2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts About FAA/AST

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation i

The Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) licenses

and regulates U.S. commercial space launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of non-federal

launch and reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States Code, Subtitle

IX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public health

and safety and the safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of the

United States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/AST is directed to encourage, facilitate, and promote commercial space launches and reentries. Additional information concerning

commercial space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at http://ast.faa.gov.

About the Office of Commercial Space Transportation
About FAA/AST 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

ii Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

NOTICE

Use of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement of such

products or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Significant 2004 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Space Competitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

X Prize Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

America’s Space Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Centennial Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Expendable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Current Expendable Launch Vehicle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Atlas 5 – Lockheed Martin Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Delta 2 – The Boeing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Delta 4 – The Boeing Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Minotaur – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Pegasus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Titan 4 – Lockheed Martin Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Zenit 3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

ELV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Eagle S-series – E’Prime Aerospace Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Falcon SLV – Lockheed Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Eagle SLV – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

QuickReach – AirLaunch, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

SLC-1 – Space Launch Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Zenit 3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, and Space International Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Sounding Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited (a Magellan Aerospace Company) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Oriole – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Norwegian Sounding Rocket Program – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Reusable Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Commercial RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Black Armadillo – Armadillo Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

Neptune – Interorbital Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

K-1 – Kistler Aerospace Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Limited, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

SpaceShipOne – Scaled Composites, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Falcon 5 – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Xerus – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Contents

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation iii

Table of Contents
Government RLV Development Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Space Shuttle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

RASCAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

In-Space Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Hybrid Rocket Motors – SpaceDev, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Hybrid Propulsion Systems – Lockheed Martin-Michoud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Liquid Engines – RS-84 – Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Aerospike Liquid Engine – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Liquid Engines – Microcosm, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Liquid Engines – Space Exploration Technologies Corporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Propellant Production – Andrews Space, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

Integrated Powerhead Demonstrator – NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Hyper-X Series Vehicles – NASA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

National Coalition of Spaceport States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

Non-federal Spaceports with FAA/AST Licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

California Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Kodiak Launch Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

Mojave Airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

Spaceport Operated by Florida Space Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Cape Canaveral Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Edwards Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Reagan Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Vandenberg Air Force Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Wallops Flight Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

White Sands Missile Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Proposed Non-federal Spaceports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44

Nevada Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Oklahoma Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

South Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Southwest Regional Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Spaceport Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

Spaceport Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

West Texas Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Wisconsin Spaceport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Photo Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

Contents 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

iv Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation
2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Acronyms

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation v

AADC – Alaska Aerospace Development

Corporation, Anchorage, Alaska

ACES – Air Collection and Enrichment System 

AFB – Air Force Base 

AFRL – Air Force Research Laboratory, Edwards

Air Force Base, California 

APO – Announcement of Partnership Opportunities 

AST – Office of Commercial Space Transportation

C/NOFS – Communication/Navigation Outage

Forecasting System

CAIB – Columbia Accident Investigation Board

CALVEIN – California Launch Vehicle Initiative

CCAFS – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station,

Florida

CEV – Crew Exploration Vehicle

CRV – Crew Rescue Vehicle

CSIA – Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark, Burns

Flat, Oklahoma

CSULB – California State University, Long Beach

CTV – Crew Transfer Vehicle 

DARPA – Defense Advanced Research Projects

Agency

DART – Demonstration of Autonomous

Rendezvous Technology

DoD – U.S. Department of Defense

EAFB – Edwards Air Force Base, Edwards,

California

EELV – Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

EIS – Environmental Impact Statement

ELV – Expendable Launch Vehicle

ERV – Expendable Rocket Vehicle 

FAA – Federal Aviation Administration 

FALCON – Force Application and Launch from

CONUS 

FSA – Florida Space Authority

GEO – Geosynchronous Earth Orbit

GPS/INS – Global Positioning System/Inertial

Navigation System

GSC – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, Huntington

Beach, California

GTO – Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit 

HTPB – Hydroxyl Terminated Polybutadiene

HX – Hydrocarbon X

HYSR – Hybrid Sounding Rocket

ICBM – Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

IOS – Interorbital Systems, Mojave, California

IPD – Integrated Powerhead Demonstrator

IPF – Integrated Processing Facility

ISS – International Space Station

ISTP – Integrated Space Transportation Plan

JSC – Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas

KSC – Kennedy Space Center, Florida

LAP – Launch Assist Platform

LC – Launch Complex

LEO – Low Earth Orbit

List of Acronyms
LOX – Liquid Oxygen

MARS – Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, Wallops

Island, Virginia

MAV – Mojave Aerospace Ventures, Mojave,

California

MDA – Missile Defense Agency

MEO – Medium Earth Orbit

MIPCC – Mass Injected Pre-Compressor Cooling

MPV – MIPCC-Powered Vehicle

MSFC – Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville,

Alabama

MTA – Mojave Test Area, Mojave, California

NASA – National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

NCSS – National Coalition of Spaceport States

NGLT – Next Generation Launch Technology

NLV – Nanosat Launch Vehicle

NTPS – National Test Pilot School

ORS – Operationally Responsive Spacelift

OSIDA – Oklahoma Space Industry Development

Authority

OSP – Orbital Space Plane

PDR – Preliminary Design Review 

QRLV – Quick Reaction Launch Vehicle

R&D – Research and Development

RASCAL – Responsive Access, Small Cargo,

Affordable Launch

RFI – Request for Information

RLV – Reusable Launch Vehicle 

RSTS – Range Safety and Telemetry System

RTS – Reagan Test Site, Republic of the Marshall

Islands

SBIR – Small Business Innovation Research

SLC – Space Launch Complex

SLEP – Service Life Extension Program

SLI – Space Launch Initiative

SLV – Small Launch Vehicle

SRS – Southwest Regional Spaceport, New Mexico

SSI – Spaceport Systems International, L.P., VAFB,

California

SSME – Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSO – Sun-synchronous Orbit

STS – Space Transportation System

UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

USAF – U.S. Air Force

VAFB – Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc,

California

VCSFA – Virginia Commercial Space Flight

Authority

WFF – Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island,

Virginia

WFNA – white fuming nitric acid

Acronyms 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

vi Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation
2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 1

“Kitty Hawk, move over.” That’s how FAA

Administrator Marion Blakey described the historic

flight of SpaceShipOne on October 4, 2004, that

launched a new commercial space industry that

might someday rival that of the commercial airlines

industry.1 For commercial space transportation, 2004

was a banner year in which this achievement was

just one of the highlights. 

The U.S. Space Exploration Policy, dated

January 14, 2004, outlines the President’s Vision

for Space Exploration, establishing a national priority to extend human presence in space. This plan

would retire the Space Shuttle and develop a new

vehicle that would carry astronauts into space.

Starting with a return to the Moon by 2020, the

effort would continue with human exploration of

Mars and other destinations. On December 21,

2004, a new U.S. Space Transportation Policy,

emphasizing the importance of maintaining robust

U.S. space transportation infrastructure and capabilities in order to assure access to space was authorized. This policy states a U.S. government commitment to encouraging and facilitating a viable U.S.

commercial space transportation industry. 

Additionally, two important pieces of legislation were signed into law. On November 30, the AST

Indemnification Bill, HR 5245 was signed into law

(Public Law 108-428). The purpose of the bill is to

examine the liability risk-sharing regime between the

government and private sector for commercial space

transportation. It also extends the current indemnification regime through 2009. The Commercial Space

Launch Amendments Act of 2004, signed into law

on December 23 (Public Law 108-492), amends

Federal law concerning commercial space transportation to make such law applicable to spaceflight

crews and spaceflight participants.

The private sector plays a prominent role in

managing, developing, and funding commercial space

transportation activities. Additionally, the federal government and several state governments substantially

contribute to or provide leadership for many of the

technologies and facilities needed to advance this

nascent industry. While the first privately developed

reusable launch vehicles (RLVs) are suborbital, many

organizations expect to eventually develop an orbital

RLV. Even though the Ansari X-Prize has already

been claimed, other X-Prize competitors continue

developing their suborbital RLV concepts. 

This report reviews major events relating 

to U.S. commercial space transportation in 2004.

Current and planned U.S. commercial and commercially oriented activities are showcased. The Federal

Aviation Administration, Office of Commercial Space

Transportation (FAA/AST), first published the U.S.

Commercial Space Transportation Developments and

Concepts: Vehicles, Technologies, and Spaceports in

1998. That edition focused exclusively on RLVs. In

addition to reviewing RLVs, this report addresses

expendable launch vehicles (ELVs), propulsion technologies, and launch and reentry sites – commonly

referred to as spaceports. Space transportation programs and projects that will impact and support the

development of commercial space activities and

applications are also reviewed. 

Always full of new developments, commercial space transportation is a fast-paced, rapidly

evolving industry. Providing a well-rounded picture

of today’s space transportation industry requires

addressing a broad range of topics. Information presented in this document was compiled from direct

communications with academic, federal, civil, and

corporate organizations and open sources. Because

many of the statements herein are forward looking,

current information should be obtained by contacting the relevant organizations. 

Space Competitions

A number of competitions were born in 2004, pushing the envelope of space innovation and exploration.

The Ansari X Prize – a challenge to create a craft

without government support to fly to the edge of

space twice within two weeks – has provided the

inspiration for other competitions to advance the

commercial space industry. The creators of the $10

million Ansari X Prize created a new competition

based on the X Prize model: the X Prize Cup. This

time, however, several challenges are involved, and

the games will take place annually. The idea behind

this contest is to get the rest of the public involved

with the newly emerging space industry. 

Introduction
Another competition, America’s Space Prize,

the brainchild of Robert Bigelow, can be considered

the next step beyond the original Ansari X Prize.

Bigelow’s challenge seeks vehicles that will go farther beyond the boundary of space and stay in orbit.

Bigelow’s company, Bigelow Aerospace, plans to

use the competition to find a spacecraft that will

dock with its inflatable habitat modules that it plans

to have orbiting the Earth in the future. 

With its announcement of the Centennial

Challenges, the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) has also jumped into the

excitement of the new commercial space era. Many

of NASA’s challenges will be geared toward space

exploration in and beyond the orbit of Earth. The

main benefit of the Centennial Challenges hinges

on the fact that NASA is seeking assistance from

the commercial sector through these competitions. 

Expendable Launch Vehicle Industry

U.S. commercial launch activity increased from

recent years. In 2004, FAA/AST licensed 9 orbital

launches out of 15 total commercial orbital launches

worldwide. Lockheed Martin had six Atlas launches,

including five commercial missions, and one Titan 4

launch. Boeing launched seven Delta 2 rockets and

one Delta 4 Heavy. Orbital Sciences launched one

commercial Taurus rocket. Also, Sea Launch performed three commercial Zenit-3SL launches.

As the market for commercial launches continues to expand, so does the demand for inexpensive,

innovative rockets. Therefore, a number of commercial ELVs are under development to serve smaller

payloads. Small entrepreneurial companies focusing

on specific market niches, such as small government

payloads, are primarily developing these ELVs.

These companies are exploring various technologies,

including new propellants and pressure-fed engines,

which have the potential to reduce the cost of these

vehicles. A number of key developments for these

types of ELVs emerged in 2004, thus assisting the

pursuit of private investment. Throughout 2004,

design and development of reduced cost and

increased performance ELVs continued toward 

completion; some seeking to use such pioneering

technologies as hybrid propulsion systems. Some of

these new technologies are slated for launch in 2005.

Reusable Launch Vehicle Industry

The appeal of RLVs rests in their ability not only to

launch from but also to return to Earth for reuse – 

a quality desirable for various types of missions,

including human trips to and from space. In addition, construction cost of an RLV could be amortized over multiple launches, thus potentially reducing the cost of access to space for government and

commercial users. With current advances in RLV

technology and commercial RLV success, regular

RLV space travel is closer to becoming a reality.

Government and commercial developers have

been striving for innovations that aid the development of low-cost, high-performance RLVs. Though

RLV development has historically been hindered by

a number of factors, 2004 proved favorable for this

endeavor, primarily because of the Ansari X Prize

competition. Other non-governmental entities –

non-Ansari X Prize contenders – have also been

researching and developing RLVs for commercial

use. In September, SpaceDev signed an agreement

with the NASA Ames Research Center for technology collaboration in designing a high-performance,

commercial, manned suborbital vehicle. Also, the

Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

(SpaceX) Falcon 1, a partially reusable launch vehicle, was placed on the SpaceX launch pad at

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California,

and it is currently undergoing final tests and awaiting final approval.

One great accomplishment in RLV development in 2004 was Mojave Aerospace Ventures

(MAV) winning the Ansari X Prize. On September

29 and October 4, SpaceShipOne flew past the

boundary of Earth and space to claim the $10-million prize. Successful completion of the Ansari X

Prize competition proved that private companies

can develop ways to travel to space without the

extreme expense of government-funded programs.

Another positive result is that interest in the future

of commercial space travel has greatly increased.

Sir Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Airlines,

teamed up with MAV to create his new visionary

company, Virgin Galactic. This company will

develop large ships capable of carrying spaceflight

participants (passengers) to space. 

Introduction 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

2 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation
Enabling Technologies

Efforts to develop new propulsion technologies for

launch vehicles, including ELVs and RLVs, continued to expand. These efforts include governmentfunded research projects as well as engines and

motors being developed by companies for use in

their launch vehicles and for sale to other companies.

A trend toward development of new liquid-propellant

engines that use room-temperature propellants

instead of cryogens or pressure-fed systems instead

of turbopumps has emerged. These engines are considerably less complex and potentially less expensive

than engines that use turbopumps and cryogenic propellants. SpaceX’s Falcon 1 is to use both of its liquid engines, Merlin and Kestrel, to launch.

Other innovative propulsion technologies in

development include hybrid propulsion and airbreathing engines. Hybrid propulsion combines the

solid fuel propellant of conventional rockets with liquid or gaseous oxidizers. Advantages of hybrid

propulsion over solid rocket propulsion include

increased thrust, throttle capability, and shut-off and

restart capabilities. SpaceShipOne made its historic

flights using one such hybrid engine. The engine ran

on basically nothing other than a mixture of laughing

gas and rubber. Air-breathing engines work in a manner similar to conventional turbine jet engines, igniting a compressed air and fuel mixture for thrust;

however, the turbines are not needed. The air is

already compressed because of the supersonic speeds

these vehicles travel. In March, NASA’s X-43A

became the world’s fastest air-breathing vehicle in

history, reaching a speed of Mach 6.83.

Bigelow Aerospace is developing commercial

inflatable space modules, with technical assistance

from the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC), Texas.

Such modules will offer improved living conditions

and ability to conduct experiments while in orbit.

NASA hopes to use the Bigelow technology to place

the inflatable modules on the Moon or Mars.

Spaceports

Launch and reentry sites – often referred to as

“spaceports” – may house launch pads and runways

as well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuels

needed to process launch vehicles and their payloads before launch. While U.S. military and civil

government agencies were the original and still are

the primary developers and users of launch facilities, commercial launch activity now comprises a

substantial portion of federal launch site operations.

A number of significant developments occurred at

major U.S. launch sites in 2004, including the

licensing of a new launch site by FAA/AST. On

June 17, 2004, FAA/AST awarded a launch site

operator license to the East Kern Airport District to

cover suborbital spaceflight activities at Mojave

Airport.

The commercial dimension of U.S. space

activity is evident not only in the number of 

commercially procured launches but also in the 

list of non-federal launch sites supplementing 

federally operated sites. FAA/AST has licensed 

the operations of five spaceports in four U.S. states.

These sites are available to serve commercial as

well as government payload owners. These spaceport operators are also seeking new opportunities,

such as payload processing and space research

facility development. Organizations in several states

see the potential of spaceports to accommodate

future launch vehicles, and they are actively working to turn their spaceport visions into reality.

Based on projections for increased launch rates and

historic milestones in RLV activity reached in 2004,

future spaceports may prosper from new businesses

that are ready to bloom.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Introduction

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 3
January 10: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket successfully launches the Telstar 14/Estrela do Sul 1

communications satellite from Odyssey platform,

Pacific Ocean (154° West, 0° North).

January 14: President Bush announces the nation’s

new Space Exploration Initiative. The President

committed the United States to a long-term human

and robotic program to explore the solar system,

starting with a return to the Moon that will ultimately

enable future exploration of Mars and other 

destinations.

February 5: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocket

launches the AMC 10 communications satellite for

SES Americom from CCAFS.

March 13: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2A rocket,

AC-202, launches the MBSAT satellite for Japan’s

Mobile Broadcasting Corporation from CCAFS.

March 27: Reaching the speed of Mach 6.83, the

X-43A flies into history and the Guinness Book of

World Records for the world’s fastest free-flying,

air-breathing aircraft.

April 1: SpaceShipOne receives the first RLV

license ever issued from the FAA/AST.

April 8: The first licensed launch for SpaceShipOne

takes place after the White Knight carrier aircraft

takes off from Mojave Airport, California, launching the private spaceship in the air and returning to

land at the airport.

April 16: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocket

launches the Japanese Superbird 6 communications

satellite from CCAFS.

April 23: XCOR Aerospace receives its first RLV

license from FAA/AST for the Sphinx vehicle.

May 4: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket launches

the DirecTV 7S direct-to-home TV broadcasting

satellite from Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean

(154° West, 0° North).

May 13: The second FAA/AST-licensed launch of

SpaceShipOne occurs. The Tier One Program

achieves an altitude of approximately 64 kilometers

(40 miles), setting the world record for the highest

altitude reached by a piloted, non-government

space program. SpaceShipOne flight 14P was the

third powered flight of this RLV.

May 17: An Orbital Sciences Corporation Taurus

XL rocket launches the ROCSAT 2 remote sensing

satellite for the Republic of China’s National Space

Program Office from VAFB.

May 20: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocket

launches the AMC 11 communications satellite for

SES Americom from CCAFS.

June 15: NASA holds workshop for its Centennial

Challenges, a set of competitions to propel technology and increase interest in order to further the

field of space exploration.

June 17: FAA/AST issues a license for the first

inland launch site to Mojave Airport to conduct

suborbital launch activities.

June 21: Mike Melvill pilots SpaceShipOne to 100

kilometers (62 miles) above the Earth, marking the

historic first non-governmental manned rocket

flight to suborbital space. Associate Administrator

for Commercial Space Transportation, Patricia G.

Smith, awards Melvill the first U.S. Department of

Transportation/FAA Commercial Astronaut Wings.

June 28: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket launches

the Telstar 18 communications satellite from Odyssey

platform, Pacific Ocean (154° West, 0° North).

August 31: Lockheed Martin’s final Atlas 2AS

rocket launches a classified payload for the U.S.

National Reconnaissance Office.

September 16: A team of aerospace companies 

led by Microcosm, Inc., of El Segundo, California,

announces winning a Phase 2 award from the

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

(DARPA) for the development of a small launch

vehicle. 

Significant 2004 Events 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

4 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Significant 2004 Events
September 17: ZERO-G, the first and only FAAapproved provider of weightless flight, announces

that it flew its first research customer, Tethers

Unlimited, an aerospace company based in Seattle,

Washington, on a modified Boeing 727-200.

September 20: SpaceDev signs an agreement with

NASA Ames Research Center for technology collaboration in designing a high-performance, commercial, manned suborbital vehicle capable of carrying 3-5 people to an altitude of approximately

160 kilometers (100 miles).

September 26: DARPA and U.S. Air Force

(USAF) award approximately $42 million in development contracts for research and design of a rapid

launch capability.

September 27: Sir Richard Branson, Virgin

Atlantic Airways founder, in agreement with Scaled

Composites founder Burt Rutan and Microsoft cofounder Paul G. Allen, announces a plan for a new

commercial spaceflight company called Virgin

Galactic.

September 29: SpaceShipOne, piloted by Mike

Melvill, flew past the boundary of space for the first

attempt at claiming the $10 million Ansari X Prize.

October 1: NASA puts out a call for the aerospace

industry to provide more launch services for satellites, cargo – even astronauts.

October 1: Rocketplane Limited, Inc., and

Incredible Adventures join forces in a marketing

agreement in order to start taking reservations for

Rocketplane’s suborbital spaceflight experience,

scheduled to start launching in 2007.

October 4: Brian Binnie pilots SpaceShipOne to

112 kilometers (69 miles), winning the $10 million

Ansari X Prize and smashing the 108-kilometer

(67-mile) altitude record set by the X-15 airplane 

in the 1960s. FAA Administrator, Marion Blakey,

awards Binnie DOT/FAA Commercial Astronaut

Wings.

October 8: SpaceDev is awarded approximately

$1.5 million to proceed with Phase 2 of an Air Force

Research Laboratory (AFRL) contract to continue

its hybrid rocket small launch vehicle project.

November 5: NASA releases two Requests 

for Information (RFI) and an Announcement of

Partnership Opportunities (APO) for its Centennial

Challenges, a series of prize competitions.

November 15: NASA holds Centennial Challenges

Day to discuss the two RFIs and the APO it released

on November 5, 2004.

November 17: X-43A breaks its March 27, 2004,

record by reaching approximately Mach 9.7 during

its second flight.

November 30: AST indemnification bill, HR 5245

was signed into law (Public Law 108-428). The

purpose of the bill is to examine the liability risk

sharing regime between the government and private

sector for commercial space transportation.

December 8: SpaceTEC, the national center of

excellence for aerospace technician training, enters

into partnerships with two key federal agencies –

the FAA and U.S. Department of Labor. These

agreements underscore the importance of SpaceTEC’s

mission to train the next generation of space industry

workers. 

December 17: Lockheed Martin successfully

launches an Atlas 5, carrying an AMC-16 payload,

from CCAFS.

December 21: Boeing Launch Services conducts a

test launch of the first Delta 4 Heavy launch vehicle,

from CCAFS. The launch was only partially successful since there was an early cut-off of the main

engine leaving the test payload in a lower-thanintended orbit.

December 23: Commercial Space Launch

Amendments Act of 2004 signed into law (Public

Law 108-492; 118 Stat. 3974; 10 pages). Amends

Federal law concerning commercial space transportation to make such law applicable to spaceflight

crews and spaceflight participants.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Significant 2004 Events

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 5
Prizes have long been used to inspire innovations

and advances in aviation. Examples include the

Orteig Prize claimed by Charles Lindbergh for crossing the Atlantic in 1927. Today, this proud tradition

continues in the commercial space transportation

arena. In 2004, the $10-million Ansari X Prize 

was awarded to MAV – an outgrowth of Scaled

Composites, LLC, – led by Burt Rutan. In part

because of the success of this prize, founders of

new challenges decided to further the call for nongovernmental space innovation, and new prize

competitions were created. These competitions

include the X Prize Cup, America’s Space Prize,

and NASA’s Centennial Challenges.

X Prize Cup

Before the competition for the Ansari X Prize

ended, the founders of the challenge decided to

establish the X Prize Cup. This annual 5-day event

is geared toward bringing forth new concepts and

technologies which will enable development of

commercial human spaceflight. A yearly set of

competitions will also enable the public to learn

about advancements in spaceflight technology.

People will have chance to speak with the famous

aviation and aerospace pioneers who are working to

reduce the high cost and increase the safety and

viability of commercial human space travel within

this generation’s lifetime. Teams from all over the

world will compete in five categories to win the

overall cup.2 These categories are as follows: fastest

turnaround time between the first launch and second landing, maximum number of passengers per

launch, total number of passengers during the competition, maximum altitude, and fastest flight time.3

The first competition – mainly an exhibitionary kickoff event – is scheduled for the summer of 2005 at

White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. In 2006,

the Southwest Regional Spaceport (SRS) in New

Mexico will be the official site for the full event.

America’s Space Prize

Robert Bigelow, founder of Bigelow Aerospace,

proposed his own competition: America’s Space

Prize. This prize challenges developers and engineers

to design a craft capable of ferrying passengers into

orbital flight. According to the rules, American

competitors will have to build a spacecraft capable

of taking a crew of no fewer than five people to an

altitude of 400 kilometers (240 miles) and complete

two orbits of the Earth at that altitude. Then, they

have to repeat that accomplishment within 60 days.

The first flight need not carry any extra passengers,

but the second is required to carry a full crew.4

Furthermore, the vehicles will have to be able to

dock with Bigelow’s inflatable modules. Bigelow

Aerospace plans to have a full-scale model orbiting

Earth by 2008 at the earliest. The competition deadline is slated for January 10, 2010. The proposed

purse for the competition is $50 million, funded

fully by Bigelow Aerospace. 

Centennial Challenges

Yet another idea for space technology advancement has been proposed by NASA. The Centennial

Challenges is based on creating several competitions

that will further the exploration of space. While

launch vehicles may not be a large part of initial prize

competitions, future prize proposals may include

missions with launch vehicles as funding becomes

available. For now, some of the proposals involving

launch craft include orbital and suborbital human

spaceflight challenges and suborbital scientific payload flight challenges. NASA held a workshop in

June to gather proposals for competitions to include

in the Centennial Challenges. Following up, two

RFIs and one Partnership Opportunity were

released on November 5. Additionally both topics

were discussed on Centennial Challenges Day,

November 15. Final confirmation of which challenges will be sponsored and the rules governing

these efforts are forthcoming.

Space Competitions 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

6 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Space Competitions
This survey of U.S. ELVs is divided into three sections. The first section reviews the ELVs currently

available to serve a wide range of commercial and

government payloads. The second section reviews a

number of proposed commercial ELVs under study

or development that will primarily serve small commercial payloads at prices that are potentially much

lower than available today. The final section

reviews suborbital sounding rockets manufactured

and operated by U.S. companies.

Current Expendable 

Launch Vehicle Systems

Table 1 lists the ELV systems available in the United

States today. Two ELVs, the Minotaur and Titan 4B,

are restricted to government payloads, and Boeing is

currently marketing the Delta 4 only to government

customers. Once the final two Titan 4 vehicles are

launched, all large U.S. government payloads will be

launched on Atlas 5 or Delta 4 variants. Atlas 5, Delta

2, Pegasus, and Taurus vehicles are available for both

commercial and U.S. government launches, and the

Zenit 3SL is available only to commercial customers.

The two newest members of the U.S. launcher supply, the Atlas 5 and Delta 4 evolved expendable

launch vehicles (EELV), debuted in 2002. Because of

a new national vision to undertake manned missions

to the Moon and eventually Mars, NASA may require

vehicles that exceed the capabilities of the Atlas 5 and

Delta 4 EELVs in order to launch CEVs and accomplish other missions. To date, however, plans for such

vehicles have not been announced.

Atlas 5 – Lockheed Martin Corporation

The Atlas launch vehicle family traces its roots to

the development of the Atlas Intercontinental

Ballistic Missile (ICBM) in the 1950s. Today, the

Atlas family is in transition. Older versions of the

vehicle (Atlas 2A, Atlas 2AS, Atlas 3A, and Atlas

3B) are being retired to make way for the Atlas 5.

Lockheed Martin retired its Atlas 2 launch vehicle

in 2004 and plans to retire the Atlas 3 in 2005.

The last Atlas 2AS launched in 2004 (giving

the Atlas 2AS family the remarkable record of 63

successful launches without a failure).5 One Atlas 3A

vehicle also launched in 2004, and the last Atlas 3

vehicle is scheduled to fly in early 2005. 

The maiden flight of the

Atlas 5 took place on August 21,

2002, when an Atlas 5 401 vehicle successfully launched the

Eutelsat Hot Bird 6 spacecraft

from CCAFS. The Atlas 5 is now

Lockheed Martin’s sole commercial launch vehicle for the foreseeable future. The Atlas 5 family of launch vehicles is based on

a common first stage design –

known as the Common Core

BoosterTM – and uses the NPO

Energomash RD-180 engine

introduced on the Atlas 3. The

stretched version of the Centaur

upper stage, introduced on the Atlas 3B, is also used

on single- and dual-engine versions of the Atlas 5. 

The Atlas 5 also marks a significant departure

in launch preparations compared to previous Atlas

versions. The Atlas 5 program uses a “clean pad”

concept at Launch Complex (LC) 41 at CCAFS.

The launch vehicle is prepared for launch “off pad”

vertically in the Vertical Integration Facility near

the pad. Hours before a launch, the fully-prepared

vehicle is moved to the pad. The Atlas 5 will be

operational from LC-3E at VAFB in mid-2005, and

will be standardized to the operating processes at

LC-41 except for the use of the more traditional

“stack on pad” concept from the heritage launch

vehicle programs.

The Atlas 5 is available in the 400 and 500

series and accommodates 4-meter (13.1 foot) and 

5-meter (16.4-foot) fairings and up to five strap-on

solid rocket motors. The Atlas 400 series can place

payloads between 4,950 and 7,640 kilograms (10,910

and 16,843 pounds) into geosynchronous transfer

orbit (GTO). The Atlas 500 series can place payloads

between 3,970 and 8,670 kilograms (8,750 and

19,120 pounds) into GTO. Lockheed Martin is currently finalizing its design of the Atlas 5 Heavy Lift

Vehicle with a target initial operational capability in

late 2006. One commercial Atlas 5 launch took place

on December 17, 2004, and at least one commercial

Atlas launch is scheduled for 2005.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 7

Expendable Launch Vehicles

Atlas 5 launch
Expendable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

8 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Delta 2 – The Boeing Company

The Delta family of launch vehicles traces its heritage to the Thor

missile program of the 1950s. Like

the Atlas program, the Delta family is undergoing a transition

prompted by the introduction of

the Delta 4 vehicles developed

under the EELV program.6

The Delta 2 uses a liquidoxygen (LOX)/kerosene first stage

and a nitrogen tetraoxide and hydrazine second

stage. An optional solid-propellant upper stage is

available. The Delta 2 also uses between three and

nine strap-on solid rocket motors, depending on the

performance required. A “heavy” version of the

Delta 2 entered service on August 25, 2003, with

the launch of NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope

spacecraft. This vehicle uses the larger graphiteepoxy motor 46 strap-on boosters developed for the

now-defunct Delta 3. Although small payload

capacity has limited its usefulness for commercial

GTO payloads, the Delta 2 is expected to remain in

Vehicle Minotaur Pegasus XL Taurus XL Delta 2 Titan 2

Company Orbital Sciences Orbital Sciences Orbital Sciences Boeing Lockheed Martin

First Launch 2000 1990 1994 1990 1988*

* First launch of refurbished Titan 2 ICBM. Titan 2 was also used for Gemini program launches, 1964-1966.

1,905 kg

(4,200 lbs.)

CCAFS, VAFB

5,100 kg 

(11,245 lbs.) N/A

1,870 kg

(4,120 lbs.) N/A

3,895 kg

(8,590 lbs.)

N/A N/A

VAFB VAFB

1,360 kg 

(3,000 lbs.)

Payload 

Performance

(LEO polar)

Launch Sites

340 kg 

(750 lbs.) 

(SSO)

190 kg 

(420 lbs.) 

(SSO)

N/A

VAFB, Wallops, 

CCAFS VAFB

430 kg 

(950 lbs.)

Payload 

Performance 

(GTO)

Stages 4 3

640 kg 

(1,410 lbs.)

440 kg 

(970 lbs.)

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO)

Small Medium

4 3 2

Table 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch Vehicles

Delta 2 launch
2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 9

service through 2010, primarily launching military

and civil government payloads. Seven government

Delta 2 launches occurred in 2004; eight are

planned for 2005.

Delta 4 – The Boeing Company

The Delta 4 family of launch vehicles has a common

booster core first stage that uses the first new large

liquid rocket engine developed in the United States

since the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) was

developed in the 1970s. This engine, the Rocketdyne

RS-68, is based on the J-2 engine used on the second

stage of the Saturn 5 launch vehicle

and technology from the SSME.

However, the RS-68 is larger and

simpler than the SSME. Depending

on customer needs, two or four

solid-fuel strap-on boosters, two

types of upper stages, and three

payload fairings can supplement the

RS-68 engine. This vehicle will be

launched from VAFB and CCAFS.

The first Delta 4 launch took place

on November 20, 2002, successfully lofting the Eutelsat W5 spacecraft from CCAFS.7

Vehicle Delta 4 Atlas 5** Delta 4 Heavy Titan 4B Zenit 3SL

Company Boeing Lockheed Martin Boeing Lockheed Martin Sea Launch

First Launch 2002 2002 2004 1997 1999

8,870 kg 

(19,555 lbs.) 

(Delta 4M)

12,500 kg 

(27,560 lbs.) 

(Atlas 5-400)

13,330 kg 

(29,390 lbs.) 

(Delta 4M+ (5,4))

20,520 kg 

(45,240 lbs.) 

(Atlas 5-500)

6,870 kg 

(15,150 lbs.) 

(Delta 4 M)

10,400 kg 

(22,930 lbs.) 

(Delta 4 M+ (5,4))

3,930 kg 

(8,665 lbs.) 

(Delta 4 M) 

4,950 kg 

(10,910 lbs.) 

(Atlas 5-400)

6,410 kg 

(14,130 lbs.) 

(Delta 4M+ (5,4))

8,670 kg 

(19,110 lbs.) 

(Atlas 5-500)

** Atlas 5 launches from VAFB are scheduled to begin in 2005.

23,260 kg 

(51,280 lbs.)

17,600 kg 

(38,800 lbs.)

Payload 

Performance 

(LEO)

Payload 

Performance

(LEO polar)

Launch Sites

N/A

CCAFS, VAFB CCAFS CCAFS, VAFB

20,800 kg 

(45,860 lbs.)

12,370 kg 

(27,270 lbs.)

N/A

Payload 

Performance 

(GTO)

21,680 kg 

(47,800 lbs.)

5,760 kg 

(12,700 lbs.) 

(GEO)

CCAFS, VAFB Pacific Ocean

N/A

6,000 kg 

(13,230 lbs.)

3

Intermediate

Stages

Heavy

2 2 2 2

Table 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch Vehicles

Delta 4 launch
A distinctive design feature of the Delta 4 is

its use of horizontal integration. The vehicle is

assembled, tested, and prepared for launch horizontally, away from the launch pad. When integration is

complete, the vehicle is moved to the pad, raised,

and launched in a relatively short period. In addition

to making the launch vehicle easier to work on by

keeping it closer to the ground, this integration

method greatly reduces time spent occupying the

launch pad. Boeing expects to reduce pad time from

Delta 2’s 24 days to a period of about a week for the

Delta 4. Because availability of launch pads acts as

a factor limiting launch rates, Boeing’s integration

process contributes to the economic advantages that

are a major part of the EELV program’s goals.

Boeing offers five versions of the Delta 4 to

address a broad range of payload mass classes.

These include four medium versions, each with one

common booster core, and one heavy-lift version

that uses three parallel common booster core stages.

Three of these versions, the Delta 4 Medium-Plus

vehicles, were originally optimized for commercial

use. The Medium and Heavy versions are largely

intended for government use. Payload capacities to

low Earth orbit (LEO) range from 8,120 kilograms

(17,905 pounds) for the Medium to 23,040 kilograms (50,800 pounds) for the Heavy. GTO capacities range from 4,210 to 13,130 kilograms (9,285 to

28,950 pounds). The Delta 4 has also replaced the

Delta 3. The first Delta 4 Heavy was launched on

December 21, 2004. It was the only Delta 4 variant

launched last year. Seven Delta 4 launches are

planned for 2005, including one Delta 4 Heavy.

Minotaur – Orbital Sciences Corporation 

The Orbital/Suborbital Program

Space Launch Vehicle, also known

as Minotaur, was developed by

Orbital Sciences Corporation

under contract to the USAF to

launch small government payloads. This booster uses a combination of rocket motors from

decommissioned Minuteman 2

ICBMs and upper stages from

Orbital’s Pegasus launch vehicle.

The Minotaur’s first two stages are Minuteman 2

M-55A1 and SR-19 motors. The upper two stages

are Orion 50 XL and Orion 38 motors from the

Pegasus XL. All four stages use solid propellants.

Orbital Sciences will also operate the Minotaur 4,

which uses stages from former U.S. Peacekeeper

missiles. Minotaur 4 can deliver a 1,750-kilogram

(3,860-pound) payload to LEO.

In its January 26, 2000, debut, the Minotaur

successfully launched the FalconSat and JAWSAT

satellites from VAFB. This vehicle’s only other

launch occurred on July 19, 2000, when it launched

an AFRL MightySat 2.1 spacecraft from VAFB. No

Minotaur launches occurred in 2004; however, up

to three missions are scheduled for 2005.

Pegasus – Orbital Sciences Corporation 

Pegasus is an airlaunched ELV used to

place small payloads

into a variety of low

Earth orbits. Developed

by Orbital Sciences

Corporation in the late

1980s, Pegasus became the first commercial airlaunched system. The Pegasus booster has three

solid propellant stages and an optional hydrazine

monopropellant upper stage.

The booster is carried aloft under Orbital

Sciences’ “Stargazer” L-1011 carrier aircraft to an

altitude of 11,900 meters (39,000 feet), where it is

released. (Early Pegasus launches used a B-52 aircraft leased from NASA.) The booster drops for 5

seconds before igniting its first stage motor and

beginning ascent to orbit. The original Pegasus

booster entered service in 1990. Orbital Sciences

created a new version of the Pegasus, the Pegasus

XL, with stretched first and second stages to

enhance the payload capacity of the booster. While

the first Pegasus XL launch was in 1994, the first

successful Pegasus XL flight did not occur until

1996. The original, or standard, version of the

Pegasus was retired in 2000, and only the Pegasus

XL is used today. The air-launched nature of the

Pegasus permits launches from a number of different facilities, depending on the orbital requirements

of the payload. Pegasus launches have been staged

from seven sites to date: Edwards Air Force Base

(EAFB) and VAFB, California; CCAFS and

Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida; NASA

WFF, Virginia; Kwajalein Missile Range, Marshall

Islands; and Gando AFB, Canary Islands. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

10 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Minotaur launch

Pegasus in flight
NASA certified Pegasus to carry the highest

value satellites (Category Three Certification)

because of its excellent demonstrated reliability

record. Pegasus has launched its last 21 missions successfully. No Pegasus XL vehicles flew in 2004. Two

Pegasus XL missions are scheduled for 2005, carrying the Demonstration of Autonomous Rendezvous

Technology (DART)8 flight demonstrator vehicle for

NASA and the Communication/Navigation Outage

Forecasting System (C/NOFS),9 a USAF payload

whose launch will be licensed by FAA/AST.

Taurus – Orbital Sciences Corporation

The Taurus ELV is a groundlaunched vehicle based on the airlaunched Pegasus. Orbital Sciences

Corporation developed the Taurus

under the sponsorship of DARPA

to develop a standard launch vehicle to be set up quickly in new

locations to launch small satellites

that are too large for the Pegasus

XL. The Taurus uses the three

stages of a Pegasus XL, without

wings or stabilizers, stacked atop a

Castor 120 solid rocket motor that

serves as the Taurus’ first stage.10

The Taurus successfully completed six of

seven launch attempts since entering service in

1994. A commercial Taurus XL derived from the

XL version of Pegasus successfully launched

Taiwan’s ROCSAT -2 spacecraft in 2004. 

Titan 4 – Lockheed Martin Corporation

The Titan 4 program dates back

to 1985, when the USAF commissioned Martin Marietta (now

Lockheed Martin) to develop an

upgraded version of the existing

Titan 34D ELV that could launch

Space Shuttle-class payloads as

an alternative to the Shuttle. The

Titan 4A was based on the Titan

34D, but it featured stretched

first and second stages, two

more powerful solid rocket motors, and a larger

payload fairing. The Titan 4A was used between

1989 and 1998. The Titan 4B, introduced in 1997,

was the most powerful ELV used in the United

States for many years until the inaugural flight of

the Delta 4 Heavy. Titan 4A used upgraded solid

rocket motors that increase the payload capacity of

the vehicle by 25 percent. The Titan 4B is used solely

for U.S. military payloads, with the exception of the

October 1997 launch of NASA’s Cassini mission.

Titan 4B is being phased out in favor of the heavy

Delta 4 and Atlas 5 variants. One Titan 4B launch

occurred in 2004, and the final two Titan 4B missions

are scheduled for 2005.

Zenit 3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLC 

The Zenit 3SL is a UkrainianRussian launch vehicle operated

by Sea Launch, a multinational

joint venture led by The Boeing

Company. Ukrainian companies

SDO Yuzhnoye and PO

Yuzhmash provide the first two

stages. A single engine, using

LOX/kerosene propellants, powers each stage. These stages are

the same as those used on the

Zenit 2 launch vehicle. A Russian company, RSC

Energia, provides the third stage, a Block DM-SL

upper stage, which also uses LOX/kerosene propellants. Boeing provides the payload fairing, interfaces, and operations management. Boeing Launch

Services, Inc., manages marketing and sales. 

The Zenit 3SL is launched from the Odyssey

mobile launch platform, which travels from its home

port in Long Beach, California, to a position on the

Equator in the Pacific Ocean for each mission.

Launch operations are remotely controlled from a

separate vessel, the Sea Launch Commander. While

Sea Launch conducts commercial launches with a

license from the FAA/AST, the multinational nature

of the system prevents it from carrying U.S. government payloads. Sea Launch completed three launches in 2004 and has six scheduled for 2005. 

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 11

Taurus launch

Titan 4 launch

Zenit 3SL launch
ELV Development Efforts 

A number of efforts by established corporations and

startups are currently in progress to develop new

ELVs. The majority of these designs focus on the

small payload sector of the launch market, with the

goal of placing payloads as small as a few hundred

pounds into LEO. A limited market currently exists

for such launches, so the success of these vehicles

may rely on the ability to reduce launch costs

enough to enable new markets.

Aquarius – Space Systems/Loral

Space Systems/Loral of Palo Alto, California, has

proposed Aquarius, a low-cost launch vehicle

designed to carry small, inexpensive payloads into

LEO. This vehicle is primarily intended to launch

into orbit bulk products, such as water, fuel, and

other consumables, that are inexpensive to replace.

As currently designed, Aquarius will be a singlestage vehicle 43 meters (141 feet) high and 4 meters

(13.1 feet) in diameter and powered by a single

engine using liquid hydrogen and oxygen propellants. The vehicle is floated in the ocean before

launch to minimize launch infrastructure and will be

able to place a 1,000-kilogram (2,205-pound) payload into a 200-kilometer (125-mile), 52-degree

orbit. Located in the base of the vehicle, the payload

will be extracted by an orbiting space tug for transfer

to its ultimate destination. After payload extraction is

completed, the vehicle will deorbit and be destroyed.

Space Systems/

Loral studied Aquarius

under a $110,000 grant

awarded by the state of

California in April 2001

and delivered a final

report in June 2002.

Space Systems/Loral

teamed with Microcosm,

Inc., of El Segundo,

California, and Wilson

Composite Technologies of Folsom, California, for

the study. Funding of $1 million was provided in the

fiscal year 2004 Defense Appropriations Act to develop a prototype of the low-cost engine for the vehicle.

The engine would provide 1.8 million newtons

(400,000 pounds) of thrust, using liquid hydrogen

and oxygen as propellants.11 For engine development,

Space Systems/Loral partnered with Aerojet, a

GenCorp Company based in Sacramento, California,

and Microcosm. This program is expected to proceed

under the auspices of the AFRL. Space Systems/Loral

has submitted a proposal for development of the

large lightweight liquid hydrogen tank required for

this vehicle, which is currently being considered for

federal funding.

Eagle S-series – 

E’Prime Aerospace Corporation

E’Prime Aerospace of Titusville,

Florida, is developing a family of

launch vehicles, called the Eagle Sseries, based on the LGM-118A

Peacekeeper ICBM design. Like the

Peacekeeper, this vehicle will be

ejected from a ground-based silo,

using a compressed gas system. At

an altitude of 61 meters (200 feet),

the vehicle’s engines will ignite.

The smallest vehicle, the Eaglet,

could launch 580 kilograms (1,280

pounds) into LEO. A somewhat

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

12 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Aquarius

Developer: Space Systems/Loral

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 1

Payload performance: 1,000 kg (2,205 lbs.) to LEO

Launch sites: To be determined, water launch following

float-off from a barge

Aquarius mission profile

Aquarius

Eaglet and

Eagle

Vehicle: Eaglet/Eagle

Developer: E’Prime Aerospace

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: 580 kg (1,280 lbs.) to LEO

(Eaglet); 1,360 kg (3,000 lbs.) to LEO (Eagle)

Launch sites: KSC, WFF, CCAFS, Kodiak
larger version, the Eagle, could put 1,360 kilograms

(3,000 pounds) into LEO. Both vehicles will use

solid propellant lower stages and liquid propellant

upper stages. E’Prime has also proposed larger

vehicles, designated S-1 through S-7, with the ability to place considerably larger payloads into LEO

and to add a geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO)

capability. The Eagle S-series concept dates back to

1987 when the company signed a commercialization agreement with the USAF to use Peacekeeper

technology for commercial launch vehicles.

E’Prime signed an agreement with NASA in

February 2001 that gives the company use of available property and services on a non-interference

basis.12 For equatorial orbits, the company plans to

launch the Eaglet and Eagle, and the company’s

entire canister launch program from facilities at

NASA KSC that the company has yet to construct.

Plans to launch from Virginia Space Flight Center

for equatorial orbits and from the Kodiak Launch

Complex for polar orbits are also under consideration.

Falcon SLV – Lockheed Martin

Lockheed Martin was awarded

one of four DARPA Force

Application and Launch from

CONUS (FALCON) contracts to

develop concepts for a low-cost

launch vehicle. DARPA is

expected to award a contract no

later than 2007 to develop a concept through flight tests. Lockheed Martin’s Falcon

SLV approach uses an all-hybrid propulsion

approach and a mobile launch system.

Nanosat Launch Vehicle – 

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

(GSC), based in Huntington Beach,

California, is a small research and

development (R&D) company,

focusing on the development of

advanced space technologies and

launch vehicle systems. As part of

the California Launch Vehicle

Initiative (CALVEIN), GSC and

California State University, Long

Beach (CSULB), are jointly conducting preliminary R&D tasks to

establish the foundation for development of a twostage, liquid propellant Nanosat Launch Vehicle

(NLV). Capable of delivering 10 kilograms (22

pounds) to a 250-kilometer (155-mile) polar orbit,

the NLV will provide low-cost, dedicated launch

services to universities and other research organizations that traditionally depend on secondary payload opportunities to access space. As part of this

initiative, GSC and CSULB are pursuing advanced

aerospike engine technology for use on the NLV

first stage.13 Their current work builds upon the

first-ever powered liquid propellant aerospike flight

that the team conducted using several of its

LOX/ethanol Prospector research vehicles. GSC’s

most visible accomplishments include the first-ever

flight of a composite LOX tank (conducted in partnership with Microcosm, Inc.), the first-ever powered flights of a liquid-propellant aerospike engine,

and the launch and 100-percent recovery of several

prototype reusable test vehicles.

Efforts during 2004 focused on refining the

basic vehicle design while also maturing assembly,

integration, check-out, and launch operation plans

and coordinating with the user community to optimize the payload accommodations. CSULB students have developed a full-scale NLV mockup and

have assembled the initial flight test vehicle for the

NLV first stage. In December 2004, GSC conducted

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 13

Vehicle: Falcon SLV

Developer: Lockheed Martin

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: To be determined

Launch sites: To be determined

Falcon

Vehicle: NLV

Developer: Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

First launch: 2007

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: 10 kg (22 lbs.) to LEO

Launch sites: Mobile (or Multiple)

NLV
the initial flight test with a full-scale “Flight

Development Unit” of the first stage at the Mojave

Test Area (MTA), with a successful recovery.14

Eagle SLV – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm, Inc. of El

Segundo, California, is

developing the Scorpius

family of ELVs. Several

prototypes are under consideration or in testing, and

two suborbital test models,

SR-S and SR-XM-1, flew

successfully from White

Sands Missile Range, New

Mexico, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. Eventually

Microcosm plans to market up to eight Scorpius variants: two suborbital vehicles, the SR-S and SR-M

launchers; three light-lift orbital vehicles, the Sprite

Mini-Lift, the Eagle SLV, and the Liberty Light-Lift

launchers; one intermediate-lift orbital vehicle, the

Antares Intermediate-Lift launcher; one medium-lift

vehicle, the Exodus Medium-Lift launcher; and one

heavy-lift vehicle, the Space Freighter. Despite the

wide range in their sizes and lift capacities, each

Scorpius variant is based on a scaleable modular

design featuring simple LOX/Jet-A pressure-fed

motors without turbopumps and low-cost avionics

equipped with GPS/INS (global positioning system/

inertial navigation system). The orbital variants are

three stages and feature thick fuel tanks for added

durability during flight.

The Scorpius system is designed simply in

order to maximize the cost savings and quick launch

pad turnaround times sought by government-sponsored responsive space initiatives. As a first step, the

test launches of the suborbital SR-S and SR-XM-1

vehicles demonstrated Scorpius’ ability to be ready

for flight within 8 hours of arrival at the launch pad,

using a crew of under 15. When marketed, the SR-S

vehicle is advertised as able to loft 200 kilograms

(440 pounds) suborbitally. The SR-M would loft

1,089 kilograms (2,400 pounds) suborbitally.

The Sprite Mini-Lift vehicle is projected to loft

up to 318 kilograms (700 pounds) to LEO. Eagle

SLV would loft up to 667 kilograms (1,470 pounds)

to LEO. The Liberty Light Lift vehicle would loft up

to 1,270 kilograms (2,800 pounds) to LEO.

Microcosm’s intermediate-, medium-, and

heavy-lift Scorpius variants will be able deploy

payloads to LEO and GTO. The Antares IntermediateLift vehicle will be able to deploy up to 2,676 kilograms (5,900 pounds) to LEO and up to 885 kilograms

(1,950 pounds) to GTO. The Exodus Medium-Lift

vehicle would deploy up to 6,713 kilograms

(14,800 pounds) to LEO and up to 2327 kilograms

(5,130 pounds) to GTO. Specifications for the

heavy-lift Space Freighter are not yet available.

Of the Scorpius variants, the Sprite Mini-Lift

and Eagle SLV are furthest along in development.

Microcosm currently plans test flights for one or

both of those vehicles in the third quarter of 2007.

QuickReach – AirLaunch, LLC

AirLaunch, LLC, and its team

of contractors is one of four

recipients of the DARPA

FALCON contracts to develop concepts for a low-cost

launch vehicle. QuickReach

uses two liquid-fueled stages

and deploys from the cargo

bay of a C-17 or Antonov-124

aircraft. DARPA is expected

to select a contractor no later than 2007 to further

develop their concept and to conduct flight tests.

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

14 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Eagle SLV

Developer: Microcosm, Inc.

First launch: Early 2007

Number of stages: 3

Payload performance: 670 kg (1,470 lbs.) to LEO, 330

kg (720 lbs.) to SSO

Launch sites: VAFB, WFF, and CCAFS

Eagle SLV

Vehicle: QuickReach

Developer: AirLaunch, LLC

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)

Payload performance: 454 kg (1,000 lbs.) to LEO

Launch sites: To be determined

QuickReach
SLC-1 – Space Launch Corporation

The Space Launch Corporation of Irvine, California,

is in the initial development stages of its SLC-1

launch system. The SLC-1 will use a small expendable booster, consisting of multiple, custom-built

stages based on existing technology. The booster

will be deployed from a turbojet-powered aircraft

and be able to place payloads of up to 150 kilograms

(330 pounds) into a 500-kilometer (311-mile) orbit

inclined at 28.5 degrees.15 The company is targeting

microsatellites and other small payloads that would

otherwise be launched as secondary payloads on

larger vehicles.

The Space Launch Corporation was also 

selected as the sole prime contractor for DARPA’s

Responsive Access, Small Cargo, Affordable Launch

(RASCAL) program in March 2003. RASCAL is a

new tactical launch system that will provide the U.S.

military with the ability to launch time critical spacebased assets within hours of detection of an emerging

threat. Under the DARPA RASCAL program, Space

Launch expects to achieve mission recurring costs of

less than $10,000 per kilogram.

In November 2004, the Space Launch

Corporation announced successful completion of 

the second phase of the DARPA RASCAL program.

The goal of Phase 2 was to advance the design of the

RASCAL system concept and mitigate the technical

risks identified in Phase 1. The RASCAL system

consists of two major elements; the MIPCC-Powered

Vehicle (MPV), a new aircraft employing mass

injection pre-compressor cooled turbojet engine technology, and a multi-stage expendable rocket vehicle

(ERV). Phase 2 ended with a successful system preliminary design review (PDR). Phase 3 of the RASCAL program, scheduled to begin in the first quarter

of 2005, will culminate in the fabrication and integration of a prototype RASCAL system and two

flight demonstrations where a small payload will be

launched into LEO. The first RASCAL demonstration launch is expected to take place in 2008.16

Zenit 3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, and

Space International Services

The Sea Launch Board of Directors

voted on September 30, 2003, to

offer launch services from Baikonur

Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, in

addition to its sea-based launches at

the Equator. The new offering, Land

Launch, is based on the collaboration

of Sea Launch Company and Space

International Services, of Russia, to

meet the launch needs of commercial customers with medium weight

satellites. The Land Launch system

uses a version of the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket,

the Zenit-3SLB, to lift commercial satellites in the

2,000 to 3,500-kilogram (4,410 to 7,718-pound)

range to GTO and heavier payloads to inclined or

lower orbits. The three stages on the Zenit-3SLB

are the same as those on the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL,

with the only significant difference between two

being the fairing.17 A two-stage configuration of the

same rocket, the Zenit-2SLB, is also available for

launching heavy payloads, or groups of payloads, to

LEO. Payloads and vehicles will be processed and

launched from existing Zenit facilities at the

Baikonur launch site. Initial launch capability is

slated for 2006. Expanding on its Sea Launch marketing efforts, Boeing Launch Services, Inc., manages marketing and sales for this new offering.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 15

Vehicle: SLC-1

Developer: Space Launch Corporation

First launch: 2008

Number of stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)

Payload performance: 150 kg (330 lbs.) to LEO

Launch sites: To be determined

Vehicle: Zenit 3SLB

Developer: Space International Services

First launch: 2006

Number of stages: 2 (Zenit 2SLB), 3 (Zenit 3SLB)

Payload performance: 2,000 to 3,500 kg (4,410 to

7,718 lbs.) to GTO

Launch sites: Baikonur

Zenit 3SLB
Sounding Rockets

In addition to orbital launch vehicles, a number of

suborbital ELVs, or sounding rockets, are in use

today. These vehicles, which use solid propellants,

support a variety of applications, including astronomical observations, atmospheric research, and

microgravity experiments.

Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited 

(a Magellan Aerospace Company)

Over 800 Black Brant rockets

have been launched since 1962,

when manufacture of the vehicle

began. Versions of the Black

Brant can carry payloads ranging

from 70 to 850 kilograms (154 to

1,874 pounds) to altitudes from

150 to more than 1,500 kilometers

(93 to 932 miles), and can provide

up to 20 minutes of microgravity

time during a flight. The Black

Brant and Nihka motors used on some Black Brant

versions are manufactured in Canada by Bristol

Aerospace Limited (a Magellan Aerospace

Company). The Nike, Talos, and Taurus motors

used on other Black Brant versions are built in the

United States. These vehicles are integrated by the

launch operator. In the United States, NASA has

been a frequent user of Black Brant vehicles.

The smallest version of the Black Brant family

is the single-stage Black Brant 5, which is 533 

centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters

(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces an

average thrust of 75,731 newtons (17,025 poundsforce). The Black Brant 5 motor is used as the second or third stage in larger, multi-stage versions of

the Black Brant. The most powerful, Black Brant

12, is a four-stage vehicle that uses the Black Brant

5 motor as its third stage. This vehicle can launch a

113-kilogram (249-pound) payload to an altitude of

at least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), or a 454-kilogram (1,001-pound) payload to an altitude of at

least 400 kilometers (249 miles).

Oriole – DTI Associates

SPACEHAB’s Astrotech Space

Operations developed the Oriole

sounding rocket in the late 1990s

to provide launch services for

commercial and scientific payloads.

Oriole was both the first privately

developed sounding rocket in the

United States and the first new

U.S. sounding rocket in 25 years.

The Oriole is a single-stage vehicle

with a graphite-epoxy motor manufactured by Alliant Missile Products Company of

Rocket Center, West Virginia. It is 396 centimeters

(156 inches) long, 56 centimeters (22 inches) in

diameter, and generates an average thrust of 92,100

newtons (20,700 pounds-force). The vehicle provides payloads with 6 to 9 minutes of microgravity

during flight. Additionally, it can be combined with

other motors to create two-stage sounding rockets

(with the Oriole serving as the second stage).

On July 7, 2000, the first Oriole launch took

place from NASA WFF. The launch used a two-stage

configuration, with the Oriole serving as the second

stage and a Terrier Mk 12 motor serving as the first

stage. The Oriole sounding rocket reached a peak

altitude of 385.6 kilometers (229 miles) 315 seconds

after launch during the 10-minute test flight.

In July 2001, SPACEHAB’s Astrotech 

Space Operations sold the Oriole program to DTI

Associates of Arlington, Virginia, which integrates

the vehicle and offers it commercially.

Terrier-Orion – DTI Associates

The Terrier-Orion is a two-stage,

spin-stabilized sounding rocket. It

uses a Terrier Mk 12 Mod 1 engine

for its first stage and an improved

Orion motor for its second stage. The

Terrier Mk Mod 1 is a surplus U.S.

Navy missile motor; Orion is a surplus U.S. Army missile motor. The

Terrier-Orion is 10.7 meters (35.1

feet) long. The Terrier stage is 46

centimeters (18 inches) in diameter, and the Orion

is 36 centimeters (14 inches) in diameter. The

Terrier-Orion can loft payloads weighing up to 290

kilograms (639 pounds) to altitudes up to 190 kilometers (118 miles).

Expendable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

16 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Black Brant

launch

Oriole

Terrier-Orion 
A more powerful version of the Terrier-Orion

rocket uses the Terrier Mk 70 motor as its first stage.

This version was used for two FAA/AST-licensed

suborbital launches performed by Astrotech Space

Operations/DTI at the Woomera Instrumented

Range in Australia in 2001 and 2002. The second

flight, in July 2002, successfully flew the HyShot

scramjet engine experiment.

DTI Associates of Arlington, Virginia, now

markets and offers integration services for the TerrierOrion after purchasing all intellectual property rights

to the rocket from SPACEHAB in July 2001.

Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program – 

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Lockheed Martin-Michoud is

developing a hybrid sounding

rocket (HYSR) program with

NASA Marshall Space Flight

Center (MSFC). A Space Act

Agreement between NASA

MSFC and Lockheed MartinMichoud Operations enabled

collaboration on this new technology. Development ground

testing (hardware qualification)

occurred at NASA Stennis Space

Center between 2000 and 2001. This testing concluded

with a successful demonstration flight of a prototype

sounding rocket from NASA WFF in December

2002. The flight demonstration vehicle was a 17.4-

meter (57-foot) long sounding rocket using liquid

oxygen and solid fuel, a rubberized compound known

as hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). The

rocket generated 27,216 kilograms (60,000 pounds)

of thrust during a burn time of 31 seconds, and

reached an altitude of approximately 43 miles.

In 2004, there was further testing of the HYSR

motors at NASA Stennis Space Center. The tests

demonstrated the structural integrity of Lockheed

Martin-Michoud’s fuel-grain design and are facilitating development of advanced state-of-the-art

hybrid rocket motors.

Norwegian Sounding Rocket Program –

Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Lockheed Martin-Michoud is also engaged in the

Pantera Program, which provides a laser enabled inflight targeting system for Norway’s air force. The

single-stage rocket will be built by the Norwegian

company Nammo Raufoss AS, but the design, engineering schematics, and vehicle assembly plan will

be provided by Lockheed Martin-Michoud. The

hybrid rocket will use liquid oxygen and rubberized

HTPB as fuel. It will have a 3,175-kilogram (7,000-

pound) thrust and a burn time of 30 to 35 seconds.

Its peak altitude is expected to be between 55 and 

75 kilometers (34 and 57 miles). Lockheed MartinMichoud obtained an International Traffic in Arms

Regulations (ITAR) Manufacturing License Agreement from the U.S. Government to gain approval for

the 17-month design and handoff project. The sounding rocket is expected to launch from Norway’s

Andoya Rocket Range in 2005.18

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicles

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HYSR 
This section describes active and emerging RLV

programs in the United States. Emphasis is placed

on vehicles being developed by private companies

without the assistance of the government. Many of

these companies are developing space hardware for

the first time. Government RLV programs are also

included to provide context, particularly since the

Space Shuttle is considered a first-generation RLV

and is a precursor of what may become a long line

of government next-generation systems. Experiences

gained by operating the Space Shuttle for more than

20 years have helped solve, as well as highlight,

crucial problems related to the design of efficient

RLV systems. The first section addresses commercial RLV projects underway or in development. A

discussion of government RLV development efforts

comprises the balance of this section.

Commercial RLV Development Efforts

Black Armadillo – Armadillo Aerospace

Armadillo Aerospace continues development of its

vehicle, Black Armadillo, which was previously

planned as the company’s Ansari X Prize entrant.

Armadillo Aerospace plans to continue pursuing

suborbital passenger flights and microgravity research.

The vehicle will consist of an autonomously guided

single stage powered by a single engine fueled 

by a bi-modal monopropellant hydrogen peroxide/

methanol mixture and will use guide vanes for the

thrust-vectored attitude control system (ACS). The

vehicle is approximately 1.83 meters (6 feet) in

diameter, 9.14 meters (30 feet) in height, and 771

kilograms (1,700 pounds) dry weight. Recovery is

by way of a fully autonomous powered landing.

In 2004, Armadillo conducted numerous engine

tests and flight tests. One test on August 8 resulted in

the loss of the test vehicle. Much of the rest of 2004

was focused on rebuilding and testing hardware. The

company switched from a 90 percent hydrogen peroxide fuel to a mixed monopropellant design because

of lack of availability of the original fuel. The switch

has introduced delays in the program. 

Sea Star – Interorbital Systems

Interorbital Systems (IOS) of Mojave, California, is

developing the Sea Star MSLV microsatellite launch

vehicle for microsatellite payloads and as a testbed

for its larger Neptune orbital launch vehicle. These

vehicles are constructed for design simplicity. Sea

Star MSLV consists of three stages. Each stage has

one hypergolic engine, burning white fuming nitric

acid (WFNA) and a proprietary fuel formulation

that IOS calls Hydrocarbon X (HX). The first two

stages each have four gimbaled low-thrust rockets

for steering, and stage 3 is spin-stabilized. The rocket

body is constructed of aluminum and composite

materials. Sea Star does not require land-based

launch infrastructure. Taking advantage of design

elements derived from submarine-launched ballistic

missiles, this vehicle will float in sea water and

launch directly from the ocean. IOS plans to launch

Sea Star MSLV near California or in waters near the

Kingdom of Tonga. 

IOS aims to be the first company to launch a

satellite into orbit using a vehicle developed totally

with private financing. This launch is slated for 2005.

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

18 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Reusable Launch Vehicles

Vehicle: Black Armadillo

Developer: Armadillo Aerospace

First launch: 2005

Number of stages: 1

Possible launch sites: White Sands, New Mexico

Targeted markets: Public space transportation and

other emerging markets

Vehicle: Sea Star MSLV

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First launch: 2005

Number of stages: 3

Payload performance: 45 kg (100 lbs.) to LEO, 

(21°, 402 km (250 mi)), 29 kg (65 lbs.) to polar orbit 

Launch sites: Pacific Ocean near California and

Kingdom of Tonga
Neptune – Interorbital Systems

IOS’ Neptune will support a number

of human spaceflight and other payload launch missions. In November

2004, IOS entered as a competitor for

America’s Space Prize, the $50-million contest sponsored by Bigelow

Aerospace for a privately developed

launch of a piloted vehicle to orbit.

Neptune will be powered by two highthrust bipropellant liquid rocket

engines. Like Sea Star, Neptune is

designed to launch from the sea using

a two-stage booster and an orbital

stage. Its first two booster stages will each use a

single hypergolic engine, burning WFNA and HX,

with four steering rockets per stage. The orbital

stage will use a single cryogenic LOX/HX engine.

The booster stages are designed to be water-recoverable with a parachute landing and reusable. The

orbital stage and crew capsule will allow for stays

on orbit of up to 7 days. Fuel tanks of the orbital

stage can be outfitted for habitation and may even

serve as future modules for an orbiting space hotel.

The crew capsule can be reused after a parachute

landing. The crew compartment includes an aft

escape and service module to pull passengers away

from the vehicle and to a safe landing in the event

of vehicle failure.

K-1 – Kistler Aerospace Corporation

Kistler Aerospace Corporation has

been developing the fully reusable

K-1 for launches of government and

commercial payloads to orbit. The

first vehicle is 75 percent complete.

The K-1 design was developed in

the mid-1990s as a two-stage-toorbit (TSTO) vehicle with a payload

capacity of approximately 5,700

kilograms (12,500 pounds) to LEO.

The K-1 will be able to launch multiple small payloads and conduct

technology demonstrations on dedicated LEO missions or as secondary payloads. 

Kistler has completed a conceptual design 

for an Active Dispenser that will deploy payloads to

medium Earth orbits (MEO), GTO, and interplanetary trajectories. The Active Dispenser will expand

the K-1’s capability beyond LEO (approximately

1,570 kilograms (3,462 pounds) to GTO or 900 to

1,400 kilograms (2,000 to 3,000 pounds) to interplanetary targets). The K-1’s inherent reusability

enables it to provide cargo re-supply and return

services for the International Space Station (ISS),

delivering approximately 3,200 kilograms (7,000

pounds) up-mass and recovering a minimum of 900

kilograms (2,000 pounds) down-mass to the launch

site. The K-1 will launch vertically like a conventional

ELV, but it will use a unique combination ofparachutes

and air bags to recover its two stages. Designed to

operate with a small complement of ground personnel,

this vehicle will be transported to the launch site and

erected with a mobile transporter. The K-1 will measure

approximately 37 meters (121 feet) in height and have

a launch mass of 382,300 kilograms (843,000 pounds).

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 19

Vehicle: Neptune

Developer: Interorbital Systems

First launch: 2006

Number of stages: 3

Payload performance: 4,082 kg (9,000 lbs.) to LEO

(21°, 402 km (250 mi), 2,898 kg (6,390 lbs.), SSO

(644 km (400 mi), 1,224 kg (2,700 lbs.) GTO, 816 kg

(1,800 lbs.) lunar orbit

Launch sites: Pacific Ocean near California and

Kingdom of Tonga

Neptune

Vehicle: K-1

Developer: Kistler Aerospace Corporation

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: 5,700 kg (12,500 lbs.) to LEO;

3,200 kg (7,000 lbs.) to ISS and 900 kg (2,000 lbs.)

from ISS; 1,570 kg (3,460 lbs.) to GTO, 900-1,400 kg

(2,000-3,000 lbs.) to interplanetary targets

Planned launch sites: Woomera, Australia; U.S. launch

site under evaluation 

Targeted markets: Deployment of payloads to LEO,

MEO, and GTO; interplanetary orbits (with K-1 Active

Dispenser); ISS cargo re-supply and return missions.

K-1
The K-1 employs off-the-shelf technology and

components in its design. The first stage, known as

the Launch Assist Platform (LAP), is powered by

three LOX/kerosene GenCorp Aerojet AJ26

engines. These engines are U.S. modifications of

the fully developed, extensively tested core of the

NK-33/NK-43 engines. These engines were originally designed for the Soviet lunar program in the

1960s and subsequently placed in storage for over

two decades. After launch, the LAP separates from

the second stage and restarts its center engine to put

the stage on a return trajectory to a landing area

near the launch site. The LAP deploys parachutes

and descends to the landing area where air bags are

deployed to cushion its landing. The second stage,

or orbital vehicle, continues into LEO where it

releases its payload. A single Aerojet AJ26-60

engine powers the orbital vehicle. Following payload separation, the orbital vehicle continues on

orbit for approximately 24 hours. Then, a

LOX/ethanol Orbital Maneuvering System performs a deorbit burn. Lastly, the orbital vehicle

ends its ballistic reentry profile by deploying parachutes and air bags in a manner similar to the LAP. 

Kistler expects to operate the K-1 from two

launch sites: Woomera, Australia, and a U.S. domestic launch site. Kistler Woomera Pty., Ltd., a wholly

owned subsidiary of Kistler Aerospace Corporation,

will operate the K-1 from Woomera. Kistler

received authorization from the Australian government to begin construction of launch facilities at

Woomera in April 1998 and held a groundbreaking

ceremony at the site several months later. The

launch pad design is complete, and Kistler will conduct its initial K-1 flights and commercial operations from Woomera. In 1998, Kistler signed an

agreement with the Nevada Test Site Development

Corporation to permit Kistler to occupy a segment

of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Nevada Test

Site for its launch operations. The FAA/AST environmental review process was completed for the

Kistler project in 2002. In addition, Kistler continues to explore potential U.S. launch and landing

sites (subject to regulatory approval), such as at

CCAFS, VAFB, and EAFB. In 2003, Kistler filed to

reorganize under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy

Code, and it is in the final stages of the reorganization process. Kistler plans to emerge from Chapter

11 and restart the K-1 program in 2005.19

Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Limited, Inc.

Rocketplane Limited is developing the Rocketplane

XP, a scaled-down version of its original Pathfinder

vehicle concept. The Rocketplane XP is a four-seat

fighter-sized vehicle powered by two jet engines

and one pressure-fed LOX/kerosene rocket engine,

enabling it to reach altitudes of 107 kilometers (66

miles). In 2004, Rocketplane Limited signed a marketing agreement with Incredible Adventures to sell

suborbital tourist flights. The company is currently

taking reservations for Rocketplane flights and

hopes to make its first tourist flight in 2007. 

The spaceflight experience as currently envisioned includes 5 days of training and team social

events, with the spaceflight on the sixth day. In

addition to space tourism flights, the company is

pursuing other markets, including microgravity

research and military applications, including small

satellite deployment.20

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

20 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Rocketplane XP

Developer: Rocketplane Limited, Inc.

First launch: 2007

Number of stages: 1

Payload performance: 408 kg (900 lbs.) to 100 km

(62.5 miles)

Planned launch sites: Oklahoma Spaceport (primary)

and KSC (alternate)

Targeted markets: Suborbital space tourism, microgravity research, small satellite deployment

Rocketplane XP
SpaceShipOne – Scaled Composites, LLC

Scaled Composites, the winner of the ground-breaking

Ansari X Prize, and the team

that made the first historic,

non-governmental mannedrocket flight to suborbital

space, unveiled its vehicle on

April 18, 2003. SpaceShipOne

is a three-person vehicle designed to be air-launched

at an altitude of 15,240 meters (50,000 feet) from a

carrier aircraft, called White Knight. On April 1, 2004,

FAA/AST issued the first commercial RLV missionspecific launch license (LRLS 04-067) to Scaled.

Including the September 29 and October 4 Ansari X

Prize-winning flights, SpaceShipOne successfully

completed five licensed flights in 2004. 

On September 27, 2004, Sir Richard Branson

of the Virgin Group announced Virgin Galactic, a

space tourism company, will use the technology

developed in the creation of SpaceShipOne to carry

paying passengers into space. Virgin Galactic expects

to launch its first flight around 2007, with full commercial service by the end of the decade. 

The spaceflight experience as currently envisioned will last approximately 6 days, including

preflight training, social events, dinners with astronauts and guest speakers, and luxury accommodations. Flight into suborbital space will allow customers to experience the acceleration of a rocket

flight, to feel weightlessness, and to see the Earth

from space. In addition, 7-UPTM, the official beverage of the Ansari X Prize, announced plans to offer

consumers the first free ticket into space aboard a

Virgin Galactic craft.21

Falcon 1 – Space Exploration 

Technologies Corporation

Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation (SpaceX) of El Segundo,

California, is developing the partially

reusable Falcon 1 launch vehicle, which

can place up to 670 kilograms (1,477

pounds) into LEO. The first stage of

this vehicle is designed to be recovered

from the ocean after a parachute landing, refurbished, and reused.

Falcon’s first launch is scheduled for 2005

from VAFB to loft the TacSat-1 data communications satellite for DoD. Up to two other launches of

Falcon 1 are planned for 2005 from a launch site at

the Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean. SpaceX

anticipates two to three launches annually, eventually ramping up to five or six flights a year. SpaceX

is privately developing the entire two-stage vehicle

from the ground up, including the engines, cryogenic tank structure, and guidance system. The

SpaceX-developed first stage engine, known as

Merlin, uses pump-driven LOX/kerosene. The second stage engine, called Kestrel, uses a pressure-fed

LOX/kerosene system.

In September 2004, SpaceX was one of four

companies to receive a contract from DARPA and

the USAF to demonstrate low-cost, highly responsive launch technology. Under this contract,

SpaceX is to demonstrate the ability to reduce onpad processing time by 50 percent compared to the

standard Falcon 1 launcher.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 21

Vehicle: SpaceShipOne

Developer: Scaled Composites

First launch: 2003

Number of stages: 1

Payload performance: 3 people to 100 km (62.5 miles)

Planned launch sites: Mojave Airport

Targeted markets: Research and development, space

tourism

SpaceShipOne

Vehicle: Falcon 1

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First launch: 2005

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: 670 kg (1,477 lbs.) to LEO

Planned launch sites: VAFB, CCAFS, Marshall Islands

Targeted markets: Commerical small satellites

Falcon 1
Falcon 5 – Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation

The Falcon 5 vehicle is based on much of the same

technology developed for Falcon 1. The larger

Falcon 5 uses five SpaceX-developed Merlin

engines in the first stage with an engine-out capability to enhance reliability. The second stage will use

one Merlin engine, instead of two Kestrel engines as

previously planned. The first Falcon 5 launch is

expected in mid 2006 from VAFB. For subsequent

Falcon 5 flights, SpaceX is developing the Merlin 2

engine that is expected to enable greater lift capacity, up to 6,020 kilograms (13,274 pounds) to LEO. 

Michelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc.

TGV Rockets, Incorporated

(TGV), is developing

Michelle-B, a fully reusable,

piloted suborbital vehicle

designed to carry up to 1,000

kilograms (2,205 pounds) to

an altitude of 100 kilometers

(62 miles). This vehicle uses a

vertical take-off and landing

design, with a drag shield to assist in deceleration

during landing. Michelle-B will provide up to 200

seconds of microgravity, while not exceeding 4.5 g

during any phase of flight. Six pressure-fed LOX/

kerosene engines for use on both ascent and landing

power the vehicle. TGV’s design is intended to

enable high reusability, require minimal ground

support, and allow the vehicle to return to flight

within a few hours of landing. Flight testing of the

Michelle-B is slated to begin in 2007.22

Xerus – XCOR Aerospace

In April 2004, XCOR Aerospace received a license

from FAA/AST to perform flights from Mojave

Airport in Mojave, California. These flights of the

Sphinx demonstration vehicle are designed to fly

within the Earth’s atmosphere. For suborbital flight,

XCOR is developing Xerus to conduct a variety of

suborbital missions including microgravity research,

suborbital tourism, and even the launch of very small

satellites into orbit. Xerus is expected to have the

ability to launch a 10-kilogram (22-pound) payload

to LEO. XCOR is not currently disclosing its schedule or certain design details of the Xerus, except

that it will take-off and land from a conventional

runway without a booster stage or carrier vehicle.

Xerus will be powered by XCOR’s own liquid

rocket engines. 

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

22 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vehicle: Falcon 5

Developer: Space Exploration Technologies Corporation

First launch: Mid-2006

Number of stages: 2

Payload performance: Up to 6,020 kg (13,274 lbs.) to

LEO

Planned launch sites: VAFB, CCAFS, Marshall Islands.

(Agreements are also in place to determine feasibility

from Alaska and Virginia.)

Targeted markets: GEO communications satellites; 

interplanetary missions

Vehicle: Michelle-B

Developer: TGV

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 1

Payload performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lbs.) to 100 km

(62.5 miles)

Planned launch sites: Oklahoma Spaceport and other

possible sites

Targeted markets: Microgravity research, suborbital

space tourism

Michelle-B

Vehicle: Xerus

Developer: XCOR Aerospace

First launch: To be determined

Number of stages: 1

Payload performance: 10 kg (22 lbs.) to LEO

Possible launch sites: Mojave Airport

Targeted market: Suborbital space tourism, microgravity

research, microsatellite launch

XCOR Aerospace: Xerus vehicle concept
Government RLV Development Efforts

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, both NASA and

the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) conducted

several joint and independent programs to produce

experimental RLVs. These vehicles were intended

to improve reliability, minimize operating costs, and

demonstrate “aircraft-like” operations. None of these

concepts, however, resulted in a fully operational

vehicle. 

In 2002, both NASA and the military 

reevaluated their RLV efforts. NASA implemented

a revised Integrated Space Transportation Plan

(ISTP) to better coordinate its space transportation

efforts with its ISS, science, and research needs.

The revised ISTP continued to support the Space

Shuttle with a Service Life Extension Program

(SLEP), and it restructured the Space Launch

Initiative (SLI) to accommodate the development

initially of an ISS CRV (crew rescue vehicle), and

then the development of a CTV (crew transfer 

vehicle) called the Orbital Space Plane (OSP). The

restructured SLI also has a component called the

Next Generation Launch Technology (NGLT) to

continue development of next generation and subsequent generations of launch vehicle technology. 

On January 14, 2004, President George W.

Bush announced a new vision to retire the Space

Shuttle and develop a new vehicle capable of carrying astronauts to the ISS and explore space beyond

LEO. After the announcement of the new Vision for

Space Exploration in January 2004, NASA shut

down both the OSP and NGLT programs as it shifted resources to Project Constellation, an effort to

develop a new CEV and related mission architectures. The SLEP is now focused on near-term

Shuttle upgrades given NASA’s plan to retire the

Space Shuttle fleet in 2010.

In November 2004, the U.S. Congress authorized full funding of NASA’s $16.2 billion budget

for fiscal year 2005 that NASA needed in order to

return the Shuttle to flight and get the CEV development off to a good start. 

Space Shuttle

Consisting of an expendable external tank, two reusable solid rocket

boosters, and a reusable Orbiter,

NASA’s STS (Space Transportation

System), commonly referred to as

the Space Shuttle, has conducted

113 launches from its introduction

in 1981 through the final flight of

the Columbia in 2003.

The three remaining orbiters – Discovery,

Atlantis, and Endeavour – have been grounded

since the Columbia accident. The Space Shuttle is

the only means available today for completing

assembly of the ISS. Intending to use the Shuttle

until 2010, NASA is committed to investing in the

Space Shuttle fleet to maintain safety and reliability

and extend orbiter service life until its responsibilities

constructing the ISS are complete. NASA’s SLEP

will support and maintain the Shuttles and associated

infrastructure through the remainder of the Shuttle

program. NASA will consider factors including

safety, reliability, supportability, performance, and

cost reduction in prioritizing improvement projects. 

The Space Shuttle’s day-to-day operations have

been managed by United Space Alliance, a BoeingLockheed Martin joint venture, since 1996. NASA

exercised two extension options to the contract and

United Space Alliance is now supported through the

end of fiscal year 2006. NASA is working on developing a new operations contract for fiscal year 2007

through the end of the Shuttle program.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch Vehicles

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 23

Vehicles: Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour

Developer: Rockwell International (now Boeing). Fleet is

managed, operated, and maintained on the ground by

United Space Alliance, a joint venture between Boeing

and Lockheed Martin

First launch: April 12, 1981

Number of stages: 1.5

Payload performance: 24,900 kg (54,890 lbs.) to LEO

Launch site: KSC

Markets served: Non-commercial payloads and ISS access

Space Shuttle
RASCAL

DARPA started work in 2002 on a project to create

a low-cost, partially-reusable launch vehicle for

small payloads. The project was seen as a potential

solution to the U.S. military’s need for operationally

responsive spacelift (ORS). This ORS requirement

was expressed in a USAF mission need statement

in 2001. The RASCAL program seeks to develop a

two-stage air launch system that can place payloads

weighing up to 100 kilograms (221 pounds) into LEO.

The RASCAL first stage will be an air-breathing jet

aircraft that flies to an altitude of at least 55 kilometers (34 miles). The aircraft will then deploy an

expendable rocket to place the payload into orbit.

The vehicle will be able to put at least 50 kilograms

(110 pounds) into any inclination, including 75

kilograms (165 pounds) into Sun-synchronous orbit

(SSO) and heavier payloads into equatorial orbits.

The RASCAL vehicle will be able to take off within

1 hour of a launch command and refly again within

24 hours at a cost of no more than $10,000 per

kilogram per flight.

To achieve these performance goals, RASCAL

will use an engine technology called Mass Injected

Pre-Compressor Cooling (MIPCC) on its aircraft

stage. A MIPCC engine is a conventional turbojet

with an additional stage that injects a coolant, such

as water or liquid oxygen, into the engine inlet.

Six competitors were awarded Phase 1 

contracts in April of 2002. The teams were led by

Coleman Research Corp., Northrop Grumman Corp.,

Pioneer Rocketplane Corp., Space Launch Corp.,

Space Access LLC, and Delta Velocity. In 2003,

DARPA selected Space Launch Corporation as the

only RASCAL Phase 2 award winner. Ansari X Prize

winner Scaled Composites is on the Space Launch

Corporation team and is designing the RASCAL airframe. Phase 2 was an 18-month design phase that

advanced the RASCAL system to preliminary design

level and validated system design feasibility that was

completed in 2004. Phase 3 will serve as the detailed

design, construction, test, and demonstration launch

phase of the RASCAL program. Flight tests are

scheduled to begin in 2006 with final system demonstrations – including the launch of two orbital payloads – in 2008.

Reusable Launch Vehicles 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

24 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

MPV deploying ERV ERV first stage ignition

Typical RASCAL mission profile
Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)

On January 14, 2004, President George W. Bush

announced a new Vision for Space Exploration.

Dubbed Project Constellation, this vision calls for

retiring the Space Shuttle, developing a new vehicle

capable of carrying astronauts to the ISS, and

exploring space beyond LEO. Initially, the United

States will return the Space Shuttle to flight in

accordance with the recommendations of the CAIB

(Columbia Accident Investigation Board) to complete its work on the ISS by 2010. Then, the Shuttle

will be retired. The CEV is envisioned as a modular

space transportation system that will be able to

carry crews beyond LEO, such as to the Moon or

other destinations. Plans call for completing the

first test flight of a CEV by 2008 and carrying

human crews by 2014. The CEV will transport

astronauts and scientists to the ISS after the Shuttle

is retired. Following a series of robotic missions,

extended manned missions to the Moon could begin

as early as 2015. Knowledge gained through

extended visits to the Moon will be used to develop

technology for human missions beyond the Moon,

beginning with Mars. The plans are expected to

cost $12 billion over the first 5 years. The majority

of the funding would be derived from reallocations

within the existing NASA budget. Using the advice

of a new President’s Commission on the

Implementation of the U.S. Space Exploration

Policy, NASA will review existing spaceflight and

exploration programs and develop a plan for longterm implementation of the President’s vision. In

November 2004, the U.S. Congress authorized full

funding of the $16.2 billion budget that NASA

needed to return the Shuttle to flight and get the

CEV development off to a good start. 

In September 2004, NASA awarded study

contracts to the following eight firms. These firms

included large, established aerospace companies as

well as small, entrepreneurial companies. 

· Andrews Space & Technology, Inc.

· The Boeing Company

· Draper Laboratories

· Lockheed Martin Corporation

· Northrop Grumman Corporation

· Orbital Sciences Corporation

· Schafer Corporation

· Transformational Space Corporation, LLC

(t/Space)

Several companies are building upon technology developed under previous NASA programs, such

as SLI, OSP, and NGLT. Some designs are expected

to fly on Atlas 5 or Delta 4 vehicles. Proposals for

the test vehicle are expected to be submitted in

2005. To what extent components of the CEV will

be reusable is unclear. That determination will

depend on the individual design concepts.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts In-Space Technology

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 25

In-Space Technology

CEV
Several efforts are underway to develop enabling

technologies for expendable and reusable launch

vehicles. These efforts include government research

projects as well as engines and motors developed

by companies for their launch vehicles and sale to

other companies. Many of these companies are

attempting to build considerably less complex and

potentially less expensive rocket engines. Some

designs use room-temperature propellants instead of

cryogenics. Others use pressure-fed engines instead

of turbopumps. Such enabling technologies as

hybrid rocket motors, propulsion systems, liquid

engines, propellant production, demonstrators, and

hypersonic aircraft are described in this section.

Hybrid Rocket Motors – SpaceDev, Inc.

In 1998, SpaceDev, Inc., of

Poway, California, acquired

exclusive rights to the intellectual property of the American

Rocket Company, which had

developed hybrid rocket motor

systems in the 1980s. SpaceDev

is currently developing a series

of small hybrid motors, using

HTPB rubber or polymethyl

methacrylate (Plexiglas) as solid fuel and storable

nitrous oxide as a gaseous oxidizer. SpaceDev completed tests in August 2001 of a small hybrid rocket

motor that is designed for use in the company’s

Maneuver and Transfer Vehicle, an upper stage that

can move small spacecraft, such as secondary payloads on larger launch vehicles, from GTO, LEO or

GEO. In May 2002, the AFRL awarded SpaceDev 

a contract to develop a hybrid propulsion module 

to deploy small payloads from the Space Shuttle. 

In September 2003, Scaled Composites announced

that it had selected SpaceDev for propulsion support

for its SpaceShipOne project. In a series of flights

in late 2004, Space Dev’s hybrid rocket motor powered SpaceShipOne to suborbital space twice in 2

weeks, thus propelling it to win the Ansari X Prize.

In October 2004, SpaceDev was awarded about

$1.5 million to proceed with Phase 2 of its Small

Business Innovation Research contract from the

AFRL to continue its hybrid rocket motor-based

small launch vehicle project.23

Hybrid Propulsion Systems – Lockheed

Martin-Michoud

Hybrid motors of the 1.1 million-newton (250,000

pounds-force) thrust class are being studied for 

possible use on current and future launch vehicles.

Funding for the hybrid team came from the DoD

Technology Reinvestment Program, NASA monetary

and in-kind support, and contributions of industry

team members.24

In Nov. 2003, Lockheed Martin-Michoud

Operations was awarded a 6-month study contract

from DARPA as part of the USAF FALCON program

to assess hybrid propulsion applications for a responsive small launch vehicle. This study concluded in

May 2004. In September 2004, FALCON competitors began a 10-month design phase to be followed

by a down-select to possibly two competitors, and 

a winning design to be selected in 2007. Lockheed

Martin-Michoud’s all-hybrid two-stage vehicle will

deliver a payload up to 454 kilograms (1,000-pounds)

to LEO and, if selected, will establish hybrid propulsion as a viable space launch booster technology. The

core booster stage will generate approximately 1.4

million newtons (320,000 pounds-force) of thrust and

the second stage approximately 133,333 newtons

(30,000 pounds-force) of thrust to meet mission

objectives using a HTPB and LOX motor. 

Staged combustion hybrid technologies have

been demonstrated on the ground by Lockheed

Martin-Michoud Operations in over 600 ground

tests of small and large diameter motor firings at the

NASA Stennis Space Center and MSFC. Lockheed

Martin-Michoud has six patents and more than 

$10 million of internal R&D invested to date.

Enabling Technologies 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

26 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Enabling Technologies

SpaceDev hybrid

propulsion system
Liquid Engines – RS-84 – 

Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power 

Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power, 

a division of The Boeing Company

in Canoga Park, California, is

developing new technologies and

engines for space launch vehicles.

Rocketdyne is developing advanced

health management systems, new

materials, advanced processes, and

new components that enable rocket

engines to be safer and more reliable. These technologies are being demonstrated on

development engines, such as the Integrated

Powerhead Demonstrator engine with the USAF

and NASA and on the new MB-XX upper stage

engine to verify their characteristics.

NASA refocused its 2003 efforts onto the

Vision for Space Exploration in 2004, halting work

on the RS-84 to study and determine the type of

vehicle and propulsion required to return the U.S.

to the Moon and prepare to go to Mars. Rocketdyne

is evaluating various propulsion options to meet the

Vision for Space Exploration requirements and to

enable significant improvements in current ELVs.

Areas under consideration include the reliable

SSME; the proven J-2S Saturn engines from the

Apollo era; a derivative of the Delta 4 launch vehicle engine, RS-68; RS-84 technology; and the MBXX upper stage engine.25

The MB-XX is being demonstrated on funding from Boeing and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries

for potential application to the Vision for Space

Exploration launch vehicle or upgrades to today’s

EELVs. Rocketdyne completed PDR on the RS-84

rocket engine, the first reusable hydrocarbon stagedcombustion rocket engine. This engine is designed

to produce 4,728,889 newtons (1,064,000 poundsforce) of thrust at sea level with a design life of 

100 missions. 

Rocketdyne successfully tested a key component of the RS-84 engine. In the test, a subscale

preburner, achieved a chamber pressure in excess of

46,884 kiloPascals (6,800 pounds per square inch),

well beyond the levels seen in current domestic LOX/

kerosene rocket engines. This preburner produces

high-pressure, oxidizer-rich combustion gases to

spin the oxidizer and fuel turbopumps of the engine.

Aerospike Liquid Engine – Garvey

Spacecraft Corporation

During the past year, GSC and

CSULB conducted several notable

small launch vehicle R&D activities

through their partnership in the

California Launch Vehicle Education

Initiative. Using a single-chamber,

liquid propellant, annular aerospike

engine concept developed by CSULB,

the GSC/CSULB team validated the

basic design and ignition sequence

with a successful static fire test at the

Reaction Research Society’s MTA in

June 2003. The team then mounted one of these

4,444-newton (1,000-pounds-force) thrust LOX/

ethanol ablative engines onto their Prospector 2

vehicle and proceeded to conduct the first-ever

powered liquid-propellant aerospike flight test at the

MTA in September. In response to several issues

observed during that flight, modifications were made

to the engine fabrication process. Another flight test

with the Prospector 4 vehicle followed in December.

Performance was entirely nominal, resulting in complete recovery of the vehicle and key trajectory data.

These CALVEIN flight tests represent the first

steps toward obtaining the critical empirical data

needed to validate whether the predicted benefits of

such aerospike engines versus those equipped with

standard bell-shaped nozzles can be achieved. This

goal had been one of the primary objectives of the

X-33 program, which featured the XRS-2200 linear

aerospike engine.

The CSULB students are now investigating a

next generation aerospike engine design, featuring 

a more traditional multi-chamber design. This design

will enable the large expansion ratios required to fully

evaluate engine performance throughout the entire

flight regime of an orbital launch vehicle.

As part of an evaluation of fuels for the NLV

that could provide greater performance than the

ethanol used in the current CALVEIN research vehicles, the team has identified propylene as a promising

candidate meriting further attention. Liquid oxygen

and propylene have the potential to provide higher

specific impulse than the traditional LOX/RP-1 

propellant combination. Unlike another alternative

hydrocarbon that has received extensive discussion

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 27

RS-84 liquid

engine Aerospike

engine static

fire test 
(methane), propylene can achieve comparable densities to that of RP-1 when chilled to cryogenic

temperatures. A widely available commodity

because of its role as a feedstock in the plastics

industry, propylene also has favorable characteristics with respect to toxicity and environmental hazards. Some of the potential concerns about propylene, most notably its potential for polymerization,

are only relevant for turbopump-fed regenerative

engines. Therefore, those concerns are not issues

for the pressure-fed NLV stages that feature ablative and radiative engine chambers.

The GSC/CSULB conducted a series of static

fire tests at the MTA to identify logistics and handling

issues associated with propylene and to evaluate a

preliminary engine design for the NLV second stage.

Preliminary results confirm that the ignition sequence

is more susceptible to a hard start than liquid oxygen

and ethanol. For this initial phase of testing, the

propylene has been at ambient temperatures. A round

of follow-on testing will evaluate several different

ignition sequences and engine performance with

propylene at cryogenic conditions. Upon successful

completion of that phase of research, the team plans

to conduct a LOX and propylene flight test using a

modified version of the Prospector-class vehicles.26

Liquid Engines – Microcosm, Inc.

Microcosm is developing a

family of liquid-propellant

rocket engines for its

Scorpius series of ELVs

and other users (see the

ELV section for a description of Scorpius). The company has built a pressurefed, ablatively cooled, 22,250-newton (5,000-poundsforce) thrust engine using liquid oxygen and jet fuel

as propellants. This engine was successfully tested

on the company’s SR-S and SRXM-1 sounding

rockets launched in January 1999 and March 2001.

The engine will also be used as the upper stage

engine for the Sprite Mini-Lift orbital vehicle should

that vehicle move into final development.27

A larger version, an 89,000-newton (20,000-

pounds-force) engine is in development. This

engine will be used on the booster pods and sustainer stage of the Eagle SLV included in the

DARPA and USAF FALCON Program.

In addition, a new 356,000-newton (80,000-

pounds-force) engine has started development under

an AFRL Small Business Innovation Research,

Phase 1, contract. Both the 89,000-newton (20,000-

pounds-force) and 356,000-newton (80,000-poundsforce) engines are follow-on developments to the

successful 22,250-newton (5,000-pounds-force)

engines. All are ablative chamber, LOX/Jet A propellant engines designed for very low-cost, robust

design margins, moderate chamber pressures, high

reliability, and expendable applications.

Liquid Engines – Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

SpaceX of El Segundo, California,

is developing two new liquid-propellant engines for use on its

Falcon launch vehicle. The first

stage engine, known as Merlin, is 

a 320,300-newton (72,000-poundsforce) thrust engine that is turbopump fed with a gas generator

cycle. The second stage engine,

known as Kestrel, is a pressure-fed

engine that produces a 31,400-

newton (7,000 pounds-force) 

vacuum thrust. Both engines use LOX/kerosene

propellants. SpaceX began testing the Merlin in

March 2003 and began testing the Kestrel in August

2003. Flight qualification of both engines is scheduled for completion by March 2005.28

Liquid Engines – XCOR Aerospace

XCOR Aerospace, located

in Mojave, California, specializes in developing

engines and propulsion 

systems for use on launch

vehicles and spacecraft.

The company has developed

and extensively tested five

liquid-propellant engines. XCOR’s largest engine

currently in active development, designated XR4K5,

is an 8,000-newton (1,800 pounds-force) engine

that is pump-fed, LOX/kerosene regeneratively

cooled with fuel. This engine may be used to power

the prototype Xerus vehicle for initial flight testing,

but XCOR has not yet decided on this approach.

Enabling Technologies 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

28 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Microcosm’s liquid

engine 

SpaceX Merlin

engine

XCOR 5,000 poundthrust LOX/kerosene

engine
The XR4A3 is a fully operational 1,780-newton (400-pounds-force), pressure-fed, regeneratively

cooled, liquid oxygen and alcohol engine. Four

such engines have been built and, combined, have

been run 558 times for over 6,434 seconds. These

engines have also been flown on the EZ-Rocket, a

modified Long-EZ aircraft fitted with two of the

engines. The EZ-Rocket has completed 15 successful flight tests since July 2001, including two

flights at the Experimental Aircraft Association’s

AirVenture 2002 air show in Oshkosh, Wisconsin,

in July 2002.

XCOR has built three smaller engines. A 67-

newton (15-pounds-force) engine, designated

XR2P1, using nitrous oxide and ethane as propellants, was initially built to test the design of proposed larger engines. With a cumulative burn time

of 103 minutes, this engine has completed in excess

of 1,189 runs. It continues to serve as a workhorse

engine for a wide variety of experiments, crew

training activities, and educational demonstrations.

The XR2P1 has run on oxygen and nitrous oxide

oxidizers, with propane, ethane, kerosene, turpentine, and a variety of alcohols. The XR3A2 700

newton (160 pounds-force) was the first LOX/alcohol engine, accumulating 61 brief runs in the course

of injector concept development, which led to later

engines. The XCOR XR3B4 regeneratively cooled

engine is capable of a 220-newton (50-poundsforce) thrust, using nitrous oxide and isopropyl

alcohol as propellants. This engine has completed

216 runs with a cumulative burn time of more than

812 seconds. XCOR designed this engine for use as

a maneuvering thruster on spacecraft.29

In April 2002, XCOR acquired selected intellectual property assets of the former Rotary Rocket

Company. These assets included a 22,250-newton

(5,000-pounds-force) LOX/kerosene engine developed and tested by the company as well as hydrogen peroxide engine technology. XCOR has completed development of their fourth-generation igniter with integral valves and is now developing composite LOX tank technology with inherent materials

compatibility and superior structural effectiveness.

A piston pump suitable for use with LOX/kerosene,

alcohol, or both, fuels is currently under development and will be merged with the XR4K5 engine.

Propellant Production – Andrews

Space, Inc.

Andrews Space, Inc., of

Seattle, Washington, has proposed a propulsion/propellant

system to generate LOX propellant from the atmosphere.

The AlchemistTM Air Collection

and Enrichment System (ACES)

takes high-pressure air from turbofan jet engines

flying at subsonic speeds and liquefies it by passing

the air through a series of heat exchangers cooled

by liquid nitrogen, liquid hydrogen, or both. Then,

using a fractional distillation process, liquid oxygen

is separated into its constituent parts and stored in

propellant tanks for use by liquid hydrogen and LOX

rocket engines. AlchemistTM ACES allows horizontal

take-off and landing launch vehicles to leave the

ground without oxidizer, dramatically reducing their

take-off weight, increasing payload capability, or

both. The company has proposed AlchemistTM ACES

in conjunction with its two-stage-to-orbit RLV design

– known as Gryphon – as well as for use in other

horizontal take-off launch vehicles. Andrews Space

carried out initial studies of the AlchemistTM ACES

technology using internal funds, then under a NASA

SBIR contract. Detailed feasibility studies and risk

analyses were carried out under a NASA SLI contract. Andrews also participated on an integrated,

cooperative NASA/industry team for the NGLT

program to study the Gryphon architecture as one

of several promising concepts. The NGLT studies

included additional Alchemist ACES design and

configuration studies.30

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 29

Gryphon with orbiter
Integrated Powerhead 

Demonstrator – NASA

The Integrated Powerhead

Demonstrator (IPD) is a

joint venture between

NASA and the Integrated

High Payoff Rocket

Propulsion Technologies program, managed for DoD by

the AFRL at EAFB. This

project is the first phase of a full-scale effort to

develop a flight-rated, full-flow, hydrogen-fueled,

staged combustion rocket engine in the 1.1 millionnewton (250,000-pounds-force) thrust class. The

IPD will employ dual preburners that provide both

oxygen-rich and hydrogen-rich staged combustion.

Such combustion is expected to keep engines cool

during flight, achieve high system efficiency, and

reduce exhaust emissions. Boeing’s Rocketdyne

Propulsion & Power is developing the liquid-hydrogen fuel turbopump and the demonstrator’s oxygen

pump, main injector, and main combustion chamber.

Aerojet Corporation of Sacramento, California,

designed and tested the oxidizer preburner, which

initiates the combustion process with oxygen-rich

steam. Aerojet also is responsible for development of

the demonstrator engine’s fuel preburner, designed to

supply the fuel turbopump’s turbine with hot, hydrogen-rich steam. Boeing-Rocketdyne will lead overall

system integration once component-level development and testing are complete. Integrated testing of

IPD is ongoing at Stennis Space Center from late

2004 through September 2005.

Hyper-X Series Vehicles – NASA

On March 27, 2004, four

decades of supersonic-combustion ramjet propulsion

research culminated in a successful flight of the X-43A

hypersonic technology

demonstrator, the first time a scramjet-powered aircraft had flown freely. On November 16, 2004, an

identical scramjet-powered X-43A repeated this feat. 

Chemical rocket systems combust a fuel and

oxygen mixture to produce thrust. By carrying

everything needed for combustion, these engines

can operate in the vacuum of space. Conventional

turbojets also burn fuel and an oxidizer, but the oxidizer comes from the atmosphere. Without the need

for oxidizer tankage, these engines are lighter than

rockets but cannot operate in rarified air or a vacuum.

For vehicles intended to conduct powered flight

from the Earth’s surface up to space and back, such

as RLVs, an engine capable of operating throughout

changing atmospheric conditions is the ideal

propulsion solution.

NASA’s Langley Research Center in

Hampton, Virginia, has managed the Hyper-X program to develop air-breathing rocket technology

since 1997. The vehicle is the result of collaboration between ATK-GASL, which built the airframe

and engine, and Boeing Phantom Works, which

constructed the thermal protection system. 

Other technology efforts have flown scramjet

engines, but those engines were permanently

affixed to the carrier rockets. Supersonic combustion ramjets, or scramjets, are air-breathing engines

with no moving parts, similar to ramjets. Unlike

ramjets, however, scramjets only operate at supersonic speeds. The gaseous hydrogen burning

engines of the X-43A were enclosed in a 3.7-meter

(12-foot) long airframe and propelled the vehicle at

velocities of approximately Mach 7 and Mach 10.

The 3.7-meter (12-foot) long vehicle is accelerated

to Mach 7 (for the first two flights) or Mach 10 (for

the third flight) by the first stage of an Orbital

Sciences Corporation Pegasus XL launch vehicle.

Then, the X-43A separates from the booster for

independent flight at high speed.31 The whole stack

was dropped from NASA’s B-52B carrier aircraft.

During this year’s successful flights, the

NASA B-52 aircraft released the vehicle at an altitude of 12.2 kilometers (7.6 miles) to reduce the

aerodynamic loads on the control surfaces of the

booster. The X-43A was boosted to a test flight altitude of 29 kilometers (18 miles) by a modified

Pegasus XL rocket. Then, it separated for a 10-second period of scramjet-powered flight. The flight

achieved a speed of Mach 6.83. 

The Hyper-X program not only proved the

maturity of scramjet technology but also recorded

valuable environmental data on hypersonic flight.

During the second and final X-43A flight in

November 2004, a speed of Mach 9.8 was reached.

The resulting vehicle skin temperatures of 3,600

degrees Fahrenheit were far above the melting point

Enabling Technologies 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

30 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

X-43A/Hyper X 

IPD test at NASA

Stennis Space Center 
2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologies

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 31

of conventional aircraft structures and required a

thermal protection system. Because existing wind

tunnels are incapable of generating Mach 10 airflow,

the final X-43A flight provided a one-of-a-kind

opportunity for research into this flight regime. The

X-43A proved that the United States can produce

air-breathing vehicles capable of sustained actively

controlled flight at hypersonic speeds.

This program was originally intended to feature two additional vehicles. As envisioned, the X43B would demonstrate an engine capable of operating in several modes. The X-43B’s combined cycle

engine would function as a normal turbojet at low

altitudes and switch to scramjet mode at high altitudes and speeds. Planned X-43B flights were to

occur sometime in 2009 after the completion of

another Hyper-X test vehicle, the X-43C. The X-43C

was intended to demonstrate the operation of a solid

hydrocarbon-burning scramjet engine at speeds

between Mach 5 and 7 sometime in 2008. Both vehicles were cancelled in March 2004 because of a shift

in NASA’s strategic goals following the announcement of the President’s Vision for Space Exploration

in January of that year. However, because of the success of the X-43A , the U.S. Congress added $25

million to the NASA 2005 budget to continue development of the X-43C research vehicle. Hypersonic

vehicles promise to enable future RLV systems, such

as two-stage-to-orbit systems. In addition to serving

as RLV propulsion, hypersonic engines may enable

production of hypersonic munitions for the military.
Launch and reentry sites – often referred to as

“spaceports” – are the nation’s gateways to and

from space. Although individual capabilities vary,

these facilities may house launch pads and runways

as well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuels

needed to process launch vehicles and their payloads before launch. The first such facilities in the

United States emerged in the 1940s when the federal

government began to build and operate space launch

ranges and bases to meet a variety of national needs.

While U.S. military and civil government

agencies were the original and still are the primary

users and operators of these facilities, commercial

payload customers have become frequent users of

federal spaceports as well. Federal facilities are not

the only portals to and from space. Indeed, the commercial dimension of U.S. space activity is evident

not only in the numbers of commercially procured

launches but also in the presence of non-federal

launch sites supplementing federally operated sites. 

FAA/AST has licensed the operations of five

non-federal launch sites. These spaceports have

served both commercial and government payload

owners. Table 2 shows which states have non-federal,

federal, and proposed spaceports. 

This section describes efforts to develop a

national space transportation infrastructure plan.

The non-federal and federal spaceports capable of

supporting launch and landing activities that currently exist in the United States are also described.

A subsection detailing state and private proposals

for future spaceports with launch and landing capabilities is included. 

National Coalition of Spaceport States 

In 2004, the National Coalition of Spaceport 

States (NCSS) worked with Federal agencies and

Congressional leadership to begin identifying key

considerations and laying the groundwork for developing a national space transportation infrastructure

plan. This plan is intended to identify all infrastructure elements necessary to support both the emerging private enterprise space transportation industry

and the new national space exploration initiative

enacted by the President. The plan is intended to

provide a roadmap for establishing non-federal

space infrastructure assets, such as a network of

intermodal spaceports providing bureaucratically

unfettered access to and from space. The plan will

provide recommendations for streamlining conceptto-operation development of space transportation

infrastructure from a regulatory standpoint. In addition to spaceport facility development, the plan is

expected to cover other considerations, such as

space traffic control, and federal R&D assistance to

non-federal and private sector space systems efforts. 

Non-federal Spaceports 

with FAA/AST Licenses

While the majority of licensed launch activity still

occurs at U.S. federal ranges, much future launch

and landing activity may originate from private or

state-operated spaceports. For a non-federal entity

to operate a launch or landing site in the United

States, it is necessary to obtain a license from the

federal government through FAA/AST. To date,

FAA/AST has licensed the operations of five nonfederal launch sites, all of which are described in

this subsection. Four of these are co-located with

federal launch sites, including the California

Spaceport at VAFB, Florida Space Authority (FSA)

at Cape Canaveral, Florida, MARS (originally the

Virginia Space Flight Center) at WFF, Virginia,

Mojave Airport at Mojave, California, and Kodiak

Launch Complex at Narrow Cape on Kodiak

Island, Alaska. The first orbital launch from an

FAA/AST-licensed site occurred on January 6,

1998, when a Lockheed Martin Athena 2, carrying

NASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft, successfully

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

32 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceports

Table 2: Spaceport Summary by State

State Non-federal Federal Proposed

Alabama

Alaska

California

Florida

Kwajalein

Nevada

New Mexico

Oklahoma

Texas

Utah

Virginia

Washington

Wisconsin
lifted off from FSA’s LC-46. Table 3 summarizes

the characteristics of FAA/AST licensed spaceports.

California Spaceport

On September 19, 1996, the California Spaceport

became the first Commercial Spaceport licensed by

FAA/AST. In June 2001, FAA/AST renewed the

spaceport’s license for another five years. The

California Spaceport offers commercial launch and

payload processing services and is operated and

managed by SSI, a limited partnership of ITT

Federal Service Corporation. Co-located at VAFB on

the central California coast, SSI signed a 25-year

lease in 1995 for 0.44 square kilometers (0.17 square

miles) of land. Located at latitude 34o North, the

California Spaceport can support a variety of mission

profiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations, with possible

launch azimuths ranging from 220 degrees to 165

degrees.

Initial construction at the California Spaceport,

Commercial Launch Facility began in 1995 and was

completed in 1999. The design concept is based on

a “building block” approach. Power and communications cabling was routed underground to provide

a launch pad with the flexibility to accommodate a

variety of launch systems. Additional work was

completed in 2004 to build a rolling access gantry to

support Minuteman and future Peacekeeper space

booster derivatives. Although the facility is configured to support solid propellant vehicles, plans are

in place to equip the launch facility with support

systems/commodities required by liquid-fueled

boosters. The current SLC-8 configuration consists

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 33

U.S. Spaceport Locations

California Spaceport
Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

34 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

of the following infrastructure: pad deck, support

equipment building, launch equipment vault, launch

duct, launch stand, access tower, communications

equipment, and Integrated Processing Facility (IPF)

launch control room as well as the required Western

Range interfaces needed to support a launch. The

final SLC-8 configuration awaits future customer

requirements. When fully developed, the SLC-8

Launch Facility will accommodate a wide variety

of launch vehicles, including the Minuteman-based

Minotaur and Castor 120-based vehicles, such as

Athena and Taurus.

Originally, the focus of the California

Spaceport’s payload processing services was on the

refurbishment of the Shuttle Payload Preparation

Room. Located near SLC-6, this large clean room

facility was originally designed to process three

Space Shuttle payloads simultaneously. It is now

leased and operated by the California Spaceport as

the IPF. Today, payload-processing activities occur

on a regular basis. The IPF has supported booster

processing, upper stage processing, encapsulation

and commercial, civil, and USAF satellite processing and their associated administrative activities.

The IPF can handle all customer payload processing needs. This includes Delta 2, Delta 4, and Atlas

5 class payloads as well as smaller USAF and commercial payloads as required. 

The spaceport has received limited financial

support from the state in the form of grants. In

2000, it received about $180,000 to upgrade the

east breech load doors in the IPF transfer tower.

The modification was completed in March 2001.

The new transfer tower can accommodate 18-meter

(60-foot) payloads. This will enable SSI to process

and encapsulate satellites in support of the EELV

program. In May 2001, SSI received approximately

$167,000 to upgrade the satellite command and

telemetry systems. The state of California has also

provided some support for California Spaceport

business. In 2001, legislation was passed to remove

the “sunset” clause on tax exemptions for commercial satellites and boosters launched from VAFB,

including California Spaceport.

The California Spaceport provides payload

processing and orbital launch support services for

commercial, civil, and government users. The

California Spaceport provided payload-processing

services for NASA satellites including Landsat 7

(1996); TIMED/Jason (2001); and Aqua (2002).

The California Spaceport’s first polar launch was

JAWSAT, a joint project of the Air Force Academy

and Weber State University, on a Minotaur space

launch vehicle in July 2000. To date, the site has

launched two Minotaur launch vehicles. In 2002,

SSI won a 10-year USAF satellite-processing conSpaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

California 

Spaceport

Lompoc, 

California

Spaceport Systems 

International

Existing launch pads, runways, 

payload processing facilities, 

telemetry and tracking equipment.

Work completed in 2004 to build a rolling access 

gantry to support Minuteman and future 

Peacekeeper space booster derivatives.

Kodiak Launch 

Complex

Kodiak Island, 

Alaska

Alaska Aerospace 

Development 

Corporation

Launch control center, payload 

processing facility, and integration 

and processing facility. Limited 

range support infrastructure (uses 

mobile equipment).

Construction of the launch control center, 

payload processing facility, and integration and 

processing facility was completed in 2000.

Spaceport owned 

by Florida Space 

Authority

Cape 

Canaveral, 

Florida

Florida Space 

Authority

One launch complex, including a 

pad and a remote control center; a 

small payload preparation facility; 

and an RLV support facility.

Has invested over $500 million to upgrade 

launch sites, build an RLV support complex 

adjacent to the Shuttle landing facilities, and 

develop a new space operations support 

complex.

Mid-Atlantic 

Regional Spaceport

Wallops Island, 

Virginia

Virginia Commercial 

Space Flight Authority

Two orbital launch pads, payload 

processing and integration facility 

vehicle storage and assembly 

buildings, on-site and downrange 

telemetry and tracking, and payload 

recovery capability.

Currently completing $6.6 million in launch range 

improvements. Invested $1.3 million to design 

and build a new Mobile Service Structure. 

Construction of a $4 million logistics and 

processing facility at NASA Wallops underway. 

MARS is adding a new mobile Liquid Fueling 

Facility capable of supporting a wide range of 

liquid-fueled and hybrid rockets.

Mojave Airport Mojave, 

California

East Kern Airport Air control tower, runway, rotor test 

stand, engineering facilities, high 

bay building.

FAA/AST approved site license. Scaled 

Composites’ SS1 has launched from this site for 

the Ansari X Prize competition.

Table 3: Licensed Non-federal Spaceports: Infrastructure and Status
tract for Delta 4 class 4- and 5-meter (13- and16-

foot) payloads. This contract complements an existing 10-year NASA payload-processing contract for

Delta 2 class 3-meter (10-foot) payloads. SSI is

working with several launch providers for National

Missile Defense support.

The National Reconnaissance Office has contracted with SSI to provide space vehicle processing until 2011. This includes Delta 4 and Atlas 5

EELV-class payload processing support for multiple

missions to be launched from VAFB. NASA and

commercial Delta-class payloads are also processed

at the IPF for launch on the Delta 2 and launched

from SLC-2W on VAFB. In 2003 through 2004, the

California Spaceport continued improvements to

the IPF and supported USAF Pathfinders, including

the EELV 5 M Pathfinder. In 2004, SSI was awarded three new Minotaur launches for 2005 and a new

Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity contract to

support future Minotaur task orders.32

Kodiak Launch Complex

In 1991, the Alaska state legislature created the

Alaska Aerospace Development Corporation

(AADC) as a public company to develop aerospace-related economic, technical, and educational

opportunities for the state of Alaska. In 2000, the

AADC completed the $40-million, 2-year construction of the Kodiak Launch Complex at Narrow

Cape on Kodiak Island, Alaska. The first licensed

launch site not co-located with a federal facility,

Kodiak Launch Complex was also the first new

U.S. launch site built since the 1960s. Owned by

the state of Alaska and operated by the AADC, the

Kodiak Launch Complex received funding from the

USAF, U.S. Army, NASA, the state of Alaska, and

private firms. The launch complex is located on a

12.4-square kilometer (4.8-square mile) site about

419 kilometers (260 miles) south of Anchorage and

40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of the city of

Kodiak. The launch site itself encompasses a nearly

5-kilometer (3-mile) area around Launch Pad 1.

Kodiak facilities currently include the Launch

Control Center; the Payload Processing Facility,

which includes a class-100,000 clean room, an airlock, and a processing bay; the Integration and

Processing Facility/Spacecraft Assemblies Transfer

Facility; and the Launch Pad and Service Structure.

These facilities allow the transfer of vehicles and

payloads from processing to launch without exposure to the outside environment. This capability

protects both the vehicles and the people working

on them from exterior conditions, and allows allweather launch operations. The Kodiak Launch

Complex Range Safety and Telemetry System

(RSTS) was delivered in September 2003. The

RSTS consists of two fully redundant systems: one

for on-site, the other for off-axis. Each part of the

RSTS consists of two 5.4-meter (17.7-foot) dishes

with eight telemetry links featuring command

destruct capabilities. The Kodiak RSTS number 1

system will be located on a newly constructed

multi-elevation antenna field that also supports customer-unique instrumentation.

The AADC is also supporting development of

ground station facilities near Fairbanks, Alaska, in

cooperation with several commercial remote-sensing companies. The high-latitude location makes

the Fairbanks site favorable for polar-orbiting satellites, which typically pass above Fairbanks several

times daily.

Located at latitude 57o North, Kodiak provides

a wide launch azimuth and unobstructed downrange

flight path. Kodiak’s markets are military launches,

government and commercial telecommunications,

remote sensing, and space science payloads weighing up to 990 kilograms (2,200 pounds). These payloads can be delivered into LEO, polar, and Molniya

elliptical orbits. Kodiak is designed to launch Castor

120-based vehicles, including the Athena 1 and 2,

and has been used on a number of occasions to

launch military suborbital rockets.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 35

Kodiak Launch Complex
Kodiak has conducted seven launches to date.

The first launch from Kodiak was a suborbital vehicle, atmospheric interceptor technology 1, built by

Orbital Sciences for the USAF in November 1998.

A second launch followed in September 1999. In

March 2001, a Quick Reaction Launch Vehicle

(QRLV) was launched from the Kodiak Launch

Complex. A joint NASA-Lockheed Martin

Astronautics mission on an Athena 1 was the first

orbital launch from Kodiak, taking place on

September 29, 2001. In November 2001, a Strategic

Target System vehicle was launched. However,

because of a launch anomaly, the vehicle was

destroyed. In April 2002, Orbital Sciences launched

a second QRLV for the USAF.

Most recently, on December 14, 2004, MDA

launched the first of several rockets from Kodiak to

test the U.S. missile defense system. This followed

the 2003 signing of a 5-year contract between

MDA and AADC to provide launch support services for multiple launches in connection with tests of

the nation’s missile defense system. The second

launch under this contract is scheduled to take place

in the spring of 2005.

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

MARS33 traces its beginnings to the Center for

Commercial Space Infrastructure, created in 1992 

at Virginia’s Old Dominion University to establish

commercial space research and operations facilities

in the state. The Center for Commercial Space

Infrastructure worked with WFF to develop commercial launch infrastructure at Wallops. In 1995, the

organization became the Virginia Commercial Space

Flight Authority (VCSFA), a political subdivision of

the Commonwealth of Virginia, focused on promoting growth of aerospace business while developing a

commercial launch capability in Virginia.

On December 19, 1997, FAA/AST issued

VCSFA a launch site operator’s license for the

MARS. This license was renewed in December

2002 for another 5 years. The MARS is designed to

provide “one-stop shopping” for space launch facilities and services for commercial, government, scientific, and academic users. In 1997, VCSFA signed

with NASA a Reimbursement Space Act Agreement

to use the Wallops center’s facilities in support of

commercial launches. This 30-year agreement allows

VCSFA access to NASA’s payload integration,

launch operations, and monitoring facilities on a

non-interference, cost reimbursement basis. NASA

and MARS personnel work together to provide

launch services, providing little, if any, distinction

in the areas of responsibility for each.

VCSFA has a partnership agreement with

DynSpace Corporation, a Computer Sciences Corp.

company, of Reston, Virginia, to operate the spaceport. Funded by a contract with the state and through

any spaceport revenues, DynSpace operates the

MARS for the VCSFA. The state maintains ownership of the spaceport’s assets. MARS is located at

WFF under a long-term use agreement for real

estate on which the Goddard Space Flight Center

has made real property improvements. The VCSFA

receives the majority of its funding from operations.

The remainder of its support comes from the state.

VCSFA owns two launch pads at Wallops.

Launch pad 0-B, its first launch pad, was designed

as a “universal launch pad,” capable of supporting a

variety of small and medium ELVs with gross liftoff

weights of up to 225,000 kilograms (496,000 pounds)

that can place up to 4,500 kilograms (9,900 pounds)

into LEO. Phase 1 construction of launch pad 0-B,

including a 1,750-square-meter (18,830-square-foot)

pad made of reinforced concrete, above-ground flame

deflector, and launch mount, took place between

March and December 1998. In 2003, MARS committed to the design and construction of a new 113-

foot Mobile Service Structure. The new $1.3 million

Mobile Service Structure offers complete vehicle

enclosure, flexible access, and can be readily modified to support specific vehicle operations. The site

also includes a complete command, control, and

communications interface with the launch range. 

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

36 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport
A USAF OSP Minotaur mission is currently scheduled for this site.

In March 2000, MARS acquired a second pad

at WWF, launch pad 0-A. EER Systems of

Seabrook, Maryland, built this site in 1994 for its

Conestoga launch vehicle. The Conestoga made one

launch from launch pad 0-A in October 1995 but

failed to place the METEOR microgravity payload

into orbit. MARS started refurbishing launch pad 0-

A and its 25-meter (82-foot) service tower in June

2000. Launch pad 0-A will support launches of

small ELVs with gross liftoff weights of up to

90,000 kilograms (198,000 pounds) and that are

capable of placing up to 1,350 kilograms (3,000

pounds) into LEO. Completion of the refurbishing

project is pending future business opportunities.

From its location on the Atlantic coast, MARS can

accommodate a wide range of orbital inclinations

and launch azimuths. Optimal orbital inclinations

accessible from the site are between 38° and 60°;

other inclinations, including SSO, can be reached

through in-flight maneuvers. Launch pad 0-A can

support a number of small solid-propellant boosters, including the Athena 1, Minotaur, and Taurus.

Launch pad 0-B can support larger vehicles, including the Athena 2. MARS also has an interest in supporting future RLVs, possibly using its launch pads

or three runways at WFF.

MARS also provides an extensive array of

services including the provision of supplies and

consumables to support launch operations, facility

scheduling, maintenance, inspection to ensure timely and safe ground processing and launch operations, and coordination with NASA on behalf of its

customers. Construction of Service Gantry Launch

Pad 0B has been completed. MARS is in the

process of constructing a $4 million logistics and

processing facility at WFF, capable of handling

payloads of up to 5,700 kilograms (12,600 pounds).

The facility, which includes high bay and clean

room environments, is currently in construction. In

conjunction with WFF, MARS is adding a new

mobile Liquid Fueling Facility capable of supporting a wide range of liquid-fueled and hybrid rockets. Construction of the LFF is in the final integration and test phase.34

Mojave Airport 

Mojave Airport in Mojave, California, became the

first inland launch site licensed by the FAA on June

17, 2004, allowing Mojave Airport to support suborbital launches of RLVs. The East Kern County,

California, government established the Mojave

Airport in 1935. The original facility was equipped

with taxiways and basic support infrastructure for

general aviation. A short time after its inception, the

Mojave Airport became a Marine Auxiliary Air

Station. The largest general aviation airport in Kern

County, Mojave Airport is owned and operated by

the East Kern Airport District, which is a special 

district with an elected Board of Directors and a

General Manager. The airport serves as a Civilian

Flight Test Center, the location of the National Test

Pilot School (NTPS), and a base for modifying

major military jets and civilian aircraft. The NTPS

operates various aircraft, including high-performance

jets, single- and twin-engine propeller airplanes, and

helicopters. Numerous large air carrier jet aircraft are

stored and maintained at the Mojave Airport.

The Mojave Airport consists of three runways

with associated taxiways and other support facilities, Runway 12-30, Runway 8-26, and Runway 4-

22. Runway 12-30 is 2,896 meters (9,502 feet) long

and is the primary runway for large air carrier jet

and high-performance civilian and military jet aircraft. Runway 8-26 is 2,149 meters (7,050 feet)

long and is primarily used by general aviation jet

and propeller aircraft. Runway 4-22 is 1,202 meters

(3,943 feet) long and is used by smaller general

aviation propeller aircraft and helicopters.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 37

Mojave Airport
Major facilities at the Mojave Airport include

the terminal and industrial area, hangars, offices,

maintenance shop, and fuel services facilities. Rocket

engine test stands are located in the northern portion

of the airport. Aircraft parking capacity includes 600

tie downs and 60 T-hangars. The Mojave Airport also

includes aircraft storage and a reconditioning facility

and is home to several industrial operations, such as

BAE Systems, Fiberset, Scaled Composites, AVTEL,

XCOR Aerospace, Orbital Sciences Corporation, IOS,

and General Electric. Mojave Airport consists of several test stands, an air traffic control tower, a rocket

test stand, some engineering facilities, and a high bay

building.

In the last 2 years, XCOR Aerospace performed

flight tests at this facility, including multiple successful tests with the EZ-Rocket. XCOR Aerospace had

three Rocketplane test flights up to 3,657 meters

(12,000 feet) in 2002. In addition, rocket engines 

of up to 133,000 newtons (30,000 pounds-force) 

of thrust were tested at the site in 2002 and 2003.

On the 100th anniversary of the Wright

Brothers’ first powered flight, December 17, 2003,

Scaled Composites, LLC, flew SpaceShipOne from

Mojave Airport, breaking the speed of sound in the

first manned supersonic flight by an aircraft developed privately by a small company. On June 21,

2004, Scaled Composites flew its SpaceShipOne

suborbital vehicle from the Mojave Airport, reaching

100 kilometers (62 miles) and becoming the first

private, manned rocket to reach space. SpaceShipOne

then flew from Mojave, past the boundary of space,

fully loaded to meet the Ansari X-Prize qualifications, on September 29 and again on October 4.

Brian Binnie piloted SpaceShipOne to 112 kilometers (69 miles), winning the $10 million Ansari X

Prize and smashing the 107,960-meter (354,200-foot)

altitude record set by the X-15 airplane in the 1960s.

Spaceport Operated by 

Florida Space Authority

Established by the state of Florida as the Spaceport

Florida Authority in 1989, FSA, renamed as such in

January 2002, is empowered like an airport authority to serve the launch industry and is responsible for

statewide space-related economic and academic

development. The FSA owns and operates space

transportation-related facilities on approximately

0.29 square kilometers (0.11 square miles) of land at

CCAFS, which is owned by the USAF. FAA/AST

first issued the state organization a license for spaceport operations on May 22, 1997, and renewed the

license in 2002 for another 5 years.

Under an arrangement between the federal

government and FSA, underused facilities at

CCAFS have been conveyed to FSA for improvement and use by commercial entities on a dual-use,

non-interference basis with USAF programs. FSA

efforts have concentrated on the CCAFS LC-46, an

old Trident missile launch site. The LC-46 has been

modified to accommodate small commercial launch

vehicles, as well as U.S. Navy Trident missiles. The

philosophy guiding the development of LC-46 was

to build a public transportation infrastructure for

several competing launch systems rather than tailor

a facility for a single launch system. As a result,

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

38 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Launch Compex-46 at the Cape Canaveral Spaceport

SpaceShipOne rockets into history
LC-46 can accommodate the Athena 1 and Athena

2. In the future, LC-46 could accommodate vehicles

carrying payloads in excess of 1,800 kilograms

(4,000 pounds) to LEO.

Currently, LC-46 is configured for Castor 120

or similar solid-motor-based vehicles. The infrastructure can support launch vehicles with a maximum height of 36 meters (120 feet) and diameters

ranging from 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 feet). An

Athena 2, carrying the NASA Lunar Prospector,

was the first vehicle launched into orbit from the

spaceport in January 1998. This was followed by

launch of the ROCSAT satellite in January of 1999.

Thus far, FSA has invested over $500 million

in new space industry development. FSA has

upgraded LC-46, built an RLV support complex

(adjacent to the Shuttle landing site on KSC

grounds), and developed a new space operations

support complex. Additionally, FSA financed $292

million for Atlas 5 launch facilities at CCAFS LC41, financed and constructed the $24 million Delta

4 Horizontal Integration Facility for Boeing at LC37, and provided financing for a Titan 4 storage and

processing facility. SpaceX plans to use FSA’s LC46 for operations on the east coast.

As part of an overall effort to expand use of

the Cape for R&D and educational activities, FSA

obtained a 5-year license from the Air Force to use

LC-47. The complex was upgraded to support a significant number of suborbital and small LEO

launches carrying academic payloads for research

and training purposes.

FSA published a Space Transportation Master

Plan for the state of Florida in November 2002,

detailing the status of intermodal, transportationrelated functions and assets on and near the Cape

Canaveral Spaceport. Based on the Space

Transportation Master Plan, FSA developed a FiveYear Work Program in cooperation with the

NASA/KSC and USAF 45th Space Wing to identify transportation-related improvements needed at

the spaceport and its intermodal connections to the

surrounding community. The plan was submitted in

May 2004 to the Brevard Metropolitan Planning

Organization (MPO) for inclusion in the county’s

Transportation Improvement Program. The

Authority identified as its highest off-site priority

an additional lane on the existing I-95 exit ramp

(Eastbound) to State Road 407 from improved

spaceport ingress and egress of space cargoes.

In collaboration with NASA and the state,

FSA is helping develop the International Space

Research Park on about 320 acres at NASA/KSC.

The recently completed Space Life Sciences Lab, a

$26 million state-of-the-art research facility

financed by the state of Florida, serves as a magnet

facility for the research park. The next phase of

construction will address the enabling infrastructure

for further development, such as roads, water,

sewer and storm drainage. Ground breaking is

expected in 2005. 

Federal Spaceports

Since the first licensed commercial orbital launch in

1989, the federal ranges have continually supported

commercial launch activity. The importance of

commercial launches is evident in the changes taking place at federal launch sites. Launch pads have

been developed with commercial, federal, and state

government support at the two major federal sites

for U.S. orbital launches for the latest generation of

the Delta and Atlas launch vehicles, including the

EELVs. Cape Canaveral Spaceport (consisting of

CCAFS and NASA KSC) hosts pads for Delta 4

and Atlas 5. VAFB currently accommodates the

Delta 4 and a pad is under construction to accommodate the Atlas 5.

Recognizing that the ranges are aging, the

U.S. government is engaged in range modernization. This effort includes the ongoing Range

Standardization and Automation program, a key

effort to modernize and upgrade the Eastern Range

at CCAFS and portions of the Western Range at

VAFB. The USAF, Department of Commerce, and

FAA signed a Memorandum of Agreement in

January 2002 that established a process for collecting commercial sector range support and modernization requirements, communicating them to the

USAF, and considering them in the existing USAF

requirements process. Table 4 summarizes the characteristics of federal spaceports.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 39
Cape Canaveral Spaceport

The Cape Canaveral Spaceport is geographically

comprised of the USAF CCAFS and NASA KSC in

Florida.

The 45th Space Wing, headquartered at nearby Patrick AFB, conducts launch operations and

provides range support for military, civil, and commercial launches. The 45th Space Wing is the host

organization for Patrick AFB, CCAFS, Antigua Air

Station, Ascension Auxiliary Air Field, and many

mission partners. The Wing is part of Air Force

Space Command at Peterson AFB, Colorado, and

reports to the 14th Air Force at VAFB.

The Wing manages the Eastern Range, provides

launch and tracking facilities, safety procedures and

test data to a wide variety of users. It also manages

launch operations for DoD space programs. Users

include the USAF, Navy, NASA, and various private industry contractors.

With its mission partners, the Wing processes 

a variety of satellites and launches them on Atlas,

Delta, and Titan ELVs. The Wing also provides support for the Space Shuttle program and U.S. Navy

submarine ballistic missile testing.

The 45th Space Wing was established Nov.

12, 1991. Its origins date back to 1950 with the

Army and Air Force’s establishment of the Joint

Long Range Proving Ground. A year later, the Air

Force assumed full control of the new facility, designating it the Air Force Missile Test Center. In

1964, it was renamed the Air Force Eastern Test

Range, and in 1979 it became the Eastern Space

and Missile Center. The Eastern Space and Missile

Center became part of Air Force Space Command

in October 1990 when the Air Force transferred

space and launch responsibilities from Air Force

Systems Command to Air Force Space Command.

Today, CCAFS encompasses six active launch

complexes for Delta, Atlas, Titan, and sounding

rocket launch vehicles. Plans are currently in work

to deactivate two of those launch complexes (LC 40

for Titan 4 and LC 36 for Atlas 2/3) in 2005.

The Eastern Range is used to gather and process

data on a variety of East Coast launches and deliver

it to range users. To accomplish this task, the range

consists of a series of tracking stations located at

CCAFS, Antigua Air Station, and Ascension Auxiliary

Air Field. The range also uses the Jonathan Dickinson

and the Malabar Tracking Annexes on the Florida

mainland. These stations may be augmented with a

fleet of advanced range instrumentation aircraft as

well as a site located in Argentia, Newfoundland.

Major events at the Eastern Range in 2004 included

the 50th launch of a GPS satellite, and the last 

Atlas launch from LC 36A on August 31. Runway

improvements at CCAFS are continuing with a $4.5

million renovation. In June, the 8th Annual Cape

Canaveral Spaceport Symposium was held to discuss

recent developments and the future of commercial

space transportation. 

Edwards Air Force Base

Located in California, EAFB is the home of more

than 250 first flights and about 290 world records. 

It was the original landing site for the Space

Shuttle. The first two Shuttle flights landed on

Rogers Dry Lake, a natural hard-pack riverbed

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

40 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Cape Canaveral Spaceport

Edwards Air Force Base
measuring about 114 square kilometers (44 square

miles). Unfortunately, the normally dry lakebed was

flooded in 1982, rendering the site unavailable for

the third Shuttle landing. (The Space Shuttle landed

at White Sands, New Mexico instead.) Today, NASA

prefers to use KSC as the primary landing site for

the Space Shuttle and uses EAFB as a back-up site.

Today EAFB is DoD’s premier flight test center,

leading in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), electronic

warfare, and directed energy test capabilities. 

Within the last 5 years, EAFB has been the

home of more than 10 experimental projects, among

them the X-33 airplane. Before its cancellation, the

X-33 airplane was to use EAFB as a test site. In

December 1998, NASA completed construction of

a launch site at EAFB. The site consisted of an X-33-

specifc launch pad, a control center to be used for

launch monitoring and mission control, and a movable hangar where the vehicle was to be housed and

serviced in a horizontal position. The site was

equipped with hydrogen and nitrogen gas tanks, as

well as liquid hydrogen and oxygen tanks capable

of holding more than 1.1 million liters (291,000

gallons) of cryogenic materials. 

Today Edwards is the home of the F/A-22

Raptor, the X-43 Hyper-X, the X-45 JUCAS, a

UAV, and the Airborne Laser system.35

The federal government is investing several

million dollars to refurbish and modernize two largescale rocket test stands at the AFRL’s Edwards

Research Site. One is a component test stand and

the other is an engine test stand. Plans are also

being developed to continue refurbishing additional

rocket stands in the future for purposes of rocket

testing.

EAFB, along with NASA’s co-located, premier aeronautical flight research facility, Dryden

Flight Research Center, hosts other NASA reusable

X-vehicle demonstration programs. In 2001, NASA

used a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to conduct a drop

test of the X-43A demonstrator. NASA used a helicopter to conduct seven successful X-40A flight

tests during 2001. In 2004, NASA transferred the

X-37 program to DARPA, which is expected to

conduct drop tests in 2005.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 41

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Cape Canaveral 

Spaceport 

(CCAFS/KSC)

Cape Canaveral, 

Florida

USAF, NASA, FSA Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet and 

Shuttle capable runways, launch pads, 

hangar, vertical processing facilities, 

and assembly building.

RLV and ELV spaceport is operational.

Edwards AFB Edwards, 

California

USAF Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet and 

Shuttle capable runways, Delta 4 launch 

pad, operations control center, movable 

hangar, fuel tanks, and water tower.

Site is operational.

Reagan Test Site Kwajalein Island, 

Republic of the 

Marshall Islands

U.S. Army Telemetry and tracking facilities, 

runway, control center.

Site is operational.

Vandenberg AFB Lompoc, 

California

USAF Launch pads, vehicle assembly and 

processing buildings, payload 

processing facilities, telemetry and 

tracking facilities, control center 

engineering, user office space, Shuttlecapable runways.

VAFB has started negotiations with several 

commercial companies. Existing infrastructure 

is operational. Upgrades may or may not be 

required depending on vehicle requirements.

Wallops Flight 

Facility

Wallops Island, 

Virginia

NASA Telemetry and tracking facilities, heavy 

jet and Shuttle-capable runway, launch 

pads, vehicle assembly and processing 

buildings, payload processing facilities, 

range control center, blockhouses, large 

aircraft hangars, and user office space.

Wallops Flight Facility has not supported any 

orbital flights since the failure of the Conestoga 

in 1995. NASA is committed to maintaining the 

existing infrastructure.

White Sands 

Missile Range

White Sands, 

New Mexico

U.S. Army Telemetry and tracking facilities, runway 

engine and propulsion testing facilities.

NASA flight test center is operational. RLVspecific upgrades will probably be required.

Table 4: Federal Spaceports Infrastructure and Status
Reagan Test Site

Located in Kwajalein Island, part of the Republic

of the Marshall Islands, the U.S. Army’s Reagan

Test Site (RTS) is within the DoD Major Range and

Test Facility Base. The advantages of RTS include

its strategic geographical location, unique instrumentation, and capability to support ballistic missile

testing and space operations. With nearly 40 years

of successful support, RTS provides a vital role in

the research, development, test and evaluation effort

of America’s missile defense and space programs.36

RTS will be working will be working with SpaceX,

Orbital Sciences, and the Missile Defense Agency

(MDA). Orbital Sciences will be launching a Pegasus

rocket with the USAF C/NOFS payload in 2005.

Vandenberg Air Force Base

In 1941, the U.S. Army activated this site in

Lompoc, California, as Camp Cook. In 1957, Camp

Cook was transferred to the Air Force, becoming the

nation’s first space and ballistic missile operations

and training base. In 1958, it was renamed VAFB in

honor of General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, the Air Force’s

second Chief of Staff. VAFB is currently the headquarters of the 30th Space Wing and the Air Force

Space Command organization responsible for all

DoD space and missile activities for the West Coast.

All U.S. satellites destined for near-polar orbit launch

from the Western Range at VAFB. The 30th Space

Wing, Range Operations Control Center, provides

flight safety, weather, scheduling, and instrumentation

control, along with target designation information and

tracking data to and from inter- and intra-range sensors in real or near-real-time for missile and space

launch support. Range tracking capabilities extend

over the Pacific Ocean as far west as the Marshall

Islands, with boundaries to the north as far as Alaska

and as far south as Central America.

VAFB infrastructure used for space launches

includes a 4,500-meter (15,000-foot) runway, boat

dock, launch facilities, payload processing facilities,

tracking radar, optical tracking and telemetry facilities, and control centers. The 401-square-kilometer

(155-square-mile) base also houses 53 government

organizations and 49 contractor companies in 1,843

buildings. VAFB hosts a variety of federal agencies

and attracts commercial aerospace companies and

activities, including the California Spaceport effort.

The 30th Space Wing supports West Coast launch

activities for the USAF, DoD, NASA, and various

private industry contractors. For the development of

launch infrastructure for the EELV Program, VAFB

has partnered with Boeing and Lockheed Martin.

Boeing has renovated Space Launch Complex

(SLC)-6 from a Space Shuttle launch pad into an

operational facility for Delta 4. Construction at

SLC-6 has included enlarging the existing mobile

service tower and completing the construction of the

West Coast Horizontal Integration Facility, where the

Delta 4 is assembled. March 2005 is the schedule

for the first Delta 4 launch from Vandenberg.

Lockheed Martin is renovating SLC-3E from

an Atlas 2 launch pad into an operational facility

for Atlas 5. The upgrades started in January 2004,

which include adding 9 meters (30 feet) to the

existing 61-meter (200-foot) mobile service tower

to accommodate the larger rocket and replacing the

crane capable of lifting 20 tons with a crane that

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

42 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Vandenberg Air Force Base

Reagan Test Site – Omelek Island, 

possible launch home of SpaceX
can lift 60 tons. The first Atlas 5 launch from

Vandenberg is planned for the Spring of 2006, and

will deploy a classified payload for the National

Reconnaissance Office (NRO).

VAFB is also upgrading its range instrumentation and control centers to support the space launch

industry. Scheduled for completion by 2010, these

upgrades will automate the Western Range and provide updated services to the customer.

Current launch vehicles using VAFB include

Delta 2, Titan 4, Taurus, Minotaur, and Pegasus XL

families. NASA operates SLC-2, from which Boeing

Delta 2 vehicles are launched. Orbital Sciences’

Taurus is launched from 576-E. Pegasus XL vehicles

are processed at Orbital Sciences’ facility at VAFB

then flown to various worldwide launch areas.

Minotaur is launched from the California Spaceport

and has plans for three launches in the next two

years. A new commercial launch vehicle, Falcon,

being developed by SpaceX, plans to launch from

VAFB in 2005.

The final Titan 2 launch from VAFB took place

in October 2003. Under a $3 million Air Force contract, Lockheed Martin has “safed” and deactivated

SLC-4 West, which served as the launch pad for

Titan 2 since 1988. SLC-4 East, which hosts the

Titan 4, will see its final launch in June 2005 after

which it will also be safed. The Air Force will oversee efforts to dismantle the mobile service and

umbilical towers for both launch vehicles starting 

in 2005. Also, the last Peacekeeper launch is scheduled for May 2005, after which the Peacekeeper

program will be deactivated at 30th Space Wing.

At this time, VAFB has active partnerships

with seven private commercial space organizations

in which VAFB provides launch property and launch

services. The private companies use the government

facilities to conduct payload and booster processing

work. VAFB houses three commercially-owned

facilities/complexes: Boeing’s Horizontal Integration

Facility, Spaceport Systems International’s (SSI)

California Spaceport and Payload Processing Facility,

and Astrotech’s Payload Processing Facility.37

Wallops Flight Facility

The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,

the predecessor of NASA, established an aeronautical and rocket test range at Wallops Island, Virginia,

in 1945. Since then, over 15,000 rocket launches

have taken place from the site, which is currently

operated by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center,

Greenbelt, Maryland. The first orbital launch occurred in 1960, when a Scout launch vehicle deployed

Explorer 9 to study atmospheric density. There have

been 29 orbital flight attempts from Wallops. The

retired Scout made its last orbital launch from WFF

in 1985. Since then, WFF has supported the launch

of the failed launch of the Conestoga 1620 in 1995,

and six Pegasus missions, the most recent in 1999.

In April 1996, the Air Force designated Wallops

as a launch site for converted Minuteman 2 missiles

under the Orbital/Suborbital Program (along with

Kodiak Launch Complex and the California

Spaceport). The Near-Field Infra-Red Experiment 

is scheduled for launch from Wallops in 2006, and

other Minotaur and Peacekeeper missions are under

consideration.

In addition to orbital missions, NASA/Wallops

supports the launch of approximately 20 suborbital

missions per year for NASA, other government

agencies, and commercial users. In particular,

Wallops provides frequent support to the Navy’s

Surface Combat Systems Center, a NASA/Wallops

tenant. Wallops also maintains a fully capable mobile

launch range that enables missions to be conducted

at other than established launch ranges. In addition

to suborbital science campaigns, the Wallops Mobile

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 43

Wallops Flight Facility
Range was used to support the launch of Pegasus

from the Canary Islands in 1997 and the first orbital

launch (Athena I) from Kodiak, Alaska in 2001. In

addition to rocket launches, the Wallops Research

Range provides support for numerous other types of

missions including flights of UAVs, drones, missiles,

aircraft tests, and downrange tracking support for

launches from KSC and CCAFS. 

The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport

(MARS) is co-located at WFF as a tenant and the

organizations collaborate on certain projects to

jointly provide mission services, particularly focusing on small commercial ELVs. Jointly, WFF and

MARS offer two orbital and numerous suborbital

launchers, a range control center, three blockhouses, numerous payload and vehicle preparation facilities, and a full suite of tracking and data systems.

In support of its research and program management

responsibilities, Wallops also contains numerous

science facilities, a research airport, and flight hardware fabrication and test facilities. 

In March 2002, approximately $10 million in

launch range modernization and upgrade projects

were initiated, involving range clearance radars,

vehicle-tracking systems, launch data acquisition

and management systems, and range control center

interfaces. A new 1,115 square-meter (12,000 squarefoot) payload processing and integration facility as

well as a mobile liquid fueling system for small- to

mid-sized vehicles are also under development.38

White Sands Missile Range

Situated 26 kilometers (16 miles) northeast of Las

Cruces, New Mexico, White Sands Missile Range,

which includes the NASA White Sands Flight Test

Center, covers 8,100 square kilometers (3,127 square

miles). It is operated by the U.S. Army and is used

mainly for launching sounding rockets. White Sands

also supports MDA flight testing and is used as a

test center for rocket engines and experimental

spacecraft. Facilities at White Sands include seven

engine test stands and precision cleaning facilities

including a class-100 clean room for spacecraft parts.

Starting in 2003, all test operations were 

run out of the new J.W. Cox Range Control Center.

This $28-million facility was designed to meet current and future mission requirements with the latest

networking, computing, and communications for

effective interaction between test operations and

customers.

White Sands is also the Space Shuttle’s tertiary landing site after KSC and EAFB. This landing

site consists of two 11-kilometer (6.8-mile) long,

gypsum-sand runways.

As of May 11, 2004, Governor of New Mexico

Bill Richardson announced to the press that the 

X Prize Cup competition will be held at White

Sands starting in 2005.39

Proposed Non-federal Spaceports

Several states plan to develop spaceports offering a

variety of launch and landing services. Two common characteristics of many of the proposed spaceports are inland geography – a contrast to the

coastal location of all but one present-day U.S.

spaceports – and interest in hosting RLV operations. Table 5 describes specific efforts to establish

non-federal spaceports, which are in various stages

of development.

Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport

The Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport Development

Corporation has proposed constructing a spaceport

in Brazoria County, Texas, 80 kilometers (50 miles)

south of Houston. The Corporation has identified

undeveloped land currently used for agriculture as a

potential site and is working with the private owner

of the land to acquire or lease the property.

Local governments invested nearly $300,000 in

the project between 1999 and 2001, primarily for site

selection work. In February 2002, the state approved

the Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport board’s access to

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

44 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

White Sands Missile Range
the first installment of $500,000 in state grant

money. The initial $150,000 paid contractor fees for

an in-depth safety analysis of the site based on the

use of different types of launch systems. The draft

development plan has greatly assisted in determining

what infrastructure is necessary. The Amateur

Spaceflight Association launched a 3.7-meter (12-

foot) long amateur rocket from this site on May 3,

2003. Work with Brazoria County Commissioners

Court for on site improvements will create a small

suborbital capability in early 2005.40 The web site for

the spaceport is www.gulfcoastspaceport.org.

Nevada Test Site

The Nevada Test Site, located 100 kilometers (62

miles) northwest of Las Vegas, is a remote, highly

secure facility covered by restricted airspace. Kistler

Aerospace Corporation selected it as a spaceport for

the K-1 RLV in addition to its Woomera, Australia,

facility to increase scheduling flexibility and widen

the range of launch azimuths available to customers.

Although it does not have any launch infrastructure,

the Nevada Test Site has existing basic infrastructure,

such as a paved runway, water, roads, and power that

can be used to support launch and landing activities.

The Nevada Test Site Development

Corporation obtained an economic development use

permit in 1997 from the U.S. Department of Energy.

Shortly thereafter, the Corporation issued a sub-permit allowing Kistler to operate a launch and recovery

operation at the Nevada Test Site. The web site of

the test site is http://www.nv.doe.gov/nts/default.htm.

Oklahoma Spaceport

The state of Oklahoma is developing a broader

space industrial base and a launch site. In 1999, the

Oklahoma state legislature created the Oklahoma

Space Industry Development Authority (OSIDA).

Directed by seven governor-appointed board members, OSIDA promotes the development of spaceport facilities and space exploration, education, and

related industries in Oklahoma. Currently, the state

of Oklahoma provides operating costs for OSIDA,

but the organization expects to be financially independent in less than 5 years. In 2000, the Oklahoma

state legislature passed an economic incentive law

offering tax credits, tax exemptions, and accelerated

depreciation rates for commercial spaceport-related

activities. In 2002, OSIDA, through a third party

agreement with the FAA, awarded a contract to

SRS Technologies and C.H. Guernsey to prepare an

environmental impact statement (EIS). The analysis, expected to continue through June 2005, is a

critical step toward receiving a launch site operator

license from FAA/AST. 

Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark (CSIA),

located at Burns Flat, is the preferred site for a

future launch site in Oklahoma. Existing infrastructure includes a 4,100-meter (13,500-foot) runway,

large maintenance and repair hangars, utilities, rail

spur, and 12.4 square kilometers (4.8 square miles)

of open land. The city of Clinton has agreed to convey ownership of the CSIA to OSIDA upon issuance

of a launch site operator license from FAA/AST. The

FAA Southwest Region has reviewed and approved

the transfer upon completion of the EIS and other

contingencies. The launch activities proposed will

not greatly impact the continued use of the CSIA

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 45

Map of Nevada Test Site

Oklahoma Spaceport
Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

46 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development Status

Gulf Coast 

Regional Spaceport

Brazoria 

County, Texas

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport 

Development Corporation has proposed 

constructing a spaceport in Brazoria County, 

Texas, 80 kilometers (50 miles) south of 

Houston.

Nevada Test Site Nye County, 

Nevada

Department of 

Energy/Nevada Test 

Site Development 

Corporation

No launch infrastructure at this time. 

Power and basic facilities available.

Kistler was issued a sub-permit allowing it to 

operate a launch and recovery operation. 

Nevada Test Site Development Corporation is 

actively promoting the site as a spaceport for 

both RLVs and conventional launchers.

Oklahoma 

Spaceport 

Washita 

County, 

Oklahoma

Oklahoma Space 

Industry Development 

Authority

4,115-meter (13,500-foot) runway, a 

5,200-square-meter (56,000-squarefoot) manufacturing facility, a 2,7850-

square-meter (30,000-square-foot) 

maintenance and painting hangar, 

and 435 square kilometers (168 

square miles) of land available for 

further construction.

The Clinton-Sherman AFB at Burns Flat was 

designated as the future spaceport. OSIDA is 

conducting a safety study of the proposed site 

and operations. An environmental impact study 

is underway.

South Texas 

Spaceport

Willacy County, 

Texas

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The final Texas Spaceport site has not been 

selected. Three sites are being considered at 

this time. Suborbital rockets have been 

launched near the proposed site.

Southwest 

Regional Spaceport

Upham, New 

Mexico

New Mexico Office for 

Space 

Commercialization

No infrastructure at this time. Plans for this site include a spaceport central 

control facility, an airfield, a maintenance and 

integration facility, a launch and recovery 

complex, a flight operations control center, and 

a cryogenic plant. Environmental and business 

development studies conducted.

Spaceport Alabama Baldwin 

County, 

Alabama

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The master plan phase 1 has been completed. 

Phase 2 is expected to be completed by 

October 2005. While no land has been acquired 

for Spaceport Alabama, a green field site is 

under consideration in Baldwin County, across 

the bay from the city of Mobile.

Spaceport 

Washington

Grant County 

International 

Airport, 

Washington

Port of Moses Lake 4,100-meter (13,452-foot) main 

runway and a 3,200-meter (10,500-

foot) crosswind runway.

The site is certified as an emergency-landing 

site for the Space Shuttle. No additional 

infrastructure has been planned for this site.

Utah Spaceport Wah Wah 

Valley, Utah

Utah Spaceport 

Authority

No infrastructure at this time. Plans for the proposed Utah Spaceport include 

a central administrative control facility, an 

airfield, maintenance and integration facilities 

for payloads and spacecraft, launch pads, a 

flight operation control center, and a propellant 

storage facility. State funding for development 

has not been provided since 2001.

West Texas 

Spaceport

Pecos County, 

Texas

To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport 

Development Corporation, established in mid2001, has proposed the development of a 

spaceport 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest of 

Fort Stockton, Texas. Spaceport infrastructure 

will include a launch site with a 4,570- meter 

(15,000-foot) safety radius, an adjacent 

recovery zone 4,570 meters (15,000 feet) in 

diameter, and payload integration and launch 

control facilities.

Wisconsin 

Spaceport

Sheboygan, 

Wisconsin

Owner: City of 

Sheboygan; Operator: 

Rockets for Schools

A vertical pad for suborbital 

launches in addition to portable 

launch facilities, such as mission 

control.

Plans for developing additional launch 

infrastructure are ongoing and include creation 

of a development plan that includes support for 

orbital RLV operations.

Table 5: Proposed Non-federal Spaceports: Infrastructure and Status
as an active airport for USAF training and for general aviation. Oklahoma Spaceport will provide

launch and support services for horizontally launched

RLVs and may become operational in late 2005 or

early 2006. 

Oklahoma offers several incentives, valued 

at over $128 million over 10 years, to attract space

companies. For example, a jobs program provides

quarterly cash payments of up to 5 percent of new

taxable payroll directly to qualifying companies for

up to 10 years. Organizations also may qualify for

other state tax credits, tax refunds, tax exemptions,

and training incentives. Rocketplane Limited and

TGV Rockets, Inc. have located in Oklahoma for

their launch vehicle developments. As the first corporation that meets specific qualifying criteria,

including equity capitalization of $10 million and

creation of at least 100 Oklahoma jobs, Rocketplane

Limited has qualified for a $15-million, state-provided

tax credit.

Besides state funding, NASA issued $241,000

to OSIDA for space-related educational grants to be

used throughout the state. OSIDA has signed

Memoranda of Understanding with several companies for use of the Burns Flat site.

South Texas Spaceport

Willacy County Development Corporation was created in 2001 to manage the spaceport site evaluation and other technical and administrative elements

of the project under a Texas Aerospace Commission

grant. In February 2002, the Texas Aerospace

Commission awarded a $500,000 contract to the

South Texas Spaceport.

The proposed spaceport site is a 40-squarekilometer (15.4-square-mile) undeveloped portion

of Willacy County adjacent to the Laguna Madre

and Gulf of Mexico approximately 150 kilometers

(93 miles) south of Corpus Christi and 65 kilometers (40 miles) north of Brownsville. The site initially may support the suborbital and small orbital

launch systems currently in service or being developed for service in the near future, with a long term

focus on RLVs. 

In 2003, a 68-kilogram (150-pound) sounding

rocket and a 3.4-meter (11-foot) Super Loki suborbital rocket were launched near the site in efforts to

generate awareness and encourage state funding of

the South Texas Spaceport.

To date, no infrastructure has been built.

Initial planning will focus on the infrastructure

needed to support activities of launch operators

with current development programs.

Recently, Texas Spacelines, Incorporated,

entered into negotiations with the Willacy County

Development Corporation for Spaceport Facilities

for the establishment of a permanent launch site in

South Texas.41 Willacy County is currently applying

for a state grant for the Spaceport building next to

Port Mansfield. It will include two launch pads and

a building (all utilities such as water, sewer road to

and from project).42

Southwest Regional Spaceport

The state of New Mexico continues to make progress

in the development of the Southwest Regional

Spaceport (SRS). In May 2004, New Mexico won

its bid to host the X Prize Cup competition, a future

international exhibition created by the X Prize

Foundation. The SRS is being developed for use by

private companies and government organizations

conducting space activities and operations. The proposed site of the spaceport is a 70-square-kilometer

(27-square-mile) parcel of open land in the south

central part of the state at approximately 1,430 meters

(4,700 feet) above sea level. The spaceport concept

is to support all classes of RLVs serving suborbital

trajectories as well as equatorial, polar, and ISS orbits

and to provide support services for payload integration, launch, and landing. The facility will accommodate vertical and horizontal launches and landings

as well as air and balloon launches. In addition, this

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 47

Southwest Regional Spaceport
facility will include multiple launch complexes, a

runway, an aviation complex, a payload assembly

complex, other support facilities, and, eventually a

cryogenic fuel plant. The SRS is supported by the

state through the New Mexico Office for Space

Commercialization, part of the New Mexico

Economic Development Department. 

In 2001, the state legislature approved $1.5

million for fiscal years 2002 through 2004 for spaceport development, including environmental studies

and land acquisition. In 2004, the state appropriated

$10.5 million for infrastructure development, planning, analysis, and operations. The money was

received July 1, 2004.

New Mexico provided several other incentives

for the spaceport, including gross receipt deductions,

industrial revenue bonds, and investment and job

training credits. In 2002, the state of New Mexico

and the U.S. Army White Sands Missile Range

signed a Memorandum of Agreement supporting the

development of the SRS. This agreement enables the

spaceport to share resources and integrate launch

scheduling and operations with the U.S. Army test

range. In 2003, New Mexico performed a comprehensive analysis of the advantages of launching

from high altitudes for vertical launch vehicles.43

Spaceport Alabama

Proposed as a next generation spaceport, Spaceport

Alabama will be a full-service departure and return

facility supporting orbital and suborbital space access

vehicles. Spaceport Alabama is in the planning phase

under direction of the Spaceport Alabama Program

Office at Jacksonville State University in Alabama.

The Spaceport Alabama master planning Phase 1 is

now complete, and Phase 2 has commenced. Phase 2

is expected to be completed by October 2005. Upon

completion of the Spaceport Alabama master plan,

which is expected to be by the end of 2006, a proposal will be presented to the Alabama Commission on

Aerospace Science and Industry and the Alabama

Legislature for formal adoption.44 Under the current

plan, the Alabama Legislature would establish the

Spaceport Alabama Authority, which would oversee

development of Spaceport Alabama. While no land

has been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, a green

field site is under consideration in Baldwin County,

across the bay from the city of Mobile. This site is

seen as ideal for supporting government and commercial customers operating next-generation reusable

flight vehicles that are designed for access to LEO,

MEO, and GEO.

Under the current spaceport development plan,

a spaceport facility could become operational within

10 years, depending on market demand. This plan

calls for the establishment of a “total spaceport enterprise” concept, consisting of a departure and return

facility, processing and support facilities, and full

support infrastructure. An R&D park, a commerce

park, supporting community infrastructure, intermodal connectivity, and other services and infrastructure necessary for providing a “turn key” capability in

support of space commerce, R&D, national security,

science and related services are also included in this

plan. Given that the site currently under consideration

is adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico, Spaceport Alabama

would service primarily RLVs; however, some suborbital ELVs involving scientific and academic 

missions could be supported.

Spaceport Washington

Spaceport Washington, a public/private partnership,

has identified Grant County International Airport in

central Washington, 280 kilometers (174 miles) east

of Seattle, as the site of a future spaceport. The airport (formerly Larson AFB and now owned and

operated by the Port of Moses Lake) is used primarily as a testing and training facility. Spaceport

Washington proposes to use Grant County

International Airport for horizontal and vertical

take-offs and horizontal landings of all classes of

RLVs. This airport has a 4,100-meter (13,452-foot)

main runway and a 3,200-meter (10,500-foot)

crosswind runway, and is certified as an emergency

Spaceports 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

48 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Spaceport Washington
landing site for the Space Shuttle. No additional

infrastructure has been planned for the site.45

West Texas Spaceport

The Pecos County/West Texas Spaceport

Development Corporation, established in mid-2001,

has proposed the development of a spaceport 29

kilometers (18 miles) southwest of Fort Stockton,

Texas. Spaceport infrastructure will include a

launch site with a 4,570-meter (15,000-foot) safety

radius, an adjacent recovery zone 4,570 meters

(15,000 feet) in diameter, and payload integration

and launch control facilities.

A joint project with the school district has

made a state-of-the-art technology center available

for Pecos County Aerospace Development Center

users. The Technology Center has multiple monitors, high-speed Internet service, and full multiplexing capability. Video can be streamed from the

Greasewood or Hudgins sites to the Technology

Center to accommodate dignitaries and other officials in air-conditioned comfort. The Pecos

County/West Texas Spaceport Development

Corporation has access to optical tracking video

capability that can record the vehicle’s flight up to

tens of thousands of feet (depending upon the vehicle’s size) regardless of its speed.46

In February 2002, the Texas Aerospace

Commission awarded a $500,000 contract to the

West Texas Spaceport. In June 2002, the USAF

approved the site for various test launch projects.

JP Aerospace began launching small suborbital

rockets from the site in October 2002. The

University of Houston Division of Research

Agency awarded the Pecos County/West Texas

Spaceport Development Corporation $80,000 for

2003.

In 2005 members of the USAF Space

Battlelab will conduct a Phase 1 demonstration

flight of the V-Airship, a Near Space Maneuvering

Vehicle, at the new Pecos County/West Texas

Spaceport in Fort Stockton, Texas.47

Other projects are being pursued by the Pecos

County/West Texas Spaceport Development

Corporation. These projects include the Blacksky

DART program, intended to characterize the performance of an innovative aerospike nozzle on a

solid rocket motor. Texas A&M University’s senior

level student aerospace engineering program gives

students the opportunity to build and fly an

advanced design rocket. In addition, the Texas

Partnership for Aerospace Education project supports middle and high school students to send

experiments fitted inside ping pong balls on balloons to the edge of space.48

Wisconsin Spaceport

On August 29, 2000, the Wisconsin Department of

Transportation officially approved creation of the

Wisconsin Spaceport, located on Lake Michigan in

Sheboygan, Wisconsin. The city of Sheboygan

owns the spaceport, which strives to support space

research and education through suborbital launches

for student projects.

Suborbital sounding rocket launches to altitudes of up to 55 kilometers (34 miles) have been

conducted at the site. Additionally, Rockets for

Schools, a student program founded in Wisconsin

by Space Explorers, Inc., and developed by the

Aerospace States Association, has conducted suborbital launches at Spaceport Sheboygan since its

inception in 1995. Each year, hundreds of students

from Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan participate in these launches. Rockets for Schools is a

firmly established, high-quality program of the

Great Lakes Spaceport Education Foundation.

The spaceport’s existing infrastructure

includes a vertical pad for suborbital launches in

addition to portable launch facilities, such as mission control, which are erected and disassembled 

as needed. The pier, which the city leased from 

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for spaceport

launches and citizens’ enjoyment (i.e. walking and

fishing), was widened and strengthened in 2004.

Additionally, some structures were removed to clear

space for the construction of a proposed mission

control and education center.

Plans for developing additional launch infrastructure are ongoing. Future projects include adding

orbital launch capabilities for RLVs. Spaceport

developers are in the process of creating a development plan. Although no action was taken in 2004,

draft legislation for the creation of a spaceport

authority is under review by the Wisconsin Senate.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceports

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 49
1 FAA Intercom, “Launch Opens Skies to Commercial

Space Transportation,” October 2004.

2 “The X Prize Cup,” Arstechnica,

(http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20041005-

4274.html), accessed 29 October 2004.

3 “The X Prize Cup,” Arstechnica,

(http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20041005-

4274.html), accessed 29 October 2004.

4 Leonard, David, “Exclusive: Rules Set for $50 Million

‘America’s Space Prize’,” Space News,

(http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_bigel

ow_041108.html), accessed 8 November 2004.

5 International Launch Services press release. “ILS and

Atlas Successfully Launch Payload for NRO: Atlas II

series legacy is 100% success,” 31 August 2004.

6 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July

2004.

7 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July

2004.

8 NASA Fact Sheet (FS-2004-08-113-MSFC), “DART

Demonstrator To Test Future Autonomous Rendezvous

Technologies in Orbit,” September 2004,

(http://www11.msfc.nasa.gov/NEWSROOM/background/facts/dart.pdf) accessed 17 January 2005.

9 Science Vehicles Directorate, Air Force Research

Laboratory, Communication/Naviation Outage

Forecasting System (C/NOFS) Science Plan (1/17/2005

version), AFRL/VS-TR-2003-1501,

(http://www.pitot.org/cnofs/cnofs-sc-plan-04-04-03.doc)

accessed 17 January 2005.

10 Communication with Orbital Sciences Corporation, 19

July 2004.

11 Communication with Space Systems/Loral, 19 July 2004.

12 Communication with E’ Prime Aerospace Corporation,

20 July 2004.

13 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 26

July 2004.

14 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 10

December 2004.

15 Communication with Space Launch Corporation, 20 July

2004.

16 Space Launch Corporation press release. “The Space

Launch Corporation Successfully Completes Phase 2 of

the RASCAL Program,”

(http://www.spacelaunch.com/news_2004_004.asp)

accessed January 14, 2005.

17 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July

2004.

18 Communication with Lockheed Martin-Michoud, 27 July

2004.

19 Communication with Kistler Aerospace Corporation, 6

January 2005.

20 Communication with Rocketplane Limited, Inc., 11

January 2005.

21 7-Up press release. “7 UP®, the Official Beverage of the

ANSARI X PRIZE, Offers Consumers the First Free

Ticket into Space®” 4 October 2004.

22 Communication with TGV, 12 January 2005.

23 “SpaceDev Awarded $1.5M Phase 2 Small Launch

Vehicle Contract,” SpaceDaily,

(http://www.spacedaily.com/news/rocketscience04ze.html), accessed 8 October 2004.

24 Communication with Lockheed Martin-Michoud, 27 July

2004.

25 Communication with Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power,

30 July 2004.

26 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 15

October 2004.

27 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 1 October 2004.

28 Communication with Space Exploration Technologies

Corporation, 12 January 2005.

29 Communication with XCOR Aerospace, 21 July 2004.

30 Communication with Andrews Space & Technologies,

Inc., 23 July 2004.

31 Communication with NASA Headquarters, 5 November

2004.

32 Communication with California Spaceport, 27 September

2004.

33 Communication with Spaceport Manager, Mid-Atlantic

Regional Spaceport, N-134 NASA/GSFC/WFF, 2 July

2004.

34 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,

29 September 2004.

35 Communication with Edwards Air Force Base, 10

September 2004.

36 Reagan Test Site, “A World Class Range,”

(http://www.smdc.army.mil/RTS.html), accessed 9

December 2004.

37 Communication with Vandenberg Air Force Base, 4

October 2004.

38 Communications with Chief, Policy & Business

Relations Office, NASA/GSFC/Wallops Flight Facility,

19 September 2004.

39 Las Cruces Sun-News “New Mexico Aims to Be

Location for Aerospace Competition,” 10 March 2004.

40 Communication with Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport, 24

September 2004.

41 South Texas Spaceport News September 2004, Texas

Spacelines Inc., (http://home.att.net/~txspacelines/wsb/html/view.cgi-home.html-.html), accessed

9 September 2004.

42 Communication with County Judge Simon Salinas, 20

September 2004.

Endnotes 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

50 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Endnotes
43 Communication with Southwest Regional Spaceport, 20

September 2004.

44 Communication with Aerospace Development Center, 23

September 2004.

45 Communications with Business Development Manager,

Aerospace & Marine Industry Programs International

Trade Division, 9 September 2004.

46 Pecos County Aerospace Development Center Technical

Description, accessed 30 September 2004.

47 Peterson Space Battlelab To Demonstrate Near Space

Maneuvering Vehicle, SpaceDaily, (http://www.spacedaily.com/news/rocketscience-04f.html), accessed 9

September 2004.

48 Miller, Dennie, “Pecos County enters space age with

testing facilities,” The Desert Mountain Times,

(http://www.dmtimes.net/blog/Business/_archives/2004/2

/26/23095.html), 26 February 2004.

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 51
Page 7

Atlas 5 launch, courtesy of Lockheed Martin

Corporation

Page 8

Delta 2 launch, courtesy of The Boeing Company

Page 9

Delta 4 launch, courtesy of The Boeing Company

Page 10

Minotaur launch, courtesy of Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Pegasus in flight, courtesy of Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Page 11

Taurus launch, courtesy of Orbital Sciences

Corporation

Titan 4 launch, courtesy of Lockheed Martin

Corporation

Zenit 3SL launch, courtesy of Sea Launch

Company, LLC

Page 12

Aquarius mission profile, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Aquarius vehicle illustration, courtesy of Space

Systems/Loral

Eaglet and Eagle, courtesy of E’Prime Aerospace

Corporation

Page 13

FALCON, courtesy of Lockheed Martin

Corporation

NLV, courtesy of Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Page 14 

Eagle SLV, courtesy of Microcosm, Inc.

QuickReach, courtesy of AirLaunch, LLC

Page 15 

Zenit 3SLB, courtesy of Sea Launch Company,

LLC and Space International Services

Page 16

Black Brandt launch, courtesy of Bristol

Aerospace Limited

Oriole, courtesy of DTI Associates

Terrier-Orion, courtesy of DTI Associates

Page 17

HYSR, courtesy of Lockheed Martin Corporation

Page 19

Neptune, courtesy of Interorbital Systems

K-1, courtesy of Kistler Aerospace Corporation

Page 20

Rocketplane XP, courtesy of Rocketplane Limited,

Inc.

Page 21

SpaceShipOne, courtesy of Scaled Composites,

LLC

Falcon 1, courtesy of Space Exploration

Technologies Corporation

Page 22

Michelle-B, courtesy of TGV Rockets, Inc.

Xerus vehicle concept, courtesy of XCOR

Aerospace

Page 23

Space Shuttle, courtesy of NASA

Page 24

MPV deploying ERV, courtesy of Space Launch

Corporation

ERV first stage ignition, courtesy of Space

Launch Corporation

Typical RASCAL mission profile, courtesy of

Space Launch Corporation

Page 25

CEV, courtesy of The Boeing Company

Page 26

SpaceDev hybrid propulsion system, courtesy of

SpaceDev, Inc.

Page 27

RS-84 liquid engine, courtesy of RocketDyne

Propulsion & Power

Aerospike engine static fire test, courtesy of

Garvey Spacecraft Corporation

Page 28

Microcosm’s liquid engine, courtesy of

Microcosm, Inc.

SpaceX Merlin engine, courtesy of Space

Exploration Technologies Corporation

XCOR 5,000 pound-thrust LOX/kerosene engine,

courtesy of XCOR Aerospace

Photo Credits 2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts

52 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

Photo Credits
Page 29

Gryphon with orbiter, courtesy of Andrews Space

& Technology, Inc.

Page 30

IPD test at NASA’s Stennis Space Center, courtesy of NASA

X-43A/Hyper X, courtesy of NASA

Page 33

California Spaceport, courtesy of Spaceport

Systems International

Page 35

Kodiak Launch Complex, courtesy of the Alaska

Aerospace Development Center

Page 36

Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, courtesy of the

Virginia Commercial Spaceflight Authority

Page 37

Mojave Airport, courtesy of the East Kern Airport

District

Page 38

SpaceShipOne, courtesy of Scaled Composites

LLC

Launch Complex-46, courtesy of the Florida

Spaceport Authority

Page 40

Cape Canaveral Spaceport, courtesy of NASA

Edwards Air Force Base, courtesy of NASA

Page 42

Reagan Test Site - Omelek Island, possible

launch home of SpaceX, courtesy of DoD

Vandenberg Air Force Base, courtesy of USAF

Page 43

Wallops Flight Facility, courtesy of NASA

Page 44

White Sands Missile Range, courtesy of NASA

Page 45

Map of Nevada Test Site, courtesy of the Nevada

Test Site Development Corporation

Oklahoma Spaceport, courtesy of the Oklahoma

Space Industry Development Authority

Page 47

Southwest Regional Spaceport, courtesy of the

state of New Mexico

Page 48

Spaceport Washington, courtesy of Grant County

International Airport

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Photo Credits

Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 53