Administration

Federal Aviation

HQ-002407.INDD

2007 U.S. Commercial

Space Transportation 

Developments and Concepts: 

Vehicles, Technologies, 

and Spaceports

January 2007
2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts About FAA/AST

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation i

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) 

licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of 

non-federal launch and reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States

Code, Subtitle IX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). FAA/AST’s mission is to

ensure public health and safety and the safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign

policy interests of the United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/AST

is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches and reentries. Additional 

information concerning commercial space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/.

About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation
About FAA/AST 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

ii Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

NOTICE

Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement of such

products or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Significant 2006 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Wirefly X Prize Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

America’s Space Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Centennial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Expendable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Atlas 5 – Lockheed Martin Corporation/ULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Delta 2 – The Boeing Company/ULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Delta 4 – The Boeing Company/ULA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Minotaur 1 and 4 – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Pegasus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

ELV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

ALV – Alliant Techsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Eagle S-series – E’Prime Aerospace Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

FALCON SLV – Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Eagle SLV – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Z-1 – Zig Aerospace, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Zenit-3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, and Space International Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Ares 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Ares 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Sounding Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Oriole – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Norwegian Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Reusable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Commercial RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Quad – Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

New Shepard – Blue Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Neptune – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

K-1 – Rocketplane Kistler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Contents

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation iii

Table of Contents
Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Kistler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

SpaceShipTwo – Scaled Composites, LLC/Virgin Galactic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Altairis – Sprague Astronautics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Xerus – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Government RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Space Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Affordable Responsive Spacelift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Orion Crew Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

International Space Station Crew and Cargo Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Rocketplane Kistler K-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

SpaceX Dragon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Bigelow Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Launch Vehicle Avionics – SpaceDev, Inc. and Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Air Launch Method – Transformational Space Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Air Launch Method – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Cryogenic Composite Tanks – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Composite Tanks – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Automated Composite Technologies – Alliant Techsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Liquid RCS Thruster – Orion Propulsion, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Liquid Engines – Orbital Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Liquid Engines – AirLaunch LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Liquid Engines – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Liquid Engines – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Liquid Engines – Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Aerospike Liquid Engine – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Integrated Powerhead Demonstration – NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Hybrid Rocket Motors – SpaceDev, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Hybrid Propulsion Systems – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Hyper-X Series Vehicles – NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Propellant Production – Andrews Space, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Non-federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

California Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Cape Canaveral Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Kodiak Launch Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Mojave Air and Space Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50

Oklahoma Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Edwards Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Kennedy Space Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53

Contents 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

iv Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Reagan Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Vandenberg Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Wallops Flight Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

White Sands Missile Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56

Proposed Non-federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Cecil Field Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

Chugwater Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

South Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Spaceport Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Spaceport America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60

Spaceport Sheboygan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

Spaceport Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

West Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Contents

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation v
AADC Alaska Aerospace Development

Corporation

ACES Air Collection and Enrichment System

AFB Air Force Base

AFRL Air Force Research Laboratory

ALV ATK Launch Vehicle

ARES Affordable Responsive Spacelift

AST Office of Commercial Space

Transportation (within the FAA) 

ATK Alliant Techsystems

BRAC Base Realignment and Closure

CALVEIN California Launch Vehicle Initiative

CCAFS Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

CEV Crew Exploration Vehicle

CONUS Continental United States

COTS Commercial Orbital Transportation

Services

CSIA Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark

CSULB California State University, Long Beach

DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency

DoD U.S. Department of Defense

EAFB Edwards Air Force Base

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

ELTR Eastern Launch and Test Range

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

ESR&T Exploration Systems Research and

Technology

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FALCON Force Application and Launch from

CONUS

FASTT Freeflight Atmospheric Scramjet Test

Technique

GCRSDC Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport

Development Corporation

GEM Graphite-Epoxy Motor

GEO Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GPS/INS Global Positioning System/Inertial

Navigation System

GSC Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

GTO Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit

HTHL Horizontal Takeoff, Horizontal Landing

HTP High-Test Peroxide

HTPB Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene

HX Hydrocarbon X

HYSR Hybrid Sounding Rocket

ICBM Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IPD Integrated Powerhead Demonstration

IPF Integrated Processing Facility

ISS International Space Station

ITAR International Traffic in Arms

Regulations

IWFNA Inhibited White Fuming Nitric Acid

JAA Jacksonville Aviation Authority

KLC Kodiak Launch Complex

KSC Kennedy Space Center

LAP Launch Assist Platform

LASR Large Array of Small Rockets

LC Launch Complex

LEO Low Earth Orbit

LOX Liquid Oxygen

MARS Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

Acronyms 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

vi Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

List of Acronyms
MDA Missile Defense Agency

MEMS Microelectromechanical Systems

MEO Medium Earth Orbit

MRTFB Major Range and Test Facility Base

MSFC Marshall Space Flight Center

MSLV Microsatellite Launch Vehicle

MTA Mojave Test Area

NASA National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NLV Nanosat Launch Vehicle

NRO National Reconnaissance Office

O/M Oxygen-Methane

ONR Office of Naval Research

ORS Operationally Responsive Spacelift

OSIDA Oklahoma Space Industry Development

Authority

OSP Orbital/Suborbital Program

OTV Orbital Test Vehicle

OV Orbital Vehicle

PDR Preliminary Design Review

R&D Research and Development

RCS Reaction Control System

RFP Request for Proposals

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RP-1 Rocket Propellant 1

RSRM Reusable Solid Rocket Motor

RSTS Range Safety and Telemetry System

RTS Reagan Test Site

SBIR Small Business Innovation Research

SLC Space Launch Complex

SLF Shuttle Landing Facility

SLI Space Launch Initiative

SLV Small Launch Vehicle 

SSI Spaceport Systems International

SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSO Sun-synchronous Orbit 

STEREO Solar Terrestrial Relations

Observatories

STS Space Transportation System

t/LAD Trapeze-Lanyard Air Drop

TBD To Be Determined

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol

UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

ULA United Launch Alliance

VAB Vehicle Assembly Building

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VAPAK Vapor Pressurization

VCCW Vortex Combustion Cold-Wall

VCSFA Virginia Commercial Space Flight

Authority

WAA Wisconsin Aerospace Authority

WFF Wallops Flight Facility

WSMR White Sands Missile Range

XA eXtreme Altitude

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Acronyms

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation vii
2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

viii Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 1

The commercial space industry had an active year

in 2006 as entrepreneurial space companies built on

the progress of previous years. One new commercial

launch vehicle, the Falcon 1 developed by Space

Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX),

debuted, while a suborbital prototype designed by

Blue Origin performed its first test flight. The number

of U.S. and worldwide commercial orbital launches

worldwide increased, and one commercial launch

services company, Sea Launch, enjoyed its most

productive launch year to date. Against this backdrop, one new commercial spaceport, run by the

Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

(OSIDA), was issued a license by the Federal

Aviation Administration (FAA), and other U.S.

spaceports continued to make steady progress in

their own development plans.

Meanwhile, the emerging space tourism

industry continued to lay the groundwork for 

future operations. Virgin Galactic, the suborbital

space tourism venture, cemented its relationship

with Spaceport America in New Mexico, while

Space Adventures, Ltd. pursued agreements to

develop a new fleet of suborbital space tourism

vehicles and international commercial spaceports 

in the United Arab Emirates and Singapore. The

fourth—and first female—space tourist journeyed

to the International Space Station (ISS). And

Genesis Pathfinder 1, an inflatable habitat module

developed by Bigelow Aerospace, deployed successfully in orbit, bringing a private space station

one step closer to reality.

Finally, commercialization initiatives 

proceeded apace. The National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA) Commercial Orbital

Transportation Services (COTS) demonstration 

program awarded nearly $500 million to two 

contractors, SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler, for

commercial delivery services to the ISS. The 2006

Wirefly X Prize Cup took place in New Mexico,

where private vehicle developers competed for

NASA Centennial Challenges and X Prize

Foundation awards. And the U.S. Department 

of Defense (DoD), through a host of initiatives,

continued to fund development of new vehicle 

families able to launch quickly and inexpensively,

as well as versatile enough to serve both military

and commercial needs.

This report explores these developments and

other major events that defined U.S. commercial

space transportation in 2006. It showcases current

and planned U.S. commercial or commerciallyoriented activities. It also addresses reusable launch

vehicles (RLVs), space competitions, expendable

launch vehicles (ELVs), reentry vehicles and inspace technologies, enabling technologies such as

propulsion and launch configurations, and the

evolving array of U.S. spaceports.

Whether new developments are highly publicized occurrences or gradual changes, commercial

space transportation remains a dynamic industry.

Providing a well-rounded understanding of today’s

commercial launch sector requires examining a

broad range of topics. Information presented in this

report was compiled from open sources and through

direct communication with academic, federal, civil,

and corporate organizations. Readers are encouraged to contact the organizations mentioned in this

report for further information on the technologies,

programs, and subjects discussed herein.

Space Competitions

In 2004, the Tier 1 (also known as

SpaceShipOne) vehicle developed by Scaled

Composites staged two consecutive suborbital

spaceflights to win the Ansari X Prize competition,

demonstrating the effectiveness of a cash prize in

stimulating private space vehicle development.

Seeking to continue this incentive-based approach, in

2006 the X Prize Foundation organized the Wirefly

X Prize Cup at Las Cruces International Airport in

New Mexico. Cash awards were offered in three areas

as part of the NASA Centennial Challenges Program:

the Beam Power Challenge, the Tether Challenge, and

the Northrop Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge.

Although no contestants fulfilled the criteria necessary

to win any of the three challenges, the competition

elicited promising technology developments and

demonstrated their potential to the general public.

Subsequent annual X Prize Cups are planned to

encourage further innovation in the personal spaceflight industry, and are expected to feature cash prizes

for vehicle developers who achieve milestones such

as fastest launch turnaround time, maximum altitude,

and fastest speed record.

Introduction
Robert Bigelow of Bigelow Aerospace has

also proposed a commercial space competition:

America’s Space Prize. The $50-million prize, valid

through January 10, 2010, challenges U.S. entrants

to produce a privately funded, reusable vehicle

capable of carrying at least five people into two

consecutive 400-kilometer (240-mile) orbits, and

repeating the feat within 60 days. No such vehicle

has yet emerged.

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry

In 2006, U.S. commercial orbital launch

activity increased relative to the year prior. In 2005,

the FAA Office of Commercial Space Transportation

(AST) licensed five commercial orbital launches. 

In 2006, it licensed seven: one Atlas 5, built by

Lockheed Martin Corporation and marketed by

International Launch Services; one Delta 4, built 

by The Boeing Company and marketed by Boeing

Launch Services; and five Zenit-3SLs, built and

marketed by Sea Launch Company, LLC.

Several companies continued to develop 

new ELV concepts in 2006, including the Alliant

Techsystems (ATK) Launch Vehicle developed by

ATK; Aquarius by Space Systems/Loral, Eaglet by

E’Prime Aerospace; FALCON Small Launch

Vehicle (SLV) by Lockheed Martin; Nanosat

Launch Vehicle by Garvey Spacecraft Corporation;

Eagle SLV by Microcosm; QuickReach by

AirLaunch LLC; Z-1 by Zig Aerospace, LLC; and

the Zenit-3SLB vehicle being developed by Sea

Launch.

Additionally, in 2006 NASA refined plans for

the Ares 1 and Ares 5 vehicles, which will leverage

Space Shuttle and Apollo-era technologies toward

future crewed and uncrewed lunar missions. The

agency awarded Ares 1 engine development contracts

to ATK Thiokol and Pratt and Whitney. Detailed

technical specifications for the Ares 5 vehicle have

not yet been announced.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry

On March 25, 2006, the partially-reusable

SpaceX Falcon 1 vehicle conducted its maiden

launch. Although the launch was unsuccessful, the

cause of the failure was identified, and SpaceX

plans a second launch attempt in 2007.

One other reusable launcher, the New Shepard

Reusable Launch System developed by Blue Origin

LLC, performed its first test flight on November

13, 2006, under the first-ever experimental permit

granted by the FAA. 

Additionally, Armadillo Aerospace, a former

Ansari X Prize contender, has continued development of a suborbital, piloted spacecraft named Quad.

In 2006, a Quad prototype known as “Pixel” flew

five demonstration flights at the Wirefly X Prize

Cup in pursuit of the Lunar Lander Challenge prize.

Other RLVs under development include the

Sea Star Microsatellite Launch Vehicle (MSLV) and

the Neptune by Interorbital Systems; the XA 1.0 by

Masten Space Systems; the K-1 and Rocketplane XP

by Rocketplane Kistler; SpaceShipTwo by The

SpaceShip Company, a joint venture between Scaled

Composites and Virgin Galactic; Dream Chaser by

SpaceDev; Falcon 9 by SpaceX; Altairis by Sprague

Astronautics; Michelle-B by TGV Rockets, Inc.; and

Xerus by XCOR Aerospace.

Parallel to private RLV development efforts,

DoD initiatives such as Operationally Responsive

Spacelift (ORS) have resulted in the Affordable

Responsive Spacelift (ARES) program. The ARES

program was to feature a reusable fly-back lower

stage to minimize launch costs. However, Congress

eliminated funding for the program in the fiscal

year 2007 DoD budget.

Introduction 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

2 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Reentry Vehicles and In-Space

Technologies

The Vision for Space Exploration, along with

the planned 2010 retirement of the Space Shuttle, has

prompted the need for new vehicles and technologies

to support future crewed and uncrewed missions. In

response to these needs, in 2006 NASA selected the

prime contractors to develop the Orion crew vehicle

(formerly known as the Crew Exploration Vehicle, or

CEV) and provide commercial ISS re-supply under

the COTS initiative. Lockheed Martin won a sevenyear, $4-billion contract to develop the Orion, while

SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler won $278 million

and $207 million, respectively, to develop vehicles

for potential use as ISS transports under the COTS

demonstration program. Additionally, the U.S. Air

Force is leading development of the X-37B Orbital

Test Vehicle, which will leverage earlier work on

the X-37 vehicle program.

Also in 2006, Bigelow Aerospace orbited 

its first inflatable habitat demonstrator, Genesis

Pathfinder 1. The success of the demonstrator, a

one-third scale model of the company’s planned

suborbital habitat, has inspired Bigelow Aerospace

to speed up development of a full-scale model that

the company hopes to use in ventures such as 

private orbiting space stations.

Enabling Technologies

Under the joint sponsorship of NASA and the

DoD, efforts are underway to develop the Hyper-X

series of vehicles featuring supersonic-combustion

ramjet (scramjet) motors, as well as a full-flow,

hydrogen-fueled, staged combustion rocket engine

known as the Integrated Powerhead Demonstrator

(IPD). Additionally, a number of private companies

are developing cryogenic fuel tanks, in-flight propellant collection systems, advanced liquid-fuel

engines, hybrid rocket motors, more sophisticated

propulsion systems, enhanced avionics and guidance control systems, new launch techniques such

as air launch, and other technologies.

Spaceports

In 2006, federal and non-federal spaceports

alike sought to expand their capabilities to entice 

an emerging orbital and suborbital space vehicles

market. One new spaceport, operated by OSIDA, was

issued an FAA license to commence commercial

operations. Additionally, both Spaceport America in

New Mexico and the Blue Origin West Texas Launch

Site in Texas staged maiden launches of rockets

designed by UP Aerospace and Blue Origin, respectively. One newly planned spaceport, Chugwater

Spaceport in Wyoming, emerged after Frontier

Astronautics bought a decommissioned Atlas E

missile base outside of Chugwater, Wyoming and

began to renovate it as a launch site. Another, South

Texas Spaceport, completed initial construction of

its facilities. Finally, the Jacksonville Aviation

Authority (JAA) sought to convert the runway,

hangars, and other infrastructure at Cecil Field,

Florida for use in a potential commercial spaceport,

and began its FAA environmental assessment

process in 2006.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 3
January 10: The U.S. Department of Defense 

conditionally approves plans by Lockheed Martin

Corporation and The Boeing Company to merge

their fleets of Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicles

(EELVs) into a partnership known as the United

Launch Alliance (ULA).

February 15: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket

launches the Echostar X communications satellite

from Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean (154 degrees

West, 0 degrees North).

February 16: Space Adventures, Ltd., the space

tourism company, announces contracts with the 

private investment firm Prodea and the Russian

Federal Space Agency to develop a fleet of commercial suborbital spaceflight vehicles. Days later,

Space Adventures announces plans to develop a

$265-million global commercial spaceport at 

Ras Al-Khaimah, near Dubai in the United Arab

Emirates, as well as a similar spaceport in Singapore.

March 7: Rocketplane Limited, Inc. and Kistler

Aerospace announce they are merging to form

Rocketplane Kistler. The new company plans to

develop suborbital and orbital space transportation

and cargo vehicles, the first of which is expected to

be a version of the K-1 vehicle originally conceived

by Kistler Aerospace.

March 25: The maiden launch of the Falcon1 vehicle,

developed by SpaceX, fails 34 seconds into flight.

The cause of the failure is later determined to be a

fuel leak caused by corrosion of a small aluminum

nut that held the fuel pipe fitting in place, which

caused the main engine to catch fire. SpaceX plans

to stage a second Falcon 1 launch attempt in 2007.

April 12: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket launches

the JCSAT 9 communications satellite from Odyssey

platform, Pacific Ocean.

April 20: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 5 rocket launches

the Astra 1KR communications satellite from Cape

Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS).

May 8: Lockheed Martin announces its award of a

20-month, $2.5 million initial contract to study and

propose a hybrid launch vehicle for the U.S. Air

Force as part of the ORS initiative.

May 24: The Boeing Company’s Delta 4 rocket

launches the GOES 13 meteorological satellite from

CCAFS.

June 18: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket launches

the Galaxy 16 communications satellite from

Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean.

July 4: Shuttle Discovery lifts off from Kennedy

Space Center (KSC) carrying supplies and new

crew member Thomas Reiter to the ISS aboard the

STS 121 mission. The launch marks the second

successful Space Shuttle return-to-flight mission

since the Shuttle Columbia reentry failure in 2003.

July 12: A Dnepr rocket carries Genesis Pathfinder 1,

the first demonstration mission of the inflatable orbital

habitat modules developed by Bigelow Aerospace,

into orbit. The module inflates successfully.

August 18: NASA selects two companies from six

finalists to provide delivery services to the ISS

under the COTS initiative. The two companies are

Rocketplane Kistler, whose K-1 launch vehicle will

be partially funded by NASA with an investment of

$207 million, and SpaceX, which will receive $278

million to seed the development and demonstration

flight of its Falcon 9 vehicle featuring the Dragon

crew and supply capsule.

August 21: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket launches

the Koreasat 5 communications satellite from

Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean.

August 25: In conjunction with U.S. Air Force

Space Command, the FAA issues new common 

federal launch safety standards designed to create

consistent, integrated space launch rules for the

United States. The standards are designed to enhance

public safety by harmonizing safety procedures at

facilities nationwide by implementing a formal 

system of safety checks and balances to identify

potential problems before liftoff.

Significant 2006 Events 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

4 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Significant 2006 Events
September 9: Shuttle Atlantis, mission STS 115,

launches from KSC, marking the third Space

Shuttle return-to-flight mission.

September 18: A Soyuz rocket carries the fourth—

and first female—space tourist, Anousheh Ansari,

to the ISS. Ansari and crew return safely to Earth

on September 29.

September 21: Lockheed Martin enters into an

agreement with Bigelow Aerospace to explore using

human-rated Atlas 5 vehicles to carry passengers to

a habitable space complex assembled from Bigelow

inflatable modules.

September 25: The Spaceloft XL sounding rocket,

designed by UP Aerospace, fails to reach suborbital

space on its inaugural flight, instead returning to

Earth prematurely following liftoff from Spaceport

America in New Mexico.

September 25: The FAA issues the first-ever

experimental permit for a reusable suborbital rocket

to Blue Origin LLC, the commercial space transportation company founded by Amazon.com CEO

Jeff Bezos. The 1-year, renewable permit allows for

unmanned vehicle tests to be launched and landed

vertically.

October 19-21: Under a second experimental 

permit issued by the FAA, Armadillo Aerospace

conducts five test flights of its Pixel vehicle at the

2006 Wirefly X Prize Cup.

October 30: A Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket

launches the XM 4 communications satellite from

Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean.

November 8: The newly merged Rocketplane

Kistler announces an agreement whereby ATK 

will become lead contractor for the development,

assembly, integration, and testing of the K-1 

vehicle.

November 13: Blue Origin stages the first test

flight of its suborbital vehicle, Goddard. The flight,

launched from the company’s West Texas spaceport, lasts about 30 seconds.

November 30: The proposed European small

launch vehicle Vega successfully completes a static

fire test of its first stage engine. The first launch of

the vehicle is planned for 2008.

December 1: Lockheed Martin and Boeing formally

complete the United Launch Alliance transaction.

The merger, first proposed in May 2005 and finally

approved by federal regulators on October 4, 2006,

will combine the production, engineering, test, and

launch operations for U.S. government launches of

Boeing Delta and Lockheed Martin Atlas rockets.

December 9: Shuttle Atlantis, mission STS 116,

launches from KSC. The vehicle lands safely on

December 22.

December 14: A Delta 2 rocket lifts a classified

National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) satellite

into orbit in the first launch carried out under the

auspices of the United Launch Alliance.

December 15: The FAA issues regulations establishing requirements for crew and passengers

involved in private human space flight. The requirements include the provision of safety and risk information from a launch vehicle operator to space

flight participants, as well as other requirements for

safety measures, training, and general security.

December 16: A Minotaur rocket launches from

the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, successfully

orbiting TacSat-2 for the DoD and GeneSat 1 for

NASA.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Significant 2006 Events

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 5
In the space industry, prize competitions have

become an established means for promoting innovative development. Success and popularity of the

Ansari X Prize, won in 2004 by Mojave Aerospace

Venture’s SpaceShipOne, and other technology

competitions led to the establishment of major 

competitive opportunities to increase the level of

innovation in governmental and non-governmental

space programs. These competitions aim to create

available commercial space launch (and other space

capabilities) with lower cost, better quality, and

more efficient processes than the options currently

available. These competitions are an example of

enablers of a stronger and more innovative commercial space industry, as is affirmed in the U.S. National

Space Policy authorized on August 31, 2006. The

three sets of prize competitions currently ongoing are

the Wirefly X Prize Cup, America’s Space Prize, and

the Centennial Challenges program run by NASA.

Wirefly X Prize Cup

The X Prize Cup is an annual event in New

Mexico to advance new concepts and technologies

that enable commercial human spaceflight by providing awards and cash prizes. A secondary priority

for the competition is to promote education and

awareness in the general population about advancements in spaceflight technology. The public has the

opportunity to view competitions between providers

of commercial space technology and interact with

aerospace industry pioneers, who are working to

reduce the cost and increase the safety and viability

of commercial human space travel. The eventual

goal of the event is to have teams compete in several

categories of human spaceflight to win the overall

X Prize Cup, as well as hold other individual 

competitions and Rocket Racing League events.

Conceptual Cup categories include: fastest turnaround time between the first launch and second

landing, maximum number of passengers per launch,

total number of passengers during the competition,

maximum altitude, and fastest flight time. Current

vehicle development timelines may not allow for

these types of competitions for several years, though

other significant activities will take place at the event.

The first official X Prize Cup took place

October 20-21, 2006, at Las Cruces International

Airport, New Mexico. Three NASA Centennial

Challenges competitions were held: the Northrop

Grumman Lunar Lander Challenge, Beam Power

Challenge, and Tether Challenge. The latter two

constituted the event’s Space Elevator Games.

None of the competitors successfully completed

these challenges, but promising technologies were

proven in attempts to win the available prize money

(see the Centennial Challenges section). Other

rocket demonstrations were completed, and static

displays provided interactive education for the general public. 

Armadillo Aerospace achieved an important

milestone for future commercial spaceflight during

the event. Armadillo safely carried out the first flight

of a vehicle, the “Pixel” Lunar Lander demonstrator,

under an FAA-issued experimental permit authorized

under the Commercial Space Launch Amendments

Act of 2004. Experimental permits allow reusable

suborbital launch vehicle developers to flight test

vehicle designs without applying for a full commercial launch license.

Space Competitions 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

6 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Space Competitions

2006 X Prize Cup
America’s Space Prize

Bigelow Aerospace and its founder, Robert

Bigelow, have proposed a commercial spaceflight

competition, America’s Space Prize, to develop

launch vehicles. This prize challenges entities 

within the United States to design an RLV without

government funding, capable of carrying passengers

into orbit with the eventual goal of bringing humans

to Bigelow Aerospace’s inflatable space habitats.

According to the rules, competitors will have to build

a craft capable of taking a five-person crew to an

altitude of 400 kilometers (240 miles) and complete

two orbits of the Earth at that altitude. They must

then repeat that accomplishment within 60 days.

The first flight does not need to carry any passengers,

but the second must carry a full crew of at least

five. The vehicle will have to demonstrate the ability

to dock with Bigelow’s inflatable modules and stay

docked for at least 6 months. In addition, no more

than 20 percent of the vehicle can consist of expendable hardware. The launch and operations of the

Genesis I inflatable module have been successful.

For this prize, competitors would use such a module to demonstrate docking capabilities. The competition deadline is January 10, 2010, with a cash

prize of $50 million, funded fully by Bigelow

Aerospace. 

Centennial Challenges

NASA’s Innovative Partnerships Program

Office uses the Centennial Challenges program to

advance development of space technologies through

prize competitions, bringing important government

support to commercial efforts. This program creates

specialized competitions to stimulate progress on

specific technologies with hopes to further the

exploration of space and other NASA missions,

using funding outlets beyond the standard 

procurement process. 

Under the terms of a Nonreimbursable Space

Act Agreement with NASA, non-profit organizations

(called Allied Organizations) administer and execute

each of the competitions at no cost to NASA. Seven

Centennial Challenges competitions are currently

open with participation from U.S, and non-U.S.,

non-governmental entities. Some of the competitions

do not deal directly with commercial space transportation technologies, but all of them spur future

space missions that drive the demand for spaceflight.

The Tether and Beam Power Challenges 

were the first two competitions conducted by the

Spaceward Foundation in October 2005. Collectively,

the Tether and Beam Power Challenges encourage

development of long-term space exploration technologies, including high strength-to-weight materials

and high power-density distribution technologies.

The $50,000 purses were not won for either of

these competitions in 2005, nor did any team win

the $200,000 prizes when the competitions were

conducted at the X Prize Cup event in 2006. These

two competitions will be held annually through

2010, with prize money increasing each year for

each of them. 

The 2006 X Prize Cup event was also the 

first opportunity for teams to compete for a total of

$2,500,000 in prize purses in the Northrop Grumman

Lunar Lander Centennial Challenge. This competition

requires teams to repeatedly and successfully fly

and land rocket-powered vehicles between landing

pads that simulate lunar landing conditions. As was

the case in the Tether and Beam Power Challenges,

none of the purses were awarded at the first competition event, but teams will be able to compete

annually until all the prize money is won.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Space Competitions

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 7

Conceptual design of a completed 

Bigelow inflatable habitat, to which the 

America’s Space Prize winner could travel
Despite the fact that the program is still relatively young and no prizes have yet been awarded,

NASA has concretely benefited from this highly

successful program. The primary goals of the program are being achieved, including the participation

of new sources of innovation, the leveraging of taxpayers’ dollars, identification of innovative technology development to meet NASA’s needs, and an

increased awareness of science and technology.

Space Competitions 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

8 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
This survey of U.S. ELVs is divided into four sections. The first reviews the ELVs currently available

to serve a wide range of commercial and government

payloads. The second reviews a number of proposed

commercial ELVs under study or development that

will primarily serve small commercial payloads at

prices that are potentially much lower than available

today. The third discusses the new launch vehicles

being developed exclusively to support the Vision

for Space Exploration. The final section reviews

suborbital sounding rockets manufactured and 

operated by U.S. companies.

Current Expendable 

Launch Vehicle Systems

Table 1, on the next page, lists the ELV

systems available in the United States today for

commercial, government, or both, missions. The

Minotaur is restricted to government payloads, and

Boeing is currently marketing the Delta 4 only to

government customers. With the 2005 retirement of

the Titan 4, all large U.S. government payloads are

launched on variants of the Atlas 5 and Delta 4,

developed for the EELV program. Atlas 5, Delta 2,

Pegasus, and Taurus vehicles are available for commercial and U.S. government launches; the Zenit-3SL

is available only to commercial customers.

Atlas 5 – Lockheed Martin Corporation/ULA

Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch

Services provides the Atlas 5 launch vehicle family

to commercial customers worldwide. Atlas 5 is 

produced by the ULA, a joint venture of The Boeing

Company and Lockheed Martin Corporation.

Government launches of the Atlas 5 are provided

directly from ULA. The Atlas launch vehicle family

traces its roots to the development of the Atlas

intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) in the

1950s. Today, the Atlas 5 represents the Atlas family, replacing the older Atlas 2 and Atlas 3 vehicles,

which were retired in 2004 and 2005, respectively.

The maiden flight of the Atlas 5 took place 

on August 21, 2002, when an Atlas 5 401 vehicle

successfully launched the Eutelsat Hot Bird 6

spacecraft from CCAFS. Atlas 5 is now Lockheed

Martin’s sole commercial launch vehicle for the

foreseeable future. This family of launch vehicles 

is based on a common liquid 

oxygen (LOX)/kerosene first stage

design—known as the Common

Core BoosterTM—powered by the

NPO Energomash RD-180 engine

introduced on the Atlas 3. The 

second stage of the Atlas may be

single or dual engine, with a

stretched version of the Centaur

upper stage, which was introduced

on the Atlas 3B.

Compared to previous versions, Atlas 5 marks

a significant departure in launch preparations. Using

a “clean pad” concept at Launch Complex (LC) 41

at CCAFS, the vehicle is prepared for launch “off

pad” vertically in the Vertical Integration Facility

near the pad. One day before a launch, the fullyprepared vehicle is moved to the pad. Beginning 

in 2007, the Atlas 5 will also launch from LC-3E 

at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California.

Except for the use of the more traditional “stack on

pad” concept from the heritage launch vehicle programs, the operating processes used at LC-41 will

be employed.

The Atlas 5 is available in the 400 and 500

series and accommodates 4-meter (13.1-foot) and

5-meter (16.4-foot) fairings and up to five strap-on

solid rocket motors. The Atlas 400 series can place

payloads between 4,950 and 7,640 kilograms (10,910

and 16,843 pounds) into geosynchronous transfer

orbit (GTO). The Atlas 500 series can place payloads

between 3,970 and 8,670 kilograms (8,750 and

19,120 pounds) into GTO. One commercial Atlas 5

launch took place on April 20, 2006, carrying the

Astra 1KR satellite. Additionally, the NASA New

Horizons satellite was launched on January 19, 2006.

One commercial and five government launches are

currently scheduled for 2007.1

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 9

Expendable Launch Vehicles

Atlas 5
Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

Delta 2 – The Boeing Company/ULA

Boeing Launch Services provides the Delta 2

launch vehicle family, produced by ULA, to commercial customers worldwide. Government launches

of the Delta 2 are available directly from ULA. The

Delta family of launch vehicles traces its heritage to

the Thor missile program of the 1950s. Like the

Atlas program, the Delta family has undergone a

transition prompted by the introduction of the Delta 4

vehicles developed under the EELV program.

The Delta 2 uses a

LOX/kerosene first stage and a

nitrogen tetraoxide and hydrazine

second stage. An optional solidpropellant upper stage is available.

The Delta 2 also uses between

three and nine strap-on solid rocket

motors, depending on the performance required. A “Heavy”

version of the Delta 2 entered

service on July 7, 2003, with the

launch of NASA’s Mars

Medium

Vehicle Minotaur Pegasus XL Taurus XL Delta 2 Delta 4 Atlas 5* Delta 4 Heavy Zenit-3SL

Company

Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences

Orbital 

Sciences Boeing/ULA Boeing/ULA

Lockheed 

Martin/ULA Boeing/ULA Sea Launch

First Launch 2000 1990 1994 1990 2002 2002 2004 1999

9,150 kg

(20,170 lb)

(Delta 4M)

12,500 kg

(27,560 lb)

(Atlas 5-400)

13,360 kg

(29,440 lb)

(Delta 4M+ (5,4))

20,520 kg 

(45,240 lb) 

(Atlas 5-500)

7,510 kg 

(16,550 lb) 

(Delta 4 M)

11,300 kg (24,920 

lb) 

(Delta 4M+ (5,4))

4,300 kg 

(9.480 lb) 

(Delta 4 M)

4,950 kg 

(10,910 lb) 

(Atlas 5-400)

7,020 kg 

(15,470 lb) 

(Delta 4 M+ (5,4))

8,670 kg 

(19,110 lb) 

(Atlas 5-500)

* Atlas 5 launches from VAFB are scheduled to begin in 2007.

12,980 kg 

(28,620 lb)

6,100 kg 

(13,500 lb)

CCAFS CCAFS, VAFB Pacific 

Ocean

22,560 kg 

(49,740 lb) N/A

N/A 21,140 kg 

(46,600 lb) N/A

2

Intermediate Heavy

2 2 3

CCAFS, VAFB

Small

4 3

1,590 kg

(3,505 lb)

860 kg

(2,000 lb)

(SSO)

VAFB

430 kg

(950 lb)

CCAFS, VAFB

6,100 kg

(13,440 lb)

VAFB, 

Wallops

Stages 4 3

640 kg

(1,410 lb)

440 kg

(970 lb)

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO)

2,170 kg

(4,790 lb)

3,600 kg

(7,930 lb)

Payload 

Performance

(LEO polar)

Launch Sites

340 kg

(750 lb)

(SSO)

190 kg

(420 lb)

(SSO)

VAFB, 

Wallops, 

CCAFS

Payload 

Performance 

(GTO)

N/A N/A

Table 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch Vehicles

10 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Delta 2
Exploration Rover-B “Opportunity” spacecraft.

This vehicle uses larger graphite-epoxy motor

(GEM), 46-in diameter strap-on boosters. 

The Delta 2 has the capability to launch 

payloads of 900 to 2,170 kg (1,980 to 4,790 lb) 

to GTO, and 2,700 to 6,100 kg (5,960 to 13,440 lb)

to low Earth orbit (LEO), and can launch from either

CCAFS or VAFB. The Delta 2 is expected to remain

in service through 2012, primarily launching military

and civil government payloads. Six government

Delta 2 launches occurred in 2006. As many as four

commercial and eight government launches are

scheduled in 2007.

Delta 4 – The Boeing Company/ULA

The Delta 4 family of launch

vehicles has a common booster

core first stage that uses the first

new large liquid rocket engine

developed in the United States

since the Space Shuttle Main

Engine (SSME) in the 1970s. This

engine, the Rocketdyne RS-68, is

based on the J-2 engine used on

the second stage of the Saturn 5

launch vehicle and technology from

the SSME. However, the RS-68 is

larger and simpler than the SSME.

Depending on customer needs, the Delta 4 can be

configured with two or four solid-fuel strap-on

boosters, two upper stage versions, and three payload

fairings. This vehicle can be launched from VAFB

and CCAFS. The first Delta 4 launch took place 

on November 20, 2002, successfully lofting the

Eutelsat W5 spacecraft from CCAFS.The first VAFB

launch of a Delta 4, carrying a classified NRO payload, took place on June 27, 2006.2

A distinctive design feature of the Delta 4 

is its use of horizontal integration. The vehicle is

assembled, tested, and prepared for launch horizontally, away from the launch pad. When integration

is complete, the vehicle is moved to the pad, raised,

and launched in a relatively short period. In addition

to making the launch vehicle easier to work on by

keeping it closer to the ground, this integration

method greatly reduces time spent occupying the

launch pad. United Launch Alliance expects to reduce

pad time from 24 days for the Delta 2 to a period of

about a week for the Delta 4.

United Launch Alliance offers five versions of

the Delta 4 to address a broad range of payload mass

classes. These include four medium versions, each

with one common booster core, and one heavy-lift

version that uses three parallel common booster core

stages. Three of these versions, the Delta 4 MediumPlus vehicles, were originally optimized for commercial use. The Medium and Heavy versions were

largely intended for government use, but now all five

configurations are used for government missions.

Payload capacities to LEO range from 9,150

kilograms (20,170 pounds) for the Medium to

22,560 kilograms (49,740 pounds) for the Heavy.

Geosynchronous transfer orbit capacities range

from 4,300 to 12,980 kilograms (9,480 to 28,620

pounds). Three Delta 4 launches occurred in 2006,

including the first from VAFB, and three launches

are scheduled in 2007.

Minotaur 1 and 4 – Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Under the U.S. Air Force’s

Orbital/Suborbital Program (OSP),

Orbital Sciences Corporation has

developed two space launch vehicles as part of the Minotaur family

of launch vehicles. The Minotaur 1

was developed by Orbital to launch

small government payloads. The

Minotaur 1 booster uses a combination of rocket motors from

decommissioned Minuteman 2

ICBMs and upper stages from

Orbital’s Pegasus launch vehicle.

The first two stages of the Minotaur are Minuteman 2

M-55A1 and SR-19 motors.

The upper two stages are Orion 50 XL and

Orion 38 motors from the Pegasus XL. All four

stages use solid propellants. Two Minotaur 1 launches

occurred in 2006, including one from the Mid-Atlantic

Regional Spaceport (MARS) in Virginia, and two

launches are scheduled in 2007.

Orbital Sciences will also operate the Minotaur 4

space launch vehicle, which uses stages from former

U.S. Peacekeeper missiles. Minotaur 4 can deliver a

larger payload to orbit than the Minotaur 1. It will

launch a payload weighing approximately 1,750

kilograms (3,860 pounds) to LEO. The Minotaur 4

is expected to enter service no earlier than 2008.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 11

Delta 4

Minotaur
Pegasus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

Pegasus is an air-launched ELV used to place

small payloads into a variety of low Earth orbits.

Developed by Orbital Sciences in the late 1980s

entirely with private capital, Pegasus became the

first commercial air-launched system. The Pegasus

booster has three solid propellant stages and an

optional hydrazine monopropellant upper stage.

The booster is carried aloft under Orbital

Sciences’ “Stargazer” L-1011 carrier aircraft to an

altitude of 11,900 meters (39,000 feet), where it is

released. (Early Pegasus launches used a B-52 aircraft leased from NASA.) The booster drops for five

seconds in a stable horizontal position before igniting

its first stage motor and beginning its ascent to orbit.

The original Pegasus booster entered service in 1990.

Orbital Sciences created a new version of the Pegasus,

the Pegasus XL, with stretched first and second

stages to enhance the payload capacity of the booster.

While the first Pegasus XL launch was in 1994, the

first successful Pegasus XL flight did not occur until

1996. The original, or standard, version of the Pegasus

was retired in 2000, and only the Pegasus XL is used

today. The air-launched nature of the Pegasus allows

launches from a number of different facilities, depending on the orbital requirements of the payload.

Pegasus launches have been staged from seven 

sites to date: Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB) and

VAFB in California; CCAFS and KSC in Florida;

NASA Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) in Virginia;

Kwajalein Missile Range, Marshall Islands; and

Gando Air Force Base (AFB), Canary Islands.

NASA certified Pegasus to carry the highest

value satellites (Category Three Certification)

because of its demonstrated reliability record.

Pegasus has launched its last 23 missions successfully. One Pegasus XL launched in 2006, carrying

the three Space Technology 5 microsatellites for

NASA. Up to two launches are planned for 2007.

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Taurus ELV is a groundlaunched vehicle based on the airlaunched Pegasus. Orbital Sciences

developed the Taurus under the

sponsorship of the Defense

Advanced Research Projects

Agency (DARPA) to develop a

standard launch vehicle to be set up

quickly in new locations to launch

small satellites that are too large for the Pegasus XL.

The Taurus uses the three stages of a Pegasus XL,

without wings or stabilizers, stacked atop a Castor

120 solid rocket motor that serves as the first stage of

the Taurus. The Taurus successfully completed six of

seven launch attempts since entering service in 1994.

No Taurus launches took place in 2006, none are

planned for 2007, and two are scheduled for 2008.

Zenit-3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC

The Zenit-3SL is a

Ukrainian-Russian launch vehicle

operated by Sea Launch Company,

LLC, a multinational joint venture

of four partners. Ukrainian companies SDO Yuzhnoye and PO

Yuzhmash provide the first two

stages. A single engine, using LOX/

kerosene propellants, powers each

stage. These stages are the same as

those used on the Zenit 2 launch

vehicle. A Russian company, RSC Energia, provides

the third stage, a Block DM-SL upper stage, which

also uses LOX/kerosene propellants. The Boeing

Company provides the payload fairing and interfaces,

as well as operations and business management. 

The Zenit-3SL launches from the Odyssey

Launch Platform, which travels from its Sea Launch

Home Port in Long Beach, California, to a position

on the Equator in the Pacific Ocean for each mission.

Launch operations are remotely controlled from a

separate vessel, the Sea Launch Commander, which

is positioned 5 kilometers (3 miles) uprange from

the platform during launch operations. While Sea

Launch conducts commercial launches with a

license from FAA, the multinational nature of the

system prevents it from carrying U.S. government

payloads. Five successful Zenit-3SL launches took

place in 2006, the most to date in a single calendar

year; six launches are planned for 2007.

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

12 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Pegasus XL

Taurus

Zenit-3SL
ELV Development Efforts

A number of efforts by both established 

corporations and startups are currently in progress

to develop new ELVs. The majority of these designs

focus on the small payload sector of the launch

market, with the goal of placing payloads as small

as a few hundred pounds into LEO. A limited market

currently exists for such launches, so the success of

these vehicles may rely on the ability to reduce

launch costs enough to enable new markets. 

ALV – Alliant Techsystems

In October 2006, ATK of

Edina, Minnesota, announced it

was developing a small launch

vehicle, the ATK Launch Vehicle

(ALV). The ALV is based on

sounding rocket technologies that

have been developed by the company. ATK carried out a successful

“pathfinder” for the ALV by

assembling the vehicle on the 

pad at MARS in 2006. The first

launch of the two-stage ALV, a

suborbital flight designated 

ALV X-1 and carrying two NASA experimental

hypersonic and reentry research payloads, is scheduled for 2007 from MARS in Virginia. ATK plans 

to eventually offer the ALV for government and

commercial customers seeking responsive launches

of small satellites.3

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral

Space Systems/Loral of Palo Alto, California,

has proposed Aquarius, a low-cost launch vehicle

designed to carry small, inexpensive payloads into

LEO. This vehicle is primarily intended to launch

inexpensive-to-replace bulk products, such as

water, fuel, and other consumables, into space. As

currently designed, Aquarius will be a single-stage

vehicle 43 meters (141

feet) high and 4 meters

(13.1 feet) in diameter,

powered by a single

engine using liquid

hydrogen and oxygen

propellants. The vehicle

is floated in the ocean

before launch to minimize launch infrastructure and will be able to

place a 1,000-kilogram

(2,200-pound) payload into a 200-kilometer (125-

mile), 52-degree orbit. Located in the base of the

vehicle, the payload will be extracted by an orbiting

space tug for transfer to its ultimate destination.

When used for small satellite launch, Aquarius can

dispense multiple satellites into nominally 200-kilometer (125-mile) orbits at any desired inclination, as

launching at appropriate ocean locations virtually

eliminates range constraints on the trajectory. After

payload deployment is completed, the vehicle will

de-orbit and be destroyed. Planned launch costs are

$1-2 million per flight.4

Previous work on Aquarius includes a study

of the launch concept funded by the California

Space Authority in 2002. Space Systems/Loral, 

in conjunction with Aerojet, a GenCorp Company

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 13

Vehicle: ATK Launch Vehicle

Developer: Alliant Techsystems

First Launch: 2007

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 1,360 kg (3,000 lb) suborbital

Launch Site: MARS

Markets Served: Responsive launches of small satellites for civil, commercial, and military customers

ALV

Vehicle: Aquarius

Developer: Space Systems/Loral

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1

Payload Performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to LEO (52o)

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: ISS and spacecraft resupply, small

satellite launch

Aquarius

Aquarius mission profile
based in Sacramento, California, and ORBITEC 

of Madison, Wisconsin, has performed studies on 

a vortex combustion cold wall engine, using LOX

and liquid hydrogen propellants that would be used

on Aquarius. Research on the Aquarius concept

includes studies of propellant transfer, analyses of

floating launch, and development and testing of an

engine with 133,000 to 445,000 newtons (30,000 

to 100,000 pounds-force) of thrust. Space Systems/

Loral submitted a proposal to NASA for its COTS

demonstration program, using Aquarius to send cargo

to the ISS, but was not selected to receive funding.5

Eagle S-series – 

E’Prime Aerospace Corporation

E’Prime Aerospace of

Titusville, Florida, is developing 

a family of launch vehicles, called

the Eagle S-series, based on the

LGM-118A Peacekeeper ICBM

design. Like the Peacekeeper, this

vehicle will be ejected from a

ground-based silo, using a compressed gas system. At an altitude

of 61 meters (200 feet), the engines

will ignite. The smallest vehicle,

the Eaglet, could launch 580 kilograms (1,280 pounds) into LEO. A somewhat larger

version, the Eagle, could put 1,360 kilograms (3,000

pounds) into LEO. Both vehicles will use solid 

propellant lower stages and liquid propellant upper

stages. E’Prime has also proposed larger vehicles,

designated S-1 through S-7, with the ability to place

considerably larger payloads into LEO and to add a

geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) capability. The

Eagle S-series concept dates back to 1987 when the

company signed a commercialization agreement with

the U.S. Air Force to use Peacekeeper technology

for commercial launch vehicles. 

In February 2001, E’Prime signed an agreement

with NASA, giving the company use of available

property and services on a non-interference basis.

For equatorial orbits, E’Prime plans to launch the

Eaglet and Eagle, and the company’s entire canister

launch program from facilities at KSC that the

company has yet to construct. Plans to launch from

MARS for equatorial orbits and from the Kodiak

Launch Complex (KLC) in Alaska for polar orbits

are also under consideration. In 2004, the company

entered into a partnership with the Department of

Energy’s Savannah River National Laboratory near

Aiken, South Carolina, to develop technologies for

the Eagle S-series of launch vehicles and related

systems. The company has yet to make appreciable

progress in the development of any S-series launch

vehicle. In August 2006, Oldham Group, Incorporated,

of Tennessee acquired a controlling stake in E’Prime

Aerospace for an undisclosed sum.6

FALCON SLV – 

Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations

Lockheed Martin Michoud

Operations of New Orleans,

Louisiana, was awarded one of

four DARPA Force Application

and Launch from CONUS (FALCON) contracts, valued at $11.7

million, in September 2004 to

develop concepts for a low-cost launch vehicle.

Lockheed Martin’s FALCON SLV approach uses

all-hybrid propulsion and a mobile launch system

that can launch from an unimproved site with limited infrastructure on 24 hours notice, placing up to

840 kilograms (1,855 pounds) into LEO. In 2005,

Lockheed conducted two test firings of the hybrid

rocket motor that will be used on the upper stage of

the SLV. Though Lockheed did not win a Phase 2B

Falcon contract from DARPA in late 2005, the

company continues work on the FALCON SLV,

focusing on the development and testing of the 

second stage of the vehicle.7

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

14 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Eaglet/Eagle

Developer: E’Prime Aerospace

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 580 kg (1,280 lb) to LEO

(Eaglet); 1,360 kg (3,000 lb) to LEO (Eagle)

Launch Site: KSC, WFF, CCAFS, Kodiak

Markets Served: Small satellite launch

Eaglet and Eagle

Vehicle: FALCON SLV

Developer: Lockheed Martin Michoud Operations

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 840 kg (1,855 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

FALCON SLV
Nanosat Launch Vehicle – 

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation (GSC), based in 

Long Beach, California, is a small

research and development (R&D)

company, focusing on the development of advanced space technologies and launch vehicle systems. 

As part of the California Launch

Vehicle Initiative (CALVEIN),

GSC and California State

University, Long Beach (CSULB)

jointly conduct preliminary R&D

tasks to establish the foundation

for development of a two-stage, liquid propellant,

Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV). Capable of delivering 10 kilograms (22 pounds) to a 250-kilometer

(155-mile) polar orbit, the NLV will provide lowcost, dedicated launch services to universities and

other research organizations that traditionally depend

on secondary payload opportunities to access space.

Their current work builds upon flights that the 

team conducted using several of its LOX/ethanol

Prospector research vehicles. The company’s most

visible accomplishments include the first-ever flight

of a composite LOX tank, conducted in partnership

with Microcosm, Incorporated; the first-ever powered flights of a liquid-propellant aerospike engine;

and the launch and 100 percent recovery of several

prototype reusable test vehicles. 

In 2006, GSC performed two low-altitude

flights of the Prospector 7 (P-7) vehicle, a full-scale

NLV prototype that first flew in 2005. The P-7C

flight, which took place on April 29, 2006, from the

Mojave Desert, carried an experimental Launch

Hardware Tracker instrument for the Aerospace

Corporation.8 The P-7D flight, the last for the P-7

vehicle, took place on September 28, 2006, from

San Nicholas Island off the coast of Southern

California, and was designed to be a pathfinder 

for responsive launch operations at a remote site.

Additional Prospector vehicles are being built for

launch in the next few years, with development of

the full-scale NLV to follow.9

Eagle SLV – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm, Incorporated,

of El Segundo, California, has

been developing the Scorpius

family of ELVs. Several prototypes are under consideration,

and two suborbital test models,

SR-S and SR-XM-1, flew 

successfully from White Sands

Missile Range, New Mexico,

in 1999 and 2001, respectively.

Eventually Microcosm plans to market up to eight

Scorpius variants. Each Scorpius variant is based

on a scaleable modular design featuring simple,

LOX/Jet-A, pressure-fed motors without turbopumps

and low-cost avionics equipped with GPS/INS

(global positioning system/inertial navigation system).

The orbital variants will have three stages and feature

thick fuel tanks for added durability during flight. 

The Scorpius system is designed simply in order

to maximize the cost savings and quick launch pad

turnaround times sought by government-sponsored

responsive space initiatives. As a first step, the test

launches of the suborbital SR-S and SR-XM-1

vehicles demonstrated the ability of Scorpius to be

ready for flight within eight hours of arrival at the

launch pad, using a crew of under 15. The SR-S

vehicle is advertised as able to loft 200 kilograms

(440 pounds) suborbitally. The SR-M would loft

1,089 kilograms (2,400 pounds) suborbitally.

Six orbital variants are planned. The Sprite

SLV is projected to loft up to 475 kilograms (1,050

pounds) to LEO. Eagle SLV would loft up to 670

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 15

Vehicle: Nanosat Launch Vehicle

Developer: Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 10 kg (22 lb) to LEO (polar orbit)

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Nanosatellite launch

NLV

Vehicle: Eagle SLV

Developer: Microcosm, Inc.

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 3

Payload Performance: 670 kg (1,470 lb) to LEO, 330 kg

(730 lb) to SSO

Launch Site: VAFB, WFF, CCAFS

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

Eagle SLV
kilograms (1,470 pounds) to LEO. The Liberty Light

Lift vehicle would loft up to 1,270 kilograms (2,800

pounds) to LEO. Microcosm’s intermediate-, medium-,

and heavy-lift Scorpius variants will deploy payloads

to LEO and GTO. The Antares Intermediate-Lift

vehicle will deploy up to 2,676 kilograms (5,900

pounds) to LEO and up to 885 kilograms (1,950

pounds) to GTO. The Exodus Medium-Lift vehicle

would deploy up to 6,713 kilograms (14,800 pounds)

to LEO and up to 2,327 kilograms (5,130 pounds) to

GTO. Specifications for the heavy-lift Space

Freighter are not yet available.

Microcosm received one of four contracts,

valued at $10.5 million, from DARPA in September

2004 for Phase 2 of the Falcon small launch vehicle

program to support development of the Eagle SLV.

However, the company was notified in August 2005

that it had not been selected for further work on the

program. The company had been continuing development of the Scorpius vehicle concept under a separate

DoD contract, but that funding ran out in September

2006, forcing Microcosm to suspend work on the

project.10 The company is continuing work on the

suborbital SR-M vehicle under a Missile Defense

Agency (MDA)/Air Force Research Laboratory

(AFRL) contract while it looks for additional funding

to restart development of the Sprite SLV.11

QuickReach – AirLaunch LLC

AirLaunch LLC, based

in Kirkland, Washington, is

leading the development of a

small, low-cost, air-launched

vehicle for defense and other

applications. The two-stage

rocket is carried aloft inside

a cargo aircraft, such as a 

C-17A or other large cargo

aircraft. The rocket is released from the aircraft at an

altitude of 7,600 to 10,700 meters (25,000 to 35,000

feet) and fires its liquid-propellant engines to ascend

to orbit. The vehicle is designed to place a 450-kilogram (1,000-pound) payload into LEO for less than

$5 million.

AirLaunch received a 1-year, $17.8-million

contract under Phase 2B of the DARPA/U.S. Air

Force Falcon small launch vehicle program in

November 2005. During this contract, AirLaunch

developed and tested a number of key vehicle subsystems, including the stage separation system and

the second-stage engine, and completed an incremental Critical Design Review. Within the last year,

AirLaunch performed two drop tests of full-sized

replicas of the QuickReach vehicle from C-17 aircraft, including a July 26, 2006, test where the simulated vehicle had the same mass, 32,700 kilograms

(72,000 pounds), and length, 20 meters (66 feet), as

an actual vehicle.12 DARPA and the Air Force are

expected to make a decision in early 2007 whether

to proceed on Phase 2C of the contract. Phase 2

concludes with the test launch of a QuickReach

rocket in approximately 2009.

Z-1 – Zig Aerospace, LLC 

Zig Aerospace of King George, Virginia, is

developing the Z-1 small launch vehicle. Intended

to launch nanosatellites and similar small payloads,

Z-1 has a maximum payload capacity of five kilograms (11 pounds) to LEO. The two-stage vehicle,

powered by hybrid propellants, is intended to cost

less than $200,000 per launch. Zig Aerospace is in

the midst of a 3-year development program. Once

the Z-1 vehicle enters operations, the company

expects to be able to conduct launches as frequently

as once a month.13

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

16 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: QuickReach

Developer: AirLaunch LLC

First Launch: 2009

Number of Stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)

Payload Performance: 450 kg (1,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: Air launched

Markets Served: Small satellite launch, responsive

space operations

QuickReach

Vehicle: Z-1

Developer: Zig Aerospace, LLC

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 5 kg (11 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: TBD

Markets Served: Nanosatellite launch, responsive space

operations
Zenit-3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, and

Space International Services

The Sea Launch Board of

Directors voted on September 30,

2003, to offer launch services

from the Baikonur Space Center

in Kazakhstan, in addition to its

sea-based launches at the Equator.

The new offering, Land Launch,

is based on the collaboration of

Sea Launch Company and Space

International Services, of Russia,

to meet the launch needs of commercial customers with medium

weight satellites. The Land

Launch system uses a version of the Sea Launch

Zenit-3SL rocket, the Zenit-3SLB, to lift commercial satellites in the 2,000 to 3,600-kilogram (4,410

to 7,940-pound) range to GTO and heavier payloads to inclined or lower orbits. The three stages

on the Zenit-3SLB are the same as those on the Sea

Launch Zenit-3SL; the fairing is the only significant difference between the two vehicles. A twostage configuration of the same rocket, the Zenit2SLB, is also available for launching heavy payloads, or groups of payloads, to LEO. Payloads and

vehicles will be processed and launched from existing Zenit facilities at the Baikonur launch site. The

first Land Launch mission, carrying the Intelsat-11

satellite (formerly PAS-11) for Intelsat, is scheduled

for 2007. To date, Sea Launch, which manages

marketing and sales for this new offering (in addition to its sea-based missions), has received six

commercial orders for the Land Launch service.

NASA Exploration Launch Vehicles

On September 19, 2005, NASA announced 

its planned mission architecture for crewed lunar

missions. The plan calls for the development of two

new launch vehicles, the Crew Launch Vehicle (since

renamed the Ares 1) and the Cargo Launch Vehicle

(renamed the Ares 5). Both vehicles are designed to

leverage Shuttle and even Apollo-era technologies

to launch crewed and uncrewed spacecraft required

to carry out the Vision for Space Exploration.

Ares 1

The Ares 1 Crew Launch Vehicle is a two-stage

vehicle designed principally to launch NASA’s Orion

CEV into LEO and may also be used to launch cargo

spacecraft to the ISS. The first stage of the Ares 1 is

a five-segment reusable solid rocket motor (RSRM)

derived from the four-segment boosters used in the

Space Shuttle program. The second stage is a new

design powered by a single J-2X engine (based on

the J-2S engine developed at the end of the Apollo

program in the early 1970s) using LOX and liquid

hydrogen propellants. The Orion spacecraft, along

with an escape rocket, will be mounted on top of the

second stage.14

Development of the Ares 1 is currently in

progress. In 2006, NASA awarded contracts to 

ATK Thiokol to develop the first stage and to Pratt &

Whitney Rocketdyne for the J-2X engine. The first

test flight of the Ares 1, planned for April 2009,

will be a suborbital launch with an inert second

stage. The Ares 1 is scheduled to enter service no

later than 2014.15

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 17

Vehicle: Zenit-3SLB

Developer: Space International Services

First Launch: 2007

Number of Stages: 3

Payload Performance: 3,600 kg (7,940 lb) to GTO

Launch Site: Baikonur

Markets Served: Commercial GEO satellite launch

Zenit-3SLB

Vehicle: Ares 1

Developer: NASA

First Launch: 2009

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 22,700 kg (50,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: KSC

Markets Served: Crew launches for exploration and possibly ISS missions
Ares 5

The Ares 5 Cargo Launch

Vehicle is a two-stage, heavy-lift

vehicle that NASA will use to

carry out human missions to the

Moon and other destinations. The

Ares 5 uses two, five-segment

RSRMs similar to those developed

for the Ares 1 vehicle, attached to

either side of a core propulsion

stage. The core stage features five

RS-68 engines, the same LOX and

liquid hydrogen engines as those

used currently on the Delta 4

family of vehicles. Under the current exploration architecture, an Ares 5 vehicle

would place a lunar module and Earth departure stage

into LEO, where the module would dock with an

Orion spacecraft launched separately by an Ares 1.

The combined vehicle would then leave Earth orbit

for the Moon. A detailed development plan for the

Ares 5 has not been announced.16

Sounding Rockets

In addition to orbital launch vehicles, a number

of suborbital ELVs, or sounding rockets, are in use

today. These vehicles, which use solid propellants,

support a variety of applications, including astronomical observations, atmospheric research, and

microgravity experiments. 

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited

Over 800 Black Brant rockets have been

launched since 1962, when manufacturing of the

vehicle began. Versions of the Black Brant can

carry payloads ranging from 70 to 850 kilograms

(154 to 1,874 pounds) to altitudes from 150 to more

than 1,500 kilometers (93 to 932 miles), and can

provide up to 20 minutes of microgravity time 

during a flight. The Black Brant and

Nihka motors used on some Black

Brant versions are manufactured 

in Canada by Bristol Aerospace

Limited (a Magellan Aerospace

Company). Nike, Talos, and Taurus

motors used on other Black Brant

versions are built in the United

States. The launch operator integrates these vehicles. In the United

States, NASA has been a frequent

user of Black Brant vehicles. 

The smallest version of the Black Brant family

is the single-stage Black Brant 5, which is 533 

centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters

(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces an

average thrust of 75,731 newtons (17,025 poundsforce). The Black Brant 5 motor is used as the second

or third stage in larger, multi-stage versions of the

Black Brant. The most powerful of the line, Black

Brant 12, is a four-stage vehicle that uses the Black

Brant 5 motor as its third stage. This vehicle can

launch a 113-kilogram (250-pound) payload to an

altitude of at least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), or

a 454-kilogram (1,000-pound) payload to an altitude

of at least 400 kilometers (250 miles). 

Oriole – DTI Associates

SPACEHAB’s Astrotech

Space Operations developed the

Oriole sounding rocket in the late

1990s to provide launch services

for commercial and scientific payloads. Oriole was both the first

privately developed sounding

rocket in the United States and

the first new U.S. sounding rocket

in 25 years. The Oriole is a single-stage vehicle with a graphiteepoxy motor manufactured by

Alliant Missile Products

Company of Rocket Center, West Virginia. It is 396

centimeters (156 inches) long, 56 centimeters (22

inches) in diameter, and generates an average thrust

of 92,100 newtons (20,700 pounds-force). The vehicle provides payloads with six to nine minutes of

microgravity during flight. Additionally, it can be

combined with other motors to create two-stage

sounding rockets, with the Oriole serving as the

second stage. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

18 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Ares 5 and Ares 1

Vehicle: Ares 5

Developer: NASA

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 131,500 kg (290,000 lb) to LEO

Launch Site: KSC

Markets Served: Cargo launches for exploration 

missions

Black Brant

Oriole
The first Oriole launch took place from NASA

WFF on July 7, 2000. That launch used a two-stage

configuration, with the Oriole serving as the second

stage and a Terrier Mk 12 motor serving as the first

stage. The Oriole sounding rocket reached a peak

altitude of 385.6 kilometers (229 miles) 315 seconds

after launch during the ten-minute test flight. In July

2001, SPACEHAB’s Astrotech Space Operations sold

the Oriole program to DTI Associates of Arlington,

Virginia, which integrates the vehicle and offers it

commercially. A production run of 15 Oriole rockets

is scheduled for delivery in late 2007, and one

Oriole launch is planned for 2007.

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates

The Terrier-Orion is a twostage, spin-stabilized sounding

rocket, which uses a Terrier Mk 12

Mod 1 engine for its first stage and

an improved Orion motor for its

second stage. The Terrier Mk Mod 1

is a surplus U.S. Navy missile motor;

Orion is a surplus U.S. Army missile

motor. The Terrier-Orion is 10.7

meters (35.1 feet) long. The Terrier

stage is 46 centimeters (18 inches)

in diameter, and the Orion is 36

centimeters (14 inches) in diameter.

The Terrier-Orion can loft payloads

weighing up to 290 kilograms (640 pounds) to altitudes up to 190 kilometers (118 miles). 

A more powerful version of the Terrier-Orion

rocket uses the Terrier Mk 70 motor as its first

stage. This version was used for two FAA-licensed

suborbital launches performed by Astrotech Space

Operations/DTI at the Woomera Instrumented Range

in Australia in 2001 and 2002. The second flight, in

July 2002, successfully flew the HyShot scramjet

engine experiment. DTI Associates of Arlington,

Virginia, now markets and offers integration services

for the Terrier-Orion after purchasing all intellectual

property rights to the rocket from SPACEHAB in

July 2001. Six Terrier-Orion rockets were launched

in 2006 and six are scheduled for launch in 2007.

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – 

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

is developing a hybrid sounding

rocket (HYSR) program with

NASA Marshall Space Flight

Center (MSFC). A Space Act

Agreement between NASA

MSFC and Lockheed MartinMichoud Operations enabled 

collaboration on this new technology. Development ground testing

(hardware qualification) occurred

at NASA Stennis Space Center

between 2000 and 2001. This 

testing concluded with a successful demonstration

flight of a prototype sounding rocket from NASA

WFF in December 2002. The flight demonstration

vehicle was a 17-meter (57-foot) long sounding

rocket using liquid oxygen and solid fuel, a rubberized compound known as hydroxyl terminated

polybutadiene (HTPB). The rocket generated

267,000 newtons (60,000 pounds-force) of thrust

during a burn time of 31 seconds, and reached an

altitude of approximately 43 miles. 

In 2004, further testing of the HYSR motors

occurred at NASA Stennis Space Center. These tests

demonstrated the structural integrity of Lockheed

Martin-Michoud’s fuel-grain design and are facilitating development of advanced state-of-the-art

hybrid rocket motors. 

Norwegian Sounding Rocket Program –

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Lockheed Martin-Michoud is also engaged in

the Pantera Program, which provides a laser-enabled,

in-flight, targeting system for the Royal Norwegian

Air Force. The Norwegian company, Nammo

Raufoss AS, will build the single-stage rocket.

Lockheed Martin-Michoud will provide the design,

engineering schematics, and vehicle assembly plan.

The hybrid rocket will use liquid oxygen and 

rubberized HTPB as fuel, have a 31,000-newton

(7,000-pound-force) thrust, and have a burn time 

of 30 to 35 seconds. Its peak altitude is expected to

be between 55 and 75 kilometers (34 and 57 miles).

Lockheed Martin-Michoud obtained an International

Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) Manufacturing

License Agreement from the U.S. Government to

gain approval for the 17-month design and handoff

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 19

Terrier-Orion

HYSR
project. A successful 20-second static firing of the

rocket engine took place August 30, 2005, at Nammo

Raufoss’s test facility in Raufoss, Norway.

SpaceLoft XL – UP Aerospace

UP Aerospace, Incorporated,

headquartered in Farmington,

Connecticut, with business and

engineering offices in Highlands

Ranch, Colorado, has developed

the SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket

for research and commercial

applications. The rocket, 6 meters

(20 feet) tall and 25 centimeters

(10 inches) in diameter, can carry

up to 50 kilograms (110 pounds)

of payload to an altitude of 225

kilometers (140 miles). A smaller

version, the SpaceLoft, can carry

9 kilograms (20 pounds) to an altitude of 130 kilometers (80 miles). UP Aerospace is marketing the

SpaceLoft family of vehicles to serve educational

and research markets, such as microgravity and

atmospheric sciences experiments, as well as commercial applications, including product marketing

and novelty promotion.

The first SpaceLoft XL launch, designated

SL-1, took place on September 25, 2006, from

Spaceport America in New Mexico. However, 9

seconds after launch, at an altitude of 7,300 meters

(24,000 feet), the rocket wobbled, deviated from its

planned trajectory, and reached a peak altitude of

12,800 meters (42,000 feet) instead of the planned

111 kilometers (69.1 miles).17 In November 2006,

the company finished its comprehensive anomaly

investigation and determined the root cause of the

flight anomaly to be a high-speed aerodynamic

instability. Flight hardware corrective actions have

been completed and UP Aerospace plans to carry

out its next flight in 2007.18

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

20 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

SpaceLoft XL
This section describes active and emerging RLV

programs in the United States. Emphasis is placed

on vehicles developed by private companies without

the assistance of the government. Many of these

companies are developing space hardware for the

first time. Government RLV programs are also

included to provide context, particularly since the

Space Shuttle is considered a first-generation RLV.

Experiences gained by operating the Space Shuttle

for more than 20 years have helped solve, as well

as highlight, crucial problems related to the design

of efficient RLV systems. The first subsection

addresses commercial RLV projects underway or 

in development. The second subsection features

government RLV development efforts.

Commercial RLV Development Efforts

Quad – Armadillo Aerospace

Armadillo Aerospace, a former competitor for

the Ansari X Prize, is continuing development of

suborbital, piloted spacecraft. Recent efforts have

focused on a small-scale RLV demonstrator named

Quad. This vehicle features a single LOX and ethanol

engine, surrounded by four spherical propellant tanks,

with electronics and payload boxes on top. Quad 

is designed to take off and land vertically, but is

intended for flights at low altitudes and velocities.

Armadillo Aerospace received an experimental 

permit for the Quad vehicle from the FAA in

October 2006.

One Quad vehicle, named Pixel, made five

flights during the 2006 Wirefly X Prize Cup at Las

Cruces International Airport in New Mexico in an

effort to win the Lunar Lander Challenge competition, part of NASA’s Centennial Challenges program.

The first flight was a vehicle demonstration for the

FAA on October 19, prior to the Lunar Lander competition began. On the second flight, on October 20,

the vehicle flew the required altitude, distance, and

duration, but damaged its landing legs upon landing, preventing a return flight. On its third flight, on

the morning of October 21, the vehicle flew normally but landed on the edge of a concrete pad and

tipped over. A fourth flight, on the afternoon of

October 21, was a success, although one leg buckled

on landing. On its final flight at the event, a return

trip to win the prize purse, the vehicle tilted seconds

after liftoff, triggering an automated shutdown of its

engine; the vehicle fell to the ground but was not

seriously damaged. Armadillo built a second Quad

vehicle, named Texel, but did not fly it at the X

Prize Cup.

Armadillo Aerospace plans to continue development of its Quad vehicles, with the intent to fly

them at the 2007 Lunar Lander Challenge competition. The company is also studying a modular vehicle

approach, called the Large Array of Small Rockets

(LASR), with a single module consisting of two

propellant tanks and one engine from the Quad

vehicle. A vehicle consisting of four such modules

would carry one person to an altitude of 100 

kilometers (62 miles).19

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 21

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Quad

Developer: Armadillo Aerospace

First Launch: 20 October 2006

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 25 kg (55 lb) to 50 m (165 ft) 

Launch Sites: Las Cruces International Airport, New

Mexico 

Targeted Market: Lunar Lander Challenge competition

Quad Lunar Lander vehicle, “Pixel,” in flight 

at 2006 X Prize Cup
New Shepard – Blue Origin

Blue Origin is developing the New Shepard

Reusable Launch System, a suborbital, verticaltakeoff, vertical-landing RLV for commercial passenger spaceflights. The vehicle will consist of a

crew capsule, capable of carrying three or more

people, mounted on top of a propulsion module.

Engines using high-test peroxide (HTP) and

kerosene will power the vehicle. The flights would

take place from a private facility operated by Blue

Origin in Culberson County, Texas.20

As part of the New Shepard development

process, Blue Origin plans to build several prototype vehicles, which will be tested and flown from

their Texas facility. The first such vehicle, powered

by an HTP monopropellant engine, will perform

flights to altitudes of about 600 meters (2,000 feet)

and lasting no longer than 1 minute. In September

2006, the FAA granted Blue Origin an experimental

permit to perform those flight tests. The first 

permitted launch, by a prototype vehicle named

Goddard, occurred on November 13, 2006.21 

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems

Interorbital Systems of Mojave, California, is

developing the Sea Star MSLV for microsatellite

payloads weighing up to 13 kilograms (30 pounds)

and as a testbed for its larger Neptune orbital launch

vehicle. These vehicles are constructed for design

simplicity. Sea Star MSLV is a “stage-and-a-half”

design, similar to the older Atlas rockets, with a

single large booster engine in a module attached to

the aft end of the main structure—jettisoned during

ascent—and four smaller vernier engines on the

main structure. The engines use an “environmentally

friendly” combination of storable hypergolic propellants: inhibited white fuming nitric acid (IWFNA)

and “hydrocarbon X” (HX), a company-proprietary

fuel. The main structures of the rocket, including

the outer shell and propellant tanks, will use carbon

composite materials. 

Sea Star does not require land-based launch

infrastructure. Taking advantage of design elements

derived from submarine-launched ballistic missiles,

this vehicle will float in seawater and launch directly

from the ocean. Interorbital Systems plans to begin

sounding rocket tests of Sea Star components in

2007, with the first launch scheduled from waters off

the California coast in the fourth quarter of 2007.22

Neptune – Interorbital Systems

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

22 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: New Shepard

Developer: Blue Origin

First Launch: no later than 2010

Number of Stages: 1-2

Payload Performance: 3 people to 100 km (62 mi) 

Launch Sites: Culberson County, Texas 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism

Vehicle: Sea Star MSLV

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First Launch: 4th quarter 2007

Number of Stages: 1.5

Payload Performance: 13 kg (30 lb) to LEO 

Launch Sites: Pacific Ocean just west of Los Angeles,

California 

Targeted Market: Microsatellite launches

Vehicle: Neptune

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First Launch: late 2008/early 2009

Number of Stages: 1.5

Payload Performance: 4,500 kg (10,000 lb) to LEO 

Launch Sites: Pacific Ocean just west of Los Angeles,

California 

Targeted Market: Orbital space tourism

Blue Origin's Goddard prototype vehicle 
Neptune is a scaled-up version

of Interorbital Systems’ Sea Star

rocket and is intended to carry passengers into orbit. The Neptune uses the

same stage-and-a-half design of the

Sea Star, with a large engine in a

booster module and four smaller

vernier engines attached to the main

vehicle structure. These engines are

larger versions of the one developed

for Sea Star, generating a total of 

2.5 million newtons (560,000 poundsforce) of thrust at liftoff. The vehicle

can place 4,500 kilograms (10,000

pounds) into a 51-degree, 400-kilometer (250-mile) orbit. The first launch is planned

for late 2008 or 2009 off the California coast.

A unique aspect of the Neptune is that the main

rocket structure, once in orbit, can act as a small

space station. A conical crew module attached to the

top of the rocket, carrying up to five people, would

undock, turn 180 degrees, and dock nose-first with

the orbital station module. The tanks of the module,

spheres 6 meters (20 feet) in diameter, would be

purged of any remaining propellant, then pressurized

to serve as habitation modules. The company has

built a full-sized, six-person crew module 5.2 meters

(17 feet) in diameter and outfitted it for crew and

passenger training at its Mojave, California,

facility.23

XA 1.0 – Masten Space Systems

Masten Space Systems of Mojave, California,

is developing the eXtreme Altitude (XA) series of

suborbital RLVs, initially designed to carry small

research payloads. The first in the series, the XA

1.0, is a vertical-takeoff, vertical-landing vehicle powered by LOX and isopropyl alcohol engines. The

XA 1.0 is designed to carry a 100-kilogram (220-

pound) payload to an altitude of at least 100 kilometers (62 miles),

performing several

such flights per day

at a cost per flight of

$20,000 to $30,000.

The company is selling payload space on

the vehicle for as little

as $99 for a 350-

gram (12-ounce) “CanSat.” Beyond the XA 1.0, the

company has proposed the XA 1.5, which could

carry a 200-kilogram (440-pound) payload to 500

kilometers (310 miles), and the XA 2.0, which would

be able to carry 2,000 kilograms (4,400 pounds) or

five people to 500 kilometers.

As part of the development of the XA 1.0,

Masten is building several prototype vehicles. The

first, the XA 0.1, is scheduled to begin flight tests

in 2007. Larger prototypes, XA 0.2 and XA 0.3,

may also be flown in the 2007 Lunar Lander

Challenge at the X Prize Cup in New Mexico.

K-1 – Rocketplane Kistler

Rocketplane Kistler, the

company formed in March 2006

by the merger of Rocketplane Ltd.

and Kistler Aerospace Corporation,

is actively developing the K-1

orbital RLV. The K-1, whose

design dates back to the mid1990s, is a two-stage RLV capable

of placing up to 5,700 kilograms

(12,500 pounds) into LEO.

Originally developed primarily 

to launch satellites into LEO and

other orbits, the K-1 is now being developed to

serve the ISS cargo and crew resupply market as

well as satellite launch and other applications.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 23

Neptune

Vehicle: XA 1.0

Developer: Masten Space Systems

First Launch: 2008

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 100 kg (220 lb) to 100 km 

(62 mi) 

Launch Sites: TBD 

Targeted Market: Suborbital research payloads

XA 1.0

Vehicle: K-1

Developer: Rocketplane Kistler

First Launch: Late 2008

Number of Stages: 2

Payload Performance: 5,700 kg (12,500 lb) to LEO

Launch Sites: Woomera, Australia; U.S. site TBD

Targeted Market: ISS crew and cargo resupply, satellite

launch, orbital space tourism

K-1
The K-1 employs off-the-shelf technology and

components in its design. Three LOX and kerosene

GenCorp Aerojet AJ26-58/-59 engines, capable of

generating 4.54 million newtons (1.02 million

pounds-force) of thrust, power the Launch Assist

Platform (LAP) or first stage. These engines are U.S.

modifications of the fully developed, extensively

tested core of the NK-33/NK-43 engines, originally

designed for the Soviet lunar program in the 1960s

and subsequently placed in storage for over two

decades. After launch, the LAP separates from the

second stage and restarts its center engine to put the

stage on a return trajectory to a landing area near

the launch site. The LAP deploys parachutes and

descends to the landing area where air bags are

deployed to cushion its landing. The second stage, or

Orbital Vehicle (OV), continues into LEO, powered

by a single Aerojet AJ26-60 engine with a thrust of

1.76 million newtons (395,000 pounds-force). At

the end of its mission, a LOX and ethanol thruster

performs a deorbit burn. The OV lands near the launch

site using a parachute and airbag combination 

similar to the LAP. 

Rocketplane Kistler expects to operate the K-1

from two launch sites: Spaceport Woomera in South

Australia and a site in the United States yet to be 

determined. Kistler Aerospace received authorization

from the Australian government to begin construction of launch facilities in April 1998 and held a

groundbreaking ceremony at the site several months

later. The launch pad design is complete, and

Rocketplane Kistler will conduct its initial K-1

flights and commercial operations from Woomera.

In 1998, Kistler Aerospace signed an agreement

with the Nevada Test Site Development Corporation

to permit Kistler to occupy a segment of the U.S.

Department of Energy, Nevada Test Site, for its

launch operations. The FAA environmental review

process was completed for the project in 2002. The

company is currently examining other options for a

domestic launch site, including CCAFS.

Development of the K-1 had been suspended

for several years, dating back to when Kistler

Aerospace filed for reorganization under Chapter 11

of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code in 2003. At that time,

the first K-1 vehicle was 75 percent complete. After

the merger, Rocketplane Kistler submitted a proposal

to NASA for the COTS demonstration program,

proposing to use the K-1 to transport cargo and

crews to and from the ISS. In August 2006, NASA

selected Rocketplane Kistler as one of the two companies to receive COTS awards, with Rocketplane

Kistler receiving $207 million.24 Rocketplane

Kistler had originally teamed with Orbital Sciences

Corporation to restart work on the K-1, but Orbital

backed out of the agreement in September 2006. The

company has since signed agreements with Andrews

Space, Incorporated, and ATK to manage development of the K-1. As part of the COTS award,

Rocketplane Kistler will carry out two test flights of

the K-1 in late 2008 and early 2009. In addition to

ISS resupply, Rocketplane Kistler is looking at

other markets that could be served by the K-1,

including orbital space tourism and support for the

DoD Operationally Responsive Space program.

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Kistler

Rocketplane Kistler is continuing development

of the Rocketplane XP suborbital RLV. Capable of

160,000 newtons (36,000 pounds-force) of thrust, the

Rocketplane XP is a four-seat vehicle based on a

Learjet, powered by two jet engines and one Polaris

Propulsion AR-36 LOX and kerosene rocket engine.

The Rocketplane XP would take off from an airport

under jet power, fly to an altitude of 9,100 to 12,200

meters (30,000 to 40,000 feet), then ignite its rocket

engine for a 70-second burn, carrying the vehicle to

an altitude of at least 100 kilometers (62 miles). The

vehicle would then fly back to land, either under jet

power or unpowered, at the same site as takeoff. 

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

24 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Rocketplane XP

Developer: Rocketplane Kistler

First Launch: Late 2008

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 450 kg (950 lb) to 100 km 

(62 mi) 

Launch Sites: Oklahoma Spaceport 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, microgravity

research

Rocketplane XP
In January 2006, Rocketplane Ltd. signed a

Space Act Agreement with NASA’s Johnson Space

Center, whereby NASA will loan the company a

Rocketdyne RS-88 engine. Rocketplane Kistler may

use the RS-88 for both ground tests and a series of

flight tests until the AR-36 engine is ready.25 As of

August 2006 the first XP vehicle was 30 percent

complete and scheduled to begin flight tests in 2009

at the Oklahoma Spaceport.

Since 2004, Rocketplane Ltd. has signed a

series of marketing agreements to sell suborbital

tourist flights. The company is currently taking

reservations for Rocketplane flights and hopes to

make its first tourist flight in 2009. As currently

envisioned, the spaceflight experience would include

five days of training and team social events, with

the spaceflight on the sixth day. In addition to space

tourism flights, the company is pursuing other 

markets, including microgravity research.

SpaceShipTwo – Scaled Composites,

LLC/Virgin Galactic

Scaled Composites, LLC, and Virgin Galactic,

a subsidiary of the Virgin Group of Companies,

announced the formation of a joint venture, called

The Spaceship Company, in July 2005. The purpose

of The Spaceship Company is to oversee development and production of SpaceShipTwo, a commercial suborbital spacecraft based on technology

developed for SpaceShipOne. The Spaceship

Company will produce the first five SpaceShipTwo

vehicles for Virgin Galactic, which plans to put

them into commercial service offering suborbital

space tourism flights possibly starting in 2009. 

The venture will also develop a carrier aircraft,

WhiteKnightTwo, that will be used to air-launch

SpaceShipTwo in much the same manner that the

original White Knight aircraft air-launched

SpaceShipOne.

In September 2006, Virgin Galactic unveiled 

a mockup of the interior of SpaceShipTwo at a

technology exposition in New York City. The vehicle

will accommodate two pilots and six passengers

and feature reconfigurable seats, so passengers 

are properly positioned to withstand the g-forces

encountered during launch and reentry. Flight tests

of the SpaceShipTwo and WhiteKnightTwo vehicles

will commence during 2008.26 Virgin Galactic 

estimates the total cost of developing and testing

SpaceShipTwo, as well as developing facilities to

accommodate the vehicle at Mojave Air and Space

Port and Spaceport America, will be $225 to $250

million.27

Dream Chaser – SpaceDev

Dream Chaser is an RLV under development

by SpaceDev to serve suborbital and orbital applications. The design of this vehicle is based on the

NASA HL-20 spaceplane concept from the early

1990s, which was itself inspired by the successfully

launched Soviet BOR-4 spaceplane from the early

1980s. Dream Chaser keeps the overall length of

8.8 meters (29 feet) and wingspan of 7.2 meters

(23.5 feet) of the HL-20, but it decreases the number of passengers from 10 to 6 and reduces the

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 25

Vehicle: SpaceShipTwo

Developer: Scaled Composites

First Launch: 2008

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: 8 people to minimum of 100 km

(62 mi) 

Launch Sites: Mojave Air and Space Port, Spaceport

America 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism Vehicle: Dream Chaser

Developer: SpaceDev

First Launch: 2009

Number of Stages: 2 for suborbital, 4 for orbital 

Payload Performance: 6 people 

Launch Sites: TBD 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, ISS crew

and cargo resupply

SpaceShipTwo
mass to below 10,000 kilograms (22,000 pounds).

For suborbital flights, the vehicle will launch vertically, using hybrid engines. On orbital flights, the

vehicle will launch on top of hybrid boosters or

existing launch vehicles. In both scenarios, the

vehicle will glide to a runway landing.

SpaceDev was a finalist for NASA’s COTS

demonstration program to fund the development of

commercial vehicles to service the ISS, but was not

selected to receive an award. In September 2006,

Benson Space Company, a new space tourism venture established by SpaceDev founder Jim Benson,

announced that it had submitted a request for proposals to SpaceDev for the development of the suborbital version of Dream Chaser. Benson Space

Company plans to eventually enter into a contract

to fund the development of the suborbital Dream

Chaser model and will operate those vehicles from

locations to be determined.28

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration 

Technologies Corporation

SpaceX of El Segundo, California, is developing the partially reusable Falcon 1 launch vehicle,

that can place up to 705 kilograms (1,555 pounds)

into LEO for about $7 million, a fraction of the cost

of other launch vehicles. The first stage of this

vehicle is designed to be recovered from the ocean

after a parachute landing, refurbished, and reused.

SpaceX privately developed the entire two-stage

vehicle from the ground up, including the engines,

cryogenic tank structure, and guidance system. 

The first stage engine, known as Merlin, uses

pump-driven LOX and kerosene. The second stage

engine, called Kestrel, uses a pressure-fed LOX 

and kerosene system.

The first Falcon 1 launch

took place on March 24, 2006,

from Omelek Island in the

Kwajalein Atoll in the Pacific

Ocean, with the FalconSat-2

micro-satellite built by the U.S.

Air Force Academy as its payload. However, the Merlin engine

prematurely shut down shortly

after liftoff, causing the vehicle 

to impact a short distance from

the launch pad. An investigation

determined that a corroded aluminum nut on a fuel pump inlet allowed kerosene

to leak; the fuel ignited and caused a loss of pneumatic pressure, closing the propellant valves for the

engine 34 seconds after liftoff. DARPA cleared the

vehicle to return to flight in July 2006. The next

launch, a demonstration flight carrying two experimental payloads, including a low-cost satellite communications transceiver and an autonomous flight

safety system, is planned for early 2007.29

Falcon 9 – Space Exploration 

Technologies Corporation

Announced by SpaceX in September 2005,

the Falcon 9 is the company’s newest and largest

launch vehicle. The Falcon 9 vehicle is based on

much of the same technology as the Falcon 1. The

Falcon 9 features nine Merlin engines in its first

stage with engine-out capability to enhance reliability.

The second stage will use one Merlin engine. 

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

26 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Falcon 9

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First Launch: First quarter 2008

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: Up to 28,400 kg (62,620 lb) to

LEO, 12,450 kg (27,450 lb) to GTO 

Launch Sites: Kwajalein Atoll, VAFB 

Targeted Market: Launch of medium and large 

satellites, ISS crew and cargo resupply

Vehicle: Falcon 1

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First Launch: 2006

Number of Stages: 2 

Payload Performance: 705 kg (1,555 lb) to LEO 

Launch Sites: Kwajalein Atoll, VAFB 

Targeted Market: Small satellite launch

Falcon 1

Dream Chaser
Falcon 9 vehicles can be configured in a variety of ways to serve a

broad market. Falcon 9 can place up

to 10,350 kilograms (22,820 pounds)

into LEO and 4,550 kilograms (10,030

pounds) into GTO. Multiple manifest/

half bay missions on Falcon 9 will be

available to serve medium-size payloads in place of the Falcon 5, a

smaller vehicle the company no longer

plans to develop. The Falcon 9 Heavy

(comparable to the Delta 4 Heavy) features three

common booster cores similar to the Falcon 9 first

stage with nine Merlin engines each. This version

can carry up to 28,400 kilograms (62,620 pounds) to

LEO and 12,450 kilograms (27,420 pounds) to GTO. 

Launch costs for the Falcon 9 range from 

$27 million for the medium version to $78 million

for the heavy, in 2006 dollars. Both stages are

intended to be recovered and reused, although the

ability to reuse the stages is not factored into the

current launch cost.

The first Falcon 9 launch, for a U.S. government

customer, is scheduled for the first half of 2008.

Other customers include MacDonald, Dettwiler and

Associates Ltd. of Canada and Bigelow Aerospace.

In August 2006, SpaceX won a COTS demonstration

award from NASA with a maximum value of $278

million. Under terms of the award, SpaceX will perform three Falcon 9 launches of its Dragon reusable

spacecraft in late 2008 and early 2009 to demonstrate

its ability to ferry cargo to and from the ISS.30

Altairis – Sprague Astronautics

SpragueAstronautics (formerlyAeraSpaceTours)

is developing Altairis, a rocket using RP-1 and LOX

propulsion. Altairis will launch vertically and have

the ability to carry seven passengers to space. In

2005, the company signed a Commercial Space

Operations Support Agreement

with the U.S. Air Force. This

agreement ascertains the ground

rules intended for proposed

access of the launch facilities and

support services at CCAFS. The

agreement is effective for five

years and renewable thereafter.

Sprague Astronautics plans to

begin flights of the Altairis in

mid-2008.

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc.

TGV Rockets, Inc.

(TGV) is developing

Michelle-B, a fully reusable,

remotely-piloted suborbital

vehicle, designed to carry up

to 1,000 kilograms (2,200

pounds) to an altitude of 100

kilometers (62 miles). This

vehicle uses a vertical takeoff and landing design, with

a drag shield to assist in deceleration during landing.

Michelle-B will provide up to 200 seconds of

microgravity, while not exceeding 4.5 g during any

phase of flight. Six pressure-fed LOX and kerosene

engines for use on ascent and landing power the

vehicle. TGV’s design is intended to enable high

reusability, require minimal ground support, and

allow the vehicle to return to flight within a few

hours of landing. The company has completed a

preliminary design review of the Michelle-B and is

currently working on risk reduction activities for

vehicle subsystems.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 27

Falcon 9

Vehicle: Altairis

Developer: Sprague Astronautics

First Launch: mid-2008

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 7 people to 120 km (75 mi) 

Launch Sites: CCAFS 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, space

launch booster stage

Altairis

Vehicle: Michelle-B

Developer: TGV Rockets

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to 100 km

(62 mi) 

Launch Sites: TBD 

Targeted Market: Remote sensing, science, including

microgravity research; national security applications

Michelle-B
Xerus – XCOR Aerospace

In July 2002,

XCOR Aerospace

announced plans to

develop a suborbital

RLV, named Xerus. The

Xerus would take off

horizontally from a 

runway under rocket

power and fly to an

altitude of 100 kilometers (62 miles) before returning for a runway landing.

XCOR plans to use Xerus for a variety of suborbital

missions, including microgravity research, suborbital

tourism, and even the launch of very small satellites

into orbit. Xerus is expected to have the ability to

launch a 10-kilogram (22-pound) payload to LEO.

In April 2004, XCOR Aerospace received a

license from the FAA to perform flights of an intermediate demonstration vehicle, called Sphinx, from

Mojave Air and Space Port. That license expired at

the end of 2006 without any flights having taken

place. XCOR continues fundraising and technical

development for the vehicle and anticipates filing a

new license application for it when ready.31

Government RLV Development Efforts

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the DoD

and NASA conducted several joint and independent

programs to produce experimental RLVs. These

vehicles were intended to improve reliability, minimize operating costs, and demonstrate “aircraft-like”

operations. However, none of these concepts resulted

in a fully operational vehicle. In recent years, these

technology development efforts diminished. The

U.S. Department of Defense focused on operating its

large EELV vehicles and developing small responsive

launch vehicles. At the same time, NASA shifted its

emphasis to developing large ELVs designed to

implement the Vision for Space Exploration. Little

government activity in RLV development is anticipated for the foreseeable future.

Space Shuttle

Consisting of an expendable external tank,

two reusable solid rocket boosters, and a reusable

Orbiter, NASA’s STS (Space Transportation

System), commonly referred to as the Space

Shuttle, has conducted 117 launches since its introduction in 1981. 

The three remaining

orbiters—Atlantis, Discovery, and

Endeavour—were grounded after

the complete destruction of the

Space Shuttle Columbia, which

disintegrated over Texas on

February 1, 2003, during reentry

into the Earth’s atmosphere. The

fleet returned to flight with the

successful launch of Discovery on

mission STS-114 on July 26, 2005.

However, problems with the loss of

foam on the external tank during

launch led NASA to delay future Shuttle launches

until the issue was resolved. Flights resumed with

the launch of Discovery on mission STS-121 on

July 4, 2006. Today, the Space Shuttle is the only

available means for completing assembly of the ISS.

Intending to use the Shuttle until 2010, NASA is

committed to investing in the Space Shuttle fleet 

to maintain safety and reliability and extend orbiter

service life until its responsibilities constructing the

ISS are complete. 

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

28 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Xerus

Vehicle: Xerus

Developer: XCOR Aerospace

First Launch: TBD

Number of Stages: 1 

Payload Performance: 10 kg (22 lb) to LEO 

Launch Sites: Mojave Air and Space Port 

Targeted Market: Suborbital space tourism, nanosatellite launch, microgravity research

Vehicles: Atlantis, Discovery, and Endeavour

Developer: Rockwell International (now Boeing); fleet is

managed, operated, and maintained on the ground by

United Space Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing

and Lockheed Martin

First Launch: April 1981

Number of Stages: 1.5

Payload Performance: 24,900 kg (54,890 lb) to LEO 

Launch Sites: KSC 

Markets Served: Non-commercial payloads, ISS access

Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle’s day-to-day operations have

been managed by United Space Alliance, a BoeingLockheed Martin joint venture, since 1996. NASA

exercised two extension options to the contract

through the end of fiscal year 2006. In October 2006,

NASA awarded the joint venture a 6-month letter

contract, valued at $1.1 billion, as the first part of a

4-year contract that will continue Shuttle operations

through the retirement of the fleet at the end of 

fiscal year 2010.32

Affordable Responsive Spacelift

The U.S. Air Force recently investigated the

development of a partially reusable launch system

under the ARES program. As envisioned, ARES

would incorporate a reusable, winged fly-back lower

stage and an expendable upper stage. An Analysis

of Alternatives study by The Aerospace Corporation

in early 2005 found that this concept offered a fast

turnaround time (24 to 48 hours) at a lower cost than

purely expendable or reusable systems. The U.S. Air

Force started early phase concept studies in 2005,

including development of a subscale demonstrator

that could launch small payloads into orbit. However,

Congress eliminated funding for the ARES program

in the fiscal year 2007 DoD budget.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 29
The Vision for Space Exploration has spurred 

the design and development of new vehicles and 

technologies for future crewed and uncrewed spaceflight missions. Two vehicle contractor competitions

were completed during 2006, with NASA selecting

prime commercial contractors to develop the Orion

crew vehicle and commercial ISS crew and cargo

demonstrators. 

There are other development efforts ongoing

to create new orbital and reentry capabilities. The

U.S. Air Force is developing the X-37B Orbital

Test Vehicle to perform military missions in orbit.

Commercial in-space technologies are also being

developed without the financial support of the U.S.

government, in particular Bigelow Aerospace’s

inflatable space habitats.

Orion Crew Vehicle

Lockheed Martin is the prime contractor for

the Orion crew vehicle, previously designated as the

CEV, under NASA’s Constellation Program for future

exploration. NASA announced the prime contractor

selection on August 31, 2006. NASA opted for

Lockheed Martin’s design over that of a Northrop

Grumman-Boeing team and awarded an initial sevenyear base contract worth just under $4 billion. The

contract contains an option worth another $4 billion

for production and operational engineering activity up

to 2019. Lockheed Martin’s contracting team includes

Honeywell, Orbital Sciences, United Space Alliance,

and Hamilton Sundstrand. NASA began work with

the two semi-finalist contracting teams in July 2005

after down-selecting from eight initial concepts that

were originally submitted for this vehicle.

Once the Shuttle is retired, Orion will be used

to transport crew for exploration missions, initially to

LEO and later to the Moon, Mars, and beyond. The

spacecraft will consist of a combined pressurized

crew module and service module, launched into orbit

by the planned Ares 1 Crew Launch Vehicle. The

current Orion design has the capacity to transport

six crew members to the ISS, if necessary, and four

people on missions to the Moon. The first flight of

Orion carrying humans is to occur no later than 2014,

and the first flight to the Moon is planned for no

later than 2020.

The spacecraft’s conical shape is similar to

the capsules predating the Shuttle, but Orion will

contain state-of-the-art technologies provided by

the contracting team and NASA, including but not

limited to systems for launch abort, reentry using new

thermal protection technology, and ground landing.

In addition, Orion’s 5-meter (16.5-foot) diameter will

allow for more than twice the volume—doubling

crew capacity and increasing interior space—of

Apollo-era modules.

International Space Station 

Crew and Cargo Transport

The decision to finish constructing the ISS 

by the end of the decade and maintain its operation

with a six-person crew reinforces the demand for

continual transport flights to and from the station.

Several government systems to fulfill this demand

are either operational or planned. The Shuttle will

be the primary American system for bringing new

station components, crew, and cargo to the ISS until

its retirement. Russia’s crewed Soyuz and Progress

cargo vehicles are current robust international 

systems for replenishing the station. Additional

international capacity is planned, including the

Japanese H-2 Transfer Vehicle and European

Automated Transfer Vehicle that are both currently

in the development stage.

In-Space Technology 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

30 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reentry Vehicles and In-Space Technology

Orion CEV
American commercial vehicles are planned to

supplement these government systems for the missions of crew and cargo transport to the ISS in the

future. On August 16, 2006, NASA announced the

signing of two Space Act Agreements, under the

COTS demonstration program, with American 

companies to develop and demonstrate the ability 

to provide transportation services to the ISS. The

companies, Rocketplane Kistler and SpaceX, will

each build an orbital vehicle to prove the necessary

transport capabilities under Phase 1 of the agreement,

which calls for three vehicle flights before 2010. The

concepts will demonstrate a combination of pressurized and unpressurized cargo delivery, disposal,

and return, as well as the option for crew transport.

Fixed payments will be made to the companies as

they achieve milestones for design and development.

Phase 2, a separate contracting opportunity from

Phase 1, will consist of a competitive procurement

of cargo services to the ISS with an option for crew

services. In addition to the COTS agreements, the

companies plan to provide their vehicles for other

commercial and government markets.

Rocketplane Kistler K-1

The two-stage K-1

vehicle is Rocketplane

Kistler’s design for providing crew and cargo

services for NASA, as

well as performing 

missions for other customers. The design calls for a fully reusable system

that will take off vertically and return to Earth landing on ground. The K-1 will utilize two spaceports:

first the Woomera Spaceport in Australia and, second,

a spaceport in the United States. A test flight of the

vehicle is planned for early 2009. The crewed version

of the vehicle will carry up to five people accommodated in approximately 30 cubic meters (1,070

cubic feet) of interior space.

Rocketplane Kistler has assembled a diverse

contracting team to provide mission critical hardware and services. The team has a large amount of

hardware already available as a result of previous

work completed by Kistler Aerospace on the K-1

design. NASA’s COTS program has called for $207

million for K-1 milestone payments, and private

funding will supplement this investment.

SpaceX Dragon

SpaceX is developing the Dragon orbital

vehicle for NASA’s COTS

program and for other

future space transportation

missions. This module

will launch vertically on

top of SpaceX’s Falcon 9

vehicle. The Dragon will

land in the waters near

the launch site. The first

test flight of this module is planned for 2008, with

subsequent launches over the following year and

later into the future. Notably, the first launch of the

Dragon module is not forecasted to be the first

launch of the Falcon 9 rocket. The structural design

of Dragon will be identical for cargo and crew missions, providing a capacity of about three metric

tons (3.3 tons) for launch and return in either configuration. The vehicle crew capacity is planned for

up to seven people.

Private funding for Dragon will be supplemented

with NASA COTS funding through a Space Act

Agreement, as the company achieves vehicle milestones. The current plan for NASA funding includes

$278 million, which could change as the demonstration process continues. SpaceX has successfully

assembled a team to assist in providing support for

the demonstrations.

X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle

U.S. Air Force, Rapid Capabilities Office, is

leading development of an unmanned reusable space

vehicle designated the X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle

(OTV). To support long-term goals in space, this new

capability will serve as a platform for science and

technology demonstration and testing. Experiments

will be carried in a payload bay, which can open and

expose its contents to the space environment, similar

to the bay in the Space Shuttle. This vehicle leverages

previous work NASA, DARPA, AFRL, and Boeing

completed for the X-37 program. As it was for the

original X-37 vehicle, Boeing is the prime contractor

for the OTV.

The OTV will launch vertically into orbit on

an expendable rocket and have the ability to deorbit

on command and land horizontally for reuse. Initial

plans call for launching the first OTV from CCAFS

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts In-Space Technology

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 31

K-1

Dragon
on an Atlas 5 in early 2008. The vehicle will then

deorbit and land on a runway at either VAFB or

EAFB in California. The first flights will be used for

vehicle testing, after which operational technology

experiment flights will be conducted.

Bigelow Aerospace

Bigelow Aerospace successfully launched,

deployed, and is currently maintaining its first orbital

expandable habitat demonstrator, called Genesis-1.

Genesis-1 was launched on an ISC Kosmotras Dnepr

rocket on July 12, 2006. The approximately 1/3-scale

demonstrator reached its targeted low-Earth orbit,

deployed its solar arrays, and successfully pressurized, proving the fidelity of the expandable habitat

design. The Genesis-1 continues to transmit telemetry

and vital data to Bigelow’s mission control center

located in North Las Vegas, Nevada. The Genesis-1

spacecraft has a usable volume of 11.5 cubic meters

(410 cubic feet) and has an anticipated orbital lifespan of between three and thirteen years. The flight

of Genesis-1 was the first in a series of technical

demonstrators that Bigelow plans to launch, eventually culminating in the deployment of its first, 

full-scale, human habitable spacecraft.

Bigelow Aerospace is preparing to place a

second demonstrator, Genesis-2, into orbit in the

first or second quarter of 2007 using another ISC

Kosmotras Dnepr launch vehicle. This spacecraft

will continue the company’s testing and validation

campaign for its expandable habitats and will again

be launched from a recently commissioned launch

site near the town of Yasny, in the Orenburg Region

of the Russian Federation.

Due to the success of Genesis-1, Bigelow

Aerospace has expedited its future development

schedule and, after the potential launch of a final

sub-scale demonstrator in 2008, the company will

proceed to develop and deploy the “Sundancer,”

Bigelow’s first spacecraft capable of supporting a

human crew. The Sundancer may launch at some

point during the 2010–2011 time period and should

be able to sustain a crew of three. Crew and cargo

will travel to the Sundancer on a yet to be determined

launch vehicle, although it is publicly known that

Bigelow Aerospace is having conversations with

numerous potential launch providers including

SpaceX, Lockheed Martin, and several others, in

addition to providing the “America’s Space Prize”

space transportation competition.

In-Space Technology 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

32 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Bigelow Genesis 1
2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 33

Several efforts are underway to develop enabling

technologies for ELVs and RLVs. These efforts

include government-sponsored and commercial

research projects in the areas of avionics, air launch

technologies, composite cryogenic fuel tanks, automated composite technologies, and propulsion 

systems. The majority of these development programs

focus on building new generation launch vehicle

components that are substantially simpler, more

flexible and reliable, and less costly than legacy

technologies. Recent advances in propulsion systems

covered here include the use of room-temperature

propellants instead of cryogenics and pressure-fed

engines instead of turbopumps. Hybrid rocket motors,

liquid engines, propellant production, demonstrators,

and hypersonic aircraft are described in this section.

Launch Vehicle Avionics – 

SpaceDev, Inc. and Microcosm, Inc.

The search for decreased cycle time and cost in

launch vehicle development programs, along with

increased vehicle responsiveness, reliability, robustness, and performance, led NASA, DoD, and vehicle

manufacturers to consider new approaches to building flight avionics systems, particularly for small

launchers. During 2003-2004, Microcosm of El

Segundo, California, developed under an AFRL contract a self-configuring, fault-tolerant, plug-and-play

data network system for launch vehicle and satellite

avionics. This system provides standardized data

communications interfaces for components and is

designed to enable hardware swapping with minimal

impact to system command and control architecture

and software. Devices and subsystems such as guidance and attitude control computers, Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) gyroscopes, telemetry

systems, actuators and pressure, temperature, Earth

horizon, and Sun sensors are connected using

TCP/IP-based networking protocols. The avionics

network is designed to be extendable to all other

onboard command and control functions, providing a

robust, flexible architecture that can accommodate

a wide variety of hardware on the network without

redesigning the system or updating the software.33

During 2006, Microcosm continued its collaborative efforts on the plug-and-play data network

system for launch vehicles and satellite avionics

with the AFRL Vehicle Directorate in Albuquerque.34

Since February, Microcosm and AFRL have also

started working on a plug-and-play interface for an

inertial measurement unit for spacecraft.

In May 2005, SpaceDev initiated development

of standardized and miniaturized avionics for small

launch vehicles under an AFRL Small Business

Innovation Research (SBIR) contract. The goal is to

substantially reduce the mass and cost of flight avionics

while enhancing their scalability and reliability.35

Air Launch Method – Transformational

Space Corporation 

Transformational Space Corporation (t/Space)

successfully drop-tested several 23 percent dummy

boosters over the Mojave Desert in 2005 using

Scaled Composites’s Proteus aircraft to test a new

air launch method known as “Trapeze-Lanyard Air

Drop,” or “t/LAD.” During 2006, the flying qualities of a full-size carrier aircraft and booster stack

conducting t/LAD releases were evaluated using a

NASA Ames six-degrees-of-freedom flight simulator. The t/LAD approach employs an innovative

technique that causes a dropped booster to rotate

toward vertical without requiring wings. This

approach allows an aft-crossing trajectory in which

the rocket crosses behind the carrier aircraft, greatly

enhancing safety. 

The innovation

developed by t/Space is a

new mechanism that holds

onto the nose of the booster for about a half-second

after the center of the rocket

is released. This slight tug

on the nose starts the

booster rotating as it drops.

A small parachute on the

nozzle of the rocket ensures

the rotation happens slowly.

This approach improves

the simplicity, safety, cost,

and reliability of launching

people into LEO.36

Enabling Technologies

t/LAD launch method
Air Launch Method – AirLaunch LLC

In July 2006, AirLaunch LLC demonstrated

the safe release of a dummy rocket from an Air

Force C-17 cargo airplane. A full-scale simulated

AirLaunch QuickReach rocket, weighing almost

32,660 kilograms (72,000 pounds) and measuring

20 meters (65.8 feet) in length, was dropped as part

of the DARPA/Air Force FALCON SLV Program.

The unmodified C-17A aircraft released the test

article at an airspeed of 600 kilometers/hour (330

knots) from an altitude of 9,700 meters (32,000 feet).

The drop was third in a series of envelope expansion

tests to verify the ability of the C-17 to safely deliver

AirLaunch’s full-scale, full-weight QuickReachTM

rocket to its operational launch altitude. Previous tests

took place in June 2006 and in September 2005. Each

test set a new C-17 record for the longest and heaviest single item dropped from the aircraft.37 The initial

test in 2005 demonstrated the QuickReachTM release

technology, including proof that the nose of the

booster does not hit the roof of the C-17A airplane

as the rocket leaves the carrier aircraft.

The AirLaunch approach improves upon 

previous air-release methods, such as the 1974

Minuteman missile air launch demonstrator, which

rested the booster on a pallet that then deployed

parachutes to drag the pallet out of the cargo bay.

The new AirLaunch method relies on gravity, and

only the booster leaves the carrier aircraft—no 

pallets fall into the ocean or on to land. 

AirLaunch achieves responsiveness by

launching the rocket at altitude from an unmodified

C-17A airplane or other cargo aircraft. This

approach avoids delays caused by local weather—

the carrier aircraft can fly to clear skies for the

release—and it eliminates the need to coordinate

with the schedules of the other users of the U.S.

Western and Eastern launch ranges.

Cryogenic Composite Tanks – 

XCOR Aerospace

The use of composite materials to manufacture

large cryogenic fuel tanks is a critical enabler for

RLVs and future lunar and Mars exploration missions.

These tanks, which are currently made from 

aluminum, carry LOX, at -183 degrees Celsius (-298

degrees Fahrenheit). Aluminum shrinks approximately 0.5 percent when cooled to LOX temperatures. As

a result, aluminum tanks cannot be rigidly attached to

the vehicle structure, but must be suspended within it.

Further, aluminum is flammable in LOX and strict

precautions must be observed to prevent foreign

objects from damaging the aluminum oxide layer

that protects the aluminum tank from fire.

The payoff for using composite tanks is 

significant. Composite tanks are typically 10 to 25

percent lighter than comparably sized aluminum

tanks, thereby, providing increased payload-to-orbit

lifting capabilities for new ELVs and RLVs. Use of

composite tanks also eliminates many engineering

costs associated with mating aluminum cryogenic

fuel tanks to composite launch vehicle structures. 

In April 2006, XCOR Aerospace of Mojave,

California, announced the successful testing of its

new thermoplastic fluoropolymer composite material,

Nonburnite®. Ignition and oxygen compatibility

testing of XCOR’s material was conducted at the

NASA White Sands Test Facility in southwest New

Mexico. 

Enabling Technologies 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

34 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

AirLaunch Dummy Booster air drop from C-17A plane

XCOR Aerospace’s new composite 

material (Nonburnite®)
XCOR has been researching this technology

since early 2004 and is currently developing it

under a NASA contract for composite cryogenic

LOX tanks. The contract, awarded in 2005, is part

of the NASA Exploration Systems Research and

Technology (ESR&T) program to develop key technologies for human exploration of the Moon, Mars

and beyond. This new LOX tank technology shows

dramatic weight savings by demonstrating the ability

to serve as both an insulated tank and vehicle structure. Materials used in this tank retain flexibility and

toughness at cryogenic temperatures and are inherently non-flammable, an important safety feature for

LOX tanks on future human spaceflight vehicles.38

XCOR expects the performance of the new

composite material will resolve existing problems

with cryogenic and LOX materials. The material

can be used by the aerospace industry in production

of LOX tanks for fuel cells, life support systems,

and small secondary propulsion systems, such as

attitude control thrusters. Nonburnite’s® thermal

insulating properties, low coefficient of thermal

expansion, and inherent combustion and microcracking resistance, as well as the high strength-toweight ratio typical of composites, makes this material an enabling technology for building lighter,

cheaper, more robust structures and crewed systems. 

The composite tank technology demonstrated to

date and under development has several potential

applications, not only as cryogenic fuel tanks for

Earth-launched space vehicles but also as on-orbit

tanks for storing such cryogenic fuels as liquid

methane or liquid oxygen. An orbiting “fuel depot”

could be used to fuel space vehicles traveling from

LEO to the Moon or Mars.

Composite Tanks – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm, Inc., of El Segundo, California,

announced successful tests on two programs for

composite tanks for launch vehicles in 2006. In June,

Microcosm successfully tested a 64-centimeter (25-

inch) diameter, all-composite LOX tank to nearly

four times its operating pressure of 3,790 kilopascals

(550 pounds per square inch). Testing occurred at

cryogenic temperatures using liquid nitrogen. The

new materials technology used for the tank comes

from Composite Technology Development of

Lafayette, Colorado. Testing was done for the

Scorpius Space Launch Company. A month later,

Microcosm announced the successful completion 

of final qualification tests on the full-scale, allcomposite cryogenic LOX tank for the Sprite SLV.

This time the testing was done for a full-scale, 107-

centimeter (42-inch diameter), all-composite LOX

tank to nearly four times its operating pressure of

3,790 kilopascals (550 pounds per square inch). This

result allows for reduction in the weight of the propellant tanks for Sprite and increases the mass to

orbit by over 30 percent. Microcosm intends to offer

this technology in a range of sizes as well as custommade pressure vessels for industrial applications

where ultra-high strength-to-weight ratio is 

important. 

In June 2006, in a separate program, under

contract to the AFRL, Microcosm tested a composite

high-pressure gaseous helium tank to 100,000 kilopascals (14,500 pounds per square inch).39 The 50-

centimeter (20-inch) diameter, high-pressure helium

tank is an Inconel-lined, composite over-wrap pressure vessel. This full-scale qualification tank for the

High Performance Pressurization System for the

Sprite SLV is also used in the SR-M suborbital

launch vehicle being built for AFRL. The helium

tank has been through 25 operating pressure cycles

plus thermal cycling and is now fully flight qualified.

Operating pressure for the helium tank is 38,600

kilopascals (5,600 pounds per square inch). The

testing was done as part of the technology development program for the Scorpius family of low-cost,

responsive launch vehicles.40

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 35

Microcosm Composite Tank
Automated Composite Technologies –

Alliant Techsystems

In August 2006, ATK received a five-year

contract from AFRL to develop automated composite

technologies designed to reduce the manufacturing

costs and increase the performance of large composite launch vehicle structures. Low cost tooling,

filament winding techniques, integrated health

monitoring, thermal protection systems, and tape

lamination are among the 17 specific initiatives in

the Large Automated Production of Expendable

Launch Structures Program.

Liquid RCS Thruster – 

Orion Propulsion, Inc.

In October 2006, Orion Propulsion,

Incorporated, of Huntsville, Alabama, was awarded

new funds to continue developing the OxygenMethane (O/M) Reaction Control System (RCS)

Thruster, under a NASA SBIR Phase 2 program. The

new development stage will expand on the design of

Orion’s igniter/injector to provide simple and reliable

ignition. Such system flexibility significantly increases

the range of operating conditions for propellants that

are stored at different saturated conditions. These

efforts are a continuation from 2005, when Orion

designed, manufactured, and tested a 445-newton

(100-pound-force) O/M RCS thruster. During the

first part of 2006, Orion developed another prototype

test article, which is equipped with a flight type

nozzle and propellant valves. Tests were performed

in an environmental chamber at reduced pressure to

simulate space vacuum conditions. The funding

came through a NASA SBIR Phase 1 program.41

The O/M RCS Thruster has been tested in

vacuum as well as sea level. After Phase 2 of the

SBIR program is completed, this thruster will be

able to operate on gaseous and liquid propellants,

and it will have an integrated igniter/injector.42

The O/M RCS Thruster could be used in 

any NASA or commercial space launch vehicle or

spacecraft that uses oxygen and methane for primary

or maneuvering propulsion. The engine can also

burn methane that is mined during Mars in-situ

missions or stored on orbit for long-term missions.43

This engine offers many advantages over

existing RCS thrusters, including flexibility,

reusability, and high performance. The simple 

configuration and conventional manufacturing 

techniques contribute to cost, weight, and risk

reductions.44

Liquid Engines – 

Orbital Technologies Corporation

Continuing its efforts from 2005, Orbital

Technologies Corporation (ORBITEC) of Madison,

Wisconsin, developed new liquid engine technologies

in 2006. Earlier in 2006, ORBITEC successfully

demonstrated the ability to ignite a smallscale LOX/

propane Vortex Combustion Cold-Wall (VCCW)

engine. The company accomplished the engine firings under an AFRL Phase 3 SBIR contract.

For the demonstration, ORBITEC engineers

successfully ignited the engine, refined the ignition

sequence, and decreased the ignition duration, while

avoiding a catastrophic explosion. One engine fired

for a one-half-second duration with a 2,500-newton

(560-pound-force) peak thrust; another fired for a

1-second duration with a 710-newton (160-poundforce) peak thrust. The chamber wall static pressure

for these tests was 965 kilopascals (140 pounds per

square inch absolute). Steady-state operation, which

has yet to be demonstrated, will eventually occur at

a chamber wall pressure of 1,380 kilopascals (200

pounds per square inch absolute) and a thrust of

3,560 newtons (800 pounds-force).

Enabling Technologies 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

36 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

ORBITEC’s Vortex Engine Test

Oxygen/Methane RCS Thruster – in Sea Level Assembly
In a engine, hot combustion gases do not

directly contact the combustion chamber wall.

Therefore, the chamber wall is not exposed to high

temperatures and remains cool, leading to increased

engine durability. Vortex Combustion Cold-Wall

technology is undergoing commercialization to

enable affordable, high-performance, long-lasting

suborbital launch vehicles.45

In November 2005, ORBITEC completed

successful testing of a prototype rocket engine using

methane fuel and oxygen oxidizer. Methane is of

interest for NASA’s exploration program and for

future U.S. Air Force launch vehicles. This rocket

requires smaller propellant tanks than hydrogen and

has higher specific impulse than hydrocarbon fuels,

such as kerosene. When used for exploration,

methane and oxygen can be produced on the Moon

and Mars from planetary resources found there. 

At present, ORBITEC is perfecting patented

designs for 133,500-newton (30,000-pound-force)

thrust liquid methane-oxygen engines and liquid

propane-oxygen vortex engines, with tests slated to

begin in at least two years. The company’s immediate planned tests focus on a 31,140 to 44,500-newton (7,000 to 10,000-pound-force) thrust vortex

engine fueled by hydrocarbons and liquid oxygen.

In July 2006, ORBITEC received a contract from

the U.S. Air Force to continue its liquid engine

development, as part of a broader solution for creating a cohesive universal small launch vehicle.46

Liquid Engines – AirLaunch LLC

In 2006, AirLaunch continued development 

of LOX- and propane-powered, upper stage engines,

as part of the Phase 2B DARPA/Air Force Falcon

program contract. AirLaunch completed 32 horizontal

engine test firings and increased the pace of propulsion testing. Twenty-eight of the tests were conducted

between March and October 2006, including two

per day for 3 days in a row. All the tests used the

vapor pressurization (VAPAK) propulsion system,

providing further data to validate its use with LOX

and propane.47

In a previous stage of the contract, Phase 2A,

AirLaunch conducted four second stage engine test

fires as proof of concept for its VAPAK propulsion

system using LOX and propane. The tests were

conducted from April to June 2005 at the Civilian

Flight Test Center, Mojave Spaceport. Testing

demonstrated that the engine is stable, can be ignited quickly after shutdown, and is ready to move

into the next phase of development.48

Liquid Engines – Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

SpaceX of El Segundo, California, completed

development in early 2005 of two new liquidpropellant engines for use on its Falcon 1 launch

vehicle. The first stage engine, known as Merlin 1A,

is a high pressure 342,650-newton (77,000-poundforce) (sea level) thrust engine that is turbopump fed

with a gas generator cycle. Merlin 1A has a chamber

pressure of 5,380 kilopascals (780 pounds per square

inch). The second stage engine, known as Kestrel, is

a pressure-fed engine of 930 kilopascals (135 pounds

per square inch) that produces 31,150-newton (7,000-

pound-force) thrust (vacuum). Both engines use LOX

and kerosene propellants. 

SpaceX began development

of the Falcon 5 Merlin 1B upgrade

engine in 2005. This engine has a

thrust of 378,250 newtons (85,000

pounds-force) and a pressure of

6,140 kilopascals (890 pounds per

square inch). The company initially planned to complete a Falcon 5

stage hold down firing with all

Merlin 1B engines by the end of

2005, but plans changed. During

2006, SpaceX started working on

the Merlin 1C engine, a regeneratively cooled successor of the Merlin 1B engine.

SpaceX tested the pump and ignition systems, and

the integrated engine was scheduled to begin testing

by the end of 2006. The system is expected to be

qualified by early 2007. A vacuum version of the

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 37

AirLaunch Engine Firing

SpaceX Merlin

Engine
Merlin 1C, with a larger bell nozzle and some additional redundancy features, will be used on the

Falcon 9’s upper stage. 

The next major engine development is Merlin 2,

where SpaceX will aim for a significant increase in

thrust and chamber pressure. A scaled-up version of

Merlin 1, the Merlin 2 replaces the ablative chamber

with a regeneratively cooled one.49 The Merlin 2 will

serve as an exact scale version of the F-1 class

(>6,675,000-newton or 1.5 million-pound-force

thrust) engine that SpaceX intends to start developing

in a few years.50

Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace

XCOR Aerospace, located in Mojave,

California, specializes in developing engines and

propulsion systems for use on airplanes, reusable

launch vehicles, and spacecraft. The company has

developed and extensively tested seven liquidpropellant engines. XCOR’s largest engine currently

in active development, designated XR-5M15, 

is a 33,300-newton (7,500-pound-force) LOX and

methane engine. In May 2006, XCOR signed a 

contract with ATK to develop and implement the

prototype 5M15 engine for NASA. XCOR will

develop the initial workhorse version of this engine,

which ATK will then use as the basis for development

of the final flight-weight hardware. The 5M15 builds

upon XCOR’s existing XR-3M9 LOX/methane

engine, as well as the 8,007-newton (1,800-poundforce) XR-4K5, 44,482-newton (10,000-pound-force)

XR-5M12, and 1,780-newton (400-pound-force)

XR-4A3 engines.

XCOR Aerospace has a long history of developing different engine models using various nontoxic, or “green,” propellants. Some of the prior

designs it created include the XR4A3 LOX/alcohol

engine that was flown on the EZ-Rocket, the XR4K5, which is pump-fed and regeneratively cooled

with fuel, and smaller engines, such as the nitrous

oxide/alcohol XR-3B4, the LOX/alcohol XR-3A2,

and the nitrous oxide/ethane XR-2P1.

The first series of tests on the XR-3M9 223-

newton (50-pound-force) thrust rocket engine fueled

by methane and liquid oxygen were completed in

August 2005. Future generations of the 3M9 engine

are intended for use as RCS and satellite maneuvering systems. The engine tests took place at XCOR’s

facilities at the Mojave Air and Space Port.51

In November 2005 XCOR successfully fired the

XR-3M9 LOX/methane engine in short, rapid bursts.

The testing consisted of four short pulses and the

tests were done with self-pressurizing propellants.

The rapid stop and restart pulse mode and minimum

impulse bit that are required RCS applications were

demonstrated during the test. This system has

potential for a variety of space applications.

These tests, completed in January 2006, were

conducted as part of a Phase 1 SBIR contract under

AFRL’s Propulsion Directorate at its Edwards

Research Site and as part of development for an

advanced regeneratively cooled LOX/methane

engine for space applications.52

In October 2006, XCOR Aerospace announced

the completion of another successful round of tests on

its 6,670-newton (1,500-pound-force) thrust LOX/

kerosene rocket engine. The engine, the XR-4K14,

is a prototype of the engines that will soon propel

the Mark One Rocket Racer, into the new sport of

rocket racing. This set of tests has demonstrated

that the XR-4K14 rocket engine chamber design is

sound. Multiple runs of increasing duration were

performed in order to allow for the characterization

of the engine’s regenerative cooling. XCOR’s engines

have a total of over 2,750 firings and 320 minutes

of run time. All of its engine tests take place at

XCOR’s facilities at the Mojave Air and Space Port.53

Enabling Technologies 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

38 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

XCOR Aerospace 5M15 LOX/methane engine test
Liquid Engines – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm is developing a family of liquidpropellant rocket engines for its Scorpius series of

ELVs and other users (see the ELV section for a

description of Scorpius). The company has built a

pressure-fed, ablatively-cooled, 22,250-newton

(5,000-pound-force) thrust engine using liquid 

oxygen and jet fuel as propellants. This engine was

successfully tested on the company’s SR-S and

SRXM-1 sounding rockets launched in January 1999

and March 2001. The engine is planned be used 

as the upper stage engine for the Sprite Mini-Lift

orbital vehicle should that vehicle move into final

development.

In May 2005, Microcosm successfully 

completed a series of tests of an 89,000-newton

(20,000-pound-force), low-cost, ablative, composite

rocket engine for responsive launch vehicle applications. Several engines underwent a series of 1- to 30-

second tests, involving multiple injectors, chambers,

and operating pressures. Testing was the combined

effort of Microcosm; Sierra Engineering of Carson

City, Nevada, which designed the injector for the

engine; and AFRL at EAFB where the tests were

conducted. This engine will be used on the booster

pods and sustainer stage of the Microcosm Eagle SLV

included in the DARPA and U.S. Air Force Falcon

Small Launch Vehicle program.54 During 2006,

Microcosm continued to develop their new larger

89,000-newton (20,000-pound-force) ablative engine.55

In September 2006, Air Force eliminated

funding for the Scorpius program. Consequently,

future Microcosm engine development plans

depend on available funding.

In addition, Microcosm has started development on a new 356,000-newton (80,000-pound-force)

engine under an AFRL SBIR, Phase 1 contract.

Both the 89,000-newton (20,000-pound-force) and

356,000-newton (80,000-pound-force) engines are

follow-on developments to the successful 22,250-

newton (5,000-pound-force) engines. All are ablative

chamber, LOX and Jet A propellant engines, designed

for very low-cost, robust design margins, moderate

chamber pressures, high reliability, and expendable

applications.

Liquid Engines – 

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne

Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, Inc.—a

Business unit of Pratt & Whitney—is developing

new technologies and engines for space launch

vehicles. Rocketdyne is developing advanced health

management systems, new materials, advanced

processes, and new components that enable rocket

engines to be safer and more reliable. These technologies are being demonstrated on development

engines—such as the IPD engine with the U.S. Air

Force and NASA and on the new MB-XX upper

stage cryogenic engine—to verify their characteristics.

The MB-XX is

being developed on funding from Pratt & Whitney

Rocketdyne and Mitsubishi

Heavy Industries for

potential application 

to the Vision for Space

Exploration launch 

vehicles or upgrades 

to today’s EELVs.

Rocketdyne completed

preliminary design review

(PDR) on the RS-84 rocket engine, which is the

first reusable, hydrocarbon-staged, combustion

rocket engine. 

The first member of the MB-XX family to

begin development, the MB-60 engine was originally

targeted for use on the Delta 4 launch vehicle.56 This

multiple-restart engine is designed to produce

267,000 newtons (60,000 pounds-force) of thrust

(vacuum) and a nominal specific impulse of 467

seconds. Propellants for this engine are liquid oxygen

and liquid hydrogen. The engines can be calibrated

to operate at a normal mixture ratio in excess of 

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 39

Ablative Composite Rocket Engine

MB-XX Engine
6.0 (oxygen over fuel). Calibration of the basic

engine is accomplished using orifices to control

thrust and mixture ratio, but the design can be modified should throttling be required. Selection of the

expander-bleed cycle enables operation at highchamber pressure (10,340 to 13,780 kilopascals 

or 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per square inch absolute)

and hence high performance within a compact

package at a cost comparable to existing engines.

The expander-bleed cycle used in the MB-XX

engine differs from the closed, full expander cycle

used in RL10, RL60, and Vinci engines.57

Aerospike Liquid Engine – Garvey

Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation and CSULB

conducted several notable small launch vehicle R&D

activities through their partnership in the California

Launch Vehicle Education Initiative during 2005.

Using a single-chamber, liquid propellant, annular

aerospike engine concept developed by CSULB,

the GSC/CSULB team validated the basic design

and ignition sequence with a successful static fire

test at the Reaction Research Society’s Mojave Test

Area (MTA) in June 2003. The team then mounted

one of these 4,444-newton (1,000-pound-force)

thrust LOX and ethanol ablative engines onto their

Prospector 2 vehicle and proceeded to conduct the

first-ever powered, liquid-propellant, aerospike flight

test at the MTA in September 2003. In response to

issues observed during that flight, modifications were

made to the engine fabrication process. Another

flight test with the Prospector 4 vehicle followed in

December 2003. Performance was entirely nominal,

resulting in complete recovery of the vehicle and

key trajectory data.

These CALVEIN flight tests represent the 

first steps toward obtaining the critical empirical

data needed to validate whether the predicted benefits of such aerospike engines versus those

equipped with standard bell-shaped nozzles can be

achieved. This goal had been one of the primary

objectives of the X-33 program, which featured the

XRS-2200 linear aerospike engine.

Another important milestone was achieved by

the joint industry-academic team in December 2004

when it conducted its initial launch and recovery of

a full-scale flight development unit for NLV. The

Prospector 5 vehicle, an early version of the NLV

first stage, was launched and then recovered by

parachute.58

In October 2005, the GSC/CSULB CALVEIN

team conducted two static fire tests. The first of

these tests involved a 5,340-newton (1,200-poundforce) thrust engine that featured a new epoxy resin

for the ablative chamber liner. This basic engine

design is the same one that has powered the

Prospector 4, 5, 6 and 7 vehicles. The second static

fire test focused on the initial operation of a 225-

newton (50-pound-force) engine module that CSULB

is developing for future multichamber aerospike

engine configurations. The tests took place at the

Friends of Amateur Rocketry, Incorporated, test site

in the Mojave Desert.59 Currently, GSC and CSULB

continue their cooperation for developing a nextgeneration, multiple-chamber aerospike engine,

under a research grant from Missile Defense

Agency. A flight test of this engine on GSC’s

Prospector 10 rocket is planned for mid-2007.

Integrated Powerhead 

Demonstration – NASA

The Integrated Powerhead Demonstration is 

a joint venture between NASA and the Integrated

High Payoff Rocket Propulsion Technologies program managed for DoD by the AFRL at EAFB and

NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. This project is

a single phase program designed to demonstrate the

technologies needed for a possible future full-flow,

staged-combustion flight engine. The engine has

been designed as a reusable engine system, capable

of up to 200 flights, and features high-performance,

long-life technologies and materials. The IPD will

employ dual preburners that provide oxygen- and

hydrogen-rich staged combustion. 

Enabling Technologies 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

40 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

GSC/CSULB Aerospike Engine
Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne is developing

the liquid hydrogen fuel turbopump, oxygen pump,

main injector, and main combustion chamber of the

demonstrator. Aerojet Corporation of Sacramento,

California, designed and tested the oxidizer preburner, which initiates the combustion process with

oxygen-rich steam. Aerojet also is responsible for

development of the demonstrator engine’s fuel preburner, designed to supply fuel to the turbopump’s 

turbine with hot, hydrogen-rich steam. Pratt &

Whitney Rocketdyne will lead overall system integration once component-level development and

testing are complete. The IPD underwent system

level testing at the Stennis Space Center between

February 2005 and August 2006, completing 23

tests and accumulating 429 seconds of operation 

at power levels up to 100 percent.60

This full-flow, staged-combustion cycle uses 

a fuel-rich preburner to drive the fuel turbopump

and an oxidizer-rich preburner to drive the oxygen

turbopump. Because all of the propellants are

burned in the preburners, more mass flow is available

to drive the turbines than in a conventional staged

combustion cycle. The additional power enables

lower turbine temperatures and hence less stress,

translating into longer turbine life, a key factor for

reusable rocket engine life. In addition, the use of

oxidizer-rich gas in the oxidizer turbine and fuel-rich

gas in the fuel turbine eliminates the need for a

complex propellant seal for the pumps. Elimination

of inadvertent propellant mixing failure modes at

the seals increases engine system reliability. The

innovation also includes a hydrostatic bearing technology that literally floats the turbine shaft on rocket

propellants, eliminating wear and enabling high

reusability.61

Hybrid Rocket Motors – SpaceDev, Inc.

In 1998, SpaceDev, Incorporated, of Poway,

California, acquired exclusive rights to the intellectual property of the American Rocket Company,

which had developed hybrid rocket motor systems

in the 1980s. SpaceDev is currently developing a

series of small hybrid motors, using HTPB rubber

or polymethyl methacrylate (Plexiglas) as solid fuel

and storable nitrous oxide as a gaseous oxidizer. 

In November 2005, SpaceDev announced the

award of a $2.7 million contract by the Air Force to

begin work on a large hybrid rocket motor. SpaceDev

is to design, develop, and test a small common

booster capable of producing about 445,000 newtons

(100,000 pounds-force) of thrust, almost nine times

that of the SpaceDev rocket motor technology used

in SpaceShipOne.

In 2006, SpaceDev constructed a hybrid motor

test stand at the Northrop Grumman Capistrano Test

site in San Clemente, California. The current thrust

stand configuration has a 22,241-newton (5,000-

pound-force) thrust capacity with plans to expand the

site to 1.1 million-newton (250,000-pound-force)

thrust. SpaceDev fired two hybrid upper stage motors

at the site in 2006, which provided data on motor

performance and stability. More firings are planned

in 2007.62

SpaceDev anticipates that the technology 

will validate the ground test configuration of critical

elements of the hybrid motor, such as the injectors,

igniters, the motor grain, and insulation. The overall

goal is to demonstrate successful ignition and operation of a booster stage hybrid motor that can produce a reliable and reproducible thrust profile, with

high performance.63

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 41

IPD test at Stennis Space Center

SpaceDev Hybrid Upper Stage Ground Fire Test
Hybrid Propulsion Systems – 

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Hybrid motors combine the best of solid and

liquid propulsion systems, typically using an inert

fuel and liquid oxygen to generate thrust. Hybrid

propulsion offers significant gains in safety, throttleability, cost, and effect on the environment. Lockheed

Martin has developed hybrid propulsion systems

since 1989 and performed over 600 motor firings,

including a successful launching of a 267,000-newton

(60,000-pound-force) thrust sounding rocket from

NASA Wallops Island, Virginia, in 2003.64

Hybrid motors of the 1.1 million-newton

(250,000-pound-force) thrust class are being studied

for possible use on current and future launch vehicles.

Funding for the hybrid team came from the DoD

Technology Reinvestment Program, NASA monetary

and in-kind support, and contributions of industry

team members.65

In June 2005 Lockheed Martin successfully

test-fired a hybrid motor as part of the FALCON

SLV program at the AFRL, EAFB. This test was

the second SLV hybrid motor firing that Lockheed

Martin conducted at Test Stand 2-A in 2005; the

first one took place in January.66 The hybrid motor

that was tested was a full-scale test version of the

upper stage motor on Lockheed Martin’s SLV and

measured almost 3.5 meters (11 feet) in length and

1.5 meters (5 feet) in diameter. The motor fired for

its planned duration of 120 seconds, which was twice

the length of time of the first firing. Lockheed Martin

believed that the 120-second test was the longest

burn of a hybrid motor at that scale. The fuel grain

was designed such that the 120-second firing represented over 170 seconds of run time for the flight

configuration.

Hyper-X Series Vehicles – NASA

Chemical rocket

systems combust a fuel

and oxygen mixture to

produce thrust. By carrying everything needed 

for combustion, these

engines can operate in

the vacuum of space. Conventional turbojets also

burn fuel and an oxidizer, but the oxidizer comes

from the atmosphere. Without the need for oxidizer

tankage, these engines are lighter than rockets but

cannot operate in rarified air or a vacuum. For vehicles intended to conduct powered flight from the

Earth’s surface up to space and back, such as RLVs,

an engine capable of operating throughout changing

atmospheric conditions is the ideal propulsion 

solution.

On March 27, 2004, four decades of supersonic

combustion ramjet (scramjet) propulsion research

culminated in a successful flight of the X-43A

hypersonic technology demonstrator, the first time 

a scramjet-powered aircraft had flown freely. On

November 16, 2004, an identical scramjet-powered

X-43A repeated this feat.

In October 2005, ATK received a five-year,

$15 million contract from NASA, Aeronautics

Research Mission Directorate, to conduct hypersonic

aero-propulsion research, test, and evaluation in

specially designed wind-tunnels that replicate the

atmospheric conditions aircraft experience if traveling

at speeds up to Mach 20.

In December 2005, ATK, DARPA, and Office

of Naval Research (ONR) successfully groundlaunched and flew a hypersonic scramjet-powered

vehicle from the Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops

Island, Virginia. This launch was the first free flight

of a scramjet-powered vehicle, using conventional

liquid hydrocarbon jet fuel. The launch and flight

test were part of the Freeflight Atmospheric Scramjet

Test Technique (FASTT) program sponsored by

DARPA and ONR. The approximately 2.7-meter 

(9-foot) long, 28-centimeter (11-inch) in diameter

FASTT vehicle integrated a scramjet engine into 

a missile configuration. After separating from its

booster rocket at more than 18.3 kilometers (60,000

feet), the scramjet engine ignited and propelled the

vehicle at approximately 1,615 meters per second

(5,300 feet per second) or Mach 5.5. Using JP-10

fuel, the scramjet flew for at least 15 seconds while

critical engineering data was captured via on-board

sensors and tracking radars.67

In September 2006, through a series of tests,

ATK demonstrated that its hypersonic engine technology has practical, near-term applications for a

range of potential missions, including weapons and

platforms. These tests were conducted at NASA

Langley Research Center using an ATK-designed,

thermally throated, ramjet combustor rig. During

Enabling Technologies 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

42 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

X-43A/Hyper X
the series of tests, ATK’s hypersonic combustor

completed more than 72 minutes of combustion

time with liquid fuel. The ultimate objective is to

develop a flight engine designed specifically for

wide operability margin and simplicity. Recent

hypersonic tests were conducted in three series,

ranging from Mach 3.7 to 5.3. The flight-weight,

fuel-cooled combustor was tested for 23 minutes of

hot (combustion) time. Individual tests lasted up to

2.5 minutes to achieve thermal equilibrium. The

duration of the tests also helped ATK gain data in

the extreme temperature environment of hypersonic

flight. The fuel-cooled combustor was successfully

tested in both open and closed loop configurations

where the fuel used for cooling was directly injected into the combustion chamber. In addition, ATK

successfully demonstrated an efficient combustor

start on cold fuel with subsequent transition to fuel

vapor as the rig heated up. The combustor exhibited

extremely wide throttle-ability at all conditions,

confirming the robustness of the design and clearing the path to freejet tests of a complete fuelcooled engine that are now underway.

Propellant Production – 

Andrews Space, Inc.

Andrews Space,

Incorporated, of Seattle,

Washington, has developed

an in-flight propellant 

collection system, the

“Alchemist” Air Collection

and Enrichment System

(ACES), which generates LOX through the separation of atmospheric air. The ACES takes high-pressure air from turbofan jet engines flying at subsonic

speeds and liquefies it by passing the air through a

series of heat exchangers cooled by liquid nitrogen,

liquid hydrogen, or both. Then, using a fractional

distillation process, liquid oxygen is separated into

its constituent parts and stored in propellant tanks

for use by liquid hydrogen and LOX rocket

engines. 

AlchemistTM ACES allows horizontal take-off

and landing launch vehicles to leave the ground

without oxidizer, dramatically reducing take-off

weight, increasing payload capability, or both. By

allowing vehicles to take off without LOX onboard,

ACES technology allows a dramatically smaller

launch vehicle for a given payload size. Because

LOX represents a significant fraction of take-off

weight, this approach is critical for Horizontal

Takeoff, Horizontal Landing (HTHL) architectures

to meet NASA’s Next Generation safety, economic,

and operational goals with existing air-breathing

and rocket propulsion systems.

The company has proposed AlchemistTM ACES

in conjunction with its two-stage-to-orbit RLV

design—known as Gryphon—for use in other 

horizontal take-off launch vehicles. Andrews Space

carried out initial studies of the AlchemistTM ACES

technology using internal funds, then under a NASA

SBIR contract. Detailed feasibility studies and risk

analyses were carried out under a NASA Space

Launch Initiative (SLI) contract. ACES was first

demonstrated in the 1960s for the U.S. Air Force

Aerospaceplane program.68

In 2005, DARPA awarded Andrews a contract

to conduct system testing. Under this initial contract,

valued at $653,000, Andrews demonstrated basic

system technologies. In addition, Andrews designed

and built a rotating test apparatus to conduct

advanced cryogenic testing. 

In March 2006, DARPA/AFRL awarded

Andrews Space, Incorporated, additional funding 

to demonstrate operational capabilities of its

AlchemistTM ACES. Under the new contract, valued

close to $350,000, Andrews will advance the state-ofthe-art and demonstrate critical ACES components

and operating parameters. This bridge funding is

meant to permit early demonstration of the technologies required and to reduce program risk for the

demonstration program significantly. Development

and demonstration of these technologies offers a

new hybrid approach to rocket propulsion, which

can significantly reduce takeoff gross weight.69

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 43

Gryphon with Orbiter
Launch and reentry sites—often referred to as

“spaceports”—are the nation’s gateways to and

from space. Although individual capabilities vary,

these facilities may house launch pads and runways

as well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuels

needed to process launch vehicles and their payloads

before launch. The first such facilities in the United

States emerged in the 1940s when the federal 

government began to build and operate ranges and

bases to meet a variety of national needs. 

While U.S. military and civil government

agencies were the original and still are the primary

users and operators of federal facilities, commercial

payload customers have become frequent users.

Federal facilities are not the only portals to and from

space. Indeed, the commercial dimension of U.S.

space activity is evident not only in the numbers 

of commercially procured launches but also in the

presence of non-federal launch sites supplementing

federally operated sites. Since 1996, the FAA has

licensed the operations of six non-federal launch,

reentry, or both, sites. These spaceports serve both

commercial and government payload owners. 

Table 2 shows which states have non-federal,

federal, and proposed spaceports. Non-federal and

federal spaceports capable of supporting launch and

landing activities that currently exist in the United

States are also described. A subsection detailing

state and private proposals for future spaceports

with launch and landing capabilities is included. 

Non-federal Spaceports

While the majority of licensed launch activity

still occurs at U.S. federal ranges, much future

launch and landing activity may originate from 

private or state-operated spaceports. For a non-federal

entity to operate a launch or landing site in the

United States, it is necessary to obtain a license from

the federal government through the FAA. To date, six

non-federal launch sites (see Table 3). Three are 

co-located with federal launch sites, including the

California Spaceport at VAFB, Cape Canaveral

Spaceport operated by Space Florida at CCAFS, 

and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport at Wallops

Flight Facility, Virginia. In addition, Blue Origin

utilizes an exclusive use launch site in western Texas

that is not an FAA licensed spaceport. Similarly,

Sea Launch also does not need an FAA launch site

operator license. The first orbital launch from an

FAA-licensed site occurred on January 6, 1998,

when a Lockheed Martin Athena 2, carrying NASA’s

Lunar Prospector spacecraft, successfully lifted off

from the spaceport operated by Space Florida’s 

LC-46. Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of

FAA licensed spaceports. 

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site

Blue Origin West Texas launch site is a 

private property owned by Jeff Bezos, the founder

of Amazon.com and Blue Origin, LLC. After purchasing almost 66,800 hectares (165,000 acres) 

of desert 40.2 kilometers (25 miles) north of Van

Horn, in Culberson County, Texas, the entrepreneur

expressed interest in building and operating a private

spaceport. Blue Origin proposes to launch RLVs on

suborbital, ballistic trajectories to altitudes in excess

of 99,060 meters (325,000 feet). To conduct these

operations, Blue Origin would construct a private

launch site, including a vehicle processing facility,

launch complex, vehicle landing and recovery area,

spaceflight participant training facility, and other

support facilities.70

After reviewing the environmental assessment

and finding of no significant impact for the proposed

Blue Origin West Texas launch site, FAA issued to

Blue Origin the first experimental permit for a

reusable suborbital rocket in September 2006. 

This type of permit was first authorized by the

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

44 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports

Table 2: Spaceport Summary by State

State Non-federal Federal Proposed

Alabama

Alaska

California

Florida

Kwajalein

New Mexico

Oklahoma

Texas

Virginia

Washington

Wisconsin

Wyoming
2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 45

Table 3: Non-federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Blue Origin West 

Texas Launch Site

Culberson 

County, Texas

Blue Origin No known infrastructure at this time. Blue Origin plans to construct a private launch 

site, including a vehicle processing facility, 

launch complex; vehicle landing and recovery 

areas; and space flight participant training 

facility. Blue Origin received the first 

experimental permit for a reusable suborbital 

rocket in September 2006 and executed a test 

launch in November 2006.

California 

Spaceport

Vandenberg 

AFB, California

Spaceport Systems 

International

Existing launch pads, runways, payload 

processing facilities, telemetry, and 

tracking equipment.

Site is operational.

Cape Canaveral 

Spaceport

Cape Canaveral, 

Florida

Space Florida One orbital launch complex with a 

remote control center, one suborbital 

launch complex with two pads and a 

blockhouse, an off-site solid rocket 

motor storage that includes heavy rail 

access, a 27-m (90-ft) high bay with 

overhead cranes, a storage building, and 

an RLV support facility.

Construction of a quadra-axial static rocket 

motor test stand planned for spring of 2007.

Kodiak Launch 

Complex

Kodiak Island, 

Alaska

Alaska Aerospace 

Development 

Corporation

Launch control center, payload 

processing facility, and integration and 

processing facility, orbital and suborbital 

launch pads, and maintenance and 

storage facilities.

In 2006, AADC added eight additional 

redundant telemetry links to its range safety 

and telemetry system. Paving of improved 

road scheduled for completion in 2007.

Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Island, 

Virginia

Virginia 

Commercial Space 

Flight Authority

Two orbital launch pads, payload 

processing and integration facility 

vehicle storage and assembly buildings, 

mobile liquid fueling capability, on-site 

and downrange telemetry and tracking, 

and payload recovery capability.

Infrastructure improvements planned for 2007 

include an enhanced capability for Pad 0-B 

gantry and additional improvements to the high 

bay within the logistics and processing facility.

Mojave Air and 

Space Port 

Mojave, 

California

East Kern Airport 

District

Air traffic control tower, three runways, 

rotor test stand, engineering facilities, 

high bay building. Easy access to 

restricted airspace. Space zoned 

specifically for rocket motor 

development and testing.

Runway 12-30 extension to 3,810 m (12,500 ft) 

completed in November 2006. Construction 

beginning in 2007 of an extension of runway 8-

26, a new fire suppression water storage tank 

and water main, and an emergency response 

facility and equipment for protection of the 

involved public during planned suborbital 

spaceflight.

Oklahoma 

Spaceport 

Washita County, 

Oklahoma

Oklahoma Space 

Industry 

Development 

Authority

A 4,115-m (13,500-ft) runway; 5,200-m2 

(50,000-ft2) manufacturing facility; 

2,7850-m2

 (30,000-ft2) maintenance and 

painting hangar; 6 commercial aircraft 

hangars, including a 2,787-m2

 (30,000-

ft2

) maintenance and paint facility; 39-ha 

(96-a) of concrete ramp, control tower, 

crash and rescue facility; and 435-km2 

(168-m2) of land available for further 

construction.

The Clinton-Sherman AFB at Burns Flat was 

designated as the future spaceport. OSIDA 

received a Launch Site Operators License 

from the FAA in June 2006.
Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of

2004. The vehicle to be tested will be uncrewed and

will be launched and landed vertically during tests.The

permit granted to Blue Origin is a 1-year, renewable

permit, allowing for unlimited launches. Such permits

are intended to allow launch vehicle developers to

flight test their designs.71 On November 13, 2006,

Blue Origin executed the first test launch from its

West Texas facility, performing a low-level flight

test of a prototype of its New Shepard RLV.72

California Spaceport 

On September 19, 1996, the California

Spaceport became the first Commercial Spaceport

licensed by FAA. The California Spaceport offers

commercial launch and payload processing services

and is operated and managed by Spaceport Systems

International (SSI), a limited partnership of ITT

Federal Service Corporation. Co-located at VAFB

on the central California coast, SSI signed a 25-year

lease in 1995 for 0.44 square kilometers (0.17 square

miles) of land. Located at 34 degrees North latitude, the California Spaceport can support a variety

of mission profiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations,

with possible launch azimuths ranging from 220

degrees to 165 degrees. 

Construction of the California Spaceport,

Commercial Launch Facility, began in 1995 and was

completed in 1999. The design concept is based on a

“building block” approach. Power and communications cabling were routed underground to provide a

launch pad with the flexibility to accommodate a

variety of launch systems. The current Space Launch

Complex (SLC) 8 configuration consists of the following infrastructure: pad deck, support equipment

building, launch equipment vault, launch duct, launch

stand, access tower, communications equipment, and

Integrated Processing Facility (IPF) launch control

room as well as the required Western Range interfaces needed to support a launch. The final SLC-8

configuration awaits future customer requirements.

Recently, plans have been developed to expand the

height of the tower on SLC-8 to support the Minotaur 4

launch system.73 When fully developed, the SLC-8

Launch Facility will accommodate a wide variety

of launch vehicles, including the Minuteman-based

Minotaur and Castor 120-based vehicles, such as

Athena and Taurus. 

Originally, the focus of the California

Spaceport’s payload processing services was on the

refurbishment of the Shuttle Payload Preparation

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

46 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

California Spaceport

Vandenberg AFB

-Kennedy Space Center

-Cape Canaveral Air Force 

Station

-Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Mid-Atlantic

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Flight

Facility

Edwards AFB

Mojave Air and Space Port

White Sands Missile Range

Spaceport America

West Texas Spaceport

♦

• Kodiak Launch Complex

♦

♦

♦

∗

♦

•

•

•

U.S. Spaceports U.S. Spaceports

Oklahoma Spaceport

∗

∗

∗

∗

∗

•

♦

Key:

U.S. Federal Spaceport

Non-Federal Spaceport

∗ Proposed Non-Federal Spaceport

•

♦

Key:

U.S. Federal Spaceport

Non-Federal Spaceport

Proposed Non-Federal Spaceport

South Texas Spaceport

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport

•

Sea Launch Platform

Equatorial Pacific Ocean

•

♦ Reagan Test Site

Kwajalein Atoll, 

Marshall Islands

∗ Spaceport 

Washington

∗

Wisconsin Spaceport

∗

Spaceport Alabama

•

Chugwater Spaceport

∗

Cecil Field Spaceport Blue Origin

Exclusive Use Launch Site

•
Room. Located near SLC-6,

this large clean room facility

was designed to process three

Space Shuttle payloads simultaneously. Now, the facility 

is leased and operated by the

California Spaceport as the

IPF; payload-processing

activities occur on a regular

basis. The IPF has supported

booster processing; upper

stage processing; encapsulation; and commercial, civil,

and military satellite processing and their associated

administrative activities. The IPF can handle all

customer payload processing needs. This capability

includes Delta 2, Delta 4, and Atlas 5 class payloads

as well as smaller U.S. Air Force and commercial

payloads.

In 2002, SSI won a 10-year U.S. Air Force

satellite-processing contract for Delta 4 class 4- and

5-meter (13- and 16-foot) payloads. This contract

complements an existing 10-year NASA payloadprocessing contract for Delta 2 class 3-meter (10-foot)

payloads. SSI is working with several launch

providers for National Missile Defense support. The

National Reconnaissance Office has contracted with

SSI to provide payload processing until 2011. This

contract covers Delta 4 and Atlas 5 EELV-class

payload processing support for multiple missions 

to be launched from VAFB. NASA and commercial

Delta-class payloads are also processed at the IPF

for launch on the Delta 2 and launched from SLC-2W

at VAFB. In 2005, SSI supported two payloadprocessing flows through the IPF and two successful

Minotaur launches from SLC-8. In April 2006, SSI

supported the integration and launch of a Minotaur,

carrying the COSMIC mission from SLC-8.74

Cape Canaveral Spaceport 

Space Florida, created on May 30, 2006, 

consolidates Florida’s space and aerospace entities

and coordinates all space-related issues in Florida.

Space Florida promotes and facilitates launch activity

within the state by supporting and assisting commercial launch operators in completing required documentation and gaining approvals from the required

federal agencies for launching from Florida. Space

Florida can lend money for its purposes, own,

acquire, construct, and reconstruct facilities related

to launch. It has the

authority to issue revenue

bonds and any other bonds

to facilitate development

and is authorized to own

a variety of infrastructure

support systems including

electric power plants and

transportation facilities.

Under an arrangement

between the federal 

government and Space

Florida, excess CCAFS

facilities were licensed to Space Florida for use by

commercial launch service providers on a dual-use,

non-interference basis.

Major infrastructure operated by Space

Florida at CCAFS includes Launch Complex-46

(LC-46), a refurbished Trident missile launch site.

LC-46 has been modified to accommodate a variety

of small launch vehicles, and has already successfully launched the Athena 1 and Athena 2 rockets.

With further modifications, LC-46 could accommodate vehicles carrying payloads in excess of 1,800

kilograms (4,000 pounds) to LEO. Currently, LC-46

is configured for Castor 120 or similar solid-motorbased vehicles. The infrastructure can support launch

vehicles with a maximum height of 36 meters (120

feet) and diameters ranging from 1 to 3 meters 

(3 to 10 feet). 

As part of an overall effort to expand use of

the Cape for research, development, and educational activities, Space Florida obtained a 5-year license

from the Air Force to use LC-47. This launch complex was upgraded to support a significant number

of suborbital launch vehicles carrying academic

payloads for research and training purposes. Plans

are underway to begin construction in the spring of

2007 of a quadra-axial static rocket motor test stand

capable of accommodating motors up to 30 centimeters (12 inches) in diameter with a maximum average thrust of 53,400 newtons (12,000 pound-force).

Space Florida’s new Board of Directors is

developing a Strategic Plan that includes potential

commercial spaceport development projects at both

the existing spaceport and other sites around the

state. Space Florida is helping Florida airports apply

for an FAA Launch Site Operators license to 

support horizontally-launched spacecraft. In July

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 47

California Spaceport Panther-1
2006, the Jacksonville Aviation Authority began the

site license process for Cecil Field.75 Space Florida

is also working with NASA KSC to identify ways

to partner on the commercialization of the Shuttle

Landing Facility and development of an aerospace

technology and commerce park. 

A Super Loki rocket, carrying Project Genesis,

was launched from Space Florida facilities on May

12, 2006. The Panther-1 rocket launched on June

28, 2006, representing the first ever studentdesigned and -built vehicle to launch from the

Spaceport Operated by Space Florida.76

Kodiak Launch Complex 

In 1991, the Alaska state

legislature created the Alaska

Aerospace Development

Corporation (AADC) as a public

company to develop aerospacerelated economic, technical, and

educational opportunities for the

state of Alaska. In 2000, the AADC

completed the $40-million, 2-year

construction of the Kodiak Launch

Complex (KLC) at Narrow Cape

on Kodiak Island, Alaska. The first

licensed launch site not co-located

with a federal facility, KLC was

also the first new U.S. launch site built since the

1960s. Owned by the state of Alaska and operated

by the AADC, the KLC received initial funding

from the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, NASA, state of

Alaska, and private firms. Today, it is self-sustaining

through launch revenues and receives no state funding; the state of Alaska provides tax-free status and

has contributed the land on which the spaceport

resides. 

Kodiak has conducted ten successful launches

since 1998. Located at 57 degrees North latitude,

Kodiak Launch Complex occupies a 12.4-square

kilometer (4.8-square mile) site about 438 kilometers

(272 miles) south of Anchorage and 40 kilometers

(25 miles) southwest of the city of Kodiak. The

launch site itself encompasses a nearly 5-kilometer

(3-mile) area around Launch Pad 1. Kodiak provides

a wide launch azimuth and unobstructed downrange

flight path. Kodiak’s markets are military launches,

government and commercial telecommunications,

remote sensing, and space science payloads weighing

up to 990 kilograms (2,200 pounds). These payloads

can be delivered into LEO, polar, and Molniya

elliptical orbits. Kodiak is designed to launch up to

Castor 120-based vehicles, including the Athena 1

and 2, and has been used on a number of occasions

to launch military suborbital rockets. 

Kodiak facilities include the Launch Control

Center; Payload Processing Facility, which includes

a Class-100,000 clean room, an airlock, and a processing bay; Launch Service Structure and orbital

Launch Pad 1; Spacecraft and Assemblies Transfer

Facility and suborbital Launch Pad 2; Integration

and Processing Facility; and Maintenance and

Storage Facility. These facilities allow the transfer

of vehicles and payloads from processing to launch

without exposure to the outside environment. This

capability protects both the vehicles and the people

working on them from exterior conditions and allows

all-weather launch operations. Future expansion

plans include building a second suborbital launch

pad and a motor storage facility, and increasing

fiber-optic bandwidth to the continental United

States. Paving of improved roadways to the KLC 

is scheduled for completion in 2007.

The KLC Range Safety and Telemetry System

(RSTS) was delivered in September 2003 and

upgraded in 2005. This RSTS consists of two fully

redundant systems: one for on-site, the other for offaxis. Each part of the RSTS consists of two 5.4-meter

(17.7-foot) dishes with eight telemetry links featuring

command destruct capabilities. The Kodiak RSTS

number 1 system will be located on a newly constructed multi-elevation antenna field that also 

supports customer-unique instrumentation. In 2006,

eight additional redundant links were added to the

system for a total of twelve redundant links available at the KLC and the off-axis site in Cordova.77

The MDA conducted target missile launches

from KLC in February 2006 and September 2006.78

A five-year contract was signed in 2003 between

MDA and AADC to provide launch support services

for multiple launches in connection with tests of the

nation’s missile defense system. 

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

48 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

KLC FTG-02

Launch
Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport 

MARS is designed to provide “one-stop 

shopping” for space launch facilities and services

for commercial, government, scientific, and academic users. From its location on the Atlantic coast,

this spaceport can accommodate a wide range of

orbital inclinations and launch azimuths. Optimal

orbital inclinations accessible from the site are

between 38 degrees and 60 degrees; other inclinations, including Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO), can

be reached through in-flight maneuvers. 

The FAA issued a launch site operator’s

license to the Virginia Commercial Space Flight

Authority (VCSFA) in December 1997. In July

2003, a bi-state agreement was created between

Virginia and Maryland to jointly operate, conduct

future development, and promote the spaceport. The

agreement also renamed the spaceport to MARS.

MARS will receive over $350,000 directly

from Virginia and Maryland in fiscal year 2007. In

addition, these states will provide tax exemptions,

tax credits, work force training funds, and infrastructure grants to support spaceport development. 

DynSpace, a subsidiary of Computer Sciences

Corporation, is the primary support contractor for

MARS. In 1997, VCSFA signed a Reimbursement

Space Act Agreement with NASA to use the WFF

infrastructure to support commercial launches. This

30-year agreement allows MARS access to NASA’s

payload integration, launch operations, and monitoring facilities on a non-interference, cost reimbursement basis. NASA and MARS personnel work

together to provide launch services, providing 

little, if any, distinction in the areas of responsibility

for each. 

MARS has two launch pads. Launch pad 0-B,

its first launch pad, was designed as a “universal

launch pad,” capable of supporting a variety of small

and medium ELVs with gross liftoff weights of up

to 225,000 kilograms (496,000 pounds) that can

place up to 4,500 kilograms (9,900 pounds) into

LEO. The Mobile Service Structure offers complete

vehicle enclosure, flexible access, and can be readily

modified to support specific vehicle operations. The

site also includes a complete command, control, and

communications interface with the launch range. In

March 2000, MARS acquired a second pad at WFF,

launch pad 0A. MARS started refurbishing launch

pad 0A and its 25-meter (82-foot) service tower in

June 2000. Launch pad 0A will support launches 

of small ELVs with gross liftoff weights of up to

90,000 kilograms (198,000 pounds) and that can

place up to 1,350 kilograms (3,000 pounds) into LEO.

MARS is in the process of constructing a $4

million logistics and processing facility at WFF that

includes high bay and clean room environments. In

2006, MARS began Phase 2 construction of a

Class-100,000 high bay within the facility.79 In conjunction with WFF, MARS has also constructed a

mobile Liquid Fueling Facility capable of supporting

a wide range of liquid-fueled and hybrid rockets.

Future infrastructure improvements plans include

enhanced capability for Pad 0-B gantry and additional improvements to the high bay. 

Highlights for 2006 include the successful

Minotaur launch in December of TacSat-2. In

September, the successful completion of the NASA

ALV-X1 Pathfinder operation resulted in a contract

from NASA for the launch of the ALV-X1. Upcoming

launches for MARS include the U.S. Air Force and

NASA NFIRE launch in April 2007 and the TacSat-3

launch in November 2007.80 The spaceport has an

interest in supporting future RLVs, possibly using

its launch pads or three runways at WFF.81

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 49

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport
Mojave Air and Space Port 

Mojave Airport in Mojave, California, became

the first inland launch site licensed by the FAA on

June 17, 2004, allowing the airport to support suborbital launches of RLVs. The East Kern County,

California, government established the Mojave

Airport in 1935. The original facility was equipped

with taxiways and basic support infrastructure for

general aviation. A short time after its inception, the

Mojave Airport became a Marine Auxiliary Air

Station. The largest general aviation airport in Kern

County, Mojave Airport is owned and operated by the

East Kern Airport District, which is a special district

with an elected Board of Directors and a General

Manager. 

Now known as the Mojave Air and Space

Port, infrastructure includes an air traffic control

tower with Class D airspace and three runways with

associated taxiways. Runway 12-30 is the primary

runway for large air carrier jet, high-performance

civilian and military jet aircraft and horizontal launch

spacecraft. An extension of runway 12-30 from 2,896

meters (9,502 feet) long to 3,810 meters (12,500

feet) was declared ready for use on December 5, 2006.

Runway 8-26 is 2,149 meters (7,050 feet) long and is

primarily used by general aviation jet and propeller

aircraft. Runway 4-22 is 1,202 meters (3,943 feet)

long and is used by smaller general aviation propeller

aircraft and helicopters. The extension of runway

12-30 and over $250,000 of repairs to the airfield and

taxiways were completed in November 2006. The

cost of infrastructure upgrades totals $10.5 million

with 95 percent of the funding provided by the FAA

and 5 percent by the East Kern Airport District.82

Mojave Air and Space Port serves as a

Civilian Flight Test Center with access to R-2508

restricted airspace. The airport has 162 hectares

(400 acres) of land available for immediate construction. In addition, over 121 hectares (300 acres)

are zoned specifically for rocket motor testing and

development. Currently six companies are actively

developing and testing rocket motors. 

Infrastructure upgrades planned for 2007

include an extension of runway 8-26 from 2,149

meters (7,050 feet) long to 3,505 meters (11,500 feet).

Construction will begin on a 3.8-liter (one-milliongallon) fire suppression water storage tank and new

56-centimeter (22-inch) water main for taxiway B.

In addition, an emergency response facility and

associated equipment for protection of involved

public during suborbital research and development

and passenger spaceflight are planned.

Major facilities at the Mojave Air and 

Space Port include the terminal and industrial area,

hangars, offices, maintenance shop, fuel services

facilities, aircraft storage, and reconditioning facilities.

Numerous large air carrier jet aircraft are stored and

maintained at the Mojave Air and Space Port. The

airport is home to a variety of organizations, including

BAE Systems, Fiberset, General Electric, Interorbital

Systems, Masten Space Systems, the National Test

Pilot School, Scaled Composites, Orbital Sciences,

and XCOR Aerospace. 

Mojave Air and Space Port has hosted several

record-breaking events in the last few years. The

June 21, 2004, flight of SpaceShipOne made Mike

Melvill the first civilian astronaut. SpaceShipOne

rocketed past the boundary of space on September

29, 2004, and again on October 4, 2004, to win the

$10 million Ansari X Prize. In December 2005, the

EZ-Rocket made a record-setting point-to-point

flight, departing from the Mojave Air and Space

Port, and gliding to a touchdown at a neighboring

airport in California City.83 In February 2006, XCOR

Aerospace conducted flight testing of its Mark 1

Rocket Racing aircraft at the Mojave Air and Space

Port. In April 2006, Scaled Composite’s White

Knight took off from Mojave Air and Space Port to

conduct flight tests of the DARPA-sponsored X-37. 

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

50 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Mojave Air and Space Port
Oklahoma Spaceport 

After seven years of development, in June

2006, the Oklahoma Spaceport became the sixth

commercial spaceport licensed by the FAA. In

1999, the Oklahoma state legislature created the

Oklahoma Space Industry Development Authority

(OSIDA). Directed by seven governor-appointed

board members, OSIDA promotes the development

of spaceport facilities and space exploration, education, and related industries in Oklahoma. Currently,

the state of Oklahoma provides 100 percent of the

operational funding for OSIDA, but the organization

expects to be financially independent in the future,

particularly now that it holds a commercial launch

site operator license. Still, direct financial support

varies with specific needs for facility upgrades or

operations. OSIDA intends to submit a request for

one-time capital expenditures for facility upgrades

and expects to receive the support during fiscal year

2008. The environmental assessment that was initiated in 2002 concluded in May 2006, when the FAA

found that issuing a launch site operator license 

to OSIDA would not significantly affect the quality

of the environment, as defined by the National

Environmental Policy Act.84 Besides state funding,

NASA issued a $915,000 grant to OSIDA for 

aerospace education programs.

The FAA license allows OSIDA to provide

launch and support services for horizontally launched

suborbital RLVs at the Clinton-Sherman Industrial

Airpark (CSIA) launch site, located near Burns Flat.

On December 5, 2006, the city of Clinton conveyed

ownership of the CSIA to OSIDA. Existing infrastructure includes a 4,100-meter (13,500-foot) runway, large maintenance and repair hangars, utilities,

rail spur, and 12.4 square kilometers (4.8 square

miles) of open land. Existing buildings could serve

to house space planes, manufacturing facilities, and

even a passenger terminal.85 Infrastructure development plans for fiscal year 2008 include additional

fencing for the spaceport and development of a

Fight Operations Control Center, located in the

OSIDA headquarters.

Oklahoma’s site license clears the spaceport

for suborbital flights in a 110 x 270 kilometer (70 x

170 mile) corridor of the prairie, with clearance for

launch vehicles to rise to the fringe of outer space.86

In June 2006, OSIDA signed a letter of agreement

with Fort Worth Air Route Traffic Control Center

that provides procedures for the integration of

licensed launch operations into the National

Airspace System from the Oklahoma Spaceport.87

Thus, this launch site became the first U.S. inland

spaceport licensed to fly in the national airspace

system, clear of military operating areas or restricted

government flight corridors. This arrangement means

that spacecraft will not need military permission to

operate because the spaceport will have its own air

space. The license was granted for five years and

the FAA will schedule safety inspections of the

spaceport at least once a year. Before a vehicle

launch, individual operators will need to apply for 

a separate launch license or permit from the FAA.

Oklahoma Department of Commerce offers

several incentives to attract space-related businesses.

For example, a jobs program provides quarterly

cash payments of up to 5 percent of new taxable

payroll directly to qualifying companies for up to

10 years. Organizations also may qualify for other

state tax credits, tax refunds, tax exemptions, and

training incentives. Rocketplane Kistler and TGV

Rockets, Incorporated, have located in Oklahoma

for their launch vehicle developments. As the first

corporation that meets specific qualifying criteria,

including equity capitalization of $10 million and

creation of at least 100 Oklahoma jobs, Rocketplane

Kistler has qualified so far for a $18-million, stateprovided tax credit. Another company pursuing

space-related activities in Oklahoma, Armadillo

Aerospace, conducted tethered operational testing

at the Oklahoma Spaceport with the vehicle that

was used for the 2006 X Prize Lunar Lander 

competition.88

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 51

Oklahoma Spaceport
Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

52 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Federal Spaceports 

Since the first licensed commercial orbital

launch in 1989, the federal ranges have continually

supported commercial launch activity. The importance of commercial launches is evident in the

changes taking place at federal launch sites. Launch

pads have been developed with commercial, federal,

and state government support at the two major 

federal sites for U.S. orbital launches for the latest

generation of the Delta and Atlas launch vehicles.

CCAFS and VAFB host pads for the Delta 2, Delta 4

and Atlas 5. 

Recognizing that the ranges are aging, the U.S.

government is engaged in range modernization. This

effort includes the ongoing Range Standardization

and Automation program, a key effort to modernize

and upgrade the Eastern Launch and Test Range at

CCAFS and the Western Range at VAFB. The U.S.

Air Force, Department of Commerce, and FAA

signed a Memorandum of Agreement in January

2002 that established a process for collecting commercial sector range support and modernization

requirements, communicating them to the U.S. Air

Force, and considering them in the existing U.S.

Air Force requirements process. Table 4 summarizes the characteristics of federal spaceports. 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

The 45th Space Wing, headquartered at

Patrick AFB, conducts launch operations and provides range support for military, civil, and commercial launches at CCAFS. The 45th Space Wing is

the host organization for Patrick AFB, CCAFS,

Antigua Air Station, Ascension Auxiliary Air Field,

and many mission partners. The Wing is part of Air

Force Space Command at Peterson AFB, Colorado,

and reports to the 14th Air Force at VAFB. 

The 45th Space Wing manages the Eastern

Launch and Test Range (ELTR). The ELTR collects,

processes and delivers data for a variety of ELTR

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Cape Canaveral Air 

Force Station 

(CCAFS)

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

U.S. Air Force Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet 

and Shuttle capable runways, launch 

pads, hangar, vertical processing 

facilities, and assembly building.

Site is operational.

Edwards AFB California, near 

Mojave

U.S. Air Force Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet 

and Shuttle capable runways, 

reentry corridors, operations control 

center, movable hangar, fuel tanks, 

and water tower.

Site is operational.

Kennedy Space 

Center

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

NASA Launch pads, supporting Space 

Shuttle operations, the Vehicle 

Assembly Building (VAB), and the 

Shuttle Landing Facility.

Environmental assessment underway for the 

utilization of the Shuttle Landing Facility for 

commercial suborbital and orbital spaceflight, 

special purpose aviation, and other compatible 

uses.

Reagan Test Site Kwajalein 

Island, Republic 

of the Marshall 

Islands

U.S. Army Telemetry and tracking facilities, 

range safety systems, runway, and 

control center.

Site is operational. New launch pad on Omelek 

Island completed in 2006.

Vandenberg AFB Vandenberg 

AFB, California

U.S. Air Force Launch pads, vehicle assembly and 

processing buildings, payload 

processing facilities, telemetry and 

tracking facilities, control center 

engineering, user office space, and 

Shuttle-capable runways.

Site is operational.

Table 4: Federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station
range users, as well as protecting the public from the

hazards of launch activities. To accomplish these tasks,

the range consists of a series of tracking, telemetry

and commanding stations located at CCAFS, Antigua

Air Station, and Ascension Auxiliary Air Field. The

range also uses the Jonathan Dickinson and the

Malabar Tracking Annexes on the Florida mainland.

These stations may be augmented with airborne or

seaborne assets, as well as a site located in Argentia,

Newfoundland.89 Users of the ELTRS include the

U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy, NASA, and various private industry contractors.

Launch agencies at CCAFS process a variety

of satellites and launch them on Atlas 5, Delta 2, and

Delta 4 ELVs. The spaceport also provides support

for the Space Shuttle program, which launches from

KSC, and U.S. Navy submarine ballistic missile

testing.

The ELTR supported many successful launches

in 2006, including an Atlas 5 launch of the Pluto New

Horizons mission, Atlas 5 launch of ASTRA 1KR,

Delta 4 launch of GOES-N, Delta 2 launch of

Mitex, Delta 2 launches of GPS IIR-15 and -16,

and the Delta 2 launch of STEREO.

Edwards Air Force Base 

The original landing site for the Space Shuttle,

Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB) California, is the

home of more than 250 first flights and about 290

world records. The first two Shuttle flights landed

on Rogers Dry Lake, a natural, hard-pack lake bed,

measuring about 114 square kilometers (44 square

miles). Today, NASA prefers to use KSC as the 

primary landing site for the Space Shuttle and uses

EAFB as a back-up site. EAFB is operational for

horizontal takeoff and landings, but is not operational as a launch site. Edwards is the DoD’s premier

flight test center, leading in unmanned aerial vehicle

(UAV), electronic warfare, directed energy test

capabilities, and testing of future hypersonic vehicles.

Within the last 10 years, EAFB has been the

home of more than 10 experimental projects, among

them the X-33 aerospace plane. Although the X-33

was never tested and its launch site is not operational, considerable capability exists at Edwards’s

Ridley Mission Control Center for support of aircraft and spacecraft during re-entry and landing. In

2006, three glide tests were successfully completed

on the DARPA-sponsored X-37 autonomous

research vehicle.

Edwards completed an environmental assessment for reentry corridors to EAFB for lifting entry

vehicles like the X-38 configuration.90 An additional

environmental assessment is being developed for

corridors that will allow hypersonic flight tests

within the atmosphere for ranges of 741 kilometers

(400 nautical miles) and 1,528 kilometers (825 

nautical miles). 

Kennedy Space Center

Established as NASA’s Launch Operations

Center in July 1962, KSC today serves as the primary

launch site for NASA’s crewed space missions. Major

KSC facilities comprise Launch Complex 39, 

supporting Space Shuttle operations; the Vehicle

Assembly Building (VAB), where the Shuttle is

integrated; and the Shuttle Landing Facility. A diversity of payload processing and support facilities are

available for multiple users. Kennedy Space Center

provides oversight of NASA’s ELVs that are flown

primarily from CCAFS and VAFB with support

from the U.S. Air Force. 

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 53

Edwards Air Force Base

ZERO-G at Kennedy Space Center
During 2006, KSC supported the successful

launch of the New Horizons, Space Technology 5

(ST5), CALIPSO, CloudSat, and the twin Solar

Terrestrial Relations Observatories (STEREO)

spacecraft. KSC also supported NASA’s Shuttle

Discovery (STS-116 and STS-121) and Shuttle

Atlantis (STS-115) missions to the ISS. NASA

and HDNet signed an agreement in March 2006 to

allow HDNet to broadcast in high definition shuttle

liftoffs and landings at KSC through 2010.91

In September 2006, KSC issued a Request 

for Proposals (RFP) for the selection of a master

developer for a 129-hectare (319-acre) aerospace

technology and commerce park at KSC. The

Exploration Park will be established to enable and

grow private sector participation in space exploration,

support commercial space transportation, and 

promote commercial development of technologies

for application in space and on Earth.92

Non-NASA use of KSC’s Shuttle Landing

Facility (SLF) increased during the last year. In

February 2006, the SLF was used by the GlobalFlyer

airplane for a flight that set a new world record for

the longest flight made by any aircraft.93 NASA and

ZERO-G Corporation signed an agreement in April

2006 that will allow ZERO-G to conduct up to 280

weightless flights annually in its modified Boeing

727-200 aircraft from the SLF.94 In September 2006,

NASA issued a request for information from prospective commercial and other non-NASA users of the

SLF to support an environmental assessment of

commercial suborbital and orbital spaceflight, 

support, and special purpose aviation, and other

compatible uses of the SLF.95

Reagan Test Site 

Located on Kwajalein Island, part of the

Republic of the Marshall Islands, the U.S. Army’s

Reagan Test Site (RTS) is within the DoD Major

Range and Test Facility Base (MRTFB). The

advantages of RTS include its strategic location,

allowing launch in virtually all azimuths, unique

instrumentation, and ability to support ballistic missile testing and space operations. RTS is completely

instrumented to support space launch customers

with radar, telemetry, optics, and range safety systems. As a U.S. Army DoD MRTFB, RTS receives

annual federal funding in addition to direct cost

reimbursement from customers.

A new launch pad was constructed on Omelek

Island in 2006 with funding by SpaceX to support

their space launch missions. The Army began

deployment of a fiber connection to the continental

United States for mission support at the Huntsville

Space Operation Control Center and Mission Control

Center. Completion of the fiber connection is projected for mid-fiscal year 2008.96

With nearly 40 years of successful support,

RTS provides a vital role in the research, development, and test and evaluation effort of America’s

missile defense and space programs. At least 17

organizations, representing the military, academia,

civil government, and commercial interests, use

RTS.97 Orbital Sciences, SpaceX and the MDA

conduct launch operations from RTS. SpaceX’s 

first launch in March 2006 was unsuccessful. A

Pegasus XL launch is scheduled from Kwajalein 

in the near future.98

Vandenberg Air Force Base 

In 1941, the U.S. Army

activated this site near

Lompoc, California, as Camp

Cook. In 1957, Camp Cook

was transferred to the Air

Force, becoming the nation’s

first space and ballistic missile

operations and training base.

In 1958, it was renamed in

honor of General Hoyt S.

Vandenberg, the Air Force’s

second Chief of Staff. VAFB

is currently the headquarters

of the 30th Space Wing and the Air Force Space

Command organization responsible for all DoD space

and ballistic activities for the West Coast. Most U.S.

satellites destined for near-polar orbit launch from

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

54 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Kwajalein Island

VAFB
the Western Range at VAFB. The 30th Space Wing

Western Range Operations Control Center provides

flight safety, weather, scheduling, instrumentation

control, vehicle designation information, and tracking

data to and from inter- and intra-range sensors in

real or nearly real-time for ballistic and space launch

support. Range tracking capabilities extend over the

Pacific Ocean as far west as the Marshall Islands.

Boundaries to the north stretch as far as Alaska and

as far south as Central America. Vandenberg is host

to the 14th Air Force Headquarters and the Joint

Functional Component Command, Space.

Infrastructure used for space launches at

VAFB includes a 4,500-meter (15,000-foot) runway;

boat dock; rail lines; launch, booster and payload

processing facilities; tracking radar; optical tracking

and telemetry facilities; and control centers. The

401-square-kilometer (155-square-mile) base also

houses numerous government organizations and

contractor companies. Vandenberg Air Force Base

hosts a variety of federal agencies and attracts commercial aerospace companies and activities, including

the California Spaceport effort. The 30th Space Wing

supports West Coast launch activities for the U.S.

Air Force, DoD, NASA, MDA and various private

industry contractors. Vandenberg is upgrading its

range instrumentation and control centers to support

the space launch industry. Scheduled for completion

by 2010, these upgrades will automate the Western

Range and provide updated services to the customer.

For the development of launch infrastructure for the

EELV Program, VAFB has partnered with Boeing

and Lockheed Martin.

Boeing has renovated SLC-6 from a Space

Shuttle launch pad into an operational facility for

Delta 4. Construction at SLC-6 has included enlarging the existing mobile service tower and completing the construction of the West Coast Horizontal

Integration Facility, where the Delta 4 is assembled. 

Lockheed Martin converted SLC-3E from an

Atlas 2 launch pad into an operational facility for

Atlas 5. The upgrades started in January 2004, which

include adding 9 meters (30 feet) to the existing 61-

meter (200-foot) mobile service tower to accommodate the larger rocket. A crane capable of lifting 20

tons was replaced with one that can lift 60 tons. 

Current space launch vehicles supported by

VAFB include Delta 2, Delta 4, Atlas 5, Taurus,

Minotaur, Pegasus XL, and Falcon 1. Vandenberg

Air Force Base completed an 11-for-11 launch

record during fiscal 2006.99 NASA operates SLC-2,

from which Boeing Delta 2 vehicles are launched.

The first launch of a Delta 4 from SLC-6 occurred

in June 2006. A second successful launch occurred

in November 2006. Lockheed Martin is currently

completing pathfinder operations in anticipation of a

first launch in April 2007. Orbital Sciences’s Taurus

is launched from 576-E. Pegasus XL vehicles are

processed at Orbital Sciences’s facility at VAFB then

flown to various worldwide launch areas. Vandenberg

supports numerous ballistic programs, including

Minuteman and numerous MDA test and operational

programs.

Vandenberg Air Force Base has active partnerships with private commercial space organizations

in which VAFB provides launch property and launch

services. The private companies use the government

or commercial facilities to conduct launch, payload,

and booster processing work. Vandenberg houses

three commercially owned complexes: Boeing’s

Horizontal Integration Facility, Spaceport Systems

International’s California Spaceport and Payload

Processing Facility, and Astrotech’s Payload

Processing Facility.100

Wallops Flight Facility 

The predecessor 

of NASA, the National

Advisory Committee for

Aeronautics, or NACA,

established an aeronautical

and rocket test range at

Wallops Island, Virginia, 

in 1945. Since then, over

16,000 rocket launches

have taken place from the

WFF, which is operated for

NASA by the Goddard

Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland. 

Wallop’s primary mission is to serve as a

research and test range for NASA, supporting scientific research, technology development, flight testing,

and educational flight projects. WFF, however, also

heavily supports the DoD and commercial industry

with flight projects ranging from small suborbital

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 55

Wallops Flight Facility
vehicles to orbital launch vehicles. In addition 

to rockets, WFF’s integrated Launch Range and

Research Airport, enables flight operations of UAVs

and other experimental craft. WFF also frequently

serves as a down-range site for launches conducted

from Cape Canaveral.

MARS is co-located at WFF as a tenant, and

the organizations collaborate on certain projects to

jointly provide mission services, particularly focusing on small commercial ELVs. Jointly, WFF and

MARS offer two orbital and numerous suborbital

launchers, a range control center, three blockhouses,

numerous payload and vehicle preparation facilities,

and a full suite of tracking and data systems. In

support of its research and program management

responsibilities, Wallops also contains numerous

science facilities, a research airport, and flight hardware fabrication and test facilities.

Wallops continues a significant range modernization and technology program, begun in 2002.

WFF engineers are also actively pursuing new

range technologies that will increase responsiveness

and lower costs, such as space-based communications systems and an autonomous flight termination

system.101 In early 2007, a class-100,000 clean room

will be operationally certified within Bay 1 of the

Payload Processing Facility. A new project support

facility is nearly completed, providing auditorium

capabilities for large gatherings including premission reviews and observation of the launch.102

WWF is completing its new engineering facility,

which will include laboratories.103 The initial operational capabilities of the Wallops mobile Liquid

Fueling Facility will be ready in the spring of 2007.

During 2006, WFF’s Research Range supported

30 rocket tests. WFF is heavily engaged in supporting

both DoD and commercial interests in the emerging

small ELV community, such as those supported by

the DARPA Falcon program. WFF successfully

supported the launch of the U.S. Air Force and

NASA TacSat-2 launch in December 2006, and plans

to support the TacSat-3 launch in November 2007,

and the U.S. Air Force and NASA NFIRE launch in

April 2007.

White Sands Missile Range 

Once exclusively

military, White Sands

Missile Range (WSMR)

today attracts other

government agencies,

foreign nations, and

private industry to its

world-class test facilities. The largest overland test range in America, WSMR is operated by

the U.S. Army, used by the Army, Navy, Air Force,

Marine Corps, and MDA; and home to the NASA

White Sands Test Facility. Situated 26 kilometers

(16 miles) northeast of Las Cruces, New Mexico,

this range covers 8,100 square kilometers (3,100

square miles). 

Since establishment in 1945, the range has

fired more than 44,500 missiles and rockets. Almost

1,200 of those were research and sounding rockets.

WSMR has seven engine test stands and precision

cleaning facilities, including a class-100 clean room

for spacecraft parts. After KSC and EAFB, White

Sands is the Space Shuttle’s tertiary landing site.

This landing site consists of two 11-kilometer (6.8

mile) long, gypsum-sand runways.104 Test operations

are run out of the new J.W. Cox Range Control

Center. This $28-million facility was designed to

meet current and future mission requirements with

state-of-the-art networking, computing, and communications for effective interaction between test

operations and customers. 

In 2002, the U.S. Army, WSMR, and state of

New Mexico signed a Memorandum of Agreement

supporting the development of the Southwest Regional

Spaceport, which was renamed Spaceport America

in 2006. WSMR provided range support for the first

rocket launch from Spaceport America in October

2006. Initially, WSMR will provide a diversity of

support services for Spaceport America, ranging

from flight safety, radar, optical tracking, airspace

and ground space for touchdown and recovery. 

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

56 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

White Sands Missile Range
Proposed Non-federal Spaceports 

Several states plan to develop spaceports

offering a variety of launch and landing services. Two

common characteristics of many of the proposed

spaceports are inland geography and interest in

hosting RLV operations. Tables 5a and 5b describe

specific efforts to establish non-federal spaceports,

which are in various stages of development. 

Cecil Field Spaceport

Originally developed as a naval air station

with one 3,810 x 60-meter (12,500 x 200-foot) 

runway and one 1,160-meter (3,800-foot) runway,

Cecil Field was proposed for closure by the Base

Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process in 1993.

Five years later, based on the recommendation of

the Base Reuse Commission, JAA took ownership

of 3,240 hectares (8,000 acres), including the runways, hangars, and support infrastructure and

has operated the airport

for maintenance and

repair operations, general aviation activity, and

limited military operations. The airport was

identified as a potential

launch site in the feasibility study of a Florida

Commercial Spaceport.

The JAA is pursuing a

launch site operator’s license and is conducting the

environmental assessment needed before the issuance

of the license. This environmental assessment

began in 2006.

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 57

Table 5a: Proposed Non-federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Cecil Field Aerial View

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Cecil Field 

Spaceport

Jacksonville, 

Florida

Jacksonville Aviation 

Authority

One 3,810 x 60-m (12,500 x 200-ft) 

runway, three 2,440-m (8,000-ft) 

runways, 175 buildings totaling 

270,000-m2 (2.9 million-ft2), 8 aircraft 

hangars, operating air traffic control 

tower, warehouse, industrial and 

general use space totaling more 

than 40,000-m2 (425,000-ft2) and 

general office and support facilities 

of over 21,000-m2 (225,000-ft2).

An environmental assessment for spaceport 

operations is in process with a final draft 

expected at the end of January 2007.

Chugwater 

Spaceport

Platte County, 

Wyoming

Frontier Astronautics No complete infrastructure at this 

time.

Three launch pads and a 2,225,000-n (500,000-

ft·lbf) flame trench are being refurbished. 

Environmental assessment for site approval is 

in progress.

Gulf Coast 

Regional Spaceport

Brazoria 

County, Texas

To be determined Road, suborbital launch platform, 

and launch control facility.

The Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport 

Development Corporation has proposed 

constructing a spaceport in Brazoria County, 

Texas, 80-km (50-mi) south of Houston. FAA 

suborbital launch site licensing process is 

underway.

South Texas 

Spaceport

Willacy County, 

Texas

Willacy County 

Development 

Corporation for 

Spaceport Facilities

Road, as an extension to the road to 

the airport, 6-in water line with fire 

hydrant, 18 x 25 x 5-m (60 x 80 x 16-

ft) metal building with concrete slab.

The final Texas Spaceport site has been 

selected, and it is in Port Mansfield, near 

Charles R. Johnson Airport. Suborbital rockets 

have been launched near the proposed site. 

Spaceport Alabama Baldwin 

County, 

Alabama

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The master plan Phase 1 has been completed 

and Phase 2 is under development. The 

Spaceport Alabama master plan is expected to 

be completed by the end of 2007. While no land 

has been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, a 

green field site is under consideration in 

Baldwin County, across the bay from the city of 

Mobile.
The infrastructure of this airfield provides an

existing facility conducive to spaceport operations,

including one 3,810-meter (12,500-foot) runway,

three 2,440-meter (8,000-foot) runways, 175 buildings totaling 270,000 square meters (2.9 million

square feet), eight aircraft hangars, operating air

traffic control tower, warehouse, industrial and 

general use space totaling more than 40,000 square

meters (425,000 square feet), and general office 

and support facilities of over 21,000 square meters

(225,000 square feet). During 2006, JAA continued

to maintain and upgrade the runways, taxiways,

lighting systems, and other infrastructure. The

3,810-meter (12,500-feet) runway, together with 

the location in a sparsely populated area and the

proximity to the coast make this site attractive for

future commercial space activities.

The following projects are highlights of the

plans for 2007: development of additional taxiway

and apron area, construction of an access road,

approach lighting system for runway 9R/27L, parking

rehabilitation, development of a security training

facility, perennial comprehensive, and environmental

planning projects. The plan is for Cecil Field to use

facilities that currently exist to support horizontal

launch vehicles. This includes facilities that could

be used for crew and passenger training. Because of

the quality of the existing facilities, space operations

could begin at Cecil Field with minimum infrastructure costs to the launch operator. As the requirement

for additional launch and training facilities develop,

Cecil Field has the land and infrastructure in place to

accommodate increasing demand. Additionally, the

Florida Community College at Jacksonville’s Aviation

Center of Excellence is presently establishing an

Aerospace Resource Center to educate and develop

personnel to support the commercial space

industry.105

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

58 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Table 5b: Proposed Non-federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Spaceport America Upham, New 

Mexico

New Mexico Spaceport 

Authority

Temporary infrastructure, including a 

launch pad, weather station, rocket 

motor storage facilities and trailers.

Plans for this site include a spaceport central 

control facility, an airfield, a maintenance and 

integration facility, a launch and recovery 

complex, a flight operations control center, and 

a cryogenic plant. Construction to begin in third 

quarter of 2007. Environmental and business 

development studies conducted. First launch 

took place in September 2006.

Spaceport 

Sheboygan

Sheboygan, 

Wisconsin

Owner: City of 

Sheboygan; Operator: 

Rockets for Schools

A vertical pad for suborbital 

launches in addition to portable 

launch facilities, such as mission 

control.

Plans for developing additional launch 

infrastructure are ongoing and include creation 

of a development plan that includes support for 

orbital RLV operations. Wisconsin Aerospace 

Authority legislation was signed into law in 

2006.

Spaceport 

Washington

Grant County 

International 

Airport, 

Washington

Port of Moses Lake 4,100-m (13,452-ft) main runway 

and a 3,200-m (10,500-ft) crosswind 

runway.

A 12,100 ha (30,000-a) potential vertical launch 

site has been identified. An Aerospace Overlay 

Zone has also been established in the Grant 

County Unified Development Code. The site is 

certified as an emergency-landing site for the 

Space Shuttle. Additional infrastructure 

development is pending launch customers and 

market responses.

West Texas 

Spaceport

Pecos County, 

Texas

Pecos County/West 

Texas Spaceport 

Development 

Corporation

Greasewood site has an air 

conditioned control center, an 

industrial strength concrete pad, and 

a 30 x 30-m (100 x 100-ft) scraped 

and level staging area. Broadband 

Internet on site, controlled fenced 

access, and a 1,295-km2

 (500 mi2) 

recovery area. Airport has 5 runways 

(2,286 x 30-m, or 7,500 x 100-ft) with 

hangar space.

Development plan approved by State of Texas 

in 2005. State has provided $175,000 in 2005 

for planning studies. Future infrastructure plans 

include 1,070-m (3,500-ft) runway, static engine 

testing facility, and balloon hangar. 
Chugwater Spaceport

The Chugwater Launch site was originally 

an Atlas E Missile Base, outside of Chugwater,

Wyoming, built in 1960 and decommissioned in

1965. Designed to store and launch a complete

Atlas E ICBM, the facilities are designed with

many special amenities for rocketry. In March

2006, Frontier Astronautics bought the property 

and began renovation to use it as a launch site.

Since the last change in ownership, maintenance work has been performed to get original 

military equipment operational. During 2006, three

horizontal engine tests of a LOX and kerosene

ViperTM 33,360-newton (7,500-pound-force) engine

took place at the Chugwater site. The tests were

possible because Frontier Astronautics obtained an

exception to the countywide fire ban. So far, almost

$500,000 has been invested in the site, all from private

sources. Although currently there is no official

development plan for the spaceport, the state of

Wyoming is very interested in developing a spaceport. Frontier Astronautics is in the process of 

submitting a proposal for assistance. No direct

financial support is expected from the state, but

state officials anticipate providing a small business

loan in 2007.

Plans for future infrastructure include a functioning 2,225,000-newton (500,000-pound-force)

vertical test stand for engine testing, a horizontal

engine test stand, up to three vertical launch pads,

on-site machine shop, and shooting range. The

planned configuration of the spaceport launch site

is vertical launch pads with water deluge system.106

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport 

The Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport

Development Corporation (GCRSDC) has proposed

constructing a spaceport in Brazoria County, Texas,

80 kilometers (50 miles) south of Houston. The

Corporation identified undeveloped land and leased

81 hectares (200 acres) from the private owner,

Dow Chemical Corporation. 

The GCRSDC has in place a phased plan for

development and is currently focused on short-term

goals of creating infrastructure, securing an FAA

Class III suborbital license, and marketing the facility

to potential users for unguided suborbital missions.

Phase I and Phase II of the suborbital licensing

process have been completed. Phase III is currently

in progress, with the main focus on an environmental assessment and flight safety analysis. A draft of

the environmental assessment is planned to be submitted to FAA in 2007. The development plan also

includes preparation of the application for beginning

the licensing process in pursuit of an orbital license

at a site to be determined.

The state of Texas approved the current scope

of work, and in March 2006, the Brazoria County

Commissioners approved interlocal agreements

with the GCRSDC to build a launch pad and roads.

The site plans include an access road from the U.S.

Fish and Wildlife road to the launch area, culverts

with stabilizing material for a crushed concrete

entrance and 5-meter (16-foot) gate at the property

line, a 6 x 6 meter (20 x 20 foot) launch pad surrounded by a concrete area, a parking area, and 1,200

linear meters (4,000 linear feet) of wire fencing.107

During 2006, the GCRSDC completed the entryway to the site and constructed a gravel access

road, with in-kind support from Brazoria County. 

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 59

Chugwater Spaceport aerial view Amateur rocket launch at GCRS site
Local and state governments have allocated

funds for the development of the Gulf Coast

Regional Spaceport since 1999, financing the site

selection, the safety analysis, and the studies determining the necessary infrastructure. The last time

funding was received was in 2005, when the state

of Texas awarded the GCRSDC a grant for $325,000,

which was used to initiate the licensing procedure. 

South Texas Spaceport 

Willacy County Development Corporation

was created in 2001 to manage the spaceport site

evaluation and other technical and administrative

elements of the project under a Texas Aerospace

Commission grant. Willacy County Development

Corporation for Spaceport Facilities is the owner of

the spaceport. 

The designated spaceport site is a 405,000

square meters (0.16 square miles) undeveloped site

in Port Mansfield, adjacent to the Charles R.

Johnson Airport, approximately 150 kilometers 

(93 miles) south of Corpus Christi and 65 kilometers

(40 miles) north of Brownsville. The site initially

may support the suborbital and small orbital launch

systems currently in service or being developed for

service in the near future, with a long-term focus on

RLVs. All launches will be from spoil islands or

barges in the Mansfield ship channel in the Laguna

Madre or Gulf of Mexico.

During 2006, almost $200,000, including inkind contributions, was invested in building new

infrastructure. All the new developments in 2006

happened with the assistance of government funding. Preliminary spaceport construction was completed. A new road was installed, an extension to

the road to the airport. A 15-centimeter (6-inch)

water line with fire hydrant was added to the new

18 x 25 x 5 meter (60 x 80 x 16 feet) metal building with concrete slab. The launch barge for all

launches still needs to be purchased. 

Spaceport Alabama 

Proposed as a next generation spaceport,

Spaceport Alabama will be a full-service departure

and return facility, supporting orbital and suborbital

space access vehicles. Spaceport Alabama is in the

planning phase under direction of the Spaceport

Alabama Program Office at Aerospace Development

Center of Alabama located in Anniston, Alabama.

The Spaceport Alabama master planning Phase 1 is

now complete, while Phase 2 has commenced and

is still under development. Upon completion of the

Spaceport Alabama master plan, which is expected

to be done by the end of 2007, a proposal will be

presented to the Alabama Commission on

Aerospace Science and Industry and the Alabama

Legislature for formal adoption. Under the current

plan, the Alabama Legislature would establish the

Spaceport Alabama Authority, which would oversee

development of Spaceport Alabama. While no land

has been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, a green

field site is under consideration in Baldwin County,

across the bay from the city of Mobile. This site 

is seen as ideal for supporting government and

commercial customers, operating next generation

reusable flight vehicles that are designed for access

to LEO, MEO (medium Earth orbit), and GEO.108

Under the current spaceport development plan,

a spaceport facility could become operational within

10 years, depending on market demand. This plan

calls for the establishment of a “total spaceport

enterprise” concept, consisting of a departure and

return facility, processing and support facilities, and

full support infrastructure. An R&D park, a commerce park, supporting community infrastructure,

intermodal connectivity, and other services and

infrastructure necessary for providing a “turn key”

capability in support of space commerce, R&D,

national security, science, and related services are

also included in this plan. Given that the site currently

under consideration is adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico,

Spaceport Alabama would service primarily RLVs;

however, some suborbital ELVs involving scientific

and academic missions could be supported. 

Spaceport America

The State of New Mexico continues to make

significant progress in the development of Spaceport

America, known as Southwest Regional Spaceport

prior to July 2006. In December 2005, Richard

Branson decided to establish the headquarters of the

Virgin Galactic spaceline in New Mexico and use

Spaceport America as its primary operating base.

He also entered a partnership with the State of New

Mexico to build the spaceport. While the state would

build the spaceport, Virgin Galactic would sign a

20-year lease agreement with annual payments of

$1 million for the first 5 years. The state government

would pay about half of the construction cost, with

the difference to come from local and federal 

governments.109

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

60 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Spaceport America is being developed for use

by private companies and government organizations

conducting space activities and operations. In March

2006, New Mexico passed a bill that creates one

entity, the New Mexico Spaceport Authority, to

oversee the spaceport. An FAA launch site license is

expected in the third quarter of 2007. Thus, the state

owns and operates the spaceport and will lease the

facilities to the users. In January 2006, New Mexico

state officials signed an agreement that gives the

planned spaceport north of Las Cruces access to

nearly 6,070 hectares (15,000 acres) of state trust land

to begin developing the site.110 The spaceport is a

70-square-kilometer (27-square-mile) parcel of open

land in the south central part of the state, near the

desert town of Upham, 72 kilometers (45 miles)

north of Las Cruces and 48 kilometers (30 miles)

east of Truth or Consequences, at approximately

1,430 meters (4,700 feet) above sea level. This

location was selected for its low population density,

uncongested airspace, and high elevation.111

During the past year, temporary facilities

added to the site include a launch pad, a weather

station, rocket motor storage facilities and trailers.

This infrastructure is worth $450,000; with funding

from private and government sources. Major components of the proposed Spaceport America also

include two launch complexes, a landing strip, an

aviation complex, and support facilities. The spaceport has an officially approved development plan

that includes beginning construction in third quarter

of 2007, and having a full-fledged spaceport to support vertical launches, vertical landings, and horizontal landings by 2010. Currently, DMJM/

AECOM, an architecture and engineering contractor,

is designing the facilities with inputs from the

spaceport users, as the final configuration will be

customer driven.112 New Mexico lawmakers have

approved the allocation of $110 million for the

development of the spaceport, as direct financial

support, starting in 2007. 

New Mexico provides several tax and business

incentives for the spaceport-related industrial activities, including gross receipt deductions, exemptions

from compensating taxes, R&D incentives, industrial

revenue bonds, and investment and job training

credits. The state has also passed legislation that

allows counties and municipalities to impose, upon

voter approval, a regional spaceport gross receipt

tax, in increments of one-sixteenth percent, not to

exceed one-half percent.113

The first launch from the spaceport took 

place on September 25, 2006, when UP Aerospace

launched an amateur class vehicle. The commitment

in building the spaceport, the recent activities there,

together with the state incentives to locate spacerelated businesses in New Mexico have made the

state an attractive location for rocket builders, such

as Starchaser Industries, the annual X Prize Cup,

and the Rocket Racing League.

Spaceport Sheboygan

On August 29, 2000,

the Wisconsin Department 

of Transportation officially

approved creation of the

Wisconsin Spaceport, 

located on Lake Michigan 

in Sheboygan, Wisconsin.

The city of Sheboygan owns

the spaceport, which strives

to support space research and

education through suborbital

launches for student projects. 

Suborbital sounding rocket launches to altitudes

of up to 55 kilometers (34 miles) have been conducted

at the site. Additionally, Rockets for Schools, a

student program founded in Wisconsin by Space

Explorers, Incorporated, and developed by the

Aerospace States Association, has conducted suborbital launches at Spaceport Sheboygan since its

inception in 1995. Each year, hundreds of students

from Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan participate in these launches, which took place most

recently in May 2006. Rockets for Schools is a

firmly established program of the Great Lakes

Spaceport Education Foundation. 

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 61

Rocket Launch

Spaceport Sheboygan

Spaceport America Launcher Installation
The spaceport’s existing infrastructure

includes a vertical pad for suborbital launches in

addition to portable launch facilities, such as mission control, which are erected and disassembled as

needed. The pier, which the city leased from the U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers for spaceport launches

and citizens’ enjoyment (i.e. walking and fishing),

was widened and strengthened in 2004. In May

2006, under the Rockets for Schools program, 

more than 50 rockets were launched off of the 

pier. Additionally, some structures were removed to

clear space for the construction of a proposed mission

control and education center. Past construction has

been financed through municipal, state, and federal

agencies. The state of Wisconsin contributed to the

development of the spaceport with site preparation

of coastline and access roads. No new infrastructure

was constructed during 2006.

Plans for developing additional launch infrastructure are ongoing. Future projects include adding

orbital launch capabilities for RLVs, including a

horizontal and vertical launch site. Spaceport developers are in the process of creating a development

plan. Legislation for the creation of the Wisconsin

Aerospace Authority (WAA) was signed into law in

2006. The legislation authorizes the WAA to develop

spaceports, spacecraft, and other aerospace facilities

in Wisconsin; provide services for, and allow use

of, spaceport and aerospace facilities; promote the

aerospace industry in Wisconsin; and provide publicprivate coordination for the aerospace industry in

Wisconsin.114 In addition to designing, developing,

and operating the spaceport, WAA is authorized to

sell up to $100 million in revenue bonds.115

The spaceport establishment project has several

phases. The first phase refers to the development of

the Great Lakes Aerospace Science and Education

Center at Spaceport Sheboygan and is currently

underway. A preliminary business plan for the center

has already been developed. The second phase for

the project includes proposing legislation for the

development and operational plans of the Wisconsin

Spaceport. Once the legislation is approved, WAA

will conduct site evaluation, feasibility, and environmental impact studies. Project supporters are also in

the initial stages of obtaining a FAA launch site

license.116

Spaceport Washington 

Spaceport Washington, a public and private

partnership, has identified Grant County International

Airport in central Washington, 280 kilometers (174

miles) east of Seattle, as the site of a future spaceport. The airport (formerly Larson Air Force Base

and now owned and operated by the Port of Moses

Lake) is used primarily as a testing and training

facility. Spaceport Washington proposes to use

Grant County International Airport for all classes of

RLVs. This airport has a 4,115 x 61-meter (13,503

x 200-foot) main runway and a 3,048 x 30-meter

(10,000 x 100-foot) crosswind runway and is certified as an emergency landing site for the Space

Shuttle. The spaceport does not have an official

development plan yet, but the intended configuration of the spaceport launch site will either be vertical launch and horizontal recovery or horizontal

launch and recovery.117

An approximately 12,100 hectare (30,000-acre)

potential vertical launch site has been identified

with multiple owners, both public and private. 

The spaceport has also established an Aerospace

Overlay Zone within the Grant County Unified

Development Code. This zone protects the air and

land space around the area proposed for use as an

aerospace launch and retrieval facility from

obstructions or hazards and incompatible land uses

in the proximity of the Grant County International

Airport. Additional infrastructure development

depends on launch customers’ needs and market

responses.118 At present, Spaceport Washington is

seeking launch operators and developing an operations and business plan.119

Spaceports 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

62 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceport Washington Aerial View
West Texas Spaceport 

The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport

Development Corporation, established in mid-2001,

is moving forward with the development of a

spaceport 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest of

Fort Stockton, Texas. Spaceport infrastructure will

include a launch site with a 4,570-meter (15,000-

foot) safety radius, an adjacent recovery zone (193

square kilometers or 500 square miles), the payload

integration and launch control facilities, and the

Pecos County Airport runway (2,300-meters or

7,500 feet) and hangar complex. The site has access

to over 11,600 square kilometers (4,500 square

miles) of unpopulated land and over 26,000 square

kilometers (10,000 square miles) of underutilized

national airspace. The West Texas Spaceport is

mainly an R&D site for UAVs and suborbital rockets. The primary users of this spaceport will be the

operators of unmanned air systems.

A joint project with the school district has

made a state-of-the-art technology center available

for Pecos County Aerospace Development Center

users. The Technology Center has multiple monitors,

high-speed Internet service, and full multiplexing

capability. The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport

Development Corporation has access to optical

tracking and high-speed video capability that can

record the vehicle’s flight up to tens of thousands 

of feet (depending upon the size of the vehicle)

regardless of its speed. For the past two years,

Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport Development

Corporation has been involved in educational activities, under the framework of Texas Partnership 

for Aerospace Education, to promote and support 

academic programs in aero-science and rocketry.

In February 2002, the Texas Aerospace

Commission awarded a $500,000 contract to the

West Texas Spaceport. In June 2002, the U.S. Air

Force approved the site for various test launch projects. JP Aerospace began launching small suborbital

rockets from the site in October 2002. The University

of Houston Division of Research awarded the

Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport Development

Corporation $80,000 for 2003. During 2005, the

Texas legislature passed a bill creating the Emerging

Technology Fund. This fund offers grants and tax

breaks to companies involved in promoting new

technologies. The Pecos County/West Texas 

Spaceport Development Corporation falls under

this category and has benefited from grants from

this fund.

During 2005, the following spaceport infrastructure was added: an industrial strength concrete

pad, a 30 x 30 meter (100 x 100 foot) scraped and

level staging area, broadband Internet on site, and

controlled fenced access. The state of Texas also

approved the spaceport development plan and provided $175,000 in financial support for planning

and development. This plan targets the early stage

R&D projects. Flight activity included launches 

of the NASA Dryden DART suborbital rocket, the

Texas Partnership for Aerospace Education series 

of suborbital rocket tests, UAV tests done by

Lockheed Martin, tests of the Air Force Battlelab

Near Space Maneuvering Vehicle and UAV tests for

Air Force Space Battlelab. More UAV testing took

place toward the end of 2006.

Future infrastructure plans include the development of a privately funded 1,000-meter (3,500-

foot) runway, a static engine test facility, and a

hangar for balloon and wind sensitive activities.

Other projects pursued by the Pecos County/West

Texas Spaceport Development Corporation include

the Blacksky DART program, intended to characterize the performance of an innovative aerospike

nozzle on a solid rocket motor.120

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 63
1 Communication with Lockheed Martin Corporation, 23

January 2007.

2 The Boeing Company press release. “Boeing

Completes First Delta IV West Coast Launch.” The

Boeing Company, 27 June 2006.

http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2006/q2/060627b

_nr.html (accessed 27 October 2006).

3 ATK press release. “ATK Completes Successful

Pathfinder for Its New Launch Vehicle.” ATK, 10

October 2006.

http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=626 (accessed 17 October 2006).

4 Turner, Andrew. “Low-Cost Launch and Orbital

Depots: The Aquarius System.” The Space Review, 30

January 2006. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/544/1 (accessed 27 October 2006).

5 Communication with Space Systems/Loral, 1

November 2006.

6 Securities and Exchange Commission Form 8-K.

Securities and Exchange Commission, 25 August 2006.

http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/804152/00008

0415206000003/r8k082506.txt (accessed 24 October

2006).

7 Communication with Lockheed Martin Michoud

Operations, 13 October 2006.

8 Garvey Spacecraft Corporation press release. “Team

Conducts First Flight Test of Prototype Reentry Breakup Recorder Hardware.” Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation, 15 May 2006.

http://www.garvspace.com/2006-05-

15%20GSC%20Press%20Release%20-%20P-7C.htm

(accessed 26 October 2006).

9 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation,

13 October 2006.

10 Microcosm, Inc. press release. “Air Force Eliminates

Funding for Scorpius, a Successful Responsive Space

Program.” Microcosm, Inc., 12 September 2006.

http://www.smad.com/layoff_release_final.pdf

(accessed 24 October 2006).

11 Communication with Microcosm, 14 October 2006.

12 AirLaunch LLC press release. “Operational C-17A

Used to Break Another Record with AirLaunch in

DARPA/Air Force Falcon Small Launch Vehicle

Program.” AirLaunch LLC, 27 July 2006.

http://www.airlaunchllc.com/AirLaunch%20July%20Dr

op%20Test%20Press%20Release%20-

%20Final%20072706%20with%20Pics.pdf (accessed

26 October 2006).

13 Communication with Zig Aerospace, 17 October 2006.

14 NASA fact sheet. “Constellation Program: America’s

Fleet of Next-Generation Launch Vehicles—The Ares I

Crew Launch Vehicle.” NASA, 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/151450main_

8-40598-CLV.pdf (accessed 26 October 2006).

15 Berger, Brian. “As Ares 1 Takes Shape, NASA Defends

Design Decisions.” Space News, 23 October 2006, p.

6.

16 NASA fact sheet. “Constellation Program: America’s

Fleet of Next-Generation Launch Vehicles—The Ares

V Cargo Launch Vehicle.” NASA, 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/pdf/151451main_

8-40599-CaLV.pdf (accessed 26 October 2006).

17 UP Aerospace press release. “UP Aerospace, Inc.

Releases Initial Analysis of Its Rocket Launch from

New Mexico’s ‘Spaceport America’.” UP Aerospace,

29 September 2006. http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&new

sId=20060929005417&newsLang=en (accessed 26

October 2006).

18 Communication with UP Aerospace, 19 January 2007.

19 Olsen, Stephanie. “Newsmaker: ‘Doom’ Creator

Turned Rocket Pioneer.” CNET News.com, 9

November 2006.

http://news.com.com/Doom+creator+turned+rocket+pio

neer/2008-11397_3-6133892.html (accessed 13

November 2006).

20 Final Environmental Assessment for the Blue Origin

West Texas Commercial Launch Site. FAA/AST,

August 2006.

http://ast.faa.gov/pdf/lrra/20060829_Blue_Origin_EA_

Signed.pdf (accessed 14 November 2006).

21 Boyle, Alan. “Blue Origin Blasts Off.” MSNBC, 13

November 2006.

http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2006/11/13/14

521.aspx (accessed 14 November 2006).

22 Communication with Interorbital Systems, 11

November 2006.

23 Ibid.

24 Rocketplane Kistler press release. “Rocketplane Kistler

Wins $207 Million Award to Demonstrate International

Space Station Servicing.” Rocketplane Kistler, 18

August 2006. http://www.rocketplane.com/en/company/press/20060818a.asp (accessed 15 November 2006).

25 Berger, Brian. “NASA Loans Out Engine for Suborbital

Spaceflight Tests.” Space News, 30 January 2006.

http://www.space.com/spacenews/archive06/Rocket_01

3006.html (accessed 15 November 2006).

26 Malik, Tariq. “Virgin Galactic Unveils SpaceShipTwo

Interior Concept.” SPACE.com, 28 September 2006.

http://space.com/news/060828_spaceshiptwo_next.html

(accessed 14 November 2006).

27 David, Leonard. “Virgin Galactic: Anatomy of a

Business Model.” SPACE.com, 10 November 2006.

http://space.com/news/061110_tai_galactic.html

(accessed 14 November 2006).

Endnotes 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

64 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Endnotes
28 Pasztor, Andy. “New Company Aims to Send Tourists

to Space.” Wall Street Journal, 28 September 2006,

page B1.

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB115941040954576314.h

tml?mod=yahoo_hs&ru=yahoo (accessed 14 November

2006).

29 DARPA press release. “DARPA Approves Return to

Flight for Falcon 1 Launch Vehicle.” DARPA, 18 July

2006.

http://www.darpa.mil/body/news/current/return_to_flig

ht.pdf (accessed 14 November 2006).

30 SpaceX press release. “SpaceX Wins NASA COTS

Contract to Demonstrate Cargo Delivery to Space

Station with Option for Crew Transport.” SpaceX, 18

August 2006. http://www.spacex.com/index.html?section=media&content=http%3A//www.spacex.com/press

25.php. (accessed 14 November 2006).

31 Boyle, Alan. “Space Tourism Prophets Predict Profits.”

MSNBC, 17 October 2006.

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/default.aspx/id/15303947

(accessed 15 November 2006).

32 NASA press release. “NASA Awards Space Program

Operations Contract.” NASA, 2 October 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/oct/HQ_C060

54_JSC_Space_Operations_Contract.html (accessed 14

November 2006).

33 Collins, John T., L. Jane Hansen, and Jon Pollack.

“Self-Configuring Network for Launch Vehicle and

Satellite Avionics.” Microcosm, Inc., 2004.

http://www.smad.com/analysis/GOMACPAP.pdf

(accessed 03 October 2005).

34 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 14 October

2006.

35 SpaceDev, Inc. press release. “SpaceDev Awarded Air

Force Research Laboratory Phase I Innovation

Research Contract to Develop Small Launch Vehicle

Avionics.” SpaceDev, Inc., 05 May 2005.

http://www.spacedev.com/newsite/templates/subpage_a

rticle.php?pid=513 (accessed 03 October 2005).

36 t/Space, Inc. press release. “Transformational Space

Corp. (t/Space) and Burt Rutan’s Scaled Composites

Successfully Drop-tested Dummy Boosters over the

Mojave Desert.” t/Space, Inc., 14 June 2005.

http://transformspace.com (accessed 03 October 2005).

37 Air Launch LLC press release. “Operational C-17A

Used to Break Another Record with Air Launch in

DARPA/Air Force Falcon Small Launch Vehicle

Program.” Air Launch LLC, 27 July 2006. www.californiaspaceauthority.org/images/pdfs/pr060801-1.pdf

(accessed 10 October 2006).

38 XCOR Aerospace press release. “XCOR Aerospace

Wins $7 Million NASA Contract: Company to Develop

Cryogenic Composite Tank.” XCOR Aerospace, 11

April 2005. http://www.xcor.com/nasa-contract.html

(accessed 04 October 2005).

39 Microcosm, Inc. press release. “Microcosm

Successfully Tests High-Pressure Composite Tanks for

Helium and Liquid Oxygen.” Microcosm, Inc., 01 June

2006. http://www.smad.com/ie/ieframessr2.html

(accessed 10 October 2006).

40 Microcosm, Inc. press release. “Successful

Qualification of Full-Scale, All-Composite Cryogenic

LOX Tank Opens the Way to Low-Cost, Responsive

Launch-on-Demand.” Microcosm, Inc., 13 July 2006.

http://www.smad.com/ie/ieframessr2.html (accessed 10

October 2006).

41 “NASA SBIR 2005 Solicitation: Form B – Proposal

Summary.” NASA, 2005.

http://www.sbir.nasa.gov/SBIR/abstracts/05/sbir/phase1

/SBIR-05-1-X7.01-

9069.html?solicitationId=SBIR_05_P1 (accessed 11

October 2006).

42 Communication with Orion Propulsion Inc., 16

November 2006.

43 Orion Propulsion Inc. press release. “Latest News -

November 2005.” Orion Propulsion Inc., November

2005. http://orionpropulsion.com/latestnews.php

(accessed 11 October 2006).

44 Orion Propulsion Inc. press release. “Latest News -

October 2006.” Orion Propulsion Inc., October 2006.

http://orionpropulsion.com/latestnews.php (accessed 11

October 2006).

45 “AFRL Monthly Accomplishment Report Executive

Summary. August 2006.” Air Force Research

Laboratory, August 2006. http://www.afrl.af.mil/accomprpt/aug06/accompaug06.asp (accessed 11 October

2006).

46 Wisconsin Technology Network press release.

“ORBITEC will use $25 million Air Force contract to

make small launch vehicle.” Wisconsin Technology

Network, 26 July 2006. http://wistechnology.com/article.php?id=3175 (accessed 11 October 2006).

47 AirLaunch LLC press release. “AirLaunch LLC

Completes Additional Tests as It Approaches Design

Review.” AirLaunch LLC, 03 November 2006.

http://www.airlaunchllc.com/News.htm (accessed 20

November 2006).

48 Communication with AirLaunch LLC, 03 October

2005.

49 Foust, Jeff. “Big Plans for SpaceX.” The Space

Review, 15 November 2005. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1 (accessed 12 October 2006).

50 Communication with Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation, 15 October 2005.

51 XCOR Aerospace press release. “XCOR Aerospace

Completes Successful Development of Methane Rocket

Engine.” XCOR Aerospace, 30 August 2005.

http://xcor.com/methane_rocket_engine.html (accessed

04 October 2005).

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 65
52 XCOR Aerospace press release. “XCOR Aerospace

Completes Methane Engine Pulse Fire Tests.” XCOR

Aerospace, 13 January 2006.

http://www.xcor.com/press-releases/2006/06-01-

13_XCOR_methane_engine_pulse_tests.html (accessed

11 October 2006).

53 “XCOR Aerospace Reaches Testing Milestone for

Rocket Racing League.” SatNews Daily, 23 October

2006. http://www.satnews.com/stories2006/3417.htm

(accessed 23 October 2006).

54 Microcosm, Inc. press release. “Microcosm Completes

Successful Series of Tests on 20,000 lbf Low-Cost

Rocket Engine.” Microcosm, Inc., 23 May 2005.

http://www.smad.com/20k_Engine_R4.pdf (accessed

21 November 2006).

55 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 15 October

2006.

56 “MB-XX Upper Stage Propulsion System.” Pratt

Whitney Rocketdyne, 2005.

http://links.pw.utc.com/prod_space_rdyne_mb-xx.asp

(cached version accessed 12 October 2006).

57 Marcu, Bogdan. “Turbo-Pump Development and Test

for the MB-XX Advanced Upper Stage Engine

Demonstrator.” Paper presented at 42nd

AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference

and Exhibit, 09-12 July 2006, in Sacramento,

California.

http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMJPC06_1178/PV

2006_4380.pdf (accessed 12 October 2006).

58 “Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV).” GlobalSecurity.org,

2005.

http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/nlv.htm

(accessed 21 November 2006).

59 Garvey Spacecraft Corporation press release. “Static

Fire Testing.” Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 26

November 2005.

http://www.garvspace.com/News_Archive_sub.htm

(accessed 16 October 2006).

60 Communication with Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne, 18

January 2007.

61 California Space Authority press release. “New Rocket

Engine Combustion Cycle Technology Testing Reaches

100% Power Level.” California Space Authority, 18

July 2006.

http://www.californiaspaceauthority.org/html/pressreleasesandletters/pr060718-1.html (accessed 16

October 2006).

62 Communication with SpaceDev, Inc., 19 January 2007.

63 SpaceDev press release. “SpaceDev Awarded Hybrid

Rocket Motor Contract.” SpaceDev, 17 November

2005. http://www.spacedev.com/newsite/templates/subpage_article.php?pid=541 (accessed 09 October 2006).

64 “Lockheed Test Fires Second Falcon Small Launch

Vehicle Hybrid Motor.” SatNews Daily, 20 June 2005.

http://www.satnews.com/stories2005/909.htm (accessed

04 October 2005).

65 Communication with Lockheed Martin-Michoud, 27

July 2004.

66 Lockheed Martin Corporation Press Release.

“Lockheed Martin Successfully Test Fires Second

Falcon Small Launch Vehicle Hybrid Motor.”

Lockheed Martin Corporation, 16 June 2005.

http://www.lockheedmartin.com/wms/findPage.do?dsp

=fec&ci=16895&rsbci=0&fti=112&ti=0&sc=400

(accessed 21 November 2006).

67 Alliant Techsystems press release. “ATK, DARPA, and

ONR Achieve First-Ever Flight Test of a Scramjet

Powered by Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel.” Alliant

Techsystems, 15 December 2005. http://atk.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=press_releases&item=408

(accessed 23 October 2006).

68 “Air Collection and Enrichment System (ACES).”

Andrews Space Inc., 2006. http://www.andrewsspace.com/content-main.php?subsection=MTAz

(accessed 16 December 2005).

69 Andrews Space Inc. press release. “Andrews Awarded

DARPA/AFRL Contract to Demonstrate In-Flight

Propellant Generation For Advanced Space

Transportation.” Andrews Space, Inc., 27 March 2006.

70 “Final Environmental Assessment for the Proposed

Blue Origin West Texas Launch Site.” FAA/AST,

August 2006.

http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offic

es/ast/media/20060829_Blue_Origin_EA_Signed.pdf

(accessed 08 November 2006).

71 “AST Issues First Experimental Permit for a Reusable

Suborbital Rocket to Blue Origin.” FAA/AST, 25

September 2006.

http://ast.faa.gov/Exper_Permit_Blue_Origin.htm

(accessed 08 November 2006).

72 Boyle, Alan. “Blue Origin Blasts Off.” Cosmic Log, 13

November 2006.

http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2006/11/13/14

521.aspx (accessed 02 January 2007).

73 Communication with California Spaceport, 27 October

2006.

74 Communication with California Spaceport, 27 October

2006.

75 Communication with Space Florida, 27 October 2006.

76 Communication with Space Florida, 27 October 2006.

77 Communication with Kodiak Launch Complex, 26

October 2006.

78 Communication with Kodiak Launch Complex, 26

October 2006.

79 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

16 October 2006.

80 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

16 October 2006.

81 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

16 October 2006.

82 Communication with Mojave Airport, 17 October 2006.

Endnotes 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

66 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
83 David, Leonard. “XCOR Rocket Plane Soars into

Record Book.” SPACE.com, 3 December 2005.

http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/051203_xcor_fl

ight.html (accessed 28 December 2005).

84 OSIDA press release. “FAA Issues Finding of No

Significant Impact (FONSI) for OSIDA’s Launch Site

Operator License.” OSIDA, 5 May 2006.

http://www.state.ok.us/%7Eokspaceport/osidanews.html

(accessed 02 November 2006).

85 Boyle, Alan. “Regulators OK Oklahoma Spaceport.”

MSNBC, 13 June 2006.

http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/13304491 (accessed 02

November 2006).

86 Ibid.

87 Communication with Oklahoma Space Industry

Development Authority, 26 October 2006.

88 Communication with Oklahoma Space Industry

Development Authority, 26 October 2006.

89 Communication with Cape Canaveral Air Force

Station, 22 January 2007.

90 Department of the Air Force, Edwards Air Force Base.

“Memorandum for Government Agencies, Public

Officials, Libraries, Public Groups, and Interested

Individuals.” U.S. Air Force, December 2002.

http://www.ealev.com (accessed 07 November 2006).

91 NASA Press Release (24-06). “NASA and HDNet

Announce High Definition TV Broadcast Partnership.”

NASA, 29 March 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060329.html (accessed 03 November

2006).

92 NASA Press Release (58-06). “NASA Requests

Proposals for Exploration Park Developer.” NASA, 

1 September 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060901.html (accessed 03 November

2006).

93 NASA Press Release (04-06). “GlobalFlyer Aircraft

Arrival Set for This Week.” NASA, 09 January 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060109.html (accessed 03 November

2006).

94 NASA Press Release (06-132). “NASA and ZERO-G

Agree on Regular Shuttle Runway Use.” NASA, 04

April 2006.

http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/news/releases/2006/release-20060404.html, (accessed 3 November

2006).

95 NASA RFI-SLF-1. “Request For Information

Supporting an Environmental Assessment of

Commercial and other uses of the Shuttle Landing

Facility.” NASA, 29 September 2006. http://procurement.nasa.gov/cgibin/eps/sol.cgi?acqid=122399#Other%2001 (accessed

03 November 2006).

96 Communication with Reagan Test Site, 20 October

2006.

97 Communication with Reagan Test Site, 20 October

2006.

98 SpaceX Website. “Maiden Flight Update.” SpaceX, 24

March 2006. http://www.spacex.com/index.html?section=media&content=http%3A//www.spacex.com/launc

h_info.php. (accessed 07 November 2006).

99 Weinstein, Jack (Colonel, 30th Space Wing). “VAFB

Rises to Meet New Challenges.” Air Force Print News

Today, 26 October 2006.

http://www.vandenberg.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=12303

0032 (accessed 02 November 2006).

100 Communication with Vandenberg Air Force Base, 07

October 2005.

101 Communication with NASA Wallops Flight Facility, 11

October 2005.

102 Communication with Wallops Flight Facility, 25

October 2006.

103 Ibid.

104 Communication with White Sands Missile Range, 06

October 2005.

105 Communication with Cecil Field Spaceport, 18 October

2006; 19 January 2007.

106 Communication with Chugwater Spaceport, 25 October

2006.

107 Hunter, Velda. “County Amends Spaceport Deal.” The

Facts, 28 June 2006.

http://thefacts.com/story.lasso?ewcd=51a4d847020082d

e (accessed 01 November 2006).

108 Communication with Aerospace Development Center,

23 September 2004.

109 Reid, T.R. “N.M. Plans Launchpad for Space Tourism.”

The Washington Post, 15 December 2005.

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/14/AR2005121402340.html (accessed 03

November 2006).

110 “Pact Clears the Way for New Spaceport Site. New

Mexico Signs Agreement on Access to 15,000 acres of

State Trust Land.” Associate Press, 11 January 2006.

http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10807954 (accessed 03

November 2006).

111 David, Leonard. “New Mexico Inks Spaceport Funding

Package.” SPACE.com, 02 March 2006.

http://www.space.com/news/060302_newmexico_updat

e.html (accessed 03 November 2006).

112 Communication with Office for Space

Commercialization, New Mexico Economic

Development Department, 27 October 2006.

113 Ibid.

114 2005 Senate Bill 352. Wisconsin State Legislature, 28

September 2005.

http://www.legis.state.wi.us/2005/data/SB-352.pdf

(accessed 21 November 2006).

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 67
115 Egan, Dan. “With All Systems Go, Sheboygan Shoots

for the Moon with Spaceport.” The Milwaukee Journal

Sentinel, 12 May 2006.

http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_20

060512/ai_n16370976/print (accessed 07 November

2006).

116 Communication with Space Explorers, 27 October

2006.

117 Communication with Port of Moses Lake, 06 October

2006.

118 Communication with Spaceport Washington, 27

September 2005.

119 Communication with Port of Moses Lake, 06 October

2006.

120 Communication with Pecos County West Texas

“Westex” Spaceport Development Corporation, 10

October 2005.

Endnotes 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

68 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Page 6

2006 X Prize Cup, courtesy of Jeff Foust

Page 7

Conceptual design of a completed Bigelow inflatable

habitat, to which the America’s Space Prize winner

could travel, courtesy of Bigelow Aerospace

Page 9

Atlas 5, courtesy of International Launch Services

Page 10

Delta 2, courtesy of The Boeing Company

Page 11

Delta 4, courtesy of The Boeing Company

Minotaur, courtesy of Orbital Sciences Corporation

Page 12

Pegasus in flight, courtesy of NASA

Taurus launch, courtesy of Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Zenit-3SL launch, courtesy of Sea Launch Company,

LLC

Page 13

ALV, courtesy of Alliant Techsystems

Aquarius vehicle illustration, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Aquarius mission profile, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Page 14

Eaglet and Eagle, courtesy of E’Prime Aerospace

Corporation

FALCON SLV, courtesy of Lockheed Martin

Corporation

Page 15

NLV, courtesy Joe Mullin/Garvey Spacecraft

Corporation

Eagle SLV, courtesy of Microcosm, Inc.

Page 16

QuickReach, courtesy of AirLaunch, LLC

Page 17

Zenit-3SLB, courtesy of Sea Launch Company, LLC

Page 18

Ares 5 and Ares 1, courtesy of NASA

Black Brant, courtesy of Bristol Aerospace Limited

Oriole, courtesy of DTI Associates

Page 19

Terrier-Orion, courtesy of DTI Associates

HYSR, courtesy of Lockheed Martin Corporation

Page 20

SpaceLoft XL, courtesy of UP Aerospace

Page 21

Quad Lunar Lander vehicle, “Pixel,” in flight at 2006

X Prize Cup, courtesy of Armadillo Aerospace

Page 22

Blue Origin's Goddard prototype vehicle, courtesy of

Blue Origin

Page 23

Neptune, courtesy of Interorbital Systems

K-1, courtesy of Rocketplane Kistler

XA 1.0, courtesy of Masten Space Systems

Page 24

Rocketplane XP, courtesy of Rocketplane Limited, Inc.

Page 25

SpaceShipTwo, courtesy of Virgin Galactic.

Page 26

Dream Chaser, courtesy of SpaceDev

Falcon 1, courtesy of Thom Rogers/Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Page 27

Falcon 9, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

Altairis, courtesy of Sprague Astronautics

Michelle-B, courtesy of TGV Rockets, Inc.

Page 28

Xerus vehicle concept, courtesy of XCOR Aerospace

Space Shuttle, courtesy of NASA

Page 30

Orion CEV, courtesy of Lockheed Martin Corporation

Page 31

K-1, courtesy of Rocketplane Kistler

Dragon, courtesy of Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

Page 32

Bigelow Genesis 1 concept illustration, courtesy of

Bigelow Aerospace

Page 33

t/LAD launch method, courtesy of t/Space

2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Photo Credits

Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation 69

Photo Credits
Page 34

AirLaunch Dummy Booster air drop from C-17A

plane, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

XCOR Aerospace’s new composite material

(Nonburnite®), courtesy of XCOR Aerospace

Page 35

Microcosm Composite Tank, courtesy of Micrososm,

Inc.

Page 36

Oxygen/Methane RCS Thruster – in Sea Level

Assembly, Courtesy of Orion Propulsion, Inc.

ORBITEC’s Vortex Engine Test, courtesy of ORBITEC

Page 37

AirLaunch Engine Firing, courtesy of AirLaunch LLC

SpaceX Merlin Engine, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Page 38

XCOR Aerospace 5M15 LOX/methane engine test,

courtesy of XCOR Aerospace

Page 39

Ablative Composite Rocket Engine, 

courtesy of Micrososm, Inc.

MB-XX Engine, courtesy of Pratt & Whitney

Rocketdyne

Page 40

GSC/CSULB Aerospike Engine, courtesy of Garvey

Spacecraft Corporation

Page 41

IPD test at Stennis Space Center, courtesy of NASA

SpaceDev Hybrid Upper Stage Ground Fire Test, 

courtesy of SpaceDev, Inc.

Page 42

X-43A/Hyper X, courtesy of NASA

Page 43

Gryphon with Orbiter, courtesy of Andrews Space &

Technology, Inc.

Page 47

California Spaceport, courtesy of California Spaceport

Panther-1, courtesy of Space Florida

Page 48

KLC FTG-02 Launch, courtesy of Kodiak Launch

Complex/ Sandia National Laboratory

Page 49

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, courtesy of MidAtlantic Regional Spaceport

Page 50

Mojave Air and Space Port, courtesy of Mojave Air and

Space Port

Page 51

Oklahoma Spaceport, courtesy of Oklahoma Space

Industry Development Authority

Page 52

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, courtesy of U.S. Air

Force/Master Sgt. Jack Braden

Page 53

ZERO-G at Kennedy Space Center, courtesy of NASA

Edwards Air Force Base, courtesy of Edwards Air

Force Base

Page 54

VAFB, courtesy of U.S. Air Force

Kwajalein Island, courtesy of Reagan Test Site

Page 55

Wallops Flight Facility, courtesy of Wallops Flight

Facility

Page 56

White Sands Missile Range, courtesy of White Sands

Missile Range

Page 57

Cecil Field Aerial View, courtesy of Cecil Field

Spaceport

Page 59

Chugwater Spaceport Aerial View, courtesy of

Chugwater Spaceport

Amateur Rocket Launch at GCRS Site, courtesy of

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport

Page 61

Spaceport America Launcher Installation, courtesy of

Spaceport America

Rocket Launch Spaceport Sheboygan, courtesy of

Rockets for Schools

Page 62

Spaceport Washington Aerial View, courtesy of

Spaceport Washington

Photo Credits 2007 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

70 Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation