United States 

Department of 

Agriculture 

Forest Service 

Energy P 

Southeastern Forest 

Experiment Station 

Research Paper 

Patrick B. Durst 

S E-265 
Energy Plantations in the 

Republic of the Philippines 

Patrick B. Durst 

Special Projects Coordinator 

Forestry Support Program 

International Forestry Staff 

USDA Forest Service 

Washington, DC 
Contents 

Page 

Introduction......... ............... 

Organizations and Acconpl i shments ............. 

2.1 National Electrification Administration Programs ... 1 Uendro Thermal Power Program .......... 2.1.2 TANGLAW Program ................ 2.2 Farm Systems Developnent Corporation Programs ..... 2.3 Ministry of Human Settlements Programs ........ 2.4 Bureau of Forest Development Programs ......... 2.5 Other Government Programs ............... 2.6 Non-Government Initiatives .............. 

Plantation Establishment .................. 

3.1 Plantation Location .................. 3.2 Species Selection ................... 3.3 Site Preparation ................... 3.4 Planting ....................... 3.5 Weeding, ....................... 3.6 Fertilization ..................... 3.7 Labor and Material Requi renents ............ 

Plantation Maintenance and Protection ........... 

GrowthandYield.......... ............ 

Harvestiny ......................... 

6.1 Tools and Equipment .................. 6.2 Production Rates ................... 6.3 Labor Costs ...................... 

Forwarding ......................... 

7.1 Initial Forwarding Plans ............... 7.2 Current Practices ................... 7.3 Future Alternatives .................. 

WoodTransport ....................... 

8.1 Truck Hauling ..................... 8.2 Cable Transport .................... 8.3 Hauling with Carabao Carts .............. 8.4 Cart and Truck Roads ................. 
-- Page 

9. Research Needs ....................... 9.1 Species Trials .................... 9.2 Economics of PI antat ion Stocking ........... 9.3 Economic Evaluation of Plantation Inputs ....... 9.4 Harvesting Studies .................. 9.5 Nutrient Cycling Studies ............... 9.6 Forwarding and Transport Studies ........... 

10. Concluding Observations .................. 

11. Acknowledgments ...................... 

12. References ......................... 

Acronyms Appeari ng Frequently i n thi s Paper 

BFD - Bureau of Forest Development 

CASUKECO IV - Camarines Sur Electric Cooperative IV 

F ICELCO - Fi rst Catanduanes El ect ri c Cooperat i ve 

FSDC - Farm Systems Devel opment Corporat i on 

I NEC - 11 ocos Norte El ect ri c Cooperative 

ISELCO I1 - Isabela Electric Cooperative I1 

I TP - Industrial Tree Plantation 

MHS - Ministry of Human Settlements 

NEA - National Electrification Administration 

PANELCO I - Pangasinan Electric Cooperative I 

PICOP - Paper Industries Corporation of the Philippines 
ABSTRACT 

Development and management of pl antat i ons ta 

support wood-energy programs Rave been aggressively 

promoted in the Philippines since 1979, Over 

60,000 hectares of energy plantations have been 

planted under government-supported programs, This 

paper documents the problems and accomplishments of 

these programs, and describes plantation estaMishment , nai ntenance, protection, growth and yi el d , harvesting, and wood transport, Research priori - 

ties far improving energy farm operations are also 

suggested, 

1. Int roduct i on 

Like most devel oping countries with 

large populations, the Philippines will 

be confronted with fuelwood shortages-- 

possibly severe shortages--wi thi n the 

next two decades, Al ready, fuel wood is 

scarce in parts of the northern and 

central Phi 1 i ppi nes, 

The laryely rural Philippine population of 55 million depends heavily on 

f i rewood, especi a1 ly for cooking, Surveying fuelwood consumption in I1 ocos 

Norte, Hyman (1985) estimated annual 

iqood use at 3,172 kg/household (ahout 

three-for~rths of a sol id rl3/per~onlyr!, 

Estimates of 0,76 to O,H7 m3/person/yr 

have heen nade for other rural areas in 

the Philippines (Wiersun 1982), Cou~trywide, household fueliqood use is conservatively estirlated at 33,s r~illion solid 

n3 annually and is expected to rise to 

33,5 r~illion solid r13 by the year 2000 

(iievi 11 a 1985). Indust ri a1 fuel wood and 

charcoal use for generating electricity 

and steam, smelting, and drying is 

expected to rise even more drdnatically, 

Total industri a1 use is projected to 

i ncrease sixfold between 1985 and 2000, 

from 5.0 million to 30,0 million solid 

m3/y r (Kevi 11 a B985), 

Projections made by the Philippine 

Forestry Development Center suggest that 

fuel wood suppl i es wi l l 1 ag behi nd 

desired demand by at least 82 million 

sol id 1x3 annual ly by the year 2000 if 

the present course of Philippine 

forestry is mai ntai ned (Revi 1 l a 1985). 

Continued low petroleum prices may mean 

industrial fuelwood demand wi 11 grow at 

a slightly slower pace than previously 

anticipated, hut denand i s s t i l l likely 

to outpace s~~ppl ies by a significant 

rlaryin, 

Kecogni z i ng the Pile l wood needs of 

tile rapidly increasing popirl ation, and 

hoping to substitute wood for i~tported 

fuel in ryany industrial processes, the 

Phi 1 i ppi ne Governnent has expanded fuel - 

wood illantations in recent years, 

Sirni 1 arly, the private sector has 

responded to the increased demand for 

fuelwood. Tree farming has become profitable for a number of private investors 

with access to land, 

This paper focuses on efforts by 

Phi 1 i ppi ne government agencies to devel op 

energy plantations, Fi rst, institutional arrangements that support tree 

farming are identified, and planting 

accompl i shments are documented, Pl antation management, including establishment, maintenance, protection, harvesti ny, and wood transport, is then 

described i n general, Particular attention is focused on harvesting, forwardi ng, and wood transport, because 

these activities have been poorly documented up to now, Finally, research 

priorities for strengthening tree 

farmSng operations are suggested, 
2. Organizations and Accomplishments 

The principal governn~nt ag~tnci es 

sgpporting energy pl antation developrlent 

i'l the Philippines are the riatirlnal 

Electrificatior~ Adninistration (NEA), 

the Farm Systems Devel nptxnt Gorporat i on 

(FSUC), the Ministry of Human Setclernents (ElHSf , and the Bureau of Forest 

Development (BFO) . 

2.1 National Electrification 

Admi ni st ration Programs 

The NEA manages two rnajor woodenergy programs. The Dendro Thermal 

Power Program uses wood to generate 

electricity for rural power grids. The 

TANGLAW Program produces wood for a 

number of markets and uses. 

2.1.1 Dendro Thermal Power Program 

The Dendro Thermal Power Program is 

the better known of the NEA's two major 

wood energy programs becauw its progress has been documented by several 

authors (Adri ano 1982; Denton 1983; 

Durst 1986a, 1986b; liarlow and Adriano 

l(480). The progran plans 60 to 70 woodf i red el ect ri ci ty-generat i ng pawerpl ants 

--each with sup?ort i ng energy pl antations of 1,100 ha or more. 

benefits, infrastructure developnent , and a guaranteed market for the farmers' 

wood. 

Over 8,000 ha of plantations have 

been established under the Dendro Thermal 

Power Program (NEA 1984b). Although 

planting success has improved steadily 

since 1980 (table I), survival and cost 

effectiveness vary dramatically among 

the 43 project sites (table 2). Thirteen sites have not yet established 100 

hd of plantations, and five sites have 

survival rates below 10 percent. Rut 

six sites now have more than 400 ha of 

estahl ished plantations, and nine sites 

boast s u r v i v a l rat~s of over 80 percent. 

Project managers att rihut^ successes to security of land tenure, provision of loans to farrl~ers, suitable 

sites for growing trees, and yuardnteed 

markets. Fai 1 ures are usual ly attri buted to free-roaming livestock or unfavorabl e soi 1 conditions. Inadequate 

institutiondl support and poor oryanization are also responsible for failures 

at some project sites, Furthermore, the 

country's macroeconomic probl ems have 

forced the NEA to discontinire its farrner 

1 oan prograrn (table 1). 

Table 1.--Loan releases and planting accomplishments at 

44 Philippine dendrothermal sites, 1980-84 

Nood to supply the powerplants is 

grown hy upland farmers recruited by tho 

NEA rural $1 ect ri c coo~erat i ves that 

manage the projects locally. Farmers 

are organized in associations of 10 

farlilies each. The tree farmer associations are eligible to lease up to 

100 ha of land (10 halfamilyf from the 

government at the concessionary rate of 

0.50 peso (less than $0.10)/ha/yr. The 

NEA loans money to the rurdl electric 

cooperatives, who, in turn, loan farmers 

up to 3,500 pesos (8467 at 1980 exchange 

rates)/ha to help defray the cost of 

plantation establishment and management. 

The loans, which carry interest charges 

of 12 percent per year, are repayable in 

12 years, including an initial 4-year 

grace period. Assistance is also given 

to farmers in the technical aspects of 

pl anti ng and managi ng trees. Other 

i ncent i ves i ncl ude heal th and medical 

NEA loan Area Area 

Year releases planted survivingJ Survival 

Million pesos - - - - ha - - - - - - % 

Total 54.95 17,827 8,017 45 .0 

aNEA computes area surviving based on number of 

trees per hectare relative to full stocking of 10,000 

trees; thus, a hectare with only 5,000 live trees is 

counted as one-half of a surviving hectare. 

Source: Dendro Thermal Development Office, National 

Electrification Administration, Philippines. 
Tab1 e 2 ,--Cost ef frecti veness of reforestation expenditures at Phi 1 i ppi ne dendrothemal sites, 1980-84 

NunSer Cost ?er Cost per 

Cost-effect~ve o F 1980-24 Area Area pl apt& s Jrt?virig 

Group sites 1 can eases ci auted survl VI nga SJTVI v31 hectare qectare 

Mi l 1 I on 1984 pesos . - - - ha - - - - ui 

- - - - 1984 pesos - - 

~ost effect ~ve" 13 29.55 6,525 4,737 72.6 4,529 6,238 

Moderately effect?veC 13 40.17 7,860 3,057 38.9 5,151 13,140 

Least effect ived i 7 25.66 3,442 223 6.5 7,455 115,067 

Ail Sites 4 4 35.38 i 7,827 8,017 45 ,O 5 ,35Q i1,39" 

"see table I, footnote a, 

Sites are grouped accordjng to peso expenditures per s~rvi vi ng hectare: 

"ies than 10,000 pesos spent per surviving hectare. 

'~etween 1U,000 and 20,000 pesos spent per surviving hectare. 

dovet- 20,000 pesos spent per survl vi ng hectare. 

2 .1 .2 TANGLAW Program 

The TANGLAM Program, a1 so admi nistered by the NEA, has "'Family Tree 

Farrn" and "School Pl anti ngs" components, 

Under the Family Tree Farm coryponent, 

farmer associations are similar to those 

in the Dendro Thermal Power Program, 

except that only rninirna'i assistance is 

y rovided for plantation establ i shment 

and rnanagernent. No financing is 

offered, a 

to 2 kg/ha 

- 1 eucocepha 

nd material support is limited 

of gi ant i pi 1 -i pi l (Leucaena 

la (Lam,) de Wit) seeds, 

Success ofxhe program depends on providing markets for the wood that is produced, Depending on the location of the 

projects, wood or charcoal may be sold 

to industries (e.g., smelters, drying 

facilities, cement manufacturers, and 

pottery makers), marketed in the cities, 

or exported, In addition, farmers may 

sell wood to dendrothermal powerpl ants 

with deficient fuelwood suppl ies, 

Ky the end of 1984, after 2 years 

of operation, more than 360 tree farrners 

associ at i ons had heen organi zed and 

18,000 ha had reportedly been pl anted 

(Surtida 1984), Reliable surveys have 

not been conducted to deter~~ine the area 

of surviving pl antations, 

Under TANGLAW ' s School PI anti ngs 

Project, 2,000 pesos ($154 at 1983 

exchange rates)/ha are loaned to ayricultural coll eges, State coll eyes, and 

other schools for planting and managing 

tree farms. As with the Family Tree 

Farm component, marketing strategies 

depend on the location of the plantation, Plore than 1,609 ha had been 

planted by schools by the end of 1984 

(Surtida 1983), 

2.2 Farm Systems Development 

Corporation Programs 

The FSOC is a government-operated 

corporation that provides technical and 

f i nanci a1 support for rural development . Since 1980, the FSDC has actively promoted tree farming as a means of 

increasing rural farmers' income. 

In mi d-1984, the FSDC reported 

2,341 ha of surviving energy plantations, mostly in the western Visayas 

and I'lindanao (NEA 1984a), The FSOC tree 

farmers are organi zed in associations 

similar to those in the NEA programs. 

The FSUC loans money, provides advice 

and funds for buildiqg charcoal kilns, 

transports wood, and nakes narket contacts for farmers. Wood from tree farms 

is converted to charcoal for sale in the 

cities or for export, The FSIIC program 

has been less successful than the two 

NEA programs because loan resources are 

more limited and the FSDC lacks the 

organizational advantages of working 

with the rural electric cooperatives and 

school s, 
2.3 Ministry of Human Settlements 

Programs 

The PlHS promotes energy plantations 

in conjunction with its hausing and 

resettlement programs and the Kilusang 

Kabirhayan at Kaunl aran Li vel i hood 

Program. Over 2,700 ha had been planted 

by mid-1984, Eight hundred ha have been 

planted in Negros Occidental alone, 

Si gni fi cant areas have a1 so been pl anted 

in the Ilocos region, in central Luzon, 

and in southern and central rlindanao 

(NEA 1984a). 

2.4 Bureau of Forest Development 

Programs 

The RFI) reports rfevel opi ng 22,750 

ha of fuelwnod plantations since 1979. 

rlore than one-fourth are in the province 

of Cagayan in northeastern Luzon (NEA 

1984a). The BFU uses a "communal tree 

farm" approach that provides up1 and farm 

fami 1 ies with technical assistance, 

seeds and seed1 ings, and legal access to 

land. 

The BFD also allows private compani es to develop energy p l a n t a t i ons on 

government land under its Industri a1 

Tree Pl antation (ITP) Program, Tax 

exemptions, credit priority , export pri vileges, and other incentives are provided a1 ong with low-cost 50-year land 

leases. Only a few ITP 1 icenses have 

been granted, however, and little or no 

planting has been accomplished. 

2.5 Other Government Programs 

A few provincial , munici pal , and 

barangay (vi 11 age) governments are developing tree farms, usually in response to 

di rectives from Manila requi ring local 

governments to establ i sh energy pl antations. Compliance is far short of 

universal, however, and successful local 

government plantations are seldom seen. 

The local programs usual ly lack financial 

resources, technical expertise, and a 

clear definition of target beneficiaries. 

2.6 Nongovernment Ini t i at i ves 

Several foreign assistance organi - 

zations (e,g,, U.S. Agency for International Development, World Bank, Asian 

Oevel opment Bank, and private voluntary 

oryani zat ions) now support energy plantation development with varying degrees 

of success. In addition, a growing 

number of private corporations and individual s are producing trees for fuelwood, 

especi a1 ly in areas where dependabl e 

markets exist (e,y,, llocos tabaccogrowing region, western Vi sayas sugarproduci ng region, and areas surroundi ng 

dendrothermal pl ants, smef ters, potteries, etc,), These private initiatives 

are often more successful than government projects because trees are planted 

on better quality land and more protection is given to young plantations. 

Because nongovernment plantations are so 

widely dispersed, however, no accurate 

estimates of their total area or standing 

volume are available, 

3. Plantation Establishment 

Pl antat ion establ i shrnent procedures 

vary throughout the Philippines with 

climatic, edaphic, social, and economic 

d? fferences, Nonetheless, common acti Yitfes and experiences can be presented, 

3.1 Plantation Location 

With2a population density of 184 

people/km , intense pressures are placed 

on the Philippine land base. As a 

result , most qua1 i ty 1 owl and i s occupied 

by agricultural fields, industrial faci lities, houses, or roads. Energy plantations and associated forestry production activities are usually relegated to 

roadless sites, which are steep, rocky, 

and infertile, 

Surveys of NEA and FSOC energy 

plantation sites reveal that trees are 

often planted on 40- to 60-degree slopes. 

Soils with pH below 5.0 predominate at 

some locations, Dry seasons typical ly 

last 5 to 7 months at many project 

sites, The lack of roads and trai 1s at 

nlountairl sites complicates seedling 

distribution, silvicultural activities, 

and marketing of wood. 

Elost land now being developed by 

NEA, FSDC, and MHS programs was previously under the management of the BFD. 
The BFU has frequently been accused of 

refusing to relinquish control of its 

better lands to other agencies. 

In some areas, powerful politicians 

have influenced pt anners to locate projects so as to provide maximum efilploynent and benefits for their constituents 

or hometowns. Not surprisingly, site 

selection based more on politics than on 

s i 1 vi cs has general ly produced poor 

results, 

3.2 Species Selection 

Giant ipi 1 -ipi 1 is the most conmnn 

species grown in Philippine energy plantations, making up at least 90 percent 

of the total area planted. The tree 

grows rapidly, fixes nitrogen iq tho 

soi 1, is easy to manage, and coppices 

readily after harvesting, In addition, 

its wood makes excel lent fuel and charcoal, and its leaves make high-protein 

1 i vestock feed (National Research 

Council 1984), Leucaena grows poorly, 

however, at a1 ti tudes above 500 m or 

h here soil pH is below 5.5. 

In the early years of energy planat i on devel opment , many sites pl anted 

'ith ipil-ipil were better suited for 

other species. The results were sometimes disastrous. Of 1,031 ha planted 

at one dendrothermal project site, for 

example, only 10 ha survive, 

More effort is now being made to 

diversify. Trials have been established 

in four areas of the country to systematical ly assess the potential of 18 

other species, After 2 years, pu Gmel ina 

arborea Roxb., Acacia a u r i c u l i f o r m i s A, 

Cunn. ex Benth., Acacia mangium Willd., 

Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud., 

Alkizia lebbek (I.) Benth., Calliandra 

--- 

calothyrsus -- ~eissn., -- cassia - spectabi ----- 1 is 

DC,, and several eucalypts are demonstrati ng the most potential, 

3.3 Site Preparation 

Although secondary Forests are 

occasional ly converted to energy farms, 

plantations are usual ly establ i shed on 

grdsslands or hr~lsijy areas. Therefore, 

clearing can tisilally be acconplished 

without chain saws or heavy equipment. 

Competing vegetation is reifloved 

froin planting sites by slashing it with 

bolos (machetes). Slashing is often 

follo\red by burning. Although most 

sites are too steep or rocky to permit 

it, plowi~g has been successful in some 

areas (Cadaweng 1985). Plowing is 

costly, but it effectively reduces competition and allows farmers to grow food 

crops during the year following plantation establishment, 

In some areas, farmers dig holes 

for the seed1 ings several weeks prior to 

the rainy season so that planting can 

pr~ceed quickly when the rains begin. 

3.4 Planting 

Virtually all tree planting in the 

Philippines is done by hand. The 

spaci ng nost often recomvendsd for 

energy plantations is 1 n x 1 q, or 7 L~I,~JV I\ r i () trees/ha, Best swvi val is 

attained when container-grown seedlings 

are planted, but direct seeding is more 

common at most plantation sites, Rareroot seed1 i ngs have been pl anted successfully at a few locations but are not 

used extensively. Where soil and water 

conditions are favorable, di rect seeding 

can be just as successful as planting 

seedlings, and it is much more econornical because nursery operations are unnecessary. Direct seeding sometimes 

results in stands that are overstocked, 

however, because farmers tend to plant 

several seeds at each hi 11. With good 

germination, a stand of 20,000 to 30,000 

stems/ha may result, and few of the 

stems will grow to desired diameters. 

In many places, a crop of upland 

rice, corn, beans, or root crops is 

planted before or simultaneously with 

the seed1 ings and harvested before the 

tree canopy closes, These crops provide 

food and additional income for farmers, 

which helps offset their out1 ays for 

planting, By cultivating crops siwultaneously with trees, competing weeds and 

grasses are more effectively suppressed. 
In addition, where such crops are 

planted, farrlers tend to he more active 

i n protect i ng thei r pl antat i ons f rorrl 

fire and yrdziny livestock, 

3.5 Weeding 

Plantations must be weeded frequent 1 y unt i 1 trees reach a hei y ht aF 

1,5 to 2 m, or unti 1 the canopy begins 

to close and the trees are able to cornpete effectively with grasses and weeds, 

Tenacious qrasses such as coyon - 

--- indrica (L.) ~eauv.) and 

accharum spontaneum (La)) are 

usual ly the most trodblesome. .At' ieast 

three weedings about 2 months apart are 

necessary before trees overtake the 

grasses. On poorer sites, several more 

cleanings may be requi red. 

Grasses and weeds are customarily 

cut by hand with curved grass-cutting 

blades or bolos, but at least one project is having considerable success with 

herbicides (Cadaweng 1985), After 

grasses and weeds are cut, they are 

placed at the base of the young trees 

for r~ulch. 

3,6 Ferti l ization 

Various fert i 1 i zer formul at i ons a~d 

appl i cat i on rates are recomnended at 

plantation sites, The recomnendat ions 

are often ignored, however, because of 

the high cost of fertilizer, A partial 

solution suggested by Johnson (1985) 

call s for more careful matching of species to sites, thus rni nimi zi ng the need 

for fertilizer. 

3.7 Labor and Material Requirements 

Labor and material requi rements for 

plantat ion establ i shment vary considerably with conditions at each planting 

site and with the method of establishment. Rased on 4 years "experience at 

44 project locations, the MEA Dendro 

Thermaf Development Offi ce has estimated 

the average requi rements for establ i shi ng leucaena plantations (table 3). 

Simi 1 ar requi renents have been observed 

for other species, 

4, PI antation Maintenance and 

Protect ion 

After trees reach 2 m in height, a 

mininun of maintendqce is required, A 

merlber of the tree farirl Fani ly may occasionally visit the plantation to guard 

against wandering l ivestock, wildfi res, 

and i l legal woodcutters, but plantations 

are seldom checked more than two or 

three times a week after the first 

growing season, 

In areas of high fire danger, some 

farmers build firebreaks around their 

plantations, but most do not, Firebreaks are seldom more than 2 or 3 m 

wide and are rarely adequate for 

stopping major fires, 

Serious psyllid ( 

cubana Crawford) infestations are now 

being encountered in many leucaena plantations, Although the defoliators can 

be control led by spraying with systemics 

( Nitrogen Fi xi ng Tree Associ at i on 1986) , most farmers are reluctant to invest in 

insecticides to protect trees, They 

prefer to allow the infestation to run 

its course, confident that the trees 

will survive, Most trees do survive, 

but growth is severely curtailed by the 

defoliations, 

Pl anners and project managers have 

frequently discussed thinning options 

for plantations (Dugan 1985; Forest 

Engineering Incorporated 1984; Paper 

Industries Corporation of the 

Philippines 1985). Thinning would be 

beneficial , especial ly where di rectseeded stands have over 10,000 stems/ha. 

To date, however, very tittle thinning 

has occurred, Many managers are afraid 

that encouragi ng farmers to thin wi 11 

l ead to overcutti ny, Conversely, many 

farrners are reluctant to cut any trees 

before they reach final harvest age, 

since they bel ieve that all stems--even 

those in dense stands--will reach a 

desired large diameter if allowed to 

grow, Others feel the returns will not 

offset the labor and marketing costs 

associated with thinning, 
Table 3.--Labor and material requirements per hectare for three methods of 

establishing leucaena energy plantations in the Philippines 

Activity 

Di rect Cont ai ner-grown Rare-root 

seedi ng seedl i ngs seed1 i ngs 

Nursery Establ i shment 

Clearinglbrushiny 

Nursery bed preparation 

Top soi 1 collection 

Baggi nyjpotti ng 

Sowing 

Mai ntenance and care 

Lifting 

Trirnrni ng 

Mud puddl i ng/packi ng 

Plantation Establishment 

Cl earing/brushing 

Staking 

Hole digging 

PI anti ng 

Transporting seedlings 

Plantation Maintenance 

Fertilizer application 

Pesticide application 

Fi rst weedi ng 

Second weedi ng 

Thi rd weedi ng 

Fi rebreak construct ion 

Total 

Materi a1 s 

Seeds 

Plastic bags 

Fertilizer 

Pesticide 

2.5 kg 1.5 kg 2.0 kg 

- - 12,000 pieces - - 

1 bag 1 bag 1 bag 

1 qt 1 qt 1 qt 

Source: Dendro Thermal ~evel opment Off ice, National Elect ri f icat ion 

Administration, Philippines. 
5, Growth and Yield 

Growth rates of energy pl antations 

vary tremendous] y, dependi ng on the 

quality sf management and the site, On 

experimental plods, growth often averayes well over 100 m3 (40 tjlhalyr 

(Bawayan and Senana 19773, and this 

level has been approached under operational conditions on favorable sites 

( NEA 1985). 1 Experience at NEA pl antations indicates growth rates range 

from less than 20 m3 (8 t)jhalyr to 

90 m3 (36 t)/ha/yr (table 4), Growth 

averages between 41) and 60 mJ (16-24 t)/ 

ha annually (Garid-ie and Moore 1985; 

b4acOicken 1385; MA 1985; Van Den Beldt 

b9134), 

b~less otk~rw~se ~ndrcated, %"refers do a stacked 

cubrc meter, or stere, of wooa, The weight of a 

stacked m3 ot giant rp:l-ipil wood averages 400 kg. 

Table 4.--Estimates of growth at selected National Electrification Administration 

energy pa antati onr in the Phi 1 ippi nes 

Nane 

and 

l ocat i on 

ANTECO, Antique 53 33-50 38 40 43 

CASUKECO I'd, Camarines Sur N A 80-98 5 13 83 7 7 

FICELCO, Catanduanes 3 1 48-63 N A 213 36 

ISECO, Ilocos 83 6 1-80 7 5 63 7 3 

[lean 46 49-63 52 49 5 0 

_-- __--- - - - ----- -------------- ---.------...---- -------- ----- - ------ _----- -- - 

NA = Not available, 

Istacked m3 (steresj averaging 400 kg green weight, 

Sources: Column A, Gaudie and Moore (1985); Column H, MacDickenj 1985); Column C, NEA 

(1985) ; Column D, Van Den Beldt (1984). 
Under average conditions, trees 

that are to he utilized for Firewood or 

charcoal can be harvested after 3 years. 

Subsequent coppice crops are harvestable 

after 2 years. Pl antat ions prodlrcirlg 

fuel for dendrodhermal powerplants are 

allowed to grow 3 to 5 years before the 

first harvest, Ry then, trees normally 

range froil 5 to 13 c1-i in diameter at 

breast height (d.h,h.), depending QQ 

stand density, site quality, dnd growing 

conditions. Coppice crops reach harvestable size in 2 do 4 years, 

6, Marvesting 

Most energy plantations are clearcut 15 to 25 cm above the ground at time 

of harvest, Small branches and tops are 

trimmed from the stems and left in the 

field where the trees are felled, 

If the trees are sold directly as 

fuelwood, they are carried or dragged to 

the roadside where they are bucked and 

stacked. If charcoal production is 

desired, trees are forwarded to kilns 

before bucking, 

6.1 foals and Equipment 

Harvesti~g of energy plantations in 

the Philippines is nearly altdays done 

with chain sans, bolos, or both, 

P/(any of the larger operations 

employ chain saws, primarily to speed up 

harvestiny'activities when contracts 

require wood to be delivered by a specific date, Chain saws Filay also he used 

when labor is temporarily in short 

supply. 

At some pl ant at i ons (e, g, , CASURECO 

IV, Gamarines Sur), trees are felled by 

chain saws, then limbed and trimmed by 

l aborers using bolos, At FICELCO 

(Catanduanes) , trees are fel l ed and 

limbed by bolo; chain saws are used only 

to buck logs to the length desired by 

the buyer, 

Original plans cal led for farmers 

at a1 l dendrothernal project sites to 

harvest their trees with rented chain 

saws, At FANELCO I (Pangasinan), 

however, where the most harvesting 

experien~g has been gained so far, far9- 

ers have abandoned the use of chain saws 

in favor sf bolos, The high costs of 

fuel, along with unfamiliarity with 

chain-saw operation and maintenance, are 

identified as the main reasons for 

v~aqting to return to bolo harvesting. 

Chronl"ca1ly dull and improperly adjusted 

chains, broken chains, and poorly t~lraec-l 

engines are common prohlenq, 

Str~dies hy Hodan and Associates, 

Inc, (1385) an4 the International tahor 

Oryani ration (Laarnan and others 1961) 

support the rise of handtools over chain 

sdws for harvesting snall trees, Hodan 

and Associ ate<, Xnc, (1985) recorlmend 

the fol lowing guide1 ines far harvesting 

fuelwood plantations: 

*Trees up to 8 crn in diameter 

should be felled, topped, and 

bucked with bolos, 

*Axes should be used to fell 

and top trees with diameters 

greater than 8 cm, 

.Row saws should be used for 

bucking trees larger than 8 

cm in diameter, 

.Gutting with chain sans is 

ni~h nore expensi ve than 

cutting with holos, axes, 

and how saws; therefore, the 

rrse of chain saws should he 

a vo i ded , 

Al thorrgh in the International Lakor 

Organi zation studies, handtool s were 

found to be cost competitive with small 

chaiq saws, bow saws were reconmended 

over axes or bolos because of faster 

ci~tting speed and smaller kerf (Lanrman 

and others 1981), The International 

labor Oryani zation studies were conducted in plantations of Albizia falca- ---- ---- tari a (L.)' Fosb., where tree di arneters -. 

are somewhat greater and wood is less 

dense than in most energy plantations, 

however, Additional research with 
sl-ictl 1 -ti i ai?i;l+,er trees an4 1+r75t3r S~F?C I ei 

is neces5arj to reconci 1 e tti>parent 

i rlcorlS3 stenil rts betwecn t'7~ rec0171.1~rfddticin-; i>t tl~e tior-fa~ and 'issiici ates, 

Inc., dnd '?ternational "nbt~r Jrgdnizat i on st teails , 

Ci t iri:~ resiil ts of the t-iociam and 

Associ?tes, inc,, studis, the YEA has 

provi -tcd s ,ilkt crmperat i ves ;.ti th bow slws 

nnd axes. kcse tools hav? not been 

atdide7y tJ-istr~i>uterf, however, 2nd it 

reinai 7s to hr seen how we1 l tiley wi 11 bc 

nccepted t-ty tree fdrirlers dfiti lahorers. 

Tab1 $3 5.--1CSk14 pi~r~hdse prices ot tool s irnd ~III pmerlt 

used for harv~sting enf3ryy piantations In the 

Phil~pprnes 

Eqiii prient Purchds~ pri CP 

Pcs;(~s Dol 1 ars 

Oslo ji,rachetr-) 50 2.70 

AX 150 8-11 

Bow SdW 2oii 10.!11 

Chain saw 

Stla11 (14 to 1h In. bar) 6 ,liijU 324.32 

Larye 14,000 756.76 

Source: Hodam and Associates, Inc. (1985). 

6.2 Production Rates 

Harvesting production rates vary 

with the skill, strength, and stactina of 

operators and 1 aborers; the eyui pment 

used; the topogra~hy of the glantdtion; 

the density and size of the trees; the 

cl irnate; and other factors. 

Studies conducted by Hodam and 

Associates, Inc,, (1985) indicate that a 

laborer can cut, top, buck, and stack an 

averaye of 2.5 m3 (1 t) woodlday with 

handtool s. Fi el d experience at PANELCO I, 

Rowever, h<js 5hown that I2borers 

dverage only 1.5 ni (50U ng)/day if harvestiqg with bolos alone (8edano 1c485). 

Harvesting stands of averdge yiei d (2cli) 

inj/ha after 3 years of grl~wti~) reqiiire5 

dbilijt 135 w~rker-days/h;t, 

At FICELCO, laborers using bolos 

fell an avorage of 120 trees (8 to 13 ctl 

in didneter)/day, About 50 trees are 

1 inbed and topped per day by each 

7 akorer, 

At CASURECU IV, each worker fells 

an average (,f 3~ 1.1' ~o~li~idy with a 

chdin saw. Otl3er workers then trin and 

stack the wood by hand. 

6.3 Labor Costs 

Laborers who harvest energy plantations dre paid in one of two ways: 

(a) based on a daily wage scale, or (b) 

accordi ng to work perforined ("pakyao" 

systen). 

Oai ly wages for wood cutters most 

often reflect the prevailing rates for 

unskilled labor, This rate ranges from 

20 pesos ($1,08)fday, or less, to as 

nuch as 35 pesos ($1.89)/day. Some 

governnent-supported projects pay thei r 

1 ahorers accordi ny to ni nimur-i wage standards (36 pesos or $1.95, per day in 

1985), even though such rates are often 

significantly higher than those paid by 

private enterprises, which often ignore 

1 egi sl ated wage standards in rural 

areas. Chain-saw operators are considered semi ski 11 ed and cur:~mand cfai 1 y 

wages ranging from 5 to 15 pesos ($0.27 

to $0.81) above those for other laborers, 

The pakyao nethod of cor12ensat ion 

is preferred by project nanagers and 

adninistrators at most sites. The 

systen allows laborers to work at their 

own pace and set their own hours of 

work. At PAPjELCO I, where farmers are 

paid 43.33 pesos [82.34)/nL by the 

cooperative, sorne farr-lers reportedly 

subcontract the harvesting of thei r 

trees to other laborers, Usiny a pakyao 

system, tree fariners pay laborers 15 

to 20 pesos ($0.81 to $1.(18)/n3 for harvestiny. Laborers cuttiny 1.5 m3/day 

therefore earn 22.50 to 30.00 pesos 
($1 .22 to $1.62). The total labor cost 

of harvesting a hectare yielding 200 r-i5 

is 3,WO to 4,000 pesos ($162 to S2lii), 

All of the cooperatives operati~y 

dendrothermal powerpl ants now use the 

pakyao system to purchase wood on a 

vofune or weight basis. Prices range 

from 25 pesos ($1 ,?5)/r?3 at CASIJIIECO IV 

to 60 pesos (93.24)/mJ at INEC (ilocos 

Norte), delivered to roadside or iahleside loading points, These rate5 

increase to 30 pesos ($1.62) and -35 pe~r?~ 

($4,59), respectively, if wood is delivered to the powerplants, Payments conpensate both the stumpage value of the 

wood and the labor required to harve~t 

and ~wve it to as%~rlbly points or the 

powerplants. 

7, Forwarding 

Rugged topography, and the ldck of 

roads and trails, makes forwarding wood 

from its point of harvest to loading 

stations along roads or cableways one of 

the most chal 1 enyi nj tdsks at energy 

plantations. 

7.1 Initial Forwarding Plans 

The governme~t's early plans for 

forwarding called for the use of rnotordriven skyl ines at several plantat ions, 

These portable "feeder winches" were to 

forward wood to loading stations along 

the primary wood transport systems. The 

NEA made an initial purchase of 20 

winches from Austria in 1981 and 1982. 

The cost, in 1985 tertns, was nearly 

500,000 pesos ($27,001)) each. 

CASUKECO iV is the only coo~erative 

usiny the winches at this time. Project 

managers report forwarding an averdye of 

50 mi wood/day/unit. However, experience 

at CHSUKECO IV has shown that the winches 

take considerable time and skill to set 

up; that they are not easily transported 

to rugged, roadless areas; and that fuel 

and maintenance costs are significant. 

7.2 Current Practices 

Currently, most forwardi ng depends 

on manpower alone. Workers carry or 

skid logs down mountain slopes without 

soy ?nii?a'l or r~er,hct?icaf ass?;st,aw~, T ihP 1rri~f3"; j; 1'~(f7fflciift, tii~p r,oq5ijniq:j, 

t r llctr~ovc"r, tklcl 4-i Ff -t cii 1 ty sf p~an~nal I- ~rwarrli rg I~IP;IIIC that 

tret4ar:1~rs ar~ rtll ~ctar~t; to c:lt ';rp~c, 

~c~c~?~P(I fdr fron i;;skirp points r)r iq 

1 ^lcf?t iiiiis that re,~iii re crossi rig ~I-IIIP~.;P 

tcrtrri-tl'?, 

On7j a few ~xceptions to the CMBI~~~I 

,,rdct7 ce of r,~anu?i tijriqardl qy haw 3ePiJ 

observed. At the CASIMECO iV deqdrotner la l project, three opcratigns are 

siir-7~3irnes used to rwve wood to d truck 

ioadi rly point. Fro17 where it is harvested, wood is first carried a short 

distance to a hand-winch cable systerri, 

The hand winches, which have a cdpaci ty 

of ahout one-thi rd of a rq3, feed to 

notor-dri ven sky1 i nes (described above). 

Each skyl i ne carries between 1,s and 2 

m3/trip and deposits wood d i r e c t l y a t 4 

truck loading point. 

At Rolinao (PANELCO I), the cooperative uses trucks to help forward wood 

to loadi ng stations along the nonocable 

loops which serve as the primary transport system for the planta~,ion. The 

potential for forwarding wood by tr~~ck~ 

is limited, however, by the opportlmiti~r 

to construct roads within the 

plantation. 

7.3 Future Alternatives 

Sevzral aroposal s have heen 

advanced to help solve the fordarcling 

~roblern. The most notable include 

suggestions for hand winches, carabao 

(water buffalo) skidding, polyethylene 

pipe sl ides , carabao-powered cab1 e 

yardi qg, and small low-cost r~otor-dri ven 

"sdi ng" winches (Forest Engineering 

Incorporated 1984; Hodarn and Associates, 

Inc, 1985). 

In Ilasipiquena" s detailed studies 

(19821, carabao skidding proved attractive. His studies deterrfiined skidding 

standards for various distances, load 

sizes, gradients, and skidding devices 

(sledye, cone, pan). Skidding product ion ranged from 2.80 mJ/day under 

adverse conditions (skidding distance of 

500 my adverse slope of 20 percent, load 

size of 0.2 m3) to 17.94 m3/day under 
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he Philippines' financial crisis, new high investment cost, inflexibility 

arge-capaci ty trucks are nearly (despite planners' anticipations) , and 

mpossi ble to ohtai n. i nappropriateness for the admi ni strati ve 

and physical settings at some planPrivate trlrckers are hiref! to haul tations, Furthermore, the NEA and the 

wood at several plantations. Cont ractnrs l3DC lack personnel with experience to 

are paid 6.00 to 8.00 pesos ($0.32 to instal l, operate, and naintal'n the 

$0,43)/m3 for loading and unlsadiny. systems. 

Trans~ort charges are 2.130 to 3.00 pesos 

($Oell to $If.IfJ)fn3/km for short haul s 

and about 1.(30 peso ($il,i?t;) /rnls/kq for 

long hauls, 

8.2 Cable Transport 

Both the NEA and the FSDC expect to 

use light cableways to transport wood in 

rugged, road1 ess areas. After studyi ng 

transport options in 1979-80, the NEA 

approved the use of a Swiss-manufactured 

rnonocable systern because of the 

fol lowi ng features (Sevi 11 a 1985) : 

.The system transports 1 i ght bundl es 

of wood which are easily handled by 

1 aborers. 

.The systen is flexible; it can be 

re1 ocated as conditions denand. 

.Repairs are easily made. 

,The system can be powered by 

electricity produced by the NEA 

dendrot hermal powerpl ants . Therefore, financial costs are lower 

than for systems powered by gaso1 i he or diesel engines, 

In 1981-82, the NEA purchased 10 

cableway units from Switzerland for 

approximately 5 mi 1 l ion pesos ($270,000) 

each (1985 pesos). The system uses 

14-mm-diameter cable in loops up to 13 

km in length, The cable is strategically erected to allow loading of wood 

at several points throughout the plantation. Wood is bundled in slings 

accommodating about 0.25 rn3 each and 

hooked to the continuously moving monocable. The cable can be driven by 

either diesel or electric power and 

is capable of transporting 12 to 15 t 

wood/ h re 

Despite its reputed advantages, the 

monocable system has been strongly criticized by independent observers for its 

Only ad PANELCO I has one of the 

units been fully installed and operated. 

Eleven laborers are needed to operate 

the system, but extra workers are sometimes hired on a pakyao basis (at 1.00 

pesolsling loaded and hooked to the 

monocable) to speed loading operations, 

Although the system is capable of transporting 15 t (37.5 n,) of wood/hr, production rarely surpasses 11 t (27.5 m3)/ 

hr (Hinayon 1985). A major problem is 

forwarding sufficient wood to the monocable to ensure efficient operation, 

8.3 Hauling with Carabao Carts 

Among the unconventional transport 

proposals is one to use four-wheeled 

carabao carts as an alternative or 

supplement to trucks and cableways. The 

carts are equipped with mechanical brakes 

and rubber tires, and have a capacity of 

at least 2.5 m3. Similar carts tested 

by PICOP commonly haul 4.0 m3 or more. 

Using all new materials, carts can be 

fabricated for about 15,000 pesos ($810) 

each (Hodam and Associates, Inc. 1985). 

8.4 Cart and Truck Roads 

If trucks or carabao carts are used 

for hauling wood, adequate road networks 

must be developed and maintained, At 

some plantation sites, construction of 

new roads is necessary. At others, 

existing roads can be rehabi 1 itated, 

Recommended road speci f i cations are 

shown in table 6, 

Hodam and Associates, Inc. (1985) 

estimate the fol lowing financial costs 

for road construction and maintenance: 

New truck road 70,000 pesos 

construct i on ($3,784)/km 

Truck road 13,000-63,000 pesos 

rehabil itation ($703-$3,405) /km 
Truck road 7,500 pesos PI anners real i zed that mi stakes wotl1 cl. 

mai ntenance ($405) lhfyr occur but believed that corrections 

could be nade as proyrarqs evol ved, 

Carabao cart road 38,000-50,080 pesos Serious jjrnblerls have nl ready emerged, 

construction ($2,054-$2,703) /km and dddi ti research is needed for 

proyrans to rernai n vi ah1 e, 

Carabao cart road 5,000 pesos 

maintenance ($270) lkmfyr 

These estimates assume that heavy 

equipment can be borrowed from Provincial Engineers' Offices or the Ministry 

of Pub1 ic Highways, with the energy projects paying only for fuel, oil, labor, 

and maintenance, If the cost of renting 

heavy equipment is included, truck road 

construction costs increase to about 

5U0,000 pesos ($27,00O)/km and cart road 

construction costs increase to 125,000 

pesos (86,750)fkm. Costs were deri ved 

from a study by the International Labor 

Organization (1983). 

Table 6.--Specifications for cart roads and truck roads 

at energy plantations in the Philippines 

Features Cart roads Truck roads 

Design speed 

Formation width 

Travel width 

Turnouts 

Gradients 

Adverse 

Favorable 

Curve radius, min. 

fight distance, min. 

Surface 

Weight capacity 

- - 

4 m 

3 m 

10x2~1 

7% max 

10% max 

25 m 

- - 

y ravel 

3 t 

45 km/h 

7 rn 

5 m 

15x3~1 

7% max 

10% max 

100 m 

40 m 

gravel 

20 t 

Source: Hodam and Associates, Inc. (1985). 

9. Research Needs 

A sense of urgency motivated 

Philippine energy planners in the late 

1970's and early 1980's. Actionoriented a1 ternat i ve energy programs 

were favored over those demanding extensive prel imi nary research, FSIIC, NEA, 

and ilHS programs with ambitious goals 

were established and funded generously, 

9,l Species Trials 

The almost exclusive use of gian 

i pi 1 -i pi 1 for energy pl antati ons has 

resulted in very poor stands at some 

sites, The need to diversify is 

apparent, but 1 ittle research of alte 

native species has been completed, 

Trials established in 1983-85 must be 

maintained at least 2 more years to b 

useful, Moreover, trials should be 

expanded to encompass a greater varie 

of climatic and edaphic conditions. 

9.2 Economics of Plantation 

Stocking 

Optimal plantation density and 

rotation age are critical issues for 

plantation forestry in the Philippines. 

Most wood-energy special ists agree that 

the greatest biomass yields are obtained 

from very densely stocked pl antat ions. 

But because plantations are usual ly 

located on steep slopes and wage rates 

are relatively low, nearly all aspects 

of pl antat i on management are performed 

manually. Therefore, dense stocking 

means increased expenditures for 

planting, weeding, thinning, harvesting, 

transport, and hand1 i ng. 

Several observers have suggested 

that plantation costs could be reduced 

signi f icantly by p l a n t i ng fewer seedlings per hectare, intensifying thinniny 

regimes, and lengthening rotations 

(Uugan 1985; Forest Engi neeri ng Incorporated 1984; PICOP 1984). Research in 

this area must integrate si 1 viculture, 

biometry, and engineering economics to 

derive yield and cost functions within 

an optimizi ng mu1 ti rotation framework 

(Laarman and others 1986). 

9.3 Economic Eva1 uation of 

Plantation Inputs 

PZarket prices are most often used 

for the initial analyses of energy 

projects and alternatives in the 
Philippines, Subsidies, taxes, trade 

restrictions, price cei 1 ings, and minimum wage legislation all distort market 

prices from the true economic value of 

commodities and services, however. 

Since taxes and subsidies are merely 

transfer payments within society, they 

do not increase or diminish the total 

wealth of the country and should not be 

i ncl uded in economic analyses, 

Similarly, price controls and ninimun 

wage 1 aws prevent pri ces from stabi - 

1 izi ng at true economi c values. Where 

unemployment and underemployment are 

high, workers might gl adly accept wages 

far below legislated minimum rates. In 

such instances, the opportunity costs of 

hiring labor are less than the minimum 

wage rate because laborers will remain 

re1 at i vely unproduct i ve in the absence 

of the project--society gives up little 

or nothing when laborers become employed 

by the new project. 

!lore effective project decisionmaking can be made if all economic evaluation is based on "shadow prices" that 

refi ect the true soci a1 opportunity 

costs of project impacts. Shadow prices 

are not always easy to estimate, however. 

Research is needed to accurately determine what society gives up by committing 

land, capital, and labor resources to 

energy projects instead of a1 ternati ve 

projects. Only when realistic shadow 

prices have been estimated for all project inputs can planners be sure of 

making sound economic decisions. 

9.4 Harvesting Studies 

The NEA and the FSDC are now encouraging farmers at some sites to harvest 

with bow saws and axes, in combination 

with bolos. In light of the differing 

recommendations of Hodam and Associates, 

Inc., and International tabor Oryanization study teams, further research is 

needed before large investments are made 

for new harvesting tool s. 

when harvesting trees that are 4 to 7 cq 

d.h.h., hut harvesti~g larger stems may 

be r~ore efficient if bow saws and axes 

are accepted by farrrlers, 

9.5 Nutrient Cycling Studies 

The long-range impacts of repeated 

biomass harvest on soil fertility are 

not well understood. The species that 

i s planted, the frequency of harvests, 

the intensity of removals, and other 

factors may a1 1 i nf 1 uence nut ri ent 

cycling. Studies should be implemented 

immediately to manitor the long-range 

effects of pl antat ion management on soi 1 

nutrient levels, These studies should 

be coordinated with similar studies in 

other parts of the world. 

9.6 Forwardi ng and Transport 

Studies 

Considerable testing of proposed 

forwardi ng and transport a1 ternatives is 

needed before the alternatives can be 

implemented on a large scale. Tests are 

needed most for techno1 ogi es that are 

still largely unproven (e.g., carabaopowered yarders, polyethyl ene chutes, 

carabao carts). 

Studies of the effects of log 

1 ength on the economics of transport are 

also necessary. Currently, most logs 

are bucked into 1-rn lengths at the farm 

gate. This length permits easy scaliny 

of the wood, but increases handl ing 

costs. Consultants (Forest Engineering 

Incorporated 1984; PICOP 1984) have 

suggested increasing standard log 

lengths to 3 to 4 m, or retaining logs 

in tree-length form. If handl ing costs 

can be substantial 1y reduced by transporting 1 onger logs, new scal i ng techniques should be developed that would 

allow projects to purchase and transport 

longer logs. 

Studies of the optimum size of 

trees for harvesting are also needed. 

These should be coordinated with spacing 

and rotation studies described above. 

Woodcutters now seen most productive 
10, Goncl udi ng Observati ons 12, References 

Unfortunately, the Future of energy 

farn~ing irl the Philippines is largely 

outside the control of the tree farmers 

or the sponsori ng government agenci es, 

Continued low oil prices wi 7 7 depress 

the market for industrial Puelwsod and 

charcoal, if not domestjc firewood, 

Also, it i s s t i l l unclear what type of 

energy policy will be pronoted by the 

new Aqui no government, Furthermor~, the 

countryi s severe macroeconnmi e prohl ens 

may ha1 t the progress of bionass-energy 

proyrans even if the new government is 

strongly committed to the progrdns, 

Phi l i ypi ne wood-energy programs 

have weathered considerable di ff icul ties 

a1 ready. Many tree far~ns have failed. 

For those that remain, income and yields 

are often less than expected. Harvesting 

and transport are di ff i cul t and expensive, Despite these problems, however, 

many farmers and admi ni strators have 

demonstrated the flexi bi 1 ity needed to 

maintain their programs. If exogenous 

conditions improve and if programs are 

supported by additional research, most 

of the remaining tree farmers are likely 

to succeed, 

11, Acknowl edgmenes 

The author studied wood-energy 

programs in the Philippines under a 

grant from the Ful hri ght-Hays Program 

and the Phi 1 ippine-Anerican Educational 

Foundation, Special assistance was provided by Hodam and Associates, Incorporated, and the Phi l ippi ne National 

Elect ri fi cat i on Admi n i s t r a t i on Dendro 

Thermal Development Off ice. Views 

expressed in the paper, however, are 

those of the author, 

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power development program, NEA Dendro Thermal 

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1982--No, 1, Quezon City, Philippines: National 

Electrification Administration. 8 pp, 

Bawayan, Pancracio V,; Semana, Jose A, 1877. 

Utilization of ipil-ipil for wood, pp, 81-93, 

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research; 1976 September 2-4; Los Banos, Laguna, 

Philippines, Los Banos: Philippine Council for 

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development: the Philippine experience. Manila: 

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NC: North Carolina State U~iversity. 178 pp. 

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dendro thermal power program. pp, 330-335. In: 

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Manila, 

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I I 

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Development and management of plantations to support wood-energy 

I 

programs have been aggressively promoted in the Philippines since I 

1979, Over 60,000 hectares of energy plantations have been planted 1 

under government-supported programs, This paper documents the 

problems and accomplishments of these programs and describes plan- ] 

tation establishment, maintenance, protection, growth and yield, 

harvesting, and wood transport. Research priorities for improving 

I 

energy farm operat ions are a1 so suggested, I 

t 

KEYWORDS: Electricity generation, establishment, growth and 

yield, harvesting, transport, economics. 

I 

I 

Devel opment and management of pl antat i ons to support wood-energy 

programs have been aggressively promoted in the Philippines since 

1979. Over 60,000 hectares of energy plantations have been planted 

under government-supported programs. This paper documents the 

problems and accomplishments of these programs and describes plantation establishment , maintenance, protection, growth and yield, 

harvesting, and wood transport, Research priorities for improving 

energy farm operations are a1 so suggested. 

KEYWORDS: Electricity generation, establishment, growth and 

yield, harvesting, transport, economics.