difficult to assess and attribute during the 

grow-out period. Poor growth can result from a wide range of factors, most of which can be 

influenced by the quality of management, or the quality of the fingerlings or post-larvae. Perils 

that result in acute losses and mortality are more appropriately included in crop insurance 

plans. Both shrimp and salmon are subject to diseases that can inflict acute loss and high 

levels of mortality.

The ease of determining the cause of loss:

• As in any crop insurance plan, issues can arise over the precise cause of loss. For example, 

disease may impact production because an electricity outage stopped pumps from operating 

for a short period, resulting in deterioration in water quality and greater susceptibility to 

disease. Many diseases can be identified relatively easily, although some will need 

investigation by a reputable specialized analytical laboratory. In general, the US is well 

equipped with expertise to identify the leading shrimp and salmon diseases. Both salmon and 

shrimp are widely cultivated globally and more is understood about their culture than most 

other farmed aquatic animals 

The extent to which management affects the impact of perils and losses:

• While relatively small in international terms, the US salmon industry has the experience and 

capability to meet international standards of husbandry. In general, management can impact 

the incidence of a wide range of perils in salmon and shrimp, and in particular potential pest 

and disease risks. Good management practice will involve constant attention to the quality of 

the water medium in which fish or crustaceans are being grown. Poor management 

procedures can result in various disease issues, and constrain performance. The siting and 

physical configuration of an aquaculture operation influences the vulnerability to production 

risks such as disease. Sound organization and management requires investment in appropriate 

engineering and biosecurity measures to reduce the impact of perils and the potential for 

poor performance. In marine cage farming there is also the need to manage conditions within 

production areas or regions and for cooperation among neighboring farms. 

• However, some diseases and water conditions are impossible to prevent. Operating in a 

marine environment reduces the control over the most critical production factor, the 

aqueous environment. Defining insurable perils in policies and underwriting documents 

represents a considerable challenge in aquaculture, especially where management actions play 

a key role, but even they may not be sufficient to prevent losses. The question that arises in 

the case of loss is ‘Was enough done to prevent loss?’ and ‘can best management practice be

defined to establish the limits of the marine finfish farmer’s preventive actions’. 

Measurability

The ease with which the size of the losses can be identified:

• Various alternative methods of measuring inventory are used within the industry. In 

commercial salmon production inventory is measured regularly based on the counting of 
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stock added (usually based on counts on loading of smolts from nurseries), mortalities, and 

regular sampling of size of fish. In addition, feed use and anticipated growth rates can be used 

to confirm inventory levels. While inventory measures are never claimed to be highly 

accurate, these methods are regularly used in reporting inventory levels as part of private 

insurance plans. As yet, there are no technological advances to improve the level of accuracy 

in counting fish, sizing fish, or measuring biomass. The challenge of measuring inventory and 

losses is particularly difficult in pond systems as management control and monitoring is far 

more difficult. Measuring inventory of shrimp farms is particularly difficult and currently there 

are no methods that can be applied with accuracy. RAS production of shrimp offers a better 

opportunity to measure inventory as tanks are usually fairly small and mortalities are normally 

identifiable. In all cases, detailed monitoring and recording of mortalities is required. 

Inventory assessment for shrimp is a very serious constraint on the development of a 

workable industry crop insurance plan.

Actuarial assessment

The availability of price information: 

• Publicly available and reasonably representative price information is available for salmon, and 

shrimp. However, in both these cases, there are no publicly quoted prices for domestic 

production, although proxies are available for those products that are sold into commodity 

markets. There are regular published farmed salmon and shrimp prices published for all 

leading import origins. Some shrimp producers (both pond and RAS) sell into local markets 

for which there are no regular price quotations. 

Availability of production history:

• There are only very broad brush industry level data describing production. In the case of the 

salmon industry, this data is assembled by the states of Washington and Maine. There are no 

data that describe the production record of individual units. As there are only two 

companies involved, these data are commercially sensitive. Some data are assembled to 

describe the Texas shrimp industry and its five pond-based participants. However, these data 

do not reveal details of the different production systems in operation at each farm. The data 

collected on the shrimp farms are meaningless without this information. Other data suggest 

high pond performance variability and low survivability. Production history from shrimp 

raised in RAS systems is not available as this production system is relatively new and still at a 

developmental stage. No meaningful individual farm production history is available for salmon 

or shrimp to provide an indication of the variability in either production or mortality risk.

The availability of representative data that identify the performance of a species in a particular production 

system:

• The limited number of salmon operators restricts the availability of data. Proxy data for 

salmon are available from other major Atlantic salmon production areas (e.g. British 

Columbia), although there are important differences between pacific and Atlantic coast 

conditions. There are numerous reviews of salmon production in Norwegian fjords and in 

Scotland. There are some data available for shrimp from irregular academic studies although 

much of this is dated. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

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The availability of representative data that indicate likely costs of production and revenue from the 

aquaculture enterprise:

• There is poor availability of representative data on production costs and their variability by 

region or system. There are occasional academic studies that review these issues, but most 

are out of date. Most of these relate to production costs within a fairly narrow geographical 

boundary and are unlikely to be representative of national enterprise costs and revenues. In 

general, there is not the same intensity of study of aquaculture costs and revenues as might 

be found in crop agriculture.

The availability of data that indicate the incidence of perils that might result in loss:

• The data on the incidence of major perils are regularly assembled by the insurance industry to 

cover catastrophic insurance (e.g. flood, drought, hurricane, tornado, and storm). Salmon and 

shrimp production farms are highly concentrated geographically and hence identification of 

serious weather events should be straightforward. However, the availability of published data 

that describe the incidence of other perils in aquaculture is absent for salmon and shrimp. 

Serious notifiable diseases (such as Infectious salmon anemia (ISA) for salmon and white spot 

disease (WSSV) for shrimp) that have resulted in devastating losses are documented although 

few academic studies have reviewed the incidence of other diseases and their losses for these 

two aquaculture sectors in the US. We have collected some of this information in the 

summary profiles of these species. Disease and parasites (often interrelated) represent the 

most important perils facing all species and all production systems in salmon culture in net 

cages, although predation from sea mammals is a constant threat. Various parasites (such as 

sea lice - Lepeophtheirus salmonis) are a major issue for salmon aquaculture. These infestations

can seriously affect product value and have led to major controversy over the impact of 

farmed salmon on wild populations. Some diseases are highly infectious and unless 

appropriate precautions are taken they can be quickly transmitted among different 

containment structures on the same operation. Low levels of dissolved oxygen can be 

serious in pond shrimp production, but there is no systematic description of incidence. 

The availability of data on normal mortality:

• Estimates of normal mortality are available for salmon and shrimp from a number of academic 

and industry sources. The estimates for shrimp are highly variable and identifying an industry 

average for pond shrimp culture is very difficult. There are no supportable published data for 

shrimp in RAS, although anecdotal reports suggest these can be high. Most data refer only to 

the grow-out phase.

The extent to which risks of loss can be allocated to different stages of production:

• In general, stages of production can be identified, although there is little data that provides a 

representative view of the risks that impact production at these different stages. The 

production of eggs, fry, and smolts (the fingerling stage in salmon) and nauplii and post-larvae

(the infant and juvenile stages of shrimp) involve the greatest losses of individuals. The growout period for salmon may also be represented by several different stages. As the stocking 

density of a net cage increases, fish of different sizes may need to be separated into other 

containment structures (although today in the US it is understood that the two farms are 

transitioning to a single class production system that does not involve movement between 

different production units). Mortality tends to be higher at the initial stages of grow-out 

when young fish and post-larvae are more vulnerable.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

x

Other risk management provisions 

Federal or state funded emergency programs:

• There have been several federal initiatives to assist agricultural producers as a result of 

disasters and all aquaculture producers can take advantage of the Non-insured Crop Disaster 

Assistance Program (NAP). We do not have access to data that will allow us to quantify the 

extent to which these programs are utilized. NAP provides catastrophic risk coverage of only 

27.5% of the value of the crop, much less than would be provided by an RMA crop insurance 

program. While shrimp producers are eligible for NAP, we are unable to confirm whether 

offshore salmon farms can participate, although we suspect they can. APHIS has provided 

indemnities in the case of mandatory depopulation as a result of very infectious and serious 

diseases. This applied to an outbreak of infectious salmon anemia in Maine in 2001. 

Availability of relevant futures markets:

• There is one salmon futures market operating in Norway in local currency. This has minor 

relevance to risk management in the Atlantic salmon industry in the United States. Shrimp 

producers have no facility to manage price risks. 

Other farm enterprises:

• Both salmon operations are large commercial companies with international interests and have 

diversified their production risks horizontally (through geography) and vertically (through 

hatchery, feed and trading operations). Some pond shrimp operations are vertically 

integrated with hatchery, processing and trading operations. There is no data describing the 

extent to which aquaculture activities are shared with other farm activities. 

The availability and use of private insurance:

• Private mortality insurance is only available for species that are farmed in volume and where 

there is understanding of production practices and production experience. This is limited to

Norway, Chile, Scotland, and parts of the Mediterranean, and the species Atlantic salmon and 

seabass/bream. In the US, Atlantic salmon producers are able to purchase private insurance 

that covers mortality. We have no information on the use of private insurance among RAS 

shrimp producers, although we understand that shrimp production globally is not insured 

because of the very high costs of gaining coverage. 

Other issues

The likely level of demand and willingness to pay appropriate premiums:

• We understand that the salmon industry is concerned at the cost of private insurance, Most 

of the international farmed salmon sector buys private insurance. A major stimulus has been 

the insistence on mortality insurance as a condition of financing. Although we have no 

evidence, industry observers suggest that under its current financial conditions, US shrimp 

farms would be highly unlikely to pay the premiums necessary to cover for mortality 

insurance. These premiums would be high in recognition of the many challenges that face the 

supply of crop insurance to shrimp farmers. 

The risk of moral hazard:

• Because of the challenges in identifying the scale of loss, there is a high risk of moral hazard

(particularly in the shrimp sector). Inventory assessments are extremely difficult to make and 
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Executive Summary

xi

the insureds would need to maintain detailed records to confirm inventory at any point in the 

production cycle. Various mechanisms such as deductibles can reduce but not eliminate the 

risk of moral hazard. Practices such as movement of stock between containment structures

or units of production, or delayed sales between calendar years complicate inventory 

reporting and measurement and raise moral hazard risk. The US salmon sector is well 

organized in terms of record keeping and familiar with insuring its stock. However, this is not 

the case for the shrimp industry where inventory measurement would be a serious challenge. 

The risk of adverse selection:

• Because of the limited published data on the two sectors, it would be difficult to develop a 

rating structure that adequately reflects the diverse production risks. As a result, there is a 

risk of adverse selection should aquaculture insurance be offered (although the concept of 

adverse selection would appear redundant in the case of the US salmon industry with its two 

producers). 

The ease of defining units of production:

• In the previous review of aquaculture feasibility, a unit was defined as ‘all the insurable 

containment structures of (the farm raised species) in the county in which you have a share 

on the date coverage begins for the crop year”. This definition may involve considerable 

challenges when aggregating data from many diverse containment structures under the 

operation of one company within one county. This particularly applies to shrimp. This 

definition might need reconsideration in the case of marine net cage production of salmon as 

the definition of county boundaries in coastal locations might be questioned. 

The availability of insurance industry expertise and resources to support an RMA plan for a specific species 

and production system:

• In general, the expertise of offering and supporting aquaculture insurance products within the 

United States is extremely limited. The market is relatively small, the data availability on the 

incidence and impact of perils is incomplete, and the costs of developing and supporting 

products and carrying out loss adjustment procedures are significant. This represents a major 

constraint on the feasibility of supplying RMA aquaculture crop insurance products. NAP has 

experience of administering catastrophic coverage. We understand that loss assessment 

represents a major challenge for that program, although we are unable to quantify NAP use in 

the industry. However, a very small number of local loss adjusters would be required for 

both salmon and shrimp as the industries are relatively small and regionally compact. 

Our overall conclusion and recommendation

An acceptable risk exists when: 

• an actuarially sound premium rate can be determined and charged to customers who are 

willing to pay the price; 

• customers cannot adversely select against the program; 

• moral hazards are avoidable and controllable; 

• there is enough interest for the risk to be spread over an acceptable number of insureds and 

geographic areas; 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Executive Summary

xii

• effective loss controls are available; and 

• perils are identified.

While the shrimp and salmon sectors faces many perils, several critical factors argue against RMA 

developing industry plans. These are listed below. 

• The highly concentrated ownership of the salmon and shrimp sectors is inappropriate for 

an industry crop insurance plan. This restricts the spreading of risk over a sufficient number 

of insureds.

• The salmon industry is supplied by a well-established international private insurance sector. 

• The small industry size of the shrimp sector suggests that there will be little incentive for 

AIPs to participate in the program.

• There are severe potential moral hazard and adverse selection challenges because of the high 

importance of good management practice in reducing the incidence of perils in all species 

and systems. This challenge is substantial in the case of shrimp production, and small in 

the case of salmon.

• The highly diverse recirculating systems used in RAS shrimp production and the absence of 

sound statistical description of the character and experience of these systems poses serious 

challenges in actuarial analysis. These have widely varying degrees of effectiveness in 

controlling disease and mortality. Thus, any rating system would need to include type of RAS 

as a rating variable, but we do not have data that would allow it to be quantified.

• The challenge of measuring inventory and losses in shrimp pond production systems

threatens the integrity of a crop insurance plan. Measurement of inventory is challenged by 

the absence of accurate biomass assessment or counting methods. Also, the lack of clear 

evidence of mortalities and cannibalism because of uneven stocking sizes or poor feeding, may 

frustrate accurate inventory measurement. 

• Measurement systems that can be applied with some confidence are available for salmon in 

net cages. However, even these are challenged by multiyear production and the occasional 

practice of regularly moving salmon between different cages and units to maximize efficient 

carrying capacity. 

• The studies reviewed and data collected suggest that the risk of loss in pond shrimp

production in the US is very high. The lack of critical data (e.g. on prices (for US grown 

shrimp), causes of mortality, harvests, yields, losses, etc.) frustrates solid actuarial analysis and 

necessitates rates that could be higher than rates reflective of the true risk. This is likely to 

reduce shrimp industry participation. 

• The lack of adequate data for sound actuarial analysis for all species could also lead to 

problems of adverse selection. 

• There is little evidence to assist conclusions on willingness to pay, although we suspect that 

the shrimp industry in its current economic plight is unlikely to be a source of enthusiastic 

customers for policies with actuarially responsible rates. 
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Executive Summary

xiii

• The cost of AIPs acquiring the necessary experience and skills to implement and administer 

these programs would be high and their interest in participation is likely to be very low. 

The NRMFPA report concluded:

"Based on the research and the application of the insurability criteria, the program will recommend to RMA that no 

further development of insurance programs for the US farmed salmon industry takes place at this time."

The reasons for this recommendation include: 

• the availability of insurance from the private sector (one of the RMA's basic tenets is not to 

offer competing insurance products to markets already being served by the private sector);

• The small number of insurable units; and the absence of a farm level market price data (while 

propriety price data can be obtained, these data may not reflect the actual market faced by 

farm salmon producers).

Based on the above, we conclude that insurance plans meeting FCIC standards are not feasible and we 

recommend that the RMA does not pursue an industry crop insurance plan for either of the species we 

have reviewed. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section I: The feasibility review 

1 

SECTION 1: THE FEASIBILITY REVIEW 

1.1 Background 

The Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 requires RMA to enter into contracts to carry out 

research and development regarding a policy to insure the production of aquaculture species in 

aquaculture operations. This contract covers research of the potential to develop an insurance product 

for aquaculture that is either: (i) based on market prices and yields; or (ii) incorporated into existing 

policies covering adjusted gross revenue; and (iii) provides protection for production or revenue losses, or 

both. 

1.2 Objectives 

The objective of this contract is to obtain and analyze data to determine the feasibility of insuring 

freshwater aquaculture in the species listed below. This report will explain the issues associated with 

operating an aquaculture insurance program and assess the likelihood of successfully developing such a 

program. If any of the species do prove to be viable candidates for aquaculture insurance then a type of 

insurance plan will be recommended. 

1.3 Scope of study 

1.3.1 Species 

The scope of the research extends to addressing the insurance of saltwater species, including but not 

limited to (i) Atlantic Salmon (salmo salar); and (ii) Shrimp (Penaeus now classified as Litopenaeus vannamei). 

The common name of the latter is whiteleg shrimp. The US does not produce the other leading penaeus 

species, the giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon).

Our research revealed that while there are several other saltwater species in production; none were on a 

scale that warranted further detailed investigation (see section 5.1).

This report covers the saltwater species designated by Congress. However, the aquaculture methods used 

are very broadly similar between fresh and saltwater environments. Therefore, regardless of whether the 

water is fresh or salt, the RMA face many of the same issues and obstacles in the creation of aquaculture 

insurance. 

1.3.2 Types of aquaculture production reviewed 

We have considered the production system of each of the species from hatcheries to final harvesting. This 

often involves several distinct stages such as breeding and the production of the eggs, the raising of fry and 

fingerlings, and the grow-out stage which involves taking the fingerling to marketable size. This latter stage 

can be broken into different stages, often involving the transfer of the fish from one containment structure 

to another (and in some cases from one fish farming facility to another). 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section I: The feasibility review

2

We have excluded consideration of salmon aquaculture for wild stock enhancement. This is heavily 

supported by state authorities that invest in hatcheries and egg and fingerling production facilities to 

maintain ocean populations. 

We exclude from consideration hatcheries, largely because of their relatively small number and their 

heterogeneity (See discussion in section 4.3.1). In some native species, such as trout and the Pacific salmon 

species, some hatcheries have a major focus on stock enhancement. Consequently, the non-market factors 

mentioned above interfere with pricing and valuation of production.

1.4 Feasibility study approach

In planning this contract, we were aware that the RMA had participated in the National Risk Management 

Feasibility Program for Aquaculture (NRMFPA), which had extended over seven years and involved many 

aquaculture research institutions and researchers. That study had reviewed much of the information on 

markets, production systems, and data for four major aquaculture sectors in United States. Indeed, the 

results of the NRMFPA were presented to a meeting of the Board of Directors of the Federal Crop 

Insurance Corporation (FCIC) as recently as March 12, 2009. 

We noted that RMA staff informed the Board of Directors that RMA was withdrawing the programs from 

consideration in the light of issues raised by expert reviewers, but would continue to build upon the 

research. 

While much of the technical research undertaken as part of the NRMFPA remains valid, the market and 

economic context for the development of US aquaculture has changed greatly since its initiation. The 

sector has suffered considerably from competition from imports, although some remain optimistic about 

longer-term opportunities as the market environment changes and understanding of key technical and 

scientific underpinnings of aquatic animals and aquaculture production systems develop. In particular, there 

is growing understanding of the opportunities for land-based recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), and 

there is growing attention devoted to offshore marine aquaculture. However, both of these face 

considerable constraints and it is highly unlikely that production from these sources will significantly change 

the current high level of dependence on imported supplies to meet US consumer requirements. 

However, our contract required us to revisit salmon that had been considered as part of the NRMFPA. 

Our work program has included the following components. 

• A review of the documentation from the NRMFPA (see next sub-section).

• A review of the market and economic context of US aquaculture. This is critical as the 

structure of the US aquaculture sector has changed quite considerably in recent years 

because of pressures from competing sources in third world countries. 

• An updated review of the previous species profiles (salmon). This reviews was prepared by 

the expert (John Forster) that participated in the preparation of the original species profiles 

for the NRMFPA.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section I: The feasibility review

3

• The development of summary species profiles for shrimp. These were prepared by Promar in 

consultation with our Subject Matter Experts (SMEs).

• A review of available data on species sector structure, production, location, and prices. We 

have sought an indication of the size distribution, the specialization in aquaculture as a source 

of revenue, the recent distribution, the leading players, and the systems of production in 

operation. As part of this stage we have reviewed the availability of data on aquaculture 

performance (yields, feed conversion rates, etc.) and prices. Our search for these data is 

restricted to either comprehensive cross-sectional data such as that collected by the large 

survey undertaken as part of NRMFPA, or of data from reliable sources extending over at 

least 10 years. The availability of reliable data on the US aquaculture sector is very limited. 

• Descriptions of different production systems with a focus on RAS. RAS systems were not 

included in the previous review, and they have become relatively more important and 

attracted media attention and optimism. Again, this was developed in consultation with our 

SMEs. The species covered in this report are farmed in net cages, ponds, and RAS. Much of 

this will be summarized in the species profiles. The species information includes coverage of 

the following:

 Economic importance (domestically and globally);

 Adaptations;

 Stages of growth;

 Biological classification;

 Important characteristics;

 Rotational requirements;

 Habitat requirements;

 Predators;

 Diseases;

 Marketing; and 

 Water quality.

• Identification of key perils for each species. 

• Update of the NRMFPA review of aquaculture insurance and its status. 

• Discussion of the key insurance issues:

 Measurement of inventory and loss because of covert perils;

 Perils;

 Cause of loss;

 Determinability of cause of loss;
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section I: The feasibility review

4

 Rating and pricing with little data;

 Other issues identified in the SOW - coverage by other government programs, 

coverage by RMA policies, etc.;

 Potential interest among insurance providers, aquaculture producers and leaders 

representing aquaculture producers;

 Willingness to pay for insurance to manage risks associated with aquaculture;

 Percentage of the total revenue that is attributed to each separate aquaculture 

operation;

 Prices; and,

 Other options for producers (i.e. private insurance, other state and federal programs).

• A review of pricing and rating issues.

• A risk analysis (as part of the species reviews).

• Consideration of feasibility and potential risk management plan design.

1.5 The review of documentation in the NRMFPA

Many of these issues were reviewed in the National Risk Management Feasibility Program for Aquaculture. 

This program was designed to be a partnership between RMA and Mississippi State University, beginning in 

2000. The partnership lasted for seven years. This program was to help generate information for RMA to 

assess the feasibility of developing aquaculture crop insurance related to catfish, Atlantic salmon, trout and 

baitfish; the four most prominent species at the time. The scope of that project included:

• conducting feasibility studies on four species (catfish, trout, Atlantic salmon, baitfish - the 

latter a mixture of species); 

• conducting listening sessions to gauge interest;

• collecting data regarding the risks associated with aquaculture production;

• determining if there is enough data to develop an insurance program;

• collecting or designing data needed for insurance product development;

• assessing the potential of various risk management tools and insurance designs; and, 

• providing a feasibility report on the viability of alternative risk management designs.

We reviewed the NRMFPA documentation, the papers prepared for the Board of Directors of the FCIC, 

and the reviews of the feasibility study and draft policy documents by external reviewers. These are 

itemized below. Although much of this documentation covers species that are not covered in this report, 

many of the issues addressed are pertinent.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section I: The feasibility review

5

(a) Research documentation on the NRMFPA: This included the final report on the feasibility of 

ensuring farm raised catfish, Atlantic salmon, trout, and baitfish and its numerous appendices. 

These appendices included:

• profiles of the different species sectors (Appendices A, C, D)1, 

• notes of listening sessions, presentations and communications to industry representatives 

(Appendices E, G, H, Z, AA, EE),

• notes of workshops on risk management in aquaculture and actuarial analysis (Appendices V, 

W, X), 

 research reports that explored the verification of catfish, trout and baitfish yields and 

production (Appendices I, J), 

 a comprehensive survey of aquaculture insurance and practices (Appendix K), 

 research papers on actuarial analysis of scarce data (Appendix L), 

 novel methods to enumerate mortality in pond production (Appendix M), 

 a survey of catfish, trout, and baitfish producers (Appendices N, O, S, T, U), 

 concept papers relating to aquaculture and livestock disease insurance (Appendices 

BB, CC), 

 analysis of insurability of perils (Appendix FF), 

 sample insurance policies and supplementary documentation (Appendices GG, HH, II, 

JJ, KK),

 sources of data (Appendix LL), 

 loss enumeration methods (Appendix MM), 

 actuarial analysis (Appendix NN), and

 research on demand for insurance and potential market size (Appendices OO, PP).

(b) A detailed review of the package delivered to the Board of Directors of the FCIC relating to draft 

policies for farm raised catfish in ponds and trout in raceways. This included some of the 

documents mentioned above, but further documentation of:

• rating methodology (Part C) 

• actuarial certification (Part D)

• pricing methodology (Part E)

• underwriting guides for catfish and trout (Part F)

• draft policy provisions (Part G)

 

1

 These references are to appendices in the unpublished NRMFPA insurability report supplied to us by 

RMA. For this report, we did not review in detail the appendices associated with baitfish. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section I: The feasibility review

6

• draft loss adjustment manuals (Part H) and 

• draft amendments to RMA records (Part I).

(c) A detailed review of the expert assessments of the package delivered to the Board of Directors 

by five invited reviewers. Three focused on concepts and implementation of the policies and two 

on the actuarial analysis and rating and pricing.

1.6 Interviews and specialist support

Interviews and discussions were undertaken with a wide range of subject matter experts. In particular, 

assistance throughout the study on salmon, other marine finfish, and aquaculture systems was provided by 

John Forster, Port Angeles, WA. Granvil Treece, Aquaculture Specialist, Texas Sea Grant College 

Program, (Aquaculture systems) provided detailed information on the marine shrimp sector. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

7 

SECTION 2: US AQUACULTURE SECTOR CONTEXT 

2.1 Global aquaculture development 

The supply of seafood from capture fisheries has been severely limited by international efforts to sustain 

the populations of marine species. The marine environment has been overexploited and many species 

populations have been under considerable pressure. However, the demand for seafood is increasing 

rapidly, driven by demographics and increases in incomes prompting higher levels of consumption of animal 

protein. Capture fisheries are unable to increase their output, largely because of the pressure of 

overfishing and the various measures to manage populations. Thus, in recent years, the growth in the 

demand for seafood has been met almost entirely by the growth of aquaculture. As demand is anticipated 

to increase, only aquaculture can supply product to meet this demand. As a result, much is expected of 

aquaculture, and consequently the global aquaculture industry retains substantial levels of confidence for 

the future. 

However, the growth of aquaculture production has been concentrated in a relatively small number of 

countries. Norway, Scotland, and Chile have been the focus of development of inshore marine 

aquaculture, producing mainly Atlantic salmon. Production has increased steadily in each of these regions 

as productivity has improved to reduce costs. However, the Chilean industry recently suffered severe 

losses from infectious salmon anemia (ISA), a virulent viral disease and is currently in the process of 

recovery. More recently, aquaculture has expanded rapidly in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Several 

countries have increased production very rapidly in response to strong demand for aquaculture products 

in North America, Japan and the European Union. China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and Taiwan 

represent the bulk of aquaculture supplies to meet global needs. China and Asia have grown to be 

dominating forces (see Figure 1). In 2008, the latest global data available from FAO, China produced 56% 

of all finfish and crustacean, and Asia produced 88% (Table 1). 

Table 1: Finfish and crustacean production, 2008 

million mt Percent

China 21.8 56%

Rest of Asia 12.4 32%

Rest of World 4.6 12%

Total 38.8 100%

Source: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

8 

Figure 1: The fish and crustacean production (million MT) 

Source: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics 

2.1.1 Global production 

Capture fisheries and all aquaculture production are shown in Figure 2. It will be seen that total 

production is growing, although that growth is generated by aquaculture. The output from capture 

fisheries has leveled off in recent years. 

Figure 2: Development of capture and all aquaculture output (million MT) 

Source: FAO aquaculture database 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content

9

The growth rate of aquaculture is more clearly illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Development of aquaculture output (million MT)

e = provisional

Source: FAO FishStat aquaculture database

As roughly 20% of capture fisheries output is used for feed or other non-food uses, the United Nation’s 

Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) data and estimates suggest that farmed seafood now 

represents roughly one half of global human seafood consumption. The growth of aquaculture’s share and 

the corresponding decline in the share of capture fisheries continues to change the face of the seafood 

value chain. In 1970, farmed fish accounted for only five percent of global seafood supply. 

Asian countries dominate production (see Figure 4). The fastest growth has taken place in China, and that 

country is estimated to represent more than 60% of total farmed production today (including mollusks). 

Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and other East and Southeast Asian countries also figure prominently in global 

production. The United States is a minor player in global aquaculture. Its aquaculture accounts for an 

estimated 5 percent of its seafood supply. The changes worldwide have been driven by economics, 

demographics, and the increasing demand for food. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content

10

Figure 4: Share of aquaculture production, 2008

Source: FAO aquaculture database

The growth in aquaculture production of the freshwater and saltwater species under review is shown in 

Figure 5. The main US-farmed freshwater species are included for comparative purposes. It will be noted 

that global production of tilapia and whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) has grown most rapidly. 

Figure 5: The development of global production of the species under review

Source: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

11

2.1.2 US production 

US production of the species we are reviewing is illustrated in Table 2. The main US-farmed freshwater 

species (catfish, trout, tilapia, hybrid striped bass and freshwater prawns) are included for comparative 

purposes. 

Table 2: US aquaculture production volume and value, by species in 2005 and 2010 

2005 2010

million pounds value in $m million pounds value in $m

Catfish (food-size)

450 a429 b376 a/b 402 a/b

607 d

Trout (food-size)* 60 b63 b45 b63 b

Tilapia 17d29d22 h55 j

Hybrid striped bass

(food-size)

17 d29 d

12 e28 e8

e

30 e

Largemouth bass

(food-size)

4.2 d8.3 dn.a. n.a.

Freshwater prawns 

(food-size)** 0.5 d

2.7 d0.44 g2.4 g

Salmon (food-size) 20.7 d37 d45.5 f150 j

Shrimp (food-size) 8

d

18.6 d3

i

7.2 j

Sources:

a. Hanson (2009 US catfish database)

b. NASS (Catfish and trout production annual 

reports)

c. Estimate based on Hanson (2009)

d. Census of Aquaculture 2005, NASS

e. Striped Bass Growers Association, 2011

f. Interviews with Maine and Washington State 

aquaculture specialists. 

* Trout data from 2007 and 2010

g. FAO- Fishstat, 2008

h. Personal Communication with NASS

i. Texas Aquaculture Association

j. Promar estimates are based on a price of $2.50 

per pound. This figure has fluctuated greatly in 

the last two years.

k. Promar estimates based on an average price of 

salmon of $3.25/lb in 2010 (wholesale prices for 

whole fish have ranged from $1.2 to $3.85/lb 

over the last five years) and hence values 

fluctuate. 

** Freshwater prawns data from 2005 and 2008

2.1.3 Consumption 

Today global per capita supply of food fish is estimated by FAO to be about 17 kg per annum in liveweight 

equivalents (13.7 kg if China is excluded) and rising slowly, up from 16 kg per annum in 1999. 

Even as the amount of fish consumed continued to rise, it still represents a very small share of total animal 

protein consumed in regions of the world such as Oceania, Europe and North America. When measured 

in terms of the intake of animal protein FAO estimates it varies from 6.2 grams per capita per day in 

Oceania, 6.0 in Europe, 4.9 in Asia, 4.4 in North America to 2.4 in Africa. On average, in 2007 fish 

accounted for 16% of the global population’s intake of animal proteins and 6% of all proteins consumed. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

12

2.1.4 Global trade 

The integration of global markets has allowed those regions with comparative advantage to expand their 

exports and become major suppliers in a global marketplace. As a result global trade in seafood is 

increasing rapidly. Exports are becoming a more important share of total production as shown in Figure 6. 

Figure 6: Share of world fisheries production destined to exports 

Source: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics 

Developing country exports now account for half of the global trade with a very large part of this 

originating in Asian countries. The largest exporter is now China, displacing Norway and Thailand from 

the top spot. China is a major location of reprocessing  importing capture supplies from other origins for 

reprocessing and re-export. The rising role of Vietnam in export trade is an important feature with most 

of its supplies originating in aquaculture. In contrast, exports from Taiwan are decreasing as its costs have 

increased. Some developed countries continue to play a major role in export markets with Norway, the 

US (mainly Alaska), and Canada being prominent (see Figure 7). 

The largest exporters of aquaculture products are China, Norway (mainly salmon), Thailand, and Vietnam. 

Chile is also an important exporter although it recently suffered serious setbacks as a result of disease in 

its salmon farms. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

13

Figure 7: World fish trade: Export value ($ billion) 

Source: FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department Statistics 

The main fish importers are Japan, the United States and the EU member states. Total global imports are 

estimated at roughly $100 - $110 billion, with these three accounting for almost 75% of all imports (66% if 

the EU is considered one trading bloc and intra-EU exports are ignored). The US and EU markets are 

both growing as more consumers seek alternatives to meat at the center of their plate, while the search 

for more diverse foods leads to longer term decline in Japan, a country that has a traditionally very high 

level of seafood consumption. Countries such as the US now rely on imported product for almost 85% of 

their consumption as the limited domestic supplies have found it difficult to compete with aquaculturebased systems (e.g. salmon from Norway, Scotland and Chile, and various white fish and shrimp from East 

and Southeast Asia). 

2.1.5 Key factors affecting demand in mature markets 

Large, influential buyers and the implications for suppliers 

A critical factor influencing the nature of demand has been the growing importance and influence of large, 

retail food chains. They need continuity in supply, convenience-based service, and flexibility to supply what 

they need, and when and where they need it. They articulate consumer demand, often moving ahead of 

consumers in identifying products that meet emerging consumer points of value. 

In some mature markets chain retailers have led the way in demanding responsible fisheries and 

aquaculture management and other features of the production and distribution process that differentiate 

them from others. The focus on how food is produced has been intense in the EU for some time, but it is 

becoming more important in North America and is very slowly gaining a hold in Japan. Hence it has 

become more important for suppliers to use sustainable and responsible management methods. Also, 

suppliers must deliver food that meets all food safety requirements and this increasingly includes 

traceability to point of production and its inputs. 

The growing concentration of ownership of retail chains and their demands on their suppliers have major 

implications for those seeking to make headway at retail in mature markets. But similar changes are also 

occurring in developing countries as incomes and urbanization increase and more sophisticated technology 

can be purchased to improve the efficiency of the value chain from production to consumption. 

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

19761978198019821984198619881990199219941996199820002002200420062008

Developed countries or areas Developing countries or areas
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Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

14

The needs of the major retailers can only be met by those suppliers that can guarantee continuity, 

standardized quality specifications, the necessary certifications for food safety, responsible management and 

traceability, and lower competitive costs. This has focused attention on driving efficiencies into the entire 

production and distribution process through reaping economies of scale and investing in appropriate 

technologies. This search for competitive costs has promoted a major investment in reprocessing facilities 

in low labor cost countries where labor intensive filleting and product preparation activities can reduce 

costs (e.g. in China, Thailand, and Vietnam for reprocessing). 

One impact of these changes at retail is increased concentration of ownership in the production, 

processing, and distribution sector for several keystone species (for example, farmed salmon, 

Mediterranean bass/bream, tilapia, and shrimp). Only large-scale operations can raise the capital necessary 

to invest in supplying all the necessary volume, quality and service requirements for the major species. 

Branding has become a critical component to marketing some seafood products. While some markets 

have become extremely commoditized with all the emphasis on price, others are more sensitive to 

differentiation. Success in the Atlantic salmon industry depends on being price competitive. Some newer, 

smaller, more specialized markets may offer greater opportunity to differentiate products and develop a 

successful market position. However, product differentiation with branding is an expensive operation, 

especially as many retail chains seek brand support before they will consider placing the product on their 

shelves. This also favors those with deep pockets. 

Seafood has faced many marketing challenges. It is challenging to handle in distribution, costs are high, and 

margins are reported to be lower than for many animal protein products. However, aquaculture has been 

easier to accommodate in large scale retail systems than wild product. Aquaculture products that are 

more standardized can be provided more continuously and predictably, and traceability is more 

straightforward. As a result it is easier to develop regular commercial relationships with major buyers or 

their suppliers. Also, aquaculture has been winning the battle over costs, and this is one important reason 

why it has expanded rapidly to bite into the capture fisheries’ share of the market. To some extent major 

markets rely on aquaculture production in developing countries, where costs are generally lower (e.g. 

especially Asia, and South and Central America). 

There are of course other smaller, more niche markets for higher value and more specialized products in 

some retail and food service outlets. These tend to be serviced by dedicated specialist distributors and 

represent the most attractive outlet for fresh product. Apart from upscale retailers, the major retail 

chains often do not have the expertise to handle genuine fresh product. They prefer refreshed product 

from frozen that can be more easily handled with a relatively low-skill labor force. Thus, prospects for 

success of higher value seafood products rests with this small, niche market, in retail, plus higher end or 

specialized food service outlets. 

2.1.6 Asia dominates sub-tropical and tropical aquaculture production 

Salmon and shrimp are highly competitive commodity markets. Salmon and trout are also global 

commodities (particularly salmon) with Norway, Scotland, and Chile leading aquaculture production of 

Atlantic salmon and Chile leading production of rainbow trout. Each of these countries have developed 

substantial export-oriented sectors. The leading whiteleg shrimp producers are China, Thailand, and 
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Indonesia, with 47%, 22%, and 9%, respectively. Vietnam is also a major producer, but of the larger 

monodon species. .

There are several points to make. 

• Asian aquaculture production generally benefits from substantially lower costs than those 

found in the United States. There are no reliable and standardized data available on 

production and processing costs and hence the sources of information are only anecdotal. 

• Labor costs are lower in Asia and while this influences cost at all stages, it is particularly 

beneficial in respect to more labor intensive activities, and particularly those related to 

processing. The data below are for 2006 and some of these Asian advantages have been 

reduced.

Figure 8: Hourly compensation costs of manufacturing employees in selected economies and 

regions (Index $29.98 =100, 2006) 

Source: US Department of Labor

• Feed costs usually make up the largest share of variable costs. These vary in importance 

depending on local resources. Several Asian suppliers have access to competitively priced 

feed, despite their distance from some key grain and oilseed suppliers. Indeed, most leading 

Asian suppliers now have access to leading aquafeed formulations as a result of investment by 

leading suppliers drawn by the volume of potential business and the concentration of 

aquaculture activity. 

• Energy costs are likely to vary by country depending on energy policies and resources. Most 

are buying from fungible supplies that reflect world prices. In general, these are unlikely to 

vary significantly from costs in the United States. 

• The cost of good quality fingerling fish, and naupliis and post-larvae (PL) for crustaceans is a 

key component in the costs of production and this will vary depending on species. For 

shrimp, the US has available ample supplies of good quality PLs, indeed, US researchers have 

played an important role in advancing shrimp genetics). Major players have made investments 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 2: US aquaculture sector content 

16

to breed improved strains and to develop their own hatcheries to maintain high levels of 

biosecurity. 

• Some leading farmed salmon production countries (Norway, Scotland, and Chile) have 

benefited from the advantages of scale and geographical concentration in the salmon sector, 

and similar regional concentrations have been key characteristics in the shrimp sector in 

Southeast Asia. These sectors have invested in the latest technologies to advance 

performance reduce prices, and compete strongly. 

• Some producers with high labor costs (e.g., European producers of Atlantic salmon) have 

invested heavily in mechanization to maintain competitiveness. 

2.2 The future 

Consumption growth: In general, consumption will continue to grow as populations rise, and there will 

be a small increase in annual consumption per head. The FAO projects that an additional 40 million metric 

tons of seafood will be required by 2030 to add to their estimates of the 120 million metric tons consumed 

today. The captured supplies are unlikely to rise as harvest controls will continue to be in place to reduce 

over-exploitation of wild stocks. However, the production of an additional 40 million metric tons from 

aquaculture remains a major, and some think overoptimistic, challenge. 

Environmental concerns: There are many issues that could affect the rate of growth. It is likely that 

environmental pressures will grow, although there is considerable evidence to suggest that producers will 

respond and will take these factors into consideration. Already many leading suppliers in Asia have 

attained or seek responsible management certification to ensure confirmation of broad economic, social, 

and environmental outcomes. 

Eco-labeling: Many eco-labels are in use, and while the spawning of new labels confuses consumers, the 

pressure to manage aquaculture responsibly will become greater. There are active programs to give more 

prominence to certification and much of this effort has been led by the FAO with its draft guidelines for an 

ecosystem approach to aquaculture and aquaculture certification. 

Regulatory constraints: Because of the potential use and environmental conflicts, aquaculture 

development is subject to many regulations. Certainly identifying suitable inland locations will become 

more challenging as populations grow and good quality water becomes more difficult to find or more 

expensive to use. Offshore aquaculture has suffered from lack of clarity of the rights to use offshore water 

columns. While it is likely that these issues will be resolved in countries with a more highly developed legal 

structure, other countries will present greater hurdles to potential investors as their institutional 

structures develop, and competing interests have channels to make their voices heard. 

Technical advances: There are still major technical breakthroughs to anticipate in terms of the 

production of many species in aquaculture. Improved breeding, disease control, monitoring and control 

systems, and feed protocols will continue to be developed to increase efficiency. This is particularly true 

for novel marine species, but also applies to some freshwater species where full domestication is not yet 

complete. Currently, despite the domestication of many species for aquaculture, relatively little is known 

about the production in aquaculture of some promising marine species in marine environments. These 
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Section 2: US aquaculture sector content

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species tend to be carnivorous and identifying an appropriate and economical feed protocol has been 

challenging. Also, offshore aquaculture systems are still in the development stage, despite the application 

of learning from pioneering offshore locations and the wealth of experience from inshore protected 

aquaculture. The major promise here is of mirroring the rapid rate of development seen in other 

aquacultures, and especially in Atlantic salmon. 

Land-based systems: A big question mark hangs over the industrialization of production through landbased recirculating systems. While there are theoretical advantages in terms of control of the growing 

environment, there are many economic issues to be resolved. 

Ongoing commoditization: Tilapia, trout, catfish, salmon, and shrimp markets already have commodity 

characteristics with associated price volatility; however, some of this will be reduced with better market 

transparency and information. The growth in processed product opportunities will increase as consumers 

continue to seek convenient ways of consuming fish. 

Branding focus and differentiation: There are several opportunities for improving returns through 

marketing and distribution. Branding can greatly assist, although there are relatively few points of 

differentiation for commoditized products such as salmon and shrimp. Premiums are available for products 

of different sizes, novel types, and in some cases for production characteristics. The adherence to 

‘sustainable’ and responsible production practices can differentiate a product and gain a price premium, 

although probably in only a very small segment of the marketplace in the US. Fresh, local, organic and 

other designations offer shelter from commodity prices, although markets can be narrow and there will be 

additional costs and risks. 

Logistical advances: Distribution is critical and ensuring that the logistical pathways operate efficiently is 

an essential component of any market development exercise. Technological advances here will result in 

substantial benefit. 

Improved production practices: Over the last twenty years aquaculture systems have changed as 

understanding about species, nutrition, and healthy environments for fish culture have improved. More is 

understood about diseases and their prevention and much capital has been invested in providing services 

that improve the quality of juveniles and feed and other inputs. However, there are also many species that 

are very difficult to domesticate and farm. For example, tuna, a much prized species in many parts of the 

world, cannot be raised yet as it has proven very difficult to produce viable fingerlings and juveniles. 

Although aquaculture has been practiced for centuries, the rapid advance of production into new 

environments and with different production systems requires ongoing research to overcome the myriad of 

technical issues, each varying with environment and species. 

Greater concentration of ownership: The structure of production has changed with large-scale 

organizations being involved throughout the value chain. There are significant economies of scale and 

these have encouraged larger production units and vertical integration from hatchery through production 

and processing to marketing distribution. The development of critical mass is essential for success. This 

has not happened in the United States. 
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Geographic domination: Geographic concentration is sharply influenced by natural conditions, 

technological progress and economies of scale and agglomeration. These regional advantages vary by 

species. Asia is expected to continue to dominate for warm water species. A growth in production seems 

likely for South Asia and South America. The US faces major constraints to develop a substantial 

aquaculture sector. 

Trade flows: Growth of incomes in developing countries will increase their propensity to consume animal 

proteins. This growth in domestic demand for fish and other seafood in these countries will increase 

pressure on seafood supplies. Some consider that this factor will constrain future Asian seafood exports 

to the US and EU. This is a complex issue to evaluate. Yes, domestic consumption will increase, but other 

animal proteins are also becoming cheaper and more available. Also, it is to be expected that the Asian 

aquaculture sector will continue to improve efficiency as a result of technological and structural advances. 

China is perhaps a special case. Its exchange rate is anticipated to increase to reflect its growing economic 

progress, and this will reduce its competitiveness in species in which it is strong. 

2.2.1 The US competitive position and potential 

The declining competitiveness of the US aquaculture sector is revealed by the data assembled on US 

aquaculture production. While the quality of these data is very poor, almost every sector has been in 

decline, and there is a general sense of pessimism about the future. 

The United States now imports roughly 84% of its total seafood consumption and domestic aquaculture 

provides only about 5 percent of the seafood consumed in the United States.2 Barriers to entry are 

relatively low resulting in substantial competition for each of the major species and product type markets. 

The reasons for this relatively low level of self-sufficiency in seafood are several fold. 

Suitable sites 

Apart from relatively small sections of the northeastern coastline and Alaska there are relatively few ideal 

sites for inshore marine aquaculture. Alaska is firmly against aquaculture development as it perceives this 

as a threat to its image of having responsibly managed capture fisheries. There are other constraining 

physical factors. For example, relatively few locations can support the production of species that require 

large volumes of high quality water. Larger scale trout production is located in Idaho because of this 

resource (and even this is under pressure). 

Regulation 

Many in the industry identify the regulatory framework operating in the US as the most significant 

constraint on aquaculture production. This regulatory framework comprises federal and state rules that 

determine where aquaculture production can be located, which species can be produced, the methods 

utilized for production, the treatment of the production medium, how the products are processed, and 

how they are distributed to the end user. Aquacultural operations need to comply with Environmental 

 

2

 Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Marine aquaculture policy, June 2011. This 

figure includes both freshwater and marine production. Not included in this figure is the amount of salmon 

ranched in Alaska and based on Alaska’s salmon stock enhancement program.
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Protection Agency (EPA) Concentrated Aquatic Animal Production (CAAP) regulations for water and 

waste discharge. These regulations apply to those using flow-through or recirculating systems that 

produce more than 100,000 pounds of fish per year. A National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System 

(NPDES) permit is required and imposes the responsibility to manage pollution outputs and maintain 

records of this management. Many states have their own regulations. Regulations are not consistent 

among states and compliance with these regulations involves a wide range of county, state and federal 

agencies, implementing a patchwork of rules that frustrate those wishing to invest in aquaculture 

production and marketing. While various federal and state governments wish to encourage aquaculture 

production, it has proved very difficult to establish a general environment that is conducive to investment. 

A second federal agency, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Veterinary Medicine, 

approves and regulates all medications, which are most commonly administered in medicated feeds. Drugs 

are species specific; however, veterinarians can approve the use of extra label prescriptions (drugs 

approved for human or animals, but not the species being treated) and producers must keep records for 

the FDA. Currently there are only a handful of drugs available for treating aquaculture species. 

The third federal agency to regulate aquaculture production is the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), which 

uses the Lacey Act to regulate the transport of fish and shellfish and assist producers with the control of 

non-native species and potential predators. This has caused considerable frustration to those involved in 

supplying live fish markets. The FWS is also concerned about escapes from aquaculture and their impact 

on native populations. 

Marine aquaculture is similarly constrained, both within inshore and state waters (usually 3 miles but 

further for Florida and California), and offshore in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) - the area extending 

200 miles from the US coast. The federal government has responsibility for the latter, but, as yet, no 

coherent policy that would facilitate investments in offshore aquaculture has been implemented.3 Pending 

proposals face significant challenges from the wide range of interests that seek to constrain marine offshore 

aquaculture, including states that have to agree to the servicing of offshore facilities through waters within 

their jurisdiction.4 

An example - salmon

Belle (2002) listed 33 state, regional, or federal regulatory authorities that in some way or other have an 

input into how salmon farms in Maine are set up and run.5 A list of permits required in Washington is 

provided in Appendix 2. There are two primary reasons for this complexity.

 

3

 Proposals for offshore policies have been announced in 2011 by NOAA and by the Department of 

Commerce. These are currently subject to public comment and discussion. See 

http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/doc_aquaculture_policy_2011.pdf and 

http://aquaculture.noaa.gov/pdf/noaa_aquaculture_policy_2011.pdf. 

4

 To underline this two environmental groups filed a lawsuit in early August 2011 against the federal 

agencies that had granted an Hawaiian company the first commercial offshore aquaculture permit issued in 

the United States. They allege environmental impacts had not been appropriately assessed. 

5Belle, S. 2002. Maine Aquaculture. 2002 National Risk Management for Aquaculture Workshop.
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• First, the process of salmon farming crosses so many regulatory boundaries. In freshwater

there are issues relating to water diversion and discharge, to fish health and the use of nonnative species, or fish strains, as well as all the normal building regulations and codes. In 

saltwater things become even more complex because these same issues become embroiled in 

issues surrounding the use of our coastal waters. 

• Second, salmon farming remains a 'new kid on the block'. It requires exclusive use of small 

areas of coastal waters that have been accessible to all hitherto. Inevitably, it finds itself in 

someone's way, or in someone's view, or is perceived as a threat to the status quo. The 

process of establishing new uses of marine resources has become highly involved, with famers 

being vulnerable to technical violations of procedure, while regulators ability to act decisively 

is often compromised by conflicting views and interpretations of the science. 

Thus, it may seem that salmon farming is heavily regulated to the point of being unreasonable whereas, in 

reality, it is as much regulatory complexity — not agency heavy-handedness — that causes most of the 

frustration. This complexity affects US salmon farmers in three ways:

• First, it inhibits companies from applying for permits to expand. Though aquaculture is an 

approved use of coastal waters in both Maine and Washington, the process of obtaining 

approval has become so burdensome that few companies would consider it worth the effort 

today, especially those that are multinational. It makes more business sense for them to 

invest elsewhere or to acquire the assets of existing operations, as shown by recent 

acquisitions in both Maine and Washington. There have been no new salmon farm leases 

approved or applied for in Washington since the early 1990's. In Maine, only three leases 

have been approved since 2002, although two more may be approved soon.6

• It is emphasized that the process is not yet intolerably burdensome in terms of the 

requirements that have been imposed by state or federal agencies up to now. These 

requirements are thorough, but not overly so. The burden stems from the inevitability of 

opposition by other stakeholders and interest groups at every step of the way, which in turn 

leads either to rejection of the application, or legal appeal of an approval. The appeal process 

that follows is lengthy and expensive with no certainty that an approval will be upheld, 

especially if there has been even a minor procedural misstep by the approving body. 

• Second, it affects day-to-day operations by requiring statistical reports, system integrity audits, 

environmental monitoring, etc. In reality, none of these requirements are unreasonable or an 

excessive cost burden. But they expose a company's operations to public scrutiny and, with a 

business like salmon farming that is inherently variable and complex from a regulatory 

standpoint, those who seek to find fault will often succeed. In turn, this puts pressure on 

agencies seeking to apply rules reasonably, and on company executives who can never be 

confident that a lawsuit, whether reasonable or not, will have to be defended. It is not a 

regulatory climate in which the industry can prosper and this is reflected in its current state.

• Third, it provides almost unlimited scope for lawsuits that challenge the legality of the 

regulations that are in place. In past years the industry in both Maine and Washington has 

 

6Belle, S. personal communication
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had to contest lawsuits based on the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Water Act. As 

with most environmental laws there is a wide margin for interpretation in both acts and of 

expert opinion on both sides of a case. Salmon farming companies have found it very difficult 

to run their businesses and develop and implement long term plans in such an uncertain 

regulatory environment.

There are many examples of the potential cost of the latter problem. For example, in Maine, one of the 

two salmon producing states, the potential for escapes from salmon farms is a particular source of 

concern. Native stocks of Atlantic salmon in some rivers in Maine have been determined to be 

endangered and there is concern that escaped farmed Atlantic salmon of different genetic origin 

interbreed with them. This would compromise their offspring genetically, and further threaten the native 

wild stocks. 

Scientists hold different opinions on this issue. There are those, including geneticists and wildlife biologists 

in the agencies with jurisdiction, who subscribe to the concept of what might be called 'genetic 

contamination'. They postulate that offspring contaminated genetically by genes from non-local strains 

would be less fit to survive in the local wild conditions. However, there are others who argue almost the 

opposite, claiming that the assumption that salmon propagated in hatcheries will adversely affect the 

genetic diversity and fitness of wild fish populations is unproven. This contention is "clouded by uncertainty 

leaving it open to interpretation based on opinion and philosophical perspective” (Williamson 20017).8

However, despite this difference of opinion, it has become accepted in Maine and determined by agency 

mandate that escaped Atlantic salmon that are not of local genetic origin are a threat to the remaining wild 

salmon in Maine's rivers. Therefore, Maine's salmon farmers are only allowed to use stocks that were 

domesticated from these wild sources some years ago, despite the fact that strains of Atlantic salmon from 

Europe have been proven to have superior farm performance. This puts them at a competitive 

disadvantage with growers elsewhere. 

In Washington, the other salmon producing state, there is really only one local issue and that is the 

question of Atlantic salmon being a non-native species in a region where there are five native species of 

Pacific salmon. It has been shown over 30 years or so that Atlantic salmon is an easier fish to farm than 

any of the native Pacific species, and there is documentation going back over 100 years to show that 

attempts to establish it as a non-native fish for recreational fishing in the Pacific Northwest all failed.9 These 

failures and the continued failure of Atlantic salmon to establish self-sustaining runs following escapes from 

regional salmon farms have led to the general conclusion that Atlantic salmon cannot, or is highly unlikely 

to, establish outside its native range. 

 

7 Williamson, J.H., 2001. Broodstock management for imperiled and other fishes. Pages 397-482 in 

G.Wedemeyer editor. Fish hatchery Management 2nd edition. American Fisheries Society.

8 Amend, D.F. James Lannan, Scott LaPatra, Robert G. Piper, William J. McNiel, Charlie Smith and Gary 

A. Wedemyer. 2003. Another opinion on the role of hatcheries in Pacific Salmon management. World 

Aquaculture, Vol 33, No. 4, pp 8-10

9Ginetz, R.M.J. 2002. On the risk of colonization by Atlantic salmon in BC waters.

www.watershed-watch.org/ww/publications/sf/colonization.pdf. 
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Nevertheless, the possibility of colonization and competition with Pacific salmon has become an issue 

because groups opposed to salmon farming have continued to press the idea that they could establish 

under some circumstances, such as continuous escapes from fish farms. The concern is that if that should 

happen, Atlantic salmon might then displace wild Pacific salmon. Since there are already over 30 other 

non-native fish species in the region, some of which are proven predators on wild salmon smolts, the 

priority given to this concern may be misplaced. But it has become an issue and the subject of specific 

regulations regarding 'escape management plans' that salmon farmers must file with the State of 

Washington. 

Marine salmon aquaculture is located in coastal marine waters in bays or inlets where the water 

temperature is in a range suitable for salmon, there is good tidal exchange, adequate water depth, and 

protection from severe weather. A critical feature of such locations is that they are always publicly owned, 

since there is no private ownership of coastal waters in the US except in a few rare cases where tidelands 

for shellfish culture were deeded to private owners many years ago. Therefore, state governments are 

landlords to salmon farmers through their departments with jurisdiction.10 In this respect salmon farming 

is similar to cattle grazing on public lands where ranchers lease grazing land from the state or federal 

government, but quite different from most other forms of agriculture or aquaculture where farmers own 

the land and ponds they farm. 

This difference is critically important because salmon farmers are always dependent on government for the 

right to do business while governments, in turn, are subject to pressures from others who do not think 

that public waters should be used for this purpose. Moreover, salmon farms are perceived by some 

established interests to intrude on existing uses of marine waters, such as commercial fishing and 

recreational boating. Others object to degradation of landscape value. This has led to pressure on salmon 

farmers and government to slow development of this new industry, with the result that it is now confined 

to those few rural areas of Maine and Washington, which slows any future expansion.11

Market potential; but a major challenge competing in volume markets

In general, US aquaculture has not been cost competitive. In particular, those products of aquaculture that 

are commodities (e.g. whiteleg shrimp, Atlantic salmon, tilapia, and pangasius (tra and ba – the main 

competitors with catfish)) arrive at prices well below the level at which US producers can compete. 

Frozen shrimp and pangasius arrive from a number of Southeast Asian countries, frozen tilapia comes from 

China, and Atlantic salmon from Norway, Scotland and Chile (Atlantic salmon is imported in fresh form 

from some major suppliers). As noted above, many potential advantages accrue to these countries – some 

have relatively cheap labor to prepare the product for market, others benefit from the economies of 

aggregation, and others from prudent investment in technologies to improve productivity in production 

and processing. 

 

10 In Maine this is the Department of Marine Resources. In Washington it is the Department of Natural 

Resources.

11 New designs of cages are now being developed which hold the prospect that in future salmon may be 

able to be farmed further offshore in more exposed waters. However, to date, the salmon farming 

industry has been reluctant to embrace this technology with such moves as have occurred being relatively 

small.
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Because of the competition, much of US aquaculture production is destined for niche markets that cannot 

be easily reached by imported product such as live seafood markets in major metropolitan areas, or local 

markets. There is little formal description of the size and characteristics of this market. The high level of 

imports, and doubtful reputation of some of those products, has generated a premium for some products 

originating from local sources. Other food market niches include pond-side sales to local customers. 

Some mention should be made of the more positive features of the market environment for US fish and 

crustacean farmers. These revolve around the changing world order and the economic growth in some 

key developing countries. The growth in incomes and increase in demand for protein products already has 

had a major effect on the demand for protein products and particularly for seafood. This growing demand 

and the constraint on a matching production response holds out the prospect of higher prices in future 

years. The realignment of currencies and downward pressure on the US dollar could also reduce the 

attractiveness of the US market leaving more room for domestic suppliers. It is possible to generate a 

slightly more optimistic scenario, although this is speculative and warrants much more detailed 

investigation as many factors could intervene to see ongoing pressure on fish and crustacean farm margins. 

While environmentally friendly RAS systems raise considerable media attention, they are an expensive 

method for producing fish and crustaceans such as whiteleg shrimp and rely on premium prices. RAS 

systems were featured on a very recent Time magazine cover under the headline ‘The end of the line’.12 

This article focused on Australis’s Massachusetts-based RAS system for barramundi (a species that in 

nature spend most of its life in fresh water but migrates to saline waters), much lauded for its 

environmental merits and, apparently serving a healthy niche market in up-scale retail and food service. 

However, the article contained these quotes that underline the challenge of US expansion of RAS-based 

production such as shrimp. 

“Australis' barramundi has become so popular, in fact, that Goldman has expanded production 

— but not in Massachusetts. While the closed recirculating system he uses in Turners Falls is 

an environmentalist's dream, Goldman eventually wanted to reach a larger market at a lower 

cost, a step that he decided required an outdoor operation on the central coast of Vietnam. 

That branch, where barramundi are raised in sea cages in a protected bay, isn't quite as green 

as Turners Falls, but it's cheaper. ".......As much as the NGOs would have loved it, [Australis] 

just couldn't meet the economics of an expensive indoor environment," says Goldman [the 

owner].

“Land-based systems may work for more premium species, and they offer the chance to raise 

fish close to cities. In New York State, for instance, a company called Local Ocean produces 

indoor-farmed sea bass and flounder two hours from Manhattan. But such systems are still 

more experimental than economical.” 

To sum up the situation the international aquaculture expert Kevin Fitzsimmons offered the following 

overview of US aquaculture that underlines its weaknesses.13 These comments cover aquaculture in 

general, freshwater and saltwater.

 

12

 http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2081796,00.html

13

 Waterlines, Winter 2010, Aquafish collaborative research support program, USAID/Oregon State 

University,
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How does aquaculture within the US compare with aquaculture endeavors in other parts of the 

world? 

US aquaculture compares favorably in some respects and some species. We have some 

leading-edge scientists and technologies and some production systems that are top notch. But 

in many others aspects, we lag far behind. Our diversity of species is low, the scope of farms is 

relatively small, and we have only a handful of vertically integrated operations. Europe, Japan, 

and Korea have many more top-level scientists and labs than we do. China’s industry is two 

orders of magnitude greater than ours. We have excellent breeding programs for rainbow 

trout, channel catfish, white sturgeon, white shrimp, and Pacific oysters, but that is about it. 

The really big aquaculture crops: carp, tilapia, salmon, seaweeds, basa, flounders, sea bass, sea 

bream, yellowtail, cods, mussels, pearls, and clams, all have sophisticated breeding programs 

conducted abroad. And we are missing out totally on tuna, which will be the next huge sector. 

What is your response to the sometimes-heard criticism that US aquaculture scientists 

should not be supporting industry development in other countries that could become 

competitors to the US industry?

This criticism mostly comes from people who have not been outside the United States to see 

the international industry. We almost always learn more than we have to share when abroad. 

The Norwegians alone have developed as much high technology as the US. The Chinese were 

doing aquaculture for a millennium before the US was founded. Not a single US scientist was 

involved in the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) program, which won the World 

Food Prize in 2005. Canada’s salmon industry is ten times the size of ours. The anemic state 

of US commercial aquaculture is due to our limited investment, nothing more. Production costs 

are higher in Japan, Norway, and Korea, and all have bigger industries than the United States. 

The European Union (EU) has strict environmental restrictions, but has salmon, sea bass, sea 

bream, trout, and tuna farms. Vietnam grew its catfish industry to four times the size of the 

United States’, while our catfish farmers argued whether it was really a catfish or not. Catfish

farmers complain about imports from Vietnam, not realizing that the United States is one of 

Vietnam’s minor markets, after Russia, the EU, Mexico, China, and the Vietnamese who eat the 

majority of the fish. The United States needs to invest more in technology, science, and 

extension support for US farmers. But US farmers also need to be willing to invest more of 

their own money to catch up, travel to other countries to see how they are successful, and 

import technology and know-how from abroad. 
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SECTION 3: AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS 

This section was developed with the assistance of our SMEs, especially John Forster. The section on 

recirculating systems was prepared with the assistance of Michael Timmons. Atlantic salmon are cultured 

in net cages and there is some exploration of investment in recirculating systems (RAS). Marine shrimp are 

grown in ponds and RAS. The latter contributes a very small part of marine shrimp output. 

3.1 Ponds 

Pond culture is the most common type of commercial aquaculture in the US. In 2005, 64% of farms selling 

aquaculture products had ponds. Their versatility allows for a range of production intensities and species, 

including bottom dwelling species like shrimp. Ponds do not always require flowing water, they can range 

in size to best fit the needs of the producer, they supply naturally occurring microbial growth to 

supplement nutrition, and with low densities aeration is the not necessary. The major drawbacks are the 

requirement for a large amount of flat land to hold water, disease organisms can flourish under these 

conditions, stock monitoring is difficult, water quality and stock management is challenging, and pond 

systems are vulnerable to predation and, in some locations, theft. For shrimp, access to saline water is 

necessary. In most cases this means a coastal location, although some shrimp in pond production takes 

place inland using low salinity groundwater (e.g., Alabama). 

Site selection is critical. While most pond aquaculture does not require access to large volumes of flowing 

water, some method of replenishment is required. Historically, in shrimp pond culture there was 

continuous exchange of water with adjacent estuaries or coastal waters. This practice had negative effects 

on the coastal environment and has been eliminated since the early 1990s. However, small volumes are 

exchanged in most coastal ponds in the US, often after treatment. The soil quality and the topography of 

the region are crucial. Flat topography makes maintaining the pond and harvesting the fish more efficient. 

Soil nutrients will affect the aquaculture system, therefore clay or soil liners might be used. Ponds 

themselves come in all sizes and shapes. Most ponds are square, but if that shape does not maximize 

production on the land other options are available. Large ponds are 5-20 acres or even larger for shrimp 

and small ponds are fewer than 5 acres. The former are less expensive to build, the latter are easier to 

maintain. Smaller ponds have less surface air so the temperature is more stable. Also, the reduced surface 

area and the smaller perimeter make controlling predators easier. 

Some of the major challenges facing pond aquaculture come from the difficulty of maintaining optimal 

growing conditions. Disease organisms flourish in pond conditions, inventory is difficult to measure and 

there are few tools available to adjust the water conditions. Aeration to increase the levels of dissolved 

oxygen can be avoided in low-density systems, but is required in higher density systems. Aeration can be 

used to increase dissolved oxygen at night when photosynthesis does not occur. Other factors such as 

temperature are harder to control. Larger ponds have more surface area and lead to rapid heat gains and 

losses. An advantage of pond systems is that fishpond water and sediments become organically enriched, 

stimulating phytoplankton and microbial growth that can provide supplemental nutrition or, in some cases, 

all the feed fish need. However, many species are cannibalistic when there is not enough food available, 

and this can be a problem when producers add additional fingerlings to a pond that is populated with larger 

fish or if crustacean size is uneven. Therefore, food levels must be monitored and supplemental feed 

should be used as needed. 
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All of these factors need to be carefully monitored and adjusted to maintain optimal growing conditions. 

Pond farmers have the fewest management options available to them. They can ensure that they stock 

with healthy fingerlings and PLs and vaccination is available to protect from some finfish diseases. In 

addition, they can aerate and replenish water, although this may involve the extra cost of pumping, and add 

compounds to ensure that the water has appropriate quality for the species. They can also administer 

various fish health products in the feed. 

In the United States, ponds are the predominant production method for whiteleg shrimp although a small 

volume of this species is grown in recirculating systems. 

In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of controlling water in aquaculture in ponds are as follows. 

Advantages 

• Do not require access to large volumes of flowing water.

• Fishpond water and sediments become organically enriched stimulating phytoplankton and 

microbial growth that can provide supplemental nutrition or, in some cases, all the feed fish 

need.

• Ponds are well suited to bottom dwelling animals such as shrimp.

• Ponds stocked at low density may not require aeration and can provide a significant amount 

of feed for livestock growth.

Disadvantages 

• Require large areas of flat land with soils that hold water, or use of expensive pond liners.

• Disease organisms can flourish under the organically rich conditions and these are hard to 

control.

• Stock monitoring is difficult because the aquatic livestock can rarely be seen and are hard to 

sample.

• Photosynthesis can lead to low dissolved oxygen levels at night requiring supplemental 

aeration.

• At high stocking densities, continuous aeration may be needed.

• Large surface area allows rapid gain or loss of heat.

• Vulnerable to predators and theft.

• Mainly limited to coastal locations for saline water supply.

3.2 Cages or net cages

In 2005, 5% of farms selling aquacultural products had net cages. The investment required for cages and 

net pens varies depending upon local conditions. In protected lakes, they may require relatively little 

investment capital, while in some marine environments the investment is higher as the specification must 
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cope with waves, swell, currents, and predators that are more aggressive. The investment cost of 

developing the infrastructure varies depending upon the location. Not all bodies of water are ideal for 

aquaculture; the body of water should be protected, with adequate depths and water circulation. Some 

open water locations are vulnerable to water temperature inversions and very strong currents during 

periods of severe weather. 

The open net mesh allows rapid water exchange, an essential for healthy growing conditions for the fish. 

Additionally, the cages can easily be replicated as an operation grows. However, the potential for the 

manager to maintain ideal water conditions is limited. The stock is vulnerable to issues such as algal 

blooms, low oxygen levels, and adverse water temperatures. Site selection can minimize these issues, 

although managers must continuously monitor water quality and the health of stock. Efficient feed 

procedures are essential to ensure that fish are fed to satiation and to avoid wasting feed and causing the 

accumulation of material under the net cage. Management can involve aeration to mix water at different 

depths to maintain water quality, the administration of medicated feeds, or the movement of fish into 

medicated baths for short periods. Many cage systems now involve fallowing for a short period to ensure 

that there is an opportunity for the floor under the net cage to recover from waste deposits and to break 

natural parasite cycles. Net pens are used mainly by commercial salmon saltwater operations, although 

there is a minor use in trout production and offshore ocean cages for shrimp are under experiment in 

Mexico’s Sea of Cortez. 

In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of controlling water in aquaculture in cage systems are as 

follows. 

Advantages 

• A simple, low cost way to contain fish in a large volume of water.

• Open net meshes allow rapid water exchange leading to healthy growing conditions.

• Can be easily replicated for large-scale development where conditions are right.

Disadvantages

• Requires access to protected bodies of fresh or saltwater with adequate depth and water 

circulation.

• The control of water quality is limited to aeration and mixing water of different depths.

• All feed must be provided from outside sources.

• Not well suited to bottom dwellers such as shrimp unless substrates are integrated within the 

cage structure.

• Stock monitoring is more difficult than in raceways, but less so than in ponds. 

3.3 Recirculating systems

In 2005 11% of farms selling aquaculture products had recirculating systems. Another 9% of farms had 

tanks that had no recirculation of water. These are used for batch production and are insignificant in 
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terms of commercial food fish production. Recirculating aquaculture production offers an alternative to 

pond, raceway, and net cage production with several potential advantages. The systems may be developed 

to use less water, the aqueous environment can be controlled to meet optimum conditions of growth and 

fish health, the disposal of waste is more manageable, and the production is available throughout the year. 

The main disadvantages are the costs of investment compared to other aquaculture methods, the 

extremely high level of management to ensure that sensitive aquatic animals remain healthy and productive, 

and the limited market opportunities for aquatic animals that have a much higher cost of production. The 

relatively short history of RAS has seen mixed results. The landscape is littered with failures over the last 

20 years as investors have often underestimated the challenges. 

Marine shrimp are being raised in recirculating systems in the US and attracting considerable media 

attention. Also, Atlantic salmon production in RAS is under detailed consideration. While RAS production 

of both of these species is very small, some consideration of the technologies is warranted. In very broad 

terms, the principles of RAS is the same for all species.

RAS has several important considerations that influence potential success. Location is important as there 

must be adequate farmable water available to the site; good water quality during all stages of production is 

critical. Management is challenging as several environmental parameters need to be managed to maintain 

ideal conditions for growth. These include temperature, the concentrations of dissolved oxygen, unionized ammonia nitrogen, nitrite–nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the water. Nitrate concentration, pH, 

and, alkalinity levels are also important. Feed is a key consideration. Of course, feed composition is 

critical, but the rate at which it is fed is particularly important in the more intensive systems associated 

with RAS. Wasted feed and the products of fish metabolism such as carbon dioxide, ammonia/nitrogen, 

and fecal solids all contribute to the generation of carbon dioxide, and reduce the oxygen content of 

water. Consequently, these waste products must be effectively removed by filtration systems. Hence, it is 

critically important to balance the input of feed with the carrying capacity of the containment structure. 

Overpopulating a tank and reducing the quality of the aqueous environment seriously impacts performance 

in a recirculating system. 

The design of the recirculating system is very important. Tanks must have a flow-through configuration 

that is suitable for an individual species, and it must adequately clear the system of wastes and replenish it 

with good quality water for aquaculture production

The success of a commercial aquaculture enterprise depends on providing the optimum environment for 

rapid growth at the minimum cost of resources and capital. One of the major advantages of intensive 

recirculation systems is the ability to manage the aquatic environment and critical water quality parameters 

to optimize fish health and growth rates. Although the aquatic environment is a complex ecosystem 

consisting of multiple water quality variables, it is fortunate that only a few of these parameters play 

decisive roles. These critical parameters are temperature, pH and concentrations of dissolved oxygen, 

ammonia, nitrite, CO2, alkalinity and suspended solids. A generalized unit process diagram for addressing 

these water quality parameters is shown in Figure 9 on the next page. While this depicts a unit for tilapia

production, the basic system components are the same for shrimp RAS. In many ways shrimp RAS is much 

less developed than finfish RAS. USDA’s Marine Shrimp Program is now focused exclusively on developing 

RAS systems for marine shrimp (L..Vannamei).
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Figure 9: Unit process flow diagram used to rear tilapia in a RAS

Source: Mike Timmons, Cornell University

Figure 9 demonstrates the commonality of RAS. How these unit processes are implemented depends 

upon the design approach taken and results in the large variations in individual farm design. 

Each individual water quality parameter is important, but it is the aggregate and interrelationship of all the 

parameters that influence the health and growth rate of the fish or crustaceans. 

The diversity of recirculating systems arises from the various design and management approaches taken to 

achieve targeted water quality conditions. Each water quality parameter interacts with and influences 

other parameters, sometimes in complex ways. Concentrations of any one parameter that would be 

harmless in one situation can be toxic in another. For example, when aeration and degassing problems 

occur, carbon dioxide levels will generally become high, while at the same time dissolved oxygen levels 

become low. Consequently, the fish or crustaceans are less able to use the oxygen that is available. In fish, 

the high carbon dioxide level of the water affects its blood capacity to transport oxygen, aggravating the 

stress imposed by low dissolved oxygen levels. 

Another excellent example of the complex interaction among water quality parameters is the relationship 

between pH and the toxicity of ammonia. The un-ionized fraction of the total ammonia concentration is 

much more toxic than the ionized form (ammonium) and, at low pH, most of the ammonia in the water is 

in the non-toxic ionized form. However, increasing the pH by only one unit, i.e., from 6.5 to 7.5, increases 

the concentration of the toxic un-ionized ammonia concentration by a factor of ten. Simply adding baking 

soda (or another base) to a system to increase its alkalinity can inadvertently increase the un-ionized 

ammonia to toxic levels. 

The above discussion points out a common failure mode in RAS, which is that animal losses are most often 

the result of human error. New operators of RAS will often fail to understand the interrelationships of 

10% Flow

90% Flow from tanks Pump

CO2

stripping

Low Head 

Oxygenation

Solids settling 

chamber

Fish production tank

Oxygen 

addition

Biofilter
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these water quality parameters. A well-designed water quality monitoring system and having staff that 

understands water chemistry and fish biology will mitigate most of these particular issues. 

The relationship between water quality parameters and their effect on fish growth rate and health is 

complicated. For example, fish and crustaceans lack the means to control their body temperature and 

maintain it independent of the environment. Environmental temperature changes affect biochemical 

reactions which lead to different metabolic and oxygen consumption rates. At the lower ranges of the 

species tolerable temperature range, these rates decrease. As water temperatures increase, some fish 

become more active and consume more dissolved oxygen, while simultaneously producing more carbon 

dioxide and other excretory products, such as ammonia. These increasing rates of consumption of 

necessary elements and production of detrimental elements can have a direct effect on overall fish and 

crustacean health and survival if these parameters are allowed to exceed normal values. If not corrected, 

the animals will become stressed to some degree with maximum stress resulting in death. Even low levels 

of stress can have adverse long-term consequences in the form of reduced growth rates or mortality due 

to opportunistic organisms that take advantage of the stressed animal.

The needs of individual species may vary and consequently the system must be fine-tuned to deliver 

optimal and consistent conditions for growth. The engineering of any RAS system is critical to maintaining 

good quality conditions to ensure that fish health is maintained.

RAS systems have some important positive features.

• Indoor RAS offer the advantage of raising fish and crustaceans in a controlled environment, 

permitting controlled product growth rates and predictable harvesting schedules. RAS has 

the advantage of maintaining near optimum water quality conditions for the reared animals. 

As a result, environmental stress can be minimized and reduced stress translates into the

animal’s ability to withstand disease challenges. 

• RAS conserve energy and water through water re-use after reconditioning by biological 

filtration using biofilters. 

• RAS allow some economies of scale, which results in the highest production per unit area and 

per unit worker of any aquaculture system, although these may be cancelled by the challenge 

of managing large complex systems. 

• RAS are environmentally sustainable; they use 90-99% less water than conventional 

aquaculture systems; less than 1% of the land area; and provide for environmentally safe 

waste management treatment. Many RAS discharge less than 10% of their standing water 

volume on a daily basis (compared to a traditional flow through system which would 

discharge 5000% per day, or 50 volumes). Some current commercial RAS are using less 

water (1 to 3% system discharge per day) where experienced personnel and appropriate 

technology have been employed. RAS allow year-round production of consistent volumes of 

product, and complete climate control of the environment. 

• Because RAS can be set up to produce the same volume of fish or crustacean every week, 

week in and week out, they have a competitive advantage over outdoor tank, pond and net 

cage systems, which are seasonal and sporadic in harvest.
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However, in RAS, the stock densities are high and this can result in added stress to the fish. But RAS does 

not create additional fish health issues; in fact, if proper biosecurity measures and fish health management 

protocols are followed, disease may be less of a problem. However, if a biosecurity protocol is violated 

and a pathogenic organism is introduced into a RAS, then there can be very serious and negative impacts, 

and in the extreme case, the entire farm can be lost. In a typical RAS facility, the rearing environment is 

recirculated typically between 40 to 60 times per day. So depending upon how many independent systems 

the farm’s inventory is divided into, each subsystem will be almost immediately affected. Conversely, in 

RAS, if a disease challenge has been identified promptly, the invasive disease can be treated, controlled and 

eliminated. 

Thus far in the United States, RAS systems have been aimed primarily at higher price, niche markets. 

These may be the live or on-ice product finfish or crustacean markets in metropolitan areas that service 

recent immigrant populations, or the upscale retail or foodservice trade that seeks to service those seeking 

local, high-quality products. The costs of recirculating systems are generally higher than for other 

conventional aquaculture systems. However, the major cost difference arises because investment costs are 

so much higher. Feed, energy, fingerling, PL and labor costs are very similar. In fact, feed costs may be less 

than in more conventional systems, as it is easier to match feed to the nutritional needs of the aquatic 

animal. Also, yields can be higher because of close management of the system. The management 

complexity involves substantial attention to detail and the investment in appropriate monitoring equipment 

to ensure that the aqueous environment is never threatened. 

For RAS, 90% of losses are due to human error14, for example:

• Leaving a valve in its non-standard condition (open when should be shut and vice versa);

• Forgetting to do something, e.g., adding some water quality amendment such as sodium 

bicarbonate;

• Oxygen tank is empty when needed;

• Power is inadvertently shut off (or not turned back on) to some critical life support 

component;

• Misreading of some water quality parameter and the adding of some chemical to the water to 

make an adjustment which was not needed; or

• Turning off some monitoring component of the life support system and not turning it back on

or part of the monitoring system became non-functional, e.g., dead battery or power outage 

that also crippled the monitoring alarm system.

If the human error components can be eliminated (through effective design, training, and hiring of 

competent employees), then there are a myriad of subtle factors that will affect biological and hence 

economic performance. Biological performance is directly related to water quality. Water quality is 

directly related to management competence. The best designed RAS can be destroyed by marginal 

competence being applied by the managers of a RAS. 

 

14 Timmons, personal communication
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RAS-produced animals provide a very small percentage of the aquaculture output in the United States 

(estimates vary as there are no data describing the use of different systems – some say 5% of the value, 

others say more).

Perhaps the most important recent development is the growth in the production of salmon smolts in RAS. 

This is by the far the most extensive usage of RAS technology. Salmon farms use RAS primarily for the 

increased temperature control (higher temperature) in order to produce a larger stocking smolt, e.g., 60 

to 90 grams instead of a 30 to 40 gram animal, and the faster growth allows the salmon farmers to move 

their stocking smolt to the net pens at earlier dates. Success in smolt production explains why RAS is 

attractive to the aquaculture industry, e.g., temperature control, disease control and biosecurity 

employment. 

A favorable review of the technology has been undertaken in Canada, and already in Norway there is a 

rapid conversion of traditional flow-through smolt production systems to RAS. In 2009/10 about 10% of 

the companies producing smolts in Norway were using full RAS hatchery technology, and it is reported 

that a high rate of conversion has continued this year. These conversions incorporate some of the most 

advanced technologies for disinfection, such as UV filters or ozone treatment, oxygenation, and CO2 

stripping. It is reported that this allows production capacities to increase by more than 50% at some sites 

and the production of larger size smolts for direct stocking in sea cages. The investment cost is high, 

although there is a strong demand from the farmed Atlantic salmon industry for smolts. The size and 

concentration of the Norwegian salmon industry and the demand for a large volume of product, have 

facilitated greater standardization in RAS smolt production systems. Consequently, those involved in 

ensuring smolt production systems are able to accumulate solid and reliable experience of production 

history and the impact of perils. Those parts of the US aquaculture industry that are utilizing RAS are likely 

to be much more heterogeneous and be handling much lower volumes. 

Other species using RAS include tilapia (estimated 90% of output), yellow perch (there are some yellow 

perch growers in the Midwest; one is a multi-million dollar company with plans for expansion15). Hybrid 

striped bass use of RAS is declining as the costs are higher. One company is producing Barramundi in 

Massachusetts for upscale food service and retail, another pompano fingerlings and several producing 

ornamental fish (where RAS has been successfully applied). 

Some mention should also be made of so-called ‘bio-floc’ shrimp farming systems. This represents a form 

of RAS that has been experimented with for several species, but has only had significant commercial 

application for shrimp. It has received considerable attention in recent years as a number of pioneers have 

pursued this route in some foreign countries. The concept was developed in Israel and first introduced 

commercially for shrimp production in Belize. It is now applied commercially in a number of countries 

including Indonesia, Thailand and China, although it remains a minority form of production. Academic 

interest is high and some commercial experimentation has been undertaken in the US. 

Bio-floc production involves the encouragement of a bacterial community in a pond or raceway. These 

communities gather in clumps referred to as ‘flocs’ that consume nitrogenous wastes to convert them into 

a high-protein feed source for the shrimp. In fact, the flocs comprise a range of bacteria, fungi, microalgae, 

 

15

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Section 3: Aquaculture systems 

33

and other organisms. Bio-flocs, once established help maintain water conditions and provide nutrition 

advantages in terms of the costs of water treatment and feed supply. There is reduced need for water 

exchange and/or treatment and less potential for environmental conflicts. It is also claimed that the system 

reduces the risk of disease bearing pathogens (including viruses) and involve simplified production systems. 

Shrimp can be grown at very high intensities in such systems and their feed conversion rate can be very 

high. 

The disadvantages are the high levels of oxygen consumption and energy requirements to operate aerators. 

Also, the systems require very high husbandry standards as biological conditions must be very closely 

controlled. Any failure of electrical power can be disastrous as aeration is critical to maintaining the 

delicate balance of the various bacterial flocs to maintain water quality. 

In summary, the advantages and disadvantages of controlling water in aquaculture in recirculating systems 

are as follows. 

Advantages 

• Do not require large area of land or a lot of replenishment water. 

• Because of this, they can often be located close to the markets they serve. 

• Close control of water quality and other variables possible. 

• Low discharge volume makes treatment easier and permits for discharge easier to obtain. 

• Can be easily replicated for large-scale development where the market will accept higher 

costs of finished product. 

• Especially well-suited to hatchery applications. 

• Bio-floc systems can reduce water treatment and feed costs. 

Disadvantages 

• Costly to build. 

• Use substantial amounts of energy for water pumping, aeration and other treatments. 

• Depend on continuous operation of mechanical equipment, failure of which can lead to large 

fish losses. 

• Can result in high levels of stress in undomesticated species cultured in high stocking 

densities. 

• Demand high levels of management and investment in system control methods. 

• Vulnerable to lower cost competition by producers who have natural advantages and can use 

one of the other methods. 

3.4 Offshore aquaculture 

'Offshore' is defined as unsheltered, open marine water. This may mean the use of state or federal waters, 

although clearly the major issue in the US is the use of federal waters (waters in the Exclusive Economic 
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Zone - more than 3 miles from the coast except in Florida and Texas). Almost all marine aquaculture in 

US waters is near-shore, i.e. in protected waters with limited exposure. There is no clear-cut and 

quantifiable definition of “offshore” as there is a continuum between “near-shore” and “offshore” 

aquaculture in waters of progressively greater depth, exposure, and distance from shore. 

Offshore aquaculture is still at the development stage and volumes produced are very small. The 

engineering required for offshore cages must be robust to ensure that it can be serviceable in large waves 

and strong currents. There are some promising technologies and development experience is being gained. 

The production of sea bass/sea bream in the Mediterranean is probably the most successful large-scale use 

of offshore technologies. Costs tend to be high as feed has to be transported to the offshore location and 

labor is required to service the offshore cages. 

A number of species have been grown in offshore cages (e.g. cobia, pompano, pacific threadfin), although it 

has been difficult to identify suitable species that can attract appropriately high prices in US markets and 

meet environmental concerns about escapes of native species or genetically improved strains. As the costs 

of offshore aquaculture (both investment and operational costs) tend to be higher, existing opportunities 

are limited to very high value markets. Development of offshore aquaculture in the United States is heavily 

constrained by the web of different regulations covering the use of marine resources. This complex 

regulatory framework reflects the conflicts in use and the overlapping responsibilities of state and federal 

agencies. 

Offshore aquaculture is still at an embryonic stage, and it is unlikely that any significant development can 

take place around US coasts or within the US Exclusive Economic Zone within the next 20 years, despite 

recent policy proposals that seek to overcome some of the institutional constraints. 

3.5 Biosecurity 

For commercial success, an aquaculture operation must maintain aquatic animals at densities far greater 

than normally found in nature. The animals must survive and grow rapidly. Regardless of the culture 

system used, the producer must maintain an environment that supports good aquatic animal health. 

Effective fish health management consists of practices and procedures that emphasize prevention of 

outbreaks of infectious and non-infectious disease. Implementation of biosecurity practices will reduce 

operating costs by minimizing the number and severity of infectious disease outbreaks. The following 

description may be relevant to any type of system, although it is written with reference to the system that 

demands intense attention to biosecurity – the RAS production. Clearly, some of the issues raised are 

more difficult or impractical to address in open-air, more extensive systems, but the principles and 

priorities remain the same. 

An effective plan of disease outbreak prevention includes a monitoring protocol that detects fish health 

problems at an early stage. Running a facility without a prevention plan can be financially catastrophic, as it 

leads to continual responses to disease outbreaks as the fish health management strategy. 

Biosecurity consists of practices and procedures that: 

• Reduce the risk that pathogens will be introduced to a facility; 
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• Reduce the risk that pathogens will spread throughout the facility; and

• Reduce conditions that can increase susceptibility to infection and disease.

Biosecurity cannot completely prevent entry of, or eliminate, all pathogens from any culture facility. 

Biosecurity accomplishes pathogen reduction rather than pathogen elimination.

Biosecurity is an important part of facility daily operating procedures. Planning should start during the 

design phase and protocols should be established before the facility comes on line. Adding biosecurity as 

an afterthought may introduce an additional layer of complexity to an already inefficient operation. 

Thinking about biosecurity before production begins allows non-intrusive routines to be developed rather 

than adding stopgap methods after problems arise. 

Biosecure RAS husbandry requires that a system be designed so that it can be cleaned completely, easily 

and frequently. Any surface can serve as a substrate for microorganisms. All components of a recycle 

system including biofilters, low head oxygenators, CO2 strippers, pipes, and tanks should be constructed of 

nonporous materials and arranged to be easily accessible for cleaning and disinfection. Clean-outs should 

be installed to access any part of the system for flushing of accumulated biosolids. Because wood cannot 

be easily and thoroughly disinfected, it should be considered only for fabrication of disposable temporary 

structures. Equipment and supplies should never be transferred from other locations to the facility.

Biosecurity is primarily associated with the transport of disease organisms into the RAS. Transport of 

disease organisms is essentially limited to direct transfer via water, fish/eggs, or animals (human and other 

mobile creatures) that are carrying water-born organisms on their body or clothes. Aerosol transfer of 

disease organisms from outside of the facility to inside a facility is really not a consideration, unless the air 

has travelled over a nearby water body. Viruses that are viral to warm blooded animals are not a threat to 

fish or crustacean vertebrates. Knowing these few simple facts simplifies what must be addressed in a 

biosecurity plan: water, feed, fish/eggs and carriers of such organisms that originate in aquatic 

environments.

• Water: Entry of pathogens through a facility water supply is an important route of 

introduction, and it will increase the risk for infectious disease outbreaks in aquaculture 

production systems. When possible, a groundwater supply should be used for the facility. 

Wells and springs do not usually contain resident fish, other aquatic animals, or aquatic 

invertebrates that could be pathogen carriers. If a pathogen-free water supply is at risk of 

contamination, or is unavailable, then influent water should be disinfected using ultraviolet 

radiation or ozonation. Well and spring water may need to be stripped of carbon dioxide 

and/or nitrogen gas, and oxygen may need to be added prior to using the water for fish 

culture. For small aquaculture operations of less than 100,000 lb. per year (45,450 kg/yr.), 

drilled and tested well water is the best choice because it will be specific-pathogen-free, and 

constant water temperature and flow are more likely than with spring water. For larger 

operations, well water is also the best choice if an adequate supply is available. Surface 

waters harbor fish pathogens, and therefore, should be used only as a last resort, and then, 

only after effective sterilization. If spring water is used, it should be protected from animals 

that can carry fish pathogens, such as fish, birds, raccoons, salamanders, frogs, and snakes.
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• Eggs/fish: Entry of pathogens through the introduction of fish to a culture facility is another 

important risk factor for disease outbreaks in aquaculture. The risk that pathogens will enter 

a facility can be reduced by purchasing eggs and fish cultured in a disinfected or specificpathogen-free (SPF) water supply and certified to be SPF or specific pathogen resistant (SPR). 

Certification involves testing for specific fish pathogens relevant to the species and 

determining, based on statistical probability, whether they are free of those pathogens. 

Inspection is usually conducted once or twice per year. In general, in the case of egg 

purchase, the broodstock would be sampled and certified. In the case of fish purchase, a sub 

sample of fish would be examined for certification. Other options are maintenance of a 

pathogen-free broodstock on site and/or use of quarantine before fish are introduced to the 

production system. For salmon and shrimp the production of SPF and SPR stock is highly 

specialized and involves a small number of companies.

• Feed: Pathogens may be introduced into a recirculating system along with the fish feed. 

Commercial dry feeds are processed at high temperatures of about 160–180F (71–82C) for 

steam-pelleted, 180–200F (82–93C) for expanded and 220–350F (104–177C) for extruded 

feed, so pathogen introduction from this source is unlikely. However, as each bag (or lot) of 

feed is used, the lot number, and date manufactured and used, should be recorded in case 

trace back of feed needs to be carried out. To avoid fish health problems related to rancidity 

or mycotoxins, feed should be used within the time recommended by the manufacturer.

• Introduction of pathogens through live food presents a serious risk of contamination. All live 

food should be cultured in specific-pathogen-free conditions and should never be used from 

natural aquatic environments, e.g., ponds.

• Staff and visitors: Pathogens can be carried into a facility by staff or visitors (human or 

animal). Consequently, procedures should be in place to ensure that clothes are changed or 

protected and procedures fully understood. These procedures should be enforced with no 

exceptions. For example, employees should be discouraged from having aquatic pets at their 

homes and from working at another aquatic animal farm during non-work hours. Foot baths 

should be used at the entry to the production area and changed regularly.

• Quarantine: Quarantine is the isolation of newly arrived fish and PLs. This isolation is 

imposed to prevent the spread of contagious disease to other aquatic animals in the facility. 

The quarantine facility should be designed for easy cleaning and disinfection. It should be a 

separate room or facility, not just a tank in the corner of the production facility. Waste 

discharge should be separate from the overall facility’s systems and, if necessary, disinfected 

with either ozone or ultraviolet radiation prior to discharge or disposal of this water. Access 

to the quarantine facility should be restricted and additional procedures should be required 

for all who enter. Quarantine equipment should be clearly marked and used only in the 

quarantine facility

• Upon arrival, the fish or crustaceans should be examined and all (not just a sample) of the 

shipment placed into quarantine. Fish should arrive in clean, debris-free shipping water and 

should be at least average in length and weight for their age and have normal. The fish should 

be feeding and behaving normally within 24 hours after arrival. For fish, an examination for 

parasites that includes wet mounts of skin scrapings and gill biopsies should be conducted the 

day of arrival. To determine which, and how many, tags should be sampled, the supplier 
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should be asked if the fish were all collected from the same rearing unit. For each “lot” of 

fish, sample at least six fish with normal appearance and six fish with abnormal appearance. 

Throughout the period in quarantine, moribund fish should be examined for parasites and 

cultured for bacteria and viruses to determine whether pathogens are present that could 

threaten the remaining population of apparently healthy fish. 

• The quarantine period for finfish is often cited as thirty days. However, quarantine length for 

an individual facility could be greater or less than 30 days, depending on the species, age, 

source, and purpose of the fish. It should also account for incubation periods and 

development times for the pathogens that are known to present a risk, pathogen life cycles, 

and expression of clinical disease in warm water vs. cold water conditions. Regardless of the 

quarantine period chosen, the addition of any animal to ongoing quarantine resets the clock 

to zero.

• One objective of quarantine is to increase the probability that, if the animals are infected with 

pathogens, an outbreak will occur before they are moved into the production system. 

Replication time for bacteria, viruses, protozoa and other pathogens is temperaturedependent. The fish need to be exposed to the same conditions, e.g., density, feeding, 

handling, they will encounter in the production systems, so that a problem may be detected 

before the fish are moved out of quarantine. A sub sample of animals can be stressed by 

exposing them for short periods to low dissolved oxygen concentrations, handling, and/or 

disturbance such as bright lights or motion outside tanks. These conditions will increase the 

likelihood that an infectious disease outbreak will occur. 

• Some protozoal pathogen have a life cycle where some stages occur on and some occur off of 

(free-living) the fish. In these circumstances, fish can be transferred to a new tank in order to 

leave behind the free-living stage and reduce the number of parasites that are available to 

continue the infestation.

3.6 Aquatic animal health products

• A limited number of procedures can be used to maintain health and reduce the threat of 

disease. Once the disease appears, a number of treatments can be used. Some treatments 

may involve immersion of the fish in another containment structure, adding compounds to 

the water, or delivering the compound in feed. There is also increasing interest in pre-and 

probiotic methods for boosting the fish's ability to resist disease. Vaccination is available for 

some diseases to boost natural immunity to a disease. In some species, this is administered at 

the fry or fingerlings stage through a vaccine bath or injection. The vaccines approved for 

salmonids are shown in Table 3. 
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Table 3: Approved vaccines for aquatic animal health

True name Trade name Diseases Species

Aeromonas Salmonicida Bacterin Furogen Dip Furunculosis (caused by 

Aeromonas salmonicida)

Salmon and trout

Aeromonas Salmonicida-Vibrio 

Anguillarum-Ordalii-Salmonicida 

Bacterin

Lipogen Forte Furunculosis, vibriosis, cold water 

vibriosis

Salmon and trout

Arthrobacter Vaccine, Live 

Culture

Renogen Bacterial kidney disease (caused 

by Renibacterium salmoninarum)

Salmon and trout

Infectious Salmon Anemia Virus 

Vaccine, Aeromonas SalmonicidaVibrio Anguillarum-OrdaliiSalmonicida Bacterin, Killed Virus

Forte V1 Infectious Salmon Anemia, 

furunculosis, vibriosis, cold water 

vibriosis 

Salmon and trout

Yersinia Ruckeri Bacterin Ermogen Enteric redmouth disease (caused 

by Yersinia ruckeri serotype 1)

Salmon and trout

Flavobacterium Columnare 

Bacterin

FryVacc1 Columnaris (caused by 

Flavobacterium columnare)

Salmon and trout

Vibrio Anguillarum-Ordalii 

Bacterin

Vibrogen 2 Vibriosis (caused by Vibrio 

anguillarum serotypes 1 and II and 

Vibrio ordalii

Salmon and trout

• A limited number of fully or conditionally FDA-approved drugs can be used for bacterial 

disease treatment, although some traditional antibiotics may have a positive effect. Fish 

farmers are advised by FDA to use approved therapeutic drugs as a last resort and to be 

certain that they are applying the right remedy for a disease issue. These include formalinbased products for control of protozoan parasites, antibiotics for bacterial infections and 

diseases and anesthetics for use during vaccination or transport. Only formalin-based 

products are approved for shrimp. Diagnosis is a major challenge in aquaculture and farmers 

are advised to maintain a close relationship with a qualified fish health specialist. Judicious use 

and approved dosage is highly recommended as the fish may be destined for food 

consumption and the wastewater (or local environment in the case of net cages) is subject to 

discharge conditions. Careful use of these antibiotics is also prudent to avoid the 

development of resistance.

• The list of approved drugs is relatively small, although the list is growing. A number of 

compounds are classified as low regulatory priority drugs, and include materials such as acetic 

acid, fullers earth, sodium chloride, urea, and tannic acid. These are not approved but there 

is a low enforcement priority (in other words, one is free to use them). Also veterinarians 

can authorize off label use of an unapproved drug where there may not be an effective 

approved drug. Finally, there are drugs with deferred regulatory status that can be used carte 

blanche. These include copper sulfate and potassium permanganate. There is little data on 

the use of any of these treatments in the industry. Finally, there are some drugs that are 

experimental that can be used as part of ongoing studies supervised by the US Fish and 

Wildlife Service’s Aquatic Animal Drug Approval Partnership.
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3.7 Causes of death in aquaculture

Fish die or are lost from aquatic farms due to several causes. These apply to all aquaculture systems, 

though they are more serious or difficult to control in some than in others.

• Death due to a wide range of diseases, many factors inducing poor water quality, inadequate 

nutrition, or what is sometimes called 'trade mortality'; in other words weaker fish just dying 

earlier in their life cycle than others in the population.

• Death may be due to predation from birds, terrestrial mammals, aquatic mammals, such as 

otters or seals, or reptiles such as snakes. Where determined predators are present, only 

partial protection or deterrence is possible in some systems and predation is a significant 

problem. This is especially the case in open ponds where netting or other protection may 

not be a failsafe deterrent.

• Losses may be due to escapes, which are a particular vulnerability in net pen systems, though 

escape at the water outlet is also a possibility in many types of aquaculture, if filters or other 

barriers fail.

• Losses may be due to escapes because of some failure in the water containment structure.

• Losses may result from severe weather and subsequent impacts. Severe weather and 

resulting floods may wash out all or part of a containment structure fish population. Some 

larger fish are susceptible to death from lightning strikes. 

• Cannibalism, which is not thought to occur in most farmed fish if they are all about the same 

size and well fed, may be more common than often assumed, especially if there are a wide 

variety of sizes. The latter can occur when a fish (or crustacean) population has not been 

well-graded, or where some pond systems are never fully fallowed between harvests, 

therefore allowing some larger fish to remain.

• Deliberate culling of weak or 'poor doing' fish' may also be part of the management strategy.

• Human error in operating the equipment and facilities may cause mortality.
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance 

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SECTION 4: AQUACULTURE INSURANCE 

4.1 The previous review of aquaculture insurance 

The previous review of aquaculture insurance as part of the NRMFPA covered the key issues associated 

with the development of an RMA crop insurance plan. The program resulted in three proposed named 

peril policies that provided insurance against loss of fish production due to mortality. While the NRMFPA 

proposals related to two freshwater species, the issues raised are all relevant to considering saltwater 

mortality insurance plans. Hence, we provide a brief background below. 

One proposed catfish policy was restricted specifically to cover oxygen depletion due to electricity outage 

(the catfish power outage policy). This proposed policy was not developed for submission to the Board of 

the FCIC. The other two proposed draft policies covered catfish in ponds and trout in raceways. 

For catfish, the perils covered included oxygen depletion due to power outage, flood16, and rupture of 

containment structures due to flooding. An initial proposed inclusion of catfish losses because of a fish 

harvest ban (unless otherwise indemnified) was excluded from final consideration. Unlike the trout plan, 

no catfish diseases were included as covered causes of loss, although the initial proposals included several, 

each of which are influenced by the standard of management.17

The named perils in the trout policy included some trout diseases18 plus oxygen depletion due to electrical 

outages, flood and damage to containment structures due to flooding, a range of adverse weather 

(damaging winds, lightning, tornado, and hurricane) and failure of the water supply or oxygen delivery 

system due to natural causes. Exclusions included inability to market because a buyer refused to accept 

product, failure of buildings or structures, loss of market value, predation, theft, vandalism, malicious acts, 

relocation of trout to an uninfected area, removal from the growing location for medical examination and 

unexplained shortages of inventory value. 

The proposed policies borrowed several features of private insurance policies such as detailed applications 

for insurance, inventory reports, and prompt loss adjustment procedures. The periodic inventory reports 

were a critical feature as they were to be used as a baseline for identifying losses from a named peril. The 

value, liability, and indemnity would be based on a predetermined quantity/price table by fish size category 

for the species. 

 

16

 It was originally proposed to include losses resulting from windstorm, lightning, tornadoes and 

hurricanes, and rupture of containment structures due to a wider range of adverse weather. 

17

 The original proposal included cover for catfish disease losses from visceral toxicosis of catfish, channel 

catfish anemia, proliferative gill disease, Ichthyophthirius multifiliss, and exotic diseases not found or 

previously unknown to infect catfish in a commercial setting in the United States. 

18

 For trout, the diseases were limited to columnaris (a highly contagious disease resulting from infection 

by the bacteria Flavobacterium columnare), Ceratomyxa shasta, (a microscopic parasite), infectious 

hematopoietic necrosis (except in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington), and exotic diseases not found or 

previously unknown to infect trout in a commercial setting in the United States. 
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The feasibility of extending crop insurance to baitfish and salmon was also examined. Draft policies for 

these were not submitted to the FCIC Board of Directors. Detailed analysis was not published, however 

letters to salmon producers gave the following conclusions

The two proposed policies for catfish in ponds and trout in raceways were rejected by the FCIC Board of 

Directors on the recommendation of RMA staff and following the advice of five separate expert reviews 

(three did not support the draft policies, two did). 

We will touch on several of the aspects covered in the previous study in our report, although here we 

consider it relevant to recall the conclusions of the five expert reviewers that commented on the 

proposals prior to their submission to the board. We have not had an opportunity to see the staff paper 

that accompanied the Board presentation. The results of the expert reviews are summarized below. The 

first three focused on the conceptual issues while the last two paid attention to the actuarial analysis. 

• Clifton R. Parker recommended approval of the draft plans as a “very good product” with 

relatively few criticisms of the feasibility or the policy provisions and supporting 

documentation. 

• Gary Schnitkey was highly critical of the conceptual grounding to the proposed plans and 

recommended rejection of the draft policies, primarily because of the availability of alternative 

methods of handling the perils covered, threats of moral hazard, and the serious challenge of 

accurate inventory measurement and reporting. The latter issues were strongly emphasized.

• Steven C. Griffin gave a scathing criticism of the proposal because of numerous key items 

of detailed information that are missing or inconsistent, and the land-based crop insurance 

framework upon which it was developed. He recommended rejection of the draft policies.

• David R. Bickerstaff focused on the actuarial analysis and recommended rejection of the 

draft policies based on the rating and pricing components.

• Don Armstrong focused on actuarial analysis and recommended approval of the program in 

spite of the “weak actuarial presentation”.

4.2 Aquaculture crop insurance – the private insurer’s perspective

Insurance serves to transfer risk from one party to another in exchange for a premium via contract. 

Insurance must be an attractive proposition for both buyers and sellers. In other words, the revenue from 

premiums must provide a reasonable return to insurance companies and represent good value for money 

for those buying the product. If the product is unlikely to be profitable, no insurance company is likely to 

invest in developing or handling the product. If the product does not provide adequate management of 

aquaculture production risks at a price that is considered to be reasonable, it will not be purchased by 

aquaculture producers. 

From the insurer's point of view, there are a number of key issues19.

 

19 These issues are derived from Paddy Secretan’s review of aquatic insurance as part of the NRMPFA.
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• The industry has to be of sufficient size to generate revenue to cover all potential costs.

• Identification and measurement of (insured) losses must be clear and objective.. 

• Where the value of the insured items varies over time, the inventory measurement 

procedures must have accuracy that warrants insurer confidence in offering policies. 

• The environment for aquaculture is inherently very risky. 

 Water is a challenging medium in which to produce anything. Managing water quality 

represents a major issue when undertaking aquaculture. It is prone to fluctuation in 

temperature and chemical composition, and is a carrier of both positive (e.g. nutrition) 

and negative (e.g. diseases and algal blooms) organisms. 

 The range of aquatic animals produced in aquaculture is very large and understanding 

of critical husbandry issues is lacking in many of these species. Even those species 

raised in very large volumes on a global basis, such as salmon, marine shrimp, and 

catfish, lack the firm scientific foundation of land based animal agriculture

(e.g. porcine, avian, bovine species). The large-scale commercial development of 

aquaculture based on the application of formal scientific understanding is still recent. 

For example, the relatively mature Norwegian farmed salmon industry only began in 

the mid-1980s. For some species produced in aquaculture very little is known and 

domestication is at a very early stage. 

 Many aquatic animals tend to be sensitive to the conditions in which they are raised. 

Aquaculture inevitably involves producing aquatic animals in confined conditions in 

densities that are rarely experienced in natural conditions (or if they are, they move to 

other locations). 

 Aquaculture production faces a very wide range of perils for consideration as part of 

aquaculture crop insurance policies. Each demands close definition and sufficient 

data to identify rates and other policy parameters. 

• The industry must have adequate support services and well-developed capabilities. Insurance 

companies need to be confident that management operates at a high level, and potential 

threats are identified and appropriate husbandry is applied to minimize disruption of 

production. Poor availability of these support services or a lack of confidence in industry 

capabilities will influence the availability of insurance or its terms. 

• Aquaculture is subject to a very wide range of regulatory controls through federal, state and 

county agencies. These regulations serve to control a number of key features of aquaculture 

production. For example, they may restrict the production of a species that can threaten 

environmental value, control the discharge of wastewater, constrain the use of aquatic animal 

health drugs, compel the reporting of diseases, restrict the movement of products across 

state borders, impose treatments or culling in the case of disease threats or outbreaks, and 

insist on food safety. Each of these regulatory actions will need to be taken account of in 

constructing appropriate wording for policies. 

• Aquaculture is vulnerable to major disease events. This is particularly true of marine 

aquaculture where disease has struck hard to seriously affect a large part of an industry. 
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Recently the Chilean salmon industry was very seriously hit by a viral disease and shrimp 

aquaculture operations have been almost wiped out by viruses in some countries. This threat 

of large potential losses reduces the incentive for insurance providers to invest in aquaculture 

insurance. 

• Specialist skills must be available within the insurance industry to underwrite the risks and to 

deal with the issues associated with appropriate servicing of insurance products. The 

insurance industry's own capabilities are developed with experience. Its experience insuring 

aquaculture in the United States is limited and the appropriate skills for marketing and 

servicing policies would need to be developed. Loss adjustment procedures may vary by 

production system and species produced, and inevitably, specialist aquaculture loss 

adjustment skills are very thinly distributed.20 Also, special procedures will need to be 

developed for reporting and dealing with a claim as aquaculture perils can quickly result in 

serious outcomes. 

• Aquaculture operators should have a strong interest in and willingness to pay for risk 

management strategies (e.g. crop insurance). With risks being relatively high, one might 

expect operators to be willing to pay appropriate premiums to cover these risks. However a 

wide range of factors may reduce this willingness. In particular, very tight margins, as has 

been the case in US aquaculture in recent years and especially in US shrimp farming, may lead 

to reluctance to pay for adequate risk management. Also, very small, non-specialist 

aquaculture operations may consider premium rates too expensive. 

• Insurers generally like enterprise sectors that normally provide sound and consistent profits. 

US aquaculture has failed to produce strong results, and occasionally encounters severe 

losses from weather or disease events. 

Despite the growth in importance of aquaculture as a supplier of seafood, insurers face specific challenges 

in developing successful products. The challenge for insurers in the United States, with its diverse 

aquaculture sector comprising very few large commercial-scale operations, is substantial and historically 

the only private insurance purchased has been brokered locally, but underwritten by insurers based 

overseas (primarily using the Lloyds insurance market in London) (see Section 4.4.1). 

4.3 RMA insurance plan design issues

The previous in-depth review of aquaculture insurance opportunities revealed some key issues associated 

with aquaculture insurance and our analysis of the feasibility has focused on each of these. The five main 

issues are insurability, determinability, measurability, actuarial assessment, and other risk management 

provision. For this review, which includes some less commonly cultured aquatic animals, we add another 

key issue and that is the size and structure of the industry. 

 

20

 Despite the experience of FSA in administering the NAP program.
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4.3.1 Insurability and determinability

Identifying which perils are of concern and differentiating those perils that are insurable from those that are 

not is a critical issue. Linked to this, it is important that a loss can be linked unambiguously to a specific 

insured peril.

Insurance can only cover losses incurred by accidental and unintentional events. Moral hazard (behavior 

representing either fraud or a rational response to having insurance on a crop) can reduce the 

performance of an insurance plan. Deductibles can reduce behavior that might intentionally cause higher 

losses. However, it is normal to exclude a peril where management can strongly influence the losses 

incurred. 

Disease

The different named causes of loss in the NRMFPA proposed catfish and trout policies were listed in 

section 4.1 above. It is of interest that no catfish diseases were considered insurable, and only a limited list 

of trout diseases.

The previous study focused largely on the identification of disease perils that could be insured. This was a 

major issue as disease is a leading peril confronting agricultural operators, and a wide range of diseases are 

experienced in saltwater salmon and marine shrimp farming. These have differing impacts on production 

and are subject to varying degrees of mitigation through management practices. As noted above, insurance 

can only be applied to accidental or unintentional perils because of potential problems of moral hazard. In 

the NRMFPA program, close attention was paid to developing a decision tree that would assist in the 

identification of disease perils that could be covered. Attention focused on the following key questions: 

does management influence the potential risk of disease; can the disease be controlled; are losses acute; 

and, can the disease be identified in the case of loss? The decision tree below (Figure 10) was established 

as part of the previous study.

Most infectious pathogens are present in aquaculture, although a disease outbreak is usually conditional 

upon other factors that compromise a host, or the immune system of the host, to give the pathogen an 

advantage. The most common factor that increases the chance of disease outbreak is stress. Stress can 

result from a range of different factors. 

• Chemical sources of stress such as low dissolved oxygen, improper pH, pollution from 

chemical treatments (accidental or intentional), diet composition (type of protein or other 

compositional factor), and the accumulation of ammonia or nitrite from metabolic wastes.

• Biological sources of stress such as population density, the presence of other species of 

aquatic animals that might be aggressive or territorial, the close proximity and contact with 

animals of the same species, and various microorganisms and parasites. 

• Physical sources of stress such as temperature, light, sounds, dissolved gases, handling, 

shipping, and disease treatments. 

Good management practice minimizes each of these sources of stress, ensures that proper sanitation is 

applied to all of the equipment on a facility, and that operational procedures control the introduction of 
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

45

potentially harmful pathogens. Consequently, a very large number of aquaculture diseases and parasites 

are conditional on management decisions. For example, vulnerability to disease is influenced by:

• operational decisions (such as those that determine the quality of water and the feeding 

regime);

• investment decisions (such as those that determine location and the configuration of the 

aquaculture facilities); and,

• more general organizational decisions (such as maintaining key equipment inventories, 

equipment maintenance, and biosecurity - including the movement of staff, stock, and vehicles 

into the facility). 

It is clear that diseases should only be included in a crop insurance plan if there is no potential method of 

controlling or mitigating the disease or if the disease is unknown or considered exotic in commercial 

practice in the United States (for example, aflatoxin coverage in corn policies in Texas, New Mexico and 

Oklahoma). 
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Figure 10: Decision tree for identification of insurable diseases

Predators, theft, and malicious damage

The above list also excludes a number of other perils such as predators, theft and malicious damage as 

these are all subject to management control. The exposure to these perils is also closely linked to the 

production system. For example, it is much more difficult to avoid losses to predators in pond systems 

where large areas have to be protected. However, despite the seriousness of the threat, there are 

management actions that can control this peril. Theft is a relatively minor irritant21 and its inclusion as a 

named cause of loss in an RMA insurance plan would be subject to adverse selection. 

 

21 See shrimp News International, for example, September 6, 2011.
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Oxygen depletion due to nature and weather-related perils 

The previous study had identified insurable perils that included oxygen depletion due to exogenous acts of 

nature, certain diseases, floods and some other risks that are largely beyond the control of the producer. 

However, the insurability of oxygen depletion because of a power outage was strongly disputed by two of 

the expert reviewers. Both suggested that the inclusion of this peril was unnecessary as aquaculture 

operators could handle this risk by purchasing a sufficient number of generators and fuel to sustain them 

throughout all but the most protracted outages. It was anticipated that sound management of an 

aquaculture enterprise would include the investment in essential equipment such as this. This study 

supports the conclusion of the two expert reviewers who made this point. 

Some weather-related perils are not subject to management mitigation. In particular, violent weather and 

its resulting impact may be unavoidable. However, some weather-related perils can be managed. In 

particular, the management of water flow into ponds can mitigate the effect of temperature as can aeration 

or methods of circulating water within a containment structure. Naturally, vulnerability to these perils 

varies considerably among the different types of production system. Indoor RAS systems are protected 

from many of the weather effects, while ponds, raceways (not used for shrimp or salmon production in the 

US), and net cages may be particularly susceptible. All systems depend to a certain extent upon the 

availability of a constant flow of good quality water. 

Although flood was included as an insured peril in the proposed NRMFPA provisions for catfish and trout, 

it is very difficult to understand precisely how such losses might be measured. In the case of a flood, it is 

highly unlikely that lost fish will be identified. In this case, it would be difficult to measure the loss even if 

other issues relating to valuation of the loss could be resolved. This opens up considerable opportunities 

for moral hazard. 

Attribution of mortality to an insured peril

A loss must be directly attributed to an insured peril. In aquaculture, a major factor contributing to 

disease is deterioration in water quality, stress because of overcrowding, poor nutrition, or other local 

condition. Consequently, it is very challenging to attribute a specific disease loss to an insured disease peril 

unless that disease is unknown in US commercial aquaculture, or to a disease that is independent of 

management procedures. This problem of attribution is pervasive in aquaculture. Also, some diseases are 

not easily identified and accurate diagnosis involves examination by qualified veterinary specialists. We are 

confident that appropriate diagnostic facilities are available to both the farmed salmon and farmed shrimp 

production sectors.

The insurability of hatcheries

Our scope of work extends to a review of the possibility of extending crop insurance to hatcheries. 

The ownership of the hatchery sector for some species may be highly concentrated, with one or a limited 

number of hatcheries supplying a large number of producers with eggs or in some cases broodstock.22 

 

22 The 2005 Census of Aquaculture identified the following numbers of hatcheries producing broodstock 

or eggs:; salmon – 2; and shrimp – 2 (larvae and seed).
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance 

48

Hatchery crop insurance would differ significantly from insurance for fish and crustaceans produced in the 

main grow-out systems. The hatchery sector is diverse, demanding different protocols for each species. 

Also, within most species there is significant variation in facilities, techniques, and systems. Hatcheries are 

highly specialized operations, often focusing on a single species and utilizing scientific methods that need 

high levels of control of the aquatic environment. Normally the quality of water needs to be very high and 

intense attention to biosecurity methods is required to ensure that the product is disease free. The 

process of producing and hatching eggs and nauplii demands close attention to detail. The number of eggs 

and nauplii that hatch and their survivability as newly hatched fry or post-larvae (PL) varies considerably. 

High proportions of eggs of some commonly cultured species do not hatch or do not survive their first 

feeding. Hatcheries will sell their product at different sizes depending on the species. 

There are numerous problems in quantifying the product inventory within hatcheries. The period to attain 

viability and to reach fingerling or PL stage varies by species and production levels will vary depending upon 

the spawning cycle. Product inventory can vary substantially during the year. Inventory quantification and 

verification pose a severe challenge in terms of insurability. There are many opportunities for moral 

hazard given the very short period that the product is in the hatchery and their extreme vulnerability to 

mortality. In addition, it is difficult to assess a fair market value for either the eggs/nauplii or the 

fingerlings/PLs that are sold as there are no published representative prices. 

Additionally, some salmon hatcheries are part of publicly funded fisheries enhancement programs. The 

largest is in Alaska where a major program to sustain populations of marine harvested species of Pacific 

salmon is in place. The Alaskan hatcheries are made up of 20 private nonprofit corporations, 11 state 

owned hatcheries that are contracted to private nonprofit operators, 2 federal or Bureau of Indian Affairs 

hatcheries and two state owned and operated hatcheries. Hatcheries are able to recover operational 

costs through special cost recovery harvests and the salmon enhancement tax. In addition, individual 

organizations have special contracts with the state for specific funding. Almost 2 billion young salmon are 

released annually as part of the large-scale Alaskan ocean ranching industry. There are several other 

federally and state funded salmon hatcheries, most of which are supporting wild. 

We conclude that it is extremely difficult to develop a crop insurance plan for the highly specialized species 

hatcheries sectors that would meet FCIC standards. 

4.3.2 Measurability 

A viable insurance policy cannot be developed unless it is possible to determine very clearly that a loss has 

occurred and that it resulted from an insured peril. Also, the size of loss must be measurable using 

accurate procedures that are acceptable to all parties and repeatable. 

The previous NRMFPA study and the terms of reference for this study focused on the development of 

products defined by species. However, it is clear that the production system is a major factor influencing 

the feasibility of aquaculture crop insurance. This is because it is easier to measure inventory and losses 

from an insured peril in some production systems than in others. Inventory measurement is an integral 

component of aquaculture insurance, serving as a baseline from which to identify losses. 

Inventory measurement and verification involves the collection of much data. For example, the previous 

proposed plan provisions for trout in raceways and catfish in ponds provisions required six inventory value 
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reports during the year. These were required to include all containment structures (identification numbers 

and locations, GPS coordinates, volumes), date each stock size was stocked, stock sizes, numbers of each 

stock size, weights of each stock size in each containment structure, price elections, total value of each 

stock size, and total value of all sizes in the containment structure. Documentary support of inventory 

value reports that may have been required included a detailed listing of containment structures, unit values, 

the numbers and the sizes and weights of fish stocked, mortalities, sales and purchases for the three 

previous crop years, feed purchased, and feed fed. 

For professional aquaculture managers the inventory is calculated as a function of the fingerlings placed, 

feed conversion rates adjusted by movements in and out, and collected mortalities. However, this can be a 

crude method of estimation, although experienced fish and crustacean farmers with sound record keeping 

may be able to keep reasonable track of their inventory. Private aquaculture insurance policies require 

regular inventory estimates. However, many involved in aquaculture will not regularly collect or record 

inventories, especially if they operate on a small scale or if they operate in systems where inventory is 

particularly difficult to measure. 

The problem of measuring loss is particularly severe when the production system involves ponds. Ponds 

can vary substantially in size, and it is difficult to establish inventory either by sampling or more intrusive 

methods, such as seining. Mortality is also challenging to measure as proof of losses cannot necessarily be 

observed on pond surfaces. In some environmental conditions, dead fish sink to the bottom of the pond 

and begin to decompose. The problems are amplified when the production system does not involve ‘all inall out’, single batch method. For example, in catfish, where production extends from one year to another, 

a recent survey indicated that only 23% of all catfish production involved batch systems (and 76% of catfish

operations released fingerlings into ponds that already had catfish in them). 

The proposed provisions for insuring catfish in ponds suggested two methods for estimating catfish losses. 

One method was used when water temperature went below 26°C. This involved a systematic method of 

estimating floating mortalities (debris field measurement) with dubious levels of accuracy. A seining 

method was to be used when water temperatures were not conducive to having 100% of the dead fish 

floating (below 20°C) or as a method to verify the debris field measurement. This latter method is 

expensive as it involves employing a custom harvest crew. It should be noted that for some aquatic 

animals raised in ponds, losses might be obscured by cannibalism. This problem is closely related to the 

efficiency of feeding; cannibalism may increase when aquatic animals receive insufficient nutrition.

Production of fish in raceways presents an environment that is more conducive to establishing inventory. 

Raceways are fed by a continuous stream of water that is discharged through filters. These filters need to 

be cleaned regularly to ensure that the flow of water is maintained. Dead or ailing fish naturally move 

towards the filters and can be removed for enumeration and examination. In addition, it is relatively easy 

to identify trout by size in raceways by using separation methods. 

Production in cages presents similar inventory assessment problems to production in ponds, although fish 

can be more easily observed. Regular inspection of cages is part of good management practice and dead 

and ailing fish can be identified and removed by divers on a regular basis. 
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Production in recirculating systems is conducive to regular assessment of inventory measurement and 

losses. Recirculating systems are often indoors, and the operator will be regularly checking the feeding 

behavior, size and health of the stock, and has the capacity to regularly record inventory. In most cases, 

this will be a function of the fingerlings entered, feed consumption, and expected growth rate minus the 

collected mortalities. 

An alternative method of identifying the guarantee is to use a production cost approach as applied in the 

dollar plans that RMA offers. In those plans production cost estimates (usually from crop extension 

services) provided the basis of production cost parameters together with increments associated with the 

stages of production. We considered and rejected these, as no representative production cost data can be 

identified for species grown in aquaculture in the United States.

4.3.3 Inventory measurement

Counting live aquatic animals

Accurate counting of aquatic animals is an ongoing challenge for all sectors of aquaculture for two reasons. 

First, large numbers of animals are usually involved because, unlike terrestrial farm animals, the fish or 

crustaceans are harvested when they are quite small (for fish usually between 0.5 – 1.5lbs). Therefore, in 

order to produce substantial tonnage, tens of thousands and sometimes millions of aquatic animals must be 

stocked in an on-growing system. It is understood that fish counts are accurate to ±2% to 3%; given the 

present status of live fish counting systems this can still mean a variance of many thousands of fish. Counts 

of PLs in shrimp farming are likely to be even less accurate. The shrimp production cycle is much shorter 

and the animals are much smaller and consequently the only count is of PLs entered and shrimp harvested.

Second, the live fish must be crowded in some way in order to count them. This may mean passing them 

through a counting machine, or counting them manually as they pass down a channel. In both cases, the 

fish must move from one containment unit to a new containment unit. Alternatively, a count may be 

estimated by sub-sampling a population to determine average weight followed by counting of the whole 

population. All methods are subject to errors. Fish activity as they pass through a counting machine often 

leads to fish being missed or double counted. Manual counting is vulnerable to human error and fatigue. 

Sub-sampling to determine average weight has a built-in potential for error depending on the 

representativeness of the sub-sample, smaller, weaker fish often being less able to avoid a net than the 

stronger ones. 

Further, all the methods of crowding and handling fish in order to count or weigh them are stressful to the 

fish and may affect growth rate. Consequently, farmers try to complete the process as quickly as possible, 

and this increases the chances for error. Concern about stressing their fish is one reason why farmers are 

reluctant to count frequently during the growth cycle. It is normal for no counts to be made during the 

production cycle and for losses such as those due to escape or predation to go undetected.

Starting inventory

A key starting point for inventory accuracy in grow-out systems is to have as accurate a count as possible 

of the aquatic animals going into the system, albeit subject to the errors described. Almost all juvenile farm 

aquatic animals start their lives in hatcheries, which may be a long way from the farm. When they are 

ready to be stocked they must then be moved in special tanks on a truck or by well boat (salmon). 
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Before being netted or pumped into the transport container, the aquatic animals are normally counted at 

the hatchery and then may or may not be re-counted on arrival at the farm and before stocking. 

Alternatively, hatcheries may use a displacement method – based on the known number or weight of 

aquatic animals that displaces observed changes in the level of water in standardized transportation tanks.

Since the transport process itself is stressful, there is urgency to complete the stocking as quickly as 

possible when the fish arrive and therefore reluctance on the part of the farmer to handle them again for 

counting or weighing. Often, therefore, the hatchery count becomes the starting inventory with a level of 

accuracy governed by the procedures used at the hatchery and limited by the general difficulties in 

counting large numbers of live fish explained above. This is particularly true in shrimp farming as farmers 

would find it very challenging to recount PLs after their delivery and transfer to grow-out ponds.

Errors are especially likely when the fish being stocked are small because de-watering them before 

weighing a subsample is more difficult to do properly, while small size makes accurate separation and 

identification in counting machines difficult. Smaller fish are also of lesser value on a per piece basis, so 

there is less incentive for the hatchery or the farm to take pains to be sure of an accurate count. 

Since counts on larger fish are likely to be more accurate, farms that start the on-growing process with 

larger fish are more likely to start with a reasonably accurate starting number. For example, juvenile 

salmon (smolts) are usually at least 80g (five to the pound) when stocked in net pens and may be recounted by machine on entry, especially if delivered by well boat. But, even when counted by machine,

there is still a margin of error with many farmers accepting that ±3% is normal despite counting machine 

manufacturers claims to do better.

Some farms that stock small fish employ a ‘nursery’ system before stocking them into the main on-growing 

units to get the fish up to a larger size when they are stronger. This offers the chance to re-count the fish 

after the nursery stage, which is good practice when it is done.

One major problem has already been alluded to. Some production practices do not involve the raising of 

single batches of fish and hence the receiving containment structure already includes a fish population. This 

represents a major challenge to accurate inventory assessments and adds further complicated arithmetic to 

an already highly uncertain calculation. This is rarely the case in either salmon or shrimp farming as care 

must be taken in ensuring that ponds and net pens are clear of any stock that might carry disease.

Tracking numbers and biomass during grow-out

Except for deliberate culling, the challenge in the case of all other types of mortality is knowing that it 

occurred and knowing how many fish were lost. Clearly, it is extremely difficult to know how many fish 

are lost in instances of predation, escape or cannibalism unless the whole fish population is re-counted 

from time to time to check inventory numbers. For reasons explained earlier, this is something that 

farmers are reluctant to do and in some cases, such as in large ponds, it is effectively impossible.23

 

23 Schemes for the independent certification of responsible management of species farmed (e.g., farmed 

salmon), which assure buyers that the fish has been grown using best practices, may soon mandate the fish 
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Even in the case of mortality due to disease or other causes, it is not always easy to recover and count all 

the dead fish (referred to as “morts”) or crustaceans. This is especially so in ponds, but in other 

aquaculture systems small dead fish can disintegrate quickly, or they may be cannibalized by the others, or 

other organisms that feed on carrion. It is a part of accepted good aquaculture practice to recover dead 

fish from the system, count them and establish cause of death. These morts may collect on outlet screens, 

float or sink to be collected by divers in the case of net pens. In net pens they have to be retrieved from 

net bottoms by divers. The sinking of morts in ponds depends on the temperature of the water and 

species. Raceways and RAS offer the best conditions for recovering morts as weak and distressed fish get 

flushed to outlet filters by the water flow. This must be undertaken regularly to maintain water flow and 

prevent water fouling. However, it is unlikely that all dead fish are always recovered in all circumstances 

and the inventory shortfall that results will only be determined if a fish farmer takes pains to do 

intermediate or harvest counts. Intermediate counting may accompany size grading and separation of 

finfish stock with different growth characteristics. The separation will involve movement of the stock to 

another net pen or unit.

No one has found a passive, mechanized way yet to determine total biomass in a fish or crustacean 

production unit without counting the fish and determining their average weight. There are machines, as 

described, that will count fish but this always involves crowding and handling of some sort, both of which 

may cause the animal distress. There are also machines that estimate average weight, where a scanning 

frame is suspended in the water and, as fish swim through, their weight is estimated from an image of the 

fish and a prior calibration that relates the image to the weight for the species concerned. Over time, 

enough fish are thought to swim through the frame in order to estimate an average for the population. 

Farmers report mixed results with the system but it represents an approach that is promising and 

recognition by the industry and equipment manufacturers that a passive, mechanized solution to the 

biomass estimation and tracking challenge is something the industry badly needs.

Commercial aquaculture facilities will utilize regular inventory sampling procedures. The one below is used 

in raceway production of trout and similar procedures can be adapted for use in cages and recirculating 

systems for other finfish species such as Atlantic salmon. These procedures are not practical in ponds, and 

in recirculating systems great care must be taken not to stress the fish. It should be underlined that this 

procedure is only applicable in operations (or parts of operations) that use single batch production. 

Unfortunately, multiple batch systems are common to ensure effective utilization of optimal carry capacity. 

• Sample counts are conducted monthly to determine fish in and fish out, beginning number of 

fish, average weight per fish, fish per pound and total weight of fish per raceway (tank) and 

ending number of fish, average weight per fish, fish per pound and total weight per raceway 

(tank) at the end of the month.

• When sample counting, the fish should be crowded starting from two-thirds of the way down 

the length of the tank and moving toward the tank inflow. The smallest, weakest fish will 

linger toward the outflow of the tank, and are not representative of the general fish 

population. 

 

in marine or lake net pens are re-counted if there is significant evidence that an escape may have 

occurred. 
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• With the fish loosely crowded at the head end of the tank, a sample of fish is netted into a 

bucket of water suspended from a scale. The weight is recorded and the fish are counted as 

they are poured back into the tank on the other side of the crowder bar.

• If fish are well graded 5 samples should be sufficient. Samples should be taken to be 

representative of the population, thus a dip net should be taken from the four corners of the 

crowed area and from the middle. 

• Fish per pound is calculated by dividing the total number of fish from all samples by the total 

weight of all samples. The calculated fish per pound for each tank is then used to estimate 

the weight of fish in the entire tank. See Table 4 for an illustration. In this example the 

sample count for the tank is 8.81 fish per pound. To estimate the total weight of the tank the 

number of fish in the tank taken from the inventory record is divided by fish per pound. Let’s 

assume there are 20,000 fish in the tank; the total weight is 20,000 ÷ 8.81 = 2,270 pounds. 

Table 4: Sample count example

Sample Weight (pounds) Number of fish

1

2

3

4

5

3.5

4.1

3.1

4.9

3.8

28

37

28

44

34

Totals 19.4 171

To ensure accuracy the fish per pound is derived by dividing the total number of fish from all 

samples by the total weight from all samples. i.e. Sample Count = 171 ÷ 19.4 = 8.81 fish per 

pound

• To track inventory between monthly sample counts fish are advanced by weight based on the 

amount of feed fed and previous growth records or a growth formula. Mortality is tracked 

daily (number and average weight per tank) and subtracted from inventory.

Using proxies

In the absence of reliable mechanization, some aquatic animal farmers use feed consumption as an indicator 

of biomass, because the amount of feed consumed under different circumstances is reasonably predictable. 

Therefore, if the population does not consistently eat the expected amount, it is quite likely that there are 

fewer fish there than records show, which may prompt a re-count or at least a detailed inspection of the 

system. For this reason, accurate feeding records are very important and may provide an insurance 

adjuster, in the case of an insurance claim, with a way to check back on the possibility of prior inventory 

variance. However, the method depends on accurate feeding and sensitive determination of satiation. It is 

easy to over feed aquatic animals and never know it because wasted feed may be flushed out of the system, 
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fall through net meshes or disintegrate on the bottom of a pond24. So much depends on the diligence and 

sensitive observation of those whose job it is to care for the animals day-to-day and no matter how much 

new technology is developed that is unlikely to change.

The NRMFPA reviewed closely the use of proxy methods such as those using farmer estimated feed 

conversion ratios. These methods were rejected because of eight specific objections, most of which were 

based upon the potential for moral hazard (see NRMFPA report page 43)25. The previous feasibility study 

for catfish and trout has a very strong preference for enumeration and physical measurement of actual 

losses rather than proxy measures. Undoubtedly, the appropriateness of using proxy measures based 

primarily on farmer estimated feed conversion might be applicable to some operations in some production 

systems; however, it is potentially flawed when applied to an industry-wide plan such as that administered 

by RMA. The problems are magnified when applied to highly heterogeneous aquaculture species sectors. 

These difficulties are compounded in shrimp production as shrimp nutrition often involves supplementary 

feed (and in some cases no feeding) as water conditions may be managed to supply sufficient nutrition.

Inventory accuracy

The inventory on a fish or shrimp farm’s books usually derives from crude mathematics. 

• a count at stocking that is probably accurate to no more than ±3% (and not always 

undertaken);

• less culled animals and those that have died and been recovered and counted (where that is 

possible); and

• less an unknown number of animals that may have died and not been recovered, or may have 

escaped, been cannibalized or predated. 

And unless the animals are re-counted at some point during the grow-out process, the variance will 

increase until a final count is made at harvest. To this we must add the complications arising from the 

practice of comingling animals (not a problem for shrimp) of different ages to maximize carrying capacity, 

and the need for some less professional operators to initiate detailed record keeping when they have not 

done so before. 

In general, we remain unconvinced that an appropriate procedure can be identified for use across a species 

grown within a certain production system. In particular, there are very serious problems identifying 

inventory and losses in shrimp ponds, and consequently this factor alone works against our support of an 

insurance plan for all species grown in ponds. For salmon grown in net pens, the level of accuracy is likely 

to be higher, especially in those parts of the industry where the product is destined for processing and 

production planning is critical. The sampling system identified above is likely to be appropriate for these 

 

24

 In net cages, it is common to use underwater cameras to monitor satiation and avoid over feeding. This 

practice has been encouraged to avoid environmental damage as a result of food falling to lake or marine 

floors. 

25

 Factors contributing to misleading estimates include production cycle lasting one year, continuous 

introduction of fingerlings, potential changes in stocking density, ponds in production, or other 

management practices, purposeful delay of the last harvest into the following year, misreporting of feed 

use, adjustments to management practice, and the different feed requirements of different sizes and classes 

of fish. 
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companies and for an RMA. It is widely adopted for private mortality insurance in the global farmed 

salmon industry with the support of feed, other production records and regular site visits and inspections. 

4.3.4 Actuarial assessment of data limitations 

Actuarial assessment relies on data that can be used to determine premium rates. For example, we need 

to know: 

• How frequently are producers subject to the various perils and what is the likely impact on 

production? 

• How does the probability of loss vary among regions, species, production systems, or 

different types of managers? 

• To what extent are losses for one producer independent of the losses of others 

(idiosyncratic) or are losses likely to affect producers simultaneously (systemic)? 

Where insufficient data is available to classify the relative risks (and premiums for) different categories of 

producers, it is difficult to determine appropriate premium rates. This may result in adverse selection, 

with rates that are too low for the poorer risks, and too high for the better risks. Actuarial issues relating 

to the available data are outlined below. 

• The frequency and severity of losses are important in creating an actuarially sound rating plan. 

These are normally identified from analysis of data that describe the relationship between 

losses and perils over an appropriate time period. Such data are not available for any 

aquaculture system or species. There is considerable uncertainty over the potential for loss 

for different types of perils for most aquaculture species and production systems. In the 

private market a risk charge to the premium may be introduced to reflect high levels of 

uncertainty. 

• Pooling of different risks reduces the variability in losses for each risk group, and results in 

more credible premiums. However, there is insufficient aquaculture data available to define 

separately identifiable risk pools. For the saltwater species, there are an insufficient number 

of farms in the United States to create a risk pool. 

• The willingness to pay premiums varies according to the structure of the business. An 

aquacultural operator who is highly geared to aquaculture revenue will be much more likely 

to pay for aquaculture crop insurance than one who has other crops or enterprises. Where 

sectors are under considerable financial pressure there is going to be less enthusiasm about 

investing in insurance. The US shrimp sector is under severe pressure from imports. 

4.3.5 Data availability 

Production history 

There is little available data regarding farmed saltwater species in the United States. Our subject matter 

expert provided data on nine commercial saltwater shrimp farms operating in Texas from 2006 to 2010 

(no survivability data are available for 2008). The data included acreage, lbs. harvested, number of PLS 
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introduced and harvested. In addition data was available for each of the ponds on one Florida pond shrimp 

farm for one year (2010). These data on survivability are shown in Table 5 and Table 6. 

On average, roughly 50% of PLs entered into production survive to be harvested in Texas. The lowest 

survival rate was 42% in 2007 and the highest 65% in 2010. There is no data that shows the reasons for 

the differences between different farms or between years. The data on the farm in Florida reveal 

significant variation in pond performance (20% to 59%). The farmer said the low dissolved oxygen was the 

cause of the low survival ratios for ponds 2 and 5. We do not know the event that caused the low 

dissolved oxygen. We do not have any other data that describes the cause of loss or the differences in 

practices for each farm. 

Table 5: Survival rate during grow-out on Texas pond shrimp farms. 

Farm 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

1 38% 67% n.a. 54% 74%

2 44% 21% n.a. 60% 45%

3 49% 33% n.a. 64% 47%

4 63% 54% n.a. 76% 48%

5 43% 43% n.a. 66% 55%

6 70% 50% n.a. n.a. n.a.

7 n.a. 7% n.a. Ceased production

8 37% 29% n.a. Ceased production

9 47% n.a. n.a. Ceased production

All 46% 42% 65% 51%

Source: G Treece, Texas Aquaculture Association.

Table 6: Survival rate on one Florida farm in 2010 

Pond Survival rate

1 56%

2 26%

3 55%

4 49%

5 20%

6 59%

Source: G Treece, Texas Aquaculture Association.

There is no data on survivability of salmon although our subject matter expert suggests that the industry 

factor in losses of 10% to 15% in their production planning for the grow-out phase. 

Price data 

In general, the only price data available cover those aquaculture products that are sold into commodity 

markets. There are data for salmon and shrimp. However, some shrimp are sold into niche markets as 

described in the species profiles. There is no regular information collected or reported publicly on any of 

these local markets. Appendix 1 describes each of the price sources available for the species under review. 
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The absence of these data seriously compromise the development of crop insurance plans based on 

guarantees derived from prices and production volumes. 

4.3.6 Rating and pricing 

Since a rating plan was recently introduced as part of the NRMFPA, we will first discuss that rating plan and 

the comments provided by expert reviewers. Since the NRMFPA plan was not enacted, we will discuss the 

shortcomings in the plan and what could be done to address them. The NRMFPA covered catfish grown in 

ponds which is somewhat similar to the farming of saltwater shrimp. While shrimp represent a different 

production process with a shorter production cycle, some aspects of the analysis are relevant. 

The plan proposed by the NRMFPA was a dollar value plan similar to the cultivated clam pilot insurance 

program, which was loosely based on the nursery insurance plan. This plan establishes a guarantee based 

on the number of fish times a price per size of fish. Indemnity is paid when an insured cause of loss causes 

the inventory to be less than the guarantee. This is similar to an Actual Production History (APH) plan, 

where the price is established upfront and does not change regardless of the prices at the time of loss. 

The major difference is that the guarantee for an APH plan is established from historical yields rather than 

the current inventory value. This difference makes sense for the different plans, although the establishment 

of the inventory and the loss adjustment process for both clams and nursery are a major concern for both 

plans. 

RMA recently combined different revenue programs into the “Combo” policy. This eliminated the 

additional work associated with several different revenue plans (Crop Revenue Coverage, Revenue 

Assurance, and Income Protection). The Combo policy has three options: 

• Yield Protection (similar to previous APH plans) 

• Revenue Protection (RP) 

• Revenue Protection With Harvest Price Exclusion (RP-HPE) 

RP insures a grower using APH times a projected price. The prices are based off futures from the 

commodity markets (e.g. Chicago Board of Trade). If the harvest price is greater than the projected price 

the grower uses the harvest price in the indemnity calculation. The RP-HPE policy does not adjust the 

guarantee based on the harvest price. 

The APH is currently used for annual commodities that are harvested in a given year; most are also planted 

in the same calendar or crop year, except for perennial crops. The harvest is typically over in a short 

period and needs to be completed quickly to avoid quality problems. The major difference in an APH type 

product for aquaculture would be the lack of a common metric for yield. A field of corn or orchard of 

apples would be expected to produce a similar yield given the same growing conditions. An aquaculture 

facility in which young aquatic animals may be added or harvested at different sizes and in some cases 

intermittently over the course of a grow-out period, may have varying levels of production despite similar 

growing conditions. How to define a yield is not obvious. Is it pounds of fish or number of fish of different 

sizes? In any case, it must be related to whatever price data are available. Presumably, it is per unit of 

water volume in the containment structure, although measurement of volume can be challenging in ponds, 

and net cage or tank sizes are not standardized. What adjustment is made when the grow-out period is 

longer than a year? The answers to these questions are not obvious. 
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Another difference in aquaculture is that the fish can be harvested when it makes sense economically for 

the farmer. While the fish may be optimal at some point during growth, there needs to be a market for 

them at the time. In some cases early partial harvesting may take place to fulfill market demand, in other 

cases harvesting may be delayed. Thus, we do not believe these types of policies are appropriate for 

aquaculture because the yield guarantee is based off the APH yield and the prices are based off a 

representative traded price (in most cases related to a traded commodity future). As suggested above, the 

first of these is a challenging concept for aquaculture, and the second, representative quoted prices do not 

exist for the markets serviced (with the possible exception of salmon). 

RMA administers group risk policies (GRP) which indemnify a grower if the index (typically county yield) is 

lower than the expected yield. These are typically available in major row crop producing counties for the 

major crops. A Group Risk Income Protection (GRIP) policy is also available and covers the price risk in a 

similar manner to the Combo plans. A GRP pilot plan for oysters was introduced in 2010 for many 

Louisiana counties that compares the expected county landings to the actual county landings. This plan 

was not offered in 2012 due to the uncertainty caused by the oil spill in the Gulf region. 26 We do not 

believe these types of policies are appropriate for finfish or crustacean aquaculture because there are no 

published comparable data for any species or production systems. 

There are other indexed plans associated with a rainfall index and vegetation index that also would not be 

appropriate for aquaculture because the rainfall or vegetation indices would not be correlated to the 

aquatic animal aquaculture results in any substantive fashion.

There are Average Gross Revenue (AGR) plans that utilize a farmer’s latest five historical tax returns to 

establish an insurance guarantee for a farmer’s overall production for a tax year. There is a major 

limitation to aquaculture growers as only 35% of liability may come from livestock. A similar plan, AGRLite, does not have this limitation although the maximum liability amount is much lower than for AGR. 

AGR is limited to $6.5 million of liability while AGR-Lite is limited to $1.0 million of liability. These plans 

list aquaculture/fish as an insurable commodity although the plans are not available in many aquaculture 

locations. However, many states which could possibly grow saltwater shrimp are not eligible for AGR-Lite 

at this time. The states of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas are not eligible for AGR-Lite plans (or 

AGR). Alabama, Arizona, South Carolina and Florida are eligible for AGR-Lite. For salmon, the states of 

Alaska, Maine, Oregon, and Washington are eligible for AGR-Lite. California is not currently eligible for 

AGR-Lite, but a few counties are eligible for AGR. A review of AGR and AGR-Lite records since inception 

in 1999 found only one policy earning premium associated with aquaculture. The policy was in Barnstable, 

Massachusetts which meant it most likely insured clams or oysters.

RMA administers several plans for livestock including Livestock Gross Margin (LGM) and Livestock Risk 

Protection (LRP) plans. LGM provides protection against loss of gross margin (market value of livestock 

minus feed costs). LRP provides protection against price declines affecting livestock value. These plans use 

values from the commodity markets to set the guarantees and indemnities. While the feed costs could be 

used for an aquaculture plan, there is no corresponding index for aquaculture prices. However, feed use 

and composition varies within and among species, especially among shrimp producers operating differing 

 

26 Informational Memorandum PM-11-009 USDA - RMA
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levels of stocking intensity. Also, this would not cover the actual loss of livestock (aquatic animals). It is 

our understanding that the private insurance market provides livestock coverage for most terrestrial 

livestock under a Farmowners Insurance Policy.

In the statement of work describing this project, RMA provided the following definition:

“Actuarially sound – For the purpose of the Federal Crop Insurance Program, a classification 

and premium rate determination system, where risk premium collected is sufficient to cover 

future losses and to build a reasonable amount of reserve.”

The Casualty Actuarial Society provides the following principles with respect to insurance rates: 27

• A rate is an estimate of the expected value of future costs;

• A rate provides for all costs associated with the transfer of risk;

• A rate provides for the costs associated with an individual risk transfer; and

• A rate is reasonable and not excessive, inadequate, or unfairly discriminatory if it is an 

actuarially sound estimate of the expected value of all future costs associated with an 

individual risk transfer.

Expenses are provided under the A&O subsidy, a discussion of which is out of the scope of this project. 

The RMA definition of actuarially sound as discussed above implies that the long-term loss ratio should be 

close to but less than 100%.

There are many principles to establishing a sound insurance program. These include:

• Accurate valuation of amount of insurance (liability) and exposure unit,

• Accurate valuation of loss and determination if losses are caused by insured peril

• Credibility and availability of data to build a rating plan

• Insurance plan should mitigate adverse selection and attract high participation rates

• The rates should be similar for risks with similar exposure to perils (homogeneity)

These topics have been discussed in detail in the NRMPFA study, the expert reviews and this report. 

From a rating standpoint the major obstacle is obtaining credible insurance experience for the proposed 

program. Ideally, we would want actual indemnities and losses associated with the insurance program. 

Since there has been no prior program other data may be used to estimate the rating parameters. 

The NRMPFA used the results of the NASS cross-sectioned survey of catfish and trout farmers to establish 

the rates for this purpose. 

 

27 Casualty Actuarial Society, Statement of Principles Regarding Property and Casualty Insurance Ratemaking

(1988).
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance 

60

Two of the expert reviews analyzed the actuarial rating aspect of the NRMFPA catfish and trout proposals. 

All of their comments could be resolved with fixes within the rating structure. So the final 

recommendation by RMA to not implement these programs was probably not due solely to the actuarial 

work. In our review, we note one critical element that was not mentioned in any of the expert reviews. 

The ‘normal’ survivability of catfish was approximately 80%.

28

 Therefore, if a grower would ‘plant’ 100 fish, 

they would expect to harvest only around 80 of them. The others would die from natural causes over the 

grow-out period. The Pilot Cultivated Clam Policy does include a Survival Factor that would lower the 

inventory by either 30% or 40% to account for this natural die-off. Without such a factor, the inventory 

would generally be overstated. This would need to be introduced into any saltwater aquatic animal policy. 

The survivability for shrimp is approximately 50%. The survivability of salmon in net cages in the US is 

reported by industry observers to be between 85 and 90% given sound management. Loss levels are 

higher at the juvenile stage, especially when smolts are entered into net cages for the first time. 

Based on the data outlined in Section 4.3.5 for shrimp, the selection of this survivability factor would play a 

very important role in the insurance product. A survival ratio too high would provide too much coverage 

and the loss ratio may be high. A survival ratio too low would discourage any grower from buying 

insurance and low participation rates would follow. Based on the distribution of the survival ratios from 

one year in the farms (see Table 5 and Table 6) it would be difficult to select a “one size fits all” ratio for 

an insurance plan. Allowing the producer to provide historical survival ratios may be advisable, but this 

would open the door to moral hazard as the historical records would be difficult to audit. Regardless, the 

rates for insuring shrimp may be high due to the wide range of survival ratios shown in the limited data. 

The amount of premium a grower would pay obviously is a major factor in the decision to buy insurance. 

In order to mitigate adverse selection and attract high participation rates, the insurance provided and 

premium must be attractive to the producer. A classification plan should group like risks together for 

premium purposes. Although it is difficult for any individual producer to measure their own risk, the 

producer may have a general idea of historical perils that would be insured under the plan. 

Based on our review, we do not believe that credible data exists to build a rating program for an insurance 

program for saltwater aquaculture. We also believe that the overall number of farming operations for 

shrimp is too small to create a federal insurance program specifically to cover a few growers who may or 

may not purchase the insurance. For salmon there also is a limited number of growers in the United States 

and since private insurance is available and widely used in major foreign salmon production sectors we do 

not recommend a federal insurance plan. The salmon private insurance may gain additional support due to 

its availability in other countries which have significantly more production than the United States. 

4.3.7 Willingness to pay 

It is difficult to identify willingness to pay in the absence of data to (a) identify current production costs and 

returns and (b) undertake a thorough actuarial analysis to identify rates. There is no information available 

on the likely level of demand and willingness to pay for insurance. We note that there has not been an 

intensive effort to seek the development of crop insurance products by any of the participants in the 

 

28

 From the catfish yield verification study undertaken as part of NRMFPA (Appendix I of the NRMFPA 

insurability report). 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

61

industry. There was no protest from the salmon industry when the NRMFPA study for salmon concluded 

there was no rationale to develop a federal insurance plan. Indeed, private insurance is available and 

purchased even though we heard of concerns about the cost. Few in the salmon or shrimp industries

were aware of the initiative in the last Farm Bill that resulted in this study. The major stimulus for 

insurance purchase has been the involvement of parties offering finance to aquaculture companies. 

4.4 The availability of other methods of managing risk

4.4.1 The status of private aquaculture insurance in the US

In 2003, a review of aquaculture insurance was authored by Paddy Secretan of Aquaculture Underwriting & 

Management Services as part of the National Risk Management Feasibility Program for Aquaculture. In that 

study, Secretan provided a comprehensive review of the key factors that frame the aquaculture insurance 

marketplace for stock mortality coverage. The study confirmed the minimal market penetration within the 

domestic aquaculture grower community. It reviewed the challenges that underwriters and loss adjusters 

face in offering coverage to the aquaculture community and underlined the lack of personnel and technical 

skills within the insurance distribution system for servicing this unique and limited niche market. From the 

insurers’ perspective, the underlying factors highlighted in the 2003 study remain in place. 

The availability of insurance at the farm level continues to depend on the risk associated with the particular 

farmed species and the operators’ ability to meet operating standards required by the insurers based on 

their understanding of and experience in the industry. A farmer needs to demonstrate sound husbandry 

practices in order to procure insurance. In particular, farmers require a robust method for inventory 

control, assessment, and recording. These are the essentials to minimize the risk of loss as well as to 

quantify the magnitude and cause of the loss should a covered stock loss take place during the policy 

period. 

Aquaculture output is vulnerable to poor management and assessing the quality of the management is a 

major issue given the range of players in the sector. The emergence of third party certification standards 

has been identified as one institutional factor that might facilitate risk classification and pooling. These 

certification programs have been developed to respond to consumer demand for greater transparency on 

production husbandry and processing practices of food products (although some see this development as a 

method retailers and foodservice operators have of getting environmental NGOs off their back). The 

Marine Stewardship Council has focused on certification of marine fisheries, but more recently, investment 

in certification of aquaculture has been prominent, backed by some NGOs and the aquaculture sector. 

The Global Aquaculture Alliance (a trade group) and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature have been 

battling for ascendancy. The latter is closely associated with the establishment of the Aquaculture 

Stewardship Council (an equivalent of the Marine Stewardship Council). Certified aquaculture operators 

seek higher prices because of the value of assured responsible management. They anticipate that these 

higher prices will meet the cost of compliance with the standards. 

The impact of these standards on the stock mortality insurance marketplace is yet to be determined. In 

theory, those participating in reputable certification schemes should have sound management practices that 

have been certified by a third party. In addition to the two mentioned above, there are several alternative 

certification programs in operation with varying standards. The discussions with underwriters on this topic 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

62

have yielded mixed reactions. On the one hand, certification does ensure that key management practices 

are adhered to; on the other hand, participation in the certification process may rule out some of the tools 

that might prevent or mitigate some perils. There is no evidence that adoption of standards will result in a 

statistically significant reduction in mortality losses to be used as an underwriting tool for stock coverage.

As in 2003, there continue to be a limited number of insurers willing to entertain the writing of stock 

mortality coverage. 

In 2003, the Secretan study noted that Hartford Insurance was the one US-based insurer that was 

providing this coverage via their livestock program. They discontinued this program in 2005 due to the 

small level of premium written and the poor loss experience. In general, there was a relatively low level of 

interest in the policies, a factor resulting from the relatively limited number of growers in each of the 

species covered (trout, perch, tilapia, and striped bass). That has left the US market to the UK-based 

insurers who offer coverage in the US but rely on more robust sales in the international arena to support 

their aquaculture insurance underwriting units. In particular, the main aquaculture insurance markets are 

the large, geographically concentrated single species industries such as those in Norway, Scotland, Chile, 

British Columbia, and the Mediterranean (the first four producing salmon and the latter sea bass/bream). 

In British Columbia for example, virtually all salmon producers will have mortality insurance. 

The major insurers with aquaculture underwriting capacity and expertise are all either UK or Norway 

based29, although some have US subsidiaries that could insure US growers on domestic US contracts. 

Access to the overseas insurers is through an established insurance distribution system that comprises 

three levels. First, there are retail brokers who work directly with the insured (often the ‘neighborhood’ 

agent who may or may not have real expertise in this area). Second, wholesale brokers who may have no 

real expertise in this area either help place retailers’ risks. Third, London brokers help US wholesalers 

place risks with the London markets. This system is designed to ensure that the broker who is next in line 

to the insurer has both the expertise and licensing to be able to work with the insurer on technical 

placements.

As in 2003, few US based insurance brokerages are currently active in this market due to the minimal 

market opportunity in the US. Given the weak demand, there is little incentive for brokers to enter this 

market and invest in expertise and infrastructure. It seems likely that growers will routinely rely on their 

local property and casualty broker who places more routine and generic coverage on their equipment, 

buildings, etc. Often those sources of insurance coverage do not have the expertise to guide their clients 

through the unique stock perils associated with an aquacultural production operation such as disease, 

parasite infestation, cannibalism, temperature fluctuations, plankton blooms, weather events, earthquake, 

system failures, and pollution.

There are currently only a few retail insurance agents in the entire US who are active enough to promote 

their presence on the internet as a source of aquaculture insurance (e.g. The Thompson Group in Indiana, 

and GNW-Evergreen Insurance, and Aquaculture Insurance Exchange (AIE), both in California). However, 

there are no wholesale agencies that are known to be active in this market at this time. Given the secrecy 

 

29

 The leading companies are GAIC (Global Aquaculture Insurance Consortium) and the London 

syndicates: Royal Sun Alliance, Sunderland Marine, and Catlin. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

63

inherent in the insurance community, there is no way to know how much stock mortality coverage any of 

these agents actually write, but conversations with the UK underwriters indicate that there is no dominant 

broker in the US for this line of business. Therefore it seems likely that the small amount of business that 

is placed seem to be one-offs with no thought leader or established vendor to help direct the increased 

market penetration that needs to occur in order to have a robust insurance marketplace. However, we 

are aware of some larger aquaculture operations and some currently in their planning stage that have 

expressed an interest in budgeting for stock mortality coverage in their pro forma business plans. This 

would imply that these larger operations do see the need for this coverage and will consider it as a normal 

cost of doing business; this is a hopeful sign for the insurance market.

As noted in Secretan’s study in 2003, a robust insurance market must have the potential for underwriting 

profitability; this is a given in the private insurance world. Every insurer is restricted in the amount of 

insurance it can provide, based on the size and strength of its capital base. If sufficient profit is not 

potentially available, then other more profitable lines will be sought. The traditional model for a profitable 

insured portfolio usually requires the ability to aggregate similar risks in order to develop loss experience 

data and better predict the underwriting risk of loss. The inability to aggregate risks was one of the 

frustrations that drove Hartford out of the market in 2005. Since then, there has been a rapid 

diversification in the combination of species and systems in aquaculture with few species gaining substantial 

volume and scale (with the possible exception of catfish, which had scale but is now contracting under 

heavy competitive pressure). Recirculating aquaculture systems represent a good example. While 

recirculating systems offer the potential to farm aquaculture under controlled conditions, there is 

considerable heterogeneity in the engineering of these systems. As the quality of the engineering is a 

critical factor influencing performance, it is difficult to aggregate the risks of RAS even when they are the 

predominant method of producing a single species, such as for example, tilapia.

The combination of heterogeneity of species and production systems represents a major challenge for 

insurance companies seeking to service the aquaculture sector. A significant investment is required if they 

are to operate effectively. One consequence is high premium rates as the insurance company has neither 

the data nor the expertise to assess risks separately for each species. 

While an exciting dynamic for the aquaculture industry, this diversification in species and production 

models makes it much more difficult for the insurer to be able to comfortably forecast potential losses. 

The result may often be a premium rate that the grower finds excessive and thereby continues to feed this 

cycle of anemic demand. This limited demand works against the foundational basis of insurance that calls 

for spreading the risk over a larger number of risks. This dilemma was identified in Secretan’s 2003 paper 

and remains highly applicable in 2011.

We spoke to a number of aquaculture operators. This was an informal survey of attendees at the 

Aquaculture America conference in New Orleans supplemented by follow-up telephone conversations 

with ten growers representing trout, tilapia, hybrid striped bass, catfish, and crustacean production. Most 

of these growers recognize the need for stock mortality coverage but feel that it is too expensive. 

However, when pressed, few knew how much it would cost. Currently with a very few exceptions, 

aquaculture operators are not obligated by any third-party requirement to purchase this coverage.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

64

However, while there continues to be a significant number of small family-run aquaculture operators as 

well as boutique startups, the industry is witnessing some investment by larger and better-financed growers 

that can take advantage of economies of scale30. This trend could increase interest in insurance of the 

aquaculture output. Significant levels of equity or debt financing should compel the parties to mandate the 

maintenance of stock mortality coverage to help protect the interest of the holder of that debt or equity. 

Banks routinely require crop insurance for many key agricultural crop or livestock investments. Prudent 

management would expect decision makers of companies with stockholders to procure this coverage to 

protect stockholder value and minimize director malpractice liability exposure.

Inquiries to a number of UK based underwriters in this regard yielded responses indicating that the 

majority of stock policies issued (internationally) do include a lender loss payee endorsement indicating 

that a lender required that coverage be placed and the lender’s interest in insurance proceeds is formally 

recognized by endorsement. It would seem that as more growers rely on external sources for funding, 

they will face the requirement of carrying this coverage and that dynamic might be the single most 

significant factor that will increase the incidence of stock coverage in the US. Those increased writings 

should help stimulate more competition within the insurer community which should bring down pricing 

and perhaps even entice some of the domestic carriers like Hartford to reconsider entry into this market. 

The increased writings should help increase grower awareness which may then increase broker interest 

and involvement which should also result in increased writings. Accordingly, the third party mandate of 

stock mortality coverage in order to finance the growth of the operation may be the single most significant 

factor in facilitating the development of the market for this coverage. 

In addition to banks, feed companies often provide credit to growers during the grow-out phase. They are 

also third party sources of finance, and may find value in the protection offered by insurance to their lien 

interest.

In conclusion:

• From the perspective of the insurer: The insurers will continue to need their insureds 

to be able to properly quantify and monitor their stock inventory and loss events and 

maintain acceptable underwriting standards of operation and control. In the absence of that 

capability, it is difficult to envision the ability of any insurer to offer insurance protection. 

However, if the industry matures it would appear likely that it will be operating at a larger 

scale, and have more sophisticated technical and managerial capabilities. The development of 

an industry that can illustrate consistent and sound performance is likely to attract more 

attention from the private insurance industry, especially if there is solid understanding of the 

factors contributing to success. As yet, the insurer community lacks any comfort dealing with 

US aquaculture because of its relatively small size and its structural, technical, and managerial 

diversity. The industries that they do know, salmon and sea bass/bream, operate on a very 

small scale in the United States and hence there is little familiarity with the bulk of the US 

aquacultural industry. 

 

30

 The financial record of some of these is disappointing. Several expensive failures have been recorded in 

larger scale investments (e.g. Kent SeaTech’s investment in hybrid striped bass).
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

65

• From the aquaculture operator perspective: To realize its potential, the aquaculture 

industry must have a robust risk transfer mechanism in place to protect all parties with a 

financial interest in the operation. Stock in the water is commonly the most valuable asset of 

any grower and protection from loss due to weather, disease or other perils is an important 

part of risk management. If the industry matures and the growers become larger, more 

sophisticated, and more dependent on external financing, stock mortality coverage should 

become more of a routine part of any comprehensive insurance program. However, the 

tools to manage and measure inventory and stock loss events are poorly developed and 

consequently those involved in aquaculture will have a difficult time finding insurance capacity. 

Thus, much of the challenge in providing aquaculture insurance lies in the extent to which 

systems can be devised to provide credible and reliable inventory and loss measurement 

systems that increase confidence of those prepared to offer crop insurance. 

4.4.2 Federal or state programs

US farms benefit from a web of federal government programs designed to provide a safety net that 

protects them from the vagaries of substantial production and marketing risks. These are classified as risk 

management, disaster assistance, or commodity programs. Unlike crop agriculture, aquaculture does not 

benefit from farm commodity programs. However, some of the risk management and disaster assistance 

policies are available to those involved in aquaculture. 

Risk management programs

Aquaculture is sparsely covered by crop insurance. We discuss the various relevant RMA plans in Section

4.3.6. 

The Non-insured Crop Disaster Assistance Program (NAP) provides assistance for farmers that are not 

covered by crop insurance plans. Eligible producers are those with adjusted gross incomes less than 

$500,000. Payments are limited to $100,000 per crop year. This program is administered by the Farm 

Service Agency (FSA). The NAP limits losses from natural disasters and it is available to aquaculture. NAP 

coverage pays for the loss of value in excess of 50% of the total value. NAP payments are then made at 

55% of the established market price (each FSA state committee prepares tables that provide indicative 

average market prices for all agricultural products).31 Consequently, NAP provides similar levels of 

coverage to that offered under MPCI catastrophic protection. There is no information available on the 

participation of aquaculture enterprises in NAP, nor is there data available on the indemnities paid.32 

While shrimp producers are eligible for NAP, we are unable to confirm whether offshore salmon farms can 

 

31

 See as described in Shields, DA, A Whole-Farm Crop Disaster Program:, Supplemental Revenue 

Assistance Payments, (SURE), Congressional Research Service, December 3, 2010. Shields notes 

“Determining prices used in the guarantee and farm revenue calculations has also been challenging. 

USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service publishes average prices for major crops and some specialty 

crops. For some additional specialty crops, USDA’s Market News Service reports daily or weekly prices 

but does not tabulate average prices weighted by volume. For minor and/or thinly traded crops, USDA 

may find it difficult to gather enough data to determine average prices for both the revenue and the 

guarantee calculation. However, USDA reports that FSA’s state committees have considerable experience 

developing prices for NAP crops, using a variety of sources such as extension agents.”

32

 FSA informed me that these data were not available analysis. 
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

66

participate. This also applies to the various disaster programs listed below. Our suspicion is that they are 

as an ‘eligible producer’ in the legislation is defined as someone that “assumes the production and market 

risks associated with the agricultural production of crops or livestock”. 

Disaster assistance programs

Various supplemental disaster assistance programs provide some compensation for losses incurred when 

weather-related losses are not covered by other programs. The 2008 farm bill included authorization and 

funding for five new disaster programs to operate until the end of 2011. These new programs replace the 

ad hoc system of providing emergency assistance to farmers and ranchers and represent a more 

coordinated and consistent approach. These programs are subject to limits on the payments to individual 

farm operations. 

The largest disaster program is the Supplemental Revenue Assistance Payments Program 

(SURE), which was developed to provide eligible producers with compensation for a portion of crop 

losses that are not eligible for indemnity payments under either crop insurance programs or NAP. When a 

disaster or emergency is declared by the Secretary of Agriculture within a specific geographical region,

SURE indemnities can be claimed. Losses are assessed on the basis of total farm revenue rather than 

losses incurred on a specific crop. SURE compares a farmer's revenue from all crops in all counties with a 

guaranteed level that is computed from expected or average yields and prices. If the former is less than 

the latter, the producer receives a payment calculated at 60% of the difference between the two amounts. 

SURE is available to all farms that are eligible for crop insurance or NAP. 

One complementary program can be used by aquaculturalists. The Emergency Assistance for 

Livestock, Honey Bees, & Farm-raised Fish (ELAP) program was authorized by the Food, 

Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008. Eligible livestock, honey bee and farm-raised fish producers can 

receive emergency assistance because of losses due to disease, adverse weather, or other conditions, 

including but not limited to blizzards and wildfires, as determined by the Secretary. This assistance covers 

feed losses as well as actual livestock, honey bee or farm-raised fish losses. 

All aquaculture species are eligible for feed loss assistance under ELAP. This is based on 60% of the 

producer’s actual feed costs for the fish that were damaged or destroyed during eligible adverse weather 

conditions. However, only baitfish and game fish (often a mix of suitable species) are eligible for payments 

for losses due to fish death. This is calculated based on 60% of the producer’s actual replacement cost of 

game fish that died in the adverse weather condition. The ELAP program caps assistance at 95% of 

maximum losses. 

In order to be eligible, producers must have insurance for the crop, and if there is not insurance available, 

then they must have NAP coverage. In 2008, producers could pay a buy-in fee which exempted them from 

the requirement to obtain coverage from NAP or crop insurance. Eligible producers must file a notice of 

loss and an application for benefits, following the weather event. This program replaced USDA’s 

Livestock Compensation Program (LCP) that compensated livestock producers for feed and pasture 

losses for eligible adverse weather conditions from 2005-2007. It also replaced the Catfish Grant Program, 

which provided grants to states that have catfish producers that suffered catfish feed losses. This latter 

program was administered by the states. 
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

67

Animal health indemnifications

In addition to the disaster assistance provisions, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) 

offers assistance in cases where serious disease has impacted a specific aquaculture sector. In cases where 

aggressive depopulation of affected aquatic animal containment structures is required, fish farmers have 

been indemnified against losses and provided with additional support to combat future infection. For 

example, a federal program was implemented in Maine following the outbreak of Infectious Salmon Anemia 

(ISA) in 2001. The establishment of an indemnification program facilitates the control and eradication of 

highly damaging diseases such as ISA in salmon, foot and mouth disease in cattle, and Newcastle disease in 

poultry. In the case of ISA, payments of up to 60% of the fair market value of the fish destroyed because of 

ISA were made and 60% of the cost of carcass disposal, facility cleaning, and disinfection. This level of 

payment was initially slightly higher than that provided by the regulations in 9 CFR part 53 which covers 

most other animal diseases in order to gain producer cooperation in depopulating affected fish. The 

federal share of these costs was later reduced to 40% in the second year of the program. The program 

was implemented as ISA was considered an exotic (foreign) disease and this was the first time that it had 

been diagnosed in the United States. The disease was not diagnosed in other parts of the United States. 

Aquaculture grants

The National Marine Aquaculture Initiative, through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) has two competitive grant opportunities: Aquaculture Research and Aquaculture 

Extension and Technology Transfer. There was $6 million in funding for the aquaculture research efforts 

and $4.8 million in funding for aquaculture extension efforts. Both of these programs are supposed to

support the development of environmentally and economically sustainable aquaculture, but the focus 

changes annually. The most recent competition was focused on “Safe and Sustainable Seafood Supply.” 

NOAA and the Department of Commerce have a joint opportunity for small businesses through the 

Small Business Innovative Research (SBIR) Program. Research topics include: ecosystems, climate, 

weather and water, and commerce and transportation. The USDA also funds SBIR projects. The topic 

areas covered by the USDA are: food safety, childhood obesity, climate change, food security, and 

sustainable energy. 

The Saltonstall-Kennedy Grant Program is a competitive grant program through the National Marine 

Fisheries Service that funds research and development projects that will benefit the US fishing industry. 

Most of the projects funded focus on business start-up or infrastructure development. Each year there are 

different program priorities. 

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds were used by the Farm Service Agency to provide 

grants to State Departments of Agriculture through the 2008 Aquaculture Grant Program which 

assisted producers that experienced losses associated with high feed costs in 2008. There were two goals 

of this program, to support productive farms and enhance the competitiveness and sustainability of rural 

and farm economies. Producers that received money from this program were ineligible for funds from any 

other disaster relief program. 

The Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) for Farmers Program provides eligible producers and 

fishermen with technical training and cash benefits if their crops have been adversely affected by imports. 
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Section 4: Aquaculture insurance

68

For a product to be eligible it must decline in value by 15% over the course of one year, compared to the 

average value over the three previous years. 

Catfish Farmers of America and the Southern Shrimp Alliance submitted petitions stating that increased 

imports of catfish and shrimp lead to price declines. For shrimp producers the decline occurred in 2008 

and for catfish producers in 2009. Both of these petitions were approved. 

As a result, individual catfish and shrimp producers can apply for technical training and cash benefits. The 

technical training helps producers develop and implement business adjustment plans. They can receive 

$4,000 to implement a plan or develop a longer-term business plan. Producers that develop longer-term

business plans are eligible to receive another $4,000 to implement the plan. TAA participants cannot 

receive more than $12,000 over three years. 

Financing

The Fisheries Finance Program is long-term financing that can be used for aquacultural facilities as well 

as other capture fishery costs. Refinancing is also available for existing debt through this program. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture 

Section 5: Brief profile of each species 

69

SECTION 5: BRIEF PROFILE OF EACH SPECIES 

The following subsections describe the status of the culture of the species under review in the United 

States and outlines key considerations in relation to insurance covering mortality. The detail provided 

varies by species. A salmon profile was prepared for the NRMFPA and here is updated and presented in a 

slightly modified form by its original author, John Forster, who also assembled the data on the status of 

other marine finfish species. 

5.1 US farming of marine finfish species for food 

A summary of the estimated commercial aquaculture of finfish in the US coastal states is given in Table 7. 

Details of how and where this was produced and the sources of the information are provided in Table 8. 

Table 7: Estimated production summary for US marine food fish aquaculture, 2010, pounds 

Species Scientific name Total US 

Atlantic salmon Salmon salar 45,500,000

Red drum Sciaenops ocellatus 2,500,000

Moi Polydactylus sexfilis <300,000

Amberjack/Yellow tail Seriola rivoliana <200,000

Summer flounder Palalychthis dentatus Roughly 100,000

Sea Bream Sparus aurata Roughly 100,000

Cod Gadus morhua 66,000

Halibut Hippoglossus hippoglossus 20,000

Southern flounder Paralychthis lethostigma <100,000

Florida pompano Trachinotus carolinus small quantity

White sea bass Astrocoscion nobilis 0

Black sea bass Centropristis striata 0

European sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax 0

Atlantic salmon is by far the dominant species. Its production is described in the species profile below. 

Red drum or ‘redfish’ are second but a long way behind. Others are substantially below this. Reasons for 

the low level of production of other species include: 

• The technology for farming other cold water marine fish that could do well in Maine and 

Washington such as cod, black cod (sablefish), haddock and halibut is still at a research and 

development stage. Production is very small. Halibut do not appear to be well suited to net 

pen culture and research focuses on culture in land-based tanks, a more costly alternative. 

• Cod and haddock usually sell for lower market prices than salmon, black cod and halibut. 

This, and their lower fillet yield (proportion of edible meat) means that they must be 

produced inexpensively if they are to become successful aquaculture species. While cod 

farming has attracted media attention, some pioneers of this species in other countries have 

moved to species with more promise. 

• Apart from Maine and Washington (and Alaska where marine aquaculture is prohibited), 

suitable sites for conventional net pens are either unavailable or are used for other purposes. 
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Section 5: Brief profile of each species

70

Consequently, extension of marine finfish farming is only possible in coastal ponds, offshore 

(open ocean) cages, or in land-based tanks, which are usually RAS. 

• Each of these alternative methods of farming are limited in their potential presently because:

 There are only limited suitable sites available for coastal ponds due to other coastal 

development or conservation. 

 Offshore cage design is still developmental, resulting in higher costs and increased 

risks.

 RAS is technically feasible, but expensive because of the investment cost. 

• Knowledge about the farming of most of the other species is provided in Sections 5.4 to 5.6

below. Farming of these species is much less extensive than it is for species with a longer 

history of culture in intensive, science-based aquaculture. 

• As noted in Section 2.2.1, US regulations are not conducive to aquaculture development. 

This is unlikely to change until agency mandates and policies are clarified and there is clear 

political support for marine aquaculture. 

Further details about salmon and other minor species of marine finfish farming are provided in the sections 

below. Marine shrimp production in ponds is also covered. 

Table 8: US marine finfish farming for food by state

State Species Production 

(lbs) 2010

Method Source & notes

Hawaii Moi

Amberjack

2009 

production is 

most recent 

figure 

reported to 

be 821,000 lbs 

total for all 

species.

Mostly net pens Hawaii Farm Facts – 2010.

2010 production will be much less. One farm is closed temporarily, 

the other is re-equipping. 

Oceanic Institute produces Moi juveniles for commercial growers.

Minor quantities of other species such as black cod are produced by 

the NEHLA facility (Hawaii Natural Energy Lab.)

Alaska Pacific 

salmon

See Section 5.2. If Alaska’s ‘Ocean Ranched’ salmon are included, it 

produces more marine fish by aquaculture than any state in the US. 

Almost 2 billion juveniles are released and they represent 49% of the 

total Alaskan ocean harvest. 

Washington Atlantic 

salmon

18,500,000 Net pens Washington Dept. of Fish and Wildlife

Oregon - 0 Paul Olin, UC San Diego

California - 0 Paul Olin, UC San Diego

Substantial quantities of white sea bass juveniles are produced at the 

Hubbs hatchery in Carlsbad, mostly for restocking but some for 

commercial sale.

The company ‘Local Oceans’ will reportedly build an RAS farm in 

California to farm some of their several species.

Texas Red Drum 2,500,000 Ponds Granville Treece (Texas Aquaculture 2011) confirmed by Jim 

Ekstrom. Water sources are either bay water or saline ground water.

Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. produced 23 million red drum, spotted 

sea trout and flounder juveniles for fisheries enhancement (Joe 

Hendrix)

Louisiana - 0 Joe Hendrix, Seafish Mariculture

Alabama - 0 Joe Hendrix

Florida Pompano

Red Drum,

Spotted Sea 

0 ? Tanks Paul Zajicek, Florida Dept. of Agriculture

One land-based farm reportedly producing a small volume of 

pompano (rumored recently to be going out of business).
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71

State Species Production 

(lbs) 2010

Method Source & notes

Trout,

Common 

snook

Cobia

A consortium of seven partners led by the Florida Fish and Wildlife 

Conservation Commission to produce marine sport fish for marine 

stock enhancement is working to secure funding to support their 

efforts.

Univ. Miami producing 200,000 juveniles per year for sale to 

Caribbean and S. Atlantic farms.

Georgia - 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

S. Carolina 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

N. Carolina Southern 

Flounder

<100,000 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture 

All farmed in tanks

Virginia - 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

Maryland - 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

Delaware - 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

New Jersey - 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

New York Sea bream & 

Summer 

flounder

200,000 RAS George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture 

Volume will increase to 600,000 lbs in 2011 and 1,200,000 lbs in 2012 

with addition of sea bass and yellowtail.

Rhode Island 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

Mass. 0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

New 

Hampshire

0 George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture 

Research quantities of cod and halibut are produce by UNH in its 

offshore aquaculture program.

Maine Atlantic 

salmon

27,000,000 Net pens Maine Department of Marine Resources & Sebastian Belle

Great Bay Aquaculture supplies juveniles of several species to Local 

Ocean and other growers.

Cod 66,000 Net pens George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

Halibut 20,000 RAS George Nardi – Great Bay Aquaculture

5.2 Atlantic salmon (salmo salar)

5.2.1 Status and trends 

Atlantic salmon are farmed commercially in only two areas of the US - Maine and Washington.33 The 

industries in these states represent a small part of a much larger global business that has developed and 

grown consistently over the last 30 years. This development has often been turbulent with trade disputes, 

ownership consolidation, and conflicts with groups opposed to salmon farming being among the challenges 

in the business. At the same time, the industry confronts normal food production perils such as disease, 

and extremes of natural conditions such as weather and the ocean environment. Salmon farming is an 

inherently risky business, though salmon farmers increasingly manage their businesses to handle these risks 

and despite peaks and troughs in profitability, have prospered over the long term. 

 

33 The term 'commercially farmed' means that salmon are grown all the way through to market size in 

captivity by private commercial growers. We exclude the ocean ranching of Pacific salmon in Alaska. 

There are also large hatcheries in Washington, Oregon, California and Maine that raise juvenile salmon for 

release to enhance or restore wild salmon fisheries. 
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History 

Serious attempts to farm salmon began in the early 1970s in Norway, Scotland, and, in Washington State in 

the US. Atlantic salmon was the species of choice in Europe while coho salmon was chosen in Washington 

from the five different species of salmon native to the US West Coast. Only limited volumes of salmon 

were produced as the pioneer farmers developed their methods and markets. In 1980 total world 

production was only 7,000 metric tons (mt).34

In the early 1980s, production volumes began to increase, especially in Norway where conditions in fjords 

were found to be ideal for Atlantic salmon farm development. In searching for new markets for these 

increased volumes, Norwegian salmon farmers began shipping fresh salmon to the US by air to meet 

demand during months when fresh wild-caught Pacific salmon were not available. Initially they were 

promoted as a ‘fresh, out of season’ delicacy. They were well received by the market, being especially 

popular in upscale restaurants where US interest in fresh seafood was awakening. The farmed fish 

commanded premium prices and shipments from Norway grew. 

This success encouraged local efforts to farm salmon in Maine and Washington, and in New Brunswick and 

British Columbia, Canada. These efforts continued on a small scale for several years, including during the 

very early years of the production of coho salmon in Washington State. It was not until the early 1980s 

that Atlantic salmon was identified as clearly the best species to farm, and local private, corporate, and 

foreign investors on both US coasts pursued this new opportunity. Key events were: 

• Construction of large new hatcheries for Atlantic salmon based on Norwegian technology 

and, in many cases, with Norwegian capital. 

• Demonstration that Atlantic salmon could be grown on the West Coast in the Pacific, even 

though it was not native to the region, and that it would not establish itself in the wild and 

compete with the native Pacific species.35

 Initiatives to grow Chinook and coho salmon were 

made at this time also. These continue today on a very small scale, but farmed Atlantic 

salmon has become by far the dominant species of both farmed and wild-caught salmon. The 

estimated global production of Atlantic salmon in 2009 was roughly 1.3 million metric tons, 

compared with 1.1. million metric tons for all other salmon species (predominantly wild 

harvest). 

• Major improvement in the design of cages (net pens) and the equipment to support them that 

allowed the development of larger farms in more exposed sites. 

 

34 Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute, 1992. Salmon Yearbook 1992.34 p. 

35Some who are opposed to the development of salmon farming dispute this and it is a point of contention 

in both Washington and British Columbia. Further information on this issue is available in the following 

references: BC Salmon Aquaculture Review, 1997. Environmental Assessment Office, Canada, BC. 

http://www.eao.gov.bc.ca/project/aquacult/salmon/home.htm; The Net-pen Salmon Farming Industry in the 

Pacific Northwest, 2001. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NWFC-49. 

http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/pubs/tm/tm49/Tm49.pdf or http://www.wfga.net/documents/NMFSRISK.pdf; 

Review of Potential Impacts of Atlantic Salmon on Puget Sound Chinook Salmon and Hood Canal SummerRun Chum Salmon Evolutionarily Significant Units. http://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/pubs/tm/tm53/tm53.pdf
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

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73

• Suitable coastal farming sites in the US were limited because of the specific characteristics 

required for success. In some cases, especially in British Columbia (where conditions were 

more conducive), there was concern that investment and expansion were moving too fast. 

• Continued acceptance of fresh-farmed salmon by the market, which resulted in high prices 

and continued investment enthusiasm.

The success of the industry in the Northern Hemisphere also stimulated interest to the South, especially in 

Chile where there were ample suitable sheltered, inshore sites, and where most early production was of 

coho salmon. Coho salmon was also being farmed in Japan at that time, though this industry has declined 

substantially in importance. 

Expansion also continued in Europe, where Norway extended its global dominance, and production from 

Scotland also became increasingly important. By 1990, global production had increased to over 260,000

metric tons, thirty-seven times more than was produced only a decade earlier. 

In 1989/90, for the first time, aggressive increases in production of farmed salmon resulted in a collapse in 

prices, for which Norway was widely blamed. The industry responded with a major effort to reduce the 

cost of production. The early 1990s saw huge improvements in feed formulation and manufacture, the use 

of vaccines to control disease, and the design of equipment to reduce labor costs on farms. By 2000, the 

cost of production on most farms was less than half the level in the late 1980s when the first market crisis 

began.

Since then, the global industry has been through various market perturbations with the price rise in 2009 

and 2010 being triggered by increased demand and disease problems in Chile which reduced global supplies

(see Figure 11).36 The recent fall in prices results from slack demand and Chile returning to the market

Alarmingly for prices, Bloomberg reports that Chile's production is pegged at 300,000 tons of farmed 

Atlantic salmon by 2013, nearly triple 2011 output - and almost as high as Alaska's total annual salmon 

harvest.37

 

36

 Urner Barry's Fresh Farmed Salmon Index is an indication of the combined average value for Chilean 

fillets, European fillets, Northeast wholefish, European wholefish, and West Coast wholefish. It is a 

weighted value of each commodity as a proportion of the total supply from the producing areas. For 

example, if Chilean fillets represent 60% of the total, West Coast wholefish 25% and North Atlantic 

wholefish 15%, the value of each commodity would be weighted accordingly. This index is intended to be 

viewed as a snapshot of the general health of the fresh farmed salmon market in the United States.

37

 Seafood News, August 3, 2011.
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Figure 11: Urner Barry's US Fresh Farmed Salmon Index ($/lb)

Source: Urner Barry Comtell

The US is not one of the major players in farmed salmon production. Its total annual production fluctuates 

between 10,000 and 20,000 metric tons, or from 0.6% to 1.2% of the current world production (1.8 

million metric tons of all salmonids are farmed in salt water – this includes sea trout and coho salmon in 

Chile). Yet the US is a large market for salmon and is a major importer of product to supplement its wild 

harvested supplies. In 2009 the US imported 285,000 metric tons of farmed salmon38 39 mostly from Chile 

and Canada; over 17 times more than it produced. 

The primary reason that US salmon farmers have not been able to keep pace with developments in their 

home market is lack of access to suitable farming (net pen) sites. Apart from Alaska, Maine, and 

Washington there is little, if any, coastline that provides the right conditions for farming salmon using 

conventional net pen production methods. In Alaska, which has a suitable coastline and many potential 

sites, fish farming in floating cages has been banned.

In Maine and Washington, suitable coastline is more restricted than in Alaska and competition for space for 

other commercial and recreational uses is intense. This conflict of use has resulted in intense opposition 

to the further development of the industry in these states, leading to the development of a restrictive 

regulatory framework. Thus, the potential to expand and compete with imports, even with relatively high 

prices in the past two years, is restricted (see Section 2.2.1). 

Despite the challenges of the last three decades, the global farmed salmon industry has been 

extraordinarily successful. They have increased production globally by over 200 times in just 30 years, and 

improvements in productivity have made the product affordable to many more consumers. Modern 

salmon farming pioneered a novel method of seafood production. In so doing, it developed techniques that 

have already been applied to the production of other fish species and will be applied to more in the future. 

It has demonstrated that the farming of coastal waters can produce good quality fish at a price that meets 

 

38 This weight is calculated from imports of fresh and frozen whole gutted fish of 206,000 lbs and of fillets 

of 220,000 lbs converted back to live weight assuming 90% and 55% recoveries respectively.

39http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/SalmonImportsVolume.htm
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75

the value expectations of a mass market. Its development has been an outstanding technical and marketing 

achievement that points the way to farming more aquatic animals to meet growing demand for animal 

protein. Previously a luxury item, farmed Atlantic salmon is now a leading seafood commodity. 

Consumption 

The National Fisheries Institute has been able to estimate the US consumption of salmon products since 

1992. Consumption per capita doubled from 1 pound per person in 1992 to 2 pounds in 2000. Since then 

it has fluctuated around that level (see Figure 12). 

Figure 12: US consumption of salmon (lbs/head) 

Source: Urner Barry 

Knapp et al identified the proportion of different species of salmon consumed in 2004, the last time these 

data were published.40

 There are five species of Pacific salmon plus Atlantic salmon. Of the 284,000 

metric tons that Americans consumed on average over the years 2000 to 2004, 105,000 metric tons (37%) 

was Pacific and 180,000 metric tons (63%) was Atlantic salmon. Almost all of the Pacific salmon was wild 

caught (93%), while 99% of the Atlantic salmon was farm raised. Since almost all the Pacific salmon is wild 

caught, roughly 1/3 of salmon consumed in the US was wild and the remaining 2/3s was farm raised. 

Of the 180,000 metric tons of Atlantic salmon sold in 2004, 156,000 metric tons was sold fresh. The 

remainder was sold frozen. In contrast, only 22,000 metric tons of Pacific salmon was sold fresh, and 

almost all was chinook and sockeye salmon. Of the remainder, 36,000 metric tons was sold frozen and 

47,000 metric tons was sold canned. The majority of the canned is pink and the majority of the frozen is 

chum salmon. Overall, Pacific salmon accounted for 100% of canned consumption, 60% of frozen 

consumption and only 12% of fresh consumption. 

 

40

 Knapp G, et al, The great salmon run: competition between wild and farmed salmon, TRAFFIC North 

America, World Wildlife Fund, January 2007 
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Imports 

In 2009, the US imported 285,000 metric tons of Atlantic salmon calculated on a live-weight basis with a 

value of $1.439 billion41. Canada, Norway and Chile were the leading suppliers with exports of $495, 

$400, and $293 million respectively. From 2000 to 2009, Chile exported more salmon to the US than 

everyone else, according to ERS data. In 2007, Chile exported $810 million (231 million pounds) worth of 

salmon, which is more than all of the other imports combined. However, in 2007 Chile was devastated by 

an outbreak of ISA, which resulted in losses of more than 50%. Figure 13 below shows the impact on US 

imports. Chile is believed to have only temporarily lost its number one position, falling below Canada and 

Norway. Chilean exports are expected to recover as the Chilean industry adjusts its production methods 

to reduce the risk of more serious disease outbreaks. 

In very broad terms we estimate in 2010 that US farmed product had roughly a 5-7% share of the US 

salmon market when expressed in live equivalents, with imports representing 68% and the remainder being 

met by wild harvested US supplies. 

Figure 13: US imports of Atlantic salmon, by country, in million dollars 

Source: USDA, Economic Research Service 

5.2.2 Output (volume and value) 

US annual production of farmed salmon fluctuates between 10,000-20,000 metric tons, 0.6% to 1.2% of the 

world production. 

• The estimated annual production for Maine in 2010 is 27 million pounds. Production has 

varied considerably, reaching a peak of 35 million pounds prior to infectious salmon anemia 

(ISA), and dipping to 8 million pounds in 2007. The value is dependent on the market; 

however 2010 prices were elevated because of shortages caused by disease problems in 

Chile. The value is estimated at $76.8 million. 

 

41http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/SalmonImportsValue.htm
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• Washington’s Department of Fish and Wildlife does not keep data on value. However, the 

average unit value is comparable to Maine ($2.84/lb) and based on the 2010 harvest, farmed 

salmon in Washington was worth $52 million. 

5.2.3 Number of producers and regional distribution 

There is one producer of Atlantic salmon in Maine and one in Washington. Section 5.2.4 gives more 

details on these two companies. In 1998, the Census of Aquaculture recorded 28 farms producing salmon 

in the contiguous 48 states (some of these may have been hatcheries for wild population enhancement) 

and the 2005 census identified 12 farms (8 in Maine, 3 in Washington, and 1 in Tennessee, the latter 

probably a hatchery). The US lacks suitable farming sites in other states, with the exception of Alaska 

where floating cages are prohibited. It should be noted that there is one small producer of coho salmon at

an inland site, and at least two companies are exploring production of Atlantic salmon in freshwater 

(possibly) at inland sites. 

Maine 

Figure 14 is a map published by the Maine Department of Marine Resources to show aquaculture leases in 

the state and shows how salmon farm leases are concentrated in the north in Cobscook Bay. According 

to Maine's Department of Marine Resources, as of March 3, 2011 there were 26 finfish leases (620 acres 

total) located in marine and estuarine waters along the Maine coast of which 16 are in Cobscook Bay.42

Rent is charged at the rate of $100 per acre per year. The acreage allows space for the floating cages and, 

more importantly, for the mooring systems that extend well beyond the cage footprint at the surface. 

Therefore, the acreage leased is based on the seabed area and it is estimated that the cages at the surface 

occupy only roughly 11% of the seabed area leased. 

 

42http://www.maine.gov/dmr/aquaculture/leaseinventory/index.htm
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Figure 14: Aquaculture leases in Maine

Source: http://www.maine.gov/dmr/aquaculture/documents/brochure.pdf

Washington

Figure 15 shows a map of Puget Sound, Washington, with the location of the present commercial salmon 

farming facilities marked. These leases have not changed since the early 1990s, there being nine separate 

net pen structures that are contained within four lease areas. 

The sites are leased by the Washington Department of Natural Resources and rent is charged at a $15,000 

per year flat rate plus a volume/price based royalty. The total seabed area of the active leases is 180 acres 

and the estimated acreage of the cages on them is 18 acres.43

 

43 Kevin Bright, Environmental Permit Coordinator, American Gold Seafoods, personal communication.
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Figure 15: Salmon aquaculture leases in Washington

5.2.4 Concentration of ownership 

Through successive waves of industry consolidation smaller companies have been taken over by larger 

players. Economies of scale, the need for scale to be able to respond to the demands of the modern 

marketplace, and access to capital to update equipment and to withstand market cycles have all been 

factors at work. The result is a US salmon farming industry that is now owned by just two companies, one 

in Maine and one in Washington, both of them with production facilities in the other major producing 

countries, and both exporters of farmed salmon to the US. On a global level it was estimated in 2001 that 

the world's 30 largest salmon farming companies produced 71% of the world's total farmed salmon 

production.44 More recently, one company, Marine Harvest, in 2009 produced 307,000 metric tons, which 

was 20% of the global production of 1.54 million metric tons of Atlantic salmon.45

• Maine: In 2003, three international salmon farming companies owned or subcontracted 

almost all the salmon farming capacity in Maine. They were Stolt Sea Farm Inc, Atlantic 

Salmon of Maine and Connors Aquaculture, which was part of the Heritage (George Weston) 

group. Today all the farms are owned by just one company, Cooke Aquaculture Inc, which 

had developed a successful salmon farming business in New Brunswick and took the 

opportunity to acquire assets in Maine as they became available. Cooke Aquaculture also 

owns and operates hatcheries in Maine to provide their cage farms with smolts. 

 

44

 Korneliussen, Pal., 2001. The world's 30 largest salmon farmers. Intrafish (www.intrafish.com ). The 

author projected that these companies would produce 920,000 mt in 2001. Total world production that 

year is reported at 1.3 million mt. Therefore, the 30 companies would produce 71% of the total. 

45

 Salmon Farming Industry Handbook 2010. 

www.marineharvest.com/PageFiles/1296/Handbook%202010.pdf
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• Washington: In Washington the ownership history has been turbulent. In 2003, the farms 

were owned by a company known as Pan Fish ASA, a Norwegian company that is no longer in 

business. Pan Fish was sold to a private Washington investor who renamed the company 

American Gold Seafoods. In 2008, the investor sold American Gold Seafoods to Icicle 

Seafoods Inc., which is owned by a US investment company, Paine and Partners.46

 The 

Washington salmon farms continue to be owned and operated by one company.

5.2.5 Markets 

Fifteen years ago salmon farmed in Maine and Washington was sold mostly through traditional seafood 

distributors and wholesalers. This remains an important market channel. For example, it is always 

available at the Fulton Market and the New York Fulton Market price is one of the indexes the industry 

uses to gauge market movements. However, because it is farmed and the supply is therefore predictable, 

traditional seafood marketing processes that have evolved to deal with the complexities and vagaries of the 

supply of wild caught fish are less relevant. Obviously, distribution is still vital, but sourcing, which in many 

respects is the critical component of traditional seafood wholesaling, is much less of an issue. 

As farmed salmon has become a mainstream, everyday seafood item in supermarkets and club stores 

throughout the nation, salmon farmers have to reach very large buyers. For example, in 2002, Costco is 

reported to have sold 600,000 pounds of fresh salmon fillets a week, corresponding to an annual live 

weight (unprocessed) volume of about 25,000 mt per year. The demands of large buyers such as this have 

been a key factor in the consolidation of ownership of farmed salmon and make it virtually impossible for 

small producers to operate except in small, usually local, market niches. Demands by big buyers for 

assurance on quality and traceability and for year-round availability of large volumes, all to be provided at 

highly competitive prices, mean that only large companies can operate in such a market. More salmon is 

now sold also as part of long-term supply agreements with food service and retail buyers. The reality is 

that bigger companies are better able to survive price downturns than small ones. Consequently, had they 

not had the benefit of corporate capital, management and market strength, the salmon farming industries in 

Maine and Washington might have been driven to extinction by now under a rising tide of imports from 

much larger overseas competitors. 

Contracts with major buyers offer some security to salmon farmers, although it is unlikely that many of 

these are on fixed prices. However, salmon producers and buyers now have another tool to deal with 

price risks through an independent salmon futures trading entity operated by 'Fish Pool' in Norway.47 Fish 

Pool ASA is licensed as a seafood commodity derivatives market by the Norwegian Ministry of Finance 

under the surveillance of the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway (Kredittilsynet). This independent 

surveillance ensures the integrity of the market. However, use of the market is still relatively limited and is 

probably limited to the Norway trade as the contract is traded in Norwegian kroner and exposes users 

from other countries to currency risk. Contract volumes traded in the first half of 2011 reached 74,600 

tons, a relatively small proportion of the Norwegian output, although almost twice the volume traded in 

the first half of 2010. 

 

46http://fis.com/fis/techno/newtechno.asp?id=41729&l=e&ndb=1

47http://fishpool.eu/index.aspx
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Farmed salmon is a commodity and regional prices reflect fairly accurately the spot price in regions where 

there are major sellers, notably Norway. Salmon farmers and marketers have little or no pricing power 

and the market price moves up and down in response to day-to-day supply and demand pressure. Salmon 

farming companies have tried to respond to this in different ways over the years, none of them very 

successfully. Approaches that have been or are used include: 

• To try to read annual trends in prices and have fish ready when prices are highest. This is 

difficult to do given other production and market variables and with a product that takes two 

to three years to grow to market size. But since the market will accept quite a wide range of 

fish sizes, they are sold in a number of weight ranges (measured as head-on, gutted weight in 

pounds (lbs)) i.e., 6 to 8s, 8 to 10s, 10 to 12s, etc. Weights between 6 pounds and 12 pounds 

are the most common, but at certain times of the year farmers will produce some 4 to 6s and 

fish larger than 12 pounds and up to 20 pounds. 

• Development of brands. An expensive option that demands substantial resources and is 

difficult unless the raw material is further processed in some way. 

• Development of value-added products that are differentiated from the commodity. This may 

provide short term advantage, although competitors can quickly copy any innovation and the 

costs of value adding limit pricing flexibility, though they do expand the range of potential 

buyers and, therefore, increase overall demand. 

• Generic marketing to increase demand. A successful program was initiated under the 

auspices of the International Salmon Farmers Association some years ago, but was 

undermined by a trade action against Chilean salmon farmers who then withdrew their 

support and with it much of the funding. 

5.2.6 Price data 

There is weekly price data available in two places for farm-raised salmon. 

• The Fulton Market and the New York Fulton Market price is one of the indexes the industry 

uses to gauge the market movement of Atlantic farm raised salmon. 

• Urner Barry Seafood Current is published twice weekly and includes data on farm-raised, 

fresh salmon from the West Coast. Urner Barry’s Fresh Farmed Salmon Index is also used to 

get a general flavor of the market situation (see Footnote 36). . 

5.2.7 Availability of production history and other data 

There are no data that describe variations in individual US salmon farm performance. Clearly, with only 

two companies, no detailed performance data will be made available unless by the companies themselves. 

Salmon production history will be well studied in the leading salmon production countries in support of 

widely used insurance policies. 

There are very broad descriptions of the industry character in Maine and Washington. Maine Department 

of Agriculture has value and volume production data available for the state since 1991. The Washington 
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82

Department of Fish and Wildlife maintains the production volume data for the state of Washington. They 

do not have recorded value data. 

Production costs

Costs in the salmon farming business are typically apportioned as shown in Table 9, the cost estimates 

provided being an approximate generic estimate for general guidance only.48 These data are based on 

Norwegian costs. As such, they are some of the most competitive in the world. US costs will be slightly 

higher, but are likely to be similarly constructed.

Table 9: Estimate of the average farming costs to grow salmon in 2009 24

Cost item $ per kg Salmon 

grown

% of total costs

Feed 1.31 55.7

Smolts 0.33 14.0

Operations, R&M, Insurance 0.30 12.8

Wages 0.25 10.6

Depreciation 0.16 6.8

TOTAL 2.35 100.0

Note: in this table Operations, Repairs & Maintenance and Insurance are separated from 

Depreciation, while Financing Costs are excluded. In the Norwegian data from which it 

was derived, all these costs, including a financing cost are included under ‘Other & 

Financial’.

Feed

Feed is the largest expense on a salmon farm comprising 50% to 60% of total costs on most efficiently run 

farms. Because the raw ingredients in salmon feed, such as fishmeal, are globally traded commodities 

priced in US dollars, feed prices tend to be in a similar range for all farmers, plus or minus costs for freight 

and any short-term exchange rate advantages. Chile has the lowest cost feeds because fishmeal is 

produced there and requires little shipping, although many farms are substituting plant and other proteins 

as fishmeal costs are now so high. Lower labor costs in Chile also help in feed manufacture. The world 

price of fishmeal, which is the most important ingredient in present day feeds, is governed by usual supply 

and demand criteria, but is also influenced by availability and price of other commodity proteins such as 

soybean meal. Salmon farmers are working to reduce the levels of both fishmeal and fish oil in feeds also in 

response to concerns about the ecological impacts of the fisheries that produce them. 

Improvements in feed formulation and manufacture have led to increasing feed efficiency in recent years. 

Modern salmon feeds are now made using a cooking extrusion process which produces pellets that can 

absorb and hold much higher levels of fat (fish and vegetable oils) than was previously possible. It has been 

found that high levels of fat increase feed palatability and lead to more efficient utilization of protein - the 

most expensive component of the feed. This means that an efficiently run salmon farm, with the fish in 

good health, should now expect feed conversion rates of 1.3:1 or better. 

 

48Forster, J, 2010. What Can US Open Ocean Aquaculture Learn From Salmon Farming? J. Mar. Tech.

Soc. Vol. 44, No.3 pp68 - 79
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Smolts

Several years ago there was an open market for smolts that were produced by private hatcheries. Prices 

ranged between $1.50 and $4.00 each depending on availability, size, and quality. These prices have tended 

to come down as the industry has developed. Industry consolidation has meant that most smolts are now 

produced 'in house' in company-owned hatcheries, so how they are costed into the overall production 

process is not so transparent. Industry participants usually suggest that a cost today of between $1 and 

$1.25 each delivered to the cages is a reasonable figure to work with, though this may be higher for smolts 

whose growth has been accelerated by warm temperature rearing, or for fish that are held in tanks on land 

after smolting and are transferred to the sea later. The costs include feed, operations, R&M and insurance, 

wages and depreciation, as in Table 2, as well as the cost of vaccines for vaccinating the fish prior to their 

transfer to salt water. The cost of vaccination is around $0.12 per fish for a multi-valent vaccine that 

protects against several threatening bacterial diseases including furunculosis and vibrio.

Smolts represent a significant part of the cost of producing the finished fish; just how significant depends on 

survival and the final size at which the fish is harvested. For example, if a $1.25 smolt is grown to a salmon 

of 10 pounds dressed weight, with 90% survival, its cost on a unit weight basis is $0.14 per pound of fish 

produced. Survival and harvest weight are obviously key factors in determining actual smolt costs for 

different farms. 

Operations, repairs and maintenance, and insurance

These are all the costs associated with the logistic support and maintenance of a farm such as fuel, supplies, 

repairs and maintenance, fish health management and environmental monitoring. Compared to farms in 

more remote parts of the world, those in Maine and Washington have access to excellent supporting 

infrastructure, so in this respect they have a small competitive advantage.

Insurance against fish mortality from disease and other factors has become increasingly expensive and 

difficult to obtain in the last few years. This is due to a poor loss record by salmon farms and a prolonged 

learning curve by the insurance industry. The causes of losses on fish farms can be region or even site 

specific. As the commercial fish stock mortality market has changed, larger salmon farming companies 

also have the possibility of providing for some of their own insurance cover through self-insurance and 

'captive' insurance arrangements49, so it makes it difficult to pin down a total cost. In general, a premium 

rate between 3% and 5% of the insured value is probably what it costs most companies, depending on 

individual loss records and the specific terms of the policy. 

The insured value is the value declared at the end of each month. Therefore it is the value of the stock in 

the farm at any one point in time. Premiums are adjusted annually based on the average of 12 monthly 

declared values. The declared value is calculated by setting values to different sizes of fish, e.g. $2 each for 

newly entered smolts, or $7/kg for fish in the 1-2kg size range and applying these to the inventory each 

month. This is the value on which indemnity payments are calculated should there be a loss.

 

49 Captive insurance is, in effect, self-insurance, where a company assumes the risks of loss internally. 

However, it is possible to set this up in a 'captive arrangement' whereby notional insurance premiums are 

paid into a special captive account and as such are protected from tax.
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An important point here is that the US salmon industry has access to private insurance. The Atlantic 

salmon industry is one of the prime targets for private aquaculture insurance and as production systems 

are similar, insurers can use international experience as a proxy for the US. Also, the US industry is small 

and relatively easily accommodated by the large insurance companies through a small number of brokers. 

Costs for health management comprise various activities associated with preventive care and such 

medications as may be necessary. The use of vaccines has led to a marked reduction in the use of 

medications in recent years. In Norway for example, antibiotic use on salmon farms has been cut 

dramatically since the 1990s primarily due to the efficacy of modern vaccines. 

Other costs of health management include any specific sampling and screening that may be required, 

especially for broodstock, and management protocols that may be employed as part of a preventive care 

strategy. The latter is particularly important in Maine currently, where ISA was a serious problem in 2001. 

This required the implementation of rigorous biosecurity procedures, including vigorous hygiene and 

disinfection procedures for equipment, processing waste and personnel, as well as the implementation of 

Area (Bay) Management Agreements. These measures are described in detail by APHIS (2010)

Labor

Labor is used in salmon farming for farm operations, logistic support, and management. Specific tasks on 

the farms include: 

• Smolt delivery, which only happens a few times per year but must be done with skill and 

speed to avoid causing stress to the young fish.

• Feed distribution, which is mostly mechanized and computer controlled now.

• Recovery of any fish that die ('morts') and inspection of nets and mooring systems, which 

mostly require diving. 

• Harvesting, this is usually done using a work boat equipped with fish pump or brail, which 

load the fish into a live well on the boat or into totes. 

• Machinery maintenance and repair. 

All of these tasks require skill in the use of equipment, sensitivity in the handling of live fish and care in the 

practice of sanitary procedures. Therefore, salmon farm workers and operators are often college 

educated and have a strong sense of professional responsibility. Utilization of labor has improved markedly 

over the years in response to mechanization and increased scale. Normal productivity levels on salmon 

farms today range from 500,000 lbs. to one million lbs. per person-year. At an average wage rate, including 

benefits, of $45,000 per year, this means the farm labor cost component to produce salmon is between 

$0.09 per lb and $0.18 per lb. 

Depreciation

Depreciation charges can vary widely depending on the age of the assets, the depreciation rate used and 

the cost of the initial equipment. Salmon farm equipment tends to deteriorate quite quickly due to the 

harsh environment in which it operates. Also, the technology and design of equipment is evolving quickly 

so it can become obsolescent quite rapidly. The result is that depreciation is a significant cost of salmon 

production.
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5.2.8 Biology 

Wild Atlantic salmon are native to the North Atlantic. Today they are only rarely found in the wild. After 

spawning they move to feeding grounds in the ocean, feeding on pelagic species such as herring, sprat and 

squid. After four years they return to their rivers of origin to spawn (October-January). Few return to the 

sea after spawning. The hatched fry (‘alevins’) and juveniles remain in freshwater, feeding from insect 

larvae and smaller fish. A change in day length (photoperiod) triggers smoltification and the ‘smolts’ migrate 

through rivers to the sea. 

The process of domestication in temperate climates with shelter, and stable temperatures and salinities, 

took place within latitudes 40-70o in the Northern Hemisphere, and 40-50o in the Southern Hemisphere. 

Today, the breeding of intra-specific hybrid strains has greatly enhanced productivity and domestication. 

Year-round spawning is induced by artificial lighting. Atlantic salmon grow best in sites where water 

temperature extremes are in the range 6-16 °C, and salinities are close to oceanic levels (33-34 parts per 

thousand). 

5.2.9 Production system 

Production approaches 

A primary thrust in the development of salmon farming was the premise that consumers prefer fresh 

rather than frozen fish and that by farming them, rather than catching them in seasonal fisheries, farmers 

could satisfy this preference. 

Today, year-round supply is a key assumption in all of the salmon farming companies’ marketing programs 

and this has been a driving force in how production is planned. Consistent, year-round production also 

allows processing plants to be operated more efficiently, which has become increasingly important as the 

industry has responded to market demand for more further-processed products, such as fillets and 

portions. 

However, year-round production of fish of the same size is not easy to achieve because of the natural 

growth and breeding cycle of salmon. They spawn on a seasonal basis only, with eggs usually being taken in 

the late fall, though this can be manipulated by using artificial light regimes if needed. Growth of salmon 

also varies with water temperature, growth being faster at summer temperatures up to about 16° C. 

During the winter, growth slows, especially in Maine. 

Salmon farmers have responded to and dealt with these difficulties in several ways: 

• First, since the market will accept quite a wide range of fish sizes, they are sold in a number of 

weight ranges (measured as head-on, gutted weight in pounds (lbs)) i.e., 6 to 8s, 8 to 10s, 10 

to 12s, etc. Weights between 6 pounds and 12 pounds are the most common, but at certain 

times of the year farmers will produce some 4 to 6’s and fish larger than 12 pounds and up to 

20 pounds. 

• Second, because fish within a population grow at different rates, it is possible to sort faster 

growing fish from slower growing fish by grading, although that farmers are reluctant to do 
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this too often because it is stressful to the fish. Therefore, to some extent, the natural 

growth variation between fish can be used to spread the availability of fish within the 

preferred size range.

• Third, advances in hatchery methods that enable water temperature to be controlled at 

reasonable cost, have meant that juvenile fish can be brought to the smolt stage at different 

times of the year instead of only in the spring as was the case in the past. Smolts can be 

entered into seawater over a wider period of time allowing sequencing of different batches of 

fish. Some salmon farmers, notably in Norway, are experimenting with growing the smolts 

for some months beyond the freshwater stage in land-based tank systems through which 

seawater is pumped and/or recirculated. Though this is more costly than growing them in 

cages, it also reduces some of the risks inherent in cage production, and it is feasible because 

the fish are still fairly small and do not occupy a lot of space. It may take several years yet 

before the balance of advantage in doing this is fully understood, but it is a model that could 

apply to all marine species and, therefore, represents a potentially important innovation.

Culture stages and practices

The salmon farming process is managed in three stages. They are:

• Broodstock for the production of eggs.

• Hatcheries where eggs are incubated and hatched and where the young fish are raised until 

they are ready to go to saltwater as 'smolts' or, as in the recent trend noted earlier, as partly 

grown smolts that have spent another few months in tanks on land.

• Net pens where the smolts are acclimatized to saltwater and grown out to market size.

Broodstock are usually maintained and selected as part of specialized breeding programs. They are fish 

that have performed well under farm conditions and are in good health. To reduce the risk of exposure to 

pathogens they are isolated from other 'production fish' early in the rearing process and held in separate 

facilities. As an anadromous fish, Atlantic salmon brood fish can even be held in freshwater for their whole 

life cycle, which protects them from exposure to disease in marine waters but eliminates the selective 

pressure that this part of the process imposes.

Atlantic salmon usually become sexually mature between three and four years of age and become ready to 

spawn in the late fall. However, natural spawning does not occur under farm conditions so eggs and sperm 

(milt) are taken from the fish by farm personnel by a process known as 'stripping'. The eggs and milt are 

then mixed together with a little water to allow fertilization. Fertilized eggs are then disinfected with an 

iodine-based solution and placed in incubators in a hatchery to develop. 

Each female salmon will produce between nine and fourteen thousand eggs. The batches of eggs from each 

female are usually incubated separately. This is because tissue samples from the mother are taken at the 

time of egg stripping and screened for viral and bacterial pathogens. If pathogens are found in any of the 

samples the eggs from that particular female are discarded.

The speed at which the eggs develop and hatch is governed by water temperature. This is sometimes 

manipulated in the hatchery to delay or accelerate the hatching process. When the eggs hatch, the young 
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fish are called 'alevins' or 'yolk-sac fry'. At this stage they do not move much, preferring to hide among 

crevices provided by special media placed in the rearing tanks. They continue to develop and grow while 

the yolk sac that provides them with nutrients is absorbed.

When the yolk sac is absorbed the young fish or 'fry' begin to swim and look for food. They are then fed 

with a very fine particulate feed in a process known as 'first feeding'. Because the fry grow quite slowly at 

this stage the rearing water is often heated in order to increase growth rate. It is worth noting that salmon 

(and trout) are one of the few farmed fish whose newly hatched fry will take dry feed at first feeding. 

Mostly, newly hatched fish are smaller and require live feed for several days or weeks before being weaned 

on to dry pelleted feeds.

For the next nine months to a year the fry continue to grow in hatchery tanks until they become 'smolts' 

at a weight of between 80 and 120 grams. The process of 'smoltification' prepares the young fish for 

transfer to salt water and involves changes in their osmoregulatory systems and appearance as they 

become more silvery in color and elongate to become longer and leaner. Smoltification’ is induced by 

changes in day length to which the fish respond so that under normal conditions they are ready to go to 

sea in the spring. However, smoltification can also be controlled in a hatchery by manipulating day length 

through the use of artificial lighting. Its importance is discussed further under Section 5.2.10.

A few weeks before they become smolts, the young salmon are vaccinated to protect them against 

pathogens to which they will be exposed in salt water. Vaccination can be done by dipping the fish in a 

vaccine solution, but most commonly is done by injection. This requires the fish to be anaesthetized and 

then individually injected with a vaccine dose. Though laborious and stressful on the fish, this vaccination 

procedure has been found to be highly effective against certain bacterial pathogens, notably against 

bacterial diseases such as vibrio and furunculosis. 

When smolts are judged to be ready to go to seawater they are transported by tanker truck, or in live 

wells on a boat, to net pens in sea. Once in the net pens the process of adaptation to saltwater occurs 

quickly and they begin to feed within a day or so. 

Then begins the process of 'on-growing' when, for the next 15 to 24 months, the fish are fed and cared for 

as they grow to market size. During this time they will sometimes be graded for size, moved and spread 

out into other nets so they do not become too crowded. Harvesting occurs when the fish are judged to 

be big enough for sale or when market demand requires that fish be made available. It was noted 

previously that demand for farmed salmon is now year round. Salmon farmers must meet this demand if 

they are not to lose out to their competitors. Since the growing cycle still has elements of seasonality 

both with respect to the life cycle of the salmon itself and to seawater temperature, perfect year-round 

availability is still difficult to achieve. 

Harvesting requires the fish to be netted or pumped from the net pens and taken to a processing plant. 

This is done in several ways, the simplest being when salmon can be live hauled in a well boat or special 

transport cage to a nearby onshore plant. Since plants are not always available in the locality, the 

alternative is to stun and bleed the fish at the farms and then take them by road to the plants in containers 

packed with ice.
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Production facilities

Though they are quite different in design and purpose, hatcheries and net pens are both 'flowing water' 

methods of fish farming. This means that a constant flow of clean water must pass through tanks or net 

pens in which the fish are held in order to replenish dissolved oxygen and to remove fish waste. This is 

quite different from 'pond' methods of fish farming, such as those found in the catfish industry, where there 

is little or no water exchange. In a catfish pond, natural processes within the pond itself assimilate fish

wastes and much of the oxygen that the fish require is provided by natural gaseous exchange at the water 

surface, by photosynthesis from algae in the pond water, or mechanical aeration techniques.

The requirement for a constant flow of water in salmon farming is the primary factor in deciding where 

salmon hatcheries and farms can be located and how they are operated. In the case of hatcheries the flow 

is managed 'actively;' that is to say, that water is drawn from a well or diverted from a spring or stream and 

piped to the rearing tanks where a valve controls the water flow. Increasingly today, also, it is recycled 

using recirculating systems where the water is filtered to remove fish wastes, re-oxygenated to meet the 

fishes’ oxygen requirements and often heated to optimize fish growth (see RAS Section 3.3).

In net pens water flow is 'passive,' as it is entirely dependent on natural water currents in the area that are 

driven by winds and tides. A net pen farmer can do little to manage this flow other than to select a 

location where good flows occur and then keep nets clean so that water can pass through the meshes 

freely.

Hatcheries

There are several different ways that a hatchery can be laid out and designed. Because hatcheries produce 

small fish the containers (tanks) in which the fish are grown are always a great deal smaller than net pens 

used for on growing. Hatchery tanks will usually range in size from 10' to 30' in diameter and be two to 

three feet deep. Where RAS technology is used, facilities are normally indoors. 

As noted above, water flow is the critical element in keeping the fish healthy and alive. For this reason 

hatcheries are usually equipped with alarm and back-up systems to warn of and deal with a failure in the 

water supply. Where pumps are used, back-up power generation is also essential, as is effective training of 

staff to be able to respond to emergencies when they do occur. 

An especially effective back-up system that has become widely used in recent years is an on-site supply of 

liquid oxygen or a store of pressurized oxygen. Oxygen is often used routinely in hatcheries today to 

increase dissolved oxygen levels in the water supply to rearing tanks, thereby increasing its ‘carrying 

capacity,' meaning that less water has to be used. But it also provides an emergency life support system 

because oxygen gas can be bubbled into fish tanks to maintain dissolved oxygen levels and keep fish alive on 

a temporary basis while a mechanical failure elsewhere is fixed. Since oxygen can be stored in large 

quantities as a liquid and requires no external power source to vaporize into a pressurized gas, its supply is 

completely independent of all other hatchery mechanical and electrical systems, making it a very reliable 

back-up resource.

Net pens
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A net pen consists of a floating collar from which a net bag is hung and, through weights attached to the 

bottom of the net, the bag is shaped to provide a rearing container for the fish. Collars are usually made 

from steel or PEH (plastic) pipe with floatation provided by fixing special floats under the steel beams or by 

sealing air into the pipe. They are usually square or circular and set in groups of as many as 24 in one 

location, depending on individual pen size and location. Net pen collars used on salmon farms today 

usually have a surface area of between 2,000 and 10,000 square feet. 

Nets are mostly made from nylon with smolts being put into nets with smaller mesh than is used when the 

fish are larger. Nets are built with various ropes and rigging lines to enable them to support weights, to 

keep their shape, and to provide strength. Net depth depends on the water depth at the farming site and 

farmers usually try to provide for at least as much depth under the net as the net is deep. This allows for 

waste dispersal. Net depths range from as little as 20' up to 60' at particularly deep sites. 

There is little that is conceptually complex about net pens. They are net bags floated and rigged in such a 

way that they will hold fish, and located so the natural forces of wind and tide provide a flow of water 

through the meshes. As with many simple concepts, however, the devil is in the details. The last 40 years, 

during which the salmon farming business has developed, have seen enormous improvements in net pen 

design and construction. With these improvements have also come developments in mechanical handling, 

so that sophisticated automatic feeding systems and specially equipped service boats today service most 

salmon farms. Underwater cameras and sensors can also be used to monitor conditions. These 

developments have allowed the industry to reduce costs, which, in turn, has allowed its products to 

become increasingly affordable to a mass market. 

A critical part of a net pen system is the part that is rarely seen, namely, the mooring system. This is a 

system of anchors and lines installed to hold a group of circular salmon cages in place. The type of anchors 

used depends on the nature of the seabed at the site and often on what is most readily available locally. 

There are many ways in which a mooring system can be configured, but its critical function is to hold the 

cages in place and, especially, to be able to do this during extremes of weather or tide. Maintenance and 

inspection of mooring systems is as important as the design itself; accidents have occurred in past years 

when deteriorating system components were not noticed until too late. 

5.2.10 Length of production cycle 

In general the grow-out phase takes between 15 and 24 months. Timing of the cycle and inputs are driven 

by seasonal changes in water temperature and day length, and by the need to try and maintain year round 

production. There are important differences in water temperature between Maine and Washington. In 

Maine both freshwater and seawater temperatures are more extreme, especially during winter when lows 

near freezing are not uncommon, and when salmon growth slows to almost nothing. In Washington, the 

seawater temperature rarely falls below seven degrees centigrade, at which salmon grow quite well. This 

means that farmers in Washington find it easier to maintain year-round production because growth is 

sustained throughout the year. They are helped further in this now by being able to produce and stock 

smolts at different times of the year, using artificial lighting. 

Regardless of when they are stocked, most salmon farms today operate on what is called an ‘all in all out’ 

basis, or single year class stocking followed by a period of weeks or months ‘fallowing’ when no fish are in 

the farm after harvesting. This is done to interrupt disease and parasite cycles, a practice that is made 
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more effective when farmers within an area coordinate production cycles between them in what are 

known as Area (or Bay) Management Agreements. This practice was embraced in Maine first following an 

outbreak of the disease Infectious Salmon Anemia (ISA) in 2000 - see Maine below. Farms in Washington

are being converted to it now and it is widely practiced in British Colombia.

5.2.11 Key factors affecting success 

Competitiveness is a function of cost and quality, including intangibles like service and brand loyalty. As 

already noted, to a great extent farmed salmon is a commodity. Product differentiation and consumer 

branding are difficult and the physical quality of farmed salmon from different producing areas is much the 

same, which is not surprising since it involves the same species, produced under very similar methods. 

Consequently, US farmed salmon competes with imported fish almost entirely on price. There is merit in 

the argument that homegrown fish are likely to be fresher than fish from Chile that may have been in 

transit several days, but that argument cannot be readily made against farmed salmon from Canada. 

Moreover, by the time salmon from the Northeast or Northwest reaches southern cities, any differences 

become marginal. There is some market leverage in the idea of a 'homegrown' product, especially these 

days, and new country-of-origin labeling laws reinforce this. But the seafood industry is a global business 

and US consumers are very familiar with imported product (as 84% of the total is imported). Country-oforigin distinctions do not seem to be a cause for major differences in price or consumer perception of 

value, even though some US producer groups have tried to raise alarm about imported seafood from some 

countries. 

The competitiveness of the US farmed salmon industry is, therefore, almost entirely driven by cost.

Product cost competitiveness

Farming costs are considered in detail in Section 5.2.7 and are usually the basis on which inventories are 

valued and insurance risks are calculated. From a cost competitiveness standpoint, it is important to note 

that salmon farmers everywhere use much the same equipment and methods. They also use similar feeds, 

by far the greatest cost in salmon farming, which are formulated from the same raw materials and to 

similar specifications in all producing countries. In fact, the world's largest salmon feed manufacturers and 

many of the equipment suppliers operate in all the major producing regions, so there is free flow of all 

technical and industrial information and a general tendency towards comparable cost structures.

Key factors affecting cost differences between farmers in different countries include the following:

• Food conversion efficiency (FCR): This is the ratio between food fed and weight gain. 

Since feed represents up to 60% of costs on the largest and most highly mechanized farms, 

even a small difference in FCR can have a substantial influence on cost. FCR is governed by 

several factors all having to do with the way the fish are cared for and their overall health 

status. Good water quality and attentive farm management are critical and there is no reason 

why a farm in Maine or Washington cannot perform equally well or better in this respect 

than farms in any of the other producing regions. 

• Water temperature: Water temperature governs how fast salmon grow. Chile is 

generally considered to have the most favorable growing temperatures of the main salmon 

producing countries, allowing farmers there to grow fish weeks or months faster than 
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farmers elsewhere. Washington State and British Columbia also have good growing 

conditions, especially through the winter months when the temperature rarely falls below six 

degrees centigrade, the level at which growth drops off. By comparison, winter temperatures 

in Maine and New Brunswick are much lower and can fall below zero degrees centigrade in 

severe winters, when a phenomenon known as 'superchill' occurs that kills salmon. At one or 

two degrees centigrade, more common winter temperatures, little growth occurs. In this 

respect farmers in Maine are at a disadvantage compared to most of their competitors 

• Feed price: The price of salmon feed tends to be similar in all growing areas because it is 

made from the same raw materials. However, where these raw materials are produced 

locally, such as fishmeal in Chile, the cost of shipping them to feed mills is less, which results 

in a small saving on the final cost of the finished feed. In the case of Chile, however, this 

saving is more than offset by the cost of shipping the finished fish to market.

• Labor: The cost of labor is less in Chile than in other producing countries and provides Chile 

with a competitive advantage, especially in processing (see below). However, on the salmon 

farms themselves, differences in pay scales for labor do not make a large difference in the cost 

of production because most farms are now heavily mechanized. But every other input and 

every aspect of salmon farming that has a labor component benefits from lower cost labor. 

This includes production of smolts, manufacture of equipment, the cost of local services and 

the cost to mill feed. Producers in Maine and Washington have no competitive advantage in 

this area and, if anything, have higher labor costs than all other leading producing countries 

with the possible exception of Norway.

• Lease regulations US salmon farmers have been disadvantaged by the limited number of 

potential sites for salmon farming in Maine and Washington and regulatory obstacles to 

obtaining permits for them. In previous years also, permit conditions were often more 

restrictive and environmental monitoring requirements were more demanding in the US than 

elsewhere, though this is less so today as other countries have tightened their management 

demands. However, the leading constraint faced by US salmon farmers is the lack of potential 

sites, and that is a matter of geography more than regulation.

• Biological regulations: There are four categories of relevance to salmon production. First, 

the genetic origin of fish stock, is a concern where escaped farmed fish may interbreed with 

local strains. In Maine, salmon farmers are only allowed to use local strains, meaning that 

genetically improved stocks from elsewhere are not available to them.50 Second, there are 

concerns about escaped farmed fish out competing local stocks, which have resulted in tough 

regulations on escapes. Third, it is difficult or impossible for farmers in both Maine and 

Washington to import seed stock (eggs or smolts) from elsewhere should they want to 

because of concerns about importing new diseases. Farmers elsewhere have had more 

latitude in this respect (although this approach is accompanied by higher risk of importing 

disease). Fourth, both Maine and Washington demand rigorous environmental monitoring of 

 

50 This includes the AquaBounty (www.aquabounty.com ) genetically modified salmon for which there are 

concerns about both interbreeding and competition with wild fish. However, this is not a competitive 

disadvantage because these fish are not yet being farmed elsewhere either.
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salmon farms, which in past years was probably tougher than some other countries, though all 

salmon farmers now have to meet high environmental standards.

• Regulatory pressure: Regulatory pressure in the US stems from both the complexity of the 

system and the scrutiny to which it is subjected by citizen groups (see Section 2.2.1). Citizen 

initiated lawsuits over NPDES51 permits in both Maine and Washington have resulted in 

substantial costs and management burden for US growers and represent a significant 

competitive disadvantage for them. 

• Exchange rates: Relative changes in the exchange rates between the US dollar and the 

currency in exporting countries can have a significant effect on competitiveness. 

Considerable fluctuations in exchange rates have occurred in recent years. The recent slide 

in the value of the dollar versus European and Canadian currencies has benefitted the US 

industry.

• Interest rates: In general, US banks have been reluctant to lend to fish farming businesses. 

Much of the credit that US salmon farmers have needed has either been supplied or 

guaranteed by their owners and/or through the larger salmon feed manufacturing companies.

• Economies of scale: During the mid-1990s, it became normal for individual farm units to 

produce between two million to four million pounds per cycle, which is about as large as it is 

generally considered prudent to go from a risk management standpoint as biological risks may 

be increased above this size. However, as the industry has consolidated, companies have 

captured other economies of scale in purchasing, processing, marketing and input supply. The 

salmon farming operations in both Maine and Washington benefit from being owned by large 

companies with synergistic interests and so, despite their relatively small size, they are 

probably not at much of a competitive disadvantage in this respect.

Processing cost competitiveness

Differences in the cost of processing farmed salmon have been critically important. In the mid 1990's, 

Chilean salmon farmers started to offer pin bone out (pbo) salmon fillets, exploiting their low labor costs 

in a highly labor intensive process. This advantage was made even greater because filleting meant that the 

extra weight of the head and frame of the salmon did not have to be shipped. This reduced the costs to 

Chilean farmers of both packaging and airfreight.

The success of Chilean salmon fillets forced producers elsewhere to seek less costly ways of taking the pin 

bones out of salmon through mechanization. In recent years, pin-boning machines have been developed 

that have helped to narrow the labor cost disadvantage. Highly mechanized processing plants are now the 

industry standard, reducing labor cost advantages still further, though US producers may not be able to 

take full advantage of this trend because of the relatively small scale on which they operate. 

Distribution cost competitiveness

 

51 NPDES permits are National Pollution Discharge Elimination System permits issued by the 

Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, or by the states with authority from EPA
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The cost of getting their fish to market is where US producers have a clear advantage, at least for the 

distribution of fresh products. Compared to farmers in Canada this is not much, but compared to the 

Chileans, it is substantial and likely to get more so. However, this advantage is less for frozen and other 

shelf stable products, so the advantage for U.S growers depends on their being a continuing premium for 

fresh seafood, something that is not assured as food generally becomes more expensive.

Anti-dumping actions

Historically, there have been two successful US anti-dumping actions prosecuted against overseas salmon 

farmers; the first in 1991 against Norwegian farmed salmon and the second in 1997 against Chilean salmon. 

More recent anti-dumping wars have involved the EU and third-party suppliers52. Though the Norwegians 

announced recently that they would resume actions against the duty levied on their fish, this may have little 

practical effect. First, the duty is on whole fish only and most recent U.S. imports of Norwegian salmon 

have been of fresh and frozen fillets. Second, Norwegian salmon exports to the US fell by 43% in 2010 as 

Chilean exports started to increase again, while Norway refocused on its strengths in the EU and Japanese 

markets. 53

Whether or not these anti-dumping actions did any long-term good is open to question. On the one hand, 

both were originated at times when farmers in these countries had overproduced and in order to move 

their excess inventory they dropped the price below their own cost of production. This is not unusual in 

commodity markets because producers have little if any control over prices, which are simply a function of 

supply and demand. But it is understandable that US farmers should have wanted to ask the question: is it 

fair that these producers should be allowed to off load their excess product into an overseas market to the 

detriment of local producers who played no part in the over production? Under such circumstances, a 

small local industry can never hope to do well against larger competitors who are financially robust enough 

to survive and even prosper through market cycles. The protection given by countervailing tariffs did, 

undoubtedly, provide some short-term help.

On the other hand, these trade actions prevented several potential cooperative and generic marketing 

initiatives and, because in the case of Norway, duty was levied only on whole fish (not fillets), they may 

have helped to encourage the Norwegians to develop mechanized means of producing this product form. 

It was noteworthy how Norwegian fillets ‘filled the gap’ left when Chile had to reduce its production due 

to the ISA outbreak.54It is also noteworthy that the current high US prices of farmed salmon are due 

mostly to the problems in Chile and not to any protection from countervailing duties or obviously 

successful marketing campaigns for locally produced fish. 

 

52In February 2003, the U.S. Department of Commerce announced final results from the third fresh 

Atlantic salmon anti-dumping review. Four companies were revoked from the order while two, both 

Norwegian owned, were left paying duties. A fourth review is pending. www.intrafish.com Anti-dumping 

verdict; Fjord and Stolt subsidiaries remain under order. February 5, 2002.

53 http://www.globefish.org/salmon-may-2011.html

54 http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/SalmonImportsValue.htm
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5.2.12 Perils 

Stock losses and mortality can occur on salmon farms from several causes. The industry has been 

established long enough now to have experienced just about everything that can go wrong and has devised 

management practices and strategies that greatly reduce the risk from most of them. From an insurance 

point of view, a key issue is the size of the loss relative to the total biomass on the farms and whether or 

not it exceeds any deductible or franchise55 that might be in a policy. Large losses that exceed these limits 

are rare but each of the risks discussed below are common causes of insurance claims. 

Diseases and parasites 

Catastrophic mortality from bacterial disease and parasites is quite rare these days. Bacterial diseases have 

mostly been controlled by the use of vaccines and better overall stock management. This means tightened 

biosecurity, better feeds and better maintenance of rearing conditions, all of which provide for healthier 

fish that are better able to resist infection naturally. The same applies to parasites which, if they occur, can 

usually be controlled by medication or bath treatment, subject to local regulations on their use. 

However, virus diseases are still a problem as demonstrated by the problems caused by ISA in Maine 

earlier and Chile more recently. Since there is no known treatment for the disease, the only method of 

dealing with it deemed appropriate is attempted eradication by slaughtering infected fish. Since most 

commercial mortality insurance policies specifically exclude such mandatory slaughter as a covered risk, 

these kinds of situations represent a major problem for salmon farmers. Under these circumstances, 

farmers in all branches of agriculture usually look to government. 

ISA is a disease that is not well understood, that causes mortality among large fish in seawater and is 

considered a major threat to the industry. There is no treatment and a vaccine has not yet been 

perfected. It is believed that the only way to deal with it is through eradication and vigilant biosecurity and, 

since many of the farms in Maine are located quite close to each other, this requires industry-wide 

cooperation as well as regulatory oversight. 

Eradication means the culling of stocks when an infection is identified, which is extremely costly for the 

farmer and the government. Eradication schemes, or orders as they are called in traditional agriculture, 

are usually indemnified by the USDA. In the case of ISA in Maine, the Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service (APHIS) of the USDA agreed to indemnify salmon farmers affected by ISA for up to 60% of the 

losses associated with depopulation, disposal, clean-up, and disinfection of fish eradicated on or after 

December 13, 2001 with a cap of $8.3 million.56 A portion of the funds was also designated for the cost of 

surveillance programs and diagnostic support and training for veterinarians and producers. The USDA 

asked the Maine Department of Marine Resources to match the funds but the department said it did not 

have the money. In any event, this action and support of the industry by the USDA was the first time that 

 

55 A 'Franchise' in aquaculture insurance policies sets a minimum on the overall percentage of an insured 

crop that must be lost before losses are covered. However, once the franchise level is reached the claim is 

paid in full less any deductible. For example, a policy with a 30% franchise and 15% deductible would 

require that a minimum of 30% of the crop be lost in an insured event before a claim was payable. 

However, once losses had reached or exceeded 30% a claim would be paid less 15% deductible. 

56Intrafish, 2002. US compensating up to 60% of ISA losses incurred. www.intrafish.com April 15th, 2002. 
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APHIS had taken such an active and supportive role in the US farmed salmon industry and was something 

of a landmark decision. Since then it has been formalized in an official APHIS policy on ISA, which provides 

for indemnification of farmers when depopulation due to ISA is ordered.57

Salmon farms in Washington have been fortunate to remain free of virus diseases to date. Since so little is 

known about ISA it is an obvious concern but, so far, it does not appear to have occurred anywhere on 

the West Coast. A virus disease that has caused problems for salmon farmers in British Columbia is 

Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis (IHN) but that has not been seen in farms in Washington. However, 

Washington farmers do experience problems caused by the bacteria Rickettsia and by the gill parasite 

known as ‘gill amoeba’. These have not caused mass mortality but they are difficult to treat and an ongoing cause of minor losses as well as diminished fish performance.

It is generally recognized that fish are much more vulnerable to infection when stressed and fish farm 

practices focus on reducing stress as much as possible. This means not overcrowding fish, handling them 

as little as possible and doing it gently when it is necessary, and providing properly formulated feeds, as 

well as keeping the containment systems in which they live clean. It is also fundamental to make sure that 

eggs, fry, or smolts being transferred to different stages in the process are free of critical diseases before 

transfer.

Each of these precautions represent basic good husbandry or biosecurity and for the most part will keep 

the risk of serious disease to a minimum. However, there are situations, as occurred in Maine with ISA, 

where good husbandry is not enough, possibly because there is insufficient knowledge about how a disease

is caused or transmitted and also because it is sufficiently infectious that even well managed, healthy fish are 

vulnerable. In these situations the risk of infection from neighboring farms is a serious threat. Such a risk 

is especially acute in areas where many farms are located quite close together, as occurs in Maine.

Mechanical failure – hatcheries

Most fish kills in hatcheries occur due to an interruption to the water supply resulting in fish suffocation in 

one or more tanks. The more mechanical steps there are in providing the water supply the greater the 

potential for failure. Therefore hatcheries that rely on pumps are particularly vulnerable both to failure of 

the pumps themselves and/or to failure in the supply of the power that drives them.

Having said that, there are many hatcheries for many different species of fish that depend on pumped water 

systems and that function quite reliably. Monitoring systems for key operating parameters such as water 

flow, dissolved oxygen, electrical supply, etc. are now readily available and well proven. Where these are 

linked to warning systems that notify hatchery personnel of a problem they are very effective. 

Supplementary generators and supplies of oxygen should be available to all hatcheries as key components 

of good management practice. These are also all requirements for RAS.

Structural failure – net pens

 

57 AHIS, 2010. Infectious Salmon Anemia Program Standards. 

www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/animal_dis.../isa_standards.pdf
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Mooring failures and failure of the net pen structures themselves have led to several major fish kills and 

escapes in past years. These have almost always been preventable, mostly having been due to inadequate 

design and/or poor maintenance, or due to farms being located in areas subject to extremely harsh 

conditions. As the salmon farming industry has developed, it has found that sites in well-sheltered inshore 

waters often suffer from inadequate water flow, with a resulting limitation on the amount of fish that can 

be grown in them. There are also a limited number of accessible, sheltered sites with good tidal exchange 

and adequate depth in all salmon producing countries, so that there has been a tendency for farms to be 

located in ever more exposed areas and for the farms themselves to be larger. Inevitably this has meant 

pushing the hardware to its limits, with the equal inevitability that there have been some failures, each one 

being an opportunity to learn and to improve design. 

This process may be expected to continue; in many cases it provides the only way the industry can expand. 

Already there are companies that claim to have cage designs that can work safely in severe weather in 

completely exposed sites, some units being submersible as a way of avoiding the worst conditions. This is 

a legitimate direction for the industry to take that will expand its horizons and minimize near shore 

impacts, but such development is necessarily accompanied by some risk, and salmon farmers have been 

reluctant to adopt some of the more advanced offshore net pen designs. Ultimately, expansion to true 

offshore unsheltered sites is anticipated. However, before this can happen, major improvements must take 

place in engineering and, in the US, in the development of legislation to facilitate offshore use of state and 

federal waters.

Weather

Extremes of weather almost always pose risks for fish farms. For hatcheries some specific risks include:

• Ice that can block the water supply.

• Electrical storms that blow out electrical circuits and trip pumps.

• Severe wind and/or rain that can cause physical damage to structures or flooding.

• General flooding of the watercourse within which the hatchery is located.

• Drought that can lead to reduction in the water supply.

• Unusually high summer temperatures that can cause the water temperature to rise above 

normal, safe levels.

• Extreme heat or cold also damages or strains mechanical equipment leading to failures that 

may be hard to fix under prevailing conditions.

For net pens some specific risks include:

• Superchill that can occur on some farms in Maine during extremely cold winter weather 

when the seawater temperature falls below the temperature at which fish blood freezes.

• Wind storms that lead to large waves from exposed quarters.

• Extreme tides that cause unusually swift currents that strain the mooring systems. 
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• Prolonged hot, calm weather that may increase seawater temperature levels that are stressful 

for fish and/or lead to phytoplankton blooms - see below.

Water quality and pollution

A fundamental requirement in selecting a fish farm location is to find a water source or water body that is 

not polluted and in which the water quality is good enough to support fish. However, in many situations 

there is often a risk of water contamination from accidental spillage or pollutants from an unrelated 

upstream activity. Such accidents have not been common, and when they do occur insurance liability 

usually accrues to the polluter and not the fish farmer, but judicious site selection and warning, in some 

cases, can reduce risk or damage.

In Washington there is a specific water quality concern related to low dissolved oxygen (DO) levels, which 

can occur during the summer and fall. Low DO levels are caused by upwelling of deep, cold ocean water 

off the Washington coast that then flows into the areas of Puget Sound where the farms are located. Since 

this water is always clean and cold this provides some mitigation, but low DO's have been responsible for 

low-level fish kills in past years and are almost always the cause of reduced feeding activity sometime 

during the spring and summer months. It also represents a stress on the fish that can increase their 

susceptibility to disease. Farmers attempt to minimize the problem by aerating the water in the cages 

during these events, which helps mostly by improving water circulation rather than by elevating the level of 

DO itself.

Plankton blooms

Plankton blooms have caused fish kills in most salmon farming areas of the world but are more of a threat 

in Washington than in Maine. Almost always they are blooms of harmful algae (harmful algal blooms or 

HABs), but fish kills have also occurred due to the presence in the water of excessive numbers of jellyfish 

and crab larva at a particular time.

There has been and is on-going research into the causes of HAB's that in some cases may lead to methods 

of mitigation. The first line of defense against HABs is early detection. This allows time for the fish to be 

‘put on starve’ which slows their activity and reduces their vulnerability to the bloom. Further mitigation 

can often be achieved by pumping (airlift pump) deeper water, which often contains less or none of the 

HAB into the net pens, a method that is sometimes enhanced surrounding the net pens at the surface. 

However, this is not effective when the bloom is present throughout the water column. Where sites are 

deep enough and currents are not too strong, some fish farms in BC also use extremely deep nets to 

provide the salmon with the option of finding deeper, cleaner water if it exists.

Predators

A variety of avian and mammalian predators can cause problems in hatcheries, including herons and 

raccoons. However, it is relatively straightforward to protect against them with nets and other physical 

barriers and most hatcheries are not severely troubled by predators.

Net pens, on the other hand, are vulnerable to large marine mammals, especially seals and sea lions, which, 

because of their physical size are able to push or tear their way through all but very strong protective nets. 
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Since marine mammal protection laws make Iethal methods of control illegal, protective nets and certain 

deterrent devices such as underwater acoustic 'seal scarers', are the only defense that fish farmers have. 

This means that protective (predator) nets must be maintained in good order with all points of possible 

access closed. Since predator nets sometimes have to be removed or lowered in order to undertake other 

fish farm work, this leaves scope for human error in addition to making the work itself more difficult. 

Seals and sea lions are an on-going problem for salmon farmers. Rarely do they cause major losses, but 

they always have the potential to do so by making holes in nets, while harassment of them with deterrent 

devices provides an opportunity for industry critics to find fault. 

Theft and vandalism 

Theft is not normally a problem in fish farms, at least not on a large scale, though it has been a problem on 

Chilean salmon farms. It is relatively awkward to take large numbers of live fish out of tanks or cages, so it 

is hard to do this unobtrusively, and harder still to sell them so there is no risk of detection. The risk of 

vandalism, however, is a different matter, especially given the resistance to marine fish farming of some 

environmental activists. Fish farms are vulnerable to vandalism in many different ways. That there have 

not been more instances of it reflects the good security procedures that fish farming companies normally 

put in place and the difficulty of accessing fish farm facilities without detection. 

5.2.13 Classification of perils 

Sound management can reduce the risk of loss as a result of some perils. However, some diseases and 

water conditions are difficult to avoid. Operating in a marine environment reduces the control over the 

most critical production factor, the aqueous environment. Defining insurable perils in policies and 

underwriting documents represents a considerable challenge in aquaculture, especially where management 

actions can be taken, but even they may not be sufficient to prevent losses. The question that arises in the 

case of loss is ‘was enough done to prevent loss?’ and ‘can best management practice be defined to define 

the limits of the salmon farmer’s preventive actions?’. 

In private aquaculture policies , the standard perils for offshore risks might include: 

• Pollution; 

• Theft, malicious damage, predation or physical damage caused by predators or other aquatic 

organisms (but not normally by sea lice or other external parasites); 

• Storm, lightning, flooding, tidal wave, collision, sudden and unforeseen structural failure of 

equipment, e.g. moorings; 

• Fire, lightning, explosion, earthquake; 

• Freezing, super-chilling, ice damage; 

• The loss of oxygen due to competing biological activity or to change in the physical or 

chemical condition of the water, including up welling, and high water temperature; 

• Any other change in concentration of the normal chemical constituents of the water, 

including change in pH or salinity; 
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• Disease; and

• Mechanical breakdown or accidental damage to machinery and other installations, including 

those supplying electricity, or electrocution.

The task of defining the policy components for these does not have to be faced as other serious challenges 

mean that salmon is not a candidate for an RMA plan that would meet FCIC standards (see next section). 

5.2.14 Crop insurance issues

For salmon there also is a limited number of growers in the United States and since private insurance is 

available and widely used in major foreign salmon production sectors we do not recommend a federal 

insurance plan. The salmon private insurance may gain additional support due to its availability in other 

countries which have significantly more production than the United States. 

• The highly concentrated ownership of the salmon sector is inappropriate for a US 

government financed crop insurance plan. This restricts the spreading of risk over a sufficient 

number of insureds.

• The salmon industry is supplied by a well-established international private insurance sector. 

These two factors alone dismiss the consideration of a federally subsidized crop insurance plan. However,

there are other issues that would need to be addressed in the absence of the these two powerful negative 

factors. 

• There are severe potential moral hazard and adverse selection challenges because of the high 

importance of good management practice in reducing the incidence of perils in all species 

and systems. This challenge is small in the case of salmon as the industry has very high 

standards of management and is well versed in the documentation requirements for crop 

insurance. 

• Measurement systems that can be applied with some confidence are available for salmon in 

net cages. However, even these are challenged by multiyear production and the occasional 

practice of regularly moving salmon between different cages and units to maximize efficient 

carrying capacity. 

• The lack of adequate data for sound actuarial analysis for all species will also lead to 

problems of adverse selection. 

• A multiyear production cycle may lead to moral hazard issues in an annual insurance plan. 

• Multiple inventory assessments would be required to identify a baseline from which to 

measure loss. While we would anticipate commercial producers would keep detailed 

records, there are various challenges in accurately identifying an inventory at any point in 

time. For example, juveniles are entered into grow-out at different ages and sizes, the size 

grading and splitting of age groups and occasional mixing after splitting, each raise many 

difficulties in measuring inventory and lead to potential moral hazard unless the subject of 

exclusion. 

• Most perils are closely associated with the quality of management; for example, biosecurity 

procedures, water quality, and stock husbandry are of critical importance. In the US salmon 
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sector, the standard of record keeping is likely to be high and the threat of moral hazard low, 

but not absent. However, there are disease and other risks that are not management or 

husbandry related. 

• There is a lack of data that can be used in actuarial analysis of the US salmon industry. In 

particular, there are few published data that describe the variability in individual performance 

and practices. This may result in adverse selection and in high rates that may not reflect the 

risk (although the concept of adverse selection would appear redundant in the case of the US 

salmon industry with its two producers,).

5.3 Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)

5.3.1 Status and trends

The commercial production of farmed shrimp started in the 1970s and early 1980s using the dominant 

locally available native tropical shrimp species; in Asia the Giant Tiger shrimp (Litopenaeus monodon), and in 

the eastern Pacific the whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), often referred to as the Pacific white 

shrimp. The development of shrimp farming grew rapidly, especially in Asia.

The first spawning of whiteleg shrimp in a hatchery occurred in 1973 in Florida using a wild-caught mated 

female from Panama. This innovation prompted the initiation of commercial culture of vannamei in South 

and Central America. Subsequent research on breeding and rearing techniques, much of which was 

undertaken in Hawaii, led to its culture in Hawaii, the southern US mainland, and much of Central and 

South America by the early 1980s. Production tended to fluctuate with periodic outbreaks of disease, 

usually coinciding with the warmer and wetter 'El Niño' years. Production continued to increase, despite 

the periodic disease setbacks. The growth of production in Central and South America led to growing 

interest in Asia and soon the potential of vannamei in production and markets stimulated expansion in Asia. 

In the early 2000s, vannamei had exceeded monodon production in China, Taiwan and Thailand. However, 

growth in some Asian countries was delayed because of concerns over introducing diseases that had been 

seen to decimate populations in Central and South America. Growth in other countries had to await 

critical developments in producing specific pathogen free (SPF) or resistant (SPR) breeding stock. Strict 

quarantine laws are a critical feature of national shrimp animal health regulations. 

During the 1980s and early 1990s the industry moved away from production based on post-larvae (PL)

captured from the wild to one that was based on land-based hatcheries. The broodstock were still wild 

caught, but the PLs were produced in culture. However, disease outbreaks remained a serious constraint, 

and were initially attributed to poor biosecurity in hatcheries rather than the passing of diseases to the PLs

from the wild broodstock. Farmers were unable to increase the stocking density of these genetically wild 

PLs for fear of disease. From the early 1990s more focus fell on the role of genetics and breeding to 

remove the threat of disease outbreaks among farmed whiteleg shrimp. During this period the capability 

was developed to identify the different diseases and to screen broodstock for disease and isolate and 

quarantine those that were disease-free for use in breeding programs. This facilitated higher stocking 

densities, lower incidence of disease, and easier to manage crops. Selections also resulted in an improved 

feed conversion rate and faster growth rate. 
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The development of SPF stocks of L. vannamei in the United States in the early 1990s facilitated the rapid 

expansion of US production. Following this success in the United States, domesticated non-native SPF

vannamei were imported into Asia in the late 1990s. This resulted in an explosive growth in shrimp 

production throughout those East Asian and Southeast Asian countries that permitted importation of these 

SPF PLs. L. vannamei emerged as the leading shrimp species in local production in 2004 and by 2007 it 

accounted for more than 75% of total world production and was the dominant species farmed in the three 

largest shrimp producing countries, Thailand, China and Indonesia. This rapid growth in production

resulted in a tripling of global industry crop value from 1997 to 2007, despite a rapid decline in prices as a 

result of efficiency gains. 

The US shrimp industry only briefly shared this enthusiasm for L. vannamei. Historically it has suffered very 

serious problems with virus diseases, most of which were nonindigenous, originating either from Central 

and South America or from Asia. Taura syndrome virus (TSV) was identified in Hawaii, Texas, and South 

Carolina in 1996, infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) in Hawaii, South 

Carolina, Texas, and Florida, and whitespot syndrome virus (WSSV) and yellow head virus (YHV) also 

were documented in Texas in 1996. While these diseases resulted in very serious losses no indemnities 

were paid by state or federal authorities to cover losses. 

The development of SPF and SPR shrimp in the US makes interesting reading. While the US was one of the 

first movers into vannamei farming, it suffered a number of serious disease problems. In particular rent 

deformity syndrome (RDS) caused by IHHNV was pervasive. Scientific investigation led to the recognition 

that several other pathogens also limited shrimp production and consequently the US initiated research 

programs to develop SPF stock under rigid biosecurity protocols. Initially, SPF stock was screened for 

IHHNV, protozoa (microsporidians, haplosporidians, and gregarines), and metazoan parasites (larval 

nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes). Later work extended the development of excludable pathogens to 

WSSV, YHV, TSV and a number of other less serious viruses. 

US production has been contracting very rapidly after reaching a peak in 2003, and is now an insignificant 

part of the US aquaculture sector. The main reason has been a combination of intense competition from a 

rapidly expanding, and increasingly efficient Asian industry and a second outbreak of TSV in 2004 in four 

farms in southwest Texas (the first was in 1995). Shrimp mortality ranged from 80-90 percent. This 

outbreak proved that the use of SPF stock alone could not control the challenge of TSV in the United 

States. The outbreak was caused by a different strain to the one eliminated in the Taurus virus resistant 

(TVR) stock and has become established by other methods such as migratory birds or insects, imported 

shrimp, or persons or transport coming onto the farm.

5.3.2 Output (volume and value)

Global marine shrimp production expanded rapidly from 450 million pounds in 2000 to over 5 billion 

pounds in 2010, most of which was produced in Asia. In contrast, US marine shrimp output in 2010 was 3 

million pounds. US farmed shrimp production is valued at under $10 million, although prices have varied 

considerably in recent years. 

Figure 16 below shows the output of the US farmed shrimp industry since 1988. Specific periods are 

identified that relate to disease impact and the development of SPF and SPR stock, and the eventual neardemise of pond farmed shrimp because of international competition. The recent upswing in global shrimp 
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prices has provided some optimism for those with shrimp ponds and local industry observers suggest that 

the decline will be halted in 2011 and 2012 as long as these high prices persist (see Figure 21). 

Figure 16: US farmed shrimp production, in million pounds 

Source, Wyban (to 2003) and Promar (post 2003) 

Some farms have diversified some of their ponds away from shrimp and also grow tilapia and red drum. 

Currently less than a one third of the acres allocated for shrimp farming are in use. Ponds can be returned 

to shrimp production relatively easily. New farms face a major hurdle gaining new permits, unless they are 

zero discharge. 

5.3.3 Number of producers 

There are no more than 15 pond shrimp companies operating in the United States and its territories, with 

85% of the production from five Texas farms. 

In addition, there are a small number of inland RAS systems producing shrimp. These have a very 

checkered history, with press statements on output ambition yet to be achieved. Several have folded, and 

some have been reengineered to try to overcome system problems. Natural Shrimp in Texas has recently 

restarted production after a period adjusting its system and overcoming production problems. Marvesta 

Shrimp Farms in Maryland was under reconstruction during the first nine months in 2010, but has now 

restarted. The Shrimp Farm Market in Michigan is operating on a very small scale selling locally for a short 

period at weekends. Magnolia Shrimp in Kentucky has folded, despite substantial assistance from the 

Commonwealth of Kentucky and the federal government to develop it as a demonstration project. There 

are several other RAS startups that have suffered failure. 

5.3.4 Concentration of ownership 

Currently, marine shrimp farming in the US is a highly concentrated industry. In 2010 five Texas farms 

accounted for roughly 85% of the shrimp produced in the US (about 3 million pounds). Four of those 

accounted for 96% of Texas production and an estimated 80% of US production. The remaining one-half 
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million pounds of shrimp is grown in smaller operations in several states around the US as noted in section 

5.3.5 below. 

5.3.5 Regional distribution of production 

There are five companies along the south coast of Texas that use seawater for their food shrimp ponds 

(Harlingen, Shrimp Farm, San Tung, Bowers, Bowers Valley and St. Martin Seafood). In addition there is 

one pond shrimp farm in Florida (Woods Fisheries), two in Alabama, and very small farms in Hawaii, the 

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Guam and South Carolina. An Arizonan 

company (Desert Sweet Shrimp - using low salinity well water) stopped production but now apparently has 

a new investor and is reportedly going to start up again next year. The Alabama farms are both inland 

farms using low salinity groundwater (Green Prairie and one very small farm). No data was reported for 

Hawaii in 2010. Hawaiian production is largely focused on broodstock and PLs for export. We 

understand that there is little or no production of food shrimp in Hawaii today. 

5.3.6 Markets 

The US shrimp market has five broad shrimp market segments, mainly serviced by imports. A breakdown 

of the composition of the imports is shown in Figure 17. The most important segment is the frozen shellon segment (43%), followed by frozen peeled shrimp (27%) and frozen prepared (16%). Breaded products 

(7%) and various other preparations (1%) make up the remainder. This latter group comprises live shrimp, 

fresh shrimp, dried, salted and canned among other miscellaneous presentations. The US sector is mainly 

focused on the latter category. 

Figure 17: US shrimp imports by product form (million pounds, 2008)

Source: NMFS Fisheries Statistics Division 

Each of these markets differs in character. 

• Frozen shell-on: This, the largest segment is further segmented by nine size groups. The 

size is denominated by the number of headless shrimp or shrimp tails per pound. These size 

groups are grouped into large, medium and small size groups. Competition in all sectors is 

heavily influenced by price and where capture supplies compete. The prices can be very 
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volatile depending on the availability of capture supplies. The larger sized product is more 

easily differentiated and the market can be more stable. 

• Figure 18 below indicates the nature of the premiums paid for the larger products in the US 

market. 

 The large size groups comprise 10, 12, and 15, which are mainly from capture fisheries 

and 16/20 and 21/25 (from aquaculture). These larger shrimp are aimed more at the 

upper end of the market, and here products from India, Indonesia, Bangladesh and 

Vietnam compete. Larger size shrimp have exhibited less price volatility as they are 

selling to upper-end markets. 

 The medium sized products fall into the 26/30, 31/40 and 41/50 sizes. This segment is 

dominated by the Southeast Asian countries and Ecuador. Until very recently, the 

prices in this category have fallen dramatically since the early 2000s. This is a category 

of extreme competition in the US market and some Southeast Asian origins have to 

pay anti-dumping charges. Brazil was at one stage a player in this market, but it largely 

withdrew to focus more on growing its own domestic market. 

 The small sized products include all sizes 51 and over. In this segment there is 

considerable competition between capture and aquaculture origins. Again competition 

is very fierce and prices have plummeted since 2005. 

Figure 18: Shrimp price ($/lb.) by size (end of July 2010) - MX west coast whites

(New York, Average FOB prices, $/lb., as reported by original importers)

Source: Shrimp News International 

• Frozen peeled: This segment is dominated by Asian suppliers such as India, Indonesia, 

Thailand and Vietnam. Most of this segment originates from aquaculture. 

• Frozen prepared and frozen breaded: This segment represents a wide range of 

processed products that offer some value added because of convenience either for food 

service or for consumption in the home. This segment is dominated by Asian suppliers, 
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largely on account of the advantages in labor costs at processing plants. The breaded product 

is limited to smaller sizes and is now a price driven commodity market. 

• Other presentations: These are largely niche markets. Mexico, for example, is the only 

supplier that is well placed to supply some of these markets to neighboring states in the US. 

However, very few Mexican products are sold fresh. US trade data suggests that a number of 

Asian countries send small volumes of fresh shrimp by air.

Most product is sold as frozen shell-on, although the proportion imported that are breaded or in some 

other form of preparation has been increasing steadily (Figure 19).

Figure 19: US Shrimp imports - Volume by form (‘000 pounds, 1995-2008)

Source: NMFS Fisheries Statistics Division

The US consumes roughly 1.5 billion pounds of shrimp annually, and the bulk of supplies are imported. In 

2010 the US imported 1.2 billion pounds of shrimp worth $4.3 billion. US production represents less than 

0.25% of the total volume of US imports. 

Figure 20 illustrates the range of countries supplying United States with a number of shrimp species, the 

vast majority of which will be L. vannamei. Thailand has been the most important supplier, although 

Ecuador, Mexico, Indonesia, Vietnam, China and India are also regular suppliers. 
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Figure 20: US shrimp imports by country and volume (thousand pounds)58

Source: Urner Barry

Across the board the value per pound of imported shrimp increased in 2010 over 2009 and in most cases 

to their highest prices in six years because of strong demand (particularly from China) and a southeast 

Asian shortage (with weather issues in Indonesia) (see Figure 21). This eased the pressure on US shrimp 

producers and industry observers suggested that ponds that had previously been left fallow or used for 

other aquaculture production could be brought back into operation if these prices persist. 

Figure 21: The Urner Barry shrimp price index (composite $/lb)

Source: Urner Barry

 

58

 The headless, shell-on (HLSO) shrimp index is a measure of general conditions in the shrimp market. It 

is not a reflection of any single item. Urner Barry historically tracks all of the market quotations which 

should be consulted for individual items. The shrimp index is calculated using an average of Urner Barry 

market quotations; additionally the quotes are weighted based on the import volume of each count size. 

Shell-on shrimp imports from the Black Tiger producing countries and White producing countries of 

Thailand and Indonesia have been adjusted to reflect those countries’ significant shift in production from 

Black Tiger to L. vannamei. Shrimp imports from other countries are divided into either Black Tiger or 

White producing countries.
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The value of imports per pound increased by 23% for India and 20% for Mexico last year, while China and 

Thailand, much larger producers, only experienced a 6-7% increase. The average increase was 15% or 

$0.47 per pound. Table 10 below illustrates the import value per pound for the major suppliers. Mexico is 

relatively expensive, limiting their competitiveness in recent years, while Vietnam and India tend to 

produce larger giant shrimp that sell at a premium. 

Table 10: US unit value of shrimp imports by country($/lb)

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Thailand 2.76 2.99 2.98 3.18 3.19 3.38

Ecuador 2.49 2.48 2.37 2.74 2.43 2.84

Mexico 5.17 4.13 4.01 4.47 3.67 4.39

Indonesia 3.22 3.32 3.44 3.41 3.22 3.66

Vietnam 4.67 5.26 5.30 4.52 4.11 4.81

China 2.06 2.20 2.21 2.37 2.42 2.59

India 3.98 4.18 4.22 4.21 3.79 4.65

Other 2.97 3.09 2.97 2.96 2.71 3.10

Total 3.13 3.17 3.18 3.29 3.10 3.47

Source: Urner Barry

There are many tariffs and other trade-impacting actions affecting trade in shrimp. In particular, countries 

with domestic shrimp production and processing industries have found various ways to protect vulnerable 

domestic production from foreign competition. Market access has been restricted for a number of 

reasons including unfair pricing, food safety, environmental, child labor, etc. There has been pressure from 

US domestic suppliers to restrict market access. As a result, anti-dumping duties have been imposed on a 

number of farmed shrimp competitors (e.g. Thailand, India, Ecuador, Vietnam and China) and on Mexican 

captured shrimp59. As a result some US farms have received the benefit of Trade Adjustment Assistance 

payments. As the above figures suggest, these measures have had little effect.

Some large Texas producers sell shrimp to processors that then trade it into frozen product markets. This 

market is highly competitive. Many farmers sell to local markets and restaurants during the main harvest

period that runs from August to October. In Texas, the volume sold during the harvest period is too large 

for local markets and hence the frozen market is the only viable option. 

There are also specialty markets for shrimp among upscale retailers. For example, Wegmans, an upscale 

grocery store chain with more than 70 locations, is currently looking for a new supplier because their 

‘green’ supplier in Belize has recently closed down. There is also an organic market that will buy shrimp at 

a premium. Thus, US growers seek out niche markets to protect themselves from intense overseas 

competition. 

 

59

 The US lowered its anti-dumping duty on Thai shrimp in early August 2011(from 1.11-4.39% to 0.41-

0.73%). The reduction came after the World Trade Organization’s ruling that the US was breaching the 

trade body's regulation on calculation of duties against unfair prices. This was the fifth time that the US has 

reduced the duty since the WTO ruling. This is now less than the duty on Indian imports, one of 

Thailand’s main competitors. 
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5.3.7 Price data 

Regular price data are available on shrimp as they are widely traded in volume and easily described. The 

most comprehensive source is Urner Barry’s Comtell online source. This quotes ex-Warehouse, East or 

West Coast prices for many origins and counts per pound (varying from 2-3 to 131-150) and either ‘shellon, headless’ or ‘peeled, headless and finished count’. There is also information on wild and farm raised. 

There is no data published on US origin farm-raised. 

There is also data available from the Fulton’s Fish Market Weekly Price, New York Frozen Prices. 

Currently selling prices, ex-warehouse New York as reported by receivers, are available for shrimp peeled 

and undeveined-Gulf #5 and shrimp headless, shell-on Gulf white and brown. 

Some of the US farmed shrimp producers are reported to be selling all or part of their production in local 

or specialty markets. These will differ regionally and may not be correlated with the quoted prices. 

5.3.8 Availability of production history and other data 

There is limited industry data available on the marine shrimp industry in the US. The Texas Aquaculture 

Association (TAA) regularly produces industry statistics identifying Texas producers by size and intensity of 

production. There are some data describing the extent to which performance varies by farm, and the TAA 

has recently posted data that illustrates the extent to which production can vary by pond using a Florida 

farm as an example (see Section 4.3.5 and Table 11). The data supplied illustrates substantial variations in 

survivability and performance by farm and pond. Low DO levels were identified as the key reason for low 

survivability in the ponds 2 and 5 on the Florida farm. The farm has since introduced continuous DO 

monitoring to be able to combat these low levels with aeration. 

Table 11: Individual pond production summary from a Florida farm 

Pond #

1 2 3 4 5 6

Harvest (pounds) 17,127 11,420 19,439 17,133 6,963 18,286

Pounds/Acre 4,472 2,884 4,368 4,294 1,612 3,993

Size (grams) 22.74 29.13 23.37 24.86 23.21 20.34

Count 19.95 15.57 19.41 18.25 19.54 22.30

Survival 56.2% 26.0% 55.1% 48.6% 19.9% 58.5%

FCR 1.46 2.14 1.33 1.46 3.72 1.49

Source: G Treece, Texas Aquaculture Association.

Survivability is reported to average around 50% in general, although there is substantial variation, and Thai 

producers claim higher rates. 

Industry observers in Texas have noted that production yields have declined in recent years, although the 

reasons are unknown. 

There is little data that provides an accurate picture of production costs. Feed is regularly reported as 50 

to 70 per cent of total costs, although different levels of intensity demand different levels of feeding. 

Costs per pound in the United States tend to increase with greater stocking intensity as more feed is 
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required and energy costs will be higher because of a higher demand for aeration. Clearly the system 

adopted will depend on the location, capital investment, and cost of key inputs such as feed, PL, labor, fuel, 

and energy. 

5.3.9 Biology 

The whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is a marine crustacean belonging to the order Decapoda and the 

family Penaeidae. The body is translucent, with bluish green pigment reflecting light. L. vannamei is 

omnivorous, although it is often characterized as carnivorous and requires a high-protein diet. The 

whiteleg shrimp is native to the tropical Eastern Pacific coast extending from Sonora in Mexico to southern 

Ecuador. Here, water temperatures rarely fall below 20°C. US temperatures fall outside that level, 

meaning that production is confined to a production cycle that is limited to the warmer months. Spawning 

takes place in the open ocean, and then the PLs move inshore to spend their juvenile, adolescent and subadult stages in coastal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas before moving out again into the ocean to

depths of several hundred feet when they are mature. In the wild both males and females mature at 6–7 

months, although this is modified by domestication and breeding for commercial aquaculture. 

Nauplii live on their yolk reserves and then in their larval stages live on phytoplankton and zooplankton, 

and are carried towards the shore by tidal currents. After molting (5 days), PL move inshore and begin 

feeding on dead organic material, worms, bivalves and crustaceans as they mature to adulthood. They can 

grow to be nine inches in length. Whiteleg shrimp are very sensitive to water temperature and salinity. 

Ideal aquaculture conditions are water temperatures between 28-30 degrees centigrade and salinity of 33-

40 ppt (parts per thousand). Juveniles are susceptible to very low salinities and to high temperatures in the 

wild. In culture, great care must be taken when raising PLs to reduce salinity slowly to that of the eventual 

pond salinity. 

There are several biological factors that make Litopenaeus vannamei ideal for aquaculture. First, their

nutritional requirements are modest compared with most other species of shrimp. They can be fed on 

lower protein feeds (which reduces feed costs and the potential bacterial load on the pond environment). 

In addition, as a result of domestication and selective breeding, these shrimp grow well in densely stocked 

systems and maintain reasonably uniform size. On the other hand whiteleg shrimp are very vulnerable to 

serious diseases, especially when farmed in intensive systems. Indeed, shrimp would not have been a 

successful farmed product and surpassed L. monodon without major breakthroughs in shrimp genetics and 

breeding. 

5.3.10 Production system 

Broodstock genetics is important with all aquaculture production. Getting high quality selections of SPF or 

SPR PLs from a reputable hatchery applying superior genetics is critical for efficient shrimp production and 

reduction of disease risks. One broodstock facility is in Texas and others are in Hawaii. 

In the hatcheries, the eggs are placed in hatching tanks for 12-18 hours. There is a fifty per cent survival 

rate of seed stock. There are four larvae stages. All four of these stages take place in larval rearing tanks. 

When the shrimp reach 1-3 grams in size they are transferred to ponds or tanks. This is the size and stage 

at which most aquaculture farmers receive their shrimp stock. Unlike other forms of aquaculture, it is less 

common for companies to have their own hatcheries. The operation of shrimp hatcheries is a specialist 

activity involving expensive investment in the facilities and expertise to supervise breeding and maintain 
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high levels of biosecurity. Some US shrimp hatcheries have been exporters of stock to Asia and Central 

and South America for many years. 

Once the shrimp have been transferred to their grow-out location it will take four to six months in 

extensive ponds or three to five months in intensive tank systems until they reach harvest weight. 

There are several different ways of producing shrimp in ponds. The most important distinction is in terms 

of their stocking intensity. The average size of Texan ponds is very large, often tens of acres in area. 

None of the US pond systems fall into the most intensive systems (see below). 

Semi-intensive systems are ponds that have biomass of less than 4,000 kg per hectare and stocking 

densities of 10-40 PL per square meter. There is regular water exchange through a pump, but little 

aeration. The ponds may be fertilized and the shrimp feed on natural food in the water with regular feed 

supplementation. 

More intensive systems rely on higher stocking rates and more feed. The ponds are stocked at densities of 

40-100 PL per square meter and have biomass greater than 4,000 kg per acre. There is heavy aeration to 

provide the necessary water circulation and oxygenation. Higher intensities involve much higher yields, 

although costs are higher and very high management standards are required. Two of the Texas farms 

operate levels of intensity that can be categorized as intensive, although not very intensive. 

The amount of water required to grow marine shrimp has also been declining, largely due to pressure for 

farms to reduce their environmental footprint in adjacent coastal regions. Technology to enable the reuse 

or recirculation of water has resulted in a shift away from flow-through systems, which were popular in the 

1990s. These systems required as much as 4,500 gallons of water to produce one pound of shrimp. 

However, now water exchange has been significantly reduced, and is largely required to offset evaporation. 

On most Texas farms daily exchange will not exceed 3%, with new technologies promising zero exchange. 

Some mention should be made of RAS systems. These are termed super-intensive and as with all RAS 

systems they rely on high levels of management, high stocking rates, and high growth rates with zero (or 

near-zero) discharge of waste water. The grow-out period is reduced and several crops can be obtained 

per year (three to four). So far none of these systems have achieved significant success. They are 

expensive to install and require very high levels of management and strong biosecurity. 

5.3.11 Length of production cycle 

In the US the semi-intensive and intensive systems involve placement of the PLs in ponds when the water 

temperature reaches 24°C (usually late May to early June, meaning that PLs are stocked in March). The 

grow-out period takes approximately 120 to 180 days. Harvest takes place between late August and 

October with the end date hastened if cold temperatures are threatened. In Texas all the shrimp must be 

harvested before the end of October. No overwintering is possible and the US is normally limited to one 

crop per year, although some may take two short crops to supply very small product. In tropical areas, 

production is available over a much longer period. RAS systems allow continuous production with 

control over water temperature. 
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5.3.12 Key factors affecting success 

Shrimp production in Thailand is at the leading edge in terms of the application of a science-based industry. 

They have invested heavily in scientific support and an education campaign to improve productivity in their 

small intensive ponds. The threat of viral diseases (see Section 5.3.1) means that it is essential to use 

genetically improved SPF and SPR PLs, to implement intensive biosecurity measures and to reduce water 

exchange that might introduce disease from outside the farm. Also, intensive systems rely on high quality 

dense feeds and carefully controlled feeding, engineering that can efficiently maintain oxygen levels, water 

quality, emergency systems back-up and removal of waste, and the maintenance of microbial communities 

to cycle wastes and increase overall feed conversion rate. These bacteria assimilate nitrogen compounds 

and do not contribute to variations in DO. 

Introducing efficiencies in genetics, hatcheries, controlled pond systems and the systemization of 

management has been the basis of success. This has seen an increase in survivability, reduced pond failures 

and had a major impact on growth rate. McIntosh (2011), a manager of one of the leading Thai companies, 

emphasizes the critical role played by genetics. He reports that in Thailand in 2004 it took 128 days to 

reach 25 grams, while today that weight is reached in between 70 and 80 days. He also reports a feed 

conversion rate dropping from 1.6 to 1.3 over the last 4 years and falling energy costs per kg of output.

As in most animal production, the cost of feed is a large percentage of the total variable costs. Feed costs 

for shrimp are continuing to increase and are higher in the US than in Asia. In 2008 they increased by 25%. 

Even with an improved FCR, feed is still a large portion of all operational costs. 

5.3.13 Perils

The list of perils affecting shrimp resembles those for pond culture of warm water finfish with one major 

exception. Viral diseases represent a major threat and have continued to present problems, although 

these are reduced with the stocking of SPF and SPR PLs. The leading viral challenges in the US have been 

from WSSV, TSV, YHV, and IHHNV, each of which have accumulated billions of dollars of losses to the 

industry. WSSV is considered to be the most lethal, sometimes accounting for 100% mortality. Also, 

there are some other minor viruses such as baculo virus that do not impact production seriously. The US

Marine Shrimp Farming Program60 (USMSFP) was developed to fight these diseases and its work resulted in 

the SPF and SPR broodstock and PLs. 

Disease transmission in the US has been associated with waste from processing, bird depredation, and 

infected post-larvae. TSV is thought to have been transmitted by birds infected by feeding on diseased 

shrimp. Some viruses can survive in a bird’s digestive tract and be passed in its feces. 

However, shrimp are also known to be vulnerable to a range of pathogens including bacterial, fungal,

rickettsial, protozoan and metazoan infections. Various water treatments based on formalin are available 

to deal with some protozoan parasites, although the size of the pond may limit the efficacy of this. Apart 

from this and methanesulphate (an anesthetic during live transport), no other drugs are permitted. 

Oxytetracycline has been used in other species as part of a medicated feed treatment for bacterial 

diseases. Protracted studies have not cleared it for shrimp, but since 2011 it can be used under 

 

60

 This program has been wound up in 2011 as US shrimp production has contracted. 
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supervision as part of a study under the auspices of the US Fish and Wildlife Service’s Aquatic Animal Drug 

Approval Partnership Program. Some are hopeful that probiotic bacteria may be identified that can be 

used in the management of bacterial diseases such as vibrio. Other perils may be associated with poor 

nutrition, feed supply contamination, algal blooms, and toxins. 

US shrimp farmers have excellent facilities available for disease diagnosis. The Aquaculture Pathology 

Laboratory at the University of Arizona is recognized internationally for its shrimp disease diagnostic and 

certification services and is the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) reference laboratory for shrimp 

pathogens for North America.

A rapid change in water parameters, particularly dissolved oxygen, can cause serious losses (levels of 5 to 

15 are essential). As with other aquaculture, close monitoring of conditions and immediate remedial action 

is required to prevent losses. Again the size of some ponds in Texas may limit the extent to which some 

water quality treatments are possible. The threat of bacterial and fungal diseases can be reduced with 

good management practices. This includes fallowing and cleaning ponds between use, reducing water 

exchange, and good biosecurity. 

Predators can be a problem, particularly in large ponds where bird predation cannot be limited by netting. 

Production is vulnerable to a range of catastrophic weather and weather related events. Death will occur 

if water temperatures fall to the very low 20 °C. Hurricane, tornado, and floods can have devastating 

effects. It is also subject to disruption of electrical supply or the loss of other key inputs. 

5.3.14 Classification of perils

The risk of losses from all major diseases can be reduced through good management practices such as 

biosecurity, including the purchase of SPF/SPR PLs, pond and water management, and predator control. 

Those that are subject to management practices cannot be insured. 

There is a risk of novel unknown diseases as for all farmed species. We conclude that only these unknown 

diseases and naturally occurring events are insurable. The coverage of losses where mandatory 

depopulation is required to restore industry confidence should be the subject of federal government 

indemnity schemes. No indemnity is available to the shrimp industry as other methods of control are 

considered adequate. 

5.3.15 Crop insurance issues

Based on our review, we do not believe that credible data exists to build a rating program for an insurance 

program for aquaculture. We also believe that the overall number of farming operations for shrimp is too 

small to create a federal insurance program specifically to cover a few growers who may or may not 

purchase the insurance. 

• Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) production is a very small industry that faces ongoing 

competitive threat. The industry has highly concentrated ownership. There is unlikely to be 

enough interest for the risk to be spread over an acceptable number of insureds and 

geographic areas.
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• The industry is under considerable economic pressure. We doubt that there would be a 

willingness to pay the premiums required to cover an industry with high production risks. 

• The shrimp industry is vulnerable to many diseases and other perils and is a risky operation. 

Losses are large and regularly incurred. We understand that no shrimp industry is insured 

globally because of the very high risks. The Thai industry has recently tried to combine the 

efforts of the Thai government (to cover systemic risks), a proposed mutual insurance 

company, and the agricultural reinsurance industry to develop an insurance institutional 

framework for shrimp. That is in process. The Thai industry is considerably more advanced 

in terms of technologies than the US industry. 

• There is a lack of data essential for actuarial assessment. For example, there is no data 

describing the incidence of disease or other perils, the cause of the low survival rate, or 

prices when sold locally. There are also no data adequately describing individual production 

variability. This lack of data inevitably results in adverse selection and the identification of 

rates that are likely to be much higher than the industry can pay. 

• There is likely to be difficulty identifying the size of loss in ponds as there are no accurate 

methods for determining losses (see Section 4.3.2). Identification of inventory and the 

volume lost at a specific point in time would be challenging. Proper records should be kept, 

because if there is a loss, data is needed to prove juveniles entered into ponds, feed used, 

water temperatures, feed conversion results, growth rate, harvest times, what is being 

harvested, mortality, and all water management practices. It is difficult to identify standard 

growth rates or mortalities to assess inventory because of the range of conditions and 

management practices under which shrimp are grown. 

• Most perils are closely associated with the quality of management. Management affects the 

design and servicing of the pond, the quality of the water, the treatment of diseases or 

parasites, and biosecurity. Thus, there is danger of moral hazard, and adverse selection. 

• Shrimp produced in RAS is extremely risky as entrepreneurs struggle to reproduce the 

theoretical benefits in a commercial environment. The small RAS shrimp sector is very 

diverse. The absence of sound statistical description of the character and experience of these 

systems poses serious challenges in actuarial analysis. The determination of rates will include 

a factor that takes account of the poor descriptive data. Consequently, premiums are likely 

to be too high for an industry under substantial pressure already. 

5.4 Red drum (also redfish - Sciaenops ocellatus)

Red drum are native to the Gulf of Mexico and southern Atlantic US states. They are a popular sport fish 

as well as being commercially caught. Their numbers in the wild have been threatened in past years by 

over fishing. This prompted the development of replenishment programs for them, notably in Texas 

where millions of juveniles have been released from hatcheries into the sea. 61 Hatchery methods use eggs 

taken from captive red drum broodstock held in tanks, that on hatching are released into salt water ponds 

 

61 http://www.lib.noaa.gov/retiredsites/japan/aquaculture/report22/mceachro.html
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Section 5: Brief profile of each species

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in which natural plankton species have been encouraged to bloom and which provide food for the newly 

hatched larvae. The fish are then grown for about 30 days until they reach 30mm in length before being 

released into the Gulf of Mexico.

Commercial farming of red drum in the US uses similar pond production methods as for the hatchery, 

except that the ponds are larger and the fish are weaned from live food growing naturally in the ponds to 

dry pelleted feed. This increases the weight of fish that can be grown in a given area. Commercial farm 

ponds are usually about 5 acres in area and use either bay water or saline ground water as their water 

supply. 

In 2009/10, there were five commercial red drum farms in Texas with 710 acres of pond in total with 

about 600 acres of grow-out ponds. Production can reach up to 10,000 lbs per acre per grow-out cycle 

with the time taken to reach market size of 1.5 lbs to 3.0 lbs being 11 – 18 months. 

Total annual production was estimated by industry observers at 2.5 million pounds in 2010, with a farm 

gate market value of about $7 million (cited in Treece, 2011). Treece estimated that production was 4 

million lbs in 2008 with a farm gate value of $9.6 million.

The farm gate price has varied between $2.40/lb to $3.15/lb in the past three years and is influenced by the 

price of wild-caught red drum and also imports from China where red drum are farmed in coastal net 

pens. The price has come down from a high of about $4.00/lb some years ago, which encouraged the start 

of this aquaculture industry. However, lower prices and increased costs for feed and fuel in recent years 

have created difficulty for the industry and are probably the main cause of the apparent fall off in 

production. Additional difficulties are created by:

• Toxic marine plankton (dinoflagellate) blooms in the ponds, which kill fish and which have 

reportedly been the reason that several brackish water farms have closed.

• A regulatory climate that makes it difficult or impossible for farms to expand if they want to, 

the only option being to buy existing shrimp farms that are already permitted, or for the 

shrimp farms themselves to switch production to red fish.

• A fillet yield from Red Drum (edible meat recovery) of only 28%. This is low compared to 

most fish and means that at a farm gate price of $3.00/lb, the cost of the fillet is $10.70/lb 

before processing, packaging and distribution costs. This makes it an expensive fish by 

comparison to other species.

Under present circumstances, the outlook for the industry does not look encouraging and it is hard to see 

how significant expansion is likely.

5.5 Amberjack (yellowtail or kampachi - Seriola rivoliana) and moi (Polydactylus 

sexfilis)

These species are considered together because they have both been the subject of new aquaculture 

businesses in Hawaii that have sought to develop the concept of open ocean aquaculture where net pens 

are deployed that are designed for use in the open sea. Often this means that the net pens are designed to 

be able to submerge in order to avoid rough weather, or to operate in a permanently submerged state. 
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Two companies have pioneered this development – Cates International Inc, now Hukilau Farms, and Kona 

Blue Water Farms Inc. Both began using a design of net pen called a SeaStation®, but the latter is now 

switching to a heavy-duty floating collar design.

Both of these species are native to Hawaii waters. This is a critical issue as potential escapes are a major 

concern. None of the juveniles used in the enterprises have been the subject of intensive breeding or 

selection programs, consequently, there is substantial potential for improved productivity.

Both companies have experienced a somewhat turbulent development and currently both are in the 

process of restructuring and/or re-equipping their sites. When taken together at their peak production, 

their combined production was probably nearly 1,000 metric tons62 but, presently, it is much less than this. 

Therefore, this new industry is still in its formative stages and its rate of growth is difficult to forecast. In 

July 2011 new Hawaiian state regulations for aquaculture have been enacted, providing greater incentive 

for ocean and land-based aquaculture.63 Currently it is difficult to assess the extent to which this will 

promote the growth of offshore aquaculture within state waters. The potential is substantial because of 

the vast amount of sea area available to farm if the technology becomes reliable and the concept is 

applicable to other marine species in all other US coastal states. From an insurance point of view, the risks 

comparable to salmon farming and therefore quite well understood, albeit with new challenges related to 

the open water location of the farms and the unknowns of starting to farm new species. So, if and when 

these challenges are overcome, there is potential for rapid, large-scale development.

5.6 Summer flounder (Palalychthis dentatus) and sea bream (Sparus aurata)

Both of these fish species are being produced by a company called Local Ocean in Greenport NY in its 

recirculated aquaculture system (RAS) with a combined volume of 200,000 pounds in 2010, which is 

forecast to increase sharply in the next two years. Local Ocean is the only US company producing these 

species presently and describes its approach to aquaculture on its website as follows: 

"To date, in Greenport, New York, we have built and operate the world’s first (and only) 

commercial zero-discharge 100% recirculating aquaculture system. In essence, our facility is a 

controlled and self-balancing micro-ecosystem where we are able to grow a variety of saltwater 

fish wherever there is a local market." 

It has plans to expand production to California and grow four other species - Amberjack, White sea bass, 

Black sea bass and European sea bass. The sea bream it is producing now is also a European species.

In May 2011, one of the partners in the company filed a lawsuit against the company for breach of patent. 

GFA (Grow Fish Anywhere) is an Israeli company backed by international venture capital funds and it 

claims that the patent belongs to its founder, a professor at Hebrew University, Jerusalem. The other 

partners have counter-sued and the issue is being fought out in a Tel Aviv court. 

 

62 Estimate by John Forster.

63

 However, summing up the level of resistance to offshore aquaculture, Food & Water Watch and 

Hawaiian environmental group KAHEA filed a lawsuit against the federal agencies that had granted Kona 

Blue the first commercial offshore aquaculture permit issued in the United States on July 6, 2011. They 

allege that the federal government lacked the authority to grant the permit and failed to adequately assess 

the environmental impacts of the company’s offshore aquaculture operations as required under federal law.

(Seafood news, August 4, 2011)
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Section 6: Feasibility recommendations 

116

SECTION 6: FEASIBILITY RECOMMENDATIONS 

6.1 Criteria for assessing RMA insurance plan feasibility 

6.1.1 Aquaculture production systems and crop insurance 

Aquaculture production systems fall into four broad categories: ponds, raceways (where water flows 

through containment channels), recirculating systems (RAS, usually in tanks or containment structures with 

engineering to circulate water and manage its quality), and net cages (either in lakes or in sheltered inshore 

marine locations). 

The key issues relating to crop insurance are primarily influenced by the production system, despite some 

species differences. In general, aquaculture production of individual species favors one production system 

rather than another, although in some species there is the option to use alternative production systems. 

Economics and location may both play a part in deciding the production system to adopt. For example, 

raceway systems are restricted to areas where there are large volumes of good quality water. Indoor 

recirculating systems involve higher levels of investment costs, but offer the opportunity of higher revenue 

from year-round production. Some species can only be produced in warm water and hence their 

production is limited in locations that are more northerly unless there is heating. 

Management is critical in all aquaculture as each species demands healthy initial stock, specific water 

conditions, careful attention to density of stocking, appropriate feed and feed routines, and consideration 

of fish health. Great care has to be taken to ensure that water containment structures are appropriately 

prepared for production and that the engineering provides a suitable water environment. Biosecurity 

measures must be strict to prevent disease, and measures must be taken to prevent predation. 

Each of the species we have examined feature key management considerations. Failure to adhere to any of 

the basics mentioned above can result in losses. As many farmed species are highly sensitive to their 

environment, these losses can be substantial. It is essential that the management of the operation is 

appropriate for the specific species. 

6.1.2 Key crop insurance issues 

Key features of relevance to developing insurance plans are considered below. In Section 6.2 we review 

each of these issues for the two species under study in this report. 

• The size of the industry: A small industry provides few opportunities to group risks or to 

spread risks across a wide range of industry participants. A small industry offers lower 

revenue opportunities for AIPs, especially if it is an industry in which they have relatively little 

experience and the costs of supporting the products are high. 

• The structure of the industry: A heterogeneous industry also reduces the opportunity to 

spread risks among industry participants. This heterogeneity may be introduced by either 

differences in the nature of the production systems because of lack of regional concentration 

or differences in the engineering of production systems. Vertical integration may also be an 

important feature as vertically integrated companies have the ability to spread some risks 

along the links in the value chain that they own. A sector with highly concentrated ownership 
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Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

117

could also be a difficult one for RMA to support given so few operations would benefit from 

the US government program.

• The current and anticipated future status of the industry: An industry under 

significant pressure and with poor prospects for growth is rarely a good candidate for a new 

risk management product. The opportunities for a profitable product are reduced and, if this 

is a new insurance market, the incentive to invest in support services is reduced. This is an 

important constraint if the industry is small and regionally dispersed. 

• The availability of price information: If revenue insurance is to be provided, it is critical 

that an appropriate price is identified to serve as a base from which to measure liability and 

indemnity. The food products of aquaculture are sold in many forms (e.g. whole head-on, 

head off, fileted, fresh, on ice, frozen, live) and delivered to several different markets. It is 

essential that price data reflect the form in which the farmed product is sold and facilitate the 

calculation of the price at the farm gate (or possibly at a nearby processing location). These 

prices should be available consistently from a reliable and reputable source and they should 

be defined consistently over a suitable period. 

• Availability of production history:

 The availability of data that identify the performance of a species in a 

particular production system: These data should identify yields, losses, and cause 

of loss over a number of years. Data should be representative of species production 

in a particular system and should clearly identify the period of production (as 

production of some species extends over more than one year). To support sound 

rating and pricing it should reveal any differences among operations of different size,

configuration, and location.

 The availability of data that indicate likely costs of production and revenue 

from the aquaculture enterprise: The availability of cost of production and 

revenue information provides a basis for assessing the likely market size for an 

insurance product. Representative cost of production data will vary substantially 

among different farm configurations, locations, systems, and markets serviced. 

Representative data may be available where production of a species is regionally 

concentrated and where production systems are similar. In practice, this data is only 

available currently for catfish. Trout, the other important freshwater species with 

significant regional concentration has less reliable cost of production data as 

companies seek to protect their competitive position. Ideally, data on costs of 

production are required for each of the identifiable stages of production.

 The incidence of perils that might result in loss: Data on the frequency of 

perils resulting in loss are required. These data are useful for the actuarial assessment 

of the insurance program, although it is only possible to isolate the impact of some 

perils. Final production is jointly determined by a host of different factors and the 

impact is captured in the farm enterprise production history. 

 The extent to which risks of loss can be allocated to different stages of 

production: The different stages of production may involve different levels of risk 
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and clear classification of these stages may assist in developing different insurance 

coverage for each of these stages.

• The perils that might result in loss: These should be identified together with the 

management actions that might prevent or mitigate any loss. Those perils that influence the 

level of losses but cannot be prevented or controlled need to be carefully identified. 

• The ease with which the scale of losses can be identified: Aquaculture losses occur 

within containment structures that contain water. This introduces serious challenges when 

identifying the inventory at any point in time and the scale of loss. Some systems are more 

amenable to assessment of losses than others are. Some perils result in more easily assessed 

losses than others. The method of loss assessment has to take account of the increase in 

biomass with time. In addition, movements in and out of the containment structure have to 

be measured and accounted for as well as deaths (normal mortality and culls), and escapes (in 

net cage systems). Finally, measurement of inventory and losses is challenging when multiyear 

production is a characteristic of the species and when mixing of batches occurs.

• The perils must result in acute loss: Fish are subject to many potential perils and some 

perils may impact performance only slightly. This results in major difficulties in assessing loss. 

Acute losses are more easily identified and measured than marginal losses. 

• The ease of determining the cause of loss: As many losses may be the result of poor 

management practice, it is essential that the cause of loss can be accurately and rapidly 

determined and related to an insured peril. 

• The extent to which management affects the impact of perils and losses: As noted 

above, management is a critical factor affecting the impact of various perils. Third party 

certification of good management practice is unavailable, although recently introduced 

schemes to certify responsible management are becoming more prevalent within the industry. 

However, this certification relates to practices that impact the environment and may preclude 

some practices that reduce losses (for example, the use of some fish health products). 

• The risk of moral hazard: Moral hazard is a challenge in designing any crop insurance 

product. There are many potential sources of moral hazard to consider in developing 

aquaculture crop insurance. In particular, it is difficult to identify inventory and measure 

losses in aquaculture, and crop insurance policies must rely on farmers’ own assessment of 

these. The risk of moral hazard in assessing the value of the loss is reduced by using publicly 

quoted and reliable price estimates. Other potential sources of moral hazard include 

misreporting of parameters such as initial stock, movements of production, feed use, and 

mortality or culling losses in support of the inventory assessment. 

• The risk of adverse selection: The absence of comprehensive data that describe the 

population of aquaculture producers and their characteristics can result in a greater risk of 

adverse selection. Rating and pricing procedures based on poor quality or absent data might 

provide incentive for less proficient aquaculture managers to participate in an insurance plan 

with a view to collecting indemnities.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

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119

• The availability of other risk management tools that might make an RMA plan 

redundant: 

 A number of federal or state funded emergency programs may offer some 

compensation for losses. There have been several that have included specific losses to 

the aquaculture sector. Some current RMA programs such as AGR-Lite are 

available for aquaculture producers, although the various restrictions have limited use 

to a handful of operations. AGR or AGR-Lite is available for freshwater fish although 

AGR has a 35% livestock limitation that would preclude most aquacultural operations. 

AGR-Lite is not available in Arkansas, Louisiana or Mississippi, but is available in 

Alabama and Idaho. Various emergency measures have provided assistance to the 

aquaculture sector. 

 Good management practice: In addition, good management practice and sound 

design of the production system can reduce the risk of loss. For example, good 

management practice reduces stress and disease. Also, good management reduces the 

risk of electricity outage or disruption of the supply of oxygen by the purchase of 

generators and adequate backup stocks of essential inputs (such as oxygen, filters, 

critical pump accessories, etc.) and ensures disciplined application of biosecurity 

measures. 

 Futures markets: The only futures market available to handle price risk for 

aquaculture products is a Norwegian market trading salmon price indices. This market 

is largely used by North European salmon exporters and offer few hedging 

opportunities to the small US salmon industry. 

 Other farm enterprises: The risks associated with aquaculture production are also 

reduced if aquaculture represents a relatively small proportion of the total farm costs 

and revenue. This information is very difficult to establish for the aquaculture sector.

 The availability and use of private insurance: Aquaculture insurance is available 

from private sources in several different countries for commodity species. The larger 

aquaculture operations can take advantage of private insurance provided on a 

business-by-business basis. However, many aquaculture operations producing species 

that have not been targeted by the international insurance industry have no private 

insurance available. 

• The likely level of demand and willingness to pay appropriate premiums: The likely 

level of demand and willingness to pay is very difficult to assess. Of critical importance here is 

the level of premium in relation to the revenue of the enterprise and the cost of production, 

and the relative importance of aquaculture to the business. For much of aquaculture there 

are no relevant and representative cost of production and revenue data.

• The definition of units of production: In the previous review of aquaculture feasibility, a 

unit was defined as ‘all the insurable containment structures of (the farm raised species) in the 

county in which you have a share on the date coverage begins for the crop year”. This 

definition would seem appropriate for much of aquaculture production, although it might 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

120

need reconsideration in the case of marine net cage production of salmon as the definition of 

county boundaries in coastal locations might be questioned. 

• The availability of insurance industry expertise and resources to support an RMA 

plan for a specific species and production system: Aquaculture insurance products 

may demand different types of support than agricultural or horticultural crop products. 

Reports of losses will require rapid attention to ensure that the cause of loss is adequately 

identified and linked to the level of loss. Appropriate cause of loss identification procedures 

must be available and results must be reported promptly. Loss measurement will require a 

new set of skills to interpret the relevant loss adjustment standards. 

6.2 Summary of conclusions by species

The table below reviews each of these key crop insurance issues for the two species under review. We 

assess the extent to which each of the issues considered either constrains () or supports () the viability

of a species plan. In some cases, it is difficult to provide a clear answer as some factors contribute to 

viability, and others do not. In these cases, the questions raised contribute to doubtful viability.

Constraint

 Major – contributing to no viability

? Indeterminate – contributing to doubtful viability

 Minor – suggesting viability
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

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121

Salmon Shrimp Comment

The size of the 

industry  

Salmon is estimated to be the second most important farmed species in the United 

States with a 2010 value of $150 million. This value varies considerably with the 

fluctuations in the annual average market price. The value of shrimp production is 

estimated to be less than $10 million, less than half of the figure recorded in the 2005 

agriculture and horticultural crop categories identified in the Crop Values 2010 report 

issued by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), had a value of less than 

$10 million. There are several other species in saltwater aquaculture production in the 

United States but none have significant levels of production.

The structure of 

the industry  

The ownership of the salmon industry is highly concentrated with only two 

international players operating all the farms off the coast of Maine and Washington. 

One of these is Canadian with operations in Canada, Chile, southern Europe and the 

United States. The other is a US-based venture capital company with seafood and 

aquaculture interests in various countries. 

The shrimp industry (five players in Texas, accounting for 85% of US production) 

comprises a very small number of operations with different levels of intensity of 

production and hence very different risks. In addition, there are a small number (we 

estimate 5 or 6 at most) operating shrimp production in RAS. RAS shrimp production 

has witnessed several business failures as investors have failed to identify the potential 

risks of this relatively new method of shrimp culture. 

The current and 

anticipated future 

status of the 

industry

? 

Both shrimp and salmon are threatened by international competition. While they are 

both benefiting from relatively high current prices, the prospects of growth are limited, 

particularly in the shrimp sector, where basic cost competitiveness is poor compared 

with Asian producers in tropical areas.

The availability of 

price information ? 

Publicly available and reasonably representative price information is available for 

salmon, and shrimp. However, in both these cases, there are no publicly quoted prices 

for domestic production, although proxies are available for those products that are 

sold into commodity markets. There are regular published farmed salmon and shrimp 

prices published for all leading import origins. Some shrimp producers (both pond and 

RAS) sell into local markets for which there are no regular price quotations. 

Availability of 

industrial 

production history

 ?

There are only very broad brush industry level data describing production. In the case 

of the salmon industry, this data is assembled by the states of Washington and Maine. 

There are no data that describe the production record of individual units. As there are 

only two companies involved, these data are commercially sensitive. Some data are 

assembled to describe the Texas shrimp industry and its five pond-based participants. 

These reveal major farm differences in survivability. Other data suggest high pond 

performance variability and low survivability. There is no information on the reasons 

for these differences. Production history from shrimp raised in RAS systems is not 

available as this production system is relatively new and still at a developmental stage. 

No meaningful individual farm production history is available for salmon or shrimp to 

provide an indication of the variability in either production or mortality risk.

Availability of 

variability of 

individual 

performance or 

practices

 ?

The availability of 

representative 

data that identify 

the performance of 

a species in a 

particular 

production system

? ?

The limited number of salmon operators restricts the availability of data. Proxy data 

for salmon are available from other major Atlantic salmon production areas (e.g. British 

Columbia), although there are important differences between Pacific and Atlantic coast 

conditions. There are numerous reviews of salmon production in Norwegian fjords 

and in Scotland. There are some data available for shrimp from irregular academic 

studies and conference papers, although much of this is dated. 
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122

Salmon Shrimp Comment

The availability of

representative 

data that indicate 

likely costs of 

production and 

revenue from the 

aquaculture 

enterprise

 

There is poor availability of representative data on production costs and their 

variability by region or system. There are occasional academic studies that review 

these issues, but most are out of date. Most of these relate to production costs within 

a fairly narrow geographical boundary and are unlikely to be representative of national 

enterprise costs and revenues. In general, there is not the same intensity of study of 

aquaculture costs and revenues as might be found in crop agriculture

The availability of 

data that indicate 

the incidence of 

perils that might 

result in loss

 

The data on the incidence of major perils are regularly assembled by the insurance 

industry to cover catastrophic insurance (e.g. flood, drought, hurricane, tornado, and 

storm). Salmon and shrimp production farms are highly concentrated geographically 

and hence identification of serious weather events should be straightforward. 

However, the availability of published data that describe the incidence of other perils in 

aquaculture is absent for salmon and shrimp. Serious notifiable diseases (such as 

Infectious salmon anemia (ISA) for salmon and white spot disease (WSSV) for shrimp) 

that have resulted in devastating losses are documented although few academic studies 

have reviewed the incidence of other diseases and their losses for these two 

aquaculture sectors in the US. We have collected some of this information in the 

summary profiles of these species. Disease and parasites (often interrelated) represent 

the most important perils facing all species and all production systems in salmon 

culture in net cages, although predation from sea mammals is a constant threat. 

Various parasites (such as sea lice - Lepeophtheirus salmonis) are a major issue for 

salmon aquaculture. These infestations can seriously affect product value and have led 

to major controversy over the impact of farmed salmon on wild populations. Some 

diseases are highly infectious and unless appropriate precautions are taken they can be 

quickly transmitted among different containment structures on the same operation. 

Low levels of dissolved oxygen can be serious in pond shrimp production, but there is 

no systematic description of incidence.

The availability of 

data on normal 

mortality

 ?

Estimates of normal mortality are available for salmon and shrimp from a number of 

academic and industry sources (10 to 15%). The estimates for US shrimp are available 

and indicate a very high level of mortality (around 50%). There are no supportable 

published data for shrimp in RAS, although anecdotal reports suggest these can be high. 

Most data refer only to the grow-out phase.

The extent to 

which risks of loss 

can be allocated to 

different stages of 

production

? ?

In general, stages of production can be identified, although there is little data that 

provides a representative view of the risks that impact production at these different 

stages. The production of eggs, fry, and smolts (the fingerling stage in salmon), and 

nauplii and post-larvae (the infant and juvenile stages of shrimp) involve the greatest 

losses of individuals. The grow-out period for salmon may also be represented by 

several different stages. As the stocking density of a net cage increases, fish of different 

sizes may need to be separated into other containment structures (although today in 

the US it is understood that the two farms are transitioning to a single class production 

system that does not involve movement between different production units). Mortality 

tends to be higher at the initial stages of grow-out when young fish and post-larvae are 

more vulnerable.

Knowledge of the 

perils that might 

result in loss

 

It is relatively easy for specialists in the field to arrive at a list of perils that can affect 

production at different stages for both species reviewed. However, there is little 

empirical data on the incidence of those perils. In addition to losses because of natural 

(weather-related) events, disease and parasites appear to be the most important perils 

affecting shrimp and salmon production.

The ease with 

which the size of 

the losses can be 

identified

? 

Various alternative methods of measuring inventory are used within the industry. In 

commercial salmon production inventory is measured regularly based on the counting 

of stock added (usually based on counts on loading of smolts from nurseries), 

mortalities, and regular sampling of size of fish. In addition, feed use and anticipated 

growth rates can be used to confirm inventory levels. While inventory measures are 

never claimed to be highly accurate, these methods are regularly used in reporting 

inventory levels as part of private insurance plans. As yet, there are no technological 

advances to improve the level of accuracy in counting fish, sizing fish, or measuring 

biomass. The challenge of measuring inventory and losses is particularly difficult in 

pond systems as management control and monitoring is far more difficult. Measuring 

inventory of shrimp farms is particularly difficult and currently there are no methods 

that can be applied with accuracy. RAS production of shrimp offers a better 

opportunity to measure inventory as tanks are usually fairly small and mortalities are 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

123

Salmon Shrimp Comment

normally identifiable. In all cases, detailed monitoring and recording of mortalities is 

required. Inventory assessment for shrimp is a very serious constraint on the 

development of a workable industry crop insurance plan.

The perils must 

result in acute loss  

In general, losses that result from poor growth are difficult to assess and attribute 

during the grow-out period. Poor growth can result from a wide range of factors, 

most of which can be influenced by the quality of management, or the quality of the 

fingerlings or post-larvae. Perils that result in acute losses and mortality are more 

appropriately included in crop insurance plans. Both shrimp and salmon are subject to 

diseases that can inflict acute loss and high levels of mortality.

The ease of 

determining the 

cause of loss

? ?

As in any crop insurance plan, issues can arise over the precise cause of loss. For 

example, disease may impact production because an electricity outage stopped pumps 

from operating for a short period, resulting in deterioration in water quality and 

greater susceptibility to disease. Many diseases can be identified relatively easily, 

although some will need investigation by a reputable specialized analytical laboratory. 

In general, the US is well equipped with expertise to identify the leading shrimp and

salmon diseases. Both salmon and shrimp are widely cultivated globally and more is 

understood about their culture than most other farmed aquatic animals. 

The extent to 

which 

management 

affects the impact 

of perils and losses

 

While relatively small in international terms, the US salmon industry has the 

experience and capability to meet international standards of husbandry. In general, 

management can impact the incidence of a wide range of perils in salmon and shrimp, 

and in particular potential pest and disease risks. Good management practice will 

involve constant attention to the quality of the water medium in which fish or 

crustaceans are being grown. Poor management procedures can result in various 

disease issues, and constrain performance. The siting and physical configuration of an 

aquaculture operation influences the vulnerability to production risks such as disease. 

Sound organization and management requires investment in appropriate engineering 

and biosecurity measures to reduce the impact of perils and the potential for poor 

performance. In marine cage farming there is also the need to manage conditions 

within production areas or regions and for cooperation among neighboring farms. 

However, some diseases and water conditions are impossible to prevent. Operating in 

a marine environment reduces the control over the most critical production factor, 

the aqueous environment. Defining insurable perils in policies and underwriting 

documents represents a considerable challenge in aquaculture, especially where 

management actions play a key role, but even they may not be sufficient to prevent 

losses. The question that arises in the case of loss is ‘Was enough done to prevent 

loss?’ and ‘can best management practice be defined to establish the limits of the 

marine finfish farmer’s preventive actions’. 

The risk of moral 

hazard  

Because of the challenges in identifying the scale of loss, there is a high risk of moral 

hazard (particularly in the shrimp sector). Inventory assessments are extremely 

difficult to make and the insureds would need to maintain detailed records to confirm

inventory at any point in the production cycle. Various mechanisms such as 

deductibles can reduce but not eliminate the risk of moral hazard. Practices such as 

movement of stock between containment structures or units of production, or delayed 

sales between calendar years complicate inventory reporting and measurement and 

raise moral hazard risk. The US salmon sector is well organized in terms of record 

keeping and familiar with insuring its stock. However, this is not the case for the 

shrimp industry where inventory measurement would be a serious challenge. 

The risk of adverse 

selection  

Because of the limited published data on the two sectors, it would be difficult to 

develop a rating structure that adequately reflects the diverse production risks. As a 

result, there is a risk of adverse selection should aquaculture insurance be offered 

(although the concept of adverse selection would appear redundant in the case of the 

US salmon industry with its two producers). 

The availability of 

other risk 

management tools 

that might make 

an RMA plan 

redundant

See in rows below 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

124

Salmon Shrimp Comment

A number of 

federal or state 

funded emergency 

programs

 

There have been several federal initiatives to assist agricultural producers as a result of 

disasters and all aquaculture producers can take advantage of NAP. We do not have 

access to data that will allow us to quantify the extent to which these programs are 

utilized. NAP provides catastrophic risk coverage of only 27.5% of the value of the 

crop, much less than would be provided by an RMA crop insurance program. While 

shrimp producers are eligible for NAP, we are unable to confirm whether offshore 

salmon farms can participate, although we suspect they can. APHIS has provided 

indemnities in the case of mandatory depopulation as a result of very infectious and 

serious diseases. This applied to an outbreak of infectious salmon anemia in Maine in 

2001. 

The importance of 

good management 

practice in 

reducing risks

 

There is a wide range of activities that might fall under the heading of good 

management practice that might reduce the level of risk. These include operational 

decisions (such as, for example, those that determine the quality of water, and the 

feeding regime); investment decisions (such as those that determine location and the 

configuration of the aquaculture facilities), and, more general organizational decisions 

(such as maintaining key equipment inventories, equipment maintenance and 

biosecurity - including the movement of staff, stock, and vehicles into the facility). 

Availability of 

relevant futures 

markets

? 

There is one salmon futures market operating in Norway in local currency. This has 

minor relevance to risk management in the Atlantic salmon industry in the United 

States. Shrimp producers have no facility to manage price risks. 

Other farm 

enterprises ? ?

Both salmon operations are large commercial companies with international interests 

and have diversified their production risks horizontally (through geography) and 

vertically (through hatchery, feed and trading operations). Some pond shrimp 

operations are vertically integrated with hatchery, processing and trading operations. 

There is no data describing the extent to which aquaculture activities are shared with 

other farm activities. 

The availability and 

use of private 

insurance

 

Private mortality insurance is only available for species that are farmed in volume and 

where there is understanding of production practices and production experience. This 

is limited to Norway, Chile, Scotland, and parts of the Mediterranean, and the species 

Atlantic salmon and seabass/bream. In the US, Atlantic salmon producers are able to 

purchase private insurance that covers mortality. We have no information on the use 

of private insurance among RAS shrimp producers, although we understand that 

shrimp production globally is not insured because of the very high costs of gaining 

coverage.

The likely level of 

demand and 

willingness to pay 

appropriate 

premiums

 ?

We understand that the salmon industry is concerned at the cost of private insurance, 

Most of the international farmed salmon sector buys private insurance. A major 

stimulus has been the insistence on mortality insurance as a condition of financing. 

Although we have no evidence, industry observers suggest that under its current 

financial conditions, US shrimp farms would be highly unlikely to pay the premiums 

necessary to cover for mortality insurance. These premiums would be high in 

recognition of the many challenges that face the supply of crop insurance to shrimp 

farmers. 

The ease of 

defining units of 

production

 

In the previous review of aquaculture feasibility, a unit was defined as ‘all the insurable 

containment structures of (the farm raised species) in the county in which you have a 

share on the date coverage begins for the crop year”. This definition may involve 

considerable challenges when aggregating data from many diverse containment 

structures under the operation of one company within one county. This particularly 

applies to shrimp. This definition might need reconsideration in the case of marine net 

cage production of salmon as the definition of county boundaries in coastal locations 

might be questioned. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

125

Salmon Shrimp Comment

The availability of 

insurance industry 

expertise and 

resources to 

support an RMA 

plan for a specific 

species and 

production system

 

In general, the expertise of offering and supporting aquaculture insurance products 

within the United States is extremely limited. The market is relatively small, the data 

availability on the incidence and impact of perils is incomplete, and the costs of 

developing and supporting products and carrying out loss adjustment procedures are 

significant. This represents a major constraint on the feasibility of supplying RMA 

aquaculture crop insurance products. NAP has experience of administering 

catastrophic coverage. We understand that loss assessment represents a major 

challenge for that program, although we are unable to quantify NAP use in the 

industry. However, a very small number of local loss adjusters would be required for 

both salmon and shrimp as the industries are relatively small and regionally compact. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

126

6.3 Concluding comments 

An acceptable risk exists when: 

• an actuarially sound premium rate can be determined and charged to customers who are 

willing to pay the price; 

• customers cannot adversely select against the program; 

• moral hazards are avoidable and controllable; 

• there is enough interest for the risk to be spread over an acceptable number of insureds and 

geographic areas; 

• effective loss controls are available; and 

• perils are identified.

While the shrimp and salmon sectors faces many perils, several critical factors argue against RMA 

developing industry plans. These are listed below. 

• The highly concentrated ownership of the salmon and shrimp sectors is inappropriate for 

an industry crop insurance plan. This restricts the spreading of risk over a sufficient number 

of insureds.

• The salmon industry is supplied by a well-established international private insurance sector. 

• The small industry size of the shrimp sector suggests that there will be little incentive for 

AIPs to participate in the program.

• There are severe potential moral hazard and adverse selection challenges because of the high 

importance of good management practice in reducing the incidence of perils in all species 

and systems. This challenge is substantial in the case of shrimp production, and small in 

the case of salmon.

• •The highly diverse recirculating systems used in RAS shrimp production and the absence of 

sound statistical description of the character and experience of these systems poses serious 

challenges in actuarial analysis. These have widely varying degrees of effectiveness in 

controlling disease and mortality. Thus, any rating system would need to include type of RAS 

as a rating variable, but we do not have data that would allow it to be quantified.

• The challenge of measuring inventory and losses in shrimp pond production systems

threatens the integrity of a crop insurance plan. Measurement of inventory is challenged by 

the absence of accurate biomass assessment or counting methods. Also, the lack of clear 

evidence of mortalities and cannibalism because of uneven stocking sizes or poor feeding, may 

frustrate accurate inventory measurement. 

• Measurement systems that can be applied with some confidence are available for salmon in 

net cages. 
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Section 6: Feasibility recommendations

127

• However, even these are challenged by multiyear production and the occasional practice of 

regularly moving salmon between different cages and units to maximize efficient carrying 

capacity. 

• The studies reviewed and data collected suggest that the risk of loss in pond shrimp

production in the US is very high. The lack of critical data (e.g. on prices (for US grown 

shrimp), causes of mortality, harvests, yields, losses, etc.) frustrates solid actuarial analysis and 

necessitates rates that could be higher than rates reflective of the true risk. This is likely to 

reduce shrimp industry participation. 

• The lack of adequate data for sound actuarial analysis for all species could also lead to 

problems of adverse selection. 

• There is little evidence to assist conclusions on willingness to pay, although we suspect that 

the shrimp industry in its current economic plight is unlikely to be a source of enthusiastic 

customers for policies with actuarially responsible rates. 

• The cost of AIPs acquiring the necessary experience and skills to implement and administer 

these programs would be high and their interest in participation is likely to be very low. 

Based on the above, we conclude that insurance plans meeting FCIC standards are not feasible and we 

recommend that the RMA does not pursue an industry crop insurance plan for any of the species we have 

reviewed. 
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Appendix I: Sources of aquaculture fish prices

128

APPENDIX 1. SOURCES OF AQUACULTURE FISH PRICES

Title: Fulton’s Fish Market Weekly Price, New York Frozen Prices

Update frequency: Weekly

Data available from: 2005- present

Description: Currently selling prices ex-warehouse New York as reported by original receivers

• Shrimp peeled and undeveined - Gulf #5

• Shrimp headless, shell-on Gulf white and brown 

Source: Fulton’s Fish Market Daily Price Link

http://www.newfultonfishmarket.com/wholesale_price_reports.html

Title: Fisheries of the United States

Update frequency: Annual 

Data available from: 1995- 2009

Description: Report on commercial and recreational fisheries of the US, including aquaculture estimates 

(volume and value) for catfish, salmon, striped bass, tilapia, trout and shrimp. Weights and values represent 

the final sales of products to processors and dealers.

• Estimated total annual production in pounds

• Estimated total annual value

• Manually calculated price per pound

Source: NOAA Fisheries Link

http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/publications.html

Title: Urner Barry’s Seafood Price Current

Update frequency: Twice a week

Data available from:

Description: 

• Farm-raised salmon, fresh, whole fish prices from West Coast

 Sizes: 4-6lbs, 6-8lbs, 8-10lbs, 10-12lbs, 12-14lbs, 14-16lbs, 16-18lbs

• Farm-raised salmon, fresh, fillets, West Coast 

 Sizes: 1-2lbs, 2-3lbs, 3-4lbs, 4-5lbs

Source: Urner Barry, subscription required

Title: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Fishstat

Update frequency: Annually

Data available from: 1950-2008

Description: Estimated production volume and value for salmon, catfish, giant river prawns, trout, hybrid 

striped bass, tilapia and shrimp, by country. 

Source: Data from NOAA supplied to FAO is from the Census of Aquaculture and updated with estimates 

for years after 2005.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Appendix I: Sources of aquaculture fish prices

129

Title: Farm-raised Atlantic Salmon Landings

Update frequency: Annually

Data available: 1991-2010

Description: Number of whole pounds and value of farm-raised Atlantic salmon landings in Maine

Source: From 1992-2003 data were collected by the Finfish Aquaculture Monitoring Program, since then 

harvest totals have been submitted by leaseholders as part of annual or monthly inventory reports. Link

http://www.maine.gov/dmr/aquaculture/HarvestData.htm
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Appendix 2: Aquaculture permits in Washington State

130

APPENDIX 2. AQUACULTURE PERMIT CHECKLIST FOR THE STATE OF 

WASHINGTON 

Currently, in order to apply for a new aquatic lands lease from the Washington State Department of 

Natural Resources, a public or private entity must first pass several environmental reviews, and then obtain 

the necessary permits from the following regulatory agencies:

Agency / Reviewing body Permit

Local governments

• Shoreline Substantial Development Permits, which review 

projects with respect to the Shoreline Management Act 

and also any local land use ordinances which may apply.

WA Department of Ecology

• Compliance with Shoreline Master Plans and Critical Area 

Ordinances.

• Clean Water Act - NPDES Permits and/or Section 401 

Permits. 

• Coastal Zone Management Certification

WA Department of Fish and Wildlife

• Hydraulics Project Approval Permit

• Aquaculture license, and Transport Permits

• Species Review Permit

US Army Corps of Engineers • Section 404 and/or Section 10permits.

• Review with respect to the Endangered Species Act (ESA)

US Fish and Wildlife Service and 

National Marine Fisheries Service

• Review of the project with respect to the ESA.
The feasibility of crop insurance for saltwater aquaculture

Appendix 3: Bibliography

APPENDIX 3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Appendix 3: Bibliography

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Insurance 

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Appendix 3: Bibliography

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