United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Southern

Research Station

General Technical

Report SRS-43

Forested Wetlands of the Southern

United States: A Bibliography

William H. Conner, Nicole L. Hill, Evander M. Whitehead,

William S. Busbee, Marceau A. Ratard, Mehmet Ozalp,

Darrel L. Smith, and James P. Marshall
The Authors

William H. Conner, Professor, Clemson University, Baruch Institute of

Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC;

Nicole L. Hill, Land Protection Specialist, Southwest Michigan Land

Conservancy, Kalamazoo, MI; Evander M. Whitehead, Graduate Student,

University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC; William S. Busbee, Graduate

Student, Greenville, SC; and Marceau A. Ratard, Mehmet Ozalp, and

James P. Marshall, Graduate Students, Forestry Department, Clemson

University, Clemson, SC, respectively. [Current job affiliation and address

unknown for Darrel L. Smith.]

Cover photos by Bill Lea.

October 2001

Southern Research Station

P.O. Box 2680

Asheville, NC 28802
1

Forested Wetlands of the Southern

United States: A Bibliography

William H. Conner, Nicole L. Hill, Evander M. Whitehead,

William S. Busbee, Marceau A. Ratard, Mehmet Ozalp,

Darrel L. Smith, and James P. Marshall

Abstract

The term forested wetland covers a variety of forest types including mangroves, cypress/tupelo swamps, bottomland

hardwoods, pocosins and Carolina bays, flatwoods, and mountain fens. These forests are dominated by woody species that

have morphological features, physiological adaptations, and/or reproductive strategies enabling them to achieve maturity and

reproduce in an environment where the soils within the rooting zone may be inundated or saturated for various periods during

the growing season. Although alluvial floodplains occur along most streams of the United States, they are most extensive in

the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Gulf Coastal Plain, and Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Only about half of the original floodplain

forests remained by the 1930s, and conversion to agriculture continued at an accelerated pace during the 1960s and 1970s.

The purpose of this bibliography is to provide a detailed listing of references for students and researchers of the varied studies

conducted in these forest types.

Keywords: Bibliography, bottomland hardwoods, cypress/tupelo swamps, forested wetlands, Southern United States, swamps.

Introduction

In the Southeastern United States, the term forested wetland

covers a variety of habitat types ranging from bottomland

hardwood forests to alluvial swamp forests that occur on

river floodplains. These forests are dominated by woody

species that have morphological features, physiological

adaptations, and reproductive strategies or both enabling

them to achieve maturity and reproduce in an environment

where the soils within the rooting zone may be inundated or

saturated for various periods during the growing season.

Many environmental and biological factors influence the

structure and dynamics of these bottomland ecosystems.

Although differences in hydrology generally result in

distinct broad forest types, associated factors such as soil

structure, soil and water pH, nutrient availability and

turnover rates, light intensity, and disturbance (natural and

manmade) also affect species establishment and growth and

tend to complicate distinctions between plant communities.

Furthermore, competition for resources, both aboveground

and belowground, across the mosaic of microtopographic

conditions that typically occur within a river floodplain,

results in complex distributions of species.

Although alluvial floodplains occur along most streams of

the United States, they are most extensive in the Atlantic

Coastal Plain, Gulf Coastal Plain, and Mississippi Alluvial

Plain. It is on these broad, flat alluvial deposits, with

adequate moisture, that the major expanses of forested

wetlands are found. Because of the fertility of these

floodplains, forests have been extensively altered by timber

harvesting and by farming. Cleared floodplain forests were

some of the first ecosystems in the Southern United States to

be converted to agriculture by Native Americans. Early

colonists also cleared and farmed bottomlands because of

the fertility of the soils; planting rice, corn, wheat, and cotton

as major crops. Alluvial forests were among the first to be

logged in the Southern United States (Cowdrey 1983, Pinchot

and Ashe 1897), and almost all southern forests have been

harvested one to several times (Heavrin 1981). Of the more

than 70 tree species that occur in these forests (Putnam and

others 1960), about 40 are of commercial interest (Hosner

1962).

Only about half of the original floodplain forests remained by

the 1930s, and conversion to agriculture continued at an

accelerated pace during the 1960s and 1970s when the prices

for farm crops, especially soybeans, reached unprecedented

levels. Much of the converted land has not been productive

for sustained agriculture because the soils are poorly

drained, and abandoned fields on floodplains typically are

invaded by shrubs and woody vines (Battaglia and others

1995). In recent years, a modest program has been

undertaken for reestablishment of hardwood forests on

floodplain lands formerly used by agriculture (Allen and

Kennedy 1989, King and Keeland 1999).
2

In this bibliography, the term forested wetlands covers a

variety of forest types including mangroves, cypress/tupelo

swamps, bottomland hardwoods, pocosins and Carolina

bays, flatwoods, and mountain fens. Detailed descriptions

of the ecology of each of these forest types can be found in

Messina and Conner (1998). The purpose of this

bibliography is to provide in one place a detailed listing for

students and researchers of the varied studies conducted in

these forest types.

This bibliography was compiled by first editing the reference

lists from several publications on forested wetlands. The

reader is encouraged to start with Cypress Swamps (Ewel

and Odum 1984), Forested Wetlands (Lugo and others 1990),

Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States: Lowland

Terrestrial Communities (Martin and others 1993), and

Southern Forested Wetlands Ecology and Management

(Messina and Conner 1998) as excellent sources for

information on forested wetlands.

In addition, the senior author has collected an extensive

library of forested wetlands literature during 27 years of

research in the Southern United States, and his files were

checked against the bibliography listings to make sure all

references were included. To bring the bibliography up to

date, issues of “Current Contents: Agriculture, Biology and

Environmental Sciences” for the years 1995 to 2000 were

examined and pertinent references reviewed for inclusion.

Environmental journal holdings for 1995 to present held in

the Clemson University library were also examined for

citations. Contacts were made with forested wetlands

researchers, and they were asked to send a list of references,

theses, or dissertations for the bibliography. We know that

some references have been missed, but we have tried to

make this a comprehensive list from which researchers,

students, managers, and other interested people may draw

from, no matter what their interest is.

Literature Cited

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Battagalia, L.L.; Keough, J.R.; Pritchett, D.W. 1995. Early

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Cowdrey, A.E. 1983. This land, this South: an environmental

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Ewel, K.C.; Odum, H.T., eds. 1984. Cypress swamps. Gainesville,

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Martin, W.H.; Boyce, S.G.; Echternacht, eds. 1993. Biodiversity

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102 p.
3

A

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Conner, William H.; Hill, Nicole L.; Whitehead, Evander M. [and others]. 2001. Forested

wetlands of the Southern United States: a bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS–43. Asheville,

NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 133 p.

The term forested wetland covers a variety of forest types including mangroves, cypress/tupelo

swamps, bottomland hardwoods, pocosins and Carolina bays, flatwoods, and mountain fens.

These forests are dominated by woody species that have morphological features, physiological

adaptations, and/or reproductive strategies enabling them to achieve maturity and reproduce in

an environment where the soils within the rooting zone may be inundated or saturated for

various periods during the growing season. Although alluvial floodplains occur along most

streams of the United States, they are most extensive in the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Gulf Coastal

Plain, and Mississippi Alluvial Plain. Only about half of the original floodplain forests remained

by the 1930s, and conversion to agriculture continued at an accelerated pace during the 1960s

and 1970s. The purpose of this bibliography is to provide a detailed listing of references for

students and researchers of the varied studies conducted in these forest types.

Keywords: Bibliography, bottomland hardwoods, cypress/tupelo swamps, forested wetlands,

Southern United States, swamps.
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