Data of Geochemistry

O 7

kjl't/vl'il' i \ i^cth ' '

Chapter S. Chemical Composition of Sandstones Excluding Carbonate and Volcanic 

Sands

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 440-S
Data of Geochemistry

MICHAEL FLEISCHER, Technical Editor

Chapter S. Chemical Composition of Sandstones Excluding Carbonate and Volcanic 

Sands

By F. J. PETTIJOHN

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 440-S

Representative analyses, minor-element 

content^ and estimated averages are given 

for both major classes of sandstones and 

for sandstone as a whole

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D.C.
DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY, SIXTH EDITION

Michael Fleischer, Technical Editor

The first edition of the Data of Geochemistry, by F. W. Clarke, was published in 1908 as U.S. Geological 

Survey Bulletin 330. Later editions, also by Clarke, were published in 1911, 1916, 1920, and 1924 as Bulletins 

491, 616, 695, and 770, This, the sixth edition, has been written by several scientists in the Geological Survey 

and in other institutions in the United States and abroad, each preparing a chapter on his special field. The 

current edition is being published in individual chapters, titles of which are listed below. Chapters already 

published are indicated by boldface.

CHAPTER A. The chemical elements

B. Cosmochemistry

C. Internal structure and composition of the Earth

D. Composition of the earth's crust

E. Chemistry of the atmosphere

F. Chemical composition of subsurface waters, by Donald E. White, John D. Hem, and G. A. 

Waring

G. Chemical composition of rivers and lakes, by Daniel A. Livingstone

H. Chemistry of the oceans

I. Geochemistry of the biosphere

J. Chemistry of rock-forming minerals

K. Volcanic emanations, by Donald E. White and G. A. Waring

L. Phase equilibrium relations of the common rock-forming oxides except water

M. Phase equilibrium relations of the common rock-forming oxides with water and (or) carbon 

dioxide

N. Chemistry of igneous rocks

O. Chemistry of rock weathering and soils

P. Chemistry of bauxites and laterities

Q. Chemistry of nickel silicate deposits

R. Chemistry of manganese oxides

S. Chemical composition of sandstones excluding carbonate and volcanic sands, by F. J. Pettijohn

T. Nondetrital siliceous sediments, by Earle R. Cressman

U. Chemical composition of shales and related rocks

V. Chemistry of carbonate rocks

W. Chemistry of iron-rich rocks

X. Chemistry of phosphorites

Y. Marine evaporites, by Frederick H. Stewart

Z. Continental evaporites 

AA. Chemistry of coal

BB. Chemistry of petroleum, natural gas, and miscellaneous carbonaceous substances 

CC. Chemistry of metamorphic rocks

DD. Abundance and distribution of the chemical elements and their isotopes 

EE. Geochemistry of ore deposits 

FF. Physical chemistry of sulfide systems 

GG. The natural radioactive elements 

HH. Geochronology

II. Temperatures of geologic processes

JJ. Composition of fluid inclusions

m

CONTENTS

Abstract_____________________________________

Introduction. ______________________________________

General remarks_ _____________________________

Evaluation and selection of analyses.___________

Relation of chemical composition to grain size______

Chemical composition and classification of sandstones_ 

General remarks__________________________

Classification of sandstpnes____________________

Major-element composition of sandstones._________

Orthoquartzites___________________________

Lithic sandstones (subgraywackes)__________

Gray wackes__ ____________________________

Fas*

SI 

1

1

2

2

3

3

3

4

4

5

6

Chemical composition and classification of, etc. Con.

Major-element composition of sandstones Con. 

Arkoses________________________________

Special types of sandstones____ ____ .

Minor elements in sandstones.__________________

Trace elements in sandstones___________________.

Organic-carbon content of sandstones____________

The average sandstone______-______________ ___.

Secular variation in chemical composition____________.

German sandstones.____________________ _________

References cited-_______ ____________ _________

Index._______________________________ __ ___.

Page

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21

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGURE 1. Petrographic classification of sandstones______

2. K2ONa2<3 ratio in arkoses and graywackes____

3. K2O/Na2O ratio in argillites, shales, and slates.

4. Content of alkalies versus Al2Os of arkoses-___

TABLES

Page

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8

8

TABLE 1. Chemical analyses of coarse-, medium-, and fine-grained clastic sediments.__

2. Chemical analyses of orthoquartzites__________________________________

3. Modal analyses of lithic sandstones (subgraywackes) and protoquartzites--__

4. Chemical analyses of lithic sandstones (subgraywackes) and protoquartzites-.

5. Mineralogical composition of graywackes-_-___--___--_-_----_----_-_--_-

6. Chemical analyses of graywackes_-________-___--_-_-_-_-_------_------_

7. Averages of analyses of graywackes________________-__---_-_-_----_-_-_-

8. Chemical analyses of arkose and subarkose._____________________________

9. Chemical analyses of miscellaneous sandstones___________________________

10. Minor and trace elements of sandstones___-___-_____-_____-___-------__-

11. Relative abundance of sandstone classes_______________________________

12. Mean composition of principal sandstone classes________________________

13. Chemical composition of the average sandstone__________________________

14. Analyses of German sandstone composite samples ________________________

Page 

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7

7

9

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16

DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES EXCLUDING CARBONATE AND VOLCANIC

SANDS

By F. J. PETTIJOHN 

THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD.

ABSTRACT

Sandstones range from virtually pure silica to complex chemical compositions; some, the graywackes, for example, are not 

greatly different from many igneous rocks in bulk composition.

Forty-eight representative analyses of the principal classes of 

sandstone (orthoquartzites, subgraywackes, graywacke, and 

arkose) are tabulated. From about 150 published analyses an 

average of the major elements in each class and an arithmetic 

mean for sandstone as a whole have been calculated. The data 

on minor and trace elements have been summarized. An approximate average has been estimated for these elements. 

Sample inadequacies do not justify calculated averages or standard deviations.

Data are given to show relation of chemical composition of 

sandstones to their grain size and mineral composition. In 

general, silica diminishes with decreasing grain size, whereas 

alumina, K2O, and water increase. The variation of other constituents is less dependent on size. The detrital components of 

sands range from nearly pure quartz to mixtures of quartz, 

feldspar, and rock particles; hence sandstones show simple to 

complex chemical compositions. The composition is a function 

not only of the detrital components but also of the cement. The 

common cements, quartz and calcite, lead to enrichment in 

silica or in lime and carbon dioxide.

The composition is also a function of source rock, completeness of weathering, diagenesis, and other postdepositional 

changes. These factors are discussed, but supporting data are 

not generally available. The distribution of the chemical 

elements in the minerals of sandstones is discussed in general 

terms; detailed analysis is not possible from presently available 

data.

INTRODUCTION 

GENERAL REMARKS

The sandstones belong to the "resistates" that 

group of clastic sediments which originate by weathering or breakdown of the parent rock and which are 

the transported or washed residues resulting from this 

disintegration. Consequently they tend to consist of 

the most resistant materials the chemically more inert 

and mechanically more durable minerals. The washing 

process mechanically separates the finer secondary products of weathering, including the clay minerals, from 

the coarse, little altered resistant minerals which 

survived the weathering processes.

Chief of the surviving minerals of sand size is quartz. 

Hence quartz is the most prominent constituent of most 

sands and sandstones and indeed is almost the sole 

constituent of many sands. The chemical composition 

of such sands is, therefore, essentially silica and little 

else. Incomplete weathering or incomplete washing or 

both lead to formation of immature sands, such as 

arkose and graywacke. In such sands the quartz is 

diluted by undecomposed rock-forming silicates, such 

as feldspar, and the finer products of weathering the 

aluminous clay minerals. These sands are, therefore, 

chemically more complex and contain alumina and 

other oxides. Even the pure quartz sands, however, 

may be bound together by chemical cements, such as 

calcite, which alter their bulk composition. Sands may 

also be made chemically more complex by biochemical 

contaminants such as shell debris.

The bulk chemical composition of a sandstone, therefore, is a function of the composition of the source 

rocks, the nature and maturity of the weathering proccesses, the effectiveness of the winnowing or washing 

out of the finest weathering products, the quantity and 

nature of the introduced cement and other changes during diagenesis, and on the presence or absence of 

biochemical or other contaminants.

Although the bulk chemical composition of most 

sandstones is characterized by overwhelming dominance 

of silica, alumina is commonly an important constituent. The orthoquartzites of Krynine (1948, p. 149) 

and others are the high-silica sands that contain less 

than 3 percent alumina. The subgraywackes and lithic 

sandstones and subarkoses which are characterized by 

a considerable proportion of detrital rock particles 

mainly argillite, slate, phyllite, shale, and siltstone and 

some interstitial clay contain from 3 to 10 percent of 

alumina. The arkoses and the graywackes contain 10 

to 20 percent or higher of alumina. In the arkoses the 

alumina is largely in the detrital feldspars, in the graywackes it is in both the detrital feldspars and rock 

particles and in the matrix. The alkalies are highly 

variable, being absent in the orthoquartzites and

SI
S2 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

important in the graywackes and arkose. Sodium 

oxide apparently is contained in feldspars, as is K2O 

which, however, is also in rock particles and tne clay 

minerals of the matrix. The quantities of lime, silica, 

and carbon dioxide are also highly variable, depending 

on the quantity and kind of cement in the sandstone. 

The percentages of iron oxide and magnesia are variable 

and are rather high hi the graywackes. In certain rocks 

the iron is related to siderite cement or its oxidation 

products, and in such rocks its concentration bears no 

relation to magnesia content.

In general the sandstones are more highly differentiated chemically than are the shales. The silica 

content of the sandstones varies widely, ranging from 

less than 50 percent to more than 99 percent. Common 

shales exhibit no such range. The alumina content 

likewise ranges from nothing to more than 20 percent 

in the sandstones; shales are invariably aluminous and 

hence show not only less variation in this constituent 

but also less variation in the related Na^O and K2O. 

Both shale and sandstone show wide fluctuations in 

content of silica, lime, and carbon dixoxide owing to 

biochemical admixtures of silica and calcium carbonate, 

and for the sandstones, owing also to introduction of 

such materials as intergranular cement.

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OP ANALYSES

The analyses utilized in this study were obtained 

mostly from readily available publications. Stratigraphic nomenclature used is that of the published 

sources and does not necessarily conform to that of 

the U.S. Geological Survey.

Although many sandstone analyses have been published, comparatively few can be used. Good and 

complete analyses are rare. Published analyses are 

commonly defective in one or more particulars. Many 

are incomplete, even for the major constituents. The 

iron is commonly reported as ferric oxide even though 

ferrous iron is present. The alkalies are commonly 

omitted, as is also titania. Combined water is rarely 

determined too commonly only "loss on ignition" is 

reported. Carbon dioxide is not determined in many 

analyses, even in sandstones that are known to be 

calcareous. Some analyses, less than satisfactory, 

have been used because none better could be found. 

In all, fewer than 200 analyses were found to be 

acceptable.

The published analyses, even the good ones, are 

not necessarily representative of sandstones. They 

are commonly made because the rock was of special 

economic interest as a source of silica or as a building 

stone; or the rock is an unusual or rare type, perhaps 

glauconitic or phosphatic. It is unlikely, therefore, 

that the chemical composition of the "average sandstone" could be ascertained merely by averaging all 

available analyses no matter how complete.

The analyses selected as representative of certain 

classes of sandstone were, insofar as possible, the more 

complete analyses. They were also analyses of rocks 

for which some petrographic data or a photomicrograph 

were given, so that some reasonable assignment to 

the proper petrographic class could be made. Analyses 

supplemented by modal or normative compositions 

were used in preference to those without. Sandstones 

for which trace-element analyses were available were 

preferred to those without such supplementary data. 

This choice was, of course, rarely possible.

Owing to paucity of material some very old analyses 

were used, both in computing averages and in the 

tables of representative analyses. The quality of 

some of these are suspect, but scarcity of chemical 

data made their inclusion necessary.

RELATION OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TO GRAIN

SIZE

Texture and chemical composition of clastic sediments are not independent variables. This has been 

clearly shown by analyses of various size fractions of 

the same sediment. Analyses such as those published 

by Grout (1925) and Boswell (1919, p. 33) show the 

silica content to diminish as grain size decreases, 

whereas K2O and alumina content rise with decrease 

in grain size. These changes reflect the changing 

proportions of potassium-bearing clay materials and 

detrital quartz. The chemical composition, therefore, 

is in part dependent on the textural definition of the 

detrital sediment in question. Chemical analyses of 

two clastic sediments are comparable only if the two 

materials are texturally equivalent. These relations 

are further shown by comparing the chemical composition of the silt and the clay fractions of the same 

glacial lake varve (Eskola, 1932, p. 14). The differences 

are of the same kind as those shown by Grout. A comparison of Clarke's (1924) average sandstone, average 

Mississippi River silt, and average shale (table 1) reveal 

similar texturally controlled variations in bulk composition. As can be seen in table 1, decreasing grain size 

is correlated with decrease in silica and increase in 

alumina, total iron, magnesia, K2O, combined water, 

titania, and organic matter. Lime and carbon dioxide 

are variable depending on nature and quantity of th« 

cement.

The chemical composition of sands and sandstones 

is, therefore, in considerable part a matter of definition. 

As the chemical composition and the texture of clastic 

sediments are not independent variables, the definition 

of what is included or excluded in "sand" or "sandstone" will modify in appreciable measure the chemical
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES S3

TABLE 1. Chemical analyses of coarse-, medium-, and finegrained clastic sediments

Si02 

AliOa........ .................................

TV-iDi

FeO ____ .. _ . _ ......... _ .......... MgO ... ... 

CaO.. .. . .. ..........

Na2 0 

KaO ................ ...... .................

HaO+ ................................

H2O-_ ...................................

TiOz .. ......................... ..........

PtOi........ ...............................

MnO........... ..............................

COa _ . . . -...- .... .........

SOi... ... ............. . .

Cl......-... ...............................

BaO.. ....................................

SrO.. ....... ...- ..-.....-.....-.....

A

78.66

4.78

1.08

.30

1.17

5.52

.45

1.32

U.33

.31

.25

.08

5.04

.07

.05

100. 41

B

69.96

10.52

> 3.47

1.41

2.17

1.51

2.30

1.96

3.78

.59

.18

.06

1.40

.03

.30

.08

.66

» 100. 50

c

58.38

15.47

/ 4.03

\ 2.46

2.45

3.12

1.31

3.25

3.68

1.34

.65

.17

2.64

.65

.05

.81

100. 46

1 Includes organic matter.

2 Total Includes ZrO2, 0.5; F, 0.07; S, 0.07; CrsO3,0.01; V2O3, 0.02; NiO, 0.017; CuO, 

0.0043; ZrO», 0.0010; AssO{, 0.0004; PbO, 0.0002; less O=FZ,S, 0.12.

A. Sandstone, composite of 253 samples, H. N. Stokes, analyst. Clarke (1904, p. 20). 

B. Mississippi River silt, composite of 235 samples. G. Steiger, analyst. Steiger

and Clarke (1914, p. 59). 

C. Shale, composite of 78 samples, H. N. Stokes, analyst. Clarke (1904, p. 20).

composition. Sand has been variously defined. Cayeux, for example, defines sand as detrital materials 

ranging in diameter between 0.05 and 5.0 mm whereas 

Hopkins sets limits of 0.032 and 1.0 mm. (See Truesdell and Varnes, 1950.) Such definitions, though laudable, are not sufficient even if agreement on the proper 

limits could be reached. One needs also to specify the 

permissible admixtures of materials greater or smaller 

than the sizes agreed upon. Must 50 percent or more 

fall between the agreed limits? Or must only the 

average or median fall within these limits? Obviously 

if a large percentage of silt or clay is present, the 

bulk chemical composition will be different from those 

sands without such admixtures. The chemical composition is, therefore, in part arbitrarily set by choice 

of class limits and by the permissible variation in sorting. As size analyses are seldom given, one is unable 

to say whether many rocks labeled "sandstones" and 

analyzed as such truly meet even the more generally 

accepted definitions of this rock.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF 

SANDSTONES

GENERAL REMARKS

As noted, the "average" chemical composition of a 

given rock type is a statistical mean of what geologists 

characteristically designate as the rock in question. 

For example, average graywacke is the average of 

what most workers call "graywacke." As the class 

limits are seldom agreed upon, are rarely well defined, 

and often are not specified, any norms or averages 

based on published analyses must be something of a 

statistical mean of the prevailing concept of the rock 

class in question and not an objectively and statistically

643860 62 2

controlled sample of a well-defined rock class. Lack of 

precise petrographic data, even of many chemically 

analyzed materials, makes it impossible to reclassify 

most materials into better defined groups. It may also 

be that the materials analyzed are not average or normal 

materials but are analyzed rocks that tend either to be 

"types" which correspond most closely to preconceived 

norms or are problematic rocks of uncertain character. 

From the rocks tending toward "types" the collector 

tends to discard "abnormal," less "typical" materials 

for analysis; from the "problematic" rock material the 

geologist hopes the analysis will tell him what the rock 

is. For obvious reasons the second cannot be utilized 

in computing averages and it is also obvious that the 

first may give rise to misleading averages. Few "bulk" 

samples, collected as a mining engineer would collect 

them, have been analyzed. Hence our knowledge of 

the chemical composition of the rocks of the earth's 

crust and of sandstones in particular is incomplete and 

inadequate.

CLASSIFICATION OF SANDSTONES

The bulk chemical composition of sandstones can be 

understood only if the fabric and mineralogical constitution of the sandstone are known. Sands consist of 

detrital elements packed together in such a manner as 

to form a grain-supported framework stable in the 

gravitational field. These framework elements may or 

may not be bound together by a cement. Neither the 

detrital elements nor the cement may be in chemical 

equilibrium with one another and hence wide ranges 

in composition are possible.

Sandstones may be classified on the basis of the 

kinds of detrital elements present.2 The principal 

detrital materials of the noncarbonate sands are (1) 

quartz, (2) feldspars, and (3) rock particles. Sands 

consisting solely of quartz are the high silica sands 

the so-called orthoquartzites with silica content in 

excess of 95 percent. The feldspathic sands and the 

arkoses consist mainly of feldspar and quartz and are 

more complex in chemical composition. They contain 

much alumina, lime, Na2O, and K2O, as well as silica. 

The lithic sands those composed of sand-sized rock 

particles in addition to quartz vary widely in composition depending on the dominant lithic elements 

present. These may be fine-grained sediments, such 

as chert, shale, and siltstone, low-rank metamorphic 

rocks such as slate and phyllite, or aphanitic igneous 

rocks of various kinds.

2 This is not the place to review the whole problem of sandstone classification. 

The interested reader is referred to recent papers by Folk (1954, 1956), Dapples, 

Krumbein, and Sloss (1953), Turnau-Morawska (1956), Bokman (1955), Tallman 

(1949), Packham (1954), Pettijohn (1954), and others. The four main classes here 

denned are recognized by all writers, but their proper designation or denning limits 

are still subjects of debate.
S4 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

The carbonate sands, those composed of mechanically sorted and segregated carbonate grains such as 

oolites and bioclastic debris are excluded from this 

section. Though truly sandstones in fabric and other 

geometrical properties, they are commonly classed as 

limestones by the field geologist and hence have been 

included with the limestones and related carbonate 

rocks. For the most part the volcanic sands and sand' 

stones also have been omitted as they are traditionally 

treated as volcanic or pyroclastic deposits. Inasmuch 

as all gradations exist between carbonate and noncarbonate sands and between volcanic and nonvolcanic 

sands, some transitional types have been included to 

indicate the changes in bulk chemical composition to 

be anticipated in such hybrid rocks.

Graywackes constitute another major class of sands. 

Although variously defined, the classic graywackes of 

the Harz (Helmbold, 1952; Mattiat, 1960) and the 

graywackes of the field geologists are primarily feldspathic or lithic sandstones with a prominent detrital 

matrix a matrix of silt- and clay-sized materials 

having the mineralogical and chemical composition of 

a shale or slate. However, unlike other sandstones, 

graywackes show no sharp break in grain size between 

the "framework fraction" and the "matrix." The bulk 

chemical composition of most graywackes can be 

approximated by taking two parts of shale and one 

part of either arkose or lithic sandstone. Hence graywackes are not only high in A12O3 , CaO, Na2O, and 

K2O, but also high in iron and MgO. In composition 

they differ only slightly from granodiorite (Taliaferro, 

1943, p. 137).

The chemical composition of the orthoquartzites, 

arkoses, and lithic sandstones may be greatly modified 

by the introduction of various void-filling cements. 

The silica content may be augmented by the introduction of silica. Carbonate cements are common and are 

indicated by a high carbon dioxide content as well as 

by an increased lime content (or magnesia or FeO 

content if dolomite or siderite is present).

Hence sandstones range from a simple bulk composition one oxide such as silica to complex compositions 

indistinguishable from igneous rocks of silicic to intermediate composition. In general the dominant oxide 

is silica; next in importance is alumina (in the feldspathic and lithic sands) or lime and carbon dioxide (in 

the calcareous sands). The common rock-making elements iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium are all major constituents of the arkosic and 

lithic sands. Only in a few rare unusual sand types do 

the minor components such as BaO, P2O5 , or SO3, become major constituents. These rare sands owe their 

unusual composition to special types of introduced 

cement, such as barite or anhydrite, or to uncommon

Silt and clay

/Gritty mudstones

.Graywacke

Sandstones with 

chemical 

cement-20

(Rock fragments)

CHEMICAL CEMENT 

COMPOSITION ROCK TYPE

1 Q F R

2 Q F K

Orthoquartzite 

Arkosic sandstone

3 Q R F Lithic sandstone 

(subgraywacke)

DETRITAL MATRIX 

Q R and (or) F Graywacke

FIGTJEB I* Petrographic classification of sandstones. Modified from Pettijohn

(1954).

framework constituents, such as glauconite or phosphatic debris.

The relations of the common sandstone types to one 

another are shown graphically in figure 1. In the following sections sandstone analyses have been selected 

to illustrate these major sandstone types and to show 

the range in composition exhibited by these types, as 

well as the transitional or intermediate varieties. These 

analyses were chosen to show the variations in the bulk 

composition which are related both to the differing types 

of framework elements and the differing types of cementing materials. Analyses were largely selected from 

published papers in which a good petrographic description, preferably with modal analyses and photomicrograph, is given.

MAJOR-ELEMENT COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES 

ORTHOQUARTZITES

The most mature sands consist of detrital quartz and 

little else. Hence chemically they are nearly pure 

silica. In fact, they constitute the greatest concentrations of this material in the crust of the earth and 

exceed in volume and purity any other deposits of silica. 

Such are the glass sands. Cementation of these sands 

with silica produces orthoquartzites (Krynine, 1948). 

The cement, commonly deposited in crystallographic 

continuity on the detrital grains, welds the rock into 

a truly quartzitic whole without any significant alteration of the bulk composition. Analyses of representative orthoquartzites and other highly mature sandstones 

are given in table 2. As can be seen from the table, all
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES 

TABLE 2. Chemical analyses of orthoquartzites

S5

Si02 __ -__..__.......__.....____

A12O3 ------ _______ .. ___ _

Fe2O3 .._. _-_-_____._____..___..

FeO_______. _._.____.._.___._..

MgO___. __.___.._.____.___.._.

CaO._____.__. ...___..___.____.

NaaO. _________________________

KaO_. ..... .. .._._. ....._ 

H2O+__. ________ .._..____.___ .

H20-______ ..____.......__.....

Ti02_.._.___. __________________

P,0,_._.._.___. _._______.__._._

MnO_.__.__________________

ZrO2 --_---_-_ _ _-___-_.__.___

C02 .__________________________

Total______ _ ___________

A

98.87

.41

.08

.11

.04

.08

.15 [ »

99.91

B

95.32

2.85

.05

.04

Trace

.30 \"~"

1 44

100. 00

C

97 58

31

1 20

10

14

10

03

.03

2 99. 62

D

97 36

73

63

14

01

04

08

19

54

14

05

02

01

99.94

E

98.91

.62

.09

j .02

.01

.02

.05

.27

99.99

F

83.79

.48

.063

f .05

\ 8.81

*6. 93

3 100.13

Q

99.54

.35

.09

.06

.19

.25

.03

100. 51

H

99.40

.20

.01

.01

<.01

.08

Trace

.04

.01

.02

None

Trace

<.01

.28

4 100. 05

I

97.30

1.40

.30

.03

<.05

<.05

.20

.28

.003

.06

99. 57

J

93 13

3 86

11

54

25

19

1.43

99.51

> Calculated.

2 Including SOa, 0.13.

3 Includes organic matter, 0.006.

4 Includes CrsOs, 0.00008; BaO and SrO, none; NiO, less than 0.0001; CuO, less than 

0.00027; CoO, less than 0.0002.

A. Mesnard Quartzite, Precambrian, Marquette County, Mich. E. D. Hall,

analyst. Van Hise and Leith (1911, p. 256). 

B. Lorrain Quartzite, Precambrian, Plummer Township, Ontario, Canada. M. F.

Conner, analyst. Collins (1925, p. 68).

C. Sioux Quartzite, Precambrian, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Rothrock (1944, p. 151). 

D. Lauhavuori Sandstone (Cambrian(?)), Tiiliharju, Finland, Pentti Ojanpera,

analyst. Simonen and Kuovo (1955, p. 79). Quartz 70-75; feldspar 0.1-1.4;

rock fragments 0.1-5.6; silica cement 18-20.

oxides other than silica may make up as little as 0.5 

percent of the rock, except for the calcite-cemented 

varieties. The finer grained varieties, transitional to 

siltstone, and those which verge on subarkoses and 

protoquartzites, have appreciable quantities of alumina, 

alkalies, and alkaline earths.

Some mature quartz sands are cemented with calcite 

or other carbonates. Introduction of such cements 

alters the bulk composition. An analysis of calcareous 

sandstone is also given in analysis F, table 2. The 

geometry of the sand sets a limit to the quantity of CaO 

and CO2 present. The cementing components cannot 

exceed the volume of the original pore space and hence 

cannot exceed about 35 to 40 percent of the rock. A 

content in excess of this limit suggests the presence of 

detrital carbonate, such as shelly material, in addition 

to the cementing carbonates.

Cements other than silica or calcite are also known. 

Siderite-cemented sands show large quantities of FeO. 

If such a cement is oxidized, the Fe2O3 content will be 

high and CO2 nil. Other sands contain iron silicates or 

calcium phosphate either as cementing material, as 

granules, as oolites, or, for phosphate, as shell materials. 

Analyses of representative sandstones with such mineralogical complexities are given in table 9.

The heavy-mineral content of the orthoquartzites 

approaches the vanishing point. The trace amounts of 

zirconium and titanium reported by some analysts in 

these sands are probably contained in these minor 

accessory minerals.

E. St. Peter Sandstone, Ordovlcian, Mendota, Minn. A. William, analyst. Thiel 

(1935, p. 601).

F. Simpson Sand, Ordovician, Cool Creek, Okla. Buttram (1913, p. 50).

Q. Tuscarora Quartzite, Silurian, Hyndman, Pa. Fettke (1918, p. 263).

H. Oriskany Sandstone, Devonian, Berkeley Springs quarry, Pennsylvania Glass 

Sand Corp., Sharp-Schurtz Co., analysts. Analysis supplied courtesy of 

Pennsylvania Glass Sand Corp.

I. Mansfield Formation, basal Pennsylvanian, Crawford County, Ind. M. E. 

Coller, R. K. Leininger, R. F. Blakely, analysts. Computed mineral composition: Quartz 95.3; orthoclase 1.2; kaolin 3.0; ilmenite 0.3. Murray and Patton 

(1953, p. 28).

J. Berea Sandstone, Mississippian, Berea, Ohio, N. W. Lord, analyst. A protoquartzite. Gushing, Leverett, and Van Horn (1931, p. 110).

UETHIC SANDSTONES (SUBGRAYWACKES)

The group of sandstones here designated "lithic sandstones" is a large and varied group of rocks that is not 

too well defined. Some authors have called them 

"lithic arenites" (Williams, Turner, and Gilbert, 1954, 

p. 294), "subgraywackes" (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 255; 

1957, p. 316) "low-rank graywackes" (Krynine, 1948; 

Folk, 1954). To this group belong the molasse sandstones as defined by Cayeux (1929, p. 156) and here also 

are many or most of the coal measure sandstones 

commonly described by field geologists as "argillaceous 

grits." This is a large and important group of sandstones, forming according to some estimates, 35 percent 

of all sandstones (Krynine, 1948, p. 156).

Modal analyses of some sandstones of this group are 

given in table 3. As can be seen from the table, the 

sands are characterized by dominance of quartz; abundance of rock particles, mainly of fine-grained sedimentary and of low-rank metamorphic derivation; and 

general subordinate content of feldspar. The rocks are 

light gray if fresh, are rather friable and generally 

poorly cemented by calcite. Many are described as 

containing "clay" as "gangue" or matrix. The clay 

appears to be in part precipitated in the pores, in part 

trapped at the time of sedimentation, and in part merely 

squeezed and deformed detrital shale particles that are 

mistaken for pore fillings.

As shown in table 4, the bulk chemical composition of 

these rocks reflects their modal composition. Alumina 

is high, as in the arkoses and graywackes. Unlike the
S6

TABLE 3. Modal analyses of lithic sandstones (subgraywackes) 

and protoQuartzites

DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

GRAYWACKES

Feldspar _______

Mica....... ..........

"Clay" or matrix. ... 

Silica cement... .....

A

f 65.4

10.6

6.8 

11.9

8.5

B

f 30.9

\ 10.0

33.0

5.5

10 0

c

602-10

^5

£15

20 

Trace 6-20

D

60-65

1.52-3

306-10

2-18

E

603-5

40

10 

1

F

32.0

2.2

.2

43.0

6.9

13.0

a

50-80

Nil

<3

30-50

<2

Nil

16-10 percent, my observation.

A. Salt Wash Member of Morrison Formation (Jurassic), Colorado Plateau. Mean

of 25 thin sections. Griffiths (1956, p. 25). Compare analysis A, table 4. 

B. Frio Formation, Oligocene, Seeligson field, Jim Wells and Kleberg Counties,

Tex. Average of 22 samples. Nanz (1954, p. 112). See analysis B, table 4. 

C. Trivoll Sandstone, Pennsylvanian, Illinois. Siever (1949). 

D. Bradford Sand, Devonian, Pennsylvania. Krynine (1940). 

E. Oswego Sandstone, Ordovician, Pennsylvania. Kyraine and Tuttle (1941). 

F. Calcareous graywacke, Cretaceous, Torok, Alaska. Average of 3 samples. Krynine in Payne and others, (1951). 

G. Pocono Formation, Mississippian, Pennsylvania. B. R. Pelletier (1957, Pocono

paleocurrents: Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, The Johns Hopkins Univ., p, 26).

arkoses, however, these rocks have high contents of 

combined water, bound in the argillaceous detritus or 

in the clay matrix. They are unlike the graywackes, 

which also are rich in both combined water and alumina, 

in that K2O generally exceeds Na2O. The calcitic 

cement leads to a high CaO and CO2 content. Generally 

ferric iron exceeds ferrous iron a relationship not 

characteristic of graywackes proper. High magnesia 

noted in some of these rocks suggests a somewhat 

dolomitic carbonate in the cement.

TABLE 4. Chemical analyses of lithic sandstones (subgraywackes) 

and protoquartzites

SiOj...........

AhOj..........

Fe2O3 ---. .

FeO -_ ......

MgO..........

CaO..........

Na2O . ......

K2O ........

HaO+ ......

HjO-__ .......

TiO2 ._....__._

P2O5 ---.. ..

MnO .. .....

COj...........

SO!...-. ...

S -

Total- -.

A

84.01

2 57

.17

.26

.67

5.41

.17

.86

.54

.19

.05

.04

.04

4.65

.02

> 99. 73

B

65.0

9 X7

1.59

1.08

.4

10.1

2.14

1.43

.82

.23

fi Q

.04

.16

299.54

C

56.80

8

AQ

1.67

1.24

15.25

1.31

1.46

.50

.10

19 <X

99.76

D

51.52

5.77

2.43

95

16.96

1.32

1.90

2.25

2.54

.32

.10

.14

13.34

.52

100.06

E

92.91

3.78

Trscc

.91

TracG

.31

.34

.61

} 1.19

100.05

F

47 71

6.41

2 SQ

4.48

18.75

1.20

1 O9

f 1.32

.20

.10

17.78

3101.40

Q

40.35

7 A%

3.27

in 9Q

12.00

RA

no

6.75

OA

17.80

99.65

H

74 45

in ft^

A fiO

1 30

.35

1.07

1.51

4.95

.50

99.58

1 Includes Cl, 0.02; F, 0.01; BaO, 0.05.

2 Includes C, 0.06; Cu, 0.002; V, 0.017; Zn, <0.03; Cr, 0.003. 

* Sum given as 99.40 in original.

A. Protoquartzite, Salt Wash Member of Morrison Formation, Jurassic. Composite of 96 unmineralized samples, Colorado Plateau. V.C. Smith, analyst. 

(Written communication, W. L. Newman, U.S. Geological Survey), compare 

analysis A, table 3.

B. Calcareous subgraywacke (lithic arenite), Oligocene (Frio Formation), Seeligson field, Jim Wells and Kleberg Counties, Tex. Nanz (1954, p. 114). 

Composite of 10 samples. (See analysis B, table 3.)

C. Calcareous subgraywacke (Molasse), Aquitanienne, Lausanne (Switzerland). 

Cayeux (1929, p. 161).

D. Calcareous subgraywacke (Molasse), Granichen, Burghalde, Kt. Aargau 

(Switzerland). J. Jakob, analyst. Niggli and others (1930, p. 262>.

E. Protoquartzite, Berea Sandstone (Mississippian), Berea, Ohio. L. G. Eakins, 

analyst. Clark (1890, p. 158).

F. Calcareous subgraywacke (?), Molasse burdigalienne, Voreppe (Isere). 

Cayeux (1929, p. 163).

Q. Coal measure sandstone (calcareous subgraywacke?) (Carboniferous), Westphalian coal basin, France-Belgium (Hornu and Wasmes). Cayeux (1929, 

p. 227).

H. Coal measure sandstone (subgraywacke?) (Carboniferous) Westphalian coal 

basin, France-Belgium (Hornu and Wasmes). Cayeux (1929, p. 227).

Graywacke is a variety of sandstone which has been 

variously defined. A review of the nomenclatural 

problems has been given by Folk (1954), Williams, 

Turner, and Gilbert (1954, p. 297), McElroy (1954), 

and Pettijohn (1943; 1949, p. 243; 1957, p. 301). As 

here used the term graywacke denotes a sandstone 

consisting of quartz, feldspar, and rock particles of sand 

size embedded in a silt-clay-sized matrix (fig. 1). This 

is indeed the composition of the classic graywacke of 

the Harz (Helmbold, 1952; Mattiat, 1960) and is the 

composition of many other rocks which have been 

designated graywacke. Table 5 shows the modal 

analyses of graywackes.

Although there remains some uncertainty about the 

limits to be set and the guiding principles to be used in 

choice of such limits (priority, usage, or logical concepts), there are a considerable number of chemical 

analyses of graywacke in the literature which show a 

remarkable homogeneity of composition. Almost all 

these rocks would qualify as graywackes by any definition. Representative analyses are given in table 6. 

The mean composition of 61 analyses of graywackes is 

also given in table 7; see also table 14, analysis A.

TABLE 5. Mineralogical composition of graywackes 

[Based on modal analysis]

A

4

10

50

32

2

B

24

32

19

(1)fl

8

C

56

37

7

(*)

D

33

15

3

45

E

9

43

10

25

4

34

F

Trace

30

13

45

310

G

22

5

26

47

H

33

21

7

33

6

I

27

19

30

21

3

i Not separately reported; 38 percent of rock is "clay and silt". 

« Not separately reported. 

3 Hornblende and pyroxene.

A. Devonian lithic graywacke, Australia; average of 5. Crook (1955, p. 100).

B. Devonian and Mississippian (Tanner) feldspathic graywacke, Harz Mountains.

Helmbold (1952, p. 256). 

C. Jurassic and Cretaceous (Franciscan Formation) feldspathic graywacke, Calif.;

average of 17 analyses. Taliaferro (1943, p. 135). 

D. Precambrian feldspathic graywacke, Ontario; average of 3 analyses. Pettijohn

(1943, p. 946).

E. Cretaceous (Purari) graywacke, Papua; average of 4. Edwards (1950b, p. 164). 

F. Miocene tuffaceous (Aure) graywacke, Papua; average of 2. Edwards (1950a,

p. 129). 

G. Ordovician lithic (Martinsburg Shale) graywacke, Pennsylvania. McBride

(1960). 

H. Lower Mesozoic graywacke, Porlrua district, New Zealand. Webby (1959,

p. 472). 

I. Harz Kulm graywacke. Mattiat (1960).

As can be seen from inspection of these tables, the 

graywackes have a lower silica content than do 

most sandstones about the same or a little higher than 

is found in shales and related rocks high alumina, 

high MgO, an excess of FeO over Fe2O3 , and an excess 

of Na2O over K2O. The silica is present both in 

silicates and as free silica of detrital quartz. In the 

high content of alumina, lime, Na2O, and K2O, graywackes resemble arkose hi which these constituents are 

present hi feldspars. However graywackes differ from
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES 

TABLE 6. Chemical analyses of graywackes

S7

SiO2 . _________________

Al2O3 -_. .._--_._._.._._._.._-__

Fe2O3 __________________________

FeO. __________________________

MgO__________________________

CaO.____._. _.._____._...._.___

Na2O_ __.._____.._.______ ._._.

K2 0_____. _._.__._.__.._.___.._

H_0+__________________________

H2 0-____. .._.__.______._..._._

Ti02..___._. ______._......_._..

P_0,___________________________

MnO __ . ______ _ _ .

ZrO2__ _ _.___.___..____.______

C02 _. ._..._____. __ _.___...__

S0»_~ -

s__. __.__ ___._____.____. __.._

Cr2O3 __________ . ___________

BaO _ _

 ___.___. ._ __._.________._._.

Total ____________ .

A

60.51

15.36

.76

7.63

3.39

2. 14

2.50

1.69

3.38

.15

.87

.27

. 16

1.01

.42

100. 24

B

61.39

16.97

.39

5.32

3.84

3.21

2.78

1.25

2.44

.06

.62

. 19

.12

.07

.88

.15

.01

.06

99.75

C

76.84

11.76

.55

2.88

1.39

.70

2.57

1.62

} » 1. 87

Trace

100. 18

D

69. 11

11.38

1.41

4.64

2.06

1.15

3.20

1.76

/ 413

\ .05

.60

.03

.17

99.69

E

68.85

12.05

2.72

2.03

2.96

.50

487

1.81

2.30

.77

.74

.06

.05

.08

.08

Trace

.07

99.94

F

7443

11.32

.81

3.88

1.30

1.17

1.63

1.74

2.15

.20

.83

.18

.04

.48

. 12

.17

100. 45

Q

71.1

13.9

Trace

2.7

1.3

1.8

3.7

2.3

1.9

.26

.5

. 10

.05

. 12

Trace

.09

99.8

H

68.84

1454

.62

2.47

1.94

2.23

3.88

2.68

1.60

.35

.25

.15

Nil

.05

. 14

.15

.04

99.93

I

65.05

13.89

.74

2.60

1. 22

5.62

3. 13

1.41

2.30

.28

.46

.08

. 11

2.83

.05

99.77

J

73.04

10. 17

.56

415

1.43

1.49

3.56

1.37

1 2. OO

. 15

.23

.18

.84

.10

.17

99.80

i Loss on ignition.

A. Archean, Manitou Lake, Ontario. B. Brunn, analyst. Pettijohn (1957, p. 306).

B. Archean, Knife Lake, Minn. F. F. Grout, analyst. Grout (1933, p. 997).

C. Animikean, Tyler slate, Hurley, Wis. H. N. Stokes, analyst. Diller (1898, p.

87). 

D. Ordovician?, Rensselaer Graywacke, near gpencertown, N.Y. H. B. Wiik,

analyst. Balk (1953, p. 824). 

E. Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, Tanner Graywacke, Scharzfeld,

Germany. R. Helmbold, analyst. Helmbold (1952, p. 256).

TABLE 7. Averages of analyses of graywackes

SiOj. . 

AljOi ... ... 

FeiOj 

FeO... .......... 

MgO... . - ...

CaO 

NajO ... ...... ...

KjO .... ... 

HiO+ 

HjO-... ..... ...

T10» 

PjOs -

MnO .... .... -

COj.... ......... ...

SOi 

S 

BaO _ 

C . 

Total 

A

66.75

13.54

1.60

3.54

2.15

2.54

2.93

1.99

2.42

.55

.63

.16

.12

1.24

.25

.07

.05

.08

100.61

B

65.50

12.57

.69

5.63

3.30

4.69

2.41

1.57

.84

.14

.53

.21

.11

1.31

.38

.02

» 100. 02

C

69.7

14.3

1.0

2.5

1.2

1.9

3.5

2.4

1.9

.4

.6

.2

.1

.1

.1

99.9

D

64.67

13.41

1.24

4.53

3.23

3.04

2.99

2.02

1.941

.20/

.57

.14

.13

2.15

100.26

E

68.1

15.4

1.0

3.4

1.8

2.3

2.6

2.2

_. X

.7

.2

.2

100.0

F

69.7

14.3

1.9

2.4

1.8

1.3

3.1

1.4

f 2.4

i .4

.5

.1

.1

.9

100.3

i Includes Cl, 0.02; SrO, 0.10.

A. Average of 61 giaywackes, by Pettijohn. See table 12, footnote 3.

B. Average of 7 South African graywackes (after Visser, 195fi, p. 63).

C. Average of 14 New Zealand Mesozoic graywackes (after Reed, 1957).

D. Average of 12 Precambrian graywackes.

E. Average of 30 graywackes (Tyrrell, 1933, p. 26). Note that the value of FejOj in

original Is given as 3.4. This has been changed to 1.0. 

F. Average of 17 Hare Mountain graywackes (Paleozoic). Data from Mattiat (1960,

p. 277).

arkose in their excess of Na2O over K2O, in their high 

MgO content, and in both the high content and reduced 

state of the iron present. The iron and magnesium are 

in part combined in the chloritic materials of the pastelike matrix characteristic of most graywackes.

The excess of Na2O over K2O is one of the most singular chemical attributes of graywacke (fig. 2). In the 

associated shales, however, the converse is true (fig. 3). 

The Na2O seems to be tied up in the sodium-rich feldF. Carboniferous, graywacke from Stanley Shale, near Mena, Ark. B. Brunn, 

analyst. Pettijohn (1957, p. 319).

G. Lower Mesozoic, composite sample prepared by using equal parts of 20 graywackes exposed along shorelines between Palmer Head and Hue-Te-Taka, 

Wellington, New Zealand. J. A. Richie, analyst. Reed (1957, p. 16). 

H. Jurassic and Cretaceous, Franciscan Formation, Quarry Oakland Paving Co., 

Piedmont, Calif. J. W. Howson, analyst. Davis (1918, p. 22).

I. Eocene, Olympic Mountains, Wash., near Solduc. B. Brunn, analyst. Pettijohn (1957, p. 306).

J. Carboniferous, Kulm, Steinbach, Frankenwald, Germany. Eigenfeld (1933, p. 

58).

spars. In 30 analyses of New Zealand graywackes of 

various ages (Reed, 1957), the Na2O content ranges 

from 0.10 to 5.51 percent and is generally between 3 and 

4 percent. Normative albite ranges from 1.0 to 50.0 

percent and is generally 30 to 40 percent. Microscopic 

examination confirms the albitic nature of the plagioclase. Eighty-five to ninety percent of the feldspar in 

the Tanner Graywacke (Helmbold, 1952) is untwinned 

plagioclase (Abgo-g?). Micrometric analysis discloses 

about 30 percent plagioclase; the rock, therefore, should 

contain 3.2 to 3.4 percent Na2O. The actual Na2O 

content of this rock ranges from 3.87 to 4.87 percent, 

which corresponds to 35 to 41 percent computed albite 

molecule; hence most of the Na2O must be in the feldspar. The origin of the albite is uncertain. It may have 

been produced by albitization of the plagioclase in the 

source rocks or of the feldspar in the graywacke after 

deposition. It may be related to the albitized feldspars commonly found in associated greenstones and 

spilites (Middleton, 1960, p. 1017).

Inasmuch as the associated shales are the finer decomposition products, they lack fresh feldspar and the 

Na2O/K2O ratio is less than one (fig. 3). Possibly the 

lithic graywackes have a Na2O/K2O ratio nearer to that 

of shales. The rock fragments most common in these 

graywackes primarily slate, mudstone, phyllite, and 

related rocks will be less rich in Na2O than the albitic 

feldspars of the feldspathic graywackes.
S8 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

123456 

PERCENT K 2 0

FIGUEE 2. KaO/NajO ratio In arkoses and graywackes. Solid black circles, graywackes; open circles, arkoses. Analyses essentially the same as those used for computing average graywacke and average arkose of table 12. See footnotes to table 12. 

A, Average graywacke. B, Composite New Zealand graywacke (Reed, 1957, p. 16). 

C, Average arkose.

34567 

PERCENT K20

FIGURE 3. K2O/NaaO ratio in argillites, shales, and slates. From Pettijohn and 

Bastron (1959). Black circles, slates (after Dale, 1914, p. 51); open circles, Precambrian argillites (after Nanz, 1953, p. 53-54); crosses: A, Average shale (after 

Clarke, 1924, p. 34); B, Average Norwegian glacial clay (after Goldschmidt, 1954, 

p. 53); C, Composite New Zealand argillite (after Reed, 1957, p. 28). Compare with 

figure 2.

The graywackes are generally characterized by the 

reduced state of the iron; hence FeO greatly exceeds 

Fe2O3. This relationship has been attributed to deposition under reducing conditions but inasmuch as it 

characterizes most metamorphosed sediments, it may be 

indicative only of metamorphic reduction.

The other chemical characteristics of graywacke 

arise from the abundance of matrix materials in these

14

12

10

< 8

123456789 

PERCENT K2 0 + Na2 0

FIGURE 4. Content of alkalies versus AljOa of arkoses. Inasmuch as the bulk of the 

alkalies and alumina is present in feldspars, these oxides show a good positive 

correlation.

rocks. The sandy detrital material is embedded in a 

paste which has the composition of a slate. As a 

result, the content of both major and minor elements 

including trace elements is intermediate between that 

of normal sandstones and shales.

Graywackes are found throughout the geologic 

column. They are common in many Precambrian 

eugeosynclinal tracts. These (analyses B and D of 

table 7) do not seem to differ in any essential way from 

younger graywackes except, perhaps, that they seem 

to be a little richer in iron and magnesium.

ARKOSES

As is true of other rocks, the bulk chemical composition of the arkoses is rather closely circumscribed by 

the definition of the class. If, as commonly stated, 

arkoses are sands with 25 percent or more of feldspar, 

they will of necessity contain considerable A12O3 and be 

rich in the alkalies, notably K2O. Thirty-five percent 

orthoclase would contribute 5.9 percent K2O and 6.5 

percent A12O3 and a rock with this much feldspar, 

assuming the balance (65 percent) to be quartz, would 

contain 87.6 percent SiO2 . (See fig. 4.)

The feldspar content of the rocks which have been 

classed as arkose ranges from less than 20 percent to 

more than 60 percent, and as can be seen from the 

analyses given (table 8), the silica (70-85 percent), 

alumina (7-14 percent), and K2O (3-6 percent) approach the expected values. If the feldspar is somewhat 

sodic, or if some plagioclase is present, then Na2O also 

becomes an important constituent of the rock. Lime 

is a major component only if the arkose is cemented 

by calcite. Iron oxide, generally ferric oxide, is present 

in part at least as a cement. In these sandstones,
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP SANDSTONES S9

TABLE 8. Chemical analyses of arkose and subarkose

Si02 .. ......

AhOa 

FesO3 _

FeO. 

MgO.......

CaO._ .

NajO. .

K2O_. ......

HZ 0+. .

H2O-....._

TiO2 

PjOs .

MnO....... 

CO2 .- ...

Ignition

Total.....

A

79.30

9.94

1.00

.72

.56

.38

2.21

4.32

.55

.41

99

.05

.02

99.68

B

75.80

11.74

50

1.31

.54

1.41

2.40

4.51

.86

.03

.15

.60

.05 

Trace

99.99

C

80.89

7.57

2 on

1.30

.04

.04

.63

4 75 }, u4ft

------

99.63

D

73.32

11.31

3 54

79

.24

.75

9 3d

6.16

.30

"."92"

99.60

E

KQ t)A

6.65

2

AO

^1

.12

16.04

10

2.30

f 1.26

'.50 

12.16

100.79

F

RQ 04

13.15

} 2.48

Trace

3.09

5.43

3

QA

.70

1.01

99.10

G

Q9 13

4.42

{

V7

V*.

1.27

.11

79

4.24

.42

100.15

H

87.02

2.86

49

98

.20

3.41

.00

1 01

......

3.35

599.65

I

85.74

16.84 ».79

1.11

.49

1.16

2 1Q

3.38

.01

1.12

99.83

J

79 91

10.69

80

79

1.47

3.85

2

QA

3.32

1.46

.08

oo

.10

.22 

2.66

'100.10

1 Contains MnOs. 

* Total iron.

3 Contains ZrOs and VjOs.

4 Reported as MnO2.

6 Includes 0.06 percent S.

« Sum given in original as 99.90.

A. Jotnian (Precambrian), K8ylio, MuurunmSki, Finland. H. B. Wiik, analyst.

Staonen and Kouvo (1955, P. 63). 44 percent normative feldspar. 

B. Torridonian (Precambrian), Kinlock, Skye, M. H. Kerr, analyst. Kennedy

(1951, p. 258). 53 percent normative feldspar. 

C. Sparagmite (Lower Cambrian), Engerdalen, Norway. Earth (1938, p. 58). 33.5

percent normative feldspar. 

D. Lower Old Red Sandstone (Devonian), Foyers, Loch Ness, Scotland. Mackie

(1899, p. 58). 52 percent normative feldspar. 

E. Calcareous arkose (Old Red Sandstone, Devonian), Red Crags, Fochabers-onSpey, Scotland, Makie (1899, p. 58). 16 percent normative feldspar and 28

percent normative calcite. 

F. Portland stone (Newark Group, Triassic), Portland, Conn. Merrill, (1891,

p. 420). 74 percent normative feldspar. 

G. Subarkose, Rosebrae Sandstone (Devonian), Rosebrae, Elgin, Scotland. Mackie

(1899, p. 59). About 12 percent normative feldspar. 

H. Calcareous subarkose, Cambrian or Ordovician, Bastard Township, Ontario,

Canada. Keith (1949, p. 21). About 12 percent feldspar and 7 percent calcite. 

I. Subarkose of Whitehorse Group, Permian, Kansas, Swineford (1955, p. 122). 

J. Molasse Arkose, Oligocene (Zugertypus), UnterSgeri, Kt. Zug, Switzerland, F. de

Quervain, analyst. Niggli and others (1930, p. 262).

unlike the graywackes, the ferrous iron, magnesia, and 

water are low, and also, unlike the graywackes, K2O 

generally greatly exceeds Na2O, reflecting the greater 

importance of detrital orthoclase or microcline and the 

unimportance of albitic plagioclase in the arkoses.

SPECIAL TYPES OF SANDSTONES

Few sandstones are chemically aberrant and do not 

belong to one of the common major classes. These are 

in part rocks transitional into other sediments commonly chemical sediments. Included here are the 

greensands or glauconite-bearing sands, the sands 

cemented by or rich in phosphate, the siderite-, barite-, 

and anhydrite-cemented sands. Here also might be 

considered the sands impregnated with bitumen.

The glauconitic sands are represented by three 

analyses (A, B, and C) in table 9. As can be seen, they 

are characterized by their high total-iron content, 

principally ferric oxide, and by their high content of 

K2O. Quite commonly also, as shown by the New 

Jersey greensands, they are high in phosphorus. As 

would be expected, they also contain a good deal of 

combined water. Some greensands are high enough in 

iron to be classed as an iron-bearing formation or ironstone.

Phosphatic sandstone is sand cemented with calcium 

phosphate (carbonate fluorapatite) or sandstone that

contains an appreciable quantity of phosphatic debris 

or precipitated granules or oolites of phosphate.

Ferruginous sands are heavily cemented by iron oxide 

that may be an oxidation product of siderite or that 

may have formed in some other manner. The writer 

was unable to find any analyses of sideritic sandstone, 

though sandstones with siderite or a mixture of siderite 

and calcite are not rare. An analysis of a ferruginous 

sandstone is included in table 9.

Barite, gypsum, and anhydrite are local cementing 

agents in some sandstones. The composition of barite 

nodules has been published elsewhere (Nichols, 1906; 

Ham and Merritt, 1944, p. 32).

MINOR ELEMENTS IN SANDSTONES

Little systematic work has been reported on the 

minor elements of sandstones, although much work 

has been done on the minor accessory minerals ("heavy 

minerals") of these rocks.

Inasmuch as the major elements show wide ranges 

in abundance, one might expect similar wide variations 

in abundance of the minor elements. Some minor 

elements, such as zirconium and boron, are present in 

the minor accessory minerals such as zircon and tourmaline. Because some of these minerals are exceedingly stable, like the two just cited, one might expect 

enrichment of sands in certain minor elements relative 

to the plutonic source rocks from which the sands 

were derived. Other minor elements, such as barium, 

which substitute in less stable minerals, such as the 

feldspars, might be expected to be less abundant in 

the sandstones than in the source rocks.

TABLE 9. Chemical analyses of miscellaneous sandstones

Si02 

A12O3~ __ - _

FeO 

MgO...-.. ..-... 

CaO... . 

Na2O _-._... _-_ 

KsO. _ . __ ...... _ ...

H2 0+ ~

H2O- -_- . _ ..

TiOa. .. - 

P2 05 - 

COa. 

MnO. . _ . _ ... ___ 

80s __

F.._ 

T.noo f)

A

57.40

6.89

11.98

3.04

2.41

1.78

1.11

4.85

5.36

4.46

.29

.22

.03

.45

H00. 29

B

50.74

1.93

17.36

3.34

3.76

2.86

1.53

6.68

9.08

1.79

.88

99.95

C

75.95

2.91

10.29

1.37

.10

.35

2.99

5.40

.20

99.56

D

45.43

.03

2.92

.61

26.21

.34

.16

2.78

.11

16.05

3.12

.02

.86

1.87

*101. 25

.79

3100. 46

E

48.85

11.82

1.83

1.22

.45

12.85

.47

.64

2.75

Trace

10.70

3.40

2.86

97.84

1.20

96.64

F

49.81

5.17

29.17

.35

.95

2.43

.84

.48

6.56

3.85

.42

100,03

(i) Includes BaO, 0.02. (*) Includes C, 0.45. FeSj, 0.29. (») Given as 99.01 in 

original.

A. Greensand, Middle Eocene, Pahi Peninsula, New Zealand. Ferrar (1934, p. 47).

B. Greensand marl, Upper Cretaceous, New Jersey, R. K. Bailey, analyst. Mansfield (1922, p. 124).

C. Greensand, opal-cemented. Thanetien, Angre, Belgium. Cayeux (1929, p. 130).

D. Phosphate sandstone, "Upper phosphorite stratum," Cenomanian, Kursk, 

Shchigri, U.S.S.R. Bushinsky (1935, p. 90). About 38 percent quartz, 45 

percent phosphorite, 5 percent glauconite.

E. Phosphatic sandstone, Saint Pot, Boulonnais, France. Cayeux (1929, p. 191).

F. Ferruginous sandstone, "carstone' from Hnnstanton, Norfolk, England, Phillips (1881, p. 18). Consists of quartz grains cemented by brown iron ore, with a 

very little feldspar and mica.
S10 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

The distribution of trace elements in sandstone is 

determined by the mineralogic composition of the detrital fraction and the nature and volume of the voidfilling materials. The pure quartz sandstones devoid 

of cement carry trace elements characteristic of the 

quartz of which they are made. Presumably igneous 

and metamorphic quartz would be somewhat unlike 

in their trace-element content. Feldspars add considerable barium, but little strontium. Carbonate cement 

contributes magnesium, manganese, strontium, and 

barium, the strontium being derived from the aragonitic skeletal materials. Clay matrix and argillaceous 

rock particles add considerable quantities of such 

elements as boron, barium, cobalt, chromium, copper, 

gallium, nickel, titanium, and vanadium. The minor 

accessory detrital minerals (heavy minerals) are rich 

in zirconium, barium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, 

scandium, titanium, vanadium, and silver. The greatest concentrations of some of these elements are in 

"black sands" or "placers" greatly enriched in heavy 

minerals. These natural concentrates are mined and 

constitute a source of such elements as titanium, thorium, zirconium, cerium, gold, tin, and tungsten.

Titanium. As can be seen in table 1, titania appears 

to be correlated with the content of alumina and 

increases as grain size decreases. The titanium content 

of sandstones with large quantities of aluminous 

materials argillitic rock particles and interstitial 

clay is, therefore, higher than that of the more quartzrich sandstones. Average graywacke (61 analyses), for 

example, contains 0.63 percent Ti02 ; the average lithic 

sandstone (11 analyses) and the average arkose (31 

analyses) contain 0.24 and 0.27 percent Ti02 , respectively. Orthoquartzites have less than 0.15 percent 

titania. The average sandstones (weighted average of 

the above figures) would have about 0.24 percent Ti02 

or about 1,440 ppm Ti. This is about half the value 

given by Vinogradov and Ronov (1956) for the sandstones of the Russian platform, but it is about the same 

as that of Clarke's (1924, p. 34) composite sample of 253 

sandstones (see table 13, D and E). It is, however, 

higher than the 580 ppm Ti of a composite of 289 

samples of 24 Paleozoic formations of the Colorado 

Plateau (Shoemaker, Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 

1959, p. 31) 3 .

Phosphorus. The P206 content of sandstones varies 

widely. It is generally a minor constituent but in 

exceptional rocks it may be a major component (table 

9). It occurs mainly as phosphatic shell debris and 

probably to a lesser extent as detrital apatite and 

probably also replaces silicon in silicate minerals.

* These authors give only geometric means, which are generally lower than the 

arithmetic means.

Koritnig (1951) reports a P206 content in various 

German sandstones, quartzites, and graywackes ranging 

from 0.020 to 0.094 percent, corresponding to about 90 

to 410 ppm P. Samples of four sandstones from Japan 

(Ikeda, 1952) average 0.089 percent P206 . Clarke's 

composite of 253 sandstones contained 0.08 percent 

P206. Stokes' composite of 371 sandstones (Clarke, 

1904, p. 20) used for building purposes contained 0.06 

percent P2 06

The average P2 05 content of 61 graywackes (table 7) 

is 0.16 percent; that of 12 arkoses is 0.15 percent, and 

that of 14 lithic sandstones is 0.14 percent. The P206 

content of most Orthoquartzites is nil. The weighted 

average of the above figures is about 0.10 percent P206. 

The phosphorus content of sandstones is thus about 90 

to 700 ppm and averages about 400 ppm. Green 

(1959) gives the mean content in sandstones as 350 

ppm P.

Manganese. The manganese content of sandstones 

of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age of the Colorado Plateau 

(289 samples of 24 formations) is 140 ppm Mn, equivalent to about 0.018 percent MnO (Shoemaker, Miesch, 

Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31).

The average MnO content of 37 graywackes is 0.11 

percent. This is about 775 ppm Mn, a figure of the 

same order of magnitude as the manganese content of 

shale and phyllite and the average igneous rock (Rankama and Sahama, 1950, p. 652). The average of 

16 Precambrian "arkosic and feldspathic" graywackes 

is 579 ppm Mn (Macpherson, 1958). The high silica 

Orthoquartzites would probably be poorer in manganese 

content. Ronov and Ermishkina (1959) give the 

average MnO content of Russian sandstones (410 

analyses) as 0.063 percent which corresponds to about 

487 ppm Mn. According to these authors, the greatest 

concentration of manganese occurs in the near-shore 

marine facies.

Zirconium. Zirconium is probably present in most 

sandstones in the ubiquitous detrital zircon. In the 

mature orthoquartzitic sands, zircon (and perhaps 

tourmaline) are the only surviving heavy minerals. 

The zirconium content of sands is seldom reported. 

Some data are available, however, on the zirconium 

content of glass sands. Poole and Segrove (1957) 

give the Zr02 content of English glass sands as 0.005 

to 0.014 percent. Indiana glass sands (Murray and 

Patton, 1953) range from 0.01 to 0.11 percent Zr02 . 

The St. Peter sandstone (Ordovician) contains 0.02 

percent; composite samples of the Cypress Sandstone 

(Mississippian) contain 0.04, 0.08, and 0.11 percent 

Zr02 . Composite samples of sandstone of the Mansfield formation (Pennsylvanian) contain 0.06, 0.07, 

and 0.04 percent Zr02 . The zirconium content of 

Indiana glass sands, therefore, ranges from 74 to 820
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OP SANDSTONES Sll

ppm and is appreciably higher than that of the English 

glass sands which range from about 37 to 100 ppm.

Franciscan graywacke (Taliaferro, 1943, p. 136) 

contains 0.05 percent Zr02 (370 ppm Zr) and a lower 

Mesozoic graywacke from New Zealand (Speight, 

1928, p. 408) contains 0.03 percent Zr02 (220 ppm Zr).

The zirconium content of a composite sample of 

Paleozoic and Mesozoic sandstones of the Colorado 

Plateau (289 samples from 24 formations) was 88 

ppm, which is equivalent to about 0.01 percent Zr02 

(Shoemaker, Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 

p. 31). Degenhardt (1957, p. 302) gives analyses of 

many sandstones for zirconium. These range from 33 

to 480 ppm and average about 220 ppm, which is equivalent to about 0.02 percent Zr02 . The quartzites 

are the richest in zirconium; some contain as high as 770 

ppm (0.10 percent ZrO2) (von Engelhardt, 1936, p. 187).

Sulfur. Sulfur is contained in sandstones as iron 

sulfide, generally pyrite, and as sulfates of calcium 

(anhydrite and gypsum), and, more rarely, as barium 

sulfate (barite). The sulfide is almost certainly 

diagnetic or introduced. The sulfates are generally 

a component of the cement. Rarely are they a major 

component.

Vinogradov and Ronov (1956) report a mean of 0.69 

percent SO3 in the sandstones of the Russian platform. 

Clarke's composite of 253 sandstones, however, contained only 0.07 percent SO3 (Clarke, 1924, p. 30). Graywackes (table 7) average 0.25 percent SO3 and 0.07 

percent sulfide sulfur. This corresponds to 1,700 

ppm of S.

Barium and strontium. The average BaO content 

of 18 feldspathic graywackes is 0.05 percent, which 

corresponds to about 450 ppm Ba. The average of 

16 Precambrian "arkosic and feldspathic" graywackes 

is 360 ppm Ba (Macpherson, 1958). The composite 

sample of 253 sandstones analyzed by Stokes (Clarke, 

1924, p. 547) contains the same proportion of barium. 

No doubt the feldspar-poor orthoquartzites would be 

appreciably lower in barium content, except in those 

sandstones with detrital or authigenic barite.

The barium content (geometric mean) of Paleozoic 

and Mesozoic sandstones of the Colorado Plateau 

(289 samples of 24 formations) is 280 ppm, equivalent 

to about 0.03 percent BaO (Shoemaker, Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31). Von Engelhardt (1936, 

p. 187) estimates the barium content of sandstones to 

be 170 ppm. In view of the above figures, this value 

seems too low.

Inasmuch as the SrO content of the silicic plutonic 

rocks is generally lower than that of BaO, very probably 

the SrO content of sands would likewise be lower. 

The meager data available seem to support this conclusion. The strontium content of sandstones of the

Colorado Plateau (composite of 289 samples of 24 

Paleozoic formations) is given as 45 ppm (Shoemaker, 

Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31. Noll (1934, 

p. 507) estimated the Sr content of sandstones to be 

26 ppm.

Summary. The elements discussed above have been 

sought for and found in composite samples large enough 

or determined with sufficient regularity in ordinary 

analyses that some valid conclusions can be drawn 

concerning their abundance in sandstones. These are 

summarized in table 10. The "averages" tabulated 

are approximations only and constitute a judgment 

based on the data available.

TRACE ELEMENTS IN SANDSTONES

In addition to the minor elements summarized in 

table 10, other elements are present in only a few parts 

per million. These might be collectively called trace 

elements. In general, the data on the distribution of 

the trace elements in sandstones are not very good. 

Very few analyses have been made on composite 

samples, properly made up, or even on selected samples 

which are properly described and identified. As a 

result, no good average value can be given for many of 

these elements. One can sometimes make better 

estimates of abundance of an element in sandstone 

based on its known geochemical behavior than one can 

secure by simply averaging the concentrations found 

by a few sporadic or poorly documented analyses.

The ore metals copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, cobalt, 

and nickel are very rare in sands despite the fact that 

some of these and other metallic elements (such as 

gold, platinum, and tungsten) are won from placer 

sands.

TABLE 10. Minor and trace elements of sandstones 1 * 

[Values in ppm or grams per ton]

Element *

Ti....._____._.

P.. ... ...

Mn...........

Zr. .........

S. ....... ...

Ba ..... ... .

Sr.............

F..._ _.. .

Cl.. ........

B .....

Li.............

Rb... .........

Ranges reported in 

both composite and 

single samples

580-3, 480

90-700

140-775

37-820

280-2,760

170-450

26-45

Approximate 

average

1,500

350-450

500

200-250

2,000

300

35

200

10

20-30

15

60

Element 8

Be _ .........

Y... __ . _ ..

GP

Ga

Cu............

Zn

Pb.. ..........

Ni.............

V.............

Or. .-.-.....

W-....._.__.__

Th............

Ranges reported in 

both composite and 

single samples

Approximate 

average

2

4

1-2

5-10

10-20

16

9

2

10-20

10-20 1-2

1-2

1 Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) gives values (in parts per million) of 170 for P, 

XO for Mn, 240 for S, and XO for Ba. They also report O.X for Be, 40 for Y, X.O for 

Cu, 1.7 for I, and 30 for La. These values differ significantly from those compiled 

by the author.

> Turekian and Wedepohl (1961) have also estimated the concentration (ppm) in 

sandstones of As as 1, Se as 0.05, Nb as O.OX, Mo as 0.2, Ag as O.OX, Cd as O.OX, In as 

O.OX, Sn as O.X, Sb as O.OX, Ce as 92, Pr as 8.8, Nd as 37, Sa as 10, Eu as 1.6, Qd as 

10, Tb as 1.6, Dy as 7.2, Ho as 2.0, Er as 4.0, Tm as 0.3, Yb as 4.0, Lu as 1.2, Hf as 3.9, 

Ta as 0.0x, Au as O.OOX, and Hg as 0.03.

»Present, 1 ppm or <1 ppm: Br, I, Cs, La, Sc, Tl, In, Co, U.
S12 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

The data, although incomplete and inadequate, are 

summarized in the following section. Compare also 

the data in table 14.

Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Of the 

halogens, fluorine and chlorine are the most important. 

They are contained in detrital apatite, in phosphatic 

skeletal debris, and in precipitated "collophane." The 

average sandstone contains about 350 ppm P and, if 

this were contained in fluorapatite, about 100 ppm of 

fluorine should be present. However, fluorine may 

also be present in the clay minerals.

Koritnig (1951) reports 0.045 percent F in 11 Carboniferous sandstones, 0.032 percent in 23 samples of 

Bundsandstein, 0.028 percent in 11 Cretaceous sandstones. Ten quartzites had 0.020 percent, and 17 

graywackes contained but 0.004 percent. This corresponds to a range of 40 to 450 ppm and an average 

of 270 ppm of fluorine. Kokubu (1956) gives the 

fluorine content of sandstones as 290 ppm. A collection, made by Michael Fleischer (written communication, 1960) of analyses of 49 sandstones and graywackes, showed 10 to 880, average 180 ppm F.

Chlorine is also a constituent of some phosphatic 

materials. It is also present in the interstitial brines 

of many sediments and sedimentary rocks. Except 

in sandstones containing brines, chlorine is not as 

abundant as fluorine. Behne (1953) states that sandstones contain 10 ppm Cl. The Tanner graywacke 

contains 20-70 ppm; other graywacke was still richer 

inCl.

Bromine and iodine occur in even smaller quantities. 

Bromine is present in 1 ppm or less (Behne, 1953); 

graywackes contain 3 to 12 ppm Br. Iodine is present 

in lesser concentrations.

Boron. Boron is a constituent of tourmaline, a 

common heavy mineral in many sandstones. It is 

generally detrital, but authigenic overgrowths are also 

known.

Boron is seldom determined in sandstones. A glauconitic sandstone contained 155 ppm boron (Goldschmidt 

and Peters, 1932). This is exceptionally high, inasmuch 

as quartzites from southern Lapland contain 9 to 31 

ppm (Sahama, 1945) and those of Eocambrian age 

(Strom quartzites) contain 0.013 to 0.054 percent and 

average 0.022 percent B2O3 (equivalent to about 68 

ppm B) (Landergren, 1945). If the boron of the St. 

Peter sandstone (Ordovician) is contained wholly in 

detrital tourmaline, the concentration of boron probably 

would not exceed 10 ppm, inasmuch as tourmaline 

rarely forms more than half the heavy-mineral fraction 

which itself makes up less than 0.05 percent of the 

sand (Thiel, 1935). The boron content of 289 samples 

of 24 sandstones of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age of the 

Colorado Plateau is 16 ppm (Shoemaker, Miesch,

Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31). Harder (1959) 

estimates the boron content of sandstones to be 35 ppm.

In view of the above observations the value of 155 

ppm for the boron content of sandstones shown on 

Green's chart (1959) is probably much too high. The 

true value is nearer one fifth this figure. As the boron 

content of shales is notably greater, those sandstones 

rich in pelitic materials, either matrix or rock particles, 

might be richer in boron. This conclusion is supported 

by the Tanner graywacke (Helmbold, 1952) the fine, 

medium, and coarse specimens of which contain 37, 

28, and 18 ppm B respectively. Macpherson (1958) 

reports 44 ppm B in 16 Precambrian "arkosic and 

feldspathic graywackes." A reasonable estimate for 

the average sandstone, therefore, is 25-35 ppm B. 

Glauconitic sandstones are notably enriched in boron.

Lithium, rubidium, and cesium. Lithium is largely 

retained in the products of weathering and is concentrated in clay minerals (Horstman, 1957). The 

lithium content of sandstones will vary with the source 

of the quartz and with the clay impurities. Horstman 

gives 15 ppm as the average content of lithium in 

sandstones. This is in good agreement with Strock 

(1936). Horstman's conclusion, however, is apparently 

based on only four sandstones, one of which was 

glauconitic and richer in lithium (25 ppm). Inasmuch 

as shales are appreciably richer in lithium than are 

sandstones, the sandstones containing argillitic rock 

particles or a considerable quantity of clay in the 

matrix, such as the graywackes, should contain more 

lithium than the high-quartz sands.

Rubidium apparently substitutes for potassium and 

hence would be expected to be more abundant in the 

feldspathic sands. As rubidium does not enter the 

quartz structure (Horstman, 1957), pure quartz sands 

will be low in rubidium. Arkoses and feldspathic 

graywackes might be expected to contain more rubidium; and as shales are potassie and hence richer in 

rubidium, the sandstones with argillitic detritus or 

matrix should be richer in rubidium. Horstman's 

analyses of four sandstones show a range from 20 to 

100 ppm. The highest value was found in a glauconitic sand. Horstman's average is 60 ppm Rb for 

sandstone.

Although shales contain measurable amounts of 

cesium, the sandstones, excepting the glauconitic 

sandstone (9 ppm Cs), contained no detectable cesium.

Beryllium. Beryl is the principal mineral that contains beryllium and as it is a durable mineral it might 

be expected to occur as a detrital mineral in some 

sandstones. Pieruccini (1943) found 3 to 7 ppm BeO 

in eight sandstones from Italy (average 4.5 ppm BeO 

or 2 ppm Be). No detectable BeO (less than 10 ppm) 

was found in most of the sandstones investigated by
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES S13

Warner and others (1959, p. 26); BeO was found in 

three sandstones (4, 40, and 70 ppm). Sandstones, 

therefore, contain on the average about 2 ppm Be 

and exceptionally may contain as much as 25 ppm of 

this element.

Rare earth elements and scandium. Data on the 

occurrence of the rare earth elements in sandstones 

are exceedingly rare. Rankama and Sahama (1950, 

p. 508), in a review of the literature give as averages 

for sandstones, 0.7 ppm Sc and 1.6 ppm Y. Quartzite from southern Lapland is reported to contain 17 

ppm La and 24 ppm Ce (Sahama, 1945). Little is 

known about their occurrence in sandstones. The 

unmineralized Upper Triassic sandstones (Chinle Formation) of the Colorado Plateau are estimated to 

contain 4 ppm Sc, 16 ppm Y, and 8 ppm La. The 

average sandstones of the Colorado Plateau (289 

samples of 24 formations) contain 4 ppm Y (Shoemaker, 

Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31). Data on 

phosphorites suggest that phosphatic sandstones would 

be enriched in rare earths.

Gallium and germanium. Meager data (Burton, 

Culkin, and Riley, 1959) suggest that sandstones contain 1-2 ppm Ge and 1-15 ppm Ga. The gallium 

content is higher in the more aluminous sandstones, 

such as the graywackes. Gallium exceeds germanium 

in most sandstones; 1-2 ppm Ge and 5-10 ppm Ga 

are values of the right order of magnitude.

Thallium and indium. Thallium occurs only in 

trace amounts in sandstones. Preuss (1941) reports 

2 ppm Tl as an average for sandstones. This figure is 

appreciably higher than those reported by Shaw 

(1952a). In three graywackes Shaw found that 

thallium did not exceed 0.3 ppm and only in an arkose 

did it reach 1.3 ppm. The average thallium content 

of sandstone, therefore, is probably less than 1 ppm.

Indium was not found in ordinary sandstones and 

was present in only a fraction of one part per million 

in graywackes (Shaw,,1952b).

Copper. Carobbi and Pieruccini (1943) report copper in concentration ranging from 8 to 15 ppm in eight 

sandstones; Itkina (1946) gives an average of 18 ppm 

Cu in 30 sandstones. Strakhov and others (1944) 

report three analyses of sandstones which contained 

none, 20, and 400 ppm Cu. The average copper content of all sandstones in the Colorado Plateau (289 

samples of 24 formations, Cambrian to Cretaceous) 

is 9 ppm (Shoemaker, Miesch, Newman, and Riley, 

1959, p. 31). Katchenkov (1959) reports values ranging from "trace" to 35 ppm and an average of 19 ppm. 

Weber (1960) reported 9 to 37 ppm Cu for graywackes 

(mainly Ordovician) from eastern Canada and New 

York State. Macpherson (1958), however, reports 

an average of 46 ppm Cu in 16 "arkosic and feldspathic graywackes" of Precambrian age in Ontario. 

Macpherson's graywackes, as a class, are richer in 

copper than other sandstones perhaps because they 

come mainly from a mineralized province. It is 

probable that the copper content of the average sandstone is somewhere between 10 and 20 ppm.

Lead and zinc. The lead content of ordinary sandstones has been estimated, from a study of German 

sandstones and quartzites, to be 7-8 ppm (Wedepohl, 

1956). Some arkoses and red sandstones were found 

to be notably richer in lead. The same sandstones 

and quartzites contain on the average 16 ppm Zn; 

German graywackes contain 61 ppm Zn (Wedepohl, 

1953).

Cobalt and nickel. Cobalt and nickel have been 

reported in small quantities in some sandstones. Sandstones of the Colorado Plateau (289 samples of 24 formations, Cambrian to Cretaceous in age) contain 1 

ppm Co and 2 ppm Ni (Shoemaker, Miesch, Newman, 

and Riley, 1959, p. 31). These values are virtually 

the same as reported by Lundegardh (1949) for the 

sandstone of Vastergotland, Sweden. Sahama (1945) 

found 2 to 8 ppm Ni in the quartzites of southern 

Lapland. Macpherson (1958) found 90 ppm Ni in Precambrian graywackes of Ontario. The high value is 

perhaps related to the argillaceous debris and matrix 

of these sandstones.

Heavy metals rarely found in sandstones or present 

in less than 1 ppm include molybdenum (Kuroda and 

Sandell, 1954), mercury, bismuth, silver, and gold 

(Krauskopf, 1955).

Vanadium. Vanadium is present in many sandstones. As it is generally incorporated and concentrated 

in hydrolyzates and oxidates, sandstones rich in argillaceous or ferruginous matter are richer in vanadium.

Early work by Jost (1932) has shown sandstones to 

contain on the average 20 ppm V. The concentrations 

determined ranged from less than 5 ppm to 86 ppm. 

Hillebrand (1900) reports 0.003 percent V2O5 (17 ppm 

V) in a composite sample of 253 sandstones. The 

unmineralized sandstones of the Colorado Plateau, 

Cambrian to Cretaceous in age (24 formations of 289 

samples), contain 11 ppm V (Shoemaker and others, 

1959, p. 31). The Salt Wash Member of the Morrison 

Formation (Jurassic) contains 10 ppm (96 samples). 

The vanadium content of bitumen-free sandstones in 

the Urals and the near-Volga area is 73 ppm, according 

to Romm (1946). Krauskopfs estimate (1955) of 10 

to 60 ppm V for sandstones is the right order of magnitude. The average sandstone probably contains nearer 

10 to 20 ppm.

Chromium. Chromium, reported as Cr2O3 , is present 

in small quantities in some sandstones. The quartz-
S14 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

ites of southern Lapland are said to contain 68 to 200 

ppm Cr (Sahama, 1945). These values seem high inasmuch as a weighted mean of 7 ppm is reported in 289 

samples of 24 formations, Paleozoic and Mesozoic in 

age, in the Colorado Plateau (Shoemaker, Miesch, 

Newman, and Riley, 1959, p. 31). The geometric mean 

of 96 samples of the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison 

Formation (Jurassic) was 6.6 ppm. Von Engelhardt 

(1936) in a study of sandstones in Germany reports 

averages of 48 ppm in Karbonsandsteinen, 20 ppm in 

Buntsandsteinen, and 150 ppm in quartzites. Lundegardh (1949, p. 51) reports 5 to 6 ppm in glacial sands 

of Sweden and less than 1 ppm from Cambrian sandstones. On the other hand, 16 Precambrian graywackes 

contained 196 ppm Cr (Macpherson, 1958). Frolich 

(1960) reports 1 to 123 ppm Cr in German sandstones. 

He estimates the average to be 58 ppm. Krauskopf's 

estimate (1955, p. 416) of 10 to 100 ppm Cr in sandstones is probably about right although, with a few 

exceptions, the correct value must be nearer 10 rather 

than 100.

Chromium in sandstone is probably in the form of the 

mineral chromite (Rankama and Sahama, 1950, p. 623) 

and also in the clay components (Frolich, 1960).

Tungsten. Tungsten is present in small quantities 

in sandstones. Vinogradov and others (1958) report 

1.6 ppm W in sandstones. Jeffery (1959) found 1 ppm 

or less to 34 ppm in sandstones and quartzites of 

Uganda. The average fell in the 2 to 5 ppm range but 

inasmuch as some of the samples came from an area 

of tungsten mineralization, the values obtained may 

be too high. A more reasonable figure is 1 to 2 ppm.

Thorium and uranium. Except for some rare placer 

sands, thorium and uranium are present in very small 

quantities in sands and sandstones. Murray and 

Adams (1958, p. 263) found an average between 1 and 

2 ppm of thorium and about 0.5 ppm of uranium in 

present-day sands of Galveston Island, Tex. The 

St. Peter Sandstone (Ordovician) and similar highpurity sandstones contain a little less; the Berea Sandstone (a Mississippian protoquartzite) contains about 

twice as much as the modern beach sands.

Several placer sands, rich in zircon and monazite, 

have high concentrations of both thorium and uranium. 

A Florida beach sand, for example, has 160 ppm Th 

and 75 ppm U.

ORGANIC-CARBON CONTENT OF SANDSTONES

As is well known, the content of organic matter, and 

hence organic carbon, varies inversely as the grain size 

of clastic sediments. Hence, as might be expected, the 

content of organic matter in sandstones is generally 

low and much lower than in the associated shales. 

Except for those rare sandstones in which bituminous

or asphaltic matter has been introduced, organic carbon 

is a minor element in the composition of sandstones. 

The "coal measure sandstones" are perhaps a further 

exception, with abundant plant fragments essentially 

mineral charcoal or fusain.

The most extensive investigation of the subject is 

that of Ronov (1958), who states that the sandstones 

of the Russian platform contain, on the average, 0.24 

percent organic carbon. This estimate was based on 

402 composite samples. Marine sands were found to 

contain on the average 0.33 percent, more than twice 

as much organic carbon as is found in continental and 

lagoonal sands (0.15 percent).

THE AVERAGE SANDSTONE

It is perhaps of interest to know what the chemical 

composition of the "average sandstone" is.

The published analyses, even good ones, are not necessarily representative of sandstones. They are commonly made because the rock was of special economic 

interest as a source of silica or as a building stone, or 

because it was an unusual or rare type, perhaps glauconitic or phosphatic. It is unlikely, therefore, that the 

chemical composition of the "average sandstone" could 

be ascertained merely by averaging the available analyses, no matter how many nor how complete.

Clarke attempted to estimate the composition of the 

average sandstone by making one analysis of a composite sample of 253 sandstones. The makeup of the 

sample is unknown but it presumably was composed 

largely of sandstones from North America. No record 

is available of the stratigraphic and geographic coverage 

of the sample analyzed. The turbidite sandstones of 

thick flysch formations are likely to be underrepresented 

as they are neither mappable units nor of economic 

interest. A good deal of thought and skill is needed 

to prepare a representative composite sample.

Another approach to the problem is to compute 

averages for the common types of sandstones and then 

from estimates of the abundance of these types, compute the bulk composition of an average sandstone. 

This was in essence the method utilized by Middleton 

(1960). Several estimates of the abundance of the 

common types have been made (Krynine, 1948; Tollman, 1949; Pettijohn, 1957; Bokman, 1955). Because 

some disagreement exists on the defining parameters 

and their limits the several estimates are somewhat 

unlike (table 11). If, however, the sample from which 

the estimates and the averages of the several types 

were obtained (table 12) is valid, the computed bulk 

chemical composition should be acceptable.

The author has made no special effort to collect a 

representative sample of sandstone but has instead 

taken the collections available to him at The Johns
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES S15

TABLE 11. Relative abundance of sandstone classes TABLE 13, Chemical composition of the average sandstone

Class

Orthoquartzite ____________

Arkose 6 ________________

Graywacke ("high-rank grayLithic arenite ("low-rank graywacke" or subgraywacke) _____

Krynine 

(1948) i

22.5

32.5

10.0

35.0

Pettijohn *

34

15

26

20

5

Middleton 

(1960) s

34

16

24

26

Tallman 

(1949) *

45

17

17

21

1 Basis of estimate not stated.

* Pettijohn, F. J. New estimate (1960), based on 121 sandstones in Johns Hopkins 

collection for which thin sections are avaOable. The Hopkins collection utilized in 

obtaining these estimates was obtained from 34 states and provinces and 7 foreign 

countries. The states and provinces provided samples as follows: Maryland and 

Texas, 12 each; Pennsylvania, 8; Wisconsin and New York, 7 each; California and 

Ontario, 6 each; Michigan and Wyoming, 5 each; Colorado, 4; North Carolina, Massachusetts and Nova Scotia, 3 each; Minnesota. Oklahoma, New Mexico, Kansas, 

Ohio, New Jersey, Louisiana, Tennessee, 2 each; Missouri, Arkansas, Washington, 

Montana, South Dakota, Connecticut, Virginia, Illinois, Alaska, Alberta, British 

Columbia, and Quebec, 1 each. Twenty-eight samples came from seven foreign 

countries, namely, Greenland, Germany, Scotland, Australia, Egypt, Mexico, and 

India. The samples have a wide stratigraphic range. Twenty-eight are Precambrian, 10 Cambrian, 11 Ordovician, 7 Silurian, 12 Devonian, 6 Mississippian, 12 

Pennsylvanian, 2 Permian, 12 Triassie, 2 Jurassic, 13 Cretaceous, 19 Tertiary, and 4 

other unknown. From point of view of time involved the Precambrian is underrepresented; from point of view of area involved the Maryland-Pennsylvania area is 

oversampled (about 15 percent of total collection).

3 Based on 167 sandstones for which chemical analyses appear in published literature.

< Based on sample of 275 sandstones, Cambrian to Tertiary in age, from all parts of 

United States.

8 Includes subarkose.

TABLE 12. Mean composition of principal sandstone classes

8iOt..... ........................

MtOt.... ........................

FejOa -- 

FeO.. -._-__ -_____- -____

MgO-..____ ____ _ .-. .

CaO. 

NajO..... . ...

K3 0. ............................

HjO-K ................. ......

H2O- __ .......................

TIOi .... . .... . ..........

PjOfc.... . .-. ...........

MnO...... -- .. . . .

COt......... .....................

BOi............ ..................

B.. ..............................

BaO. . .-.-. . ..-. .

O .-...- _.-. .

Total. _ - _____ . _ ....

Orthoquartzite i

95.4

1.1

.4

.2

.1

1.6

.1

.2

.3

.2

 1.1

100.7

Lithic 

arenite *

66.1

8.1

3.8

1.4

o 4

6.2

.9

1.3

3.6

.7

.3

.1

.1

5.0

100.0

Graywacke 3

66.7

13.5

1.6

3.5

2 1

2.5

2.9

2.0

2 4

.6

.6

.2

.1

1.2

.3

.1

.1

100.4

Arkose 4

77.1

8.7

1.5

.5

2.7

1.5

2.8

9

.3

.1

.2

3.0

100.0

1 Computed from analyses published by Biggs and Lamar (1955, p. 18), Buttram 

(1913,_p. 50), Cayeux (1929, p. 155), Collins (1925, p. 68), Gushing, Leverett, and 

Van Horn (1931, p. 110), Fettke (1918, p. 164, 263), Van Hise and Leith (1911, p. 

256-257), Moore and Taylor (1924, p. 29), Murray and Patton (1953, p. 28, 29), Rothrock (1944, p. 151), Simonen and Kuovo (1955, p. 79), Thiel (1935, p. 601), Weidman 

(1907, p. 45), and Keith (1949, p. 16,19, 21). Total, 26 analyses.

2 Computed from analyses published by Biggs and Lamar (1955, p. 18); Cayeux 

(1929, p. 161,163,176, 227; 9 analyses); Nanz (1954, p. 114); Niggli and others (1930, 

p. 51, 263); Phillips (1881, p. 21); Turner (1891, p. 396); and an analysis by V. C. 

Smith, of the U. S. Geological Survey. Total, 20 analyses.

 Based on analyses of 28 New Zealand graywackes (Paleozoic and Mesozoic) 

from Reed (1957, p. 16), 13 Precambrian graywackes from Diller (1890, p. 429,1898, 

p. 84), Grout (1926, p. 19,1933, p. 977), Horwood (1938, p. 24), James (1951), Macpher 

son (1958, p. 76), Pettijohn (1957, p. 306, 319), Todd (1928, p. 20), and Visser (1956, 

p. 63), and on 20 miscellaneous graywackes from Balk (1953, p. 824), Cayeux (1929, 

p. 171), Edwards (1950a, p. 139, 1950b, p. 169), Eigenfeld (1933, p. 58), Helmbold 

(1952, p. 256), and Taliaferro (1943, p. 136). Total, 61 analyses.

4 Computed from analyses published by Earth (1938, p. 64), Cayeux (1929, p. 

202, 209, 210, 212), Diller (1898, p. 77), Keith (1949, p. 21), Kennedy (1951, p. 258), 

Merrill (1891, p. 420), Mackie (1899, p. 58, 59; 13 analyses), Niggli and others (1930, 

p. 263), Simonen and Kuovo (1955, p. 63, 68), and Swineford (1955, p. 122). Total, 

32 analyses.

 Estimated from CaO.

Hopkins University containing some sandstones and 

has assigned these materials to the principal sandstone 

families or clans for which average chemical compositions have here been calculated. Weighting these 

averages properly, the mean chemical composition of 

sandstone has been computed. These results are shown

SiOi.. .................

A12O3 ... ... 

Fe2O3 

FeO.... . .

MgO-.- ... ... 

CaO ...... ...

NazO __________

KtO. ........ ..........

HtO+.. ...............

H2O--.- ________

TiOi . ..... ....

PjOs ----- ~ 

MnO.. _ - ___ -

CO2 ... .....

SO}..... ......

Cl.. ............ .......

F . . 

S.. ....................

E&O. ..................

SrO .............. ...

C_._. 

Total.. . .

A

70.14

8.28

12.41

U.51

2.03

4.10

.54

2.09

.60

1.07

3.94

.78

2.91

99.40

B

68.64

7.80

13.03

U.77

1.29

5.05

.81

1.93

.48

1.06

4.02

.31

3.70

98.79

C

72.97

7.56

12.91 1.99

1.60

4.43

.62

2.05

.46

1.04

3.13

.23

2.98

99.97

D

70.00

8.22

'2.52

11.51

1.89

4.25

.58

2.06

.58

1.06

3.87

.69

s.24

3.02

99.49

E

78.66

478

1.08

.30

1.17

5.52

.45

1.32

»1.33

.31

.25

.08

Trace

5.04

.07

Trace

.05

Trace

100. 41

F

84.86

5.96

1.39

.84

.52

1.05

.76

1.16

»1.47

.27

.41

.06

Trace

1.01

.09

Trace

.01

None

99.86

G

77.6

7.1

1.7

1.5

1.2

3.1

1.2

1.3

1.7

.4

.4

.1

.1

2.5

.1

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

Trace

100.0

i After Ronov and Ermishkina (1959): average of 410 analyses.

s Includes organic matter.

a After Ronov (1958): average of 402 analyses.

A. Paleozoic sandstones of the Russian platform. Average of 130 analyses. Vinogradov and Ronov (1956). 

B. Mesozoic sandstones of the Russian platform. Average of 23 analyses. Vinogradov and Ronov (1956). 

C. Cenozoic sandstones of the Russion platform. Average of 5 analyses. Vinogradov and Ronov (1956). 

D. Average sandstone of the Russian platform. Average of 158 analyses (3,709

samples). Vinogradov and Ronov (1956). 

E. Average sandstone. Composite analysis of 253 sandstone. H. N. Stokes, analyst.

Clarke (1904, p. 20). 

F. Average sandstone used for building purposes. Composite of 371 sandstones.

H. N. Stokes, analyst. Clarke (1904, p. 20). 

G. Average sandstone computed by taking 26 parts average graywacke, 25 parts

average lithic sandstone (subgraywackeT, 15 parts average arkose, and 34 parts

average orthoquartzite. New estimate, F. J. Pettijohn, 1960.

in table 13. Other averages have been included in this 

table for comparative purposes.

The author's average differs somewhat from that 

given by Clarke based on chemical analysis of a composite sample and, like Clarke's average, it differs 

materially from the average of the 345 analyses of 

sandstone used for building purposes. It resembles 

rather more closely the average given by Middleton, 

who arrived at his results in a somewhat similar manner and used most of the same analyses, and it resembles 

also the mean composition of the sandstones of the 

Russian platform, a mean obtained from 158 analyses 

of more than 3,000 samples (Vinogradov and Ronov, 

1956). It lies in general between Clarke's composite 

and the average sandstone of the Russian platform. 

Compare also the data in table 14.

SECULAR VARIATION IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Although there is some evidence that feldspar content 

of sandstones increases with decreasing age, as do the 

number of heavy-mineral species (Pettijohn, 1957, p. 

686), data are inadequate to demonstrate any important change in bulk chemical composition. However, 

the CaO/MgO ratio appears to increase with decreasing 

age. The data of Vinogradov and Ronov (1956) show 

ratios of 0.78 in pre-Devonian sandstones, 1.39 in the 

Devonian, 3.56 in the Carboniferous, and 3.90 in Meso-
S16 DATA OF GEOCHEMISTRY

zoic sandstones. This change is similar to that found 

in the carbonate rocks by Daly (1909) and may be 

related to progressive dolomitization of the carbonate 

cement with the passage of time. It could also be due 

to inclusion of more shelly materials in the younger 

sandstones (or to removal or silicification of such 

materials in the older rocks).

GERMAN SANDSTONES

While this manuscript was in the final stages of preparation, K. H. Wedepohl of the University of Gottingen, 

Germany, sent chemical and spectrographic analyses 

of three composites of sandstones and of one composite 

of graywackes. These were received too late to be 

incorporated into the text. The analyses were made 

by many investigators over a period of nearly 30 years.

TABLE 14. Analyses of German sandstone composite samples

[K. H. Wedepohl, written communication, August, 1961]

Major elements

[In percent]

Si02 

AlsOs - 

FejOsFeO_ .... ....

MgO... __ .... . _ .

CaO _.. ..

Na»0 .. ... -

K,0._. 

HjO+.. .... ... .

H8O-_ .

TiOj..-_ ______ .

Pj05 ... ..

MnO.. . . .. .

COi......... ... ... ..

SOi . - .

s _______ .

C-. 

Li........... ........

B,. __ . _ ..... _ . N

F.....,.. ...

S - - 

01. -.

Ti......... .......

V. ___ . .-....

Or....... ........

Mn..__ ... . _ . Ni

Cu.. ..... .. ... .

Zn.... ....... .

Ge ... ..

Kb.... ... .

sr.-. . Zr.. .... ....... . Ba...._ .... ... .

Pb.. .

In.... ... . Sb.... . Hg....._ ..... . Tl..._ ... ..... . Bi __ ...............

Chlorite. ____ ...

Micas (illite)... .

 Carbonates... .

A 

...................... 66.7

._ _ .... _______ 1.83

..- .__ ... 3.86

.. ___ . ... 3.09

__ .. ___ ..... _ .. 1.90

 1.75

. 2.65

. .48

. _. .54

nod.

. .097

... __ 2.40

. ..... . .005

. .12

Minor and trace elements 

[In ppm] 

..... . ________ 40

. _... 35

....... ____ . ____ 220

. . 40

...... _ . _______ 1,200

.. _ . ____ ... ____ 100

.. _ . _______ ..... 3,200

*750

*df\

....................... *32

. ..._. __ . 61 46 

.. . 1.4 .

*<n

. - _ *120

. _.___... *300

. _ 290 260

Mineral composition

[Estimated] 

sn

. _. . 40

. . ...__ _ 10

. _ . .___ 10

.- .... ........... 6

B

79.25

.27

3.39

.21

.89

1.73

1.55

.23

.24

OAK

.072

1.34

.012

.014

29

35

190

450

260

1,400

68 *560

 27

 39

41 *58

 52

 88

140

AOft

 270

R7

10-15

«5

3

C

80.95

7.44 .

1.00

1 40

.64 .

ftO

.62

2.65

9 fl1

.52

.30

.076

.022

1.3

.02

.003

16

40

98

320

230

1,700

19

20 .

*170

*oo

33

16 *17 

2 .

.9 *85

"78

370 Q-in

620 

31

1

.1 .

2

5

0

3

D

89.9

.23

3.0

flftj.

.37

64

.15

.083

.020

.014

1.51

.024

nfu

7

on

45

OQfi

280

enn

 110

 14

 37

12 *17

*^10

 21

200

*«50 

5

on

o e

^q

3

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EXPLANATORY NOTES

A. Composite of 17 graywackes

B. Composite of 11 Karbonsandsteine (sample prepared by von Engclhardt, 1934)

C. Composite of 23 Buntsandsteine (sample prepared by von Englehardt)

D. Composite of 12 Kreidesandsteine (sample prepared bv von Engelhardt, 1934)

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SANDSTONES S17

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 1950b, The petrology of the Cretaceous greywackes of the 

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INDEX

Page 

Alkali content, relation to alumina... ....

Alumina content, range....._......._...... 1-2

relation to grain size..........._...._.. 2,3

Analyses, arkoses. 8-9

clastic sediments__ .., ... 2-3

evaluation...____ . .. __ 2

German sandstones 16

graywackes... 6-8

lithie sandstones.__ . . . 5-6

minor elements___ ... _ 9-11

orthoquartzites___ ...__ 4-5

special types of sandstones.. . __ 9

Anhydrite, as cement in sandstones 9

Arkoses . 3,4,8-9

Average sandstone, chemical composition..... 14-15

secular variation in composition.......... 15-16

Barite, as cement in sandstones . 9 

Barium 11 

Beryllium.. 12-13 

Boron.. 12 

Bromine 12

Carbon, organic.... . 14

Cesium . 12

Chlorine- 12

Chromium________ 13-14

Classification of sandstones, four main classes. 3-4

Cobalt._. ..... . 13

Composition, average sandstone 14-15

relation to grain size 2,3

relation to source rocks. 1

secular variation . 15-16

Copper 13

Detrital rock particles in sandstones..

Ferrous iron, relation to ferrio iron 5,6,7,8,9 

Ferruginous sands. . 9 

Fluorine 12

Gallium 13

German sandstones, analyses. . 16

Germanium . . .... 13

Glauconitic sands . ..... .... 9

Grain size, relation to chemical composition... 2-3 

Graywackes 4,6-8

Gypsum, as cement in sandstones 9

Indium.. 

Iodine .

Iron oxide content, range............

Iron, total, relation to grain size. .

Page 

83 

2,3

Lead________........_.............. 13

Lime content, range____........._...... 2

Lithie sandstones________.____ 3,4,5-6 

Lithium.... ., .. 12

Magnesia content, range....................... 2

relation to grain size____.......___ 2,3

10

Nickel...................__ __........... 13

Organic-carbon content_.__............. 14

Organic matter, relation to grain size... . 2,3 

Orthoquartzites... . ... 3,4-5 

Oxides in sandstones_____ ..____ 3,4

Phosphatic sandstone.......... .. 9

Phosphorus . . ........ ... 10

Potassium oxide content, relation to grain size. 2,3 

relation to sodium oxide.. 6,7,8,9

Rare-earth elements... 

Resistates, defined..... 

Rubidium.. ___..

Scandium.................................... 13

Silica content, range.. __... ....___ 1-2

relation to grain size...................... 2,3

Sodium oxide content, relation to potassium

oxide 6,7,8,9 

Strontium__________.,______. 11 

Sulfur........................................ 11

Thallium.....__......._..__.___.... 13

Thorium_ ....._____ ____ 14

Titania content, relation to grain size 2,3

Titanium___ 

Trace elements.. 

Tungsten........

Uranium.. .... 14

Vanadium.................................... 13

Water, combined, relation to grain size.. .. 2,3

Zinc......... ...._____......._.___ 13

Zirconium...._.............................. 10-11

o

821