rent flight demands, this obviously would lend
self to disorganization and a breakdown in
oping behavior. On the other hand, if the indi-
idual has acquired instrument flight proficien-
ies and finds himself in the stress of instrument
onditions, this establishes a healthy level of
daptation.

Successful or unsuccessful reactions to stress
ce dependent largely on personality develop-
1ent, social structure, and experience level. One
imnot predict with any degree of certainty a
recific reaction of any individual unless a great
zal is known about the predisposing psycho-
reial environment. Individuals may sustain
sere stress such as isolation, death of a signifi-
wnt other, and serious territory loss without a
ceakdown of adaptive capacities (even when it
impossible to repair or replace the damage or
‘ss, for example, flood loss victims). Con-
arsely, there are frequent examples of total dis-
itegration of adaptive capacities in the face of
latively minor stresses. These failures most
ften occur when the individual has accumulated
resses that add up to greater than his maximum
sopable” stress load, much as an aircraft’s per-
yrmance would suffer by being flown over gross
vading capacity.
Since psychic equilibrium involves a balance
stween an individual’s defenses and adjustment
echanisms and the stress to which he is exposed,
follows that any unusual stress or any gross
crease in stress that disturbs a person’s equi-
rium is likely to result in some emotional
id/or behavioral change toward psychological
mormality, even in the individual who shows
normal adaptation during circumstances of
utine stress. This change from coping be-
wior to a disturbance in psychic equilibrium
n potentiate self-destructive behavior.

The senior author has developed the Psycho-
cial Reconstruction Inventory? which evaluates
e key elements of an accident victim’s life in-
far as may be determined retrospectively.
ae derived information presents a history of
e psychosocial development of the individual
cd any pre-accident deterioration. An abstract
om the author’s files is provided below as an
ample of a stress pattern leading to psycho-
cial deterioration and self-destructive behavior
which the victim’s flying and aircraft are key
ments,

Case No. 720405: The pilot, a 33-year-old pro-
fessional pilot, departed the airport just prior
to midnight. Approximately four hours later,
the pilot reported to a flight service station
that he had fallen asleep, was lost, and re-
quested vectors to any airport. The wording
of his messages indicated helplessness and
hopelessness and he was careful to identify
himself. The pilot later reported fuel exhaus-
tion and on last contact, the FAA fixed his
position many miles out over the ocean. The
pilot and aircraft were not recovered in the
ensuing search.

The Psychosocial Reconstruction Inventory
revealed that the victim, an only child, had
spent his formative years in a relatively
sheltered environment. The constant input of
his parents never permitted the pilot to make
his own decisions and did not allow him to
develop sufficient self-esteem. It appears in
the full picture of this individual that this
hindered his development as an independent
identity.

The pilot’s mother was the dominant personal-
ity in the family. With the pilot’s father, she
indulged in somewhat unusual sexual prac-
tices during the pilot’s early years. This
apparently created much anxiety during the
pilot’s Oedipal period, did not permit an ac-
ceptable self-identification, and must of neces-
sity have colored his sexual behavior. The
pilot married at about age 25. The first two
years of the marriage were described by the
wife as ideal. However, she indicated that
the pilot possessed some atypical attitudes
towards sexual behavior.

After two years of marriage, the pilot entered
military service for two years, serving as a
pilot in combat. Upon return his behavioral
pattern was quite different from his pre-
service behavior. His drinking became exces-
sive, his extramarital affairs became numerous,
and his behavior was reported to have become
extremely impetuous. As a substitute for the
failing interpersonal relationships, the pilot
routinely began bringing gifts to his wife and
children.

During the pilot’s military service, his wife
resided at his parents’ home in a small town.
She had apparently not felt accepted by his





beyond one’s capabilities, or taking chances with
weather. These and other subtle “errors” such
as flying an aircraft which has been poorly main-
tained, taking off with barely enough fuel, or
neglecting important items on the pre-flight
check all may fall into the vast category of sub-
intentional self-destructive behavior.

Dr. Norman Tabachnick in 1970 expounded
his definition for self-destruction and the place
of cultural values in that definition. He began
by constructing a definition which deals with the
basic physiological aspects—“Any activity over
which an individual has some (actual or poten-
tial) volitional control which moves him in the
direction of an earlier physical death than would
otherwise occur, is designated self-destructive.”
The term “volitional” carries the implication
that the individual has the option to avoid or
change the behavior so that it will.no longer be
self-destructive.

Dr. Tabachnick further states: “This leads us
into the area of values and the issue of the
hierarchical placement of values. Most people
consider life ‘valuable’, but there are other aspects
of the human condition that are also ‘valuable’.
Each individual (whether he is consciously aware
of this structuring or not) has placed his values
in rank order. Thus, many of us come to realize
that there are certain values which are as im-
portant or more important than life. If someone
acts so as to implement those values at the ap-
parent expense of self-preservation, we are not.
justified (through identifying him with our-
selves) in calling him self-destructive.”

If this suggests a false positive from the basic
definition, there are likewise false negatives to
be taken into account. It becomes apparent that
the original definition would fail to include many
activities which are not always physically self-
destructive. Examples might include the avoid-
ance of close personal relationships, some cases
of prostitution and the various forms of crim-
inality, the refusals of advancement opportuni-
ties in business, etc. Such activities are not
clearly or inevitably associated with decreased
life expectancy, yet to the “individuals who per-
ceive these activities to be self-destructive—
regardless of their values to the participants—
they represent modes of acting, living, and feel-
ing which are as profoundly self-destructive as
the actual loss of life.”

Obviously each person harbors his own set of
values. While certain values enjoy the consensual
acceptance of large groups of individuals, we
must point out that there is danger of perpetuat-
ing an egocentric or ethnocentric error if one
deems one’s personal preferences and values to
have some general meaning to everyone. On
occasion it is just such an attitude which allows’
one to label all activities self-destructive which
move in a direction contrary to one’s own values.
In evaluating any act as to self-destructive inten-
tion, it is necessary to know everything possible
of the positive and negative values which are
associated with it to the individual in the culture.

One’s values are a significant part of the
psychic environment within which one operates.
The import of stress fluctuates in intensity
against this background determined partly as a
function of it. The word “stress” has long been
used by laymen in a variety of ways to describe
many phenomena. Stress has been used relative
to forces exerted, to signify emphasis, to express
the internal resistance of an elastic body to pull,
or to designate tension, fatigue or exhaustion.
In keeping with other portions of this presenta-
tion, the authors want to insure a continued
common ground for discussion. Therefore, a
working definition of psychological stress is in
order. Within the context of this paper, “stress”
is a force that requires coping behavior, coping
being defined as the successful utilization of the
necessary expedients in order to adapt to prob-
lems and difficulties.

Psychological stress is any influence or force
perceived to threaten a vital goal or need of an
individual, for example, the life-threatening sit-
uation of a non-instrument trained pilot in in-
strument conditions. The vital goals or needs
of an individual are determined by his psycho-
social development. This covers all of the input
of variables supplied by his psychosocial environ-
ment from the time of conception to the time of
his demise.

The reactions to stress are attempts to defend
the personality against disorganization. These
same stress reactions can break down previously
healthy adjustments and patterns of behavior,
or they may enable an individual to advance to a
healthier level of adaptation. If the non-instru-
ment rated pilot has not become competent
enough to overcome the stress of actual instru-


parents and had formed a liaison with another
serviceman’s wife, an important factor in the
change in the pilot’s attitude toward his wife
after his return from the service. With this
and a number of other marital difficulties,
much resentment developed. The pilot began
neglecting some of his responsibilities as a
husband and provider and a separation ensued
which lasted many months.

After discharge from the service, the pilot
held several positions from which he was fired
due to his inability to handle responsibility
and lack of respect for authority. His finan-
cial dealings were precarious and in the three
years prior to his death, two aircraft and an
expensive automobile had been repossessed.
Minor skirmishes with the law had occurred
when he attempted to prevent repossession of
the vehicles. However, at the time of the last
flight, he was employed as a corporate repre-
sentative and was in charge of two corporate
aircraft, a twin and a well-equipped single-
engine aircraft. This employment was in
spite of the fact that the subject had been
involved in four aircraft accidents, two of
them involving the corporate twin.

The pilot and his wife had been separated two
years but were attempting a reconciliation at
the time of the last “accident.” Although his
behavior at this time was basically reminiscent
of his pre-service behavior, there had been
several incidents of wife-beating and also an
automobile accident in the two-week period
prior to the last flight.

In order to maintain his psychic equilibrium
during periods of stress, the pilot had copied
a coping mechanism from his mother’s be-
havior which was in reality severely self-
destructive: he would simply fall asleep. This
had occurred while driving, while flying and
at other times when an immediate adaptation
to stress was necessary.

On the morning of the final flight, contrary
to his usual behavior, he did not shower and
he “dilly-dallied” about the house, telling his
wife that he wanted to stay with the family.
He left the house about midafternoon for a
city a few hundred miles away to represent
his corporation in a business transaction. He
called his wife at 2200-and told her that he
would leave for home at midnight. He did

not file a flight plan, but did top his tanks
prior to the flight which ensued.

In summary of this case, the pilot was char-
acterized by inappropriate behavioral patterns
which resulted from his childhood and ado-
lescent experiences. His impulsivity in at-
tempting to harm his wife and his repetitive
self-destructive behavior are further indica-
tions that he disliked discipline, abhorred
routine and expressed a strong desire to be his
own boss. Materialistic aspects of his life
were paramount and showed much self-de-
structive ideation (e.g., placing himself hope-
lessly in debt). Recent behavior and experi-
ences suggest a situation of great cumulative
stress for the pilot.

The questions must be asked:

(1) Why did the pilot fail to turn on the air-
craft’s transponder while over the ocean which
would have facilitated his location by reseu-
ers—perhaps he did not want to be rescued?

(2) Would the pilot not have had to change
tanks after he overflew his home base, imply.
ing intention of destruction of Self? (3) Why
was no evidence of wreckage found in the
extensive search of the area and beaches im-
mediately after reported ditching?

Utilizing the information that could be gath-
ered with reference to self-destructive be-
havior, it appears that this man was operating
at the -lethal end of the continuum of self-
destructive behavior, which ranges from maxi-
mum self-preservation at one extreme and
intentional suicide at the other.

Considering the possibility that the pilot could
have faked a ditching and made his way to an
unknown airport, this case would still fall into
the classification of severe self-destructive be-
havior, interpreted as an attempt to destroy
his previous Self—psychological, rather than
physical, self-destruction. The pilot’s ideation
in this case would be to start over in a new
identity. This would, however, be doomed tc
failure unless the man were able to rid himself
of his myth of invulnerability and learn tc
cope with stress in a more satisfactory manner.
The retrospective conclusion in this case is
that the mode of death, if in reality the pilot
is dead, was intentional suicide. If he is not
dead, the ‘killing’ of his previous Self was


TECHNICAL REPORT STANDARD TITLE PAGE

T.” Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.
FAA-AM-73-5
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
March 1973

THE AIRCRAFT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SELF DESTRUCTION — | Performing Orgonizotion Code

7. Author(s) @. Performing Organization Report No.
Robert E. Yanowitch, M.D., Jack M. Bergin, B.A.
Elizabeth A. Yanowitch, B.A.

9. Performing Organization Name ond Address 10. Work Unit No.

Aeromedical Applications Division

Federal Aviation Administration TT. Contract or Grant No.

800 Independence Ave.,S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20591 T3._ Type of Report and Period Covered
T2. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address

Office of Aviation Medicine OAM Report.

Federal Aviation Administration

800 Independence Ave.,S.W. 14.” Sponsoring Agency Code

Washington, D.C. 20591

15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract

Often the relationship between the pilot and his aircraft is such that the
aircraft may be thought of as an extension of the pilot himself during the
act of flight. If this pilot accumulates stress in his life with which he
can no longer adequately cope, he may engage in self-destructive acts,
some of these within the context.of his flying activities. The competent
pilot practices and acquires skills which help him to deal with the stress
of demanding flight situations. However, if this individual exceeds his
piloting capabilities, or is already coping with a high stress level to
his maximum capacity, the additional stress of a particular flight situation
may overload his total coping ability and destruction of self, both
psychologically and physically, will occur.

i7. Key Words T8. Distribution Statement
Aircraft Accident Investigation, Availability is unlimited. Document may b¢
Psychological Autopsy, Stress, released to the National Technical Informa+
Suicide tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151
for sale to the public.
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages | 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 5 $3.00

orm DOT F 1700.7 (8-69)



also intentional. It is apparent in the preced-
ing example that the loading of stress factors
as a function of the pilot’s ability to cope
predestined him to destruction of self phys-
ically and/or psychologically.

Attempts have been made to describe the self-
estructive individual, the “unsafe” individual
ften referred to as an accident repeater. Al-
hough at present there is no absolute and con-
rete identification, this type of person is usually
istinguished by a history of aggressiveness,
npulsiveness, and intolerance. He also tends to
e easily frustrated and to show an inability to
aake adequate decisions or choices, the contrary
> what is observed as a general rule in accident-
ree groups. In the group considered safe, the
ime behavioral dynamics may be present, in
artain members but these exercise satisfactory
ontrol. The accident repeaters tend to be indi-
iduals who are not well-adjusted to life situa-
ions and are unable to cope with stress.

The individual who habitually behaves in an
nsafe and potentially self-destructive manner
rill usually have strong attributes in other areas
3 well: strong, unresolved anger toward himself
r others, a gross inability to receive recognition
arough appropriate channels; excessive feelings
f guilt and need for punishment; and ab-
ormally low feelings of self-esteem and self
orth.

Every fact learned about aircraft accident
wsation strengthens the conviction that much
f this problem is deeply imbedded in behavioral
nd social customs, practices and attitudes.

An individual will become competent to vary-
ig degree in adapting to situational stress.
‘hose with greater competence will adapt more
isily with less deleterious results than those

with less competence. By competence is meant
the ability to adapt to almost any situation that
may arise. Pilots are taught and are expected to
remain efficient in their utilization of those pro-
cedures that are designed to thwart self-destruc-
tion.

Most people live without a sense of imminent
danger. They assume a myth of invulnerability
in which it is usually felt that nothing seriously
detrimental is going to happen to them. At
times, this illusion has the useful function of
protecting the individual from limiting his life
activities and from living in a constant state of
terror of the real dangers that life holds. Ex-
cessive awareness of a threatening danger can
contribute to progressive psychosocial deteriora-
tion and maladaptation in the fact of potentially
stressful everyday situations.

Instrument flying techniques, emergency land-
ings, stall recovery, and other maneuvers are
skills that help to keep the pilot alive. It follows
that the more experience, training, and compe-
tence an individual has to utilize in adapting to
increased stress demand, the more successful he
will be in dealing with demanding flight situa-
tions. More important to the individual than
this increased proficiency, is a deeper under-
standing of his own capabilities and limitations.
He must develop a greater appreciation of the
full reality of the world of risk during the pro-
cess of placing less reliance on the myth of in-
vulnerability. This understanding, of course,
assumes good common sense and emotional ' sta-
bility and does not necessarily result from flying
experience. Even the “competent” individual
may fail in adaptation if a stress event overloads
his total coping capacity. Self-destruction then
can become almost inevitable.

REFERENCES

Bond, D. D.: The Love and Fear of Flying, Interna-
tional Universities Press, New York, 1952.
Yanowitch, R. E., Mohler, S. R., and Nichols, E. A.
“Psychosocial Reconstruction Inventory: A Postdictal
Instrument in Aircraft Accident Investigation”,
Aerospace Medicine 43 :551-554, 1972.

8. Tabachnick, Norman D.: “A Theoretical Approach to
‘Accident? Research”, Bulletin of Suicidology, Na-
tional Institute of Mental Health, No. 6, 1970.

4, Haddon, William Jr, Suchman, E. A. and Klein,
David: Accident Research, Harper and Row, 1964.





THE AIRCRAFT AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SELF DESTRUCTION

Douglas Bond writes in Love and Fear of
Flying:

“Flying has long held a special place in man’s
thinking. It has been associated with aspira-
tion and freedom from the restrictions of
earth or of reality and has had strong religious
connotations as well. Deeply rooted in man’s
mind is the idea that flying is a supernatural
achievement ... A great many of man’s ideas
and feelings that relate to flying are rooted in
legends and beliefs about the sky. The sky
has been to man something ‘above’ him in the
figurative sense—the dwelling place of gods
who have wielded the elements as tokens of
their pleasure and weapons of their displeas-
ure. The sky has held promise and threat, and
to most children, it has become almost syn-
onymous with their ideas of heaven. In more
modern civilizations the ‘good’ connotations
have prevailed and the sky has been largely a
symbol of beneficent hope, but even so, it has
held the threat of punishment, particularly as
the seat of thunder and lightning, of wind and
sun. These elements have been interpreted by
every people in a personal way .. . It is into
this new world without visible limit, already
rich in personal and communal legend and
superstition, that the flyer enters, and its spe-
cial characteristics cannot help but have mean-
ing for his emotional life.”*

Few pilots would deny that flying holds a
unique place in their lives. Many pilots view
their flying as an exhilarating experience, as an
emotional release which takes them far above the
world of “earthly” men. As pilots, they see
themselves as a breed apart and tend to think of
themselves as being somewhat different from
other men in their approach to many aspects of
life.

Due to the special nature of flight, as indicated
above, pilots tend to feel a closer bond with their
aircraft than most people feel with other means
of transportation. In addition to being looked

upon as a piece of precision machinery, the air-
craft is often personified in many respects. In
fact, many pilots identify with their aircraft to
the extent of feeling “as one” with it during the
act of flight. For purposes of the discussion
which follows, the authors wish to develop the
idea that the aircraft is an extension of the pilot
himself during flight. This extension, in the
physical and emotional sense, is largely made on
the basis of the special experience which flying
represents.

Later in this paper, the authors discuss the
various stresses leading to self-destructive be-
havior as they affect the pilot-in-command. A
pilot prone to self-destructive behavior, due to a
collection of stresses with which he cannot ade-
quately cope, would be likely to indulge in po-
tentially self-destructive acts in his aircraft.

As a means of transportation one could view
the aircraft simply as an instrument of self-
destruction. In this limited sense, the self-
destructive pilot, just as a non-flying individual,
would be prone to engage in self-destructive acts
in any area of his life. In this context, self-
destructive acts related to aviation would have
no unique character of their own.

It is the authors’ contention that the plane-
pilot unit is more than man-operating-machine.
To an extent the aircraft’s power, abilities, and
characteristics become the pilot’s, and the air-
craft is imbued with or integrated into the per-
sonality of the pilot. A self-destructive inclina-
tion would threaten the integrity and effective
performance of the plane-pilot unit. Just as the
aircraft is seen as an extension of the individual
self in the act of flight, the result of self-destruc-
tive acts performed while flying is that the air-
craft and pilot, as one, suffer the same fate.

Rather than limiting the discussion to obvious
acts of suicide, eg., diving straight into the
ground, equal or greater emphasis is placed on
acts which are hazardous such as flying while
intoxicated, flying aircraft which demand skill